ethel morton and the christmas ship by mabell s. c. smith m. a. donohue & company chicago new york made in u. s. a. contents chapter page i the united service club at home ii dorothy's cottage iii the christmas ship iv financial plans v roger goes foraging vi in the smith attic vii for a traveller's kit viii the red cross nurse sets sail ix planning the u. s. c. "show" x the eventful evening xi "sister susie's sewing shirts for soldiers" xii james cuts corners xiii pasting xiv james's afternoon party xv prevention xvi for santa claus's pack xvii the club weaves, stencils and models clay xviii ethel blue awaits a cable xix leather and brass xx the ethels cook to keep xxi the christmas ship sails xxii a wedding and a surprise ethel morton and the christmas ship chapter i the united service club at home "it's up to roger morton to admit that there's real, true romance in the world after all," decided margaret hancock as she sat on the mortons' porch one afternoon a few days after school had opened in the september following the summer when the mortons and hancocks had met for the first time at chautauqua. james and margaret had trolleyed over to see roger and helen from glen point, about three quarters of an hour's ride from rosemont where the mortons lived. "roger's ready to admit it," confessed that young man. "when you have an aunt drop right down on your door mat, so to speak, after your family has been hunting her for twenty years, and when you find that you've been knowing her daughter, your own cousin, pretty well for two months it does make the regular go-to-school life that you and i used to lead look quite prosy." "how did she happen to lose touch so completely with her family?" "i told you how grandfather morton, her father, opposed her marrying uncle leonard smith because he was a musician. well, she did marry him, and when they got into straits she was too proud to tell her father about it." "i suppose grandfather would have said, 'i told you so,'" suggested helen. "and i believe it takes more courage than it's worth to face a person who's given to saying that," concluded james. "aunt louise evidently thought it wasn't worth while or else she didn't have the courage and so she drifted away. her mother was dead and she had no sisters and father and uncle richard probably didn't write very often." "she thought nobody at home loved her, i suppose," said helen. "father and uncle richard did love her tremendously, but they were just young fellows at the time and they didn't realize what their not writing meant to her." "once in a while they heard of uncle leonard through the music papers," went on roger, "but after his health failed, aunt louise told us the other day, he couldn't make concert appearances and of course a man merely playing in an orchestra isn't big enough to command public attention." "by the time that grandfather morton died about twelve years ago she was completely lost to the family," helen continued, "and she says she didn't know of his death until five years after, when she came accidentally upon some mention of it in a local paper that she picked up somewhere." "that was after uncle leonard's death, but it seemed to her that she could not make herself known to her people without being disloyal to his memory," roger carried on the story. "she probably thought that your father and uncle were just as much opposed to him as her father had been," guessed margaret. "as a matter of fact, they have been hunting hard for her through every clue that promised any result ever since grandfather died because they wanted to give her her share of his property." "he didn't cut her off with a shilling, then?" "grandfather seems to have had a change of heart, for he left her more than he did his sons. he said she needed it more." "and it has been accumulating all this time." "seven years. that means a very pleasant increase for her and dorothy." "she must think rather sadly of the days when they suffered real privation for the lack of it," said helen. "anyway, here they are now, with money in their pockets and an affectionate family all ready made for them and they are going to live here in rosemont near us, and dorothy is going to school with the ethels, and i'm willing to admit that it comes nearer to being a romance than anything i ever heard of in real life," and roger nodded his head gleefully. "i'm glad she's going to live here so we can see her once in a while," said margaret. "mother and sister and i all loved her at chautauqua, she was so patient and gentle with the people she taught. and of course we all think dorothy is a darling." "the ethels are crazy over her. they treat her as if she were some new belonging and they can hardly bear to have her out of their sight." "it was grandfather emerson who said all summer that she looked like the ethels," remarked roger. "her hair is fuzzy and her nose is puggy, but i didn't see much other likeness." "when she grows as fat as the ethels i think she'll look astonishingly like them. she's thin and pale, now, poor little dud." "i wish she could grow as plump as della watkins." "i saw tom watkins yesterday," said james. "what was a haughty new yorker doing on the jersey side of the hudson?" "it seems he boards cupid and his family at the rosemont kennels--you know they're half way between here and glen point. he was going to call on them." "dear cupid!" laughed margaret, recalling the bulldog's alarming face which ill agreed with his mild name and general behavior. "let's go over to the kennels and see him some day." "his wife is named psyche," went on james, "and they have two pups named amor and amorette." "i should think cupid's puppy would be the funniest little animal on earth," roared roger. "never, never shall i forget the day old cupe ran away with his market wagon," and he kicked his legs with enthusiasm. "did tom say anything about coming to see us?" asked margaret. "he said he and della were coming over on saturday afternoon and he inquired how far it was from glen point to rosemont and whether they could make two calls in one afternoon." "not if he stays at either place as long as we'd like to have him," said roger. "why don't we have a meeting of the united service club on saturday afternoon?" suggested helen, "and then the watkinses can come here and you two can come and we can all see each other and at the same time decide on what we are going to do this winter." "great head!" approved roger. "can you people be here?" "we can," assented margaret. "and we will." james completed the sentence for her. "here are the children. they've been asking when we were to have the first meeting, so i know they'll be glad to give saturday afternoon to it." "the children" of helen's patronizing expression came rushing into the yard at the moment. ethel brown morton, tall and rosy, her cheeks flushed with running, led the way; her cousin, ethel blue morton, not quite so tall or quite so rosy, made a fair second, and their newly-found cousin, dorothy smith, brought up the rear, panting a trifle harder than the rest, but already looking plumper and sturdier than she had during the summer at chautauqua. they greeted margaret and james gladly, and sat down on the steps of the porch to engage in the conversation. "hullo," a voice came through the screen door. "i'm coming out." "that must be my friend dicky," declared james. "come on, old man," and he arranged his knees in position to serve as a seat for the six-year-old who calmly sat himself down upon them. "how are you?" questioned james gravely. "all right?" "firtht rate," replied dicky briefly. "have a thuck?" and he offered james the moist end of an all-day-sucker, withdrawing it from his own mouth for the purpose. "thank you, i'm not eating candy to-day, sir," responded james seriously. "much obliged to you, all the same." dicky nodded his recognition of james's thanks and resumed his occupation. "it keeps us still though we're not pretty to look at as we do it," commented ethel brown. "you're talking about me," asserted dicky suddenly, once more removing his sucker from his increasingly sticky lips and fixing an accusing eye upon his sister. "she was, dicky, that's true," interposed helen quickly, "but she loves you just as much as if she were talking about roger." dicky regarded this as a compliment and subsided against james's chest. "we're going to try and get the watkinses to come out next saturday afternoon and the hancocks will come over and we'll have a meeting of the united service," explained roger to the new arrivals. "good enough!" approved ethel brown. "what are you going to do, madam president?" inquired ethel blue, who felt a lively interest in any future plans because the club was her idea. "we'll all think of things between now and saturday, and suggest them then." "tell the watkinses when you write to them, helen." "i'm just boiling over with ideas for the club to put into execution some time or other," announced roger. "big ones or little?" asked dorothy. "some of them are pretty big, but i have a feeling in my bones that they'll go through." "good for old roger's bones!" commended james. "may we venture to ask what some of them are?" "'nothing venture, nothing have,'" quoted roger. "i'm merely saying now, however, that the biggest scheme is one that i told grandfather emerson about the other day and he said he'd help by giving us the house for it." "what should we do that would need a house?" "what do you mean--house?" roger grinned delightedly at the commotion he had caused. "this plan i have is so big that we'll have to get the grown-ups to help us, but we'll do most of the carrying out ourselves in spite of that." "i should think we would have to have their help if your plan calls for a house." "you needn't be sarcastic, young woman. this is a perfectly good scheme--grandfather said so. he said it was so good that he was willing to back it and to help us by supplying the house we should need." "poor old roger--gone clean crazy," sighed james. "i almost think so," agreed helen. "let me tell you something, you scoffers----" "tell on; that's what we're waiting for." "well, on the whole, i guess i won't tell you a thing about it." "if you aren't the very meanest boy i ever knew in my life," decided margaret whole-heartedly. "to work our curiosity all up this way and then not to tell us a thing." "i didn't get the encouragement that the plan deserved." "like all great inventors," commented james. "they all come out on top at the end, i notice," retorted roger. "you just watch me about next april when the buds begin to swell." "heads begin to swell at any time of year, apparently." "especially bad cases begin in the autumn--about september." "oh, you wait, just wait," threatened roger. "when you haven't an idea what to do to make the club really useful for another minute then you'll recall that i promised you a really big plan. _then_--" "if you aren't going to tell us now i think we'd better talk about something that has some connection with what we're going to do in september instead of this april fool thing of yours," said helen somewhat sharply. "let's not talk about it until saturday," begged ethel blue. "then we can all put our minds on it." "i rise to remark, madam president," continued james, "that i believe this club has a great future before it if it does not get involved in wildcat schemes--" "now listen to that!" exclaimed roger. "there speaks the canny scot that was james's great-grandfather. cautious old hancock! now you really have got me riled. i vow to you, fellow-clubmen and -women that i won't be the first to propose this scheme again. you'll have to come to me. and i'll prophesy that you will come to me about the first of next april." "why april?" "nothing to do with april fool, i assure you. but about that time we shall have worked off all the ideas that we've cooked up to carry us through the winter and we'll be glad to undertake a service that is a service--the real thing." "we're going to do the real thing all the time." ethel blue defended her idea. "but i dare say we'll want to do your thing, too." "grandfather's recommendation doesn't seem to count with you young know-it-alls." "grandfather's recommendation is the only reason why our remarks weren't more severe," retorted ethel brown. "each of us must bring in a list next saturday," said helen, as they all walked to the corner to see that the hancocks took the car safely. "and i believe that every one will be a perfectly good plan," said roger magnanimously. "there won't be one that will require a house to hold it anyway," retorted margaret. chapter ii dorothy's cottage rosemont and glen point were two new jersey towns near enough to new york to permit business men to commute every day and far enough away from the big city to furnish plenty of air and space for the growing generation. it was the latter qualification that endeared them to the morton and hancock families, for there were no commuters in their households. lieutenant morton, father of roger and helen and ethel brown and dicky, was on his ship in the harbor of vera cruz. captain morton, his brother, father of ethel blue, had returned to gen. funston's army after finding their sister, mrs. smith, at chautauqua and convoying her with all the mortons and mrs. morton's father and mother, mr. and mrs. emerson, back to rosemont. his short furlough did not allow him to remain long enough to see his sister established in a house of her own, but it was understood that she was to hire a furnished house as near as possible to the mortons' and live in it until she made up her mind where she wanted to build. "dorothy and i have wandered about the united states so long," she said plaintively, "that we are thankful to settle down in a town and a house that we can call our own, and we shall be even happier when we have a bungalow actually belonging to us." at present they were still staying with the mortons, but the morton family was so large that two visitors crowded them uncomfortably and mrs. smith felt that she must not trespass upon her sister-in-law's hospitality longer than was absolutely necessary. "i think the white cottage just around the corner will be the one that we will take," she said to dorothy. "come with me there again this afternoon for one more look at it, and then we'll make up our minds." so they went to the white cottage and carefully studied its merits. "the principal good thing about it is that it is near aunt marion's," declared dorothy. "i think so, too. and it is near school and church and the butcher's and baker's and candlestick-maker's. we shan't have very far to walk for anything." "oh, mother, it doesn't seem possible that this can be _us_ really living and not just perching around, and having enough money and enough to eat and nothing to worry about." mrs. smith threw her arm about dorothy's shoulder. "the thing for you to do to show your gratitude is to grow well and strong just as fast as you can. i want to see you as rosy as the ethels." "they run me around so much that i think they'll do it for me before very long." "they have a start, though, so you'll have to do all the vigorous things that they do and others too." "you mean exercises at home?" "every morning when you get up you should do what a cat does when he wakes from a nap." "i know--he stretches himself way out to the tips of his claws." "and shakes himself all over. what do you suppose he's doing it for?" "to stretch his muscles, i should think." "and to loosen his skin and make himself generally flexible. have you ever seen a sick cat? his coat looks dull and dry and woolly instead of silky, and when you feel of him his skin doesn't slip over his bones easily. it wouldn't be very complimentary to ourselves to say that you and i are sick cats just now, but it wouldn't be far from the truth." "i don't much like the sound of it," laughed dorothy. "what can we invalid pussies do to get well?" "a few simple exercises we ought to take every morning when we first get out of bed. we ought to stand first on one foot and then on the other, and swing vigorously the foot that is off the floor." "that's easy." "then if we stretch our arms upward as high as we can, first one and then the other and then both, and then put our hands on the ribs of each side and stretch and lift them we shall have limbered up the lower and the upper parts of ourselves pretty thoroughly." "i learned a good exercise for the waist muscles at the girls' club last summer. you sit down and roll the body at the waist line in all directions. you can do it standing, too; that brings in some different muscles." "we'll do that. these few exercises will wake up every part of the body." "we ought to do them with the windows open." "when you first wake up after having the windows wide open all night you don't realize the cold in your room. it isn't until you have been to a warmer room that you notice the cold in your bedroom. so the best time to take these exercises is just the minute you hop out of bed. stand in front of the open window and take deep breaths of air way down into the very lower tips of your lungs so that every tiny cell will be puffed out with good, fresh oxygen." "it will take a lot of time to do all those exercises." "five minutes every morning will be enough if we do them vigorously. and you mustn't forget that your aim is to catch up with the ethels." "and then to beat them. i'll do it." they went slowly through the cottage and planned the purpose to which they would put each room. it was simply furnished, but all the necessities were there. "it's more fun this way than if there were a lot of furniture," said dorothy, "because we can get what is lacking to suit ourselves." "all the time that we are here we can be making plans for building our own little house." "i can hardly wait to have it." they hugged each other in their happiness and the tears were not far from the eyelids of both of them, for mrs. smith had not known anything but the actual necessities of living for many years and dorothy had never known many comforts that had been every day matters and not luxuries to her mother's youth. so mrs. smith hired the white cottage and she and dorothy moved in at once. a cousin of mary, mrs. morton's old servant, who had been dicky's nurse, came to work for them, and by the time of the first meeting of the united service club dorothy felt so settled in her new home that she wanted to have the meeting in the living-room or the big attic just to see how it felt to be entertaining people in her own house. "i think i wouldn't suggest it this time," mrs. smith warned her. "helen is the president, you see, and it seems more suitable for the first meeting to be held at her house. ask if you mayn't have the next one here. how often are you going to meet?" "i hope it will be once a week, and so does ethel blue. she thinks there's plenty of occupation to keep a service club busy all the time." at noon the sun disappeared and the rosemont members of the u. s. c. began to have doubts as to whether the hancocks and watkinses would appear. "even if it rains hard i think james and margaret will come," said helen. "the trolley brings them almost from their door to ours; but i don't feel so sure about the watkinses." "it doesn't take but ten minutes longer for them to come out from new york than for the hancocks to come over from glen point." "but they have to cross the ferry and take the train and it seems more of an undertaking than just to hop into a street car." "it's getting so dark and gloomy--what do you say if you ethels make some candy to enliven the afternoon?" "is there time before they come?" "just about. try vinegar candy this time. if you leave half of it unstirred and stir the other half it will be as good as two kinds, you know." so the ethels went off into a pantry back of the kitchen, where mrs. morton had had a small gas stove installed so that the children might cook to their hearts' content without interfering with the occupants of the kitchen. "there's nothing that upsets people who are trying to make a house run smoothly and to do its work promptly and well as to have children come into the kitchen and use the stove when it is needed for other purposes, and get in the way and leave their cooking apparatus around and their pots and pans uncleaned," declared mrs. morton. so the ethels and helen, and roger, too, for he was a capital cook and was in great demand whenever the boys went on camping trips, all contributed from their allowances to buy a simple equipment for this tiny kitchen which they called their own. mrs. morton paid for the stove, but the saucepans and baking tins, the flour and sugar and eggs, the flavoring extracts and the seasonings were all supplied by the children, and it was understood that when a cooking fit seized them they must think out beforehand what they were going to want and provide themselves with it and not call on the cook or mary to help them out of an emergency caused by their own thoughtlessness. mrs. morton was sure that her reputation as a sensible mother who did not let the children over-run the kitchen at times when they were decidedly in the way was one of the chief reasons why her servants stayed with her so long. so now ethel brown said to ethel blue, "have we got all the materials we need for vinegar candy?" and ethel blue seized the cook book and read the receipt. "mix together three cupfuls of sugar, half a cupful of vinegar, half a cupful of water. when it comes to a boil stir in one teaspoonful of soda." "we've got sugar and soda and water," announced ethel brown after investigating the shelves of the tiny storeroom, "but there isn't any vinegar. i do hate to go out in this rain," for the dark sky was making good its threat. "i'll get it for you. give me your jug," said roger, swinging into his raincoat. "i'll be back in half a jiff," and he dashed off into the downpour, shaking his head like a newfoundland dog, and spattering the drops as he ran. he was back before the ethels had their pans buttered and the water and sugar measured, so briskly had he galloped. it was only a few minutes more before the candy stiffened when a little was dropped into a cup of cold water. "now we'll pour half of it into one of the pans," directed ethel brown, "and then we'll get roger to beat the other half so it will be creamy." roger was entirely willing to lend his muscles to so good a cause and soon had the mass grained and white. "good work; one boiling for two batches!" he declared. "that pleases my notions of scientific management." when the door-bell rang for the first arrivals the whole thing was almost cold, and mary, who was always willing to help in an emergency, hastened the chilling process by popping the tins into the ice box. "they're not warm enough any longer to melt the ice," she decided, "so i'll just hurry 'em up a bit." after all the discussion about the city dwellers' dislike of going into the suburbs it was the watkinses who came first. "we're ahead of the hour," apologized della. "we couldn't time ourselves exactly for so long a distance." "the hancocks will come just on the dot, i've no doubt," laughed tom. "old james is just that accurate person!" as the clock's hand was on the appointed minute a whir at the bell announced margaret and james, both dripping from their run from the corner. "mrs. morton's compliments and she thought they had better drink this so they won't get cold." "our compliments and thanks to mrs. morton," returned tom, his hand dramatically placed over a portion of his person which is said to be the gateway to a boy's heart. when the cups had been emptied and the wafers consumed and the ethels had taken away the tray with the remains of the feast and had brought back the two kinds of candy, carefully cut into squares and heaped in two of the pretty japanese bowls which made a part of their private kitchen equipment, they all settled down in big chairs and on couches except roger, who sat near the fire to stir it, and helen, who established herself at one end of the table where she could see them all conveniently. chapter iii the christmas ship "the meeting will come to order," commanded helen, her face bubbling with the conflict between her dignity and her desire to laugh at her dignity. "we haven't any secretary, so there can't be any minutes of the last meeting." helen glanced sidewise at james, for she was talking about something she never had had occasion to mention in all her life before and she wondered if he were being properly impressed with the ease with which she spoke of the non-existent minutes. james responded to her look with an expression of surprise so comical that helen almost burst into laughter most unsuitable for the presiding officer of so distinguished a gathering. "oughtn't we to have a secretary?" asked tom. "if we're going to have a really shipshape club this winter it seems to me we ought to have some record of what we do." "and there may be letters to write," urged roger, "and who'd do them?" "not old roger, i'll bet!" cried james in humorous scorn. "i don't notice that anybody is addressing the chair," remarked helen sternly, and james flushed, for he had been the president's instructor in parliamentary law at the meeting when the club was organized, and he did not relish being caught in a mistake. "excuse me, madam president," he apologized. "i don't see any especial need for a secretary, miss president," said margaret, "but can't we tell better when we're a little farther along and know what we're going to do?" "perhaps so," agreed helen. "there isn't any treasurer's report for the same reason that there isn't any secretary's," she continued. "just to cut off another discussion i'd like to repeat my remark," said margaret. "if we become multi-millionaires later on we can appoint a treasurer then," said della, her round face unusually grave. "instead of a secretary's report it seems to me it would be interesting to remember what the club did last summer to live up to its name," suggested tom. "you know della and i weren't elected until after you'd been going some time, and i'm not sure that i know everything that happened." the mortons and dorothy and the hancocks looked around at each other rather vaguely, and no one seemed in a hurry to begin. "it looks to me as if a secretary is almost a necessity," grinned tom, "if nobody remembers anything you did!" "there were lots of little things that don't seem to count when you look back on them," began ethel blue. "we did some things as a club," said roger, "and we can tell watkins about those without embarrassing anybody." "our first effort was on old first night," said margaret thoughtfully. "don't you remember we went outside the gate and picked flowers and decorated the stage?" "in the evening james and roger passed the baskets to collect the offering in the amphitheatre," ethel blue said. "and then we all did things that helped along in the pageant and on recognition day." "i don't think those really counted for much as service," said helen, "because they were all of them mighty good fun." "i think we ought to do whatever will help somebody, whether we like it or not," declared ethel blue, "but i don't see why we shouldn't hunt up pleasant things to do." "what are we going to do, anyway?" asked della. "has anybody any ideas? oh, please excuse me, helen--miss president--perhaps it wasn't time to ask that question." "i was just about to ask for suggestions," said helen with dignity. "has any one come across anything that we can do here in rosemont or in glen point or in new york? anything that will be an appropriate beginning for the united service club? we want to do something that would be suitable for the children of our father and uncle who are serving in the army and navy trying to keep peace in mexico, and of a man like doctor hancock, who is serving his fellowmen in the slums every day, and of a clergyman who is helping people to do right all the time." helen flushed over this long speech. "rosemont, glen point, and new york--a wide field," said tom dryly. "it seems as if we might find something without much trouble." "i thought of the orphanage in glen point," said margaret. "what is there for us to do for the kids there that the grown people don't do?" asked roger. "the grown people contribute clothes and food and all the necessaries, but sometimes when i've been there it seemed as if the children didn't have much of any of the little nothings that boys and girls in their own homes have. it seemed to me that perhaps we could make a lot of things that weren't especially useful but were just pretty; things that we'd like to have ourselves." "i know just how they feel, i believe," said margaret. "one of my aunts thinks that perfectly plain clothes are all that are necessary and she won't let my cousins have any ruffles or bows. it makes them just miserable. they're crazy for something that 'isn't useful.'" "how would it do to get together a lot of things for christmas for the orphans? we might offer to trim a tree for them. or to give each one of them a foolish present or a pretty one to offset the solid things the grown-ups will give." "when i was a kid," observed james, "i used to consider it a mean fraud if i had clothing worked off on me as christmas presents. my parents had to clothe me anyway; why should they put those necessities among my christmas gifts which were supposed to be extras!" "there you are again; what people want in this world of pain and woe, ye-ho, he-ho," chanted roger, "is the things they can go without." "has any one thought of anybody else we can benefit?" questioned helen. "we might as well have all the recommendations we can." "there's an old couple down by the bridge on south street," said roger. "i've often noticed them. they're all bent up and about a thousand years old. we might keep an eye on them." "i know about them," contributed ethel brown. "i asked about them. they have a son who takes care of them. he gives them money every week, so they aren't suffering, but they both have the rheumatism frightfully so they can't go out much and i shouldn't wonder if they'd like a party some time, right in their own house. if we could go there and sing them some songs and dicky could speak his piece about the cat and we could do some shadow pantomimes on a sheet and then have a spread, i believe they'd have as good a time as if they'd been to the movies." "we'll do it." tom slapped his leg. "i'll sing 'em a solo myself." groans rose from james and roger. "poor old things! what have you got against them?" "oh, well, if you're jealous of my voice--of course i wouldn't for the world arouse any hard feelings, madam president. i withdraw my offer. but mark ye, callow youths," he went on dramatically, "the day will come when i'm a caruso and you'll be sorry to have to remember that you did your best to discourage a genius that would not be discouraged!" "the meeting will come to order." helen rapped for quiet, for the entire room was rocking to and fro over tom's praise of one of the hoarsest voices ever given to boy or man. "we'll give the old people a good show, even if tom does back out," cried roger. "i wish we had a secretary to put down these suggestions. i'm afraid we'll forget them." "so am i," agreed helen. "let's vote for a secretary. roger, pass around some paper and pencils and let's ballot." roger did as he was bid, and ethel brown and della collected the ballots and acted as tellers. "the tellers will declare the vote," announced helen, who had been conferring with james while the balloting was going on, and had learned the proper parliamentary move. margaret had coached ethel brown so that she made her report in proper style. "total number of votes cast, eight; necessary to a choice, five. margaret has one, dorothy has one, roger has two, ethel brown has one, ethel blue has three. nobody has enough." "have we got to vote over again?" helen asked of james. "i move you, madam president, that we consider the person receiving the highest number of votes as the person elected and that we make the election unanimous." "is the motion seconded?" cries of "yes," "i second it," "so do i," came from all over the room and included a call from ethel blue. roger pealed with laughter. "ethel blue means to get there," he shouted. "i do? what have i done?" demanded ethel blue, so embarrassed at this attack that the tears stood in her eyes. "why, you're the person who's receiving a unanimous election," returned roger, between gasps. "you've made it unanimous, yourself, all right." poor ethel blue leaned back in her chair without saying a word. "roger, you're too mean," cried helen. "don't you mind a word he says, ethel blue. it's very hard to follow votes and it isn't at all surprising that you didn't understand." "what does it mean?" "it means that you're elected secretary." "but there weren't enough votes." "you had three and roger had two, and nobody else had more than one. when one candidate has more than the rest he may be considered as elected, even if he didn't get the right number of votes--that is, if everybody agrees to it." "and you agreed to it," chuckled roger. "stop, roger. you're our new secretary, ethel blue, and it's very suitable that you should be, for the club was your idea and you ought to be an officer. roger, give ethel blue your pencil and the rest of that paper you had for the ballots. come and sit next to me, ethel." ethel blue felt that honors were being thrust upon her much against her will, but she was afraid that she would make some other mistake if she objected, so she meekly took the pencil and paper from roger and began to note down the proceedings. "we've had a suggestion from glen point and one from rosemont--let's hear from new york," said the president. "della--anything to say?" "papa can suggest lots of people that we can help if we ask him," said della. "i didn't ask him because i thought that perhaps you'd have some pet charities out here where there aren't so many helping hands as there are in new york." "how about you, tom?" "to tell you the truth," responded tom gravely, "i didn't think up anything to suggest this afternoon because my mind has been so full of the war that i can't seem able to think about anything else." everybody grew serious at once. the war seemed very close to the mortons, although it was a war across the sea, because they knew what it would mean to their father and uncle if ever our country should be involved in war. the thought of their own mental suffering and their anxiety if captain and lieutenant morton should ever be sent to the front had given them a keen interest in what had been going on in europe for six weeks. "i read the newspapers all the time," went on tom, "and i dare say i don't gain much real information from them, but at least i'm having ground into my soul every day the hideous suffering that all this fighting is bringing upon the women and children. the men may die, but at least they can fight for their lives. the women and children have to sit down and wait for death or destruction to come their way." "it's too big a situation for us way off here to grasp," said roger slowly, "but there are people on the spot who are trying to give assistance, and if americans could only get in touch with them it seems as if help might be handed along the way we handed the water buckets last summer when the cottage was on fire." "the red cross is working in all the countries that are at war," said helen. "there's an american red cross and people are sending clothing and food to the new york branch and they are sending them on to europe. that's roger's bucket brigade idea." "why don't we work for the red cross?" asked della. "i saw in the paper a plan that seems better still for us youngsters," said ethel blue. "some people are going to send over a christmas ship with thousands and thousands of presents for the orphans and the other children all over europe. why don't we work for that? for the santa claus ship?" "'charity begins at home,'" demurred margaret. "we needn't forget the glen point orphans. the christmas ship is going to sail early in november and we'll have plenty of time after she gets off to carry out those other schemes that we've spoken of." "i'd like to move," said ethel brown, getting on to her feet to make her action more impressive, "that the united service club devote itself first to preparing a bundle to send off on the christmas ship. after that's done we can see what comes next." "does any one second the motion, that we work first for the christmas ship?" asked helen. every voice in the room cried "i do." "all in favor?" there was a chorus of "ayes." "contrary minded?" not a sound arose. "it's a unanimous vote that we start right in on the bundle for the santa claus ship." chapter iv financial plans "this parliamentary business fusses me," exclaimed helen. "let's just talk, now that we've decided what we are going to do." "take a more comfortable chair," suggested tom, pulling over a morris chair nearer the fire. roger stirred up the flames and tossed on some pine cones. "these cones remind me that our old people down by the bridge might like some. they have a funny open stove that they could use them in." "what are they good for? kindling?" asked della. "ha! there speaks the city lady used only to steam! certainly they are good for kindling on account of the pitch that's in them, but they're also great in an open fire to brighten it up when it is sinking somewhat and one or two at a time tossed on to a clear fire make a pretty sight." "and a pretty snapping sound," added dorothy, remembering the cones from the long leaf pines. "our old couple gets a bushel on monday afternoon if it ever stops raining," promised roger. "dicky loves to pick them up, so he'll help." "the honorary member of the united service club does his share of service work right nobly," declared james, who was a great friend of dicky's. "the thing for us to do first is to decide how we are to begin," said helen. "we might talk over the kinds of presents that the war orphans would like and then see which of them any of us can make," suggested margaret wisely. "any sort of clothing would come in mighty handy, i should think," guessed james, "and i don't believe the orphans would have my early prejudices against receiving it for christmas gifts." "poor little creatures, i rather suspect santa claus will be doing his heaviest work with clothing this year." "as far as clothing is concerned," said margaret, "we needn't put a limit on the amount we send or the sizes or the kinds. the distributors will be able to use everything they can lay their hands on when the christmas ship comes in and for many months later." "then let's inquire of our mothers what there is stowed away that we can have and let's look over our own things and weed out all we can that would be at all suitable and that our mothers will let us give away, and report here at the next meeting." "while we're talking about the next meeting," broke in dorothy while the others were nodding their assent to helen's proposition, "won't you please come to my house next time?" "we certainly will," agreed della and margaret. "you bet," came from the boys. "and mother told me to offer the club the use of our attic to store our stuff in. it's a big place with almost nothing in it." "i'm sure aunt marion will be glad not to have anything else go into her attic," said ethel blue, and all the mortons laughed as they thought of the condition of the morton attic, whose walls were almost bulging with its contents. "if that's settled we must remember to address all our bundles to 'mrs. leonard smith, church street, rosemont,'" james reminded them. "it seems to me," ethel brown said slowly, thinking as she spoke, "that we might collect more clothing than we shall be able to find in our own families." "there are a good many of us," suggested della. "there are two watkinses and two hancocks and five mortons and one smith--that's ten, but if the rest of you are like the morton family--we wear our clothes pretty nearly down to the bone." all the mortons pealed at this and the rest could not help joining in. "one thing we must not do," declared helen. "we must not send a single old thing that isn't in perfect order. it's a poor present that you have to sit down and mend." "we certainly won't," agreed margaret. "i wear my clothes almost down to the skeleton, too, but i know i have some duds that i can make over into dresses for small children. i'm gladder every day that we took that sewing course last summer, helen." "me, too. my dresses--or what's left of them--usually adorn ethel brown's graceful frame, but perhaps mother will let us have for the orphans the clothes that would ordinarily go to ethel brown." ethel brown looked worried. "ethel brown doesn't know whether that will mean that she'll have to go without or whether she'll have new clothes instead of the hand-me-downs," laughed roger. "i don't care," cried ethel brown. "i'd just as lief go without new clothes if mother will let the club have the money they'd cost." "i've been thinking," said tom, "that we're going to need money to work this undertaking through successfully. how are we going to get it?" "but shall we need any to speak of?" inquired margaret. "fixing up our old clothes won't cost more than we can meet ourselves out of our allowances. i'm going to ask my aunt susy to let me have some of the girls' old things. the girls will be delighted; they're the ones who have the plain clothes." "we'll fix them up with ruffles and bows before we send them away," smiled helen. "why can't we ask everybody we come across for old clothes?" ethel blue wondered. "grandmother emerson would be sure to have something in her attic and i shouldn't wonder if she'd be willing to ask the ladies at the guild if they'd contribute," said helen. "do we want to take things from outside of the club?" objected ethel brown. "i don't see why not," answered margaret. "the idea is to get together for the orphans as many presents as possible, no matter where they come from. we're serving the orphans if we work as collectors just as much as if we made the clothes ourselves." "right-o," agreed roger. "let's tackle everybody we can on the old clo' question. we can ask the societies in our churches--" "why not in all the churches in town?" dared ethel blue. the idea brought a pause, for the place was small enough for the churches to meet each other with an occasional rub. "i believe that's a good idea," declared tom, and as a clergyman's son they listened to his views with respect. "all the churches ought to be willing to come together on the neutral ground of this club and if we are willing to take the responsibility of doing the gathering and the packing and the expressing to the christmas ship i believe they'll be glad to do just the rummaging in their attics and the mending up." "we needn't limit their offerings to clothes, either," said della. "we'll take care of anything they'll send in." "let's put it up to them, i say," cried roger. "there's at least one member of the morton family in every society in our church and we ought to get the subject before every one of those groups of people by the end of next week and start things booming." "we'll do the same at glen point," agreed margaret. "i can't promise quite as much for new york, because i don't know what father's plans are for war relief work in his church, but i do feel pretty sure he'll suggest some way of helping us," said della. "that's decided, then--we'll lay our paws on everything we can get from every source," tom summed up the discussion. "now i come back to what i said a few minutes ago--i think we're going to need more money to run this association than we're going to be able to rake up out of our own allowances, unless margaret's is a good deal bigger than mine," and he nodded toward margaret, who had objected to the more-money idea when he had offered it before. "just tell me how we'll need more," insisted margaret. "i figure it out that the part we boys will have to do in this transaction will be to district this town and glen point and make a house to house appeal for clothes and any sort of thing that would do for a christmas present, all to be sent to mrs. smith's." "that won't cost anything but a few carfares, and you can stand those," insisted margaret. "carfares are all right and even a few express charges for some people who for some reason aren't able to deliver their parcels at mrs. smith's house. but if you girls are going to make over some of these clothes and perhaps make new garments you'll need some cash to buy materials with." "perhaps some of the dry goods people will contribute the materials." "maybe they will. but you mark my words--the cost of a little here and a little there mounts up amazingly in work of this sort and i know we're going to need cash." "tom's right," confirmed della. "he's helped father enough to know." the idea of needing money, which they did not have, was depressing to the club members who sat around the fire staring into it gloomily. "the question is, how to get it," went on tom. "people might give us money just as well as cloth, i suppose," suggested margaret. "i think it would be a thousand times more fun to make the money ourselves," said ethel blue. "the infant's right," cried tom. "it will be more fun and what's more important still, nobody can boss us because he's given us a five dollar bill." "i suppose somebody might try," murmured helen. "they would," cried tom and della in concert. "we aren't a clergyman's children for nothing," tom went on humorously. "the importance a five dollar bill can have in the eyes of the giver and the way it swells in size as it leaves his hands is something that few people realize who haven't seen it happen." "let's be independent," cried dorothy decidedly, and her wish was evidently to the mind of all the rest, for murmurs of approval went around the room. "but if we're so high and mighty as not to take money contributions and if we nevertheless need money, what in the mischief are we going to do about it?" inquired roger. "we must earn it," said helen. "i'll contribute the money mother is going to pay me for making a dozen middy blouses for the ethels. she ordered them from me last summer when i began to take the sewing course and i haven't quite finished them yet, but i'll have the last one done this week if i can get home from school promptly for a day or two." "i can make some baskets for the woman's exchange," said dorothy. "i learned how to make lady baltimore cake the other day," said margaret, "and i'll go to some ladies in glen point who are going to have teas soon and ask them for orders." "i can make cookies," murmured ethel brown, "but i don't know who'd buy them." "you tell the kids at school that you've gone into the cooky business and you'll have all the work you can do for a while," prophesied roger. "i know your cookies; they're bully." "i don't notice that we boys are mentioning any means of making money," remarked james dryly. "i confess i'm stumped." "i know what you can do," suggested margaret. "father said this morning that he was going to get a chauffeur next week if he could find one that wouldn't rob him of all the money he made. you can run the car--why don't you offer to work half time--afternoons after school, for half pay? that would help father and he'd rather have you than a strange man." "he'd rather have half time, too. he likes to run the car himself, only he gets tired running it all day on heavy days. great head, sis," and james made a gesture of stroking his sister's locks, to which she responded by making a face. "i know what i can do," said roger. "you know those bachelor girls about seventy-five apiece, over on church street near aunt louise's--the miss clarks? well, they had an awful time last year getting their furnace attended to regularly. they had one man who proved to be a--er," roger hesitated. "not a total abstainer?" inquired james elegantly. "thank you, brother hancock, for the use of your vocabulary. the next one stole the washing off the line, and the next one--oh, i don't know what he did, but the miss clarks were in a state of mind over the furnace and the furnace man all winter. now, suppose i offer to take care of their furnace for them this winter? i believe they'd have me." "i think they'd be mighty glad to get you," confirmed helen. "could you do that and take care of ours, too?" "sure thing, if i put my mind on it and don't chase off with the fellows every time i feel in the mood." "mother would like to have you take care of ours if you could manage three," said dorothy. "i'll do it," and roger thumped his knee with decision. "i wouldn't undertake too much," warned helen. "it will mean a visit three times a day at each house, you know, and the last one pretty late in the evening." "i'm game," insisted roger. "you know i can be as steady as an old horse when i put my alleged mind on it. mother never had any kick coming over my work in the furnace department last winter." "she said you did it splendidly, but this means three times as much." "i'll do it," and roger nodded his head solemnly. "it seems to be up to della and me to tell what we can do," said tom meditatively. "father's secretary is away on a three months' holiday and i'm doing his typewriting for him and some other office stunts--as much as i can manage out of school hours. i'll turn over my pay to the club treasury." this was greeted with applause. "i don't seem to have any accomplishments," sighed della, her round head on one side. "the only thing i can think of is that i heard the ladies who have charge of the re-furnishing of the rest room in the parish house say that they were going to find some one to stencil the window curtains. i might see if they'd let me do it and pay me. i didn't take that class at the girls' club last summer, but dorothy and ethel brown could teach me." "of course." "or you could get the order from them, i'd fill it, and you could make the baskets for the woman's exchange," offered dorothy. della brightened. that was a better arrangement. "try it," nodded tom. "if you turn out one order well you'll get more; see if you don't." "our honorary member, mr. dicky morton, might sell newspapers since he got broken in to that business last summer," laughed ethel brown. "mother wouldn't let him do it here, i know, but he can weave awfully pretty things that he learned at the kindergarten and if there are any bazars this fall he could sell some of them on commission." "dicky really understands about the club. i think he'd like to do something for the orphans," helen agreed. "ladies and gentlemen," announced ethel blue, rising in her excitement; "i have a perfectly grand, galoptious idea. why do we wait for somebody else to get up a bazar to sell dicky's weaving? let's have a bazar of our own. why can't we have a fair with some tables, and ice cream and cake for sale and an entertainment of some kind in the evening? we all know all sorts of stunts; we can do the whole thing ourselves. if we announce that we are doing it for the christmas ship i believe everybody in town would come--" "--and in glen point and new york," roger mocked her enthusiasm. "you know we could fill the school hall as easy as fiddle, roger. you see everybody would know what we were at work on because we are going to begin collecting the clothes right off, so everybody will be interested." tom nodded approval. "perhaps we can do the advertising act when we do the collecting." "if i drive father, i see myself ringing up all the neighboring houses while he's in on his case," said james, "and it's just as easy to talk bazar part of the time as it is to chat old clo' the whole time." "can you get the school hall free?" asked tom. "we'd have to pay for the lighting and the janitor, but that wouldn't be much," said roger. "it would be better than the parish house of any of the churches because if we had it in a church there'd surely be some people who wouldn't go because it was in a building belonging to a denomination they didn't approve of, but no one can make any kick about the schoolhouse." "it's the natural neighborhood centre." "we'll have the whole town there." "if we let in some of the school kids we'll get all their families on the string," recommended roger. "i'm working up a feat that i've never seen any one do," said tom. "i'll turn it loose for the first time at our show." "remember, you're all coming to me next saturday afternoon," dorothy reminded them as the hancocks and watkinses put on their overgarments and sought out their umbrellas preparatory to going home. "and we'll bring a list of what we can contribute ourselves and what we've collected so far and what we think we can collect and we'll turn in anything we've made." "if there's anything we can work on while the club is going on we'd better bring it," suggested helen. "mother says we may have the sewing machine in the attic," said dorothy. "i believe i'll take my jig-saw over," suggested roger. "aunt louise wouldn't mind, would she?" "she'd be delighted. bring everything," and dorothy glowed with the hospitality that had been bottled up in her for years and until now had had but small opportunity to escape. chapter v roger goes foraging although helen never had been president of any club before, yet she had seen enough of a number of associations in the high school and the church to understand the advantage of striking while the iron of enthusiasm was hot. for that reason she and roger worked out the districting of rosemont before they went to bed that night, and the next afternoon roger went over to glen point on his bicycle, and, with james's help, did the same for that town. it was understood that tom would not be able to come out again until saturday, but he had agreed to be on hand early in the morning to do a good half day of canvassing. the girls were to speak to every one to whom they could bring up the subject conveniently, wherever they met them. roger began his work on monday afternoon after school. he wheeled over to a part of the town where he did not know many people, his idea being that since that would be the most disagreeable place to tackle he would do it first and get it over with. he was a merry boy, with a pleasant way of speaking that won him friends at once, and he was not bothered with shyness, but he did hesitate for an instant at his first house. it was large and he thought that the owner ought to be prosperous enough to have plenty of old clothes lying about crying to be sent to the war orphans. it was a maid whose grasp on the english language was a trifle uncertain who opened the door. roger stated his desire. "old clothes?" she repeated after him. "i've no old clothes to give you," and she shut the door hastily. roger stood still with astonishment as if he were fastened to the upper step. then his feelings stirred. "the idiot!" he gasped. "she thought i wanted them for myself," and he looked down at his suit with a sudden realization that his long ride over one dusty road and a spill on another that had recently been oiled had not improved the appearance of his attire. however, he rang the bell again vigorously. the woman seemed somewhat disconcerted when she saw him still before her. "i don't want the clothes--" began roger. "what did you say you did for?" inquired the maid sharply, and again she slammed the door. by this time roger's persistency was roused. he made up his mind that he was going to make himself understood even if he did not secure a contribution. once more he rang the bell. "you here!" almost screamed the girl as she saw once more his familiar face. "why don't you go? i've nothing to give you." "look here," insisted roger, his toe in the way of the door's shutting completely when she should try to slam it again; "look here, you don't understand what i want. is your mistress at home?" the girl was afraid to say that she was not, so she nodded. "tell her i want to see her." "what's your name?" "i'm roger morton, son of lieutenant morton. i live on cedar street. can you remember that?" she could not, but her ear had caught the military title and upstairs she conveyed the impression that at least a general was waiting at the door. when the mistress of the house appeared roger pulled off his cap politely, and he was such a frank-faced boy that she knew at once that her maid's fears had been unnecessary, though she did not see where the military title came in. roger explained who he was and what he wanted at sufficient length, and he was rewarded for his persistency by the promise of a bundle. "i know your grandmother, mrs. emerson," said the lady, who had mentioned that she was mrs. warburton, "and your aunt, mrs. smith, has hired one of my houses, so i am glad on their account to help your enterprise, though of course its own appeal is enough." roger thanked her and took the precaution to inquire the names of her neighbors, before he presented himself at another door. he also reached such a pitch of friendliness that he borrowed a whisk broom from mrs. warburton and redeemed his clothes from the condition which had brought him into such disfavor with the maid-servant. there was no one at home in the next house, but the next after that yielded a parcel which the old lady whom he interviewed said that he might have if he would take it away immediately. "i might change my mind if you don't," she said. "i've been studying for ten days whether to make over that dress with black silk or dark blue velvet. if i give the dress away i shan't be worried about it any longer." "very well," cried roger, and he rolled the frock up as small as he could and fastened it to his handle bars. there was no one at home at the next house, but the woman who came to the door at the next after that listened to his story with moist eyes. "come in," she said. "i can give you a great many garments. in fact there are so many that perhaps i'd better send them." "very well," returned roger. "please send them to my aunt's," and he gave the address. "you see," hesitated roger's hostess, now frankly wiping her eyes, "i had a little daughter about ten years old, and--and i never have been willing to part with her little dresses and coats, but how could i place them better than now?" roger swallowed hard. "i guess she'd like to have 'em go over there," he stammered, and he was very glad when he escaped from the house, though he told his mother, "she seemed kind of glad to talk about the kid, so i didn't mind much." "count listening as one of the club services," replied mrs. morton. back in his own part of town roger felt that his trip had been profitable. a very fair number of garments and bundles had been promised, and he had told everybody he could to watch the local paper for the announcement of the entertainment to be given by the u. s. c. "everybody seemed interested," he reported at home. "i don't believe we'll have a mite of trouble in getting an audience." it was at a cottage not far from the high school that roger came upon his nearest approach to an adventure. when he touched the buzzer the door was opened by an elderly woman who spoke with a marked german accent. roger explained his errand. to his horror the woman burst into tears. when he made a gesture of withdrawal she stopped him. "my son--my son is mit de army," she exclaimed brokenly. "my son und de betrothed of my daughter. we cannot go to the fatherland. the german ships go no more. if we go on an english or french ship we are kept in england. here must we stay--here." "you're safe here, at any rate," responded roger, at a loss what reply to make that would be soothing in the face of such depressing facts. "safe!" retorted the woman scornfully. "who cares to be safe? a woman's place is mit her men when they are in danger. my daughter and i--we should be in germany and we cannot get there!" "it's surely a shame if you want to go as much as that," returned roger gently, and just then to his surprise there came through an inner door a young woman whom he recognized as his german teacher in the high school, fräulein hindenburg. her face was disfigured with weeping and he knew now why she had seemed so ill and listless in her classes. "you must not mind mother," she said, looking surprised as she saw one of her pupils before her. "it is true that we would go if we could but we cannot, so we must stay here and wait." roger explained his errand. "to work for the war orphans of all countries?" cried both women excitedly. "gladly! gladly!" "we are knitting every day--scarfs, socks, wristlets," said the older woman. "also will we so gladly make clothing for the children and toys and playthings--what we can." fräulein smiled a sad assent and roger wheeled off, realizing that the pain caused by the war no longer existed for him only in his imagination; he had seen its tears. so freely had people responded to roger's appeal that he began to wonder how the club was going to take care of all the garments that would soon be coming in. after that thought came into his mind he made a point of asking the givers if they would send their offerings as far as possible in condition to be shipped. "margaret and helen can make over some of the clothes and the ethels and dorothy can help with the simple things, i suppose, but if there are many grown-up dresses like this one on my handle bar they won't have time to do anything else but dressmake," meditated roger as he pedalled along. nowhere did he meet with a rebuff. every one was pleased to be asked. many offered to make new garments. one old woman who lived in a wheel-chair but who could use her hands, agreed to sew if the material should be sent her. many mothers seemed to consider it a heaven-sent opportunity to make a clearance of the nursery toys though roger stoutly insisted that they must all be in working order before they were turned in. "it's been perfectly splendid," breathed roger joyfully as he finished his third afternoon and came into the house to report to his mother and helen. "it's a delight to ask when you feel sure that you won't have to coax as you usually do when you're getting up anything. everybody seems to jump at the chance." toward the end of the week ethel blue came in beaming. "i've got some entirely new people interested," she cried. "who? who?" "the last people you'd ever think of--the women in the old ladies' home." "why should you think them the very last to be interested?" asked mrs. emerson who happened to be at the mortons' and whose fingers were carrying the flying yarn that her needles were manufacturing into a sock. "most of them are mothers and it doesn't take a mother to be interested in such a cause as this. every human being who has any imagination must feel for the sufferings of the poor children." "it seemed queer to me because i've never seen them do anything but just sit there with their hands in their laps." "poor souls, nobody ever provides them with anything to do." "now all of them say that they'll be delighted to sew or knit or do anything they can if the materials are provided for them." "here's where we can begin to spend the money mother has offered to advance us," cried ethel brown. "can't we go right after school to-morrow and buy the yarn for them, mother?" "indeed you may. has della sent you the knitting rules from the red cross yet?" "we're expecting them in every mail. if they don't come before we take the wool to the home we can start the ladies on scarfs. they're just straight pieces." "mrs. hindenburg and fräulein are knitting wristlets for the german soldiers. they could give the rule for them, i should think," suggested roger, "and our old lady friends can just cut it in halves for the kids." it was the next day that helen came in from school all excitement. "i've made a discovery as thrilling as roger's about fräulein!" she cried. "what? who is it about? tell us." "it's about mademoiselle millerand." "your french teacher?" asked mrs. emerson. "she was new at school last year and you've heard us say she's the most fascinating little black-eyed creature." "perhaps she can't talk fast!" added roger. "what's the story about her?" demanded ethel brown. "it's not a romantic story like fräulein's; that is, there's no betrothed on the other side that she's crazy to get to; but she's going over to join the french red cross." "that little thing!" cried roger. "why she doesn't look as if she had strength enough to last out a week!" "she says she's had a year's training in nursing and that a nurse is taught to conserve her strength. she hopes she'll be sent to the front." "the plucky little creature! when is she going?" "as soon as she can put in a substitute at the school; she doesn't want to leave us in the lurch after she made a contract for the year." "it may take some time after that to arrange for a sailing, i suppose." "perhaps so. any way i think it would be nice if we gave her a send-off--" "just as we will fräulein if her chance comes." "we can make some travelling comforts." "she won't be able to carry much," warned mrs. morton. "everything will have to be as small as possible, but we can hunt up the smallest size of everything. i think it will be fun!" "she'll probably be very much pleased." "i wish there was something rather special we could do for fräulein too, so we could be perfectly impartial." "watch for the chance to do something extra nice for her. she's having the harder time of the two; it's always harder to stay and wait than it is to go into action, even when the action is dangerous." while the mortons were canvassing rosemont, james and margaret were doing the same work in glen point. dr. hancock had accepted his son's offer and james was now regularly engaged as his father's chauffeur, working after school hours every school day and on saturday mornings. the doctor insisted that he should have saturday afternoons free so that he might go to the club. he was also quite willing that james should follow the plan he had sketched at the last club meeting and visit the neighbors of his father's patients while doctor hancock was making his professional calls. the plan worked to a charm and james found glen point quite as ready as rosemont to respond to the "bitter cry of the children." "so many people are getting interested i almost feel as if it weren't our affair any longer," james complained to his father as they were driving home in the dusk one afternoon. "look out for that corner. that's a bad habit you have of shaving the curbstone. you needn't feel that way as long as your club is doing all the organizing and administration. that's the part that seems to make most people hesitate about doing good works. it isn't actual work they balk at; it's leadership." "if handling the stuff and disposing of it is leadership then we're a 'going concern' all right," declared james. "roger telephoned over this morning that the bundles were coming in to mrs. smith's at a great rate, and that a lot of people were making new garments and things that will turn up later." "when is tom coming out?" "saturday morning. i've saved one district for him to do then and that will finish up glen point as roger and i sketched it out." "it hasn't been so hard a job as you thought." "chasing round in the car has saved time. this is a bully job of yours, dad." "you won't hold it long if you cut corners like that, i warn you again." "i'll try to cut 'em _out_," laughed james as he carefully turned into the hancocks' avenue. chapter vi in the smith attic "grandfather emerson wants to give the club a present," cried ethel brown as the last arrivals, the hancocks, came up the stairs and entered the attic of dorothy's house on saturday afternoon. the large room was half the width of the whole cottage and, with its low windows and sloping roof had a quaint appearance that was increased by its furnishing of tables and seats made from boxes covered with gay bits of chintz. dorothy had not neglected her work for the orphans but she had found time to fit up the meeting place of the u. s. c. so that its members might not have to gather in bare surroundings. the afternoon sun shone brightly in through simple curtains of white cheesecloth, the sewing machine awaited helen beside a window with a clear north light, and roger's jig-saw was in a favorable position in a corner. each one who came up the stairs gave an "oh" of pleasure as the door opened upon this comfortable, cheerful room where there was nothing too good to be used and nothing too bad to have entrance to the society of beauty-loving folk. "what did your grandfather give us?" asked margaret. "grandfather has been awfully interested in the club from the very beginning, you know. the other day he asked if we wouldn't like to have him give us club pins with our emblem on them." "how perfectly dear of him!" ejaculated delia. "don't let your hopes rise too high. i said it would be simply fine to have little forget-me-not pins like those we talked about at our very first meeting in the ravine at chautauqua--do you remember?" "blue enamel," murmured dorothy. "he said he wanted us to have them, and that it was a lovely symbol and so on, and he'd seen some ducks of pins in new york that were just what we'd like, and some single flower ones for the boys--" "um. this suspense is wearing on me," remarked roger. "we talked it over and the way it came out was that grandfather said that perhaps he'd better give us now the money the pins would cost and keep his present for later." no one could resist a groan. "he won't forget it. grandfather never forgets to do what he promises. we'll get them some time or other. but i had a feeling that we'd like them later better even than now because we'd feel then that we'd really earned them after the club had done something worth while, you know." "i suppose we will," sighed della, "but they do sound good to me." "he was bound that we should have the forget-me-not in some form or other," went on ethel brown, "and he's sent us a rubber stamp with 'u. s. c.' on it and a forget-me-not at each end of the initials. there's an indelible pad that goes with it and we are to stamp everything we send out on some part where it won't be too conspicuous." "it will be like signing a letter to the child the present goes to," said dorothy. "isn't he a darling!" exclaimed ethel blue. "i love him as much as if he were my own grandfather." "he turned the money right over into my hand," continued ethel brown--"the money he didn't spend for the pins, i mean. it's fifteen dollars. what shall i do with it?" "pay for the yarn you bought for the women in the old ladies' home to knit with," said helen promptly. "'"the time has come," the walrus said,'" quoted tom, "when we must have a treasurer. it was all very well talking about not needing one when we didn't have a cent of money, but now we are on the way toward being multis and we can't get on any longer without some one to look after it." "let's make tom treasurer and then he can fuss over the old accounts himself," suggested roger. roger's loathing for keeping accounts was so well known that every one laughed. "not i," objected tom. "i'm not at all the right one. it ought to be one of you people who live out here where we're going to do our work. you'll have hurry calls for cash very often and it would be a nuisance to have to wait a day to write or phone me. no, sir, roger's the feller for that job." "no, roger isn't," persisted that young man disgustedly. "i buck, i kick, i remonstrate, i protest, i refuse." "here, here," called ethel blue. "who said you could have james's vocabulary?" "well, james, then," said tom. "it doesn't make much difference who it is as long as he lives in these precincts and not as far away as i do. madam president, i nominate mr. hancock for treasurer of the united service club." "you hear the nomination," responded helen. "is it seconded?" "i second it with both hands and an equal number of feet," replied roger enthusiastically. "now is the opportunity for a discussion of the merits of the candidate," observed helen drily. "there are many things that might be said," rejoined dorothy, "but because it would probably embarrass him--" "oh, say!" came from james. "are they as bad as that?" "as i was remarking when i was interrupted," continued dorothy severely, "because it might make the candidate feel queer if he were to hear all the compliments we should pay him, i think we won't say anything." "i'll trust old roger not to pay compliments," responded james. "old roger is in such a good humor because this job is being worked off on to your shoulders instead of his that he might utter some blandishments that would surprise you." "i wouldn't risk it!" "are you ready to vote?" asked helen. "we are," came ringing back, and the resulting ballot placed james in the treasurership, the only dissenting vote being his own. his first official act after the money was put into his hands was to give it back to ethel brown in part repayment of the sum which her mother had advanced for the yarn for the old ladies' home. "here's another bundle," announced mrs. smith, appearing with a large parcel as the club members were looking over the collection that had come in. all the contributions were piled in a corner, and already they made a considerable mound. "roger will have to apply some of his scientific management ideas to that mass of stuff," laughed mrs. smith. "i wish we could spread them out so that we could get an idea of what is which." "couldn't we boys make some sort of rack divided into cubes or even knock together a set of plain shelves? that would lift them off the floor." "i wish you would," said helen. "then we ought to put a tag on each bundle telling who sent it and what is in it." "and what we think can be done with it, if it isn't in condition to send off just as it is," added ethel brown. "i believe i saw some planks in the cellar that would make sufficiently good shelves for what you need," said mrs. smith. "suppose you boys go down stairs with me and take a look at them while the girls are making out the tags." so the boys trooped after their hostess while ethel brown unscrewed the cap of her fountain pen and wrote on the tags that dorothy cut out of cardboard, and ethel blue fitted them with strings, so that they might be tied on to the parcels. "these dresses and coats came from mrs. ames," said helen. "they belonged to her daughter who died, and they're all right for a child of ten, so we'll just mark the bundle, 'from mrs. ames,' and 'o.k.,' and put it away." "there's an empty packing box over in that corner," said dorothy. "wouldn't it be a good scheme to put the bundles we shan't have to alter at all, right into it?" "great. then we shan't have to touch them again until the time comes to tie them up in fancy paper to make them look christmassy." "here's the dress mrs. lancaster couldn't decide whether to have made over with black silk or blue velvet." "mrs. lancaster," murmured ethel brown, making out her card. "that certainly can't go as it is," pronounced della. "there's material enough in it for two children's dresses," decided margaret. "mark it, 'will make two dresses.'" "here's maud delano's jacket. she told roger she'd send this over when she got her new one." "it came this morning. it's all right except for tightening a button or two," and ethel brown inscribed, "coat; tighten buttons" on the slip which della tied on to one of the incompetent fasteners. "good for mrs. warburton!" cried helen. "what's she done?" "here's a great roll of pink flannelette--and blue, too--among her things. we can make dresses and wrappers and sacques and petticoats out of that." "it always seems just as warm as woolen stuff to me," said dorothy. "of course it can't be." "cotton is never so warm as wool, but if it's warm enough why ask for anything different. what's in your mind?" inquired margaret. "i was wondering if we couldn't do something to forward the cotton crusade at the same time that we're helping the war orphans." "you mean by making things out of cotton materials?" "yes. the orphans will want the warmest sort of clothing for winter, i suppose, but spring is coming after winter and summer after that, and i don't believe anything we send is going to be wasted." "they might wear two cotton garments one over the other," suggested della. "i don't say that we'd better make all our clothes out of cotton material, but where it doesn't make any especial difference i don't see why we shouldn't choose cotton stuff. after all, it's the war that has spoiled the cotton trade so we're still working for war sufferers only they'll be on this side of the atlantic. you know they say the southern cotton planters are having a serious time of it because they aren't selling any cotton to speak of in europe." "let's do it!" cried ethel blue and she told their decision to james who had come up to measure the attic doorway for some reason connected with the planks they had found. "it's a great idea. bully for dorothy," he cried working away with a footrule. "this will go all right," he decided, and ran down again to give a lift to the other carpenters. there were eight planks each about six feet long that mrs. smith had discovered in the cellar. a telephone to mrs. warburton had gained her consent to their use and the boys set about fitting them together as soon as they were on the top floor. fortunately they were already planed and of so good a length for the purpose they were to be used for that nothing was needed but hammer and nails to produce a set of shelves quite adequate for the purpose. two of the boards made the sides, and between them the remaining six were nailed at intervals. "we can set it against the wall over here," decided tom, "and it won't need a back." "which is lucky," james declared, "cos there ain't no planks to make a back of." "let's nail a block of wood or a triangle of wood under the bottom shelf in the corners," advised roger, "so the animal won't wobble." "if we had enough wood and a saw we could make nice cubby-holes, one for each bundle," remarked tom, his head on one side. "tom's getting enthusiastic over carpentering. we haven't either any more wood or a saw, old man, so there won't be any cubby-holes this time," decreed roger. "it will do perfectly well this way," said helen. "now if you'll help us up with these bundles--" it was a presentable beginning for their collection. two parcels in addition to mrs. ames's had gone into the packing case in the corner, but three shelves of the new set were filled with tight rolls, each with its tag forward so that no time would be lost in examining the contents, again. "that's what i call a good beginning," announced helen after the boys had swept up their shavings and had taken them and their hammers and the remaining nails down stairs. "what next, madam president?" inquired james when they returned. the girls were already spreading out the pink and blue flannelette on a plank table that had been left in the attic by the carpenters who had built the house. "we are going to cut some little wrappers out of this material. i think you boys had better fix up some sort of table over on that side of the room and get your pasting equipment ready, for we'll need oodles of boxes of all sizes and you might as well begin right off to make them." "right-o," agreed roger. "methinks i saw an aged table top minus legs leaning against the wall in the cellar. couldn't we anchor it on to this wall with a couple of hinges and then its two legs will be a good enough prop?" "if they're both on the same side." "it seems to me they are." "any superfluous hinges around the house, dorothy?" "i'm afraid not." "never mind, i'll get a pair when i go after the pasteboard and the flour for the paste and a bowl for a pastepot, and a--no, _three_ brushes for us three boys to smear the paste with and some coarse cotton cloth for binders." "don't forget the oil of cloves to keep your paste from turning sour," dorothy cried after them. "and mind you boil it thoroughly," said margaret. the boys started again towards the cellar when roger's eye happened to fall on the cutting operations of the girls. "pshaw!" he cried in scorn. "you are time-wasters! why don't you cut out several garments at once and not have to go through all that spreading out and pinning down process every time? i saw a tailor the other day cutting a pile of trousers two feet high." "what with, i should like to know?" inquired della mystified. "he did have a knife run by electricity," admitted roger, "but there's no reason why you can't cut four or five of those things just as easily as one." "we'll go on down and get the table top," said james, and he and tom departed. "now, then, watch your uncle roger. is this tissue paper affair your pattern? all you need to do is to fasten your cloth tightly down on to your table four thicknesses instead of one. thumb tacks, dorothy? good child! now lay your pattern on it--yes, thumb-tack it down if you want to--and go ahead. you've got new, sharp shears. don't be in a hurry. there you are--and you've saved yourself the fuss of doing that three times more." [illustration: pattern for wrapper e c e = twice the length from floor to neck a b = slit fold cloth on line c b d sew together sides f to e insert sleeves c to f] "roger really has a lot of sense at times," admitted ethel brown, after her brother had leaped down the attic stairs in pursuit of the boys. "he is good about helping," added della. "what is this garment--a wrapper?" asked margaret as helen held up the soft flannelette. "yes, it's the simplest ever, and we can adapt one pattern to children of all sizes or to grown people," explained helen. "i never heard of anything so convenient!" "first, you measure the child from the floor to his neck--i measured this on dicky. then you cut a piece of material twice that length. that is, if the kiddy is thirty inches from the floor to the chin you cut your flannelette sixty inches long." [illustration: wrapper completed] "exactly. then cut a lengthwise slit thirty inches long. then fold the whole thing in halves across the width of the cloth and sew up the sides to within four and a half inches of the top and you have a wrapper all but the sleeves." "how do you make those?" "it takes half a yard for a grown person--a quarter of a yard for a youngster. cut the width in halves and double it and sew it straight into the holes you've left at the tops." "will that be the right length?" "you can shorten it if you like or lengthen it by a band. you finish the slit up the front by putting on a band of some different color. it looks pretty on the ends of the sleeves, too. we can use blue on this pink and pink on the blue." "it's easy enough, isn't it? i think i'll make myself one when we get through with the ship." "all you need to know is the length from the person's chin to the floor and you can make it do for anybody. and all you need to do to make a short sacque is to know the length from the person's chin to his waist. i have a notion we'll have some wee bits left that we can make into cunning little jackets for babies." "i don't see why this pattern wouldn't do for an outdoor coat if you made it of thicker cloth--eider-down, for instance." "it would. gather the ends of the sleeves about an inch down so as to make a ruffle, and put frogs or buttons and loops on the front and there you have it!" "did you bring a petticoat pattern, margaret?" asked ethel blue. "haven't you seen the pictures of european peasant women and little girls with awfully full skirts? i believe they'd like them if we just cut two widths of the same length, hemmed them at the bottom, and ran a draw-string in the top. we can feather-stitch the top of the hem if we want to make it look pretty, or we can cut it a little longer and run one or two tucks." "or we might buttonhole a scallop around the edge instead of hemming it," suggested ethel brown. "you know i believe in doing one thing well," said dorothy. "how would it do if we club girls made just coats and wrappers and sacques from that pattern of helen's, and petticoats? we can make them of all sorts of colors and a variety of materials and we can trim them differently. we'd be making some mighty pretty ones before we got through." "i don't see why not," agreed margaret thoughtfully. "let's do it." "i brought the red cross knitting directions," said delia. "i didn't get them till this morning." "grandmother will be delighted with those. she's going to take them to the old ladies' home and start them all to work there." "are you sure they'll knit for the children?" "she's going to ask them to knit for the children now, with bright-colored yarns. afterwards they can knit for the soldiers, and then they must use dark blue or grey or khaki color--not even a stripe that will make any poor fellow conspicuous." as they finished reading the instructions they heard the boys tramping upstairs with their paraphernalia. "it looks to me, dorothy," said tom, "as if you had us on your hands for most of these club meetings, to do our work here. are you sure mrs. smith doesn't mind?" "mother is delighted," dorothy reassured him. "and she wants you all to come down and have some chocolate." chapter vii for a traveller's kit once the club was started on its work it seemed as if the days were far too short for them to accomplish half of what they wanted to do. mrs. morton insisted that her children should have at least two hours out of doors every day, and that cut down the afternoons into an absurdly brief working time. mrs. smith had electric lights installed in her attic and it became the habit of the mortons and often of the hancocks to meet there and cut and sew and jig-saw and paste for an hour or two every evening. the watkinses were active in new york evidently, for della sent frequent postcards asking for directions on one point or another and tom exchanged jig-saw news with roger almost daily. meanwhile the war was in every one's mind. the whole country realized the desirability of trying to obey president wilson's request for neutrality in word, thought, and deed. the subject was forbidden at school where the teachers never referred to the colossal struggle that was rending europe and the children of varied ancestries played together harmoniously in the school yard. if at the high school fräulein and mademoiselle were looked at with a new interest by their scholars no word suggestive of a possible lack of harmony was uttered to them, and their friendship for each other seemed to increase with every day's prolongation of the war. in the morton family war discussion was not forbidden and the events of the last twenty-four hours as the newspapers reported them were talked over at dinner every evening. mrs. morton thought that the children should not be ignorant of the most upheaving event that had stirred the world in centuries, but she did not permit any violent expressions of partisanship. "you children are especially bound to be neutral," she insisted, "because your father and ethel blue's father are in the service of our country, and a neutrality as complete as possible is more desirable from them and their families than from civilians." a new idea was blossoming in the young people's minds, however. they had grown up with the belief that armament was necessary to preserve peace. great men and good had said so. "if we are prepared for war," they declared, "other nations will be afraid to fight us." captain and lieutenant morton had agreed with them, as was natural for men of their profession. they did not believe in aggression but in being ready for defense should they be attacked. now it seemed to roger and helen as they read of the sufferings of invaded france and the distress of trampled belgium that no country had the right to benefit by results obtained through such cruel means. "just suppose a shell should drop down here just as we were walking along," imagined roger as he and helen were on their way to school. "suppose patrick shea's cornfield there was marched over before the corn was harvested and all these houses and churches and schools were blown up or burned down and all the people of this town were lying around in the streets dead or wounded!" "when you bring it home to rosemont it doesn't sound the way it does when you read in the histories about a 'movement' here and a 'turning of the right flank' there, and 'the end of the line crumpling up.' when the line crumples up it means fathers and brothers are killed and women and children starve--" "think what it would be to have nothing to eat and to have to grub around in the fields and devour roots like the peasants in the famine time in louis xiv's reign." "and think about the destruction of all the little homes that have been built up with so much care and happiness. mary told me her sister bought a chair one month and a table at another time when she and her husband came across bargains," said practical ethel brown who had caught up with them. "they've furnished their whole house the way we children have added to our kitchen tins and plates; and then everything would be broken to smash by just one of those shells." "the people who've been spreading the gospel of peace for years and years needn't be discouraged now, it seems to me," observed roger thoughtfully, "even if it does look as if all their talk had been for nothing. these horrors make a bigger appeal than any amount of talk." "grandfather emerson says that perhaps universal peace is going to be the result of the war. it seems far off enough now." "it will be dearly bought peace." "hush, there goes mademoiselle. i wonder when she's going to sail." "why don't you ask her to-day? the club must give her some kind of send-off, you know." "i wonder if she'd mind if we went to new york to see her start?" "it won't be hard to find out. we can tell her that we won't be offended if she says 'no.'" "if she's willing we might take that opportunity to go over the ship. i've always wanted to go over an ocean steamer." "perhaps they won't let anybody do it now on account of the war. it will be great if we can, though." the service club learned more geography in the course of its studies of the war news than its members ever had learned before voluntarily. the approach of the german army upon paris was watched every day and its advance was marked upon a large map that roger had installed in the sitting-room. when the germans withdrew the change of their line and its daily relation to the battle front of the allies was noted by the watchful pencil of one or another of the newspaper readers. thanks to the simplicity of the pattern which the club had adopted for its own they were enabled to make a large number of gay garments in a wonderfully short time. from several further donations of material they made wrappers for children of fourteen, twelve, ten, down to the babies, adding to each a belt of the same color as the band so that the garments might serve as dresses at a pinch. they found that with the smaller sizes they could cut off a narrow band from the width of the cloth at each side, and that served as trimming for another garment of contrasting color. when they had constructed a goodly pile of long wrappers they fell upon the short sacques, and before many days passed a mound of pink-banded blue and blue-banded pink, and red-banded white and white-banded red rose beside their machines. della wrote that she was using her mother's machine and was learning how better and better every day. thanks to their lessons at chautauqua margaret and helen sewed well on the machine already. ethel brown and ethel blue and dorothy basted on the bands and the belts and added the fastenings. it was their fingers, too, that feather-stitched and cat-stitched the petticoats that came into being with another donation of flannelette. dorothy was glad when any new material was cotton as every yard that they used helped the south to rid itself of its unsold crop. "ladies are going to wear cotton dresses all winter, they say," she told the club at one of its meetings. "mother is going to let me have all my new dresses made of cotton stuff and she's going to have some herself." "we wear cotton middies all winter," protested the ethels who felt as if dorothy felt that they were not doing their share to help on the cause she was interested in. "when aunt marion gets your new dancing school dresses couldn't you ask her to get cotton ones?" "i suppose we could. do you think they'd be pretty enough?" "some cotton dresses that are going to be worn on the opening night of the opera at the metropolitan are to be on exhibition in new york in a week or two." "if cotton is good enough for that purpose i guess it's good enough for your dancing class," laughed helen. "mother says they make perfectly beautiful cottons now of exquisite colors and lovely designs. don't you think it would be great if we set the fashion of the dancing class?" "let's do it. mother says silk isn't appropriate for girls of our age, anyway." "if you can be dressed appropriately and beautifully at the same time i don't see that you have anything to complain of," smiled helen. with the short time that the girls had at their command every day it did not seem as if they would be able to do much with the garments that came in to be made over. there were not many of these because the boys had been instructed after the first day to ask that alterations and mending be done at home, but there were a few dresses like mrs. lancaster's that were on their hands. mrs. smith came to their help when this work bade fair to be too much for them. "i'll ask aunt marion and mrs. emerson and mrs. hancock and mrs. watkins to lunch with me some day," she promised dorothy, "and after luncheon we'll have an old-fashioned bee and rip up these dresses and then we can see what material they give us and we can plan what to do with them." the scheme worked out to a charm. the elders enjoyed themselves mightily and the resulting pile of materials, smoothly ironed and carefully sorted gave margaret and helen a chance to exercise their ingenuity. mrs. watkins took back to town with her enough stuff for two, promising to help della with them, and the suburban girls, with the assistance of the grown-ups, made six charming frocks that looked as good as new. it was early in october that helen rushed home from school one day with the news that mademoiselle was going to sail at the end of the week. "we must begin to-day to make up a good-bye parcel for her," she cried. "red cross nurses are allowed a very small kit," warned mrs. morton. "we can try to make things so tiny that she won't have to leave them behind her when she goes on duty, but even if she does she can give them to somebody who can make them useful." "i'll make steamer slippers to begin with," said ethel brown. "how?" asked ethel blue. [illustration: top of slipper sew a and b together] "you get a pair of fleecy inner soles--they have them at all the shoe stores--and then you cut a top piece of bright colored chintz just the shape of the top part of a slipper and you sew it together at the back and bind the edges all around." "how do you put the top and the sole together?" "the edge of the sole is soft enough to sew through. you turn the top inside out over the sole and sew the binding of the chintz on to the edge of the sole over and over and when you turn it right side out there you are with gay shoes." "they'll fill up a bag, though," commented ethel blue. "i should think you might make a pair just like that only make the sole of something that would double up. then they'd go into a case and be more compact." "that's a good idea, too," agreed ethel brown. "what could you use for a sole?" "soft leather would be best. i imagine you could get a piece from the cobbler down town. or you could get the very thin leather that they used at chautauqua for cardcases and pocket books--the kind roger uses--and stitch two pieces together." "why wouldn't a heavy duck sole do?" suggested mrs. emerson. "if you stepped on a pin it wouldn't keep it out as well as leather," objected her daughter. "i believe i'll try a pair with a flowery chintz top and a duck sole covered with chintz like a lining to the shoe," said ethel blue slowly as she thought it out. "then i'll make the case of two pieces of chintz bound together." "one piece ought to be longer than the other so that it would be a flap to come over like an envelope." this was ethel brown's contribution to the slipper building. "you could fasten it with a glove snapper. i got some the other day for my leather work," said roger. "i'll put them on for you." "why don't you ethels make both kinds?" suggested dorothy. "she'll find a use for them." "if you girls will make it i'll contribute the silk for a bath wrap that she can throw over her warm one, just for looks, on the boat," said mrs. emerson. "i have one i use on sleeping cars and it rolls up into the smallest space you can imagine." [illustration: slipper case place section a on section b and sew edges together, leaving c d open e = snap fastening] "good for grandmother!" cried a chorus of voices. "can we use our famous wrapper pattern?" asked helen. "i don't see why not. mine has a hood but that isn't a difficult addition if you merely shape the neck of your kimono a little and then cut a square of the material, sew it across one end and round the lower end a trifle to fit into the neck hole you've made." "how about longer sleeves, mother?" asked mrs. morton. "i think i would make them longer. and i'd also make an envelope bag of the same silk to carry it in on the return trip from the bath. you'll be surprised to find into how small an envelope it will go." "put a cord from one corner of the envelope to the other so that mademoiselle may have her hands free for her soap and towel and other needfuls," advised mrs. smith, who had been listening to the suggestions. "wouldn't another envelope arrangement of chintz lined with rubber cloth make a good washrag bag or sponge bag?" asked ethel brown. "nothing better unless you put a rubber-lined pocket in a pullman apron." this hint from grandmother emerson aroused the curiosity of the young people. "what is a pullman apron? tell us about it," they cried. "mine is made of linen crash," said mrs. emerson. "dorothy will insist on your making yours of cotton chintz and it will be just as good and even prettier. get a yard. cut off a piece thirty inches long and make it fourteen wide. bind the lower edge with tape. turn up six inches across the bottom and stitch the one big pocket it makes into smaller ones of different sizes by rows of up and down stitching. make a bag of rubber cloth just the right size to fit one of the larger pockets. take the six inches that you cut off from your yard of material and bind it on both edges with tape. stitch that across your apron about four inches above the top of the lower row of pockets. divide the strip into as many pockets as you want to for hairpins and pins and neck arrangements, and so on." "your apron has two raw edges now," said helen. "bind it on each side with tape. that will finish it and it will also fasten the edges of the pockets securely to the apron. sew across the top a tape long enough to serve as strings." [illustration: pullman apron d b plus the turned up portion, b a, = inches b a = inches b b = inches c c c = pockets d d = strings] "the idea is to roll all your toilet belongings up together in your bag, eh?" "yes, and when you go to the ladies' room on the train you tie the apron around your waist and then you have your brush and comb and hairpins and tooth brush and washrag all where you can lay your fingers on them in a second of time." "i got my best tortoise-shell hairpin mixed up with another woman's once, and i never recovered it," said mrs. morton meditatively. "it wouldn't have happened if you'd been supplied with a bag like this," said her mother. "mademoiselle's silk wrap must be grey to match her other red cross equipment," said mrs. emerson, "but i don't see why the chintz things shouldn't be as gay as you like." "pink roses would be most becoming to her style of beauty," murmured roger who had come in. "i don't know but pink roses would be becoming enough for slippers," agreed ethel blue so seriously that every one laughed. "let's get pink flowered chintz," said ethel brown. "you make the soft kind and i'll make the stiff kind and dorothy'll make the apron and helen will make the kimono. who's got any more ideas?" "i have," contributed roger. "i'll make a case for her manicure set. i haven't got time this week unfortunately to tool the leather but i'll make a plain one that will be useful if it isn't as pretty as i can do." "what shape will it be?" "i got part of my idea from grandfather emerson's spectacle case that i was examining the other day. ethel blue's case for the soft slippers is going to be something like it." "two pieces of leather rounded at the lower corners and stitched together at the sides and with a flap to shut in the contents?" guessed dorothy. "correct. i shall make the case about four inches long when it's closed." "that means that you'd have one strip four inches long and the other, the one with the flap, six inches long." "once more correct, most noble child. it will be a liberal two inches wide, a bit more in this instance because i'm not much of a sewer and i want to be sure that i'm far enough from the edge to make it secure." "you don't try to turn it inside out, do you?" "no, ma'am. not that mite of an object. you fit a tiny pasteboard slide into the case. cover it with velvet or leather or a scrap of ethel blue's chintz--" "'rah for cotton," cheered dorothy. "--and on one side of this division you slip in the scissors and the file and the tweezers or the orange stick and on the other a little buffer with a strap handle that doesn't take up any room." "how in the world do you happen to be so up in manicure articles?" queried helen, amazed at his knowledge. "nothing strange about that," returned roger. "aunt louise showed me hers the other day when i was talking to her about making one for just this occasion. aha!" "you could make the same sort of case without the pasteboard partition, for a tiny sewing kit," offered ethel blue, "and one of the envelope shape will hold soap leaves." "i'd like to suggest a couple of shirtwaist cases," said mrs. smith. "they are made of dotted swiss muslin that takes up next to no room and washes like a handkerchief. you'd better make mademoiselle's of colored muslin or of colored batiste for she won't want to be bothered with thinking about laundry any oftener than she has to." "what shape are the bags?" "find out whether she will take an american suitcase or a bag. in either case measure the size of the bottom. take a piece of muslin twice the size and lay it flat. fold over the edges till they meet in the centre. then stitch the tops across, on the inside, of course, and hem the slit, and turn them right side out and that's all there is to it. they keep waists or neckwear apart from the other clothing in one's bag and fresher for the separation." [illustration: shirtwaist case] "since i have my hand in with knitting," said grandmother, "i believe i'll contribute a pair of bed-shoes. they're so simple that any one who can knit a plain strip can do them." "let's have the receipt." "cast on stitches enough to run the length of the person's foot. fifty will be plenty for any woman and more than enough for mademoiselle's tiny foot. it's well to have the shoe large, though. knit ahead until you have a strip six inches high. then cast off from one end stitches enough to make four inches and go ahead with the remainder for four inches more." "that sounds funny to me," observed ethel brown. "not exactly the shape of my dainty pedestal." "you'll have made a square with a square out of one corner like this piece of paper. now fold it along the diagonal line from the tip of the small square to the farthest edge of the big square and sew up all the edges except those of the small square. that leaves a hole where you put your foot in. crochet an edge there to run a ribbon in--and you're done." "i'm going to run the risk of mademoiselle's laughing at me and give her a folding umbrella," said mrs. morton. "it will fit into her bag and at least she can use it until she goes to the front." "all this sounds to me like a good outfit for any woman who is going to travel," observed helen. "i'm almost moved to sail myself!" chapter viii the red cross nurse sets sail the girls' cheeks were rosy and their hair was tangled by the wind as helen and the rest of the u. s. c. left the car at west street and made their way to the french line pier. roger was heading the flock of mortons, mrs. smith was with dorothy, the hancocks had come from glen point, more for the fun of seeing a sailing than to say "good-bye" to mademoiselle, whom they hardly; knew. the watkinses were accompanied by their elder brother, edward, a young doctor. there was a mighty chattering as the party hastened down the pier. a mightier greeted them when they reached the gang plank. "every frenchman left in new york must be here saying 'good-bye' to somebody!" laughed tom as his eye fell on the throng pressing on to the boat over a narrow plank across which passengers who had already said their farewells were leaving, and stewards were carrying cabin trunks. "only one _passerelle_ for all that!" exclaimed a plump frenchman whose age might be guessed by the fashion of his moustache and goatee which declared him to be a follower of napoleon iii. he was carrying a bouquet in one hand and kissing the other vehemently to the lady on the deck who was to be made the recipient of the flowers as soon as her admirer could manage to squeeze himself down the over-crowded gang plank. taxis driving up behind the u. s. c. young people discharged their occupants upon the agitated scene. all sorts of messages were being sent across to friends on the other side, many of them shouted from pier to deck with a volubility that was startling to inexperienced french students. it was quite twenty minutes before the club succeeded in filing indian fashion across the _passerelle_. they were met almost at once by mademoiselle, for she had been watching their experiences from the vessel. "before you say 'good-bye' to me," she said hurriedly, "i want you to go over the ship. i have special permission from the captain. you must go quickly. there are not many minutes, you were so long in coming on." she gave them over to the kind offices of a "_mousse_" or general utility boy, who in turn introduced them to a junior officer who examined their permit as "friends of mademoiselle millerand" and then conveyed them to strange corners whose existence they never had guessed. first they peeked into a cabin which was one of the handsomest on the ship but whose small size brought from ethel brown the comment that it was a "stingy" little room. the reading and writing rooms she approved, however, as being cheerful enough to make you forget you were seasick. a lingering odor of the food of yester-year seemed to cling about the saloon and to mingle with a whiff of oil from the engine room that had assailed them just before they entered. people were saying farewells here with extraordinary impetuosity, men embracing each other with a fervor that made the less demonstrative americans smile. one group was looking over a pile of letters on the table to see if absent friends had sent some message to catch them before they steamed. below were other staterooms, rows upon rows of them, and yet others below those. by comparison with the fragrances here that in the saloon seemed a breeze from araby the blest. from above the party had looked down on the engines whose huge steel arms slid almost imperceptibly over each other as if they were slowly, slowly preparing to spring at an unseen foe; as if they knew that great waves would try to still them, the mighty workers of the great ship. a gentle breathing now seemed to stir them, but far, far down below the waterline the stokers were feeding the animal with the fuel that was to give him energy to contend with storms and winds and come out victor. half naked men, their backs gleaming in the light from the furnaces, threw coal into the yawning mouth. the heat was intense, and the ethels turned so pale that young doctor watkins hurried them into the open air. helen was not sorry to breathe the coolness of the hudson again and even the boys drew a long breath of relief, though they did not admit that they had been uncomfortable. "mademoiselle millerand awaits you in the tea room," explained the young officer, and he conducted them to a portion of the deck where passengers could sit in the open, or, on cold or windy days, behind glass and watch the sea and the passengers pacing by. mademoiselle greeted them with shining eyes. during their absence there had been some farewells that had been difficult. "you have seen everything?" she inquired pleasantly. "then you must have some lemonade with me before you go," and she gave an order that soon brought a trayful of glasses that tinkled cheerfully. "we are not going to be sentimental," she insisted. "this is just 'good-bye,' and thank you many times for being so good to me at school, and many, many times more for the bundle that is in my room to surprise me. i shall open it when the statue of liberty is out of sight, when i can no more see my adopted land. then shall i think of all of you and of your club for service." "where do you expect to be sent, mademoiselle?" inquired doctor watkins as the party walked toward the _passerelle_ over which they must somehow contrive to make their way before they could touch foot upon the pier. "to belgium, i think. my brother is a surgeon and i have a distant relative in the ministry--" "what--_the_ millerand?" mademoiselle smiled and nodded. "so probably i shall be sent wherever i wish--and my heart goes but to belgium. it is natural." "yes, it is natural. may you have luck," he cried holding out his hand. "mademoiselle is going to belgium," he told the young people who were awaiting their turn at the gang-plank. they gazed at her with a sort of awe. tales of war's horrors were common in the ears of all of them, and it was difficult to believe that the slight figure standing there so quietly beside them would see with her own eyes the uptorn fields and downfallen cottages, the dying men and the miserable women and children they had seen only in imagination. "oh," gasped ethel blue; "oh! _belgium!_ oh, mademoiselle, _won't_ you send us back a belgian baby? the club would _love_ to take care of it! wouldn't we? wouldn't we?" she cried turning from one to another with glittering eyes. "we would, mademoiselle, we would," cried every one of them; and as the big ship was warped out of the pier they waved their handkerchiefs and their hands and cried over and over, "send us a belgian baby!" "_un bébé belge! ces chers enfants!_" ejaculated a motherly frenchwoman who was weeping near them. "a belgian baby! these dear children." and then, to james's horror, she kissed him, first on one cheek and then on the other. chapter ix planning the u. s. c. "show" it was becoming more and more evident every day to the president of the united service club that it must have more money than was at its disposal at the moment or it would not be able to carry out its plans. already it owed to mrs. morton a sum that helen knew was larger than her mother could lend them conveniently. all of grandfather emerson's donation had gone to provide knitting needles and yarn for the occupants of the old ladies' home, and the club's decision to lay itself under no financial obligation to people outside of the immediate families of the members had obliged her to refuse a few small gifts that had been offered. all the members of the club were working hard to earn money beyond their allowances and every cent was going into the club's exchequer. roger was faithful in his attention to the three furnaces he had undertaken to care for, though he was not above a feeling of relief that the weather was continuing so mild that he had not yet had to keep up fires continuously in any of them. james still drove his father, though the doctor threatened him with discharge almost every day because of his habit of cutting corners. the girls were carrying out their plans for money-making, and della had secured another order for stenciled curtains which dorothy and ethel brown filled. what with school and working for the orphans and working for the club treasury these were busy days, and helen felt that something must be done at once to provide a comparatively large sum so that their indebtedness might be paid off and the pressure upon each one of them would not be so heavy. helen and james were going over the club accounts one saturday before the regular meeting. a frown showed helen's anxiety and james's square face looked squarer and more serious than ever as he saw the deficit piled against them. "it's high time we gave that entertainment we talked about so much when we began this thing," he growled. "people will have forgotten all about it and we'll have to advertise it all over again." "that'll be easy enough if we make use of some of the small children in some way. all their relatives near and far will know all about it promptly and they'll all come to see how the kiddies perform," said helen wisely, though her look of perplexity continued. "let's bring it up at the meeting right now. i don't believe we can do anything better this afternoon than plan out our show and decide who and what and where." "'where' is answered easily enough--the hall of the schoolhouse. 'who' and 'what' require more thought." it turned out, however, that every one had been thinking of stunts to do himself or for some one else to do, so that the program did not take as much time as if the subject had not been lying in their minds for several weeks. "at the beginning," said ethel blue, "i think some one ought to get up and tell what the club is trying to do--all about the war orphans and the santa claus ship." "wouldn't grandfather emerson be a good one to do that?" "i don't think we want to have any grown people in our show," was helen's opinion. "if we bring them in then the outside people will expect more from us because they'll think that we've been helped and it won't be fair to us or to our grown-ups." "that's so," agreed tom from the depths of a lifetime of experience of the ways of people in church entertainments. "let's do every single thing ourselves if we can, and i believe the audience will like it better even if it isn't all as o. k. as it would be if we had a grown-up or two to help pull the oars." "the first question before us, then, is who will do this explanation act that ethel blue suggests?" there was a dead silence. no one wanted to offer. there seemed no one person on whom the task fell naturally unless--"the club was ethel blue's idea," went on helen. "isn't she the right one to explain it?" and "the president of the club ought to tell about it," said ethel blue. both girls spoke at once. there was unanimous laughter. "'ayther is correct,'" quoted roger. "i think helen is the proper victim." "yes, indeed," ethel blue supported him so earnestly that every one laughed again. "you see, no one knows about its being ethel blue's idea and that would take a lot more explaining or else it would seem that there was no good reason for the president's not acting as showman and introducing her freaks to the audience." "'speak for yourself, john!' i'm no freak!" declared james. "i think helen's the right one to make the introduction, though." helen shivered. "i must say i hate to do it," she said, "but we all agreed when we went into this that we'd do what came up, no matter whether we liked it or not, so here goes number on the program," and she wrote on her pad, beneath an elaborate program which she had been drawing and decorating as she talked. . explanatory address. helen morton. "now, then," queried ethel brown, "what next?" "music, if there's any one to tootle for the ladies," said roger. "dorothy's the singer." "oh, i couldn't sing all alone," objected dorothy shrinkingly. "but mother said she'd drill a chorus of children and i wouldn't mind doing the solo part with a lot of others on the stage with me." "how about a chorus in costume?" asked helen. "what kind of costume?" "oh, i don't know--something historical, perhaps." "why not the peasant costumes of the countries in the war?" suggested ethel blue. "we're working for the children and we'll have a child or two from each country." "a sort of illustration of helen's speech," said tom. "they might sing either the national songs of their countries or children's songs," said dorothy. "or both, with you dressed as columbia and singing the star spangled banner at the end." "la, la! fine!" commended margaret. "put down number , helen, 'songs by war orphans.' we can work out the details later, or leave them to dorothy and her mother." "i've been thinking that we might as well utilize some of the folk dances that we learned at chautauqua last summer," said ethel brown. "wouldn't number be a good spot to put in the butterfly dance?" "that was one of the prettiest dances at the exhibition," said james. "let's have it." "margaret and i are too tall for it, but you four young ones know it and you can teach four more girls easily enough." "we'll ask them to-morrow at school," said dorothy, "and we'll have a rehearsal right off. mother will play for us and it won't take any time at all." "the costumes won't take any time, either. any white dress will do and the wings are made by strips of soft stuff--cheese cloth or something even softer, pale blue and pink and green and yellow. they're fastened at the shoulders and a loop goes over the wrist or the little finger so the arms can keep them waving." "do you remember the steps, dorothy?" "they're very simple, but almost anything that moves sort of swimmingly will do." "there's number , then," decided dorothy. "now the boys ought to appear." "yes, what have you three been planning to throw us in the shade?" inquired della. "i've got a fancy club-swinging act that's rather good," admitted roger modestly. "you have?" asked tom in surprise. "so have i. what's yours?" "come over here and i'll tell you," and the two boys retired to a corner where they conferred. it was evident, from their burst of laughter and their exclamations that they highly approved of each other's schemes. "we've decided that we won't tell you what our act is," they declared when they came back to the broken meeting. "we'll surprise you as well as the rest of the audience." "meanies," pronounced ethel brown. "helen, put down 'number , club swinging by two geese!'" "not geese," corrected tom, with a glance at roger, who made a sign of caution. "what next?" queried the president. "let's have some of the small children now. our honorary member ought to be on the card," said della. "are you sure he wouldn't be afraid?" asked tom of dicky's brethren. "not dicky," they shrieked in concert. "i saw a pretty stunt in town the other evening. it was done by grown people but it would be dear with little kids," urged della, her round face beaming with the joy of her adaptation of the idea. "it was a new kind of shadow dance." "pshaw, that's old," declared tom with brotherly curtness. "it wasn't done behind a sheet. that's the old way--" "a mighty good way, too," supported james stoutly. "i've seen some splendid pantomimes done on a sheet--'red riding hood' and 'jack the giant killer,' and a lot more." "this is much cunninger," insisted della. "instead of a sheet there's a dull, light blue curtain hung across the stage. the light is behind it, but the actors are in front of it." "then you don't see their shadows." "you see themselves in silhouette against the blue. there is a net curtain down between them and the audience and it looks like moonlight with elves and fairies playing in it." "it would be hard to train dicky to be a fairy," decided ethel blue so gravely that all the others laughed. "i was thinking that it would be fun to have dicky and some other children dressed like pussy cats and rabbits and dogs, and playing about as if they were frisking in the moonlight." "why not have them do a regular little play like 'flossy fisher's funnies' that have been coming out in the _ladies' home journal_?" screamed ethel brown, electrified at the growth of the idea. "take almost any one of them and get the children to play the little story it tells and i don't see why it wouldn't be too cunning for words." "what kind of stories?" asked james who liked to understand. "i don't remember any one exactly but they are something like this;--mr. dog goes fishing on the bank of the stream. a strip of pasteboard cut at the top into rushes will give the effect of a brook, you know. he pulls up a fish with a jerk that throws it over his head. pussy cat is waiting just behind him. she seizes the fish and runs away with it. mr. dog runs after her. the cat jumps over a wheelbarrow, but the dog doesn't see it and gets a fall--and so on." "i can see how it would be funny with little scraps of kids," pronounced tom. "who'll train them?" "i'll do that," offered ethel brown. "dicky's always good with me and if he understands the story he'll really help teach the others." "pick out a simple 'flossy fisher' or make up an easy story with plenty of action," advised margaret. "the chief trouble you'll have is to make the children stay apart on the stage. they'll keep bunching up and spoiling the silhouettes if you aren't careful." "number . silhouettes," wrote helen on her pad. "what's number ?" "i don't know whether you'll approve of this," offered dorothy rather shyly, "but when i was at the old ladies' home the other day i thought they made a real picture knitting away there in the sunshine in their sitting room. do you think some of them could be induced to come to the schoolhouse and make a tableau?" "fine!" commended helen. "you could have it a picture of sentiment, such as dorothy had in mind, i judge," said tom, "or you could turn it into a comic by having some one sing 'sister susie's sewing shirts for soldiers.'" "what's that?" "a stay-at-home war song they're singing in england. it's funny because it's so full of s's that it's almost impossible to sing it without a mistake. i think it would be better, though, to have the old ladies just knitting away. after all, it's sympathy with the orphans we want to arouse." "couldn't we have a tableau within a tableau--a picture at the back placed with the figures posed behind a net curtain so that they'd be dimmed--a picture of some of the belgian orphans refugeeing into holland or something of that sort?" "if mademoiselle would only send us right off that belgian baby that james got kissed for we'd have an actual exhibit," said roger. james made a face at the memory of the unexpected caress he had earned unwittingly, but he approved highly of the addition to the picture of the old ladies. "they're thinking about the orphans as they knit--and there are the orphans," he said, and even his sister margaret smiled at the approbation with which he looked on a tableau that left nothing to the imagination. "number is settled, then. why can't we have the minuet for number ?" "good. all of us here know it so we shan't need to rehearse much." "on that small stage four couples will be plenty, i say," offered roger. "i think so, too. eight would make it altogether too crowded," declared helen. "that means that four of us girls will dance--we can decide which ones later--and you three boys, and we'll only have to train one new boy." "what's the matter with george foster? his sister is a dancing teacher and perhaps he knows it already." "he's the best choice we can make. we want to get this thing done just as fast as we can for several reasons," continued helen. "in the first place any entertainment goes off more snappily if the fun of doing it isn't all worn off by too many rehearsals." "correct," agreed tom. "remember that children's symphony we exhausted ourselves on for a month last winter, della?" della did and expressed her memories with closed eyes and out-stretched hands. "if each one of us makes himself and herself responsible for having his own part perfect and the stunts that he's drilling others in as nearly perfect as he can, then i don't see why we need more than ten days for it." "especially as we know all the dances now and the old ladies' home tableau won't take much preparation." "have we got enough numbers on the program, helen?" "i think we ought to end with a long thing of some sort." "we'll never pull off the show if you try to stick in a play," growled james. "not a play, but i was reading browning's 'pied piper of hamelin' the other day and it can easily be made workable with just a little speaking and some pantomime. two or three rehearsals ought to do it." "all right, then. your sufferings be on your head." "you'll all back me up, won't you?" "we'll do whatever you tell us, if that's what you want." "read us the whole program, madam president," begged dorothy. "here you are; i've changed the order a little: program . address, helen morton. . songs by war orphans, led by dorothy smith. . butterfly dance. . club swinging by roger morton and thomas watkins. . knitting for the war orphans by ladies from the old ladies' home. . silhouettes by dicky morton and other juniors. . minuet. . "the pied piper." "if i do say it as shouldn't, having had a modest part in its construction," remarked roger complacently, "that's a good program." "do you know," added margaret earnestly, "i think so too." so, after discussion of details concerning responsibility and rehearsals, and the appointment of a publicity committee consisting of the officers of the club plus roger, the meeting adjourned. chapter x the eventful evening if the u. s. c.'s had thought themselves busy before they undertook their entertainment they concluded as they rushed from one duty to another in the ten days of preparation for that function that they had not learned the a b c of busy-ness. mrs. morton always insisted that, whatever was on foot, school work must not be slighted. "your education is your preparation for life," she said. "while you are young you must lay down a good foundation for the later years to build on. you know what happens when a foundation is poor." they did. a building in rosemont had fallen into a heap of ruins not long before, to the shame of the contractor who had put in poor work. so all the school duties were attended to faithfully, and the out-of-door time was not skimped though the out-of-door time was largely devoted to doing errands connected with the "show," and the home lessons were learned as thoroughly as usual. but sewing went by the board for ten days except such sewing as was necessary for the making of costumes. "here's a chance for your club to try out some of roger's ideas of system," said grandfather emerson as he listened to the plans which were always on the lips of the club members whenever he met them. "i think we're doing it all pretty systematically," helen defended. "each one of us is responsible for doing certain things and our work doesn't overlap. when we come together for a general rehearsal i believe we're going to find that all the parts will fit together like a cut-out puzzle." [illustration: costume for butterfly dance] mr. emerson said that he hoped so in a tone of such doubt that helen was more than ever determined that all should run smoothly. to that end she made a diplomatic investigation into every number of the program. every one she found to be going on well. her own address was already blocked out in her mind. dorothy had taken bodily a singing class that mrs. smith had started at the rosemont settlement and, with the knowledge of singing that the children already had, they soon were drilled in their special songs and in the motions that enlivened them. mrs. smith and dorothy were also preparing the costumes and they reported that the mothers of the children were helping, some of them providing actual peasant costumes that had come from the old country. with four girls who already knew the butterfly dance the drilling of another quartette was swiftly done, and the ethels were willing to put their flock of butterflies on the stage four days after they had begun to practice. because every one of them had a white dress their costumes required almost no work beyond the cutting lengthwise of a yard and a quarter of cheesecloth. when they had gathered one end and attached the safety pin which was to fasten it to the shoulder, and gathered the other end and sewed on a loop which was to go over the little finger--all of which took about five minutes--that costume was finished. about the boys' club swinging helen could not obtain any information beyond the assurance that all was well. with that she had to content herself. the old ladies at the home were delighted to be able to help and also delighted at the excitement of taking part in the entertainment. they voted for the trio who should represent them in the tableaux and generously selected three who were the most handicapped of all of them. one was lame and always sat with her crutch beside her; one was blind, though her fast flying fingers did not betray it; and the third lived in a wheel-chair. they demurred strongly to their companions' choice, but the other old ladies were insistent and the appointees could not resist the fun. mr. emerson agreed to provide transportation for them, wheel-chair and all, and doctor hancock was to send over a wagonette from glen point so that the rest of the inmates of the home might take advantage of the tickets that some mysterious giver had sent to every one of them. for the inner picture dicky and two of his kindergarten friends were to be posed, clad in rags. "it's no trouble to provide dicky with a ragged suit," said mrs. morton. "the difficulty is going to be to make him look serious and poorly fed." "a little artistic shading under his eyes and on his cheeks will make his plumpness disappear. i'll 'make up' the children," offered mrs. emerson. most difficult of all were the silhouettes. this was because the children who were to take part were so tiny that they could not quite remember the sequence of the story they were to act out. there were moments when the ethels were almost disposed to give up the youngsters and try the shadows with larger children. "the little ones make so much cunninger cats and dogs than the bigger children i don't want to do it unless we have to," said ethel brown, and they found at last that perseverance won the day. here, too, the children's mothers helped with the costumes, and turned out a creditable collection of animal coverings, not one of them with a bit of fur. "they're another help to your cotton crusade," ethel blue told dorothy. grey flannelette made a soft maltese pussy; the same material in brown covered a dog; a white coat splashed with brown spots out of the family coffee pot was the covering of another fido, while another white garment stained with black and yellow ornamented a tortoise-shell cat. the rabbits all wore white. as with the butterfly dance so many of the performers knew the minuet that it needed only two rehearsals. the new boy worked in without any trouble and was so graceful and dignified that the u. s. c. boys found themselves emulating his excellent manner. helen herself took charge of "the pied piper" and so few were the speaking parts and so short and so natural the pantomime that she drilled her company in three rehearsals, though she herself worked longer in private over the manipulation of certain stage "properties," and had one or two special sessions with dr. edward watkins who was to take the principal part. friday evening was chosen for the performance. the rosemont young people usually had their evening festivities on fridays because they could sit up later than usual without being disturbed about school work the next morning. the special friday proved to be clear with a brilliant moon and the old ladies driving over from the home felt themselves to be out on a grand lark. evidently the boys had done their publicity work thoroughly, for not only did they see a goodly number of rosemont people approaching the schoolhouse, but, just as they drove up to the door, a special car from glen point stopped to let off a crowd of friends of the hancocks who had come over to see "what the children were doing for the war orphans." the school hall held people and no seats were reserved except those for the old ladies. they found themselves in front where they could see well and where they were near enough to appreciate the care with which the edge of the platform was decorated. that had been margaret hancock's work and she had remembered the success of the service club in preparing the platform for the old first night exercises at chautauqua. tom had insisted that the club should go to the extra expense of having tickets printed. james had objected. "this old treasury of ours is almost an empty box," he growled. "we can't afford to spend cold cash on printing." "it will pay in the end, believe me," insisted tom slangily. "you know there are always a lot of people who think they'll go to a show and then at the last minute think they won't if something more amusing turns up. if you sell tickets beforehand you've got their contribution to the cause even if they don't appear themselves." "tom's right," agreed margaret. "they won't mind losing so small a sum as a quarter if they don't go." "and they'd think it was too small an amount to bother themselves about by hunting up the treasurer and paying it in if they didn't have a ticket," said roger. "and there are some people who'd be sure to come and swell the audience just because they had spent a quarter on a ticket," said ethel brown. "what does the president think?" asked ethel blue. helen agreed with tom and the tickets were printed. after all they came to only a small sum and roger, peeking through a hole in the curtain, saw with satisfaction that if there were going to be any vacant seats at all they would not be many. when one of the old ladies turned about just before the curtain went up she saw a solid room behind her and people standing against the wall. there was music before the curtain rose. this enrichment of the program was a surprise to the performers themselves. young doctor edward watkins had become so interested in the united service club when he met them at the french line pier that he had insisted on helping with their work for the orphans. "if mademoiselle really sends you that belgian baby you may need a special physician for it," he said. "so you'd better stand in with one whose practice isn't big enough yet to take all his time." he said this to helen when he appeared with tom and della on the evening of the performance and announced that not only did he know his part in the "piper" but he had brought his violin and would be glad to be a part of the orchestra. "but we haven't an orchestra," objected helen. "i wish we had." "who's going to play for the dances?" "aunt louise." "why can't she and i do something at the beginning? it will seem a little less cold than just having the curtain go up without any preliminaries." mrs. smith proved to be delighted to go over with doctor watkins the music he had brought and they selected one or two lively bits that would set the mood of the audience for the evening. so mrs. morton and the emersons and the younger members of the cast were greatly surprised to hear an overture from a well-played violin accompanied by the piano. while the applause was dying away the curtain rose on helen seated at a desk reading from a blank exercise book filled with ethel blue's neat writing. "this is the report of the secretary of the united service club," began helen when the applause that greeted her appearance had subsided. she was looking very pretty, wearing a straight, plain pink frock and having her hair bound with a narrow pink fillet. "perhaps you don't know what the united service club is," she went on, and then she told in the simplest manner of the beginning of the club at chautauqua the summer before. "what we're trying to do is to help other people whether we want to or not," she declared earnestly. a soft laugh went over the audience at this contradictory statement. "i mean," continued helen, somewhat confused, "that we mean to do things that will help people even if we don't get any fun out of it ourselves. we want to improve our characters, you see," she added artlessly. "so far we haven't had much chance to improve our characters because all the things that have come our way to do have been things that were great fun--like to-night. "to-night," she went on earnestly, "you have come here to see a little entertainment that we've gotten up to make some money so that we could send a bigger bundle to the christmas ship that is going to sail for europe early in november. we thought we could make a good many presents for the war orphans but we found that our allowances didn't go as far as we thought they would, although we have a very careful treasurer," she added with a smiling glance at the wings of the stage where james greeted her compliment with a wry face. "we made a rule that we would make all the money we needed and not accept presents, so this show is the result, and we hope you'll like it. anyway, we've had lots of fun getting it up." she bowed her thanks to the applause that greeted her girlish explanation and stepped behind the scenes. immediately a gay march sounded from the piano. it was a medley of well-known national songs and in time with its notes a group of children led by dorothy ran upon the stage. dorothy stepped to the front and sang a few lines of introduction to the tune of "yankee doodle." "here we are from fatherland, from russia and from france, from japan and from ireland we all together dance. "at home they are not dancing now; there's war and awful slaughter; we here in rosemont make our bow, each one columbia's daughter." then a flaxen-haired little girl stepped forward and sang a german folk song and after it she and two other children dressed in german peasant costume danced a merry folk dance. representatives of the other countries which dorothy's verses had named sang in turn. then each group sang its national song, at the end uniting in "the star spangled banner," in which the standing audience joined. there was a great clapping when the curtain fell, but the managers had decided that there should be no encores, so the curtain merely rose once upon a bowing, smiling group and then fell with a decision that was understood to be final. "whatever we do wrong, the thing we must do right," helen had insisted when she was drilling her performers, "is to have promptness in putting on our 'acts.'" "that's so," agreed tom, "there's nothing an audience hates more than to wait everlastingly between 'turns' while whispering and giggling goes on behind the scenes." as a result of helen's sternness the butterflies were waiting when the little internationals went off, and, as those of the children who were not to appear again filed quietly down into the audience where they could see the remainder of the performance, waving wings of soft pink and blue and green and yellow fluttered in from the sides. there was nothing intricate about the steps of this pretty dance. there were movements forward and back and to one side and another, with an occasional turn, but the slowly waving hands with their delicate burden of color made the whole effect entirely charming. when tom and roger, jersey clad, stepped on to the stage for the club-swinging act all the other performers were clustered in the wings, for it had roused their curiosity. evidently roger was to swing first for he stepped to the front while tom beckoned to the janitor of the hall who came forward and attached electric light wires to a plug in the edge of the platform. tom made a connection with wires that ran up under the back of roger's jersey and down his sleeves and through holes bored into his clubs, and then he stepped forward to the front. "while roger morton is swinging his clubs the lights of the hall will be turned off," he explained. "i mention it so that no one will be startled when they go out." out they went, and in a flash roger's clubs, made of red and white striped cotton stretched over wire frames which covered electric light bulbs screwed to a sawed-off pair of clubs, were illuminated from within. the beauty of the movements as the clubs flashed here and there in simple or elaborate curves and whirls drew exclamations of enjoyment from the audience. "that's one of the prettiest stunts i ever saw," exclaimed doctor hancock, and doctor watkins led the vigorous applause that begged roger to go on. true to his agreement with helen, however, roger stepped aside as soon as he was freed from his apparatus and the lights were turned on once more in the hall, and prepared to help tom. it was clear that tom, too, was not going to do ordinary club-swinging. he took up his position in the centre of the stage and roger brought forward a box which he deposited beside him. the actors behind the scenes craned their heads forward until they were visible to the audience, so eager were they to see what the box contained. "my friend, tom watkins," said roger gravely, "is something of a naturalist. in the course of his travels and studies he has come across a curious animal whose chief characteristic is what i may be permitted to call its adhesive power. so closely does it cling to anything to which it attaches itself that it can be detached only with great difficulty. so marked is this peculiarity of the _canis taurus_--" a peculiar grunt of amusement from certain high school members of the audience interrupted roger's oration. "_canis_, dog; _taurus_, bull," they whispered. "--of the _canis taurus_," he went on, "that watkins has been able to train two of his specimens to do the very remarkable act that you are about to see." as he ended he threw back the top of the box and there popped up over the edge the infinitely ugly heads of cupid's two pup's, amor and amorette. a howl of laughter greeted their silly, solemn countenances. tom whistled sharply and they sprang from their narrow quarters and ran to him. he stroked them, and faced them toward the footlights so that their eyes should not be dazzled by seeing them suddenly. then he began to play with them, pushing them about and shoving them gently with the ravelled ends of two short pieces of knotted rope. when he had teased them for a minute he stood upright and amor and amorette were hanging each from a rope! it was a trick he had taught them as soon as their teeth were strong enough. slowly he swung them back and forth, and then in semi-circles constantly increasing in sweep, until in a flash they rose over his head and described regular simple indian club evolutions. every move was slow and steady with no jerks that would break the dogs' hold and amor and amorette held on with a firmness that did credit to their inheritance of jaw muscle and determination. "good for the _canis taurus_," laughed mr. wheeler, the high school teacher, from the back of the hall as the swinging died rhythmically away. "speak to the ladies and gentlemen," commanded tom as he dropped the ropes and their attachments to the floor. each dog was still holding firmly to his bit of rope and manifested no desire to part from it. at their master's order, however, they let go of their handles and uttered two sharp barks. then they picked them up again and trotted off the stage. all this was so unusual that it aroused the most fervent enthusiasm that had yet been shown. feet stamped and canes rapped but tom would do no more than walk on with a dog on each side of him and bow as they barked. with the announcement of the knitting tableau there was a flutter among the old ladies from the home. here was an act in which they felt a personal interest. it was almost embarrassing to be so nearly related to a number on the program! the curtain rose very slowly to soft music thrilling through the hall. it was a homely scene--just such a room as any one of the old ladies may have had when she still had a home of her own. there was a table with a lamp upon it and around the table were the three old ladies, one with her crutch and one in her wheel chair, and one sitting in the darkness that was daylight to her--the shining of a contented heart. all of them were knitting. slowly there grew into view behind them on the wall the picture of the thoughts that were in their minds--the picture of three children, pale, thin, tear-stained, trudging along a weary road. each one carried a bundle far too heavy for him and each looked unsmilingly out of the frame, though mrs. morton breathed a sigh of relief when the touching scene faded and she knew that there was no longer any danger of dicky's spoiling the effect by a burst of laughter or a genial call to some acquaintance in the audience. slowly the curtain fell and the old ladies were lost to view. then the old ladies in front breathed a sigh of satisfaction. it had been simply perfect! chapter xi "sister susie's sewing shirts for soldiers" with the evening well under way helen was beginning to be relieved of the worry that she had not been able to control, but as the time for the silhouette approached the ethels became distinctly disturbed. dicky always was an uncertain element. because he had behaved like an angel child in the tableau with the old ladies was no assurance that as a pussy cat in the silhouettes he would not raise an uproar which would put to shame any backyard feline of their acquaintance. dicky's companions in the animal play were ready behind the scenes and their funny costumes were causing bursts of suppressed mirth as they danced about excitedly. when dicky finished his tableau he was hurried into his maltese coat and by the time that his aunt louise had played the "owl and the pussy cat" and dorothy had sung it, the blue curtain had been lowered, the light behind it turned on, and between it and the net curtain in front the dogs and the cats and the rabbits frisked happily. in fact the raising of the outside curtain caught them tagging each other about the stage in a manner that was vastly amusing but had nothing to do with the play. for there was a little play. the ethels had made it up themselves and it had to do not only with a fisher dog who lost his catch to a robber cat but with a clever rabbit who was chased by both dogs and cats and who took refuge in the rushes on the bank of the stream and was passed by because his pursuers mistook the tips of his ears for rushes. then they made signs that, wherever he was, if he would come out and join them they should all be friends. he came out and they took paws and danced about in a circle. against the dull blue background it looked as if the animals were playing in the moonlight, jumping and walking on their hindlegs like the creatures in the fairy books. the small children in the audience were especially pleased with this number and when at the end a boy appeared carrying his schoolbooks and all the animals fell into line behind him and walked off demurely to school it was so like what happens at the end of the holidays that they burst into renewed clapping. the minuet went with the utmost smoothness. doctor watkins added his violin to the piano's playing of the mozart music from "don giovanni" and the picturesquely dressed figures stepped and bowed and courtesied with grace and precision. helen danced with tom, margaret with roger, ethel brown with james, and ethel blue with the new boy, george foster. the girls all wore ruffled skirts with paniers elaborately bunched over them, and they had their hair powdered. the boys wore knee breeches, long-tailed coats, and white wigs. on the wall hung an old portrait of a morton ancestor. a spinet stood at one side of the room which the stage represented. the whole atmosphere was that of a day long gone by. after this number was done doctor watkins appeared before the curtain. "i am asked by the president of the united service club," he said, "to tell you that there will be an interval of ten minutes between the minuet and the next offering of the program. during that time i am going to sing you a song that the english soldiers are singing. it isn't a serious song, for the soldiers are hearing enough sad sounds without adding to them. i may make some mistakes in singing it--you'll understand why in a moment." at a nod from him, mrs. smith broke into the opening notes of "sister susie's sewing shirts for soldiers," and by the time the doctor had finished the second stanza the audience was humming the chorus. "come on," he cried. "i did make some mistakes. see if you can do better," and he led the tune for the four lines that announced,-- "sister susie's sewing shirts for soldiers. such skill at sewing shirts our shy young sister susie shows, some soldiers send epistles, say they'd sooner sleep in thistles than the saucy, soft, short shirts for soldiers sister susie sews." everybody laughed and laughed and tried to sing and laughed again. when the chorus was over, doctor watkins dashed into the allies' song, "tipperary," and followed it by "deutschland ueber alles." then he taught the audience the words of "the christmas ship" and they quickly caught the air and soon were singing,-- "hurrah, hurrah for the christmas ship as it starts across the sea with its load of gifts and its greater load of loving sympathy. let's wave our hats and clap our hands as we send it on its trip; may many a heart and home be cheered by the gifts in the christmas ship." edward had a good voice and he sang with so much spirit that every one enjoyed his unexpected addition to the evening's pleasure. a bell behind the scenes announced that "the pied piper of hamelin" was ready and the curtain rose on the room in the town hall of hamelin in which the corporation held its meetings. dorothy, whose voice was clear and far-reaching, stood just below the stage at one side and read the explanation of what had been happening in the city. hamelin town's in brunswick, by famous hanover city; the river weser, deep and wide, washes its wall on the southern side; a pleasanter spot you never spied; but, when begins my ditty, almost five hundred years ago, to see the townsfolk suffer so from vermin, was a pity, rats! they fought the dogs and killed the cats, and bit the babies in the cradles, and ate the cheeses out of the vats, and licked the soup from the cooks' own ladles, split open the kegs of salted sprats made nests inside men's sunday hats, and even spoiled the women's chats by drowning their speaking with shrieking and squeaking in fifty different sharps and flats. at last the people in a body to the town hall came flocking. at this point the reading stopped and the action began. roger, dressed as the mayor in his mother's red flannel kimono banded with white stripes to which he had attached tiny black tails to give the effect of ermine, stalked in first. he wore a look of deep anxiety. behind him came james and two of roger's high school friends who represented members of the corporation. they also were dressed in red robes but they did not attempt to equal the ermine elegance of the mayor. after the mayor and corporation came a body of the townspeople. they all appeared thoroughly enraged and as the city fathers took their seats at the council table in the centre of the room they railed at them. first citizen. [_tom, in rough brown jacket and baggy knee breeches, with long brown stockings and low shoes. he frowned savagely and growled in disgust._] "'tis clear our mayor's a noddy!" second citizen. [_george foster, dressed like tom._] "and as for our corporation--shocking, to think we buy gowns lined with ermine for dolts that can't or won't determine what's best to rid us of our vermin!" third citizen. [_another high school boy. he was bent like a withered old man and spoke in a squeaky voice._] "you hope because you're old and obese, to find in the furry civic robe ease?" first citizen. "rouse up, sirs! give your brains a racking to find the remedy we're lacking, or, sure as fate, we'll send you packing." the mayor. "for a guilder i'd my ermine gown sell, i wish i were a mile hence." first member of the corporation. [_james._] "it's easy to bid one rack one's brain-- i'm sure my poor head aches again, i've scratched it so and all in vain." second member of the corporation. "oh, for a trap, a trap, a trap." at this instant came a rap on the door. helen did it, and a cry came from the mayor. "bless us, what's that?" first member. "only a scraping of shoes on the mat? anything like the sound of a rat makes my heart go pit-a-pat!" the mayor. "come in!" in answer to this permission there entered edward watkins as the pied piper. he had dashed around to the back and slipped into his coat and mrs. emerson had painted his face while the first words of the poem were being read. he was tall and thin with light hair, yet a swarthy complexion. he wore a queer long coat, half yellow and half red and around his neck a scarf of red and yellow in stripes to which was attached a tiny flute with which his fingers played as if he were eager to pipe upon it. he smiled winningly and the people crowded in the council chamber whispered, wondering who he was and why his attire was so curious. first citizen. "it's as my great-grandsire starting up at the trump of doom's tone, had walked this way from his painted tombstone." the pied piper [_edward watkins_] advanced to the council table. "please your honors, i'm able by means of a secret charm to draw all creatures living beneath the sun, that creep or swim or fly or run, after me so as you never saw! and i chiefly use my charm on creatures that do people harm, the mole and toad and newt and viper; and people call me the pied piper. yet, poor piper as i am, in tartary i freed the cham, last june from his huge swarms of gnats; i eased in asia the nizam of a monstrous brood of vampire bats: and as for what your brain bewilders if i can rid your town of rats will you give me a thousand guilders?" the mayor and corporation together. "one? fifty thousand!" then the piper walked slowly across the stage, erect and smiling, and he piped a strange, simple tune on his flute. as he disappeared at one side the stage was darkened and at the back appeared a picture such as had been used in the tableau of the old ladies knitting. the mayor and the corporation and the townsfolk turned their back to the audience and gazed out through this window. across it passed first the piper still piping, and after him a horde of rats. they were pasteboard rats and helen was drawing them across the scene with strings, but they made a very good illusion of the dancing rats that the poet described; great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats; brown rats, black rats, gray rats, tawny rats. as the crowd in the room watched they uttered exclamations--"see!" "look at that one!" "how they follow him!" "he's leading them to the river!" "in they go!" "they're drowning!" "every one of them!" "let's ring the bells!" with faces of delight the townsfolk left the council chamber and from a distance came the muffled ringing of bells of joy. the mayor addressed them as they passed out; "go and get long poles, poke out the nests and block up the holes! consult with carpenters and builders, and leave in our town not even a trace of the rats." the piper entered suddenly. "first, if you please, my thousand guilders!" first member of the corporation. "a thousand guilders!" the other members of the corporation shook their heads in solemn refusal. the mayor. "our business was done at the river's brink; we saw with our eyes the vermin sink, and what's dead can't come to life, i think." second member of the corporation. "so, friend, we're not the folks to shrink from the duty of giving you something for drink, and a matter of money to put in your poke--" the mayor. "but as for the guilders, what we spoke of them, as you very well know, was in joke." first member. "besides, our losses have made us thrifty. a thousand guilders! come, take fifty!" the piper [_looking serious, cried_]; "no trifling! i can't wait, beside! i've promised to visit by dinner time bagdat, and accept the prime of the head-cook's pottage, all he's rich in, for having left in the caliph's kitchen, of a nest of scorpions no survivor; with him i proved no bargain-driver, with you, don't think i'll bate a stiver! and folks who put me in a passion may find me pipe after another fashion." the mayor. "how? d'ye think i brook being worse treated than a cook? insulted by a lazy ribald with idle pipe and vesture piebald? you threaten us, fellow? do your worst, blow your pipe there till you burst!" once more the piper laid the pipe against his lips and blew the strange, simple tune, and from both sides of the stage there came rushing in children of all sizes, boys and girls, flaxen-haired and dark-haired, blue-eyed and brown-eyed. they crowded around him and as he slowly passed off the stage they followed him, dancing and waving their hands and with never a look behind them. once more the window at the back opened and across it went the piper, still fluting, though now he could not be heard by the audience; and behind him still danced the children, blind to the gestures of the mayor and corporation who stretched out their arms, beseeching them to return. terrified, the city fathers made known by gestures of despair that they feared the piper was leading the children to the river where they would meet the fate of the rats. of a sudden they seemed relieved and the picture showed the throng passing out of sight into a cavern on the mountain. then limped upon the stage a lame boy who had not been able to dance all the way with the children and so was shut out when the mountain opened and swallowed them up. the corporation crowded around him and heard him say: lame boy. "it's dull in our town since my playmates left! i can't forget that i'm bereft of all the pleasant sights they see, which the piper also promised me. for he led us, he said, to a joyous land, joining the town and just at hand, where waters gushed and fruit trees grew and flowers put forth a fairer hue, and everything was strange and new; the sparrows were brighter than peacocks here, and their dogs outran our fallow deer, and honey bees had lost their stings, and horses were born with eagles' wings; and just as i became assured my lame foot would be speedily cured, the music stopped and i stood still, and found myself outside the hill, left alone against my will, to go now limping as before, and never hear of that country more!" the mayor and corporation were grouped around the lame boy listening and the citizens at the back leaned forward so as to hear every word. almost in tears the boy limped from the stage followed slowly by mayor and corporation and citizens while dorothy's clear voice took up the tale. "alas, alas for hamelin! there came into many a burgher's pate a text which says that heaven's gate opes to the rich at as easy rate as the needle's eye takes a camel in! the mayor sent east, west, north, and south, to offer the piper by word or mouth wherever it was men's lot to find him, silver and gold to his heart's content, if he'd only return the way he went, and bring the children behind him. but when they saw 'twas a lost endeavor, and piper and dancers were gone forever, they made a decree that lawyers never should think their records dated duly if, after the day of the month and year, these words did not as well appear, 'and so long after what happened here on the twenty-second of july, thirteen hundred and seventy-six:' and the better in memory to fix the place of the children's last retreat, they called it the pied piper's street-- where any one playing on pipe or tabor was sure for the future to lose his labor. nor suffered they hostelry or tavern to shock with mirth a street so solemn: but opposite the place of the cavern they wrote the story on a column, and on the great church window painted the same, to make the world acquainted how their children were stolen away, and there it stands to this very day. and i must not omit to say that in transylvania there's a tribe of alien people who ascribe the outlandish ways and dress on which their neighbors lay such stress, to their fathers and mothers having risen out of some subterraneous prison into which they were trepanned long time ago in a mighty band out of hamelin town in brunswick land. but how or why, they don't understand." at the conclusion of the play, after hearty applause, the audience broke again into the song of the christmas ship: hurrah, hurrah for the christmas ship as it starts across the sea with its load of gifts and its greater load of loving sympathy. let's wave our hats and clap our hands as we send it on its trip; may many a heart and home be cheered by the gifts in the christmas ship. "that's as good a show as if it had been put on by grown-ups," declared a new yorker who had come out with doctor watkins. "it's hard to believe that those kids have done it all themselves." he spoke to a stranger beside him as they filed out to the music of a merry march played by mrs. smith. "my boy was among them," replied the rosemont man proudly, "but i don't mind saying i think they're winners!" that seemed to be every one's opinion. as for the old ladies--the evening was such an event to them that they felt just a trifle uncertain that they had not been transported by some magic means to far away hamelin town. "i don't believe i missed a word," said the blind old lady as the horses toiled slowly up the hill to the home. "we'll tell you every scene so you'll know how the words fit in," promised the old lady in the wheel chair. "it will be something to talk about when we're knitting," chuckled the lame old lady brightly, and they all hummed gently, "hurrah, hurrah for the christmas ship as it starts across the sea." chapter xii james cuts corners "very creditable, very creditable indeed," repeated doctor hancock as he and james stepped into their car to return to glen point after packing the old ladies into the wagonette. mrs. hancock and margaret had gone home by trolley because the doctor had to make a professional call on the way. the moon lighted the road brilliantly and the machine flew along smoothly over the even surface. "this is about as near flying as a fellow can get and still be only two feet from the earth," said james. james was quiet and almost too serious for a boy of his age but he had one passion that sometimes got the better of the prudence which he inherited from the scottish ancestor about whom roger was always joking him. that passion was for speed. when he was a very small child he had made it his habit to descend the stairs by way of the rail at the infinite risk of his neck. once he had run his head through the slats of a chicken coop into which an over-swift hopmobile had thrown him. on roller skates his accidents had been beyond counting because his calculations of distance often seemed not to work out harmoniously with his velocity. it was because doctor hancock thought that if the boy had the responsibility for his father's machine and for other people's bones he would learn to exercise proper care, that he had consented to let him become his chauffeur. the plan had seemed to work well, but once in a while the desire to fly got the better of james's discretion. "here's where the car gets ahead of the aeroplane," said the doctor. "an aviator would find it dangerous work to skim along only two feet above ground." "i did want to go up with that airman at chautauqua last summer!" cried james. "why didn't you?" "cost too much. twenty-five plunks." the doctor whistled. "flying high always costs," he said meditatively. "the ethels went up. they haven't done talking about it yet. they named the man's machine, so he gave them a ride." "good work! look out for these corners, now. when you've studied physics a bit longer you'll learn why it is that a speeding body can't change its direction at an angle of ninety degrees and maintain its equilibrium unless it decreases its speed." james thought this over for a while. "in other words, slow up going round corners," he translated, "and later i'll learn why." "words to that effect," replied the doctor mildly. "here's a good straight bit," exclaimed james. "you don't care if i let her out, do you? there's nothing in sight." "watch that cross road." "yes, sir. isn't this moon great!" murmured james under his breath, excited by the brilliant light and the cool air and the swift motion. "always keep your eyes open for these heavy shadows that the moon casts," directed doctor hancock. "sometimes they're deceptive." "i'll keep in the middle of the road and then the bugaboo in the shadow can see us even if i can't see him," laughed james, the moonlight in his eyes and the rush of wind in his ears. "there's something moving there! look out!" shouted the doctor as a cow strolled slowly out from behind a tree and chewed a meditative cud right across their path. james made a swift, abrupt curve, and did not touch her. "that was a close one," he whispered, his hands shaking on the wheel. "it hasn't worried her any," reported his father, looking back. "she hasn't budged and she's still chewing. you did that very well, son. it was a difficult situation." james flushed warmly. his father was not a man to give praise often so that every word of commendation from him was doubly valued by his children. "thank you. i shouldn't like to have it happen every day," james confessed. they sped on in silence after the cow episode, the boy glad of the chance to steady his nerves in the quiet, the doctor thinking of the case he was to visit in a few minutes. the patient's house stood on the edge of glen point, and james sat in the car resting and watching the machines of the townspeople passing by with gay parties out to enjoy the moonlight. some, like themselves, had been to rosemont, and some of his schoolmates waved to him as they passed. "it was a great show, old man," more than one boy shouted to him. it had been a good show. he knew it and he was glad that he belonged to a club that really amounted to something. they did things well and they didn't do them well just to show off or to get praise--they had a good purpose behind. he was still thinking about it when his father came out. doctor hancock did not talk about his cases, but james had learned that silence meant that there was need for serious thought and that the doctor was in no mood to enter into conversation. when he came out laughing, however, and jumped into the car with a care-free jest, as happened now, james knew that all was going well. "now, home, boy," he directed. "stop at the drug store an instant." he gave some directions to a clerk who hurried out to them and then they drove on. the moonlight sifted through the trees and flickered on the road. a cool breeze stimulated james's skin to a shiver. on they went, faster and faster. he'd had a mighty good time all the evening, james thought, and father was a crackerjack. "look out, boy," his father's voice rang through his thoughts. the car struck the curb with a shock that loosened his grasp on the wheel and tossed him into the air. as he flew up he tried to say, "i cut the corner too close that time," but he never knew whether he said it or not, for his voice seemed to fail him and his father could not recall hearing such a remark. it was quite an hour later when he came to himself. to his amazement he found himself in his own room. the light was shaded, his mother with tears still filling her eyes was beside him, and his father and a young man whom he recognized as the new doctor who had just come to glen point, were putting away instruments. he tried to move in the bed and found that his leg was extraordinarily heavy. "did i bust my leg?" he inquired briefly. "you did," returned his father with equal brevity. "weren't you hurt?" "a scratch on the forehead, that's all. doctor hanson is going to patch me up now." the two physicians left the room and james did not know until long after that the scratch required several stitches to mend. his illness was a severe trial to james. his scottish blood taught him that his punishment fitted his crime--that he was hurt as a direct result of doing what he knew was likely to bring that result. he said to himself that he was going to take his punishment like a man. but oh, the days were long! the glen point boys came in when they thought of it--there was some one almost every day--but the indian summer was unusually prolonged and wonderfully beautiful this year, and it was more than any one could ask in reason that the boys should give up outdoors to stay with him. roger and helen and the ethels and dorothy came over from rosemont when they could, but their daily work had to be done and they had only a few minutes to stay after the long trolley trip. "we must think up something for james to do," mrs. hancock told margaret. "he's tired of reading. he can use his hands. hasn't your service club something that he can work on here?" margaret thought it had, and the result of the conversation was that mrs. hancock went to rosemont on an afternoon car. the ethels took her to mrs. smith's and dorothy showed her the accumulation for the christmas ship that already was making a good showing in the attic devoted to the work. "these bundles in the packing cases are all finished and ready for their final wrappings," dorothy explained. "there are dresses and wrappers and sacques and sweaters and all sorts of warm clothing like that." "and you girls did almost all of it!" exclaimed mrs. hancock. "helen and margaret made most of those," said ethel brown. "in this box are the knitted articles that are coming in every day now. most of them are from the old ladies' home so far, but every once in a while somebody else stops and leaves something. we girls don't knit much; it seems to go so slowly." "i brought one pair of wristers with me and i have another pair almost done," said mrs. hancock. "what are these?" "those are the boxes the boys have been pasting," said ethel blue, picking up one of them. "they began with the large plain ones first--the real packing boxes." "here are some that are large enough for a dress." "we've gathered all the old boxes we could find in our house or in our friends' houses--margaret must have hunted in your attic for she brought over some a fortnight ago. none of the things we are making will require a box as large as the tailors send out, so we took those boxes and the broken ones that we found and made them over." "that must have taken a great deal of time." "the boys paste pretty fast now. some of them they made to lock together. they didn't need anything but cutting. they got that idea from a tailor's box that roger found." mrs. hancock examined the flat pasteboard cut so that the corners would interlock. "the old boxes they cut down. that saves buying new pasteboard. and they've covered some of the battered looking old ones with fresh paper so they look as good as new--" "and a great deal prettier," said dorothy. "we get wall paper at ten cents a roll for the covering," said ethel blue. "they have an old-fashioned air that's attractive, aunt marion says," and she held up a box covered with wild roses. "they're lovely! and they must have cost you almost nothing." "we did these when our treasury was very low. now we've got almost fifty dollars that we cleared from our entertainment after we paid all our bills and repaid mother what we owed her," explained ethel brown, "so now the boys can get some fresh cardboard and some chintz and cretonne and make some real beauties." "is this what james has been doing on saturdays?" "james is the best paster of all, he's so careful. he always makes his corners as neat as pins. sometimes the other boys are careless." "then i don't see why james couldn't do some of this at home now. he has altogether too much time on his hands." "can't he study yet?" "he learns his lessons but his father doesn't want him to go to school for at least a fortnight and perhaps not then, so he has long hours with nothing to do except read and it isn't good for him to do that all the time." "we've got a lot of ideas for pasting that we've been waiting for time and cash to put into operation," said helen who had come in in time to hear mrs. hancock's complaint. "if james could have an old table that you didn't mind his getting sticky, next to his wheel chair he could do a quantity of things that we want very much, and it would help, oh, tremendously." "tell me about them," and mrs. hancock sat down at once to receive her instructions. helen brought a sheet of paper and made a list of materials to be bought and drew some of the articles over which she thought that james might be puzzled. "some of these ideas we got from magazines," she said, "and some people told us and some we invented ourselves. they aren't any of them very large." "james will like that. it is more fun to turn off a number of articles. when he has an array standing on his table you must all go over to glen point and see them." "we thought that perhaps you'd let us have a meeting of the u. s. c. at your house one saturday afternoon, and we could take over some of our work to show james and we could see his, and we could work while we were there," suggested helen diffidently. "you're as good as gold to think of it! it will be the greatest pleasure to james. shall we say this next saturday?" the girls agreed that that would be a good time, and mrs. hancock went home laden with materials for james's pasting operations and bearing the pleasant news of the coming of the club to meet with him. long before the hour at which they were expected james rolled himself to the window to wait for their coming. now that the leaves were off the trees he could just see the car stop at the end of the street and he watched eagerly for the flock of young people to run toward the house. it seemed an interminable wait, yet the car on which they had promised to come was not a minute late when at last it halted and its eager passengers stepped off. james could see the ethels leading the procession, waving their hands toward the window at which they knew he must be, although they could not see him until they came much nearer. dorothy followed them not far behind, and roger and helen brought up the rear. every one of them was laden with parcels of the strangest shapes. "i know the conductor thought we were santa claus's own children," laughed ethel blue as they all shook hands with the invalid and inquired after his leg. "we've come up to have a pasting bee," said helen, "and we all have ideas for you to carry out." "so have we," cried a new voice at the door, and della and tom came in, also laden with parcels and also bubbling with pleasure at seeing james so well again. "we shall need quantities of smallish presents that you can manage here at your table just splendidly," explained ethel brown. "and dozens of wrappings of various kinds that you can make, too." "great and glorious," beamed james. "'lay on, macduff.' i'll absorb every piece of information you give me, like a wet sponge." "let's do things in shipshape fashion," directed roger. "what do you say to boxes first? we'll lay out here our patterns, and materials." "let's make one apiece of everything," cried dorothy, "and leave them all for james to copy." "and we can open the other bundles afterwards," said della, "then those materials won't get mixed up with the box materials." "save the papers and strings," advised ethel brown. "we're going to need a fearful amount of both when wrapping time comes." "the secretary has had a letter from mademoiselle," helen informed the invalid. "where from?" james was aflame with interest. "she's in belgium; you know she said she was going to try to be sent there. she doesn't mention the name of the town, but she's near enough to the front for wounded to be brought in from the field." "and she can hear the artillery booming all the time," contributed ethel blue. "and one day she went out right on to the firing line to give first aid." "think of that! our little teacher!" "she wasn't given those black eyes for nothing! she's game right through!" laughed helen. chapter xiii pasting "some of these ideas will be more appropriate for christmas gifts here in america than for our war orphans, it seems to me," said helen, "but we may as well make a lot of everything because we'll be doing some christmas work as a club and nothing will be lost." "tell me what they are and i can do them last," said james. "and we can put them on a shelf in the club attic as models," suggested dorothy. "here's an example," said helen, taking up a pasteboard cylinder. "this is a mailing tube--you know those mailing tubes that you can buy all made, of different sizes. we've brought down a lot of them to-day. take this fat one, for instance, and cut it off about three inches down. then cover it with chintz or cretonne or flowered paper or holly paper." "line it with the paper, too, i should say," commented james, picking up the pieces that helen cut off. "yes, indeed. cover two round pieces and fit one of them into the bottom and fasten the other on for a cover with a ribbon hinge, and there you have a box for string, or rubber bands for somebody's desk." "o.k. for rubber bands," agreed roger, "but for string it would be better to make a hole in the cover and let the cord run up through." [illustration: string box made from a mailing tube] "how would you keep the cover from flopping up and down when you pulled the string?" "here's one very simple way. you know those fasteners that stationers sell to keep papers together? they have a brass head and two legs and when you've pushed the legs through the papers you press them apart and they can't pull out. one of those will do very well as a knob to go on the box part, and a loop of gold or silver cord or of ribbon can be pasted or tied on to the cover." "if you didn't care whether it was ever used again you could put in the ball of twine with its end sticking through and then paste a band of paper around the joining of the top and the box. it would be pretty as long as the twine lasted." "it would be a simple matter for the person who became its proud possessor to paste on another strip of paper when he had put in his new ball of twine." "any way you fix it," went on helen, "there you have the general method of making round boxes from these mailing tubes." "and you can use round boxes for a dozen purposes," said margaret; "for candy and all the goodies we're going to send the orphans." "are you sure they'll keep?" asked careful james. "ethel brown asked the domestic science teacher at school about that, and she's going to give her receipts for cookies and candies that will last at least six weeks. that will be long enough for the christmas ship to go over and to make the rounds of the ports where it is to distribute presents." "of course we'll make the eatables at the last minute," said dorothy, "and we'll pack them so as to keep the air out as much as possible." "give that flour paste a good boiling," helen called after margaret as she left the room to prepare it. "and don't forget the oil of cloves to keep it sweet," added ethel blue. "these round boxes will be especially good for the cookies," said ethel brown, "though the string box would have to go to father. a string box isn't especially suitable for an orphan." "if you split these mailing tubes lengthwise and line them inside you get some pretty shapes," went on helen. "rather shallow," commented della. "if you split them just in halves they are, but you don't have to do that. split them a little above the middle and then the cover will be shallower than the box part." "right-o," nodded roger. "then you line them and arrange the fastening and hinges just as you described for the string box?" asked james. "exactly the same. another way of fastening them is by making little chintz straps and putting glove snappers on them." "i don't see why you couldn't put ribbons into both cover and box part and tie them together." "you could." "you can use these split open ones for a manicure set or a brush and comb box for travelling." "or a handkerchief box." "if you get tubes of different sizes and used military hair brushes you could make a box for a man, with a cover that slipped over for a long way," said ethel blue. "it would be just like the leather ones." "you make one of those for uncle richard for christmas," advised ethel brown. "i rather think the orphans aren't keen on military brushes." "oh, i'm just talking out any ideas that come along. as helen suggested, an idea is always useful some time or other even if it won't do for to-day's orphans." "i saw a dandy box the other day that we might have put into mademoiselle's kit," said roger. "it's a good thing to remember for some other traveller." "describe," commanded james. "i don't think these round boxes would be as convenient for it as a square or oblong one. it had a ball of string and a tube of paste and a pair of small scissors, and tags of different sizes and rubber bands and labels with gum on the back." "that's great for a desk top," said della. "i believe i'll make one for father for his birthday," and she nodded toward tom who nodded back approvingly. "a big blotter case is another desk gift. the back is of very stiff cardboard and the corners are of chintz or leather. the blotters are slipped under the corners and are kept flat by them," continued roger, who had noticed them because of their leather corners. "a lot of small blotters tied together are easy to put up," contributed dorothy. "you can have twelve, if you want to, and paste a calendar for a month on to each one." "i think we ought to make those plain boxes the boys have made for the dresses a little prettier. can't we ornament them in some way?" asked ethel blue. "the made-over ones are all covered with fancy paper you remember," said tom. "i was thinking of the plain ones that are 'neat but not gaudy.' how can we make them 'gaudy'?" "christmas seals are about as easy a decoration as you can get," tom suggested. "pretty, too. those small seals, you mean, that you put on letters. a santa claus or a christmas tree or a poinsettia would look pretty on the smaller sized boxes." "it would take a lot of them to show much on the larger ones, and that would make them rather expensive. can't we think up something cheaper?" asked the treasurer. "i'm daffy over wall paper," cried dorothy. "i went with mother to pick out some for one of our rooms the other day and the man showed us such beauties--they were like paintings." "and cost like paintings, too," growled james feelingly. "some of them did," admitted dorothy. "but i asked him if he didn't have remnants sometimes. he laughed and said they didn't call them remnants but he said they did have torn pieces and for ten cents he gave me a regular armful. just look at these beauties." she held up for the others' inspection some pieces of paper with lovely flower designs upon them. "but those bits aren't big enough to cover a big box and the patterns are too large to show except on a big box," objected margaret who had come back with the paste. "here's where they're just the thing for decoration of the plain boxes. cut out this perfectly darling wistaria--so. could you find anything more graceful than that? you'd have to be an artist to do anything so good. paste that sweeping, drooping vine with its lovely cluster of blossoms on to the top of one of the largest boxes and that's plenty of decoration." dorothy waved her vine in one hand and her scissors in the other and the rest became infected with her enthusiasm, for the scraps of paper that she had brought were exquisite in themselves and admirable for the purpose she suggested. "good for dorothy!" hurrahed james. "anybody else got any ideas on this decoration need?" [illustration: "paste that vine on to the top of one of the largest boxes"] "i have," came meekly from ethel brown. "it isn't very novel but it will work, and it will save money and it's easy." "trot her forth," commanded roger. "it's silhouettes." silence greeted this suggestion. "they're not awfully easy to do," said helen doubtfully. "not when you make them out of black paper, and you have to draw on the pattern or trace it on and you can hardly see the lines and you get all fussed up over it," acknowledged ethel. "i've tried that way and i almost came to the conclusion that it wasn't worth the trouble i put into it unless you happened to be a person who can cut them right out without drawing them first." "i saw a man do that at a bazar once," said della. "it was wonderful. he illustrated cinderella. he cut out a coach and tiny horses and the old fairy without drawing anything at all beforehand." "nothing doing here," tom pushed away an imaginary offer of scissors and black paper. "here's where my grand idea comes in," insisted ethel brown. "my idea is to cut out of the magazines any figures that please you." "figures with action would be fun," suggested roger. "they'd be prettiest, too. you'll find them in the advertising pages as well as in the stories. paste them on to your box or whatever you want to decorate, and then go over them with black oil paint." "good for old ethel brown!" applauded her brother. "i didn't think you had it in you, child! have you ever tried it?" "yes, sir, i have. i knew i'd probably meet with objections from an unimaginative person like you, so i decorated this cover and brought it along as a sample." it proved to be an idea as dashing as it was simple. ethel brown had selected a girl rolling a hoop. a dog, cut from another page, was bounding beside her. some delicate foliage at one side hinted at a landscape. "wasn't it hard not to let the black run over the edges of the picture?" asked della. "yes, you have to keep your wits about you all the time. but then you have to do that any way if you want what you're making to amount to anything, so that doesn't count." "that's a capital addition, that suggestion of ground that you made with a whisk or two of the brush." "just a few lines seem to give the child something to stand on." "these plans for decoration look especially good to me," said practical james, "because there's nothing to stick up on them. they'll pack easily and that's what we must have for our purpose." "that's true," agreed helen. "for doing up presents that don't have to travel it's pretty to cut petals of red poinsettia and twist them with wire and make a flower that you can tuck in under the string that you tie the parcel with--" "or a bit of holly. holly is easily made out of green crêpe paper or tissue paper," cried della. "but as james says, none of the boxes for the orphans can have stick-ups or they'll look like mashed potatoes when they reach the other side." "we'll stow away the poinsettia idea for home presents then," said margaret. "what we want from james, however, is a lot of boxes of any and every size that he can squeeze out." "no scraps thrown away, old man," decreed tom, "for even a cube of an inch each way will hold a few sweeties." "orders received and committed to memory," acknowledged the invalid, saluting. "by the way, i learned an awfully interesting thing to-day," said helen. "name it," commanded roger, busy with knife and pastepot making one of the twine and tag boxes that he had described. "i'll tell you while we each make one of the things we've been talking about so that we can leave them for patterns with james." dorothy had already set about applying her wistaria vine to the cover of a box whose body tom was putting together. ethel blue was making a string box from a mailing tube, covering it with a scrap of chintz with a very small design; ethel brown was hunting in an old magazine for figures suitable for making silhouettes; james was writing in a notebook the various hints that had been bestowed upon him so generously that he feared his memory would not hold them all without help; helen and della were measuring and cutting some cotton cloth that was to be used in the gifts that della was eager to tell about. "by the time helen has told her tale i'll be ready to explain my gift idea," she said. "go on, then, helen," urged james, "i'm ready to 'start something' myself, in a minute." "you and margaret have heard us talk about our german teacher?" "we've seen her," said margaret. "she was at our entertainment." "so she was. i remember, she and her mother sat right behind the old ladies from the home." "and they knitted for the soldiers whenever the lights were up." "i guess mrs. hindenburg knitted when the lights were off, too," said helen. "i've seen her knitting with her eyes shut." "she sent in some more wristers for the orphans the other day," said dorothy. "she has made seven pairs so far, and three scarfs and two little sweaters." "some knitter," announced roger. "fräulein knits all the time, too, but she says she can't keep up with her mother. this is what i wanted to tell you--you remember when roger first went there she told him that fräulein's betrothed was in the german army. well, yesterday she told us who he is." "is it all right for you to tell us?" warned roger. "it's no secret. she said that the engagement was to have been announced as soon as he got back from germany and that many people knew it already." "is he an american german?" "it's our own mr. schuler." roger gave a whistle of surprise; the ethels cried out in wonder, and the hancocks and the watkinses who did not know many rosemont people, waited for the explanation. "mr. schuler was the singing teacher in the high school year before last and last year," explained helen. "last spring he had to go back to germany in may so he was there when the army was mobilized and went right to the front." "it does come near home when you actually know a soldier fighting in the german army and a nurse in a hospital on the allies' side," said roger thoughtfully. "it makes it a lot more exciting to know who fräulein's betrothed is." "does she speak of him?" asked margaret. "she talked about him very freely yesterday after her mother mentioned his name." "i suppose she didn't want the high school kids gossiping about him," observed roger. "as we are," interposed james. "we aren't gossiping," defended helen. "she looks on the club members as her special friends--she said so. she knows we wouldn't go round at school making a nine days' wonder of it. she knows we're fond of her." "we are," agreed roger. "she's a corker. i wonder we didn't think of its being mr. schuler." "her mother always mentioned him as 'my daughter's betrothed'; and fräulein yesterday kept saying 'my betrothed.' we might have gone on in ignorance for a long time if mrs. hindenburg hadn't let it slip out yesterday." "well, i hope he'll come through with all his legs and arms uninjured," said roger. "i hope it for fräulein's sake, and for his, too. he's a bully singing teacher." "has she heard from him since the war began?" "several times, but not for a month now, and she's about crazy with anxiety. he was in belgium when he got the last letter through and of course that means that he has been in the very thick of it all." "poor fräulein!" sighed ethel blue, and the others nodded seriously over their work. chapter xiv james's afternoon party "now are you ready to take in all the difficulties of my art object?" asked della. "trot her out," implored james. "it's picture books." a distinct sniff went over the assembly, only kept in check by a desire to be polite. "there can't be anything awfully new about picture books," said tom. "especially cloth picture books. you and helen have been cutting out cambric for cloth picture books," accused ethel brown. "della has been making some variations, though." helen came to della's rescue. "she's made some with the leaves all one color, pink or blue; and here's another one with a variety--two pages light pink, and the next two pages pale green." ethel brown cast a more interested eye toward the picture book display. "how do you sew them together?" she asked. "you can do it on the machine and let it go at that. in fact, that's the best plan even if you go on to add some decoration of feather-stitching or cat-stitching. the machine stitching makes it firmer." "is there an interlining?" "i tried them with and without an interlining. i don't think an interlining is necessary. the two thicknesses of cambric are all you need." "dicky has a cloth book with just one thickness for each page," said ethel brown. "but that's made of very heavy cotton," explained helen. "you cut your cambric like a sheet of note-paper," said della. "haven't my lessons on scientific management soaked in better than that?" demanded roger. "if you want to save time you cut just as many sheets of note-paper, so to speak, as your scissors will go through." "certainly," retorted della with dignity. "i took it for granted that the members of the u. s. c. had learned that. put two sheets of this cambric note-paper together flat and stitch them. that makes four pages to paste on, you see. you can make your book any size you want to and have just as many pages as you need to tell your story on." "story? what story?" asked ethel blue, interestedly. "aha! i thought you'd wake up!" laughed della. "here, my children, is where my book differs from most of the cloth picture books that you ever saw. my books aren't careless collections of pictures, with no relation to each other. here's a cat book, for instance. not just every-day cats, though i've put in lots of cats and some kodaks of my own cat. there are pictures of the big cats--lions and tigers--and i've put in some scenery so that the child who gets this book will have an idea of what sort of country the beasts really live in." "it's a natural history book," declared james. "partly. but it winds up with 'the true story of thomas's nine lives.'" "the kid it is going to won't know english," objected roger. "oh, i haven't written it out. it's just told in pictures with , , , through at the head of each page. they'll understand." "do you see what an opportunity the different colored cambric gives?" said helen. "sometimes della uses colored pictures or she paints them, and then she makes the background harmonize with the coloring of the figures." "why couldn't you make a whole book of my silhouettes?" demanded ethel brown. "bully!" commended james. "you can work out all sorts of topics in these books, you see," della went on. "there are all the fairy stories to illustrate and 'red riding hood,' and the 'bears,' and when you get tired of making those you can have one about 'the wonders of america,' and put in niagara." "and the rocky mountains," said tom. "and the woolworth building," suggested ethel brown. "and a cotton field with the negroes picking cotton," added ethel blue. "there wouldn't be any trouble getting material for that one," said helen. "nor for one on any american city. i've got one started that is going to show new york from the statue of liberty to the jumel mansion and the van cortland house, with a lot of other historical buildings and skyscrapers and museums in between." "we'll be promoting emigration from the old country after the war is over if we show the youngsters all the attractions that uncle sam has to offer." "there'll be a lot of them come over anyway so they might as well learn what they'll see when they arrive." "i see heaps of opportunities in that idea," said roger. "there's a chance to teach the kiddies something by these books if we're careful to be truthful in the pictures we put in." "not to make monkeys swinging down the forests of broadway, eh?" laughed tom. "if i'm to do a million or two of these you'll all have to help me get the pictures together," begged james. "i've brought some with me you can have for a starter," said della, "and i'm collecting others and keeping them in separate envelopes--animals in one and buildings in another and so on. it will make it easier for you." "_muchas gracias, señorita_," bowed james, who was just beginning spanish and liked to air a "thank you" occasionally. "i know what i'm going to make for some member of my family," declared roger. "name it, it will be such a surprise when it comes." "probably it will go to grandmother emerson so i don't mind telling you that i think i'll write a history of our summer at chautauqua and illustrate it." "that's the best notion that ever came from roger," approved james. "i think i'll make one and give it to father. the recognition day procession and all that, you know." "envelopes make me think that we may have some small gifts--cards or handkerchiefs--that we can send in envelopes," said ethel blue, "and we ought to decorate them just as much as our boxes." "they won't be hard. any of the ideas we've suggested for the boxes will do--flowers and silhouettes, and seals. you're a smarty with watercolors so you can paint some original figures or a tiny landscape, but the rest of us will have to keep to the pastepot," laughed margaret. "for home gifts we can write rhymes to put into the envelopes, but i suppose it wouldn't do for these european kids," said tom. "we don't know where they're going, you see, and it would never do if an english child got a german rhyme or the other way round." "o-oh, ne-_ver_," gasped ethel blue whose quick imagination sympathized with the feelings of a child to whom such a thing happened. "we'll have to make them understand through their eyes." "fortunately santa claus with his pack speaks a language they can all understand," nodded roger. "here comes his humble servant right now," exclaimed mrs. hancock at the door. tom ran to hold it open for her, and roger relieved her of the waiter which she was carrying. "james has to have an egg-nog at this time," she explained, "so i thought all of you might like to be 'picked up' after your hard afternoon's work." these sentiments were greeted with applause though tom insisted that the best part of the afternoon was yet to come as he had not yet had a chance to tell about his invention. "one that you'll appreciate tremendously, mrs. hancock," he said gravely. "all housekeepers will. you must get margaret to make you one." "don't tell her what it is and i can give it to her for christmas," cried margaret. james's egg-nog and his wafers were placed on the table beside him. the others sat at small tables, of which there were several around the room, and drank their egg-nog and ate their cakes with great satisfaction. "tell me how this egg-nog is made," begged helen. "it is delicious and i'm sure mother would like to know." "mother always has it made the same way," replied margaret. "i'm sure it is concocted out of six eggs and half a pound of sugar, and three pints of whipped cream and a dash of cinnamon and nutmeg." "it's so foamy--that isn't the whipped cream alone." "first you beat the yolks of the eggs and the sugar together until it is all frothy. then you beat the whites of the eggs by themselves until they are stiff and you stir that in gently. then you put the spice on top of that and lastly you heap the whipped cream on top of the whole thing." "it's perfectly delicious," exclaimed dorothy, "and so is the fruit cake." "mother prides herself on her fruit cake. it is good, isn't it? she's going to let me make some to send to the orphans." "won't that be great. baked in ducky little pans like these." "they'll keep perfectly, of course." "would your mother let us have the receipt now so we could be practicing it to make some too?" asked dorothy. "i'm sure she'd be delighted," and margaret ran off to get her mother's manuscript cook book from which dorothy copied the following receipt: "fruit cake "½ cup butter ¾ cup brown sugar ¾ cup raisins, chopped ¾ cup currants ½ cup citron, cut in small pieces ½ cup molasses eggs ½ cup milk cups flour ½ teaspoon soda teaspoon cinnamon ½ teaspoon allspice ¼ teaspoon nutmeg ¼ teaspoon cloves ½ teaspoon lemon extract or vanilla "sift the flour, soda and spices together. beat the eggs, add the milk to them. cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, add the molasses, the milk and egg, then the flour gradually. mix the fruit, sift a little flour over it, rub it in the flour, add to it the mixture. add the extract. stir and beat well. fill greased pans two-thirds full. bake in a moderately hot oven one and a quarter hours if in a loaf. in small sizes bake slowly twenty to thirty minutes." "i'm ready to hear what tom's got to offer," said james, leaning back luxuriously in his chair after the remains of the feast had been taken away. "mine is a paper-cutting scheme," responded tom. "perhaps it won't come easy to everybody, but on a small scale i'm something of a paper cutter myself." "dull edged?" queried roger. "hm," acknowledged tom. "i can't illustrate 'cinderella' like the man della saw, but i can cut simple figures and i want to propose one arrangement of them to this august body." "fire ahead," came roger's permission. "it's just a variation of the strings of paper dolls that i used to make for della when she was a year or two younger than she is now." della received this taunt with a puckered face. [illustration: "fold strips of paper and then cut one figure of a little girl"] "you fold strips of white paper--or blue or yellow or any old color--in halves and then in halves again and then again, until it is about three inches wide. then you cut one figure of a little girl, letting the tips of the hands and skirts remain uncut. when you unfold the strip you have a string of cutey little girls joining hands. see?" they all laughed for all of them had cut just such figures when they were children. "now my application of this simple device," went on tom in the solemn tones of a professor, "is to make them serve as lamp shades." "for the orphans?" laughed roger. "for the orphans i'm going to cut about a bushel of strips of all colors. children always like to play with them just so." "i don't see why those of us who can't draw couldn't cut a child or a dog or some figure from a magazine and lay it on the folded paper and trace around the edges and then cut it," suggested dorothy. [illustration: a string of paper dolls] "you could perfectly well. all you have to remember is to leave a folded edge at the side, top and bottom. you can make a row of dogs standing on their hind paws and holding hands--forepaws--and the ground they are standing on will fasten them together at the bottom." "how does the lamp shade idea work out?" asked helen with grandfather emerson's christmas gift in mind. "you cut a string of figures that are fairly straight up and down, like greek maidens or some conventional vases or a dance of clowns. then you must be sure that your strip is long enough to go around your shade. then you line it with asbestos paper--the kind that comes in a sort of book for the kitchen." "i see. you paste the strip right on to the asbestos paper and cut out the figures," guessed james. "exactly," replied tom. "after which you paste the ends of the strip together and there you have your shade ready to slip on to the glass." [illustration: photograph frame--front] "what keeps it from falling down and off?" "the shape of the shade usually holds it up. if it isn't the right shape, though, you can run a cord through your figures' hands and tighten them up as much as you need to." "i think that's a rather jolly stunt of tom's," commended roger patronizingly. tom gave him a kick under the table and james growled a request not to hit his game leg. [illustration: photograph frame--back] "if you boys are beginning to quarrel it's time we adjourned," decided the president. "has anybody any more ideas to get off her alleged mind this afternoon?" "i thought of picture frames," offered james. "while my hand is in with pasting i believe i'll make some frames--a solid pasteboard back and the front with an oval or an oblong or a square cut out of it. you paste the front on to the back at the edges except at the bottom. you leave that open to put the picture in." "you can cover that with chintz--cotton, cotton, cotton," chanted dorothy, who seldom missed a chance to promote the cotton crusade. "how do you hang it up?" asked margaret. "stick on a little brass ring with a bit of tape. or you can make it stand by putting a stiff bit of cardboard behind it with a tape hinge." "that would be a good home present," said ethel brown. "perfectly good for family photographs. you can make them hold two or three. but you can fix them up for the european kids and put in any sort of picture--a dog or a cat or george washington or some really beautiful picture." "i believe in giving them pictures of america or american objects or places or people," said dorothy. "dorothy is the champion patriot of the united service club," laughed roger. "come on, infants; we must let james rest or mrs. hancock won't invite us to come again. i wish you could get over to rosemont for the movies next week," he added. "what movies?" "the churches have clubbed together and hired the school hall and they're going to get the latest moving pictures from the war zone that they can find. it is the first time rosemont has ever had the real thing." chapter xv prevention the mortons were gathered about the fire in the half hour of the day which they especially enjoyed. mrs. morton made a point of being at home herself for this time, and she liked to have all the young people meet her in the dusk and tell her of the day's work and play. it was a time when every one was glad to rest for a few minutes after dressing for dinner. "i'm sure to get my hair mussed up if i do anything but talk to mother after i brush it for dinner," roger was in the habit of explaining, "so it suits me just to stare at the fire." he was sitting now on the floor beside her with his head leaning against the arm of her chair. dicky was occupying the morris chair with her, and the three girls were in comfortable positions, the ethels on the sofa and helen knitting a scarf as she sat on a footstool before the blaze. "you're not trying your eyes knitting in this imperfect light?" asked her mother. "this is plain sailing, mother. i can rush along on this straight piece almost as fast as mrs. hindenburg, and i don't have to look on at all unless a horrid fear seizes me that i've skipped a stitch." "which i hope you haven't done." "never really but there have been several false alarms." "how is fräulein?" "all right, i guess." "did you see her to-day?" "we had german compo to-day. i didn't do much with it." "why not?" "it didn't seem to go off well. i don't know why. perhaps i didn't try as hard as usual." "did it disturb fräulein?" "did what disturb fräulein?" "that you didn't do your lesson well." "disturb fräulein? i don't know. why should it disturb her? i should think i was the one to be disturbed." "were you?" "was i disturbed? well, no, mother, to tell the truth i didn't care much. that old german is so hard and the words all break up so foolishly--somehow it didn't seem very important to me this morning. and fanny shrewsbury said something awfully funny about it under her breath and we got laughing and--no, i wasn't especially disturbed." "although you had a poor lesson and didn't try to make up for it by paying strict attention in the class!" "why, mother, i, er--" helen stopped knitting. "you think i'm taking too seriously a poor lesson that wasn't very bad, after all? possibly i am, but i've been noticing that all of you are more careless lately than i want my girls and boys to be." mrs. morton stroked roger's hair and looked around at the handsome young faces illuminated by the firelight. "you mean us, too?" cried the ethels, sitting up straight upon the sofa. "you, too." "we haven't meant to be careless, mother," said roger soberly. his mother's good opinion was something he was proud of keeping and she was so fair in her judgments that he felt that he must meet any accusations like the present in the honest spirit in which they were made. "do you want to know what i think is the trouble with all of you?" every one of them cried out for information, even dicky, whose "yeth" rang out above the others. "if you ask for my candid opinion," responded mrs. morton, "i think you are giving so much time and attention to the work of the u. s. c. that you aren't paying proper attention to the small matters of every day life that we must all meet." "oh, but, mother, you approve of the u. s. c." "certainly i approve of it. i think it is fine in every way; but i don't believe in your becoming so absorbed in it that you forget your daily duties. aunt louise had to telephone to roger to go over and start her furnace for her yesterday when the sharp snap came, and the ethels have been rushing off in the morning without doing the small things to help mary that are a part of their day's work." "oh, mother, they're such little things! she can do them easily once in a while." "any one of your morning tasks is a small matter, but when none of them are done they mount up to a good deal for mary. if there were some real necessity for making an extra bed mary would do it without complaining, but when, as happened yesterday morning, neither of you ethels made your bed, and roger left towels thrown all over his floor, and not one of helen's bureau drawers was shut tight, and dicky upset a box of beads and went off to kindergarten without picking them up--don't you see that what meant but a few minutes' work for each one of you meant an hour's work for one person?" "i'll bet mary didn't mind," growled roger. "mary is too loyal to say anything, but if your present careless habits should continue we should have to have an extra maid to wait on you, and you know very well that that is impossible." "i'm sorry, mother," said roger penitently. "i'm sorry about the towels and about aunt louise and i'm sorry i growled. you're right, of course." "i rather guess we've been led astray by being so successful with our team work in the club," said helen thoughtfully. "we've found out that we can do all sorts of things well if we pull together and we've been forgetting to apply co-operation at home." "exactly," agreed mrs. morton. "and you've been so absorbed in the needs of people several thousand miles away that you overlook the needs of people beside you. what you've been doing to mary is unkind; what helen did to fräulein this morning was unkind." "oh, mother! i wouldn't be unkind to fräulein for the world." "i don't believe you would if you thought about it. she certainly is in such sore trouble that she needs all the consideration that her scholars can give her, yet you must have annoyed her greatly this morning." "i'm afraid fräulein's used to our not knowing our lessons very well," observed roger. "i'm sorry to hear that, but if you know you aren't doing as well as you ought to with your lessons that is the best reason in the world for you to pay the strictest attention while you are in class. yet helen says that she and fanny shrewsbury were laughing. i'm afraid fräulein isn't feeling especially content with her work this afternoon." "mother, you make me feel like a hound dog," cried helen. "and i've been talking as if i were so sorry for fräulein!" "you are sorry for her as the heroine of a romance, because her betrothed is in the army and she doesn't know where he is or whether he is alive. it sounds like a story in a book. but when you think what that would mean if it were you that had to endure the suffering it wouldn't seem romantic. suppose father were fighting in mexico and we hadn't heard from him for a month--do you think you could throw off your anxiety for a minute? don't you think you'd have to be careful every instant in school to control yourself? don't you think it would be pretty hard if some one in school constantly did things that irritated you--didn't know her lessons and then laughed and giggled all through the recitation hour?" helen's and roger's heads were bent. "imagine," mrs. morton went on, "how you would feel every day when you came home, wondering all the way whether a letter had come; wondering whether, if one _had_ come, it would be from father or from some one else saying that father was--wounded." "oh, mother, i can't--" helen was almost crying. "you can't bear to think of it; yet--" "yet fräulein was just so anxious and--" "and we made things worse for her!" "i know you didn't think--" "we ought to think. i've excused myself all my life by saying 'i didn't think.' i ought to think." "'i didn't think' _explains_, but it doesn't _excuse_." "nothing excuses meanness." "that's true." "and it's almost as mean not to see when people are in trouble as it is to see it and not to care." "i'm glad you're teaching us to be observant, aunt marion," said ethel blue quietly. "i used to think it was sort of _distinguished_ to be absent-minded and not to pay attention to people, but now i think it's just _stupidity_." "mother," said roger, sitting up straight, "i've been a beast. poor fräulein is worrying herself to pieces every minute of the day and i never thought anything about it. and i let aunt louise freeze yesterday morning and dorothy had to go to school before the house was warmed up and she had a cold to-day because she got chilled. i see your point, and i'm a reformed pirate from this minute!" roger rose and squared his shoulders and walked about the room. "when you think it out it's little things that are hard to manage all the time," he went on thoughtfully. "here are these little things that we've been pestering mary about, and when we kids squabble it's almost always about some trifle." "a pin prick is often more trying than a severe wound," agreed his mother. "you brace yourself to bear a real hurt, but it doesn't seem worth while for a trifle and so you whine about it before you think. if father and uncle richard really were in action all of us would do our best to be brave about it and to bear our trouble uncomplainingly--" "the way fräulein does," murmured helen. "that's the way when you have a sickness," said ethel brown. "when i had the measles you and mary said i didn't make much fuss, but every time i catch cold i'm afraid all of you hear about it." "we do," agreed roger cheerfully. "i should say, then," remarked mrs. morton as mary appeared at the door to announce dinner, "that this club should bear in mind that it is to serve not only those at a distance but those near home, and not only to serve people in deepest trouble but to serve by preventing suffering." "i get you, mother dear," said roger, taking his father's seat. "prevention is a great modern principle that we don't think enough about," said mrs. morton. "i know what you mean--fire prevention," exclaimed ethel blue. "tom watkins was telling us the other day about the fire prevention parade they had in new york. there were a lot of engines and hose wagons and ladder wagons and they were all covered with cards telling how much wiser it was to prevent fire than to let it start and then try to put it out." "della saw the parade," said ethel brown. "she told me there were signs that said 'it's cheaper to put a sprinkler in your factory than to rebuild the factory'; and 'one cigarette in a factory may cost thousands of dollars in repairs.'" "the doctors have been working to prevent disease," said roger. "james has often told me what his father is doing to teach people how to avoid being sick." "all these clean-up campaigns are really for the prevention of illness as much as the making of cleanliness," said mrs. morton. "everything of that sort educates people, and we can apply the same methods to our own lives," advised mrs. morton. "why can't we have a household campaign to prevent giving mary unnecessary work and to avoid irritating each other?" "all that can be worked in as part of the duties of the service club," said ethel blue. "certainly it can. what's the matter, ethel brown?" ethel brown was on the point of tears. "one of the girls at school gave me an order for cookies the other day," she said, "and i didn't do them because we went over to the hancocks' that afternoon." "you got your own punishment there," remarked roger. "if you didn't fill the order you didn't get any pay." "that wasn't all. she was going to take them to a cousin of hers who was just getting over the mumps. she wanted to surprise her. she was awfully mad because i didn't make them. she said she had depended on them and she didn't have anything to take to her cousin." "there you see it," exclaimed mrs. morton. "it didn't seem much to ethel brown not to make two or three dozen cookies, but in the first place she broke her promise, and in the next place she caused real unhappiness to a girl who was depending on them to give pleasure to her sick cousin." "you've given us a shake-up we won't forget soon, mother," remarked roger. "there's one duty i haven't done this week that you haven't mentioned, but i'm pretty sure you know it so i might as well bring it into the light myself and say i'm sorry." "what is it?" laughed his mother. "i haven't been over to see grandfather and grandmother emerson for ten days." "they'll be sorry." "i was relying on one of the girls going." "we haven't been," confessed the ethels. "nor i," admitted helen. mrs. morton looked serious. "we love to go there," said ethel brown, "but we've been so busy." "too busy to be kind to the people near at hand, eh?" the young people looked ruefully at one another. "anyway, watch me be attentive to fräulein," promised helen. she was. she and roger made a point of giving her as little trouble as possible; and of paying her unobtrusive attentions. roger carried home for her a huge bundle of exercises; the ethels left some chestnuts at her door when they came back from a hunt on the hillside, and even dicky wove her a mat at kindergarten of red and white and black paper--the german colors. the mortons were all attention to james, too. every day they remembered to call him up on the telephone and ask him how his box-making was coming on. he had a telephone extension on the table at his elbow and these daily talks cheered him greatly. the others were leaving the making of most of the pasted articles to him, and they were going on with the manufacture of baskets and leather and brass and copper articles and of odds and ends of various kinds. "perhaps i'll be able to get up to dorothy's next saturday," james phoned to roger one day, "if mrs. smith wouldn't mind the club meeting downstairs. i suppose the pater wouldn't let me try to climb to the attic yet." mrs. smith was delighted to make the change for james's benefit, but before the day came he called up roger one afternoon in great excitement. "when did you say those church movies were?" he asked. "to-morrow evening." "father says he'll take me over if he doesn't have a hurry call at the last minute." roger gave a whoop that resounded along the wire. "you'll find the whole club drawn up at the door of the schoolhouse to meet you," he cried. "the watkinses are coming out from new york. will margaret come with you?" "she and mother will go over in the trolley." as roger had promised, the club was drawn up in double ranks before the door when doctor hancock stopped his machine close to the step. roger and tom ran down to make a chair on which to carry james inside, and helen and dorothy were ready with the wheel-chair belonging to the old lady at the home who had been glad to lend it for the evening to the boy whose acquaintance she had made at the club entertainment. james was rather embarrassed at being so conspicuous, but all his rosemont acquaintances came to speak to him and he was quite the hero of the occasion. the moving pictures were an innovation in rosemont. there had been various picture shows in empty stores in the town and they had not all been of a character approved by the parents of the school children who went to them in great numbers. the rooms were dark and there was danger of fire and the pictures themselves were not always suitable for young people to see or agreeable for their elders. the result of a conference among some of the townspeople who had the interests of the place at heart was this entertainment which was the first of a series to be given in the school hall on friday evenings all through the winter. the films were chosen by a sub-committee and it was hoped that they would be so liked that the poor places down town would find it unprofitable to continue. the program was pleasantly varied. the story of a country boy who went to new york to make his fortune and who found out that, as in the oriental story, his fortune lay buried in his own dooryard--in this case in the printing office of his own town--was the opener. that was followed by a remarkable film showing the habits of swallows and by another whereon some of the flowers of burbank's garden waved softly in the california breeze. a dramatization of daudet's famous story called "the last class" brought tears to the eyes of the onlookers whose thoughts were much across the atlantic. it was a simple, touching tale, and it served appropriately as the forerunner of the war pictures that had just been sent to america by photographers in germany and france and belgium. the first showed troops leaving berlin, flags flying, bands playing, while the crowds along the street waved a cheerful parting, though once in a while a woman bent her head behind her neighbor's shoulder to hide her tears. there were scenes in belgium--houses shattered by the bombs of airmen, huge holes dug by exploding shells; wounded soldiers making their way toward the hospitals, those with bandaged heads and arms helping those whose staggering feet could hardly carry them. it was a serious crowd that followed every movement that passed on the screen before their eyes. the silence was deep. then came a hospital scene. rows upon rows of beds ran from the front of the picture almost out of sight. down the space between them came the doctors, instruments in hand, and behind them the nurses, the red crosses gleaming on their arm bands. a stir went through the onlookers. "it looks like her." "i believe it is." "don't you think so? the one on the right?" "it is--it's mademoiselle millerand!" cried roger clearly. the operator, hearing the noise in front of his booth, and all unconscious that he was showing a friend to these townspeople where the pretty young french teacher had lived for two years, almost stopped turning his machine. so slowly it went that there was no doubt among any who had known her. she followed the physician to the bed nearest the front. there they stopped and the doctor turned to mademoiselle and asked some question. she was ready with bandages. an orderly slipped his arm under the soldier's pillow and raised his head. his eyes were closed and his face was deathly white. the doctor shook his head. evidently he would not attempt an operation upon so ill a man. he signed to the attendant to lay the man down and as he did so the people in rosemont, far, far away from the belgian hospital, heard a piercing shriek. "_mein verlobt!_ my betrothed!" screamed fräulein hindenburg. "that's schuler." "don't you recognize schuler?" "no wonder poor fräulein screamed!" kind hands were helping fräulein and her mother from the hall. doctor hancock went out with them to give a restorative to the young woman and to take them home in his car. "didn't he die at that very moment, herr doctor?" whispered fräulein, and the doctor was obliged to confess that it seemed so. "but we can't be sure," he insisted. fräulein's agitation put an end to the entertainment for that evening. indeed, the film was almost exhausted when the bitter sight came to her. the people filed out seriously. "if that poor girl has been in doubt about her betrothed, now she knows," one said to another. "do you think he really died?" james asked his father as they were driving home. "i'm afraid he did, son. but there is just a chance that he didn't because the film changed just there to another scene so you couldn't tell." "that might have been because they didn't want to show a death scene." "i'm afraid it was." chapter xvi for santa claus's pack james telephoned dorothy that he was going to be at her house on the afternoon of the club meeting if it was going to be downstairs and dorothy replied that her mother was very glad to let them have the dining room to work in. all the members had arrived when doctor hancock stopped his car at the door and margaret got out and rang the bell for roger's and tom's help in getting james into the house. everybody hailed him with pleasure and everybody's tongue began at once to chatter about the dramatic happening of the evening before. "i'm perfectly crazy to hear everything you've learned this morning," said margaret, "but before we start talking about it i want to make a beginning on a basket so i can be working while i listen." "me, too," said james. "i've pasted enough boxes and gimcracks to fill a young cottage. in fact they are now packed in a young cottage that father is going to bring over some day when he hasn't any other load. he said the car wouldn't hold it and margaret and him and me all at the same time this afternoon." "we've been making all sorts of things this week," said ethel brown. "i'm just finishing the last of a dozen balls that i've been covering with crochet. it's the simplest thing in the world and they're fine for little children because the slippery rubber balls slide out of their fingers and these are just rough enough for their tiny paws to cling to." "i've been making those twin bed-time dolls," said ethel blue. "you've seen them in all the shops--just ugly dolls of worsted--but mine are made like the danish _nisse_, the elves that the danes use to decorate their yuletide trees." she held up a handful of wee dolls made of white worsted, doubled until the little figure was about a finger long. a few strands on each side were cut shorter than the rest and stood out as arms. a red thread tied a little way from the top indicated the neck; another about the middle defined the waist; the lower part was divided and each leg was tied at the ankle with red thread, and a red thread bound the wrists. on the head a peaked red hat of flannel or of crochet shaded a face wherein two black stitches represented the eyes, a third the nose, and a red dot the ruby lips. from the back of the neck a crocheted cord about eighteen inches long connected one elf with his twin. "what's the idea of two?" inquired tom. "to keep each other company. you tie them on to a wire of the baby's crib and they won't get lost." "or on to the perambulator." "they don't take long to make--see, i wind the wool over my fingers, so, to get the right length, and then i tie them as quick as a wink; and when i feel in the mood of making the caps i turn off a dozen or two of them--" "and the cord by the yard, i suppose." "just about. i've made quantities of these this week and i'm not going to make any more, so i'll help with the baskets or the stenciling." "i've been jig-sawing," said roger. "i've made jumping jacks till you can't rest." "where did you get your pattern?" asked tom who also was a jig sawyer. [illustration: jumping jack] "i took an old one of dicky's that was on the downward road and pulled it to pieces so that i could use each part for a pattern. i cut out ever so many of each section. then i spent one afternoon painting legs and arms and jackets and caps, and ethel blue painted the faces for me. i'm not much on expression except my own, you know." "have you put them together yet?" "dorothy has been tying the pull strings for me this afternoon and i'm going to do the glueing now while you people are learning baskets." "james ought to do the glueing for you," suggested margaret in spite of james's protesting gestures. roger laughed. "i wouldn't be so mean as to ask him," he said. "he's stuck up enough for one lifetime, i suspect." "i've been jigging, too," confessed tom. "anything pretty?" asked roger. "of course something pretty," defended helen. "don't you remember the beauty box he made margaret?" "i certainly do. its delicate openwork surpassed any of my humble efforts." "it was pretty, wasn't it?" murmured margaret. "the yellow silk lining showed through." "what i've been doing lately was the very simplest possible toy for the orphans." tom disclaimed any fine work. "i've just been cutting circles out of cigar boxes and punching two holes side by side in each one. then i run a string through the two holes. you slip it over your forefinger of each hand and whirl the disk around the string until it is wound up tight and then by pulling the string you keep the whirligig going indefinitely." "it doesn't look like much of a toy to me," said della crushingly. "may be not, ma'am, but i tried it on dad and edward and they played with it for ten minutes apiece. you find yourself pulling it in time to some air you're humming in the back of your head." "right-o," agreed james. "i had a tin one once and i played with it from morning till night. i believe the orphans will spend most of their waking hours tweaking those cords." "i'm glad you think so," said tom. "roger was so emphatic i was afraid i'd been wasting my time." "what's dorothy been up to this week?" asked james. "dorothy couldn't make up her mind whether she wanted most to make bags or model clay candlesticks or dress dolls this week," responded dorothy, "but she finally decided to dress dolls." "where did you get the dolls?" "some of them i got with treasury money--they're real dolls, and i made galoptious frocks for them out of scraps from piece-bags." "were you patient enough to make all the clothes to take off?" asked della. "every identical garment," replied dorothy emphatically. "dolls aren't any fun unless you can dress and undress them. i never cared a rap for a doll with its clothes fastened on." "nor i." "nor i." "nor i." every girl in the room agreed with this opinion. "the rag dolls are the ones i believe the children will like best," said helen; "that is, if they are at all like american children." "isn't it funny--i always liked that terrible looking old rag object of mine better than the prettiest one father ever sent me," agreed ethel blue. "every child does," said margaret. "dorothy made some fine ones," complimented helen. "did you draw them or did you get the ones that are already printed on cloth?" asked della. "both. the printed ones are a great deal prettier than mine, but aunt marion had a stout piece of cotton cloth--" a shout arose. "cotton cloth! that's enough to interest dorothy in making anything," laughed tom. "almost," agreed dorothy good-naturedly. "any way, i used up the piece of cloth making dolls and cats and dogs. i drew them on the cloth and then stitched them on the machine and, i tell you, i remembered the time when dicky's stuffed cat had an awful accident and lost almost all his inner thoughts, and i sewed every one of the little beasties twice around." "what did you stuff them with?" "some with cotton." "ha, ha!" "ha!" retorted dorothy, "and some with rags, and one with sawdust, but i didn't care for him; he was lumpy." "i didn't know you could paint well enough to color them," said roger. "i can't. i did a few but ethel blue did the best one. there was a cat that was so fierce that aunt marion's cat growled at it. he was a winner!" "all the rag dolls were dressed in cotton dresses," explained ethel brown. "of course." "but the real dolls were positively scrumptious. there was a bride, and a girl in a khaki sport suit, and a boy in a sailor suit, and a baby. they were regular beauties." all the time that these descriptions had been given dorothy and the mortons had been opening packages of rattan and raffia and laying them out on the dining table. james sat in state at one end, his convalescent leg raised on a chair, and his right hand to the table so that he could handle his materials easily. "i'm simply perishing to hear about fräulein," he acknowledged. "do start me on this basket business, dorothy, so i can hear about her." "we don't know such an awful lot," said dorothy slowly as she counted out the spokes for a small basket. "in fact, we don't know anything at all." "misery! and my curiosity has been actually on the boil! how many of those sticks do i need?" "let's all do the same basket," suggested ethel brown. "then one lecture by miss dorothy smith will do for all of us." "doesn't anybody else know how to make them?" "della and i do," replied ethel blue. "we're going to work on raffia, but you people might just as well all do one kind of basket. we can use any number of them, you know, so it doesn't make any difference if they are all alike." "we'll start with a basket that measures three inches across the bottom and is two and a half inches deep," announced dorothy, who was an expert basket maker. "you'll need eight spokes sixteen inches long and one nine inches long." there was a general cutting and counting of rattan spokes. "are you ready? take your knife and in four rattans make slits long enough to poke the other four rattans through." "they're rather fat to get through," complained james. [illustration: "make slits long enough to poke the other rattans through. sharpen them to a point"] [illustration: "you'll need eight spokes sixteen inches long and one nine inches long"] "sharpen them to a point. have you put them through so they make a cross with the arms of even length? then put the single short piece through on one arm--no, not way through, james; just far enough to catch it." "that's pretty solid just as it is," commented tom with his head on one side. "nevertheless, you must wrap it with a piece of raffia. watch me; lay your raffia at the left side of the upright arm and bring it across from left to right. now pass it under the right hand arm and over the bottom arm and under the left hand arm. instead of covering the wrapping you've just done you turn back and let your bit of raffia go _over_ the left hand arm." [illustration: "this weaving process makes the spokes stand out like wheel spokes"] "that binds down the beginning end of the raffia," cried helen. "exactly. that's why you do it. go under the bottom arm and over the right hand arm behind the top arm." "back at the station the train started from," announced margaret. "so far you've used your weaver--" "what's that? the raffia?" "yes. so far you've used it merely to fasten the centre firmly. now you really begin to weave under and over the spokes, round and round." "i could shoot beans through mine," announced james. "you haven't pulled your weaver tight as you wove. push it down hard toward the centre. that's it. see how firm that is? you could hardly get water through that--much less beans or hound puppies, as they say in some parts of north carolina." "this weaving process makes the spokes stand out like wheel spokes, doesn't it?" "that's why they're called spokes. by the time you've been round three times they ought all to be standing apart evenly." "please, ma'am, my raffia is giving out," grumbled tom. "it's time to use a rattan weaver, then. you used raffia at first because the spokes were so near together. now you use a fine rattan, finer than your spokes. wet it first. then catch it behind a spoke and hold on to it carefully until you come to the second time round or it will slip away from you. you're all right as soon as the second row holds the first row in place." "my rattan weaver is giving out," said ethel brown. "take another one and lap it over the end of the one that is on the point of death, then go right ahead. if they're too fat at the ends shave them down a bit where they lap." "this superb creation of mine is three inches across the middle," announced james. "it's time to turn up the spokes then. make up your mind how sharply you want the basket to flare and watch it as you weave, or you'll have it uneven." "mine seems to have reached a good height for a small work basket," decided helen, her head on one side. "mine isn't quite so high, but i can seem to see a few choice candies of ethel brown's concoction resting happily within its walls," said tom. "let's all make the border. measure the spokes and cut them just three inches beyond the top of the weaving. you'll have to sharpen their tips a little or else you'll have trouble pushing them down among the weavers." "i get the idea! you bend them into scallops!" "wet them first or there'll be broken fence pickets. when you've soaked them until they're pliable enough bend each spoke over to make a scallop and thrust it down right beside its neighbor spoke between the weavers." "mine is more than ever a work basket," said helen when she had completed the edge. "i shall line it with brown and fit it up with a thimble and threads and needles and a tiny pair of scissors." "mine, too," was ethel brown's decision. "my sides turn up too sharply," james thought. "i shall call mine a cover for a small flower pot. then i shan't have to line it!" "here are some of the most easily made mats and baskets in the world," announced della. "they're made just like the braided rugs you find in farm houses in new england. mother got some in new hampshire once before we started going to chautauqua for the summers." "i've seen them," said margaret. "there are yards and yards of rags cut all the same width and sewed together and then they are braided and then the braid is sewed round and round." "you make raffia mats or baskets in just the same way, only you sew them with raffia," explained della. "you braid the raffia first and that gives you an opportunity to make pretty color combinations." "a strand of raffia doesn't last forever. how do you splice it?" "splice a thick end alongside of a thin end and go ahead. try to pick out strands of different lengths for your plaiting or they'll all run out at once and have to be spliced at once and it may make them bunchy if you aren't awfully careful." [illustration: the braid for easily made rugs and baskets] "i saw a beauty basket once made of corn husks braided in the same way. the inside husks are a delicate color you know, and they were split into narrow widths and plaited into a long rope." "where the long leaf pine grows," said dorothy, "they use pine needles in the same way, only they wrap them around with thread--" "cotton thread?" "cotton thread--of about the same color." "you can work sweet grass just so, except that you can wrap that with a piece of itself." "when you have enough material," went on della, "you begin the sewing. if you're going to make a round or an oblong mat you decide which right at the beginning and coil the centre accordingly. then all you have to do is to go ahead. don't let the stitches show and sew on until the mat is big enough." "and for a basket i suppose you pile the braids upon each other when you've made the bottom the size you want it." "exactly. and you can make the sides flare sharply or slightly just as we made them do with the rattan." "what's the matter with making baskets of braided crêpe paper?" asked james. "my whole being has been wrapped in paper for a week so it may influence my inventive powers unduly, but i really don't see why it shouldn't work." "i'm sorry to take you off your perch," remarked ethel brown, "but i've seen one." "o--oh!" wailed james in disappointment. "they were pretty though, weren't they?" "they were beauties. there was a lovely color combination in the one i saw." "you could make patriotic ones for fourth of july--red, white, and blue." "or green and red ones for christmas." "or all white for easter." "or pinky ones for may day." just at this moment there came a rush of small feet and dicky burst into the room. "hullo," he exclaimed briefly. "hullo," cried a chorus in return. "i've seen her," said dicky. "who is 'her'?" asked roger. "fräulein." "fräulein! dicky, what have you been doing?" helen seized him by the arm and drew him to the side of her chair, while all the other members of the club laid down their work and listened. dicky was somewhat embarrassed at being the object of such undivided attention. he climbed up into helen's lap. "i heard you talking at breakfatht about fräulein and how thomebody perhapth wath dead and perhapth wathn't dead, tho i went and athked her if he wath dead." "oh, dicky!" helen buried her face in his bobbed hair, and the rest of the mortons looked at each other aghast. "we were wondering if it would be an intrusion to send fräulein some flowers," explained helen,--"and--" "--and here dicky butts right in!" finished roger. "i went to the houthe and i rang the bell," continued dicky, "and an old lady came to the door." "mrs. hindenburg." "i thaid 'ith mith fräulein at home?' the old lady thaid 'yeth.' i walked in and there wath mith fräulein in front of the fire. i thaid, 'ith he dead?'" "you asked her?" "great scott!" "fräulein thaid, 'i don't know, dicky.' and i thaid, 'here ith a chethnut i found. you can have it.' and fräulein thaid, 'thank you, dicky,' and i that on her lap and the talked to me a long time about the man that perhapth ith dead, and thometimeth the thaid queer wordth--" "german," interpreted margaret under her breath. "and onthe the cried a little, and--" "dicky, dicky, what have you done!" "i ain't done anything bad, 'coth when i thaid, 'now i mutht go,' the old lady thaid, 'thank you for coming.'" "she did?" "perhaps it did fräulein good to cry. poor fräulein!" "i'm going again." "did she ask you?" "of courth the athked me. and i thaid i'd go if the'd wear a white dreth. i don't like a black dreth." silence reigned about the table. "i wish i knew whether he's done harm or good," sighed helen. "good, i should say, or fräulein's mother wouldn't have asked him to come again," said ethel blue. "at this uncertain moment i think we'd better have some refreshments," said dorothy. "i'm certainly in need of something sustaining," groaned roger. "then try these sugar cookies of ethel brown's." "let me write down right now how she makes them," exclaimed della, borrowing a pencil from tom. "this is the kind you're going to make for the orphans, isn't it?" "yes, they'll keep a long time, especially if they're wrapped in paraffin paper and put into a tin." "recite the rule to me." "i never can remember rules. dorothy's got it copied into her cook book. ask her for it." "here you are," said dorothy who had overheard the conversation, "here on page twenty. and i know you're going to ask for the fudge receipt as soon as you taste ethel blue's fudge so you might as well copy that at the same time. it's on the next page." so della copied diligently while dorothy brought in the cookies and fudge in question and helen and roger discussed dicky's performance under their breath. here is what della wrote: "sugar cookies or sand tarts " cup butter cups sugar eggs ½ cups flour teaspoons baking powder extra whites of eggs ½ cups blanched almonds, chopped. tablespoons sugar--extra ½ teaspoon cinnamon "blanch the almonds by putting them in boiling water, let them stand on the table five minutes, remove a few at a time from the water, rub off the skin and dry them in a towel; then chop them. "cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the beaten eggs. sift flour and baking powder together, add to the butter mixture gradually, using a knife to cut it in. add the nuts. if stiff and dry add a few tablespoons milk to moisten slightly, and mould into a dough with the hands. roll out portions quite thin, on a floured board, cut out with a cutter, brush with the extra whites, slightly beaten. mix the cinnamon and the two extra tablespoons sugar together, sprinkle over the cookies. place on a greased tin, bake about five minutes in a moderately hot oven." "fudge " cups brown or white sugar cup milk or water tablespoon butter squares (inch) chocolate (about ¼ cup grated) ½ teaspoon vanilla "mix sugar, milk, butter and chocolate in a saucepan; let it melt slowly; bring to a boil and boil about ten minutes, or until a little forms a soft ball when dropped in a cup of cold water. add the vanilla, stir a few minutes until slightly thick, turn at once into greased _tin_ plates. cool and cut into blocks. if it crumbles and is sugary, add half a cup or more hot water, melt, boil again, and try as before. if it should not be hard enough it may be boiled a second time." chapter xvii the club weaves, stencils and models clay whether dicky had done something entirely inexcusable or something wise no one was able to decide, but everybody agreed that at any rate it was pleasanter to think that he had brought poor fräulein some comfort, and that her mother's thanking him for coming seemed to mean that. they all felt somewhat shocked and queer. "i move, madam president," said tom, "that we don't talk about it any more this afternoon. we don't know and probably we never shall know, and so we might as well get to work again. did you people realize that time is growing short? the santa claus ship is booked to sail the first week in november." "we did and do realize it," said helen. "i'd like to know next about these raffia sofa pillows that ethel blue and della have been making." "the ones we made are sofa pillows for the orphans' dolls," explained ethel blue, "or they can be used for pincushions." "they make thothe at kindergarten," announced dicky. "i can make thothe. mine are paper." "they're made in just about the same way," said della. "we made a small cushion with double raffia and wove it under and over on a pasteboard loom." "how do you make that?" "just a piece of heavy pasteboard or a light board or you can take the frame of a smashed slate. you fasten the ends of the threads with pins or tacks or tie them around the bars. first you lay all the threads you want in one direction. that's the warp." "warp--i remember. i always have to look it up in the dictionary to see which is warp and which is woof." "warp is the thread that goes on first. in a rug or a piece of tapestry it's the plain, ugly thread that holds the beautifully colored threads in place. it's the up and down threads. in raffia you have to be careful to alternate the big ends and small ends so that the weaving will be even." "what do you do when the warp is ready?" "before you begin to weave you must make a solid line across the end so that when you run your first bit of woof across it won't just push right up to the bar of the loom and then ravel out when you cut your product off the loom." "i get the reason for its existence. i should think you'd make it by tying a string right across the loom knotting it into each strand of warp as you pass by." "that's exactly what you do; and the ends you can leave flying to join in with the fringe." "can we weave now?" "go ahead. when you've made the cushion square, if you want it square, go around the three remaining sides and tie a break-water, so to speak, so that the weaving won't ravel out. trim your fringe even and there's one side of your pillow." "one side would be enough for a pincushion." "if you want to make a big sofa cushion--a grown up one--you'll have to make a wide plait of raffia--a four strand or six strand braid--or else you'd never get it done." "the unbraided would be too delicate. i hate to make things that wear out before you can get used to them about the house." "you'd have to have a bigger loom for something that size." "it's no trouble to make. roger nailed mine together," said ethel blue. "any one want the dimensions?" asked roger. "take two pieces of narrow wood twenty-three inches long, and nail two other pieces of lighter stuff each twenty-five inches long on to their tops at the ends. these bits are raised from the table by the thickness of the first piece of lumber. see?" tom and james, who were examining ethel blue's loom, nodded. "then nail slender uprights, ten inches tall, at each of the four corners and connect them by two other thin sticks twenty-five inches long, running just above your first pair of twenty-fives. do you get it?" again the boys nodded. "that's all there is to it, and you really don't need to make that for a plain, smooth plank will do at a pinch." "how do you carry your woof across?" asked margaret. "your hand would be in its own way, i should think." "you thread the raffia into a wooden bodkin about twenty-six inches long." "i can see that you must draw the cross threads down tight the way we did in weaving the baskets," said james. "indeed you must or you'll turn out a sleazy piece of weaving," answered della. "there must be oceans of articles you can make out of woven raffia." "just about everything that you can make out of a piece of cloth of the same size." "of cotton cloth? ha!" "or silk." "handkerchief cases and collar cases." "coverings for boxes of all kinds. another material for james to glue on to pasteboard." "i see lots of chances for it," he answered seriously. "i believe old james is really taking kindly to pasting," laughed tom. "certainly i am. it's a bully occupation," defended james. "there are a thousand things that can be made of raffia--you can make lace of it like twine lace, and make articles out of the lace; and you can make baskets of a combination of rattan and raffia, using the raffia for wrapping and for sewing. but we have such a short time left that i think those of us who are going to do any raffia work had better learn how to weave evenly and make pretty little duds out of the woven stuff." "wise kid," pronounced roger. "now what's little margaret going to teach us this afternoon?" "little margaret" made a puckered face at this appellation, but she came promptly to the front. "ethel brown and dorothy have been teaching me to stencil. they could teach the rest of you a great deal better than i can, but they've done their share this afternoon so i'll try." "go on," urged ethel brown. "we'll help you if you forget." "if you'll excuse me i'll go to the attic and get my clay," said dorothy. "i found a new idea for a candlestick in a book this morning and i want to make one before i forget it." margaret was in the full swing of explanation when dorothy returned. "why this frown, fair coz?" demanded roger in a shakesperean tone. "it's the queerest thing--i thought i had enough clay for two pairs of candlesticks and it seems to have shrunk or something so there'll only be one and that mighty small." "'_mighty small_,'" mimicked roger. "how large is _'mighty_ small'?" "don't bother me, roger. i'll start this while margaret talks." "when a drawing fit seizes ethel blue again we'll get her to make us some original stencils," said helen. "these that we bought at the chautauqua art store will do well enough for us to learn with." "they are very pretty," defended dorothy. "mine won't be any better, only they will be original," said ethel blue. "i hate to mention it," said tom in a whisper, "but i'm not perfectly sure that i know what a stencil is." there was a shout from around the table. "never mind, thomas," soothed roger, patting his friend on the shoulder. "confession is good for the soul. a stencil, my son, is a thin sheet of something--pasteboard, the girls use--with a pattern cut out of it. you lay the stencil down on a piece of cloth or canvas or board or whatever you want to decorate, and you scrub color on all the part of the material that shows through." "methinks i see a great light," replied tom, slapping his forehead. "when you lift the stencil there is your pattern done in color." roger and james leaned forward together and patted tom's brow. "such it is to have real intellect!" they murmured in admiring accents. tom bowed meekly. "enlighten me further--also these smarties. what kind of paint do you use?" "tapestry dyes or oil paints. it depends somewhat on your material. if you want to launder it, use the dye." "fast color, eh?" "when you wash it, set the color by soaking your article in cold water salted. then wash it gently in the suds of white soap. suds, mind you; don't touch the cake of soap to it." "i promise you solemnly i'll never touch a cake of soap to any stenciling i do." "you're ridiculous, roger. no, i believe you won't!" "here's a piece of cloth ethel brown is going to make into a doll's skirt. see, she's hemmed it already and i'll put this simple star stencil on the hem. where's a board, dorothy?" dorothy brought a sewing board and the others watched margaret pin her material down hard upon it and fasten the stencil over that. "good girl! you've got them so tight they won't dare to shiver," declared tom. "do you notice that this stencil has been shellacked so the edges won't roughen when i scrub? stiff bristle brushes are what i'm using." margaret called their attention to her utensils. "and i have a different brush for each color. also i have an old rag to dabble the extra color off on to." "are you ready? go!" commanded roger. [illustration: "i'll put this simple star stencil on the hem"] margaret scrubbed hard and succeeded in getting a variety of shading through the amount of paint that she allowed to soak entirely through or partway through the material. when she had done as many stars as there were openings on the pattern she took out the pins and moved the stencil along so that the holes came over a fresh piece of material, making sure that the space between the first new star and the last old one was the same as that between the stars on the stencil. "how can we boys apply that?" asked james. "you can stencil on anything that you would decorate with painting," said ethel brown. "your jig-saw disks, tom. stencil a small conventional pattern on each one--a star or a triangle." "here's a stencil of a vine that would be a beauty on one of your large plain pasteboard boxes, james." "dorothy has been turning white cheesecloth doll clothes into organdie muslins by stenciling on them these tiny sprays of roses and cornflowers and jasmine." "i'm going to do roosters and cats and dogs on a lot of bibs for the babies." "you'd better save a few in case mademoiselle really sends us that belgian baby." "i'll make some more if it does turn up." "aunt marion gave me some cotton flannel--" "cot--ton!" "cotton flannel, yes, sir; and i've made it into some little blankets for tiny babies. i bound the raw edges, and on some of them i did a cross stitch pattern and on others i stenciled a pattern." "it saves time, i should say." "lots. when you have ever so many articles gathered, just have a stenciling bee and you can turn out the decoration much faster than by doing even a wee bit of embroidery." "if the belgian baby really comes, let's make it a play-house. the boys can do the carpentry and we can all make the furniture and i'm wild to stencil some cunning curtains for the windows." "i'll draw you a fascinating pattern for it." "there's my candlestick half done," said dorothy mournfully, "and i can't finish it. i don't understand about that clay." "perhaps it dried up and blew away." "it did dry, but i moistened it and kneaded it and cut it in halves with a wire and put the inside edges outside and generally patticaked it but i'm sure it's not more than a quarter the size it was when i left it in the attic yesterday afternoon." "you seem to have made a great mess on the floor over there by the window; didn't you slice off some and put it in that cup?" "that's my 'slip.' it only took a scrap to make that. it's about as thick as cream and you use it to smooth rough places and fill up cracks with. no, that wouldn't account for much of any of the clay." "how did you make this thing, anyway?" asked james turning it about. "careful. i took a saucer and put a wet rag in it and then i made a clay snake and coiled it about the way you make those coiled baskets, only i smoothed the clay so you can't see the coils. i hollowed it on the inside like a saucer. then i put another wet rag inside my clay saucer and a china saucer inside that and turned them all upside down on my work board, and took off the original china saucer and smoothed down the coils on the underside of the clay saucer." tom drew a long breath. "take one yourself," he suggested. "you'll need it, you talk so fast." "it stiffened while margaret was doing her stenciling. when it was firm enough to handle i turned it over again and took out the small china saucer and smoothed off any marks it had left." "it's about time to build up the candle holder, isn't it?" [illustration: dorothy's candlestick] "did you see me bring in a short candle? i wrapped it in a wet rag and stood it exactly in the middle of the clay saucer. then i roughened the clay around it and wet the rough part with slip and pressed a fresh little snake round the foot of the candle. the slip makes it stick to the roughening, so you have to roughen the top of every coil and moisten it with slip." "you finished off the top of that part very smoothly," complimented helen. "when it's stiff enough you take out the candle and smooth the inside. here's where i'm stumped. i haven't got enough clay for a handle." "how do you make the handle?" "pat out another snake and make a hoop attached to the holder and another one rolling up on to the lip of the saucer." "as if the serpent were trying to put his tail into his mouth." "i shall have to just smooth this over with a soft brush and wrap it up in a wet cloth until i get some more clay. if i let it get hard i can't finish it." "what's that drip, dorothy?" asked helen, as a drop of water fell on the table before her. they all looked at the ceiling where drops of water were assembling and beginning to fall with a soft splash. there was a scramble to get their work out of the way. dorothy brought a salad bowl and placed it where it would catch the water and then ran to investigate the cause of the trouble. at a cry from upstairs helen and the ethels ran to her help. roger went to the foot of the stairs and called up to inquire if they wanted his assistance. evidently they did, for he, too, disappeared. in a few minutes he re-appeared bearing dicky in his arms--a dicky sopping wet and much subdued. "what in the world?" everybody questioned. "dorothy's found her clay," said roger. "come on, old man. wrap aunt louise's tweed coat around you--so--and _run_ so you won't catch cold," and the two boys disappeared out of the front door, dicky stumbling and struggling with the voluminous folds of his aunt's garment. dorothy and the other girls came down stairs in a few minutes. "do telephone to aunt marion's and see if mother is there and ask her to come home," dorothy begged helen, while she gathered cloths and pans and went upstairs again, taking the maid with her. "what did dicky do?" asked the others again. both ethels burst into laughter. "he must have gone up in the attic and found dorothy's clay, for he had filled up the waste pipe of the bath tub--" "--and turned on the water, i'll bet!" exclaimed tom. "that's just what he did. it looks as if he'd been trying to float about everything he could find in any of the bedrooms." "probably he had a glorious time until the tub ran over and he didn't know how to stop it." "dicky's a great old man! i judge he didn't float himself!" "now dorothy can finish her candlestick handle!" chapter xviii ethel blue awaits a cable mrs. smith begged that the meeting should not adjourn, and under her direction the trouble caused by dicky's entrance into the navy was soon remedied, although it was evident that the ceiling of the dining-room would need the attention of a professional. roger soon returned with the news that the honorary member of the club had taken no cold, and every one settled down to work again, even dorothy, who rescued enough clay from dicky's earthworks to complete the handle of her candlestick. "i'd like to bring a matter before this meeting," said tom seriously when they were all assembled and working once more. "bring it on," urged the president. "it isn't a matter belonging to this club, but if there isn't any one else to do it it seemed to me--and to father when i spoke to him about it--that we might do some good." "it sounds mysterious. let's have it," said james. "it seemed to me as i thought over those movies the other night that there was a very good chance that that man schuler--your singing teacher, you know, fräulein's betrothed--wasn't dead after all." "it certainly looked like it--the way he fell back against the orderly--he didn't look alive." "he didn't--that's a fact. at the same time the film made one of those sudden changes right at that instant." "father and i thought that was so a death scene shouldn't be shown," said james. "that's possible, but it's also possible that they thought that was a good dramatic spot to leave that group of people and go off to another group." "what's your idea? i don't suppose we could find out from the film people." "probably not. it would be too roundabout to try to get at their operator in belgium and very likely he wouldn't remember if they did get in touch with him." "he must be seeing sights like that all the time." "brother edward suggested when he heard us talking about it that we should send a cable to mademoiselle and ask her. she must have known mr. schuler here in the school at rosemont." "certainly she did." "then she would have been interested enough in him to recall what happened when she came across him in the hospital." "how could we get a message to her? we don't know where that hospital was. they don't tell the names of places even in newspaper messages, you know. they are headed 'from a town near the front.'" "here's where edward had a great idea--that is, father thought it was workable. see what you think of it." the club was growing excited. the ethels stopped working to listen, helen's face flushed with interest, and the boys leaned across the table to hear the plan to which rev. herbert watkins had given his approval. they knew that tom's father, in his work among the poor foreigners in new york, often had to try to hunt up their relatives in europe so that this would not be a matter of guesswork with him. "it's pretty much guesswork in this war time," admitted tom when some one suggested it. "you can merely send a cable and trust to luck that it will land somewhere. here's edward's idea. he says that the day we went to see mademoiselle sail she told him that she was related to monsieur millerand, the french minister of war. it was through her relationship with him that she expected to be sent where she wanted to go--that is, to belgium." "she was sent there, so her expectation seems to have had a good foundation." "that's what makes edward think that perhaps we can get in touch with her through the same means." "through monsieur millerand?" "he suggests that we send a cable addressed to mademoiselle--" "justine--" "--millerand in the care of monsieur millerand, minister of war. we could say 'is schuler dead?' and sign it with some name she'd know in rosemont. she'd understand at once that in some way news of his being in belgium had reached here." "it seems awfully uncertain." "it is uncertain. even if she got the cable she might not be able to send a reply. everything is uncertain about it. at the same time if we _could_ get an answer it would be a comfort to fräulein even if the message said he had died." "i believe that's so. it's not knowing that's hardest to bear." "don't you think mademoiselle would have sent word to fräulein if he had died?" "i don't believe she knew they were engaged. no one knew until after the war had been going on for several weeks. if ever she wrote to any one in rosemont she might mention having seen him, but i don't believe it would occur to her to send any special word to fräulein." "she might be put under suspicion if she addressed a letter to any one with a german name even if she lived in the united states." "no one but ethel blue has had a letter from mademoiselle since, she left," said helen. "we should have heard of it, i'm sure." "well, what do you say to the plan? can't we send a cable signed by the 'secretary of the united service club'?" "i think it would be a good use to put the club money to," approved james, the treasurer. "if you say so i'll send it when i get back to new york this afternoon. how shall we word it?" "mademoiselle justine millerand, care monsieur millerand, minister of war, bordeaux, france," said roger, slowly. "cut out 'mademoiselle' and 'monsieur,'" suggested margaret. "we must remember that our remarks cost about a quarter a word in times of peace and war prices may be higher." "cut out 'of war,'" said ethel brown. "there's only one 'bordeaux,'" added margaret. "a dollar and a quarter saved already," said james thoughtfully. "now let's have the message." "what's the matter with tom's original suggestion--'is schuler dead'?" asked ethel blue. "i suppose we must leave out the 'mr.' if we are going to be economical." "sign it 'morton, secretary united service club, rosemont.' i'll file ethel blue's address--at the cable office so the answer will be sent to her if one comes." ethel blue looked somewhat agitated at the prospect of receiving a cable almost from the battlefield, but she said nothing. "the united service club was the last group of people she saw in america, you see," tom went on, "so edward thinks she'll know at once whom the message comes from and she'll guess that the high school scholars want to know about their former teacher." "i have a feeling in my bones that she'll get the message and that she'll answer," said ethel blue. "if she doesn't get it we shan't have done any harm," mused ethel brown, "and if she does get it and answers then we shall have done a lot of good by getting the information for fräulein." "we needn't tell anybody about it outside of our families and then there won't be any expectations to be disappointed." "it certainly would be best not to tell fräulein." "that's settled, then," said tom, "and i'll send the message the moment i reach town this afternoon." "it's the most thrilling thing i ever had anything to do with," ethel blue whispered. chapter xix leather and brass the following week was filled with expectation of a reply from mademoiselle, but none came though every ring at the mortons' doorbell was answered with the utmost promptness by one or another of the children who made a point of rushing to the door before mary could reach it. "i suppose we could hardly expect to have a reply," sighed ethel blue, "but it would have been _so_ splendiferous if it did come!" thanks to dicky's escapade the last saturday afternoon had been so broken in upon that the club decided that they must have an all-day session on the next saturday. roger had promised to teach the others how to do the leather and brass work in which he had become quite expert, and he was talking to himself about it as he was dressing after doing his morning work. "this business of working in leather for orphan children makes a noise like toil to me," he soliloquized. "but think of the joy of the kids when they receive a leather penwiper, though they aren't yet old enough to write, or a purse when they haven't any shekels to put into it!" "ro--ger," came a voice from a long way off. "let's go over to dorothy's now," roger called back as if it had been ethel brown who was late. "i should say so! the watkinses and hancocks said they'd be there at ten and it must be that now. i'll call ethel blue and helen," and ethel brown's voice came from a greater distance than before. the other girls were not to be discovered, however, and when roger and ethel arrived at dorothy's they found all the rest waiting for them. [illustration: "roger cut a slip ten inches long and four inches wide"] [illustration: corner for blotter pad] "where's this professor of leather?" called tom as he heard roger's steps on the attic stairs. "_and_ brass," added roger grandly as he appeared in the doorway. "no one disputes the brass," returned tom, and roger roared cheerfully and called out "bull's-eye!" "now, then," began roger seating himself at the head of the table, "with apologies to the president i'll call this solemn meeting to order--that is, as much order as there can be with dicky around." dicky was even then engaged in trying to make a hole in ethel blue's shoe with a leather punch, but he was promptly suppressed and placed between the ethels before his purpose was accomplished. "you've got him interned there," remarked james, using a phrase that was becoming customary in the newspaper accounts of the care of prisoners. "i'm going to start you people making corners for a big blotting pad," said roger, "not because the orphans will want a blotting pad, but because they are easy to make and you can adapt the idea to lots of other articles." "fire ahead," commanded james. "you make a paper pattern to fit your corner--so fashion," and roger tore a sheet of paper off a pad and cut a slip ten inches long and four inches wide. a point in the middle of the long side he placed on the corner of the big blotter that lay before him and then he folded the rest of the paper around the corner. the result was a smooth triangle on the face of the blotter and a triangle at the back just like it except that it was split up the middle. "here's your pattern," said roger slipping it off. "when you make this of brass or copper it's a good plan to round these back corners so there won't be any sharp points to stick into you or to scratch the desk." "the orphans' mahogany." "or grandfather emerson's. i'm going to inflict a set on him at christmas." "i should think it would be hard to work on such dinky little things," remarked james who had large hands. "you don't cut them out of your big sheet of copper or your big piece of leather yet. you draw the size of this small pattern on to a larger piece of paper and you draw your ornamental design right where you want it on the face of the triangle--so." "more work for ethel blue, making original designs." "she might get up some u. s. c. designs and have them copyrighted," suggested helen. "until she does we'll have to use these simple figures that i traced out of a book the other day." "why couldn't we use our stenciling designs?" "you could, if they are the right size. that star pattern you put oh a doll's skirt would be just the ticket--just one star for each corner." "we might put u. s. c. in each corner." "or u. in one corner and s. in another, and c. in a third and a star or something in the fourth." "or the initials of the person you give it to." "we've got the size of the corner piece as it is when it's unfolded and with its design on it, all drawn on this piece of paper. now you tack your sheet of brass on to a block of wood and lay a sheet of carbon paper over it and your design on that and trace ahead." "i see, i see," commented margaret. "when you take it off, there you have the size of your corner indicated and the star or whatever you're going to ornament it with, all drawn in the right place." "exactly. now we tackle the brass itself." "it seems to me we ought to have some tools for that." "a light hammer and a wire nail--that's all. see the point of this nail? it has been filed flat and rather dull. i made enough for everybody to have one--not you, sir," and he snatched away one of them from dicky just as that young man was about to nail ethel brown's dress on to the edge of her chair. "dicky will have to be interned at home if he isn't quiet." the president shook her head at the honorary member. "first you go around the whole outline, tapping the nail gently, stroke by stroke, until the line of the design is completely hammered in." "that isn't hard," said tom. "watch me." "when the outline is made you take another wire nail that has been filed perfectly flat on the bottom and go over the whole background with it." "i see, i see," cried ethel blue. "that makes the design stand out puffily and smooth against a sort of motheaten background." "for eloquent description commend me to ethel blue," declared margaret. "she's right, though. you can make the moth holes of different size by using nails of different sizes. there are regular tools that come, too, with different pounding surfaces so it's possible to make quite a variety of backgrounds." "this mothy one is pretty enough for me," declared margaret. "i don't much like that name for it, but it is pretty, just the same," insisted roger. "when you've hammered down the background you take out the tacks and cut out your whole corner with this pair of shears that is made to cut metal. then you fold over the backs just the way you folded over the paper to find the shape originally." "it's not so terribly easy to bend," commented ethel blue. "shape them along the edge of your block of wood. persuade them down--so, and fold them back--so. tap them into place with your wooden mallet. there you are." the finished corner was passed from hand to hand and duly admired. "rub it shiny with any brass polish, if you like it bright," directed roger. "it's fashionable for coppers to be dull now," said helen. "you ladies know more about fashions of all sorts than i should ever pretend to," said her brother meekly. "i like metals to shine, myself." "what are some of the articles we can start in to make now that we know how?" questioned margaret. "all sorts of things for the desk--a paper knife and a roller blotter and a case to hold the inkwell and a clip to keep papers from blowing away. the work is just the same, no matter what you're making. it's all a matter of getting the outlines of different objects and then bending them up carefully after you've hammered the design and got them cut out well." "why can't you make all sorts of boxes?" asked james whose mind had run to boxes ever since his week of work upon them. "you can. all sorts and sizes. line them with silk or leather. leather wears best." "how far is the leather work like the metal work?" asked ethel brown. "it seemed to be the same as far as the point where you tacked them on to the wooden block." [illustration: "a beauty leather mat"] "it is the same except that you wet the leather before you tack it on to the block. when you put your design on to the leather you don't need to use carbon paper. borrow one of ethel brown's knitting needles and run it over the design that you have drawn on the paper placed over the leather, and it will leave a tiny groove on the damp leather." "that's a simple instrument." [illustration: "a three cornered purse that doesn't need any sewing"] "the steel tooler you take next is simple, too. you deepen the groove with its edge and then take the flat part of the tooler and go over every bit of the leather outside of the design, pressing it and polishing it with great care." "i suppose that gives the leather a different texture." [illustration: the three cornered purse completed] "it seems to. it makes the design show more, anyway." "i saw a beauty leather mat the other day with a cotton boll design that puffed right up from the background. "the cotton boll caught our little dorothy's eye, of course! you make your design puff out by rubbing it on the back with a round headed tool. your mat probably had the puffed up part filled with wax so it wouldn't smash down again when something heavy was placed on it." "i think it did; it felt hard." "if you do puff out any part of your pattern you have to tool over the design again, because the outline will have lost its sharpness." "the mat i saw was colored." "that's easy. there are colors that come especially for using on leather. you float them on when the leather is wet and you can get beautiful effects." "you ought not to cut out your leather corners until they are dry, i suppose?" "they ought to be thoroughly dry. if you want a lining for a purse or a cardcase you can paste in either silk or a thin leather. it's pretty to make an openwork design and let the lining show through." "how about sewing purses? it must be hard work." "helen does mine on the machine. she says it isn't much trouble if she goes slowly and takes a few stitches back at the ends so they won't come apart. but i'm going to show you how to make a little three cornered purse that doesn't need any sewing--only two glove snappers." so simple was this pattern that each of them had finished one by the time that grandmother emerson's car came to take them all over to luncheon at her house. chapter xx the ethels cook to keep another week rolled on and still no reply came to the cable that the club had sent to mademoiselle millerand. "either she hasn't received it," said ethel blue, who felt a personal interest because it had been signed by her as secretary of the club, "or mr. schuler is dead and she doesn't want to tell us." "it's pretty sure to be one or the other," said ethel brown. "i suppose we might as well forget that we tried to do anything about it." "have you heard roger or helen say anything about fräulein lately?" "helen said she looked awfully sad and that she was wearing black. evidently she has no hope." "poor fräulein!" "what are we going to do this week?" "i've planned the cunningest little travelling bag for a doll. it's a straight strip of leather, tooled in a pretty pattern. it's doubled in halves and there is a three-cornered piece let in at the ends to give a bit more room." "how do you fasten it?" "like a boston bag, with a strap that goes over the top." "you could run a cord in and out parallel with the top and pull it up." "i believe i'll make two and try both ways." "you could make the same pattern only a little larger for a wrist bag for an older child." [illustration: bag for a doll, a child or a grown-up] [illustration] "and larger still for a shopping bag for a grown person." "that's as useful a pattern as helen's and margaret's wrapper pattern! do you realize that this is the week that we ought to cook?" "is it? we'll have to hurry fearfully! are you perfectly sure the things will keep?" "i've talked it over several times with miss dawson, the domestic science teacher. she has given me some splendid receipts and some information about packing. she says there won't be any doubt of their travelling all right." "we'll have to cook every afternoon, then. we'd better go over the receipts and see if we have all the materials we need." "we know about the cookies and the fruit cake and the fudge. we've made all those such a short time ago that we know we have those materials. here are ginger snaps," she went on, examining her cook book. "we haven't enough molasses i'm sure, and i'm doubtful about the ginger." "let me see." ethel blue read over the receipt. " pt. molasses--dark cup butter tablespoon ginger teaspoon soda teaspoon cinnamon "about quarts flour, or enough more to make a thick dough. "sift flour, soda, and spices together. melt the butter, put the molasses in a big bowl, add the butter, then the flour gradually, using a knife to cut it in. when stiff enough to roll, roll out portions quite thin on a floured board, cut out with a cookie cutter or with the cover of a baking powder can. place them on greased tins, leaving a little space between each cookie. bake in a hot oven about five minutes." "miss dawson says we must let the cookies get perfectly cold before we pack them. then we must wrap them in paraffin paper and pack them tightly into a box." "they ought to be so tight that they won't rattle round and break." "if we could get enough tin boxes it would be great." "let's ask grandmother emerson and aunt louise and all mother's friends to save their biscuit boxes for us." "we ought to have thought of asking them before. and we must go out foraging for baking powder tins to steam the little fruit puddings and the small loaves of boston brown bread in." "what a jolly idea!" "miss dawson says that when they are cold we can slip them out of their tins and brush the bread and pudding and cake over with pure alcohol. that will kill the mould germs and it will all be evaporated by the time they are opened." "if there is paraffin paper around them, too, and they are slipped back into their little round tins it seems to me they ought to be as cosy and good as possible." "i'm awfully taken with the individual puddings. we can make them all different sizes according to the size of the tins we get hold of. doesn't this sound good?" ethel read aloud the pudding receipt with an appreciative smile. "steamed fruit pudding " ½ cups flour teaspoons baking powder ½ teaspoon salt ¼ teaspoon cinnamon ½ teaspoon nutmeg or ginger cup chopped suet cup chopped raisins ½ cup cleaned currants cup water or milk cup molasses (dark) "sift soda, salt, baking powder, and spice with the flour, add the suet and fruit, then the molasses and milk. mix well. fill moulds two-thirds full. steam three hours." "when we do them up we can arrange them so that no bundle will contain both a fruit cake and a fruit pudding. we must have variety." "i asked particularly about wheat bread. the papers say that that is scarce, you know." "did miss dawson say it would travel?" "no, she thought it would be as hard as shoe leather. but she says the boston brown bread ought to be soft enough even after six weeks. if we can make enough small loaves--" "baking powder tin loaves--" "yes--to have a loaf of bread and a fruit cake or a fruit pudding or a box of cookies--" "that is, one cake--" "--and some candy in each package that we do up it will give variety." "it sounds good to me. we'll have to hide all our things away from roger." "listen to this receipt: "boston brown bread " cup rye meal (or flour) cup granulated corn-meal cup graham flour cups sour milk or ¾ cups sweet milk or water teaspoon salt ¾ teaspoon soda ¾ cup molasses (dark) "mix and sift the dry ingredients, add molasses and milk, stir until well mixed, turn into a well greased mould, steam ½ hours. the cover should be greased before being placed on the mould, then tied down with a string, otherwise the bread might force off the cover. the mould should never be filled more than two-thirds full. for steaming, place the mould on a stand (or on nails laid flat) in a kettle of boiling water, allowing water to come half way up around mould, cover closely, and steam, add, as needed, more boiling water." "'mould' is polite for baking powder tin." "i wish our family was small enough for us to have them. they're just too dear!" "some time after the christmas ship sails let's make some for the family--one for each person." "that's a glorious idea. i never do have enough on sunday morning and you know how roger teases every one of us to give him part of ours." "all these 'eats' that travel so well will be splendid to send for christmas gifts to people at a distance, won't they? people like katharine jackson in buffalo." "and the wilson children at fort myer," and the ethels named other young people whom they had met at different garrisons and navy yards. "here are three kinds of candies that miss dawson says ought to travel perfectly if they're packed so they won't shake about here's 'roly poly' to start with. i can see katharine's eyes shining over that." "and the orphans', too." ethel read the receipt. "roly poly " lbs. brown sugar cup cream tablespoons butter ½ pint ( cup) chopped figs cup chopped almonds cups chopped dates cup citron, cut in pieces ½ cup chopped pecans ½ cup chopped cherries ½ cup chopped raisins "cook sugar, cream and butter together until a little forms a soft ball when dropped in a cup of cold water. then add the nuts and fruit. put it all in a wet cotton bag, mould into a roll on a smooth surface. remove from the bag and cut as desired." "i like the sound of 'sea foam.' della tried that, and said it was delicious. "sea foam " cups brown sugar ½ cup water teaspoon vanilla cup chopped nuts white of egg "beat the white of egg until stiff. boil the sugar and water together until a little forms a soft ball when dropped in a cup of cold water. add the vanilla and nuts, beat this into the white of egg. when it stiffens pour it into a greased pan, or drop it by spoonsful on the pan." "it sounds delicious. when we fill james's pretty boxes with these goodies and tie them with attractive paper and cord they are going to look like 'some' christmas to these poor little kiddies." "don't you wish we could see them open them?" "if mademoiselle would only send that belgian baby we really could." "i'm afraid mademoiselle has forgotten us utterly." "it isn't surprising. but i wish she hadn't." "we must get plenty of brown sugar. this 'panocha' calls for it, as well as the 'sea foam' and the 'roly poly.'" "we'll have to borrow a corner of mary's storeroom for once." "she won't mind. she's as interested as we are in the orphans. let me see how the 'panocha' goes. "panocha " cups brown sugar tablespoons butter ½ cup milk ½ cup chopped nuts of any kind. "boil sugar, butter, and milk together until a little forms a soft ball when dropped in a cup of cold water. add the nuts, stir a few moments till slightly thick, drop by spoonsful on greased tins, or pour it into a greased tin. when cool cut in blocks." the time given by the ethels to preparing for their cooking operations was well spent. never once did they have to call on mary for something they had forgotten to order, and each afternoon was pronounced a success when it was over and its results lay before them. "if we just had energy enough we might follow the plan that the candy store people do when they have a new clerk. they say that they let her eat all she wants to for the first few days and then she doesn't want any more. it would be fun to give the family all they wanted." "we really ought to do it before we set the club to work packing all these goodies, but i don't see how we can with those three boys. we never could fill them up so they'd stop eating." "nev-_er_!" "not roger!" "we'll just have to give them a lecture on self-control and set them to work." "it's a glorious lot we've got. where's mother? we must show them to her and grandmother and aunt louise." so there was an exhibit of "food products" that brought the ethels many compliments. shelf upon shelf of their private kitchen was filled with boxes and tins, and every day added to the quantity, for mary came in occasionally to bring a wee fruit cake, aunt louise sent over cookies, and mrs. emerson added a box of professional candy to the pile. "they tell me at the candy store that very hard candy doesn't last well," she said. "it grows moist." "that's why miss dawson gave me these receipts for softish candies like fudge. it's well to remember that at christmas time when you're selecting candies for presents." "i don't believe the ethels ever will buy any candies again," said mrs. morton. "they've become so expert in making them that they quite look down on the professionals." "did you see the paper this morning?" asked mrs. emerson. when the girls said that they had not, she produced a clipping. "grandfather thought that perhaps this might have escaped your notice, so he sent it over." ethel brown took it and ethel blue read it over her shoulder. cargo for christmas ship gathering here from every state hundreds of cases containing every conceivable kind of gift for a child have been received at the bush terminal in brooklyn, where the christmas ship _jason_, which will carry the gifts of american children to the orphans of the european war is being loaded. it became apparent that if the _jason_ were to get off within reasonable time, a tremendous force of sorters and packers would have to be employed. when the situation was presented over the telephone to secretary of the navy daniels he secured authorization for gen. wood to assign sixty soldiers to help to get the cargo ready. these men appeared for duty yesterday afternoon. secretary daniels has assigned lieut.-commander courtney to command the christmas ship. "what a fine santa claus-y feeling commander courtney must have," said mrs. morton. "he's a friend of your father's, ethel brown." "think of being santa claus to all europe!" "our parcels won't be very visible among several millions, will they?" "you have a wonderfully creditable collection for ten youngsters working so short a time." "mr. watkins is keeping in touch with the ship so that we can make use of every day that she's delayed. tom telephoned to roger this afternoon that he had been over to the bush terminal and they were sure they wouldn't start before the th of november. "that gives us almost a week more, you see." "do you think we could go to new york to see the _jason_ sail?" asked ethel blue and both girls waited eagerly for the reply. "aunt louise and i were saying that the club ought to go in a body." "if only she doesn't sail during school hours." "even then i think we might manage it for once," smiled mrs. morton, and the ethels rushed off to tell roger and helen the plan and to telephone it to margaret and james. chapter xxi the christmas ship sails the rosemont and glen point members of the u. s. c. did not wait for the watkinses to join them on saturday before beginning to do up the parcels for the santa claus ship. all the small bundles were wrapped and tied in dorothy's attic, but after mrs. smith had made a careful examination of the attic stairs she came to the conclusion that the large packing cases into which they must be put for transportation to the bush terminal in brooklyn could not be taken down without damage to the walls. it was therefore decided that when the bundles were ready they were to be brought downstairs and there packed into several large cases which had been donated for the purpose by the local dry goods dealer and the shoe store man. each of these huge boxes james declared to be probably as large as the mysterious house which roger was going to propose for some sort of club work in the spring. they had been delivered early in the week and were established on the porch at the back of the smith cottage awaiting the contents that were to bring pleasure to hundreds of expectant children. doctor hancock was so busy that he could not bring margaret's and james's collection to rosemont when it was wanted there, so mrs. emerson went to glen point in her car and brought it back filled high with the result of james's pasting. it was necessary to have all his boxes to pack the candies and cookies and small gifts in. every afternoon a busy throng gathered in the attic, wrapping and tying and labelling the work that kept them all so busy for the previous two months. "we must do up every package just as carefully as if we were going to put it on our own christmas tree," helen decided. "i think half the fun of christmas is untying the bundles and having the room all heaped up with tissue paper and bright ribbons." the club had laid in a goodly store of tissue paper of a great variety of colors, buying it at wholesale and thus obtaining a discount over the retail price. the question of what to tie with was a subject of discussion. "we certainly can't afford ribbon," ethel brown declared. "even the narrowest kind is too expensive when we have to have hundreds of yards of it." "we ought to have thought about it before," said helen looking rather worried, as this necessity should have been foreseen by the president. "i'll go right over to town and get something now," she added, putting on her hat. "have any of you girls any ideas on the subject?" "i have," replied dorothy. "you know that bright colored binding that dressmakers use on seams? it's sometimes silk and sometimes silk and--" "cotton? ha!" "silk and cotton; yes, ma'am. it comes in all colors and it's just the right width and it costs a good deal less than real ribbon." "i suppose we can get the rolls by wholesale in assorted colors, can't we?" "i should suppose so." "i have an idea, too," offered margaret who had come over on the trolley after school was over. "there's a tinsel cord, silver and gilt, that doesn't cost much and it looks bright and pretty. it would be just the thing." "i've seen that. it does look pretty. for home packages you can stick a sprig of holly or a poinsettia in the knot and it makes it c-h-a-r-m-i-n-g," spelled ethel blue, giving herself a whirl in her excitement. "but we can't use stick-ups on our christmas ship parcels, you know." "that's so, but the tinsel string just by itself is quite pretty enough." "i'll bring back bushels," said helen. "you have enough to go on with for a while." "one year when mother and i were caught at the last minute on christmas eve without any ribbon," said dorothy, "--it was after the shops had closed, i remember, we found several bundles that we had overlooked--we tied them with ordinary red and green string twisted together. it looked holly-fied." "that would be easy to do," said roger. "see, put two balls of twine, one red and one green in a box and punch a hole in the top and let the two colors come out of the hole. then use them just as if they were one cord. see?" "as he talked he manufactured a twine box, popping into it not only the red and green balls about which he had been talking, but, on the other side of a slip of pasteboard which he put in for a partition, a ball of pink and a ball of blue. "watch roger developing another color scheme," cried ethel blue. "i'm going to follow that out," and she proceeded to make up a collection of parcels wrapped in pink tissue paper tied with blue string, in blue paper tied with pink cord and in white tied with roger's combination. "there's one family fitted out with a lot of presents all naturally belonging together," she cried. "i rather like that notion myself," announced james gravely, adjusting his lame leg to a more comfortable position. "please hand me that brown and yellow tissue, somebody. i'm going to make a lot of bundles along the color lines that my auburn haired sister uses in her dress." "observant little jimmy," commented margaret. "here you perceive, ladies, that i am doing up the bundles with brown and yellow and burnt orange and tango, and lemon color, and i'm tying them with a contrast--brown with orange and buttercup yellow with brown and lemon yellow with white and so on. good looking, eh?" he finished, pointing with pride to his group of attractive parcels. "i'm going to do a bunch with a mixture of all sorts," announced roger. "here's a green tied with red and a white tied with green and a pink tied with white and a brown tied with tango, and violet tied with blue, _und so weiter_, as our fräulein says when she means 'and so forth' and can't remember her english fast enough." "poor fräulein! it will be a hard christmas for her." "she brought in the last of her work and mrs. hindenburg's yesterday. such a mound of knitting!" "has any one been to the old ladies' home to gather up what they have there?" asked james. "roger went early this morning before school. perhaps those old ladies haven't been busy! see that pile?" "all theirs? good work," and james set about tying up the soft and comfortable knitted mufflers and wristlets and socks, first in tissue paper with a ribbon or a bright cord and then with a stouter wrapper of ordinary paper. he marked on each package what was in it. "if the people who are doing the sorting and repacking at the bush terminal can know what is in each bundle it is going to help them a lot," remarked methodical james. the packing of the candies and cookies took especial care, for they had to be wrapped in paraffin paper and tightly wedged in the fancy boxes awaiting them before they could be wrapped with their gay outside coverings. "we want them to arrive with some shape still left to them and not merely a boxful of crumbs," said ethel brown earnestly. except for the collections of varied presents which they had made for the sake of the color schemes of their wrappings--an arrangement with which helen was much pleased when she came back laden with ribbons and cord--the gifts were packed according to their kind. every article of clothing was wrapped separately and the bundles were labelled, each with the name of the article within, and then put into one large box. it was only by great squeezing that the knitted articles were persuaded to go into the same case. in another box were the candies and cookies and cakes and breads. the grocer from whom they had bought the materials for their cooking had contributed a dozen tins of peaches. in still another case went the seemingly innumerable small parcels that held toys or little gifts. here were the metal pieces and the leather coin purses and the stuffed animals and the dolls. doctor hancock had sent over a box of raisins and mrs. watkins had sent out from town a box of figs and a few of these goodies with two or three pieces of candy, went into every article that could be made to serve as a container. of this sort were the innumerable fancy bags made of silk bits and of cretonne and of scraps of velvet which the girls had put together when other work flagged. many of the pretty little baskets held a pleasant amount of sweeties, and the tiny leather travelling bags and the larger wrist bags of tooled leather were lined with a piece of paraffin paper enclosing something for sweet-toothed european children. james's boxes, with those made by the others, held out wonderfully. "you certainly put in a good week's work with the paste pot," declared roger admiringly as he filled the last one with sugar cookies and tied it with green and red twine to harmonize with its covering of holly paper. the watkinses had sent out their offerings, for they wanted what they had at home to be packed with the other club articles, even though they lived nearer than the rest to the place from which the ship was going to steam. when this additional collection was prepared and packed it was found that there were three big packing cases. "good for the u. s. c.!" cried the boys as the last nail went into the last cover. james, who printed well, painted the address neatly on the tops and sides, and they all watched with vivid interest the drayman who hauled them, away, generously contributing his services to the christmas cause. after all their hurry it seemed something of a hardship when they were informed that the sailing of the ship was delayed for several days because the force of packers, large as it was, could not prepare all the parcels in time for the tenth of the month. "the paper says there are more than sixty car-loads of gifts," read ethel blue to her interested family, "and five or six million separate presents." "no wonder they're delayed!" yet after all they were glad of the delay for the _jason_ finally sailed at noon of the fourteenth, and that was saturday. the hancocks went in to new york and over to brooklyn in the doctor's car and mrs. emerson's big touring car held all the mortons and dorothy and her mother, and fräulein and her mother, though it was a tight squeeze. "the old woman who lived in a shoe must have been on her way to a christmas ship," cried grandmother when roger tossed dicky in "on top of the heap of ethels," as he described it and took up his own station on the running board. the pier at the bush terminal in brooklyn was already well crowded with people and motors when the rosemont party arrived. the watkinses and the hancocks were already there. freight cars stood at one side, freight cars empty now of their loads of good cheer. everybody was laughing and happy and in a christmas mood, and the boy band from st. john's home in brooklyn made merry music. thanks to mrs. morton's acquaintance with lieutenant-commander courtney, who was in command of the ship, she and her flock had been invited to hear the speeches of farewell made in the main saloon by representatives of the city of new york. roger led the way to the gang plank which stretched from the pier to the deck of the huge navy collier. "old _jason_ looks grim enough in his gray war paint," he commented. "but those great latticed arms of the six cranes look as if he were trying to play christmas tree," suggested mrs. emerson. the speeches were full of good will and christmas cheer. back on to the pier went the listeners and then amid the cheers of the throng on the dock and the whistles of near-by boats and the strains of "the star spangled banner" from the boys' band and the waving of handkerchiefs and hats, the huge gray steamer slipped out into the stream and started on her way across the ocean. it was when the u. s. c. was making its way back to the automobiles that a piercing scream attracted their attention. "that sounds like fräulein's voice," said helen, looking about for the source of the cry. "_meine tochter!_" exclaimed mrs. hindenburg at the same moment. and then they came upon fräulein, her arms about the neck of a bearded man, who stroked her hair and cheek with one hand while with the other he clung to one of the crutches which gave him but an insecure support. "_lieber heinrich!_" cried mrs. hindenburg as she caught sight of the tableau. "it's--yes, i believe it's mr. schuler! look, helen, do you think it is?" whispered roger. "it must be," returned helen. "it's hard to tell with that beard, but i'm almost sure it is." "his leg! oh, helen, his leg is gone!" lamented ethel blue. the rosemont party's certainty was relieved by mrs. hindenburg who turned to them, beaming. "it iss mr. schuler; it iss heinrich," she explained. "_he_ has lost his leg. what matter? he is here and the _tochter_ is happy!" happy indeed was fräulein when she turned her tear-stained face toward the others. "he has come," she said simply, while the rest crowded around and shook hands. it seemed that he had obtained leave to return to america because he had lost his leg and could fight no more. yes, he said, mademoiselle millerand had nursed him when his leg was taken off. the spectators of the moving pictures looked at each other and nodded. mademoiselle had sent a message to the secretary of the united service club, he went on. it was--he took a slip of paper from his pocket book. "message received. answered in person." the club members laughed at this whose whole meaning it was clear that mr. schuler did not appreciate. he had arrived, it seemed, only two hours before, on an italian boat, and had heard on the way up from quarantine of the sailing of the christmas ship and so had crossed to wave a farewell before going out to rosemont. "and here i have found my best fortune," he said over and over again, his eyes resting fondly on fräulein's face. chapter xxii a wedding and a surprise it was a simple wedding that the u. s. c. went to in a body a few days after the arrival of the convalescent german soldier. mr. wheeler, the principal of the high school, acted as best man, and miss dawson, the domestic science teacher, was maid of honor, but fräulein also gathered about her in the cottage sitting-room where the ceremony took place a group of the young girls who had been kindest to her when she was in trouble. "i want you and the ethels and dorothy," she said to helen; "and if your friends, della and margaret, would come with you it would give me greatest pleasure." so the girls, all dressed in white, and wearing the forget-me-not pins that grandfather emerson insisted on giving them for the occasion, clustered around the young teacher, and the three boys, a forget-me-not in each scarfpin, held the ribbons that pressed gently back the cordial friends who were happy in fräulein's happiness. it was the club that decorated the house with brown sedges and stalks of upstanding tawny corn and vines of bittersweet. and it was the club that sang a soft german marriage song as the bride and groom drove off toward the setting sun in grandmother emerson's car. life seemed rather flat to the members of the u. s. c. after the wedding. for the last two months they had been so busy that every hour had been filled with work and play-work, and now that there was nothing especial scheduled for every waking moment it seemed as if they had nothing at all to do. "we'll have to ask roger about his house," laughed james who came over with margaret one afternoon and confessed to the same feeling. "not yet," answered helen. "helen is full of ideas up to her very eyebrows, i believe," said ethel blue. "she's just giving us a holiday." "mother said we needed one," assented helen. "after we've had a few days' rest we can start on something else. there's no need to call on roger yet awhile." "why not? my idea is a perfectly good one," insisted roger, strolling in. just at this minute mary entered with a note for "the secretary of the united service club." "for you, ethel blue," said roger, handing it to his cousin. ethel blue slipped a cutter under the edge while the others waited expectantly, for the address indicated that the contents was of interest to all of them. "what does this mean?" she cried as she read. "what is it? is it true?" she was so excited that they all crowded around her to see what had taken away her power of explanation. the letter was signed "justine millerand." "mademoiselle," cried all who could see the signature. "she says," read ethel blue, finding her strength again, "'here is the belgian baby you asked for. she is two years old and her name is "elisabeth," after the queen of belgium!'" "is that all?" "that's all." "but she says, '_here_ is the belgian baby.' _where_ is the belgian baby?" they turned toward mary who had remained in the room. "there's a red cross nurse in the reception room," she explained. "she said she'd rather you read the letter first." they made a rush for the door. roger reached it first and ushered the nurse into the living room. she was dressed in her grey uniform and sheltered under her cape the thinnest, wannest mite of humanity that ever the club had seen outside of the streets of a city slum. "mademoiselle millerand said you had asked for a belgian baby," she began, but she was interrupted by a cry from the entire throng. "we did; we did," they exclaimed so earnestly that any doubts she may have felt about the cordiality of their reception of her nursling were banished at once. "your mother?" she asked. "i don't believe mother really expected it to come, any more than we did," replied helen frankly, "but she will love it just as we will, and we'll take the very best of care of her." she offered her finger to elisabeth, who clutched it and gazed solemnly at her out of her sunken blue eyes. ethel blue in the back of the group gave a sob. "she'll pick up soon when she has good food every day," the nurse reassured them, and then she told them of her own experiences. she had been, it seemed, in the same hospital with mademoiselle in belgium. out on the field one day a bit of shrapnel had wounded her foot so that she was forced to come home. mademoiselle had asked her to bring over this mite "to the kindest young people in the world," and here she was. the baby's father and mother were both dead, she went on. that she knew. "are you sure her name is elisabeth?" asked dorothy. "that's what she calls herself." by this time elisabeth had made friends with every one of them and was sitting comfortably on one of roger's knees while dicky occupied the other and made acceptable gestures toward her. "she'll be happy here," said the nurse, and rose to explain her visit to mrs. morton. like the girls, mrs. morton had not expected that mademoiselle would respond to their request for a belgian baby and she was somewhat taken back by its appearance. "i can see that you did not look for her," the nurse suggested, "but when you are on the spot and are seeing such hideous distress every day and a chance opens to relieve just one little child, it is more than you can resist. i know that is why mademoiselle millerand sent her." "i quite understand," responded mrs. morton cordially. "elisabeth shall have a happy home in rosemont." "and a baker's dozen of fathers and mothers to make up for her own," said james. "and we're grateful to you for bringing her," said ethel blue, offering her hand. it was after the nurse had had a cup of tea and had returned to new york that helen called the club to order formally. "the club has got its work cut out for it for a long time to come," she said. "i don't think we have any right to bring this baby over to america and then send it to an orphanage, though that would be the easiest way to do." "we'll never do that," said margaret firmly. "if we are going to take care of it it means that we'll have to earn money for it and give it our personal care. now, all in favor of accepting elisabeth as our club baby, say 'aye.'" there was a hearty assent. "there are no contrary-minded," declared the president. "from now on she belongs to us." "and here's my forget-me-not pin to prove it," said ethel blue, fastening it on the baby's dress. "just what we'll have to do about her we must think out carefully and talk over with our mothers," went on helen. "but this minute we can accept our new club member and cry all together, 'three cheers for elisabeth of belgium.'" and at the shout that followed, elisabeth of belgium gave her first faint smile. the end girl aviators adventures by margaret burnham contact! gas! ignition! with a roar of motors and whirling propellers the aviator girls glide down the runway. gracefully the big ship takes the air, circles the airport and they are off on their glorious adventures among the clouds. these books are printed from an easily readable type, bound in cloth, and jacketed in an illustrative wrapper printed in full colors and varnished. . girl aviators and the phantom airship . girl aviators on golden wings . girl aviators sky cruise . girl aviators motor butterfly motor maids travels by katherine stokes a fast motor and the thrill of the open road, with the whole world for a playground. come with the adventurous motor maids as they surmount every obstacle and unravel every mystery they encounter in all parts of the world. the easily readable type and cloth binding jacketed in an attractive illustrative wrapper that is varnished makes the books a welcome addition to any library. . motor maids' school days . motor maids across the continent . motor maids at sunrise camp . motor maids in fair japan _for sale at all booksellers or sent postpaid on receipt of cents_ m. a. donohue & company south dearborn street, chicago victory boy scouts come with the boy scouts on their hikes, learn with them secrets of woods and waters, join them at their council fires, overcome with them the many problems and trials that make the boy scouts the outstanding young men in their community. . afloat; or, adventures on watery trails . boy scouts in an airship . boy scout electricians . boy scouts on open plains . the campfires of the wolf patrol . endurance test; or, how clear grit won the day . great hike; or, the pride of khaki troop . pathfinder; or, the missing tenderfoot . storm-bound; or, a vacation among the snow drifts . tenderfoot squad; or, camping at raccoon bluff . under canvas; or, the search for the carteret ghost . woodcraft; or, how a patrol leader made good _for sale at all booksellers or sent postpaid on receipt of cents_ m. a. donohue & company south dearborn street, chicago * * * * * transcriber's notes: obvious punctuation errors repaired. [transcriber's note: bold face type is surrounded by =equal signs= and italic type by _underscores_.] handicraft for girls a tentative course in needlework, basketry, designing, paper and card-board construction, textile fibers and fabrics and home decoration and care designed for use in schools and homes _prepared by_ idabelle mcglauflin _supervisor of the girls' handwork in the denver public schools_ [illustration] published by the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright idabelle mcglauflin explanatory note. the exercises in this five-year course are based upon an estimated time of one hour per week in the first two years, and one and one-half hours in the last three, the school year consisting of thirty-eight weeks. all materials, with the exception of that used for the full-sized garments and some of the christmas gifts, are supposed to be furnished by the board of education. in many instances the pupils are allowed the privilege of supplying themselves with a better grade of material if they wish. in every case a substitute is given for the full-sized garment if the home cannot furnish the material. all supplies can be purchased by the class collectively or individually, if the board of education so desires. every exercise in handicraft should embody an educational principle, making sure the training of the judgment, the eye, or the memory, and tending to develop skill, patience, accuracy, perseverance, dexterity or artistic appreciation. contents. chapter i.--suggestions to teachers general directions for pupils of sewing classes. drills for beginners. chapter ii--course of instruction first year--third grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter iii.--course of instruction second year--fourth grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter iv.--course of instruction third year--fifth grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter v.--course of instruction fourth year--sixth grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter vi.--course of instruction fifth year--seventh grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter vii.--description of stitches stitches used in plain sewing. ornamental stitches. miscellaneous. chapter viii.--textile fibers and fabrics silk. cotton. flax. wool. chapter ix.--dress and its relation to art chapter x.--paper, cloth and cardboard construction chapter xi.--home furnishing, decoration and care chapter xii.--basketry general directions for making the coil basket. the sewed baskets. chapter i. suggestions to teachers. the teacher's preparation for the lesson consists in doing each exercise before presenting the lesson to the class. it will take some of your time to do so, but it will save hours of time and much worry in the end, and you will thus discover how best to present the difficult points of the lesson. a well finished piece gives to the child a complete mental picture of what she is undertaking, and acts as an inspiration; she will work quicker, easier, and better because of it. this impulse and a clear demonstration of the method of doing, will enable her to work far more independently of the teacher than would otherwise be possible, and will give more satisfactory results. what are designated as "electives" in this book are designed to meet the needs of classes or individuals doing the work a second time or of teachers who find the regular work too difficult. large classes can be handled with less wasted energy by dividing the class into groups that are doing the same work. this saves endless repetition and enables the teacher to give better general supervision. this is the most vulnerable point in class work. a teacher may work laboriously and still waste her own and the children's time by too close an adherence to the individual method of instruction. those children whose turn comes toward the end of the line will have lost much of the value of the lesson. children require constant supervision. it is not teaching to examine the work when finished and order it ripped out. the fault is then with the teacher and not with the child. each successive step should be inspected and corrected before the next one is taken. i would go still farther and have every pupil, even in the advanced grades, submit a sample of her work on every stitch to be used in each exercise. children are always eager to begin a new piece, and if required to practice until the result is satisfactory will very soon do good work. you then have this to refer to and can hold them to their best. there is absolutely no value in poor, careless, puttering work. unless the child has a high ideal and strives to reach it, the time of the lesson is wasted. encourage self-criticism. work should be done to one's own satisfaction whether it is to be seen by others or not. do not allow pupils to take their work home unless it is some required practice work. it is not the object to cover a certain amount of ground, but to inculcate high standards of excellence and some technical skill. they cannot accomplish this by themselves. i would prefer that classes do not complete the entire course rather than have good work sacrificed to quantity. there is a difference between careful, painstaking effort, and the puttering away of valuable time. avoid delay in distributing supplies. be sure that every member of the class understands clearly the object of the lesson. do not encourage waste by a too liberal supply of material. too much stress cannot be laid upon the careful preparation of the cloth to be used. trim all edges neatly before hemming, facing, gathering, etc. _do not allow children to sew without basting._ the time required for careful basting is well spent. it is not expected that the various pupils of the class will advance with the same degree of proficiency. some will require a much longer time on an exercise than others. as it is greatly to the advantage of the class in the end, and saves time and tiresome repetition to give each new exercise or stitch as a class lesson, the average pupils should regulate the time for taking up new work. a teacher of resources will find ways and means of bringing up the work of slow pupils, and profitable 'busy work' for those who work more rapidly. for the former, a little extra time each day--not as a punishment, but as an opportunity to catch up--would be all that is necessary. for the latter, there is a great variety of interesting, useful work. it is a pedagogic truism that every teacher, consciously or unconsciously, imparts to her class her own inclinations. an enthusiastic class indicates an ardent interest on the part of the teacher, and a distaste for work and a lack of zeal on the part of the pupils are equally indicative of the teacher's attitude. bear in mind that an unprepared teacher or a poorly presented lesson can make almost any exercise difficult and distasteful to the class. do not blame pupils for poor work for which you are yourself responsible. suggestions for teachers general directions for pupils of sewing classes. . be sure that the hands are clean. . always sit erect--well back in the seat--with the light coming over the left shoulder, both feet upon the floor, because the body will not become as tired, the hand will not shade the work and it is easier to see the stitches. do not fasten the work to the knee, because a stooping position easily becomes a habit. . place the thimble upon the second finger of the right hand. either the side or end of the thimble can be used. never sew without one. . measure the thread either from shoulder to shoulder or from the end of the finger to the elbow. a long thread becomes soiled and worn before being used up and is more liable to knot. . wind the thread once around the forefinger and break from the spool, because the broken thread twists more easily to a point than when cut. cut the thread from the work when finished to avoid drawing the stitches or breaking at the wrong place. . thread the needle from the end that hangs from the spool. in this way you are working with the twist of the thread and there is less danger of knotting and kinking. . do not wet the thread in the mouth. roll the end of the thread between the thumb and forefinger and place through the eye of the needle. . to tie a knot wind the thread around the forefinger once and a little over, and twist by rubbing the finger down the side of the thumb. with the nail of the second finger bring the knot thus formed to the end of the thread. . hold the unfinished work in the left hand. . do not bite the threads. . trim the selvedge, as it is hard to sew through and draws up when washed. . the knot is always buried except in the basting which is to be removed. drills for beginners. drill . threading the needle with cotton. needle no. ; colored thread. a. prepare the cotton by twisting between thumb and forefinger. b. place the thread in the eye of the needle. c. draw the thread through with the right hand. drill . making the knot. a. hold the needle in the right hand and the end of the thread in the left. b. wind the thread around the forefinger once and a little over, and twist the threads together by rubbing the finger down the side of the thumb. do not accept careless knots. drill . use of the thimble. a. push the needle with the thimble. b. push the needle back with the finger of the left hand. _never allow a pupil to sew without a thimble._ drill . threading the yarn needle. a. prepare the yarn by loosening the end with the needle. b. place the yarn over the point of the needle and draw into a smooth loop. c. draw the needle out and thread into the loop. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry linen thread--luster cotton chapter ii. course of instruction. first year--third grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin, " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × ", designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --basting design. exercise no. --running design no. . exercise no. --overhanding on practice piece. exercise no. --pot holder--weaving--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --running design--no. . exercise no. --overhanding--running designs and together. exercise no. --running design no. .[ ] exercise no. --hemming a towel.[ ] exercise no. --running design no. [ ] exercise no. --overhanding--running designs and together. overhanding nos. and to and .[ ][ ] footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [illustration: no. - . children in native costume. suggestive designs in outline for the running stitch.] detailed description of exercises. _teach:_ one inch, one-half inch, one-fourth inch. _practice:_ "drills for beginners," page . exercise no. --basting. _materials:_ unbleached muslin " × " stamped with the three basting stitches, no. , page ; colored thread no. ; needle no. . make pupils perfectly familiar with the _name_ and _use_ of this stitch. see "description of stitches used in plain sewing," page . beginning at the right hand follow the lines of the design with the thread, placing the knots over the dots on the right hand side and fastening over the dots at the left. under each stamped row of stitches put in one, two, three or more rows, depending upon the rapidity with which each individual works. this will help to keep the class uniform. exercise no. --running. _materials:_ stamped running design no. , page . unbleached muslin " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . make pupils perfectly familiar with the _name_ and _use_ of this stitch. see "description of stitches used in plain sewing," page . the object of this model is to give the pupils practice in the running stitch. these designs are more interesting than practicing on plain cloth, so if the work is not satisfactory, cut the knot, pull out the thread, and try again. give special attention to the knots and the fastening of the threads and the general neatness of the work. place the knot on the wrong side and follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --overhanding. _materials:_ practice piece; colored thread no. ; needle no. . teach the overhanding stitch on the practice piece. see "description of stitches used in plain sewing," page . change the color of the thread once or twice and teach the joining of the thread. baste two folded edges together and insist upon neat, careful work. exercise no. --pot holder--weaving--christmas piece.[ ] _materials:_ weaving frame; netting needles; candle wicking in two colors; brass rings. [illustration: the woven pot holder made of candle wicking.] teach the principles of cloth weaving and the terms warp, woof and selvedge. the weaving frames are made from one-inch board, " × ". three-fourths of an inch from and parallel to the top and bottom drive a row of nails, having very small heads, one-half inch apart, leaving an inch margin at both sides. tie a slip knot in the end of the wicking and slip it over one of the corner nails. pass the wicking back and forth around the nails first on one side and then the other. this forms the warp. draw the threads fairly tight and tie around the last nail. thread the other color of wicking into the netting needles, weave across the warp threads alternately taking up and passing over them. in alternate rows take up the threads passed over in the preceding row. do not draw the woof threads tight enough to draw the holder in at the sides. slip from the frame and fasten the loose ends by weaving them back into the holder. work a brass ring with the blanket stitch, using a strand of the wicking and sew it to one of the corners. exercise no. --running. _materials:_ running design no. , page , " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --overhanding. _materials:_ white thread no. ; needle no. . running designs and are to be overhanded together. turn a quarter-inch fold on the long side of both pieces. baste the folded edges together and overhand. exercise no. --running.[ ] _materials:_ running design no. , page , " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --hemming--paper folding for a hem.[ ] _materials:_ paper - / " × ". fold the long way of the paper. first fold of the hem, one-fourth of an inch. turn half an inch hem on one side and an inch hem on the other. have each child cut from a card a gauge for measuring the hems and insist that the hems be turned evenly. teach the hemming stitch on the practice piece with colored thread. trim the edge neatly, fold the hem accurately and baste in place. bad habits, that are hard to correct later, can so easily be formed in making this stitch that i wish to caution teachers in regard to the position of the needle in relation to the hem, the amount of cloth taken on the needle and the tendency toward making the blind stitch or the damask hem instead of the plain hemming stitch. hemming a towel. _materials:_ crash, " woof, " warp; white thread no. ; needle no. ; tape - / inches. turn one-fourth inch fold on each side and across the bottom and baste. turn the second fold one-fourth of an inch on the sides and baste. hem the sides. turn an inch hem at the bottom, baste and hem, giving special attention to the corners where the bottom hem is turned over the side hems. hem the top with a quarter-inch hem if there is no selvedge. sew a loop in the middle of the top on the selvedge edge as follows: turn in one-fourth of an inch at both ends of the tape. place the ends of the tape side by side and down one-fourth of an inch from the edge of the towel. hem around the ends of the tape and back-stitch across the tape just at the edge of the towel. exercise no. --running.[ ] _materials:_ running design no. , page , " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --overhanding.[ ][ ] _materials:_ white thread no. ; needle no. . running designs and are to be overhanded together. turn a quarter-inch fold on the long sides of both pieces. baste the folded edges together and overhand. running designs and are to be overhanded to and . turn a quarter-inch fold at the top of one piece and the bottom of the other, baste the folded edges together and overhand. [illustration: doll's quilt--elective.] electives. [ ] running designs no. and may be omitted, (this will also cut out exercise no. ) and selections from the following substituted to fill in the time, pupils furnishing their own materials and teachers planning their own designs: pen wipers. pin disks. needle books. small pin cushions for the sewing box. a wiper for eye-glasses. [ ] the four running designs in exercise no. may be made into a doll's quilt by basting to a lining, turning in and overhanding the edges together and tacking. pupils will furnish their own materials for the lining. [ ] instead of the small towel encourage children to ask their mothers for a dish towel which they can bring from home to hem. some house-keeper of the neighborhood might be glad to have her dish-towels hemmed for her by the class. [ ] instead of the pot holder a child's picture-book may be substituted. see "paper, cloth and cardboard construction," page . chapter iii. course of instruction. second year--fourth grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × ", designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --seam sampler--seam a--combination stitch. exercise no. --emery balls.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam b--stitching. exercise no. --bags--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam c--half-back stitching. exercise no. --doily--blanket stitch--outline stitch.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam d--french seam. exercise no. --a pair of dolls' pillow cases.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam e--french fell. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--silk. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. _review:_ one inch, one-half inch, one-fourth inch. _teach:_ one-eighth inch, three-eighths inch, seven-eighths inch. seam sampler. _materials:_ plain percale " warp, " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . five exercises of the second year sewing will consist of seam work on the seam sampler. _each stitch will be first taught on the practice piece._ make pupils perfectly familiar with the names and uses of the different stitches as they are taught. as the year's work progresses compare the different seams and teach when, where and why these various seams are used in garment making. see "description of seams," page . that the pupils may not lose interest in their sewing the seam work is alternated with miscellaneous exercises. fold the percale with the warp into three equal pieces. cut off one piece. have each pupil label her large piece with her name. collect and put them away until ready for seam b. do not leave them in the boxes or they will be lost, or soiled with too much handling. exercise no. --seam a--combination stitch. see description of "seam sampler" given above. _materials:_ first section of seam sampler. fold with the warp through the center, and cut on the fold. baste these two edges together one-fourth of an inch from the edge. sew with the combination stitch three-eighths of an inch from the edge. exercise no. --emery balls.[ ] _materials:_ unbleached muslin, - / " × - / "; red cashmere - / " × - / " (this amount provides for four); thread, yellow, white and red; emery powder; needles no. and no. ; green luster cotton. to cut the pattern of the strawberry emery ball: draw a circle three inches in radius, and cut on the line. cut a circle from the unbleached muslin for the lining and one a quarter of an inch larger from the cashmere for the outside; cut both into quarters. to make the case: fold the two edges of the muslin together and sew in a seam with the combination stitch, rounding the point to give the strawberry shape. turn in a good seam at the top and gather. fill with the powdered emery and fasten the gathering thread by overhanding over the top. [illustration: the completed seam sampler illustrating exercises nos. , , , , and .] before sewing up the outside put in the stitches, with yellow thread, to represent the seeds of the strawberry as follows: hold the wrong side of the cloth toward you and put in a row of tiny stitches half an inch apart. one-fourth of an inch above these put in another row with the stitches midway between those of the last row, and so continue. if desired these may be omitted and the seeds represented by french knots when the strawberry is finished. seam up the outside, slip it over the case, arranging the seams on opposite sides to avoid the possibility of powder sifting through. overhand the top and cover with the green luster cotton to represent the calyx, leaving a loop for the stem. exercise no. --seam b--stitching. _materials:_ second section of seam sampler. fold with the warp through the center and cut on the fold. baste these two edges together one-fourth of an inch from the edge. stitch three-eighths of an inch from the edge. exercise no. --bags--christmas piece.[ ] the christmas piece will consist of bags of any size, shape or style for which the pupils wish to furnish their own materials. this gives the teacher an opportunity to exercise her own ingenuity and taste and to have some individuality in her work. there is a great variety, from the utility bag made of cheap, pretty material, costing only a few pennies, to the more elaborate ones made of dainty silk or ribbon. a little tact will easily adapt the style of bag to the home into which it is to go, for the purpose for which it is to be used, and the purse of the donor. following are the directions for a simple button-bag: _materials:_ a soft washable fabric, " warp, " woof; thread; needles; narrow tape inches. [illustration: bags to illustrate exercise no. .] crease an inch hem at each end. fold the cloth with the two hems right sides together and baste from the lower edge of the hems to the bottom of the bag. stitch a quarter-inch seam. turn in the ends of the hems even with the sides of the bag and overhand from the top five-eighths of an inch, leaving an opening for the tapes three-eighths of an inch wide at the bottom of the hem. baste and hem the hems, fastening securely at each side of the tape openings, as there is considerable strain when the tapes are drawn. put in a row of running stitches parallel to and five-eighths of an inch from the top of the bag, for the tape opening. with a tape needle draw in the two tapes, sew the ends of each together and draw out of opposite openings so that the place of joining will not show. overcast the seams. exercise no. --half-back stitching. _materials:_ first and second sections of the seam sampler. baste the two sections together one-fourth of an inch from the edge. sew with the half-back stitch three-eighths of an inch from the edge. exercise no. --a doily--blanket stitch and the kensington outline stitch.[ ] _materials:_ imitation butchers' linen " × "; white luster cotton; needle no. . an exercise in paper cutting for the doily design. have pupils provide themselves with ten or twelve pieces of paper eight inches square for practice cutting. fold the first paper three times and cut a convex, concave or compound curve from corner to corner. open and study these curved lines and select the most graceful. cut again making corrections. cut a design in straight lines. cut one composed of both straight and curved lines. do not work haphazard, but criticise, compare and reject. the surface requires little decoration if the doily is pleasing in outline. that which is placed upon it should have some relation to the outline. study the space to be decorated and how it can be divided or ornamented by lines, curved or straight, that may serve as a real decoration, but avoid too elaborate designs. before beginning the doily have a finished pattern. the pattern may be transferred to the cloth by tracing the pattern with a hard pencil, using carbon paper between pattern and cloth, or the pattern may be pinned on and the outline drawn and the design put on freehand. [illustration: original designs for the doily by fourth grade girls.] to work the doily. finish the edge with the blanket stitch. see "blanket stitch," page . work the lines of the design with the kensington outline stitch. exercise no. --french seam. _materials:_ third section of the seam sampler. fold with the warp through the center and cut on the fold. follow the directions for the french seam. exercise no. --a pair of miniature pillow cases.[ ] _materials:_ two pieces bleached muslin - / " warp, - / " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . in a pillow case the warp threads should run lengthwise of the pillow. crease a quarter-inch fold across one end and on both sides. fold with the warp through the center so that the seam just turned comes on the inside, baste the folded edges together on the right side. overhand on the right side, using no knot, but sewing over the end of the thread. turn a three-quarter inch hem, baste and hem. trim the seam and overcast. exercise no. --french fell. _materials:_ seam sampler. sew section three of the seam sampler to the others with the french fell. follow directions for the french fell. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--silk. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the fourth grade subject is silk. secure if possible the silk cocoon and make a collection of silk fabrics. language papers on the subject can be illustrated with pictures cut from papers and magazines. electives. [ ] a choice may be had between the strawberry and the tomato emery ball. tomato emery ball--_materials:_ unbleached muslin " × "; red cashmere " × "; emery powder; red thread no. ; green luster cotton. to cut the pattern: draw a circle one and one-fourth inches in radius and cut on the line. cut the two pieces for the lining and the two for the outside of the same size. place the right sides of the two pieces of cashmere together between the two pieces of lining. baste all together. sew with the back stitch one-fourth of an inch from the edge, leaving an opening for turning and filling. turn in a seam at the opening, fill with powder and close by overhanding the edges together. flatten as much as possible and make the creases seen in the tomato by tightly drawing the thread of luster cotton from the center around the outside and back to the center, repeating several times. make a little tuft of the luster cotton in the middle at the top. [ ] the order of the doily and the bag may be reversed, using the doily for the christmas piece instead of the bag, or the paper box may be substituted. see "cloth and cardboard construction," page . [ ] simple toilet articles in white, such as a handkerchief case, may be substituted for the doily, teachers planning their own designs. [ ] one pillow-case may be omitted and a pillow for the other case made instead. this may be stuffed with crumpled bits of paper. use unbleached muslin for the pillow. chapter iv. course of instruction. third year--fifth grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × " designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --patching sampler--hemmed patch. exercise no. --mitered corner. exercise no. --patching sampler--overhand patch. exercise no. --basketry--christmas piece.[ ][ ] exercise no. --napkin--damask hem.[ ] exercise no. --flannel patch. exercise no. --a pair of sleeve protectors. exercise no. --a garment brought from home to be repaired. exercise no. --a pin cushion.[ ] exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--cotton. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. review the divisions of the inch. patching sampler. _materials:_ gingham " warp, " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . it is desirable that each girl cut the two patches and the two pieces to be patched from the same piece of cloth, that there may be no difficulty in matching the pattern, when patching or when later sewing the two patched pieces together. fold the piece of gingham, eight inches by thirteen inches woof, with the warp into three sections, two of them eight inches warp by five inches woof, and the third eight inches warp by three inches woof. fold the three-inch piece across the warp in the center for the two patches. cut on the creases. pin one patch to one of the large pieces, label with the girl's name and put it away for exercise no. . exercise no. --hemmed patch. _materials:_ first section of patching sampler. the hemmed patch is the strongest and the one most commonly used for repairing garments. the patch will not be noticeable if the pattern is skilfully matched. when matching stripes or plaids always turn on the line where the color changes, never through the middle of a stripe. ten minutes spent on a paper pattern will prevent the mistakes beginners usually make in this exercise. trim the patch and crease a quarter-inch fold on the four sides. place the patch in the center of the large piece (which we will imagine to be worn) and baste around it, matching the pattern carefully. do not allow pupils to go any farther until the patch is basted on exactly right. turn to the right side and cut out the part supposed to be worn by the following successive steps: . measure one-half inch (or as near it as the pattern will permit) from the edge of the patch, using pins for marking the line where it is to be cut. . cut out the center, leaving about one-half inch extending over the patch. . clip the corners diagonally the _exact_ width of the fold to be turned in. _take great care and do not cut in too far_, as this will spoil the patch. . turn in the edge, baste and hem. . hem the patch on the wrong side. [illustration: the mitered corner.] exercise no. --mitered corner. _materials:_ paper. teach the mitered corner on paper only. have it done over and over until every pupil understands how it is done, and can do it alone, rapidly and perfectly. ask pupils to bring paper from home, as almost any kind will do for this practice work. have it made in hems of several widths. see description of "miscellaneous" exercises, page . exercise no. --overhand patch. _materials:_ second section of the patching sampler. the overhand patch is used on very thin material, such as lawn, dimity or organdy, where strength is not required and where the two thicknesses of cloth around the edge of the hemmed patch would be too noticeable. the pattern should be as carefully matched as in the hemmed patch and equal care given to the corners. a paper pattern will assist beginners. fold the large piece of gingham with the four corners together and clip off the point from the center. the following are the successive steps for making the overhand patch: . measure on each side of the center, with the warp, one and one-fourth inches and with the woof three-fourths of an inch. mark with pins. . cut out the oblong at these points (or as near as the pattern permits, observing also the pattern of the patch to be used.) . clip the corners diagonally the _exact_ width of the fold to be turned in. . turn in the fold on the four sides of the hole. . crease the folds on the four sides of the patch so that it will fit exactly into the hole, matching patterns. . beginning near the middle of one side overhand the patch in, matching as you overhand. do not baste. the two patched pieces are to be overhanded together. turn a quarter-inch fold on each with the warp, matching the pattern, baste together and overhand. teach the overcasting on the practice piece and overcast all raw edges on the patching sampler. exercise no. --basketry--christmas piece.[ ][ ] this subject has such limitless possibilities and its success or failure rests so entirely with the teacher that it will be necessary for each teacher to prepare herself to teach it and decide upon the style, size and general character of the design of the baskets to be made by her class, allowing the pupils as far as possible to work out their individual tastes. see chapter on "basketry," page . exercise no. --napkin--damask hem.[ ] _materials:_ damask - / " × - / "; white thread no. ; needle no. . see description of the damask hem, page . trim the napkin square. crease a half-inch hem on the four sides. the corners are to be mitered, and this is more easily done by basting the side hems in place, skipping across the corners when basting. turn out the corners and miter them. hem the corners with the flat hem and the sides with the damask hem. exercise no. --flannel patch. _materials:_ flannel - / " × - / ", patch " × "; sewing silk; needle no. . see description of the herringbone stitch, page . cut from the center of the large piece of flannel a two-inch square. trim the patch square and place it over this hole. baste at both edges. teach the herringbone stitch on the practice piece, and herringbone over the raw edges of the patch. turn one fold three-eighths of an inch wide on the four sides of the large piece, baste and herringbone stitch the raw edge. _keep the raw edges trimmed._ exercise no. --a pair of sleeve protectors. _materials:_ cotton twill - / " × "; tape "; ribbon elastic "; white thread no. ; needle no. . [illustration: a cooking set, consisting of an apron (exercise no. ), sleeve protectors (exercise no. ), and a holder and case (an elective for exercise no. ).] to cut the pattern of a sleeve protector: cut an oblong eight inches by ten and one-half inches. fold through the center the long way. mark the top of the folded edge a, the bottom b, the upper right hand corner c and the lower d. measure down on the folded edge from a four inches and mark e. measure down from c four inches and mark f. measure up from d five inches and mark g. measure on the line b d three and one fourth inches from b and mark h. connect g and h with a straight line. with e as the center and e a as the radius draw a quarter of a circle connecting a and f. cut on the lines h g, and a f. cut the sleeve protectors from the pattern. beginning at the center of the bottom and holding the wrong side of the cloth next to you, baste the edge of the sleeve protector to the line running through the middle of the tape. make a tiny pleat in the tape at each corner so that when doubled over it will round the corners smoothly. join the ends of the tape by folding back both ends and overhanding them together on the wrong side. hem the tape down on the right side. before basting the tape down on the wrong side, fasten the elastic in place on one side of the sleeve protector. the elastic is in two pieces, two inches in length. place the first piece one inch from the bottom and the second piece three inches above the first. baste the tape down on the wrong side and hem, leaving the opening for the other end of the elastic, which is fastened in place after the hemming is done. lay the binding smooth over the elastic and stitch along the edge of the tape, through the elastic, to hold in place. exercise no. --a garment brought from home to be mended. ask every pupil to bring some article from home, in preference a garment, to be mended. there is no home that cannot furnish a garment that needs repairing. this is a practical application of exercises , or , and is a valuable experience for the children. exercise no. --a pin cushion.[ ] _materials:_ these will be furnished by the pupils. pupils and teachers will plan their own designs, adapting them to the material furnished. the cushions may be of any size, shape or kind. do not have the children incur expense, as small pieces of ribbon, silk or bright bits of many kinds of cloth can be made into attractive cushions. hardwood sawdust, sifted, makes an excellent filling. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--cotton. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the fifth grade subject is cotton. many interesting collections can be made that will be instructive for the children. [illustration: pin cushions to illustrate exercise no. .] a. cotton fabrics with their names and uses. b. pictures. c. cotton fiber in the various stages of manufacture. d. maps upon which can be located the countries producing cotton and cities noted for the manufacture of cotton cloth. e. compositions on cotton and allied subjects. electives. [ ] the round holder and case may be substituted for the basketry, or a blank book with paper cover or the folding envelope case may be made instead. see "paper, cloth and cardboard construction," page . [ ] the pin cushion may be substituted for the basketry and the book cover, or the book bag, or the round holder given for exercise no. . [ ] a book cover or a book bag for carrying books may be substituted for the pin cushion. a round holder and case. _materials:_ unbleached muslin, " × "; bleached muslin " × - / "; strap " × - / "; bias binding " × "; wadding. to cut the circular pattern: cut a square of paper eight inches by eight inches and fold it three times. measure three and five-eighth inches from the point on each folded edge and once between these edges. draw a curved line connecting these points and cut on the line. the case is cut from this pattern, a circle having a radius of three and five-eighth inches and the holder from a pattern one-fourth of an inch smaller with a radius of three and three-eighth inches. the holder: cut from the unbleached muslin two circular pieces. turn in one-fourth of an inch around both pieces. place the wadding between them; pin and baste together. overhand the folded edges. quilt the holder in a simple pattern with the running stitch. the case: cut from the bleached muslin two circular pieces. fold one piece with the warp through the center and cut on the fold. turn an eighth of an inch hem on each of the straight edges just cut, and hem. the pupils who work rapidly could design a simple decoration for the front of the case. this could be traced, or drawn with a hard pencil and worked with a coarse, colored thread in any decorative stitch, before making the case. place the half circles on the large circle and baste around the edge. this will leave an opening of about half an inch into which the holder will easily slip. make the strap by which the holder case is hung from the belt, by folding in the edges at the sides and across one end and overhanding together. the raw end of the strap is then fastened at one end of the case-opening, so that it will come under the binding. see description of the bias, page . teach the cutting and joining of bias pieces, first with paper and then with the cloth. in order to give the pupil this valuable experience cut the binding in three pieces and join them together. stitch along the edge of the binding where it folds back against the strap. slip the holder into the case. a book cover. _materials:_ grass linen or holland " woof by " warp; white thread no. ; needles nos. and ; luster cotton. the design: start several weeks before the class is ready to make it, arouse an interest, and study designs for book covers. ask pupils to bring from home books having good designs on the covers. have them tell why they like certain ones and do not favor others. in a word, educate their tastes in this line before expecting them to originate designs. do not attempt anything elaborate. many artistic effects can be obtained by interlacing straight lines and these have the advantage of being easily worked. paper cutting is an excellent medium for experimenting, if a unit is to be repeated or if curves are desired in the outline. for example, fold an oblong, four and one-half by seven inches, through the center both ways, and cut on a slightly curving line from the folded edges to the corner. quite a variety of simple, graceful outlines can be made by slightly varying these curves, which, with a simple unit repeated around the center or in each corner makes an effective design. have the finished pattern before starting the book cover. trace on the cloth by means of the carbon paper. it will be necessary to crease the cover over the book before putting on the design, so that it may be placed just right. to make the book cover: work the design with the outline stitch before sewing up the seams. overcast the raw edges at the top and bottom of the cover and hem with a quarter-inch hem the two ends that fold into the book. the raw-edged hem, finished with the herringbone stitch, could be used in place of the plain hem, if desired. turn in the top and bottom of the cover so that the book will slip in easily. overhand that part which folds into the books to the outside, at top and bottom, thus forming the pockets into which the covers of the book slip. do the overhanding on the wrong side and then turn it to the right side. a book bag. _materials:_ galatea, kaiki or burlap " woof, " warp; two strips for handles " warp by " woof; thread no. ; needle no. . the decoration of the bag should be done before sewing up the ends. very artistic effects can be obtained in the applique. see directions for the design of the book cover, page . cut a three-inch strip from the length of the piece for the end pieces. divide this into two pieces seven and one-half by three inches. find the middle of one end of both end pieces and notch them. fold the large piece with the warp through the center and notch at both ends of the fold. turn in a quarter of an inch around the large piece and baste. turn in a quarter of an inch across the notched end and sides of the end pieces. place the notch at the end of one side piece to one in the large piece, right sides together, and pin in place. overhand on the wrong side the two together across the end and up both sides. put in the other end piece in the same way. trim the end pieces even with the top of the case. turn a three-quarter inch hem at the top. before hemming make the straps for the handles by turning in and overhanding the edges. insert both ends of one strap under the hem of the right side of the bag, two inches from the middle or four inches apart and the other strap on the left side. hem, and fasten the handles to the edge of the hem by backstitching. [ ] a cover for a pin cushion affords a good application for the mitered corner. this can be made any size, square or oblong. ornament with fine feather stitching and the star stitch. chapter v. course of instruction. fourth year--sixth grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × "--designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --stocking darning. exercise no. --placket sampler--a placket. exercise no. --an apron--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --placket sampler--the gusset.[ ] exercise no. --buttonholes. exercise no. --placket sampler--the nightgown opening. exercise no. --hemstitched collar or handkerchief.[ ] exercise no. --placket sampler--bands. exercise no. --an underskirt. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--flax. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. teach the yard measure and its divisions. see note under exercise no. --buttonholes. [illustration: stockinet darning.] exercise no. --stocking darning. _materials:_ stockinet " × "; cardboard " × "; darning cotton; darning needle; a pair of worn stockings. see description of stocking darning, page . pupils will furnish their own cardboard and have it cut and ready for the lesson, also a pair of worn stockings. the cardboard is a substitute for the darning ball. do not stretch the cloth too tightly over the card, nor put in a needless number of stitches at the back to hold it on, five or six being sufficient to hold it temporarily in place. the darning cotton winds from the spool in several strands loosely twisted together. separate and use two, three or more strands, depending upon the texture of the cloth to be darned. take care not to split the threads when weaving across them, and also avoid putting the threads so far apart that holes are left between them. in fact, try to have pupils understand that they are supplying a piece of cloth that has been worn away, and that when finished should match as nearly as possible in color and texture the cloth that is being repaired. stockinet, like stockings, is a knitted, not a woven fabric, and as every stitch is drawn through the one below it, it is very necessary that the loops be caught before they ravel back. prepare the hole for darning by whipping the edge with fine thread, catching up all the severed loops. either a round or an oblong hole may be cut in the stockinet, the round hole being three-fourths of an inch across, and the oblong three-fourths of an inch by one inch. follow the exercise in stockinet darning, in which the principles of darning have been taught, with the darning of a pair of worn stockings that the pupils have brought from home. every child in the class must be given this practical and useful experience. if there is difficulty in securing these stockings, members of the class or the teacher can readily supply the deficiency. exercise no. --placket sampler--a placket. _materials:_ calico " woof, " warp; facings and bands " × "; white thread no. ; needle no. . see description of plackets, page . upon this sampler is taught the placket, the gusset, the nightgown opening and two different methods of putting on bands, and in addition a review of the french seam and the french fell. it is made in sections which are combined later. these lessons are interspersed with other exercises that the pupils may not become tired of this piece. teach the placket and the nightgown opening first on paper. it will save time and trouble in the end. fold the large piece of calico across the warp through the center and cut on the fold. fold one of these pieces with the warp, through the center and cut. the first exercise of the "placket sampler" is done on one of these quarters. as these sections are to be sewed together later each girl must have her own pieces. to avoid the possibility of their being lost or soiled, those not in use should be wrapped in paper, labeled and collected by the teacher and kept until ready for exercise no. . [illustration: placket sampler (front view).] first section of the placket sampler: fold the piece of calico with the warp, through the center and cut an opening on this fold five inches in length. then follow the directions for making placket b. facing eleven inches by two inches. exercise no. --an apron--the christmas piece.[ ][ ] _materials:_ pupils will select and furnish their own materials for an apron. this may be of any style or kind, and will afford an excellent opportunity for carrying out their individual tastes. this may necessitate the teaching of the principles of bands which can be done with the practice piece. see description of bands, page . [illustration: placket sampler (back view).] [illustration: aprons--exercise no. .] exercise no. --placket sampler--the gusset.[ ] second section of the placket sampler. _materials:_ the second quarter of the large piece of calico; a two-inch square of calico for the gusset. fold with the warp through the center, and cut an opening on this fold five inches in length. then follow the directions for making the gusset. sew the two sections together with the french fell. hem the sides with a quarter-inch hem. exercise no. --buttonholes. _materials:_ blue percale " woof by " warp; scraps of calico for practice pieces; white thread no. and no. ; needles no. and no. . remember the old adage _practice makes perfect_. see description of the buttonhole, page . _note:_ scraps and odd pieces of calico can be used for the practice work on buttonholes. as the buttonhole requires a great deal of practice it is well to keep these pieces in the sewing box and work at it at odd times during the progress of the years' work. encourage the girls, too, to practice on the buttonhole for home work. in this way they will gradually acquire the skill which only comes with practice. fold the cloth, wrong side out, with the woof and through the center, and baste the edges together. begin with the blind buttonhole. the buttonhole model is intended to show how much skill has been acquired. fold the percale through the center, with the _woof_, and baste the edges together. make the buttonholes three-fourths of an inch long and one inch apart. exercise no. --placket sampler--the shirt sleeve or nightgown opening. _materials:_ half of the large piece of calico; facing " × ". fold with the warp through the center and cut an opening on this fold five inches in length. then follow the directions for the nightgown opening. hem the side of the narrower part with a quarter-inch hem. exercise no. --a hemstitched collar.[ ][ ] _materials:_ butcher's linen, collar - / " warp by " woof, india linen band - / " warp by - / " woof; practice piece " warp by " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . measure the neck and decide upon the length of collar and width of hem before trimming. see directions for hemstitching, page . put the collar band on the collar. the collars may be still further ornamented with fine feather stitching, the star stitch or french knots. exercise no. --placket sampler--bands--hemmed and overhanded. see description of bands and gathering, pages and . to avoid soiling the cloth put the bands on before seaming the halves of the placket sampler together. this can be done with the exception of the band on the long side of the nightgown opening, which will have to be done after this side is basted to the other section, cut off and hemmed, and will therefore be the last thing to be done on the sampler. put the hemmed bands on the side having the placket and the gusset, and the overhand bands on the side of the nightgown opening. length of bands: on the first half, short bands cut two inches, one and one-half inches finished; long band cut four inches, three and one-half inches finished; on the last half, bands cut three and three quarters inches, three and one-quarter inches finished. sew the two sections of the sampler together with the french seam. the section having the two openings is a little narrower than the other. baste the two sections together, basting the little pleats at the end of the placket and the nightgown opening, and sew them into the seam. do not cut off the long side until basted nearly across, then cut off and hem the side. finish with the last band. exercise no. --an underskirt. _materials:_ pupils will furnish their own material for an underskirt for themselves. the patterns which their mothers use can be secured from the home, or one pattern used by all the members of the class. these skirts may be made plain or trimmed with tucked ruffles of cloth or with embroidery, depending upon the wishes of the mothers, the skill and taste of the individuals and the material furnished. should there be difficulty in securing material for the garment, a small model on the half-inch scale or one of the electives can be substituted. insist that the work be well done, neatly finished and first class throughout. use sewing machines when available. points to emphasize in the making of a skirt: . cut a correct pattern before beginning the skirt. do not trust to making corrections when cutting out. . baste the straight edge of one gore to the bias edge of another when making a gored skirt. this prevents the sagging which would occur if two bias edges were sewed together. . allow plenty in hem and tucks for letting down when making garments for growing girls. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--flax. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the sixth grade subject is flax. make a collection of the flax products, fabrics, etc. a class set of compositions, each member of the class taking different subdivisions of the subject, would make an interesting collection which could be put together in a simple binding done by members of the class. see "paper and cardboard construction," page . electives. [ ] placket a may be substituted for the gusset, if desired. [ ] a pin cushion cover may be hemstitched in place of the collar. make this a square seven inches by seven inches, or an oblong five inches by nine inches, or any size to fit a particular cushion that can be cut from these pieces, or any size for which the pupils furnish their own material. [illustration: round bottom bag with raffia covering.] [ ] pupils who desire to furnish their own materials for a linen handkerchief may substitute this for the hemstitched collar. [ ] basketry may be substituted for the apron, or a clipping case or a postal-card album may be made instead. see "paper, cloth and cardboard construction," page . the round bottom bag with a fancy raffia covering. make the bag any size desired; a circle of three or four inches in diameter makes a practical one. draw the pattern for the raffia covering on paper, the circle for the bottom being the same size as that of the bottom of the bag. the design for the sides may be in as many sections as desired. the tops of these sections may be shaped to suit one's taste--round, pointed or fancy. when the pattern is completed baste a strand of raffia on the pattern, following the lines of the design. then closely blanket stitch with raffia on both sides of these strands. the spaces may then be filled with fancy lace stitches. chapter vi. course of instruction. fifth year--seventh grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × ", designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --a trial piece for finishing the bottom of drawers. exercise no. --an underwaist or corset cover. exercise no. --collars, jabots, bows, etc.--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --a study of home furnishing, decoration and care.[ ] exercise no. --twist buttonholes. exercise no. --a pair of drawers. exercise no. --cloth darning. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--wool. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. review divisions of the foot and yard measure. exercise no. --a trial piece for finishing the bottom of a pair of drawers. _materials:_ india linen " × ", ruffle " woof, " warp; white thread no. ; needle no. . [illustration: a trial piece, giving practice on the hemmed seam, tucking, and putting a ruffle into a hem-tuck.] hemmed seam: one inch and a quarter from the top crease a fold with the warp. cut on this crease. see description of the hemmed seam, page . putting a ruffle into a hem-tuck and tucking: measure up from the bottom two and one-fourth inches--or twice the width of the hem-tuck plus one-fourth inch for the seam--and crease with the warp, across the piece. stitch, or run by hand an inch tuck, taking care to measure and make perfectly even. measure up three-eighths of an inch from this stitching and crease for another tuck. stitch, or run by hand an eighth of an inch tuck. measure up three-eighths of an inch for another tuck. put in a cluster of three tucks. hem the ruffle with an eighth of an inch hem, gather and stroke the gathers. see description of gathering and sewing a ruffle to a straight edge, page . place the wrong sides of the cloth and ruffle together and baste to the edge extending below the hem-tuck, bringing the seam exactly to the edge of the tuck. baste and stitch the edge of the hem-tuck over the seam of the ruffle. exercise no. --an underwaist or corset cover. _materials:_ pupils may furnish their own materials for an underwaist such as they wear. this may be of any style. patterns can be secured from the mothers. if there is any difficulty in securing supplies from the home, a child's waist on a small scale may be substituted. the small waist. _materials:_ bleached muslin " woof by " warp, bias facings " by "; white thread no. ; needle no. . see the draft for the pattern of the small underwaist, page . patterns: multiply all dimensions by four. each girl can draft her pattern from the teacher's dictation, or one pattern can be drafted before the lesson and the members of the class cut their patterns from this one. insist that the patterns be exact. have the patterns pinned on, and submitted for inspection before the cutting is done, to avoid blunders and waste of material. cut the front double. one inch has been allowed for the hem on the backs. [illustration: draft for pattern of underwaist. _this draft can be used for an underwaist of any size. determine the length of the under arm seam in the garment required and divide this by - / . multiply all dimensions by this quotient. as a small fraction complicates the process and makes very little difference, use the whole number which is nearest the quotient obtained. the slight alterations necessary can be made in the fitting._] [illustration: front of corset cover and back of girl's underwaist.] baste, half-back stitch and fell the seams. turn the hems at the back, baste and hem. see description of the bias, page . put the bias facing on the bottom first, then around the neck, and last around the armholes. teach the joining of the bias facing by having the bottom facing in two pieces and then insist that the ends of the armhole facing be joined in the same way. overhand neatly the ends of the bottom and neck facings. make four quarter-inch buttonholes and sew on the buttons. exercise no. --collars, jabots, bows, etc.--christmas piece.[ ] the styles of dressing the neck vary greatly from season to season. this is also modified by the taste of individuals. pupils may furnish their own material for any kind of collar desired, after thoughtful consideration of the prevailing styles. it is possible to make a great variety of useful and dainty articles at a trifling expense which will be most acceptable christmas gifts. if so intended, lead the pupils to study the appropriateness of their gifts. those pupils who find it difficult to furnish their own material may substitute a collar made from an imitation of linen which will afford the same experience in making, but will not be quite as desirable an article to wear. _materials:_ imitation linen " woof, " warp. this amount will cut either the dutch collar by piecing the band, or the ordinary stiff collar. the patterns for both, or the collars from which patterns can be cut, can be brought from home by some member of the class. be absolutely sure of the size before cutting out the collar, as a quarter of an inch will make a difference in the comfort and fit. it is an excellent plan to have collars of different sizes-- , - / , , - / --in the class, try them on, and mark the buttonholes on the bands from the right sized collars. the "dutch" collar can be made with a plain hem and finished with the fine featherstitching or any of the ornamental stitches, or it can be embroidered in a simple pattern with the eyelet embroidery. this gives an excellent opportunity for an original design, or if so desired a pattern can be transferred by the use of the carbon paper. the stiff collar, if made double, is first sewed up on the wrong side and then turned and stitched along the edge on the right. it is then put into the double band, which has been made in the same way. if so desired the collar can be made of a single embroidered piece with the worked edge, or finished with the hemstitched edge and ornamented with fancy stitches. exercise no. --a study of home furnishing, decoration and care.[ ] the success of this exercise will depend entirely upon the interest and ingenuity of the teacher. see "home furnishing, decoration and care," page . exercise no. --twist buttonholes. _materials:_ french flannel - / " warp by - / " woof; twist; sewing silk; needle no. and no. . see description of the buttonhole, page . pupils will furnish their own twist and flannel for the practice work. it is not necessary that these should match in color. double the flannel through the center the long way, baste along the folded edge and around the piece. overcast the raw edges. begin one-half inch from the top and make the buttonholes three-fourths of an inch long and three-fourths of an inch apart. strand, overcast and finish with the bar. exercise no. --a pair of drawers. _materials:_ pupils may furnish their own materials for a full-sized garment. this may be made in any style. patterns can be secured from the mothers or exchanged among the members of the class, or a pattern may be drafted from the diagram. secure the pattern first and have the girls measure it to determine the amount of material needed. if there is any difficulty in securing supplies from the home, a pair of child's drawers on a smaller scale may be substituted. the directions for making the small drawers will assist in making the full-sized garment. the small drawers. _materials:_ bleached muslin " woof, " warp; ruffling, india linen " woof, - / " warp; white thread no. ; needle no. . [illustration: draft for a pattern of a pair of drawers. _this draft can be used for a pattern of any size. determine the length at the side of the garment required, and divide this by - / and multiply all dimensions by this figure. as a small fraction complicates the process and will make very little difference in this garment, use the whole number which is nearest the quotient obtained. fold a large piece of paper, the fold of which will represent the fold at the side of the drawers. draw the diagram enlarged upon one side of this. the lines for both the front and back are the same, except the two inside lines at the top, which will cut the front a little smaller than the back. it is for this reason that it is drawn on the double paper._] patterns: see the draft for the drawers pattern, page . multiply the dimensions by four. each girl can draft a pattern from the teacher's dictation, or one pattern can be drafted and cut before class time, and the members of the class cut their patterns from this one. a strip of muslin thirty-six inches by eleven inches will cut the drawers by careful management. the lesson in economy and the experience of cutting from a close pattern is a valuable one for the girls, as it is a problem which will confront them many times in life. fold the cloth the short way through the center, and pin the selvedge edges together. allow three and one-half inches from the fold for the placket facings and bands, thus keeping the extra cloth in one large piece. pin the pattern in position, and cut the two lengths, at the same time taking care that the lengthwise fold of the pattern is straight with the warp threads. if the pattern does not allow for hem and tucks, provide the extra length when cutting. the right sides are now together; mark them before separating, and avoid the chance of making both pieces for the same leg, a mistake easily made by more experienced needlewomen. finish the bottom of the drawer legs with one-eighth inch tucks, one-half inch hem-tuck and the ruffle as in exercise no. . one-half inch in front of the side fold cut an opening, with the warp, four inches in length. this may be made in both legs or in the right one only, and may be finished with the gusset, placket a or placket b, keeping in mind that the back buttons over the front. finish all seams with the french seam except where the ends of the ruffle are joined with the hemmed seam. gather the fullness at the top on both sides of the front and the back seams, and draw up to the desired length of band. if two openings have been cut at the sides make the back band one inch longer than the front. place buttons and make buttonholes where desired. exercise no. --cloth darning. _materials:_ albatros " × "; sewing silk; needle no. ; beeswax. see description of cloth darning, page . four holes, cut as follows, are to be darned on this piece of cloth: no. . in the lower left hand corner one inch from the bottom and the side, cut one inch straight with the warp. darn with split sewing silk on the wrong side. no. . in the upper left hand corner, one inch from the top and side, cut one inch with the warp and one inch with the woof. this will serve for a three-cornered tear. darn on the right side with ravelings. spread the stitches at the corner like the sticks of a fan. no. . in the lower right-hand corner, one inch from the bottom and the side cut one inch on the bias. darn with split sewing silk on the wrong side. no. . in the upper right-hand corner, one inch from the top and the side cut one inch across the warp. this will serve for a worn place in the cloth. place the patch under it and baste around the edge. darn with ravelings on the right side. trim the edges of the patch smooth and herringbone stitch with ravelings around it. finish the edge of the piece with the blanket stitch. follow this exercise with the repairing of some article brought from home that will give a practical experience in cloth darning. should there be any difficulty in securing these articles there are plenty of homes that will supply enough for the entire class. _this must be done under the teacher's supervision._ exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--wool. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the seventh grade subject is wool. [illustration: a set of underwear. exercises , , , and an elective.] electives. [ ] an exercise in paper and cardboard construction, adapted to the skill of the class, may be substituted for the christmas exercise. see chapter on "paper and cardboard construction," page . [ ] in connection with the study of home furnishing and decoration an exercise in passepartout or the making of lamp shades would be excellent. chapter vii. description of stitches. stitches used in plain sewing. . basting. . blind stitch. . buttonholes. . combination stitch. . darning. . gathering. . half-back stitch. . hemming. . overcasting. . overhanding. . running. . slip stitch. . stitching. ornamental stitches. . bands. . blanket stitch. . chain stitch. . couching. . feather stitch. . french knots. . hemstitching. . herringbone stitch. . kensington outline. . lazy daisy or star stitch. miscellaneous. . bias. . cloth. . eyelets and loops. . joining and fastening threads. . mitered corner. . patterns. . plackets. . putting in sleeves. . seams. a. bound seam. b. flannel seam. c. french fell. d. french seam. e. hemmed seam. . sewing on buttons. . sewing on hooks and eyes. . sewing on lace. . tucking. stitches used in plain sewing. =basting.=--basting is temporary sewing used to hold the cloth in place while putting in permanent stitches. as the basting threads are to be removed, place the knot on the right side. fasten the threads securely by taking two or three backstitches. in removing basting threads clip the threads at short intervals that they may be taken out easily. much of the success of the work depends upon careful basting. the extra time required will be repaid ten-fold. one stitch at a time for beginners, later two or three stitches may be taken. in basting hems, baste not on the edge, but very near it. do not baste on the line where you expect to stitch, but as near it as possible. a. an even basting is used on hems, seams of garments, or wherever two pieces of cloth are to be held firmly together. take up one-fourth of an inch and skip one-fourth. b. uneven basting is used where very careful basting is unnecessary, as in the seams of skirts, or in working on a material that clings together, as a guide for stitching. take up an eighth of an inch and skip three-eighths. when only loose basting is required, as when holding the lining and outside together, a long stitch and two short ones may be used. =blind stitch.=--the blind stitch and slip stitch are used to fasten a hem lightly where it is desired to conceal the stitches. to blind stitch a hem, turn back the edge of the hem to the basting and, holding the cloth along the edge of the finger, catch first cloth and then hem with a single stitch that does not show on either side. a slip stitch is a long stitch on the wrong side and a blind stitch on the hem. it is used on the milliner's fold. =buttonholes.=--a buttonhole is a slit cut and worked to admit a button for fastening purposes. it is much easier for beginners to commence on the blind buttonhole. this is made by working around a line instead of cutting the hole. the stitch, the fan, and the finishing can thus be learned without the care of the raw edge. the directions for making the buttonhole are as follows: [illustration: stitches used on plain sewing. --three styles of basting. --the running stitch. --the gathering. --the backstitch. --the half-back stitch. --the combination stitch. --the overcasting.] a. preparation of the hole. a. _cutting_--with the buttonhole scissors cut the hole one-fourth of an inch from the folded edge and straight with the threads of the cloth. b. _stranding_--the strand consists of carrying the thread along the edge of the buttonhole near enough to be easily covered by the buttonhole stitch, for the purpose of adding strength to the buttonhole. thread two needles, one with fine thread or sewing silk and the other with coarser thread or twist, depending upon the kind of buttonhole to be made. place a knot in the coarse thread or twist, and with the folded edge of the cloth toward the left hand, bring the needle out just below the lower right hand end of the buttonhole, which is the end farthest from the folded edge. at the other end put the needle into the cloth just below the end of the cut and bring it out just above, which will carry the thread along the edge of the buttonhole. repeat the same on the other side bringing the thread out at the point of starting. do not cut this thread, as this is ready to begin the buttonhole stitch after the overcasting. c. _overcasting_--with the fine thread or sewing silk begin at the lower right-hand end. the object of the overcasting is to prevent raveling while working the buttonhole and the fewer stitches which will accomplish this purpose the better. as the overcasting must be covered by the buttonhole stitch do not take over two or three threads deep and just as few stitches on each side as is absolutely necessary to prevent the loosening of the threads. some materials do not require overcasting. b. working the buttonhole. a. _the stitch_--determine how deep a stitch is necessary so that the threads will not pull out, always keeping in mind that _the shorter the stitch the better the buttonhole will look_. this depends upon the kind of material in use. the first stitch begins one thread beyond the end of the slit. holding the buttonhole along the cushion of the left forefinger with the folded edge of the cloth toward the left, place the needle into the slit under the lower edge of the buttonhole and draw the needle half way through. with the needle still pointing toward the chest take up the double thread at the eye of the needle and place it under the point, passing _from right to left_. draw the needle and thread out, and from you, so that the purl or twist comes to the edge of the slit. (this makes a firmer edge than when the thread is carried around the needle from left to right.) each stitch is a repetition of the above. place the stitches about the width of a thread apart, as this will avoid a crowded appearance and makes a firm, hard edge. do not jerk the thread, but draw steadily and tight; otherwise the edge will be rough. avoid stretching the buttonhole; the edges should touch when finished. b. _the fan_--at the end near the folded edge--the round end--spread the stitches like the sticks of a fan, drawing them closer at the top and spreading at the bottom. five stitches will work nicely around the end, the third stitch being straight with the buttonhole. c. method of finishing the buttonhole. a. the simplest manner of finishing is as follows: the buttonhole stitches at this end are at right angles to the slit, and not rounding as at the other end. after finishing the last buttonhole stitch, pass the needle down between the first and second stitch, and bring it out between the last and next to the last stitch. draw the thread tight so as to bring the edges of the buttonhole together. put in several stitches in the same place. pass the needle to the under side and fasten the thread. [illustration: method of buttonholing.] b. _the bar_--the thread being at the top of the last stitch, pass the needle down between the first and second stitch and out at the bottom of the last stitch. put in three threads across the width of the buttonhole, bringing the thread out at the bottom of the last buttonhole stitch. turn the cloth so that the thumb covers the thread and the buttonhole, and work the bar by bringing the needle out each time over the thread, as in the blanket stitch. draw the purl edge toward the buttonhole. do not put in too many stitches, as it makes the loop stand away from the buttonhole. near the middle of the bar take one stitch through the cloth to hold it down. c. _caution_--be sure that the thread is long enough to work the buttonhole, but not over-long, as the thread wears and is more liable to break. use care and not break the thread, but in case this happens, take out the last few stitches, thread the needle on this short end, pass through the last purl, and fasten the thread on the under side. with the new thread fasten without a knot on the wrong side, bring through the last purl at the edge of the buttonhole and continue. on cloth that ravels badly put in two parallel rows of running stitches and then cut the buttonhole between the rows. =combination stitch.=--the combination stitch consists of three little running stitches and a backstitch over the last running stitch. take three running stitches on the needle and pull it through. take up the last running stitch for the first of the next group of three. it is a little stronger than the running stitch. =darning.=--the object in darning is to repair a rent, if possible so that it cannot be perceived. the warp and woof threads that have been worn away are to be rewoven into the cloth. no knots are needed. leave a short end of thread to be clipped when the darn is finished. a. stocking darning. stockings should be darned on the wrong side. a square hole makes a more symmetrical darn than a round one, and should be used wherever there is no widening or narrowing in the knitting, as on the leg of a stocking. a round hole is better for the heel and toe. cut away the part that is badly worn. first put in the warp threads, taking care to take up on the needle all the little loops around the hole and making the darn symmetrical in shape. then put in the woof threads, weaving carefully across the warp over the hole, passing over the threads that were taken up on the preceding row. _give special attention to the edge of the hole, passing first over and then under the edge, that there may be no ridge._ if the hole is large or stretched out of shape, draw up the edges by whipping with fine thread. the darning stitches should extend only as far as the worn part. if the warp threads have strengthened the worn part sufficiently the woof threads may be extended only far enough over the edge to fasten securely. in darning a large hole it is sometimes wise to begin putting in the warp threads at the center first to prevent stretching. do not draw the threads too tight, as they will shrink when washed. b. cloth darning. this may be done with thread, ravelings or hair. in darning with thread darn on the wrong side, with ravelings or hair on the right. darn at right angles to the tear or cut. continue the darning stitches on each side of the tear only far enough to strengthen the worn part, usually a quarter, sometimes an eighth of an inch, is sufficient. continue the darn an eighth of an inch beyond the end of the tear. the repairing shows less if the rows of darning stitches are of unequal length. in darning take up the threads of cloth passed over in the preceding row, slipping the needle over one edge of the tear and under the other going one way and reversing this order going the other way. this makes the edge smooth and does not throw it up in a ridge. if the material to be darned is thin or stretches easily, place the rent over a piece of glazed paper and baste around it before darning. if the cloth is worn and thin, place a piece of cloth under and darn through the two thicknesses. take great care not to stretch the hole or to draw the threads tight enough to pucker. =gathering.=--gathering is an uneven stitch made by passing over twice as much as is taken on the needle. when the thread is drawn up this gives the appearance of fine gathering on the right side and admits of considerable cloth being gathered into a small space. gathering is used in joining a full part to a straight piece, as the skirt to the band, etc. gather with a strong single thread a little longer than than the space to be gathered. _never use a double thread._ if the thread becomes knotted a new thread must be put in from the beginning. hold the cloth, as in the running stitch, with the right side toward you, using the wrist motion. make a large knot in the thread so that it cannot slip through the cloth, and place the knot on the _wrong_ side. at the end of the gathering slip the needle off and make a knot in the thread, that it may not pull out. a. stroking gathers. for stroking or placing gathers use a coarse needle or a pin. draw up the gathering thread just tightly enough so that the pin can be easily inserted between the gathers and fasten by winding over a pin placed at right angles to the last stitch. begin at the left hand, placing the pin in the fold of the first stitch and stroke gently downward, holding the pin obliquely. after each successive stroke press the pleat under the thumb of the left hand. continue the same with every stitch. b. sewing the gathered part to the straight piece. divide both into halves, quarters or eighths, depending upon the length, and pin the points of division together. draw up the gathering thread to the proper length and fasten by winding over a pin. arrange the gathers even before basting. baste just above the gathers, holding the gathered piece next to you. _stitch just below the gathering thread._ c. gauging. gauging or double gathering is done by having a second row of gathering stitches of equal length and directly below those of the first (so that when both threads are drawn up the cloth lies in pleats). in heavy material three or four threads may be put in. gauging is usually used on heavy material or on a folded edge that is to be overhanded to a band. d. gathering by whipping a rolled edge. ruffles of lawn, linen or embroidery are sometimes put upon the edge instead of into a facing or seam, and when so placed it is desirable to avoid the raw edge on the under side. hold the work over the left forefinger and roll the edge toward you between the thumb and forefinger. place the needle under the roll on the right side, passing out at the top of the roll. whip about one inch and draw up the thread. it is necessary to use a strong thread for whipping and gathering the edge of a ruffle. =half-back stitch.=--half-back stitching is similar to the stitching. the long forward stitch on the under side is three times the length of the backstitch on the upper side, and a space the length of the backstitch is left between the stitches. see stitching, page . =hemming.=--a hem is a fold made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth, and then sewing it down. the first fold is most important; if that is turned even there will be little trouble with the second. _trim the edge of the cloth before turning the hem._ it is well to make and use a gauge of the required width. if a wide hem is turned, baste along the second fold or bottom of the hem first, and then at the top. on woolen goods or material that does not crease easily it is necessary to baste the first fold. either bury the knot between the folds of the hem or leave one-half inch of thread and hem over it. a. hemming stitch. hold the hem across the cushion of the left forefinger and point the needle a little to the left across the middle of the thumb. take up a few threads of the cloth and a few threads of the fold and draw the needle through. take care that the stitches are regular, of equal length and of equal distance apart. _do not confuse the hemming stitch with the blind stitch, or the damask hem._ join the threads by leaving a half-inch of the old thread and a half-inch of the new to be tucked under the edge of the hem and be hemmed over. teachers will find the following suggestions helpful in teaching the hemming stitch: put the needle in _almost_ straight with the hem, not at right angles to it. take up as little cloth on the needle as possible; bring the needle directly through the hem, making one stitch of it instead of dividing the stitch as in the blind stitch. crowd the point of the needle under the edge of the hem. do not insert the needle a distance from the hem, trusting to puckering it up. b. damask hem. damask is a heavy fabric woven of heavy threads of one color in which the pattern is brought out by a change in the direction of the threads, and when new is stiff with much dressing. from the very nature of the cloth it is impossible to hem well with the flat hem. the two folds of the hem are turned the desired width and the hem is then turned back flat to the cloth and creased. the edge of the hem and the crease thus formed are overhanded together with fine even stitches. when laundered this irons perfectly smooth and the stitches do not show on the right side. do not confuse this method of hemming with the flat hem, as each has its own use. =overcasting.=--overcasting is done by taking loose stitches over the raw edge of cloth from right to left to keep it from raveling. the depth of the stitch depends upon the material to be overcast, usually an eighth of an inch is sufficient. the stitches should be twice as far apart as they are deep. the needle is inserted from the under side of the cloth and points a little to the left, making a slanting stitch. keep the spaces even and the stitches of equal length. _always trim the edges before overcasting._ do not overcast a selvedge edge. take only one stitch at a time and be careful not to draw the edge of the cloth. =overhanding.=--overhanding is done by sewing closely over two edges of cloth from right to left. the cloth may have a folded or selvedge edge. careful basting is necessary to good overhanding. the needle is placed at a right angle to the seam and should point to the chest. no knot is used; a short end of the thread is left and overhanded under. hold the work horizontally along the edge of the cushion of the left forefinger and the thumb. do not wind the cloth over the end of the finger. the stitches are straight on the under side and slanting on the top. do not draw the threads tight enough to make a hard seam and also avoid a loose stitch that will not hold the edges together when the seam is opened. a deep stitch is not necessary for strength and will not look well on the right side when opened. to join the threads leave a half-inch of the old and a half-inch of the new, lay them along the edge and overhand over them. =running.=--running is done by taking up and slipping over an equal amount of cloth. running is used for seams that do not require great strength, and also for tucking. care should be taken not to draw the thread tight enough to pucker. make a small knot in the thread and conceal it on the wrong side or in the folds of the cloth. hold the work in the left hand between the thumb and cushion of the forefinger; hold the needle in the work between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. use the wrist motion. fasten the thread by passing the needle through to the wrong side and taking two backstitches. =slip stitch.=--see blind stitch, page . =stitching.=--stitching is so called because it resembles machine stitching. it is also known as backstitching. stitching is done by taking a stitch backward on the upper side of the cloth and a long stitch forward on the underside, making the stitches meet on the top as in machine stitching. use a small knot in beginning. hold the work over the cushion of the left forefinger. fasten the threads on the wrong side by taking several backstitches, one over the other, through one thickness of the cloth. to join threads in stitching fasten securely on the wrong side and begin with a small knot, bringing the thread through at the proper place for beginning the new stitch. it is used where strength is required, or on garments too small to go into a machine conveniently. ornamental stitches. =applique.=--this is an ornamentation produced by cutting a design from one kind or color of cloth and placing it upon another. very beautiful effects can be obtained, with perfect harmony of color and the proper combinations of textiles. the edge can be finished with the blanket, couching, kensington or chain stitch. =blanket stitch.=--the blanket stitch, often erroneously called the buttonhole stitch, is used for finishing raw edges. it is worked from _left to right_, and the buttonhole stitch from _right to left_. the depth of the stitch and the space between stitches may be varied and will depend upon its use. if the thread is not fastened and joined carefully the symmetry of the stitches will be broken. a new thread must come up through the loop of the last stitch. a. to finish the edge of flannel or heavy cloth: insert the needle at a point the desired depth of the blanket stitch and take one or two running stitches to the edge of the cloth, which will bring the thread in position for the first stitch. make the first blanket stitch over these running stitches. holding the edge of the cloth toward you insert the needle at the same point as before and bring the needle out over the thread and draw the loop thus made to the edge of the cloth. repeat for successive stitches. for a simple finish for a flannel edge the stitches should not be placed too close together. as far apart as the depth of the stitch is a good rule, unless greater ornamentation is desired, when three, five or seven stitches may radiate from one point. b. for embroidering an edge--straight, scalloped or irregular. [illustration: ornamental stitches. --the chain stitch. --the kensington stitch. --two styles of feather stitching. --the herringbone stitch. --three styles of blanket stitch.] the stitches are the same as in "a" but should be placed close enough together so that the threads touch, making a firm edge. the embroidery should be done before the edge is cut. it can then be finished in various ways. the narrow edge can be turned back and whipped down on the wrong side, or blanket stitched just over the edge with fine cotton thread. on lingerie pieces the edge is not cut until after the first laundering. if desired the edge can be padded before working with the blanket stitch. the padding is done with a soft, coarse thread by working along the edge with either the kensington or chain stitch, or it may be heavily "padded" by filling the space. c. the blanket stitch is also used for working the loop and the buttonhole bar. d. see couching, below. e. see lazy daisy or star stitch, page . =chain stitch.=--the chain stitch is used for outlining a design, marking garments, etc. insert the needle on the line and draw the thread through to the knot. insert again at the same point and take up on the needle cloth for the desired length of stitch and draw the needle out _over_ the thread. in placing the needle for succeeding stitches begin inside the preceding stitch. the half-chain stitch is very effective for stems of flowers, or wherever a fine outline stitch can be used. this is made the same as the chain stitch, except that the needle is inserted just outside and to the right of the loop instead of in the end of the loop. =couching.=--couching is a coarse blanket stitch done over two or three strands of silk, linen or cotton floss. it makes an attractive finish for a hem line and also for finishing the edge in applique. =feather stitch.=--the principal use of the feather stitch being that of ornamentation requires that it shall be evenly and carefully done, or it fails in its purpose. the feather stitch consists of alternating stitches, or groups of stitches, slanting toward a center line. the stitch may be varied greatly by the length of the stitch, the slant of the stitch, and the number of stitches on each side. the tendency is to gradually increase the length of the stitch which must be carefully avoided, as well as a change in the slant. do not make too long a stitch, as there is danger of catching and breaking the thread. the feather stitch can be used very effectively in scroll designs for the ornamentation of sofa pillows, cushion covers, collars, underwear, etc. a. single feather stitching. work toward you, holding the cloth over the left forefinger. with a knot in the thread insert the needle from the under side a short distance to the right or left of the line the feather stitching is to follow (which may be designated the center line) and draw the thread through. place the left thumb over the thread to hold it down, and on the opposite side take up a slanting stitch, the top of which is as far from the center line as the length of the stitch, and the bottom touching the center line. draw the needle out over the thread which will thus form a loop of the thread from the first stitch. on the opposite side take up another slanting stitch the top of which is an equal distance from the center line and even with the bottom of the last stitch. repeat for successive stitches. at the end of a thread fasten by passing the needle down where the thread last came through the cloth, thus holding the loop from the last stitch in place. begin a new thread by passing the needle up through this loop. b. double feather stitching. this consists of alternating groups of two, three or more stitches instead of single stitches. the successive stitches of each group must be placed directly under the first stitch of the group. =french knot.=--bring the needle through from the under side. with the needle in the right hand, take hold of the thread with the left hand about an inch from the cloth and, holding it taut, wind it several times around the point of the needle. return the needle to the same hole through which it came out, and draw it back to the under side. =hemstitching.=--hemstitching is a method of hemming in which a few parallel threads are drawn, the hem turned to the line thus formed, and hemmed down with the same stitch that separates the cross threads in successive clusters. there are several modifications of the hemstitch. the following methods have been selected as being the best for four reasons: ( ) the thread is thrown under the edge of the hem, and consequently wears longer and shows less. ( ) the only part of the thread showing on the right side is the loop around the cross threads. ( ) it is readily taught to children, as it is simple, easy to remember, and can be given as two distinct parts. ( ) it is the natural way to hold the hem. a. _drawing the threads_--measuring from the edge of the cloth, allow twice the width of the desired hem when finished, plus the first fold, and draw several threads, the exact number depending upon the texture of the fabric. draw the first thread the entire length before starting the second, as it is liable to break where the first one did. the first thread being drawn, the second will come more readily. beginners are inclined to draw too many threads. unless both edges are to be hemstitched the opening should be narrow enough so that the threads at the top will not loosen. b. _the hem_--turn the first fold of the hem and baste to the exact line of the opening. careful basting is indispensable to good hemstitching, and especially so at a corner where two hems cross. miter all corners of hems that are more than one-fourth of an inch in width. c. _the stitch_--hold the cloth over the left forefinger as in ordinary hemming. bury the knot by inserting the needle under the edge of the hem and drawing it through. the stitch consists of two distinct parts, ( ) forming the loop around the cross threads, and ( ) catching down to the edge of the hem: ( ) pointing the needle toward you and holding the thread under the left thumb, take up on the needle three or four of the cross threads. draw the needle out over the thread, thus forming the loop, and tight enough to separate the cross threads. ( ) insert the needle under the edge of the _hem_ only and take an ordinary hemming stitch. repeat and for the next stitch. =herringbone stitch.=--the herringbone or catch stitch is a cross stitch used to finish the raw edges of flannel or heavy material. it serves both the purpose of overcasting over a raw edge and that of hemming. it is used on raw edged hems to avoid the ridge formed by the first fold of a hem, on the flannel patch and for finishing the flannel seam, which may be pressed open and both single edges herringbone stitched, or both folded to one side and finished over the double edge. in most cases the open seam looks better. the stitch consists of single, alternating running stitches made first to the right and then to the left, working from you instead of toward you as in ordinary running. the thread being carried across from one stitch to another, gives the appearance of a cross stitch. the stitches on each side must be in straight rows, with the outer row just over the edge of the flannel. the stitch should be no deeper than necessary to prevent pulling out. a good rule for beginners is to make the top of each stitch even with the bottom of the last stitch. _point the needle toward you in making the stitch, but work away from you._ the edge of the flannel must be kept smooth. this being a cross stitch the thread of one part of the stitch is on top and the other underneath. be sure that this is regular, those slanting in the same direction should be always either to the top or to the bottom. =kensington outline stitch.=--this stitch is used to follow the line of a design for ornamentation. to avoid the knot, when starting begin half an inch from the end of the line to be followed, and put in three or four running stitches, bringing the thread out at the proper place for starting. turn the cloth around, holding it over the left forefinger, and work from you. pointing the needle toward you, take a short running stitch directly on the line keeping the thread always on the right side of the needle, except on a line curving sharply to the left when the thread will fall more naturally to the left side. the thread being carried from one stitch to another gives the effect of a long diagonal stitch on the right side and running stitches on the wrong. the length of the stitch will be determined by the size of the thread, and the character of the line to be covered, a curved line requiring a shorter stitch than a straight one. =lazy daisy or star stitch.=--this is a variation of the blanket stitch. insert the needle at the point desired for the center of the flower and draw the thread through. insert again at the same place and take up the desired length of stitch on the needle, drawing the needle out over the thread. pass the needle down through the cloth at the point where it came out, but on the other side of the loop, thus forming a second loop at the end of the petal to hold it in place, and return the needle again to the center of the flower. make as many petals as desired and finish with the french knot in the center of the flower. this stitch also makes a pretty star, using six points and finishing without the french knot. miscellaneous. =bands=.--a band is a straight piece of cloth used to finish garments at the neck, wrist or waist. it may be sewed to a straight, gathered or pleated edge. a band cut with the warp is stronger than one cut with the woof. a. hemmed band. see description of the gathering, page . gather as desired. place the right sides of the cloth and band together and baste just above the gathering thread, taking care that the gathers are arranged perfectly even. stitch just below the gathering thread. turn in a fourth of an inch at the ends and along the other side of the band. fold the band over just covering the gathers, and baste. hem or stitch along the edge, overhanding the ends of the band. b. overhand band. see description of gauging, page . make the band by turning in one-fourth of an inch all around, folding and basting the edges together. overhand the ends of the band. the whipping of the full part to the band will be sufficient to hold the two sides of the band together. turn back the raw edges of the piece to be gathered one-half inch and gather once, twice or three times as desired. pin to the band and overhand, taking a stitch for each pleat of the gathers. fasten all bands very securely. =bias.=--a bias is a diagonal cut. to cut a true bias, fold over the corner of the cloth so that the warp and woof threads are parallel. a choice bias is a true bias, having the twill of the cloth at right angles to the cut. great care should be taken in measuring and cutting bias strips to have them the same width throughout the length. also avoid stretching after cutting. a. to cut a bias facing, bias binding or fold, measure in the desired width on the true bias at a number of points. draw a line, crease in a fold or baste where the facing is to be cut off. b. to put on a bias facing, place the edge of the strip, right sides together, even with the edge of the cloth to be faced, baste and stitch. turn the facing back _exactly_ in the seam and baste along the edge so that the facing will not show on the right side. turn the fold at the top, baste and hem. a bias facing for a curve should be cut narrow enough so that by stretching one edge of the facing it will lie perfectly smooth when finished. c. to join two bias strips--cut the ends to be joined straight with the threads of the cloth and place the right sides together, slipping the top piece past the under piece the width of a seam, but having the top edges even. stitch where the facings cross, open the seam and crease; or, after trimming, a seam may be turned back at the end of each piece and the folded edges overhanded together. =cloth.=--a fabric woven of fibers, either animal or vegetable. the edges of cloth are known as the selvedge, the threads running lengthwise the warp, and those crossing the warp from selvedge to selvedge the woof. the selvedge should be trimmed off, as it is hard to sew through and draws up when wet. =eyelets and loops.=--an eyelet is a small hole made and worked in a garment to receive a cord, stud or loop of a button. punch the hole with a stiletto, pushing the threads apart rather than breaking them. overhand closely from right to left with short even stitches. a large eyelet may be cut out and worked around with the buttonhole stitch. a blind loop is made in place of the eye to receive a hook. put three or four long stitches in the same place beginning at the left, so that the thread will be at the proper place for working the loop with the blanket stitch. =joining and fastening thread.=--when sewing, care should be taken in joining threads. the manner in which it is done depends upon the stitch in use. in hemming, leave a half-inch of the old and a half-inch of the new thread, tuck both under the hem and continue hemming over the threads. the same plan is followed in overhanding. in the blanket stitch, feather stitch, herringbone, chain and buttonhole stitch the new thread must come out through the last stitch. thoughtful attention should be given to the fastening of threads, as careful, painstaking work may soon be rendered useless by the loosening of the thread from the end. after fastening securely clip off all threads that the work may be not only strong, but neat. the usual fastening consists of several backstitches taken in the same place. =mitered corner.=--two hems crossing at right angles may be finished either with the square or the mitered corner. to miter a corner, turn and crease a quarter-inch fold on both sides. turn the second fold of the hem the desired width on both sides and crease. open out the corner and place a dot where the inner creases cross. place a second dot a quarter of an inch from the first toward the corner. through this second point draw a line passing from side to side, across the corner, being careful that the line is an equal distance from the corner on both sides. cut off the corner on this line. fold both hems again on the creases before made and pin the hem on one side in place. make a pin hole as near the exact point where the hems cross as possible, passing through both hems. fold in the bias edge on the hem that is not pinned down, _exactly from the pin hole to the corner_, causing the edges of the two hems to meet at an angle of forty-five degrees. =patterns.=--with the varied, complex and ever-changing styles of fashion, individual pattern drafting (except for a very simple article) is impracticable, usually resulting in commonplace garments and involving useless time and labor. for the trifling sum of ten or fifteen cents reliable, up-to-date patterns can be secured which are cut to established measurements by a fashion expert. a good needlewoman supplies herself with a good pattern and then cuts accurately, bastes carefully, and finishes neatly, and in nearly all cases, results will be satisfactory. =plackets.=--a placket is an opening made in a garment. there are several ways of finishing an opening, but in all cases, except when the gusset is used, the underside should extend some distance under the top to prevent gaping. a. a placket with a continuous binding. this is the placket used on children's drawers, night shirts, under garments, etc. cut the opening the desired length. cut the facing with the warp a little more than twice the length of the opening and twice the desired width when finished, plus one-fourth inch, or more, allowed for seams. the following are the successive steps for making the placket: a. fold the cloth, right sides together, in a line with the opening. b. double the facing across the warp, through the center, wrong sides together. c. slip this between the folds of the cloth so that the fold of the facing will just come to the end of the opening. this will bring the right side of facing to the right side of the cloth. d. baste the facing to the cloth down one side and up the other side of the opening. e. stitch with an eighth of an inch seam, which will render unavoidable a small pleat at the end of the opening the width of the seam. f. crease the facing back over the opening exactly in the seam. g. turn an eighth of an inch fold the length of the facing down the other side. h. fold this over the seam to the stitching, baste, and hem. i. at the top of the opening fold the right-hand facing back and stitch along the edge to hold in place. b. a placket with an extension hem on one side and a flat facing on the other. this is the placket used on dress skirts, petticoats and carefully tailored garments. follow the directions for the successive steps for making placket a through "g," as the two plackets are the same to this point. the left side of the facing will consist of an extension hem the same as in placket a, the only difference in the plackets being the manner of finishing the right side or top facing. h. after turning the fold the length of the facing, place the edge of this fold to the stitching on the other side of the seam, and crease the facing through the center the long way, as in placket a. i. as the right side is to be hemmed down as a facing, it is desirable to cut out one thickness of the cloth, leaving, of course, the quarter-inch inside the long crease, and also at the cross fold, at the end of the opening as the first fold on the facing. j. baste this facing flat to the cloth, and hem. k. stitch once across the _top facing only_, just at the bottom end of the opening. c. a finish for a shirt sleeve or nightgown opening. as this consists of an extra piece which extends over the opening, it is necessary to allow for this in cutting, so that the middle of this piece will come in the center when finished. when cutting this opening in a nightgown, cut to the right of the center one-half the width the facing is to be when finished. the following are the successive steps for making the nightgown opening: a. cut the opening the desired length. cut the facing in two pieces, one a little more than twice the length of the opening, and the other the length of the opening plus the width of the facing, both pieces to be the desired width plus the allowance for seams. (these two pieces will be designated the long and the short facings.) b. place the short facing to the right-hand side of the opening, right sides of cloth together and even at the top. pin in place. c. place the long facing to the back of this same side with the right side of facing to the wrong side of the cloth, thus having the three thicknesses of cloth together. pin in place and baste a quarter of an inch from the edge. stitch an eighth of an inch seam. d. the long facing is a continuous facing, the same as in plackets a and b. baste up the other side and stitch, the seam being on the right side of the cloth. e. crease both facings open in the seams. turn in a fold on the other side of the short facing and turn the end to a square point. f. turn a fold the length of the long facing so that it matches the width of the short piece. g. baste the two facings together and the flat facing to the cloth. h. stitch around the short facing and twice across it at the end of the opening. stitch or hem the under side of the flat facing. d. the gusset. this method of finishing an opening is sometimes used on drawers and night-shirts instead of placket a. the following are the successive steps for making the gusset: a. cut the opening the desired length. b. hem both sides with a very narrow hem running to a point at the end of the opening. c. cut a piece of cloth one and one-half inches square. on this square fold down one corner three-fourths of an inch on the sides and cut it off. turn a fold one-eighth of an inch all around this piece. place the corner which is opposite the diagonal cut to the middle of this cut and crease. d. to sew the gusset in, place the apex of the triangle to the end of the opening and overhand on the wrong side to the crease before made. e. fold over the remaining part to the wrong side, baste and hem. stitch along the fold of the gusset to strengthen it. [illustration: formation of gusset.] =putting in sleeves.=--after trimming the arm hole, measure one inch back from the shoulder seam and mark with a pin. fold the garment at the arm hole with this pin at the top of the fold and place another directly opposite it. call this point a. remove the first pin to avoid confusion. for a sleeve for an adult, measure from the shoulder seam five inches on the front and mark with a pin. call this point b. measure from the shoulder seam three inches on the back and mark with a pin. call this point c. with the sleeve right side out place the under seam of the sleeve at a and pin together at this point. the gathers are to come at the top of the sleeve between b and c. for misses and children the measurements should be decreased proportionately. measure the sleeve on the arm-hole and cut small notches at b and c. gather the sleeve between these notches one-fourth of an inch from the edge, with a strong thread a little longer than the distance to be gathered. put in a second gathering one-eighth of an inch from the first. put in place at points a b and c; draw up the gathering threads to the proper length and fasten by winding around a pin. arrange the gathers between b and c, pushing them a little closer together in front of the shoulder seam. hold the inside of the sleeve next to you and, beginning at b, baste first around the plain part, then the gathered part. stitch inside the basting and bind the seam. =seams.=--a seam is formed by sewing together two pieces of cloth. there are several different methods of joining them. those known as the raw seams may be joined by stitching, half-back stitching, overhanding or the combination stitch. the closed or finished seams are known as the french fell, french seam, hemmed seam, flannel seam and the bound seam. no garment should be finished with a raw seam, which is only properly used when covered with a lining, or as the first step in one of the finished seams. a. french fell. place the two pieces to be joined, right sides together, edges even and baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. sew with the combination stitch (or machine stitching) three-eighths of an inch from the edge. trim three-sixteenths of an inch from the _under_ side of the seam and crease the _upper_ side of the seam over this. (in hand sewing there is a long stitch on the under side. be sure to trim from this side so that the short stitch comes on the top.) on the right side of the garment crease carefully and baste along the edge of the seam to prevent the fullness which beginners are so liable to have over the french fell on the right side. turn to the wrong side, baste the seam flat to the cloth, and hem. b. french seam. place together the wrong sides of the pieces to be joined, and baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. with the running stitch sew one-eighth of an inch from the edge. carefully trim off the ravelings, fold the right sides together and crease exactly in the seam, baste and stitch the seam, taking care that no ravelings can be seen and that the seam is perfectly smooth on the right side. c. hemmed seam: this is used for joining thin material, lace, etc. on one piece fold an eighth of an inch seam (or more, if necessary) to the right side of the cloth, and on the other piece fold an eighth of an inch seam to the wrong side. place the right sides of the two pieces together with the raw edge of one piece under and to the folded edge of the other. baste this fold down over the raw edge sewing through the three thicknesses of cloth. fold over in the crease and baste through the four thicknesses. stitch, or hem by hand, along the edge of the seam on both sides of the cloth. d. flannel seam: the flannel seam is used on material so thick that it is necessary to finish over a raw edge, instead of with a seam involving several thicknesses of cloth. place together the right sides of the two pieces to be joined and baste one-eighth of an inch from the edge. stitch one-fourth of an inch from the edge and remove the bastings. trim the seams smooth, open and baste flat to the cloth. herringbone stitch over the raw edge of both sides of the seam. one side of the herringbone stitch should come just over the raw edge of the flannel. the edges must be kept smooth, and unless the flannel ravels easily, the herringbone stitch should be not over one-eighth of an inch deep and close together. this stitch is used also on the flannel patch. e. bound seam: seams may be bound with the two parts of the seam together, or they may be pressed open and bound separately. this may be done with a bias strip, binding ribbon or tape. a. _binding the entire seam_--place together the two right sides of the pieces to be joined and baste one-eighth of an inch from the edge. place the bias binding (three-fourths of an inch wide) with the wrong side of the cloth up and the edge of the binding one-eighth of an inch from the edge of the seam, and baste in place. stitch through the three thicknesses of cloth a quarter of an inch from the edge. turn in one-eighth of an inch on the other side of the binding and hem it down just above the stitching on the other side of the seam. this method of binding is used on the arm-holes of garments or wherever it is not feasible to open the seam and bind separately. b. _the open bound seam_--prepare the seam as above without the bias binding. trim and press the seam open. double the binding ribbon through the center and crease. place the raw edge of the seam to the fold of the ribbon and run along the edge, catching through to the under fold. tape may be used for binding, but must be basted on first and hemmed down. =sewing on buttons.=--there are two important requirements for sewing on buttons--to put in sufficient thread, and to fasten this thread securely that it may not loosen from the end. in sewing flat buttons on coats, jackets, etc., place a small button on the under side and sew through it to avoid having the stitches show on the under side. a. _the loop or shank button_--place the button in position with the loop at right angles to the edge of the cloth. hold the button with the left hand and overhand the loop to the cloth. pass the thread to the under side and fasten. b. _four-hole button_--in sewing on flat buttons insert the needle from the right side and back in order to hide the knot under the button. place the button in position and hold a pin across the button for the purpose of lengthening the stitches. put in five or six stitches diagonally across the button and over the pin. change the position of the pin and repeat. slip the pin out, pass the needle through the cloth only, and wind the thread around the threads between the button and the cloth. pass the needle through the cloth and fasten securely. c. _two-hole button_--place the button so that the stitches will come at right angles to the edge of the cloth, with the pin across the button. proceed as with the four-hole button. =sewing on hooks and eyes.=--in sewing hooks and eyes on a garment it is best, where practicable, to cover the ends with the lining of the garment or with a piece of tape. in sewing them on the edge of a hem or facing turn the edge of the hem back over the ends of the hooks and eyes and hem it down. where they are to be covered they should be strongly overhanded to the garment first. when covering is not feasible place the hook or eye in position and buttonhole around the top, beginning at the right-hand side and inserting the needle under and up through the hole, throwing the thread around the needle as in the buttonhole stitch. the hook should be sewed down at the point before breaking the thread. the worked loop is often used in place of the metal eye. for this purpose cut a stiff pointed piece of cardboard the length of the desired loop and work the loop over this, when the cardboard can be easily slipped out. the loop is worked from left to right with the blanket stitch the same as the bar of the buttonhole. =sewing on lace.=--when sewing lace to an edge always hold the lace next to you. lace may be put on straight or gathered. at the top of most laces will be found a coarse thread woven into the lace for the purpose of gathering. before drawing this up divide the lace and the edge upon which it is to be placed into halves, quarters or eighths, depending upon the length, and pin, with right sides together, at points of division. then draw up the thread, arrange the gathers even, and overhand to the edge with fine even stitches. if the gathering thread is not in the lace, put it in and proceed as above. if the lace is to be put on plain hold it loosely to the edge and overhand. a. sewing lace around a corner: when sewing the lace on plain to round a corner, overhand to a point as far from the corner as the width of the lace. (this point may be designated a, and a point an equal distance from the corner on the other side b.) from a measure on the lace twice its width and pin at the corner. allow the same fullness on the other side and pin at b. continue overhanding from b, leaving the corner until later, when the gathering thread will be put in, gathers arranged and the lace overhanded to the edge. if the lace is wide baste it in place at the corners before overhanding. when sewing gathered lace to an edge, to round a corner proceed as above with this exception: the same fullness must be allowed on the corner that is allowed on the straight edge, in addition to that required to carry the lace around the corner without drawing. for example: if one-half the length of the lace is allowed for fullness on the straight edge, at the corner allow two and one-half times the width of the lace instead of twice its width. b. sewing two ends of lace together: the manner of sewing two ends of lace together will depend upon the kind of lace to be joined, the pattern, strength, etc. the first aim to be considered is to have the joining strong enough so that it will not pull apart. the second is to join it so that it will show as little as possible. several methods are suggested: a. lace made up of units can be easily joined by overhanding these units together. b. if the pattern permits, cut the lace with the pattern, lay one edge over the other and buttonhole over each raw edge with fine thread. c. sew the lace right sides together, in a narrow seam. lay the seam flat and buttonhole over the raw edge and at the same time down to the lace. d. turn a narrow fold on one piece to the right side and on the other piece to the wrong side, slip one under the other and hem down the two edges as in the hemmed seam. =tucking.=--crease the first tuck where desired. for the second tuck measure from the first and allow twice the width of the tuck plus the desired space between. repeat for the successive tucks. putting a ruffle into a hem-tuck. this makes an excellent finish for the bottom of underskirts, petticoats and drawers. measure up from the bottom twice the width of the desired hem plus one-fourth of an inch for the seam and crease for a tuck. stitch the tuck. this will leave the raw edge extending one-fourth of an inch below the edge of the tuck. place the ruffle along this edge, wrong sides together, and baste in a quarter-inch seam. baste the tuck over the seam and stitch along the edge. chapter viii. textile fibers and fabrics. the fibers used in the manufacture of cloth are of two different natures, vegetable and animal. the vegetable fibers may be divided into three distinct classes: . the cotton, having soft, lint-like fibers, one-half to two inches in length, is obtained from the seed-pods, called "bolls." . the fibers from flax, hemp and jute are flexible and of soft texture, ten to one hundred inches in length. . the hard or leaf fibers, including manila, sisal, istle and the new zealand fibers, all having rather stiff woody fibers, one to ten feet long, are obtained from the leaf or the leaf stem. the animal fibers are obtained from the wool bearing animals such as common sheep, angora and cashmere goats and the hair of the camel. the silk fiber is obtained from the cocoon of a caterpillar. silk. silk is the most beautiful of all fabrics. it is made from the fiber produced by the silk-worm which is a species of caterpillar. so perfectly does this little worm do its work that no spinning is required. this fiber, placed under a microscope, looks like a glass thread. it is the light playing along this smooth surface that gives to silk its beautiful luster. silk first came to europe from china where the industry had been cultivated for many centuries. it is said this was begun by a woman, the wife of an emperor, in the year b. c., and the culture of the mulberry, upon the leaves of which the silk-worm feeds and thrives, forty years later. several unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce the cultivation of the silk industry into the united states. as the business requires a large amount of cheap labor for a short time during the year, it has not as yet been found profitable. machines are of little use, except in reeling the silk. the moth lays its eggs, about five hundred in number, in august or september, and they hatch the following may, just at the time the mulberry comes into leaf. these little caterpillars are hatched and fed in-doors, and they eat like hungry school-boys for a month or more, until they are about three inches long. at this period they sicken and cast their skins, after which they begin eating as eagerly as ever. in about a month, however, the worms stop eating altogether, crawl up on the twigs which are placed on large trays, and begin to spin their cocoons. there are two little openings in the head of the worm, from which comes two thread-like substances resembling glue, from which the silk is made. these stick close together and form a flat thread. the silk-worm by moving its head about, wraps this thread around its body, wrapping from the outside inward, until it has completely inclosed itself in this silken blanket. then it goes to sleep. if left to itself it would in two or three weeks bore its way out of this silky covering and come forth a feeble white moth. but as the cutting of this hole in the cocoon injures the fibers, only just enough for the next year's crop are allowed to come out. the rest are stifled in a hot oven. after the outsides of the cocoons are removed they are placed in hot water which softens the gum that is in the silk so that it can be wound off on reels. the silk fiber is all in one piece, and about one thousand feet long. there is always a portion of the cocoon which is too tangled to be wound, and it is made into what is called spun silk. spun silk is carded like wool. the removal of the natural gum, by boiling in strong soap suds, effects a considerable loss in weight, the cleansing process, however, causing it to take on very beautiful tints. this loss has led to the weighting of silk by mixing cheaper materials with it. an artificial silk is made from the fiber of the ramie plant which grows in china and malay. this is sometimes known as china silk. mercerized cotton has also been treated so as to very successfully imitate silk. cotton. =the plant.=--cotton is one of the most important vegetable fibers, distinguished from all other fibers by the peculiar twist it possesses which makes it especially adapted to spinning. it is cultivated between the twentieth and thirty-fifth parallels north of the equator. this is known as the cotton belt. within this belt lie the cotton districts of the united states, northern mexico, egypt, northern africa, asia and india. although cotton is cultivated mainly for the fiber surrounding the seeds, its by-products, the seeds and stalks, are of great commercial importance, being manufactured into oil-meal, oil cakes, cottolene, etc. there are about fifty species of the cotton plant but only a few are cultivated, the best known and most commonly used being the "american upland," which is now cultivated in many parts of the world. the two varieties grown in the united states are the "sea island" and the "upland." the former is much more valuable because its fiber is longer. it is cultivated on the islands and low-lying coasts of south carolina, georgia and florida. the latter, while not so valuable, furnishes most of the crop and is grown over a wide area. the plant grows from seven to ten feet high. the leaves are sprinkled with small black dots. the hollyhock-like flowers are white and yellow when they first open, but two days later they turn a dull red. surrounding the flowers are three or four cup-shaped green leaves which together are called squares. these remain after the petals have dropped, to serve as a protection to the bolls. cotton thrives best in a rich, deep soil with a hot, steamy atmosphere. it should have plenty of moisture while growing and a dryer period during the ripening and gathering of the crop. the most of the cotton crop is planted by the twentieth of may. six weeks after it begins blossoming the first bolls are ready for picking. this is done by hand, and as the bolls do not all ripen at the same time, it is necessary to go over the field many times, and the picking often lasts until the middle of december. the cotton is gathered into baskets hung from the shoulders of the pickers. =the preparation of the fiber.=--after the cotton is picked it is taken to the gin which separates the fiber from the seed. until the cotton gin was invented in , by a connecticut teacher, then living in georgia, the cultivation of cotton was not profitable, as one person could only clear the seeds from five or six pounds a day. this machine has revolving teeth which drag the cotton between parallel wires, leaving the seeds behind. with this machine a slave could clean about a thousand pounds in a day. this gave a wonderful impetus to the cotton industry, and its cultivation increased enormously. after the seeds are removed the cotton is put up into bales weighing about five hundred pounds each, and is then ready for shipping. when these bales are received at the factory the cotton is so closely matted together that it must be broken up or loosened. this is done in the blending room where it is first run through heavily weighted and spiked rollers which pull the cotton apart. it is then blended or mixed to make it of uniform quality. after this it is taken to the carding room. here the fibers are drawn parallel to one another and bits of leaves and unripe fibers removed, when it is put through the drawing frame, consisting of a pair of rollers. these parallel, untwisted fibers are now called "slivers." from the drawing frame these "slivers" go to the slubbing machines where it is lightly twisted and wound on bobbins. this process is repeated on similar machines each one drawing the thread out and twisting it a little more, until it is finally ready for spinning. =spinning.=--two systems of spinning are in use at the present time, ring spinning and self-acting mule spinning. the former is done mostly by women and children, and produces a hard, round irregular yarn. the latter machines, operated only by men and very strong women, are complicated, but produce an exceedingly soft and fine yarn. the thread used for sewing and for the manufacture of lace is made by twisting several fine threads together. sewing thread is usually composed of from six to nine threads spun separately and then twisted into one. thread is sometimes passed very rapidly through a flame which burns off the fuzz making it very smooth. =weaving.=--three operations are necessary in the manufacture of cloth; first, the separation of the warp threads on the loom, so that the shuttle containing the woof can pass through. second, the movement of the shuttle, back and forth, among the warp threads. third, the beating up the woof. flax. the fibers of flax are spun and woven into a fabric called linen. this is one of the most ancient industries known to man. linen is often mentioned in the bible and the ancient egyptians wrapped their mummies in this fabric. it is said that the finest linen of the present day looks coarse beside that from the egyptian looms in the days of the pharaohs. the hebrew and egyptian priests wore garments made of this fine linen. =the plant.=--flax grows from two to three feet high, and has a blue flower. a field of flax in blossom is very beautiful. while it is grown extensively in many parts of europe, asia and america, the soil and climate of ireland, france and the netherlands are especially adapted to its growth, and it is in these countries that it reaches its greatest perfection. the fiber of the bark is the part of the plant used in the manufacture of cloth. linseed oil is expressed from the seed. =the preparation of the fiber.=--when the plant is ripe it is pulled up by the roots and beaten to loosen the seeds which are then shaken out. next the stems are steeped in soft water and afterward allowed to ferment. they are then dried and passed between fluted rollers which breaks the woody part of the stems which are again beaten to remove this woody part from the fiber. the fiber is then made into bundles and sent to the mill to be spun, where it is first roughly sorted, the longest and best portions being separated from the short raveled ones. these inferior portions are called "tow." the treatment of the flax fiber for spinning is similar to that of the cotton (page ), being drawn and twisted and drawn out again, repeating this process several times. =spinning.=--coarse and heavy yarns are spun dry, but fine yarn must be spun wet. some varieties of velvet and velveteen are made from linen. much of the so-called linen cloth of the present day is mixed with cotton or jute. the principles of weaving are the same as that of the cotton. see page . for many centuries the weaving of linen was conducted as a household industry. the first attempt to manufacture it on a large scale was in england in . it is now one of the national industries. linen is bleached after it is woven. in the olden times it was spread upon the grass, or lawn, and the action of the sun, air and moisture whitened it, and for this reason it was called "lawn," and it is still so designated. in the modern process of bleaching, the linen is first singed by being passed rapidly over hot cylinders which makes the cloth smooth. it is then boiled in lime water, washed and afterwards scoured in a solution of sulphuric acid, exposed to the air for a time and again scoured. lastly, it is boiled in soda-lye water and dried over hot tin rollers. the gloss on linen is made by first mangling, then starching, and finally running it between heavy rollers. linen is chiefly manufactured in france, belgium, germany, england and the united states. france is noted for the finest kinds of lawn and cambric, while ireland excels in the production of table linen. the largest portion of the sheeting and toweling is made in scotland. the linen manufactures of the united states consist principally of toweling and twine. wool. wool is the fleecy covering of sheep. it is distinguished by its waviness and the scaly covering of the fibers. the scales are more pointed and protrude more than those of hair. this gives it a tendency to mat or felt. the waviness of wool is due to the spiral structure of the fibers. next to cotton, wool is the most extensively used of all the textile fibers. the romans developed a breed of sheep having wool of exceeding fineness, and later introduced their sheep into spain. here they were still further improved, and it was not many years until spain led the world in the production of wool. the fine wooled merino sheep originated here. australia and the united states are also great wool-producing countries. =classification.=--there are three classes of wool, classified according to the length, fineness and felting qualities: . the carding or clothing wool. . the combing or worsted wool. . the blanket or carpet wool. wool on different parts of the same animal varies greatly, that on the shoulders being the finest and most even. all unwashed wool contains a fatty or greasy matter called yolk or suint. this keeps the fiber from matting together and also protects the fleece from injury. the yolk must be removed before the wool is manufactured into cloth. when the fleece is cut from the body of the sheep it sticks together so that it can be spread out like the hide of an animal, and each fleece is tied in a separate bundle. a few years ago sheep shearing was done by hand. this was a busy time, especially on large ranches where thousands of sheep were to be sheared and it required a large crew to do the work. it is now accomplished with much less time, labor and expense by machinery. alpaca and mohair are classed as wools, but the former is produced by the alpaca goat and the latter by the angora goat. cashmere wool comes from the cashmere goat, found in thibet, and is very costly, as only the finest parts of the fleece are used. in the far eastern countries beautiful, costly fabrics are made from the long hair of the camel. =preparation.=--when wool comes to the factory in the raw state it must be scoured. this is done by passing it through machines containing strong soap suds, and afterwards rinsing it. after the wool is dry it is mixed or blended. mixing is an operation of great importance and is done to make the wool of uniform quality. portions of wool from different lots, qualities and colors are placed in alternate layers and blended. if it is desired to mix other materials with the wool, such as silk, cotton or shoddy, it is added at this time. the wool is harsh to the touch after it has been scoured, owing to the removal of the yolk. to restore its natural softness it is slightly sprinkled with oil during the process of mixing. =carding and spinning.=--the process of carding produces a thread having fibers projecting loosely from the main thread in little ends which form the nap of the finished cloth. after it is carded it is wound on spools and is ready for the spinning. in spinning the threads are held together by their scales and the waviness of the fiber which prevents them from untwisting. another valuable feature of wool is its elasticity, which makes it soft to the touch and this is retained in the manufactured goods. =woolens.=--there are two classes of woolen textiles, woolens and worsteds, depending upon the character of the fiber used, and the treatment to which it is subjected. the shorter varieties of wool are used in woolens, while the long fibers are combed out and used for the worsteds. in making woolen yarns the wool is simply carded and very loosely spun, but in making worsted thread the wool is combed out and hard twisted. owing to the nap of the woolen goods the weaving is scarcely visible, but in the manufacture of worsteds the weave is evident and a great variety of designs is possible. a variety of effects can also be produced by the character of the finish. among the principal varieties are: . the dress face finish, such as broadcloth and beaver. . the velvet finish. . the scotch or melton finish. . the bare face finish, which has the nap completely sheared off. while the finish may differ, the general treatment of the cloth is practically the same. the first step is called pulling, when the cloth is soaked in hot water and pulled by a pulling machine. it is soaked, pulled and beaten until it is only half its original length and breadth. it is then rinsed and stretched on a frame where it will dry without a wrinkle. at this time the nap is raised by beating the cloth with the spike head of the teasel plant or its substitute. the pile or nap is then trimmed so as to present a uniform surface, when it is wound tightly around a huge drum and immersed in hot water. finally it is pressed in a hydraulic press, during which time steam is forced through it. this is to give solidity and smoothness to the cloth and also to add luster to the finished fabric. chapter ix. dress, and its relation to art. art education should bring to every girl a greater appreciation of beauty and a sufficient knowledge to enable her to beautify her home and to dress herself becomingly. this is the real "applied art" or "applied design" of which we have heard much but seen little. the power and skill necessary to originate an intricate and artistic design, and a technical knowledge of color-blending are worth something to the individual, but the ability to apply this knowledge later to the decoration of her home and to the selection of her own wardrobe is of vastly greater importance. an artist who paints the human figure, draws and erases and draws again, and yet again, that the contour of the form he creates may be right in proportion and graceful in line. he studies his coloring, he compares, rejects and blends for a particular shade or tint that makes for complete harmony. no discordant note of color nor turn of line that detracts from the beauty of the whole is allowed. and there are artistic makers-of-garments who put into the costumes they create the same thought and care that the artist spends upon his canvas, but the prices of both are within the reach of very few. nearly every woman must plan her own wardrobe and choose the furnishings for her home and this is what "art" and "domestic art" in the public schools should train the girl of to-day--the woman of the future--to do. art on paper is the preparation for a journey--packing the suitcase, as it were, necessary but toilsome; the application of art principles to the problems of real life, the delightful excursion, opening the eyes to real beauty and its possibilities. may the children in our schools have something more than the drudgery of preparation. clothing was first designed in the early ages, no doubt, as a covering and protection to the body; it has come, however, to mean something more than this. it is an expression of the character, the nicety of taste--or lack of it--the discrimination and judgment of the individual. in the selection of one's garments there are a number of points which must be taken into consideration, such as health and comfort, cost, fitness, color and style, as well as beauty. and above all, the average woman must pause and consider last season's garments, that are too good to be discarded and must form a part of this year's wardrobe. it is quite disastrous to plunge ahead and buy a blue dress, because blue happens to be stylish, if the hat to be worn with it is a green or brown "left over." while a due regard to the opinions of others demands a certain conformity to the customs of the time and place in which one lives, there is always a latitude allowed which enables one to exercise individual needs, taste and preference. health and comfort should take rank before everything else. a style which interferes with either is an absurdity which anyone of good sense will avoid. neatness should be considered above beauty or style. a soiled collar, hooks, eyes and buttons missing, gloves out at finger ends, shoes dusty and unpolished, braid hanging from the skirt, the waist and skirt separated are all accidents which may befall anyone, but are most deplorable when they become chronic. it has been wisely said that the best dressed woman is she of whose clothing one is unconscious, whose dress is neither conspicuous from extreme style nor too noticeable from a total disregard of the custom of the times. good taste demands that one be not overdressed. street and business suits and young girls' school dresses should be plain, well made and neat, of subdued and becoming color. "costly thy habit as thy purse can buy," wrote shakespeare, and the advice still holds good. economy does not consist, however, of buying cheap, shoddy material. trimming can be dispensed with to the improvement of the average garment, but a dress made of good cloth will out-wear, look better, give greater self-respect, and in the end cost less than several dresses made of cheap stuff, as the cost of making is no more for the one than the other. this is a principle that applies as well to underwear. simple garments, well made of firm fine cambric are much to be preferred to those overtrimmed with cheap lace and sleazy embroidery. some colors and styles are becoming to certain complexions and forms and are quite the reverse to others. a short stout person should avoid plaids, while one overly tall should never select stripes. the lines of the garment are equally important--any method of trimming that gives length, the long lines of the "princess" and the "empire" styles are a boon to the short figure, while the overskirt, the deep flounce, and the bands of trimming running around the skirt, all help to break the long lines for the tall woman. belts that by contrast divide the figure are not good unless one wishes to shorten the height. waists and skirts of the same color usually have more style and give better form. give careful heed to the selection of color, not only to the dress but to the accessories, hat, gloves, collar, belt and shoes, as well. in fact, consider the costume as a whole made up of parts, each one of which must harmonize with every other. before sewing machines were to be found in every home and ready made clothing in the stores styles did not change so rapidly. commercial conditions now make it to the advantage of a great army of people that the styles in dress change often and radically. the manufacturers of cloth, the wholesale merchants with their agents, the retailers and their numerous clerks, wholesale garment-makers and their many employes, pattern-makers, dress-makers, milliners and the manufacturers of all minor articles of clothing are all benefitted by this oft recurring change in style. this condition has come about so gradually that we hardly realize to what extent we are victims of trade-tricks. it is not necessary nor desirable that woman should enslave herself to follow all the vagaries of style. [illustration: child's picture book.] chapter x. paper, cloth and cardboard construction. a child's picture book. _materials:_ pink, blue or yellow paper cambric inches; coarse thread; coarse needle; bright, pretty pictures which the children have cut from papers, magazines, cards, etc.; paste. fold the cloth through the center with the warp and cut on the fold. fold both strips into three equal pieces with the woof, and cut. fold each piece through the center parallel to the selvedge. place two pieces together and pin at the fold, and "pink" through the four thicknesses, around the edges with a "pinking iron." do the same with the other pieces. when finished place them all together and stitch at the fold at follows: . mark three holes on the fold with the needle, one in the middle and one two inches above it, and another two inches below it. . tie a large knot two inches from the end of the thread. . insert the needle at the lowest hole, from the inside, and draw it through leaving two inches of the thread to tie. . pass over the middle hole and down through the upper one, out through the middle hole on one side of the long thread, and back through the same hole on the other side of the thread, and tie the two ends of the thread together. paste a pretty card or large picture on the outside for the cover. page the book with neat figures and write the name of the child for whom the book is designed on the inside of the cover. arrange and paste in the pictures neatly. a box with cover. _materials:_ cardboard for foundation " × "; cover " × "; colored paper for covering; strips of cloth or glue-tape for staying corners; glue. use tooth-picks in applying the glue. [illustration: no. and no. --one-piece boxes. no. .--two-piece box. box and cover alike.] [illustration: group of boxes.] find the center of the card by drawing both diagonals. measure two and one-half inches from the center toward the sides. draw straight lines passing through these points connecting opposite edges, thus forming a five-inch square in the center. cut out the corners on these lines. hold the edge of a ruler firmly to the lines of the square and bend the cardboard. fold the strip of cloth or tape through the center and put the glue on this, using very little, and taking care to keep it back from the edge. cover the corners with the cloth. cut a strip of the colored paper twenty-one inches by two and three-fourth inches. put a very little glue on the outside of the box and cover with the colored paper. turn over the edges and glue them down. follow the same directions for making the cover, measuring two and five-eighth inches from the center of the seven-inch square of cardboard. cover the sides and top with the colored paper, the strip for the sides being twenty-two inches by one and one-half inches, and the top a five-inch square. this box can be made in any size or shape, the same general plan being followed. a blank book with paper cover re-inforced with cloth. _materials:_ strong felt paper " × "; book cloth for back " × - / ", for corners pieces " × - / "; lining paper for covers, sheets - / " × - / "; number of sheets of paper desired for the book - / " × - / "; coarse thread; coarse needle; glue. use tooth-picks in applying the glue. draw a line on the felt paper through the middle the long way and fold on the line. measure on the outside one and one-fourth inches from the corners along both edges, and place points. connect these points with straight lines. place the long edge of the cloth corner to this line, and fold it over the corner and crease. remove and trim it even before gluing on. put the glue always on the cloth and use as little as possible. crease the strip of book-cloth for the back, through the center, but do not glue in place until after the leaves are sewed in. fold the sheets of paper through the center of the book. follow the same directions for sewing the leaves together as given in the description of "a child's picture book," page . finish by gluing the paper lining on the inside of the cover and the strip of book-cloth down the back. [illustration: a blank book.] this book could be made any size or shape, and decorated as desired. a folding envelope case for papers. _materials:_ strong felt paper, or its substitute; (a sheet " × " cut through the center the short way will make two cases. if two harmonious colors be selected, the corners cut from one case can be used to decorate another); book cloth in one-inch strips for binding; glue. use tooth-picks in applying the glue. [illustration: back and front views of a folding envelope case for papers.] on the wrong side, find the center of the paper twenty inches by fifteen inches by drawing both diagonals. measure four and one-fourth inches from the center toward the sides. draw straight lines passing through these points connecting opposite sides, thus forming an eight-and-a-half inch square in the center. cut out the four corners on these lines. fold in the four sides on the lines of the square. a strap, which will fasten the case by slipping through a slit cut in the opposite side, is to be made on one of the long flaps as follows: place a point at the middle on the edge of the flap, and measure an inch along the edge on both sides of this point. measure down two inches from these last points and place dots. connect these dots by straight lines with the top and sides. cut the corners out on these lines. trim the end of the strap to a point beginning one-half inch from the corners and cutting to the center point. it is necessary to trim the edges of the flaps that there may be no difficulty in folding one over another. measure one-half inch from the corners of the flaps and connect this point with the corner of the square, and cut on these lines. fold the half-inch strip of book-cloth through the center; place the glue on the cloth and glue it for a binding around the raw edges of the case. finish the corners of the binding with the square or mitered corner. fold the fastening strap over the opposite side, and place a point at the corners to locate the place where the slit is to be cut. connect these two points by a straight line and draw another parallel to, and three-fourths of an inch from it. cut on these lines with a knife. this slit must be strengthened by the book-cloth. cut a piece two and three-fourths inches by one and one-fourth inches and glue over the strip on the wrong side; clip the edges at the ends of the slit, and bring through to the right side, and glue them down. the piece for the covering of the right side may be cut the exact width of the slit, and the ends cut in some fancy shape. this may be cut from the cloth, or the paper used in the design. the front of the case can be decorated as desired. very beautiful effects can be obtained by cutting out the design from paper that harmonizes in color and gluing it on. this makes a very useful case for holding school papers, and if neatly and carefully done, is an excellent exercise. clipping case. _materials:_ envelopes, - / " × - / "; strips of book-cloth - / " × "; strip of book-cloth " × - / "; pieces of book-cloth " × - / "; heavy felt paper " x "; sheets lining paper - / " x - / "; glue. put the glue on the _cloth_ each time with tooth-picks. [illustration: clipping case.] follow the directions for making the cover of the "blank book with paper cover re-inforced with cloth," page . the envelopes take the place of the sheets of paper and are fastened in place as follows: . on the back and front of the envelopes draw a line parallel to and one-half inch from the bottom. . fold a strip of book-cloth one inch by nine and one-half inches through the center the long way. . glue one-half of this folded strip to the half-inch below the line on the back of one envelope and the other half to the half-inch below the line on the front of another envelope. continue thus until the four envelopes are fastened together. . glue half of a strip of the cloth to the front of the first envelope and the other half to the front of the cover to hold in the desired position. do the same at the back. . glue in the lining papers on the covers. the outside may be decorated as desired. a postal card album. _materials:_ paper for leaves of book; pulp board in three pieces, " × ", " × - / ", " × "; book-cloth in two pieces " × "; lining paper in two pieces - / " × - / "; glue; eyelet punch and eyelets. [illustration: two views of a post card album--closed and open.] to be of value the work in this exercise must be exact, with measurements perfectly accurate. the glue is to be used sparingly and spread upon the cloth and not on the pulp board. draw on the book-cloth an oblong five by eight inches, which will leave a margin of one-half inch. put the glue on the cloth and place the pulp board five by eight inches over the oblong. turn over the edges and finish. glue the lining paper in place. place under weight as soon as finished. the front cover is made the same with the exception of a joint in the pulp board. draw on the second piece of book-cloth an oblong five by eight inches. draw a line one inch from and parallel to one end of the oblong. draw a second line one-fourth of an inch from this. spread the glue on the cloth and place the two pieces of pulp board on the oblong with a quarter-inch space between them, and proceed as before. both covers can be made with the joint if desired. punch with the eyelet tool two holes in each cover three inches apart and one-half inch from the edge, and put in the eyelets. _take care that these holes are directly opposite._ cut the paper for the book into sheets four and one-half by seven and three-fourths inches (or four and one-half by fifteen and one-half inches), and fold. punch the eyelets _exactly even_ with those in the cover. place a postal-card three and one-half by five and one-half inches on the sheets with a half-inch margin at top, bottom and end, and make two points on each of the four sides, one one-half inch from the corner, and the other one inch. connect corresponding points by slant lines and cut with a knife on these lines. the outside cover can be decorated in any way desired. this style of cover can be used for a book of any size or shape. picture framing. select a mount of the proper color for the picture to be used, and passepartout paper to harmonize. cut to the desired size and shape. cut a piece of cardboard to the same size. have a glass cut to the size of the mount, also a mat for the picture, if desired. place the picture in position on the mount, and draw guide lines to aid in pasting the picture in place. put the two rings used for the purpose of hanging the picture, into the cardboard back before putting the parts together. the rings should be placed exactly even, measuring down from the top about one-third of the width of the picture, and in at the sides one inch. clean the glass carefully, and place it over the picture. between the cardboard back and the picture place two or three layers of newspaper. be sure that the back is placed with the rings toward the top. tie all together very tightly with a strong cord, passing the cord only around one way of the picture. cut the passepartout paper the length of the picture and crease it over the edges. moisten the paper and stick it first to the glass and then draw it firmly over the edge and down on the cardboard back. it is necessary _to work rapidly after the paper is moistened_. finish the other edge in the same manner. before removing the cord, tie another around the other way. finish the two ends in the same manner as the sides, with the exception of the corners. cut the passe-partout paper an inch longer than the side to be covered, and do not fasten down quite to the corner. trim for a mitered corner on the glass side and cut a narrow strip the thickness of the glass, and stick it down along the other edge. tie a cord into the rings for hanging. [illustration] a four sided, collapsible candle or lamp shade. _materials:_ cardboard; book-cloth or japanese tissue paper; passe-partout paper. cut a pattern of one section of the shade in the form of a trapezoid having the longer parallel five and seven-eighth inches, the shorter parallel one and three-eighth inches and the altitude four and one-half inches. candle shadeholders are uniform in size being six and one-half inches in circumference. to fit this circular holder, the shade may be rounded out at the top, although it can be used with the straight edge. cut a strip of cardboard five inches wide, and from this cut the four sides of the shade. the decoration of the shade may be varied greatly. the design may be drawn upon the back of the cardboard and cut out the same as a stencil, care being taken that the proper bridges are in place. the book-cloth is then pasted on the back. if the cardboard is intended as a framework only, construct a second trapezoid one-half inch inside the other, and cut on the lines. the possibilities for decoration are limitless. a design may be stenciled, embroidered, or worked with any of the fancy stitches upon any thin material through which the light will shine, and then pasted over the back of the frame-work. fancy silks are also very effective. when the sections are finished, fasten them together with the passe-partout paper. lay them all face downward with the sides to be joined placed as closely together as possible, and stick the moistened paper over adjoining edges. book-cloth or any firm material can be used instead of the passe-partout paper. [illustration] chapter xi. home furnishing, decoration and care. bright, clean, tasteful and well regulated homes will add more to the sum of human happiness than anything else in life. a happy home does not always mean a costly one. the simple, tidy home of the day laborer may have the home-atmosphere that the mansion may lack. a home can be tastefully, even if cheaply, furnished. a thoughtful teacher can impart to her class a love of home and a respect and honor for the labor that keeps that home clean, attractive and wholesome, and instill womanly traits that may add greatly to the happiness of the individuals and the betterment of all with whom they come in contact. a familiarity with the conditions of an ideal home and the aroused interest of the girls who will be the home-makers in a few years will have an influence and value that is limitless. the parents, also, may receive suggestions through their children that will react on the present home conditions. every teacher will invent her own method of reaching her particular class, depending upon their needs and environment, using all necessary tact. an outline is given below which will suggest a few topics and one method of conducting the lessons. there are many kindred subjects, such as good ventilation, plenty of sunlight, good house-keeping, etc., that can be brought into the discussions, but the enthusiasm which is aroused is really the vital point of the lesson. an imaginary home. when furnishing a home take into consideration sanitary conditions, use, convenience, economy and artistic effects. . ask pupils to make clippings of house plans from papers, magazines, etc. study and compare them. . decide upon a plan for a simple house, and have some member of the class draw the floor plans upon the blackboard where it can remain for a time. . several points must be considered in conjunction, that there may may be harmony throughout the house as the rooms open into each other. a. the color scheme and design for each room. some samples of cloth or paper to show the exact colors and combinations of colors decided upon. b. decoration of the walls. c. the floor finish or covering. d. color of shades and curtains that the outside may present a favorable appearance. . divide the class into sections and assign a room to each section to suggest detail in style of furnishing and decorating. a. living room. b. dining room. c. kitchen. d. pantry. e. hall. f. sleeping rooms. g. bath. h. laundry. . avoid over-crowding the rooms with furniture and cluttering with too many pictures and useless and inartistic bric-a-brac, and dust-collectors. . the care of the home: this topic will enable the teacher to give many helpful suggestions. assign sub-divisions of the subject to different members of the class: a. sweeping. b. dusting. c. care of bare floors. d. window washing. e. dish washing. f. care of cupboards. g. care of book-shelves, daily papers, magazines, etc. h. care of sleeping rooms, beds, etc. i. care of bath rooms. chapter xii. basketry. basketry is one of the oldest handicrafts known to man, but it reached its greatest excellence with the tribes of american indians who wove baskets from the grasses, reeds and rushes which they gathered as they wandered from place to place in their nomadic life. these materials were colored with dyes made by cooking the bark of certain trees and the roots and bulbs of plants, a knowledge of which was handed down from mother to daughter. the designs were not meaningless, but represented by symbols their prayers to the deity for rain, success to a war party, or a petition for favorable crops. or it might be they chronicled the victory over a hostile tribe, a maiden's love for a stalwart brave, or a thousand other events of their lives in conventionalized symbolic form. the shape, size and use varied as much as the design. the material used by the indians is not available for us but imported raffia, rattan and rushes form excellent substitutes. raffia, a product of the island of madagascar, is a soft, pliable, yellowish fiber growing next to the bark of a species of palm tree. rattan is the product of a kind of palm which grows in india. it is stripped of leaves and split into round or flat strips of different sizes. a more instructive occupation cannot be found for children than basketry and its allied subjects. it not only is fascinating in itself, but develops patience, judgment, dexterity and skill, and embodies the satisfaction of making a beautiful and useful article. it is not only an educative occupation for school, but for the home as well. baskets are known as the woven baskets made of the round or flat rattan and the sewed baskets made from the raffia and reeds. general directions for making the coil basket. =preparation of materials.=--round reeds are sold in sizes from the very fine number to the coarse number . hemp cord of different sizes may be substituted for the reeds of a flexible basket if desired. [illustration: beginning a basket in any weave. --the reed sharpened to a flat point. --the end of the sharpened reed wound with raffia. --the end of the reed curled into a small "button." --splicing reeds by cutting both to a flat point.] beginning about two inches from one end of the reed, sharpen to a flat point. coil the other end, leaving ten or fifteen inches uncoiled, and tie with raffia two or three times. soak the reeds in water until very pliable, then remove and wipe dry before using. the raffia may be used wet or dry as one prefers. it may be used in coarse strands for the large baskets or split to any size desired for the finer stitches, but should be kept uniform. the basket sewing requires either the sharp or blunt tapestry needle, varying in size between number and number . thread the end of the raffia that has been cut from the tree into the needle, thus working with the fiber, as it is less liable to split. much of the beauty of the basket will depend upon the smoothness and neatness of the work. =beginning the basket.=--baskets may be classified as round or oval. a. the round basket. draw the sharpened end of the pliable reed between the thumb and finger into the smallest possible coil. lay the end of the raffia to the point and along the sharpened end of the reed and hold it in place with the left hand. by a sharp turn in the thread begin winding over the reed and raffia to the point. then shape into the coil by sewing through the center, thus forming the "button" as in the illustration. [illustration: baskets begun in three different weaves. --round basket in the navajo weave. --oval basket in the lazy squaw weave. --round basket in the mariposa weave] b. the oval basket: [illustration: group of baskets showing variety in size, shape and design.] the end of the reed is not sharpened, and must be very soft and pliable, or it cannot be bent together at the desired length, two, three, four, five or more inches from the end, without breaking. it will do no special harm if it splits, however, as it is to be covered with the raffia. lay the end of the raffia to the end of the reed, along the reed and around the bend, and by a sharp turn in the thread wind four or five times over the raffia, covering the bend in the reed. the two reeds may then be caught together by the stitch selected for the basket, or the "navajo" or "figure eight stitch" may be used and the other stitch introduced on the second round. =splicing the reed.=--as the reed naturally coils somewhat take care to splice it so that the coil in the two pieces remains the same, otherwise it would draw apart. sharpen the top side of one reed and the underside of the other to a long flat point and slip one past the other until the two together form the uniform size of the reed. it is sometimes advisable for a novice to wind the spliced reeds with fine thread, but experience will teach one to do the splicing with the sewing of the basket. =splicing the thread.=--when a new thread is needed lay the end of the old thread along the reed and place the new thread over it, and by a sharp turn in the thread, wind once or twice over both, and continue the stitch as before. when the ends are firmly fastened clip them off. =shaping the basket.=--coiled basketry admits of the greatest variety in shape and size, from the simple table mat to the exquisitely beautiful jar and vase forms, while the stitches lend themselves to an endless variety of design ranging from the simplest to the most intricate patterns. it is well to have in mind the shape and design before beginning the basket, as haphazard work is not apt to be satisfactory. baskets can be easily shaped to any desired form, as this depends entirely upon the position of each succeeding reed upon the one below it. =introduction of color.=--all reeds in the coiled basket are wound twice with the raffia. it is important to keep this in mind when putting in designs. the colored raffia is introduced in the same manner that the thread is spliced, by laying it along the reed and sewing over it. when working out designs in color do not cut the thread when changing from one to another, but lay the thread not in use along the reed and sew over it, bringing it out when ready to use it again. as an aid in dividing the space for a design a piece of paper may be cut and folded into the desired number of sections, and these marked on the basket. these spaces are then filled in without regard to the exact number of stitches required to cover the reeds. beginners should make a study of indian baskets and their designs. =finishing the basket.=--cut the end of the reed to a flat point two inches in length, and gradually taper the stitching off so that it shows where it ends as little as possible. the last two rows of the basket might be stitched with colored raffia unless it detracts from the design. [illustration: basket showing the navajo weave.] description of basket stitches. the stitching proceeds along a continuous coil, so that each stitch is passed beneath the stitches of the coil beneath. for convenience in analyzing these stitches the two reeds may be designated as the loose reed and the fastened reed. =the navajo stitch (figure eight).=--hold the commenced coil in the left hand which will cause the work to proceed from the right toward the left. (a) pass the thread between the two reeds _toward_ you, (b) over the loose reed _from_ you, (c) between the two reeds _toward_ you, (d) down between the stitches of the fastened reed _from_ you, and beginning again at (a) pass the thread between the two reeds toward you completing the figure eight. draw the two reeds firmly together. [illustration: basket showing the lazy squaw weave.] this is the stitch used by the indians in making the baskets which they ornamented with feathers, wampum, shells and beads. =the lazy squaw stitch=.--this stitch is made up of two parts, a long and a short stitch. hold the commenced coil in the left hand and work from right to left. (a) wrap the thread toward you _over_ and _around_ the loose reed once, (b) then _over_ the loose reed again, (c) and down _from_ you between the stitches of the fastened reed and back to (a). this completes the long-and-short stitch. the story of the origin of the name "lazy-squaw" stitch is interesting. if the squaw was inclined to slight her work she would wrap the loose reed several times before taking the long and more difficult stitch which bound the two reeds together. she would then receive from her companions the ignominious title of "lazy-squaw." as a modification of this stitch the wrapping of the loose reed is omitted, and the long stitch only is used. this passes each time between the stitches of the coil beneath. [illustration: basket showing the mariposa weave.] =the mariposa stitch (knotted).=--in analyzing this stitch we find that it is made up of three parts. it is the same as the lazy squaw stitch with the addition of the knotted effect obtained by passing the thread around the long stitch. hold the commenced coil in the left hand and work from right to left, (a) wrap the thread toward you over and around the loose reed once, (b) then over the loose reed again, (c) and down _from_ you between the stitches of the fastened reed, thus binding the two reeds together, (d) bring the needle up _between_ the two reeds at the left side of the long stitch, (e) cross over this stitch, going down between the two reeds at the right of the long stitch. bring the thread over the loose reed and begin wrapping again as at (a). =the samoan stitch (lace effect).=--baskets that are to be lined are very pretty made of this stitch. it is also very effective combined with other stitches, or as the finishing coil of a basket. the samoan stitch is a modification of the mariposa stitch, the only difference being in the space between the reeds and the passing of the thread around the long stitch two, three or more times, which gives the lace effect. the reeds _must_ be held firmly, however, and the thread passed around the long stitch times enough to make the basket firm. books on the manual arts =clay work.= by katherine morris lester. this book has been written by a grade teacher and art worker to help teachers in acquiring the technique of clay working, and to give them suggestions concerning the teaching of the several types of clay work suited to pupils in the elementary schools. it covers the study of natural forms, the human figure in relief and the round, animal forms, story illustration, architectural ornament, tiles, hand-built pottery and pottery decoration. the book is richly illustrated with more than fifty half-tone and line cuts showing processes, designs, and the work of children from ten to twelve years of age. price, $ . . =classroom practice in design.= by james parton haney. a concise up-to-date, richly illustrated brochure on the teaching of applied design. price, cents. =the wash method of handling water colour.= by frank forrest frederick. a brief, clear, comprehensive text printed in sepia and illustrated with wash drawings and a water-color painting by the author. price, cents. =simplified mechanical perspective.= by frank forrest frederick. a book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective. it is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received some elementary training in mechanical drawing. it is simple, direct and practical. price, cents. =the construction and flying of kites.= by charles m. miller. this contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. details of construction given; a kite tournament is described. full of interesting suggestions. price, cents. =coping saw work.= by ben w. johnson. contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. has been called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade." price, cents. =selected shop problems.= by george a. seaton. a collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs of busy teachers of manual training. each problem has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and the pupil who made it. price, cents. =beginning woodwork.= at home and in school. by clinton s. van deusen; illustrated by edwin v. lawrence. a full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. this description is given through directions for making a few simple, useful articles suitable either for school or home problems. price, $ . . =handwork in wood.= by william noyes. a notable book on woodworking. it is the result of extensive research and long experience in teaching and in training teachers. it is a comprehensive and scholarly treatment of the subject and is the one book of reference which teachers of woodworking feel that they must always have at hand. price, $ . . =essentials of woodworking.= by ira s. griffith, illustrated by edwin v. lawrence. a text book on woodworking tools, materials and processes to supplement the instruction given by the teacher. very fully illustrated. price, $ . . =woodwork for schools on scientific lines.= by james thomas baily and s. pollitt. this is the american edition of an english book containing practical problems, many of which have been designed to correlate mathematics and physical science with manual training. price, cents. =problems in woodworking.= by m. w. murray. a convenient collection of good problems ready to place in the hands of the pupil. price, cents. =problems in furniture making.= by fred d. crawshaw. thirty-two plates of working drawings of simple, artistic furniture, with notes on construction, finish and design. price, $ . . =problems in mechanical drawing.= by charles a. bennett, with drawings made by fred d. crawshaw. the purpose of this book is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems in convenient form for immediate use. price, $ . . =problems in wood-turning.= by fred d. crawshaw. a collection of problems presented in the form of plates excellent in draftsmanship. contains a brief, clear text on the science and art of wood-turning; also a chapter on "form and proportion," which shows how accepted principles of art may be applied in designing objects to be turned in wood. price, cents. =manual training magazine.= edited by charles a. bennett. published bi-monthly. price, $ . a year. * * * * * in addition to the above, we keep in stock the best books on the manual arts issued by other publishers. the manual arts press :: peoria, ill. * * * * * transcriber's notes: obvious punctuation errors repaired. unless an obvious majority appeared, varied hyphenation was retained. page , "stich" changed to "stitch" (with the running stitch) page , "carboard" changed to "cardboard" (cardboard " × ") page , the anchor for footnote was missing from the page. it was added. (christmas piece [ ][ ]) pages and , there once reference but two different notes for the basketry substitute project. to make this easier, the second reference was changed to which necessitated changing the third reference to . page , "kaiki" is a little used but actual variant of "khaki" and was retained. page , anchor missing for footnote . added. (christmas piece.[ ][ ] pages and , same issue as above with double note references. edited as above. page , "button holes" changed to "buttonholes" to match rest of usage (quarter-inch buttonholes and sew) page , "sitch" changed to "stitch" (next to the last stitch) page , "no" changed to "do" (do not confuse this) page , "lop" changed to "loop" (side is the loop) page , "guaging" changed to "gauging" (description of gauging) page , "of" changed to "or" (ten or fifteen cents) page , "especialy" changed to "especially" (makes it especially) page , "weeeks" changed to "weeks" (six weeks after it) page , "pharoahs" changed to "pharaohs" (days of the pharaohs) page , "in" changed to "is" (blossom is very) page , "detacts" changed to "detracts" (line that detracts) page , "indiviual" changed to "individual" (judgment of the individual) page , double word "the" removed. original read (end of the the pliable) page , "baseket" changed to "basket" (in the coiled basket are) three hundred things a bright boy can do by many hands fully illustrated london sampson low, marston & co., ltd. contents chapter page i. in training ii. how to become a gymnast iii. walking, running, and jumping iv. hockey and indian clubs v. swimming, rowing, and water polo vi. paperchasing, football, golf, and boxing vii. on the ice viii. angling ix. canoes and yachts x. cooking in camp xi. butterflies and moths xii. hints on aquariums xiii. in the playing fields xiv. the garden xv. the boy as artist xvi. ventriloquism and polyphony xvii. the boy as magician xviii. pets xix. things boys can make xx. fireside amusements xxi. work and play at the bench xxii. science for the play-hour xxiii. home-made toys xxiv. concerning many things preface the editor hopes that this volume will be the means of inspiring boys to adopt some hobby and to follow it diligently. at any rate he has arranged that they shall be able to have a wide choice of occupations, and shall begin with expert assistance. too many youths fall into mere aimless dawdling, and waste the golden years of their life loafing about smoking cigarettes, watching others play, chattering endlessly about games, but never engaging in them. though this book is written for the boy's play hour, it will not be without value in aiding him upon the sterner side of his career, if it shows him how to train hand and eye, how to strengthen his will and muscles, and if it inculcates patience, exactitude, and perseverance. three hundred things a bright boy can do chapter i in training there are few things about which so many mistaken notions exist as about training. there are several reasons for this, but most of the erroneous ideas may be traced back to the days when professional pugilists and runners were the only men who ever entered on any athletic exercise with any sort of organised preparation. for them a severe course of training was possibly a necessity. they were for the most part men well advanced in years and naturally fleshy; and to achieve the feats which they accomplished they no doubt found it necessary to reduce their weight, and for this purpose to take a great deal of exercise and to avoid all food tending to the formation of flesh; but for the average school-boy who plays football or fives, or goes paper-chasing, or, in fact, takes the ordinary amount of boy's exercise, training, as it is generally misunderstood, is quite unnecessary, even if not harmful. he has no superfluous fat of which to rid himself, so any sweating which he may do only weakens him and renders him liable to cold. his lungs are in proper order and therefore his wind is good, and so there is no need for him to deprive himself of vegetables or his favourite pies or puddings. all he wants is to lead a healthy active life, and to do a fair amount of practice in the particular branch of athletics in which he hopes to excel. if a boy be accustomed to walk to and from school, or even a part of the way, or to take his place regularly in the school games, he will already be in proper condition of wind and limb. he will now only require to develop the muscles which, in his contests, he will find it most necessary to use. these vary in nearly every branch of athletics; so his practice must be specially directed to the races or events in which he intends to take part. now this practice is often as much overdone as in the old days the dieting and sweating used to be. i remember that when i was at school and training for a mile race, i was seldom content unless i had run two or three miles each day. since then i have found out the error of my ways. the result of my long practice run was that when the day came for the sports i was much over-trained, and in the state usually described as "stale." i could have pounded along for miles, but i was as slow as the proverbial cart-horse, and when it came to hard racing i was beaten by boys who had practised less persistently than i had, and whose limbs and muscles were therefore lissom and pliant. the exact amount of practice required depends a good deal on the stamina and build of each particular boy. big, muscular boys can undergo far more work than lightly-strung ones of less robust constitution; but it may be taken for granted as a general rule that it is better to do too little than too much. practice should never be continued after one begins to feel tired; and if one is still feeling the effects of the previous day's practice, it is always a good thing to rest for a day from active work, and instead to take a good sharp walk of four or five miles. when your muscles are stiff, as they are bound to be at the beginning, never force them. get them gradually into working order, and never hesitate to rest entirely if you feel disinclined for exercise. rest, in moderation, is always good, and for this reason i advise boys of all ages who may be training, to make a point of going to bed early. to get up early is another aid to leading a healthy life, but i would especially warn my readers against taking any violent exercise before breakfast. have your bath, followed by a brisk rub down with a rough towel; dress quickly, and then, if you like and can manage it, go out into the open air for a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. put on plenty of clothes, and eat either a biscuit or a piece of bread and walk quietly about, breathing freely. in the same way never do any practising immediately after a heavy meal. an interval of at least two hours should elapse to allow of the digestion of food. remember that your one object in training is not to force your powers, but to so increase and nurse them, that when the day for the sports comes you will be able to do your very best without fear of hurting or over-straining yourself. before entering for his school sports a boy must realise the important fact that it is given only to a few to excel at everything. the majority must be content to discover the branch of sport for which, by their natural abilities, they are most suited, and then to practise quietly and persistently so as to gain the best possible results. school games and odd trials of skill will probably give the aspiring athlete some idea of the direction in which he is better than, or as good as, his fellows. in running races it is generally found that the heavily and powerfully-built boy is best suited by short-distance races, that is from a hundred yards to a quarter of a mile; but a long, loosely-knit lad usually excels at distances from half a mile to a mile. a short, sturdy boy, as a rule, develops into a long-distance runner, but as events above a mile are generally excluded, and very wisely too from the programmes of school sports, he has very little chance of distinguishing himself until later years, when his frame is set, and his heart and lungs are in a fit condition to withstand the strain caused by prolonged contests. the prime object of the boy who desires to train for short-distance running should be to improve his speed. with this purpose in view, he should practise running from thirty to fifty yards at a time--running hard from the very beginning, and going at his fastest possible pace the whole of the way. he should do this three or four times each day, occasionally--that is, once or twice a week--running the full hundred yards. races of two hundred yards and a quarter of a mile in length may be prepared for in just the same way, except that for the latter, a practice-run should seldom exceed three hundred and fifty yards. a quarter of a mile is a very fatiguing distance, and although it may be run in practice at a moderate speed, it should not be taken at racing pace, except in an actual race. in the intervals of training it is a good plan to obtain the assistance of a friend, and practise starting. in a short race so much depends on the start, that one who is able to go right away directly the signal is given possesses a great advantage. [illustration: "he should jump cleanly."] the boy who intends to take part in the half-mile and mile races must pursue a somewhat different method, but he also must make a point of practising for speed. most of his work must consist of running a quarter of a mile, or six hundred yards, with an occasional spin of half or three-quarters of a mile. the former distances must be accomplished at almost top speed, but without quite exhausting oneself; the latter must be taken at a regular, steady gait, bringing the legs out well to the front, but not carrying the knees too high. one run a day is quite sufficient, and perhaps once before the sports the full mile may be run, but this should not be done within a week of the eventful day. walking races are sometimes included in the sports' programme, the distance usually being one mile. the best training for this is to walk half a mile, or sometimes three-quarters, at one's best pace, taking great care to be perfectly fair, to keep the head erect, and to avoid all semblance of wriggle or shuffle. for the hurdle race and steeplechase the beginner should practise persistently over obstacles similar to the ones which are to be used on the day, but never going the full distance, and occasionally running fifty yards or so on the level with a view to an improvement in speed. of jumping competitions there are usually two kinds--the high jump and the long jump, and much the same kind of advice applies to both. in each instance practice should be daily, with an occasional rest for a day, and taking great care to leave off always at the first symptom of fatigue, coupled with the feeling that what has already been done cannot be improved upon. in the high jump a beginning should be made at a height well within reach, the jumper going gently and lightly over so as to gradually extend the muscles. then as he approaches the summit of his powers, he should pull himself together so as to put full force into each effort. he should jump cleanly, and start facing the bar. he should avoid all contortions and straining of the body, and above all things, refrain from the somewhat enticing-looking practice of jumping from one side--a practice which i once heard described as "putting one leg over the bar, and then going round and fetching the other." it may pay up to a certain point, but after that point is reached it is absolutely useless. the best and most successful jumpers have been those who have depended entirely on the spring from the hips. it is thence that all the power is obtained. byrd page, the famous american jumper, who often cleared ft., and once reached ft. - / ins., was a thorough believer in the straightforward method. to show what persistent practice will do, i may mention that when he was very young, his legs were so weak that he was compelled to wear irons to support them. one day the doctor told him to attend a gymnasium and practise jumping in order to strengthen his limbs. he did so, with the result that his weakness was entirely cured, and that he became, as well as an expert bicyclist, the most famous jumper the world has ever seen. to long jumping many of my previous remarks apply. in preparing for the jump, too long a run should not be taken, and in making the spring, the feet should be placed firmly together. the whole of one's force should be put into each effort, and care should be taken to avoid making false attempts. when once he has started, the jumper should make up his mind to go right through. both the jumper and the short-distance runner will find that a few minutes' daily practice with a skipping rope will greatly strengthen the legs and the fore part of the feet, on which much of the strain is placed. to all aspiring young athletes i would say: be moderate, and take care not to overdo it; lead healthy, active lives; and avoid stuffing yourselves between meals with pastry and sweets. chapter ii how to become a gymnast much benefit can be derived from gymnastic appliances if they are used understandingly. no advantage is to be gained by exercise that is carried on in a careless manner. neither too much nor too violent exercise is beneficial, though constant and regular work is necessary. it is better to work for a certain length of time every other day than to devote all of one week to exercise, and not go near the gymnasium the next. to use any apparatus carelessly is to use it dangerously. the writer has had many of his worst falls in doing some of the simplest tricks, because he was careless, and did not put his entire mind upon what he was doing. there is something besides and beyond the mere pleasure of being able to perform tricks in a gymnasium; there is a lasting benefit to be obtained in careful gymnastic exercise. in beginning your exercises there are two points that you must bear in mind always. stand erect, and before beginning any work draw a long deep breath. breathe from the abdomen, so that the lower parts of the lungs are expanded. you will find by following this simple advice that anything you attempt will be much easier for you than if you go about your exercises in a careless or slouchy way. there should be no round-shouldered gymnasts. there is no one who has achieved distinction as a gymnast who is not as straight as an arrow, and across whose shoulder-blades a yardstick could not be placed without touching his back. in your exercises avoid devoting too much time to one kind of work. do not spend all your time, for instance, on the horizontal bar, or on the parallel bars. what all would-be gymnasts should strive for is a symmetrical development of their muscles. you do not want to have legs like a piano, hard and knotted with muscles, and arms like pipe stems. nor do you want to have the arms and chest of a blacksmith, and legs like those of a crane. you want to have all your muscles developed alike, not one at the expense of another. to avoid this lop-sided kind of growth is the reason that gymnasiums have such a variety of appliances. now for the apparatus, and how it should be used. what boy, especially if he has lived in the country, has not tried to climb a rope, or go up a ladder hand over hand, and then, for the first time in his life, realised how heavy he is? perhaps no form of exercise develops so quickly the upper arm and the chest as work on the rope and ladder in a gymnasium. in practising on the ladder, first try to pull yourself up until your chin is even with the rung. keep at this exercise until you can repeat it three or four times without tiring yourself; then try to reach the rung above. do not go up too far at first, for you may find yourself many feet from the floor without strength enough to come back as you went up. that, it is almost needless for me to remind you, means a fall--and a hard one too it may be. the same advice applies to the rope. almost as quick results may be obtained by practice with the dumb-bells, with which it is possible to exercise almost every muscle in the body. the dumb-bells should be light. too heavy dumb-bells are apt to make a boy slow and sluggish in his movements. the proper weight for a beginner is half a pound, and under no circumstances should a boy use for regular exercise bells that weigh more than two pounds. indian clubs are valuable, chiefly in strengthening the muscles of the arms and wrists. exercises on the rings are divided into two classes--stationary and swinging. in the former the rings are not swung. in the latter the tricks are performed while swinging. there are two ways of grasping the rings with the hands. in "single grip," the rings are clasped as a boy grips his base-ball bat when he is ready to strike. it is used chiefly in swinging tricks. in the "double-grip," the thumbs are kept close to the palms, and the hands rest on and over the rings. the first trick on the rings, and the one that must be mastered before anything else is attempted, is the "breast-up." this consists in taking a double-grip, and raising the body so that the chin is even with the hands. the hands and wrists should be over the rings, and the elbows straight out from the shoulder. now, by leaning forward you necessarily bring your hands under your armpits, and you find yourself in such a position that you can push down on the rings and raise your body erect by simply straightening your arms. you must not expect to be able to do this the first time. it will take many efforts before you can accomplish it. the best way to learn it is to hold your weight with one hand, after you have raised your chin even with the rings, while you practise pulling the other in and under your armpit. when a boy can do this trick easily he will find that he has strength and skill enough to learn the other feats, of which this is the foundation. in horizontal bar exercises the "breast-up" is executed in the same way, but it is seldom used in getting up on the bar. a much prettier way is the trick called the "circle." this is done by clasping the bar with the double-grip--which, by-the-way, is the only one used on the bar--and raising your body as high as you can. if you can raise your chin above the bar, all the better. now raise your legs in front of you as high as possible, and lift them over the bar, letting your head drop back. this will bring your legs and body down on the other side. if a boy can do this with a fortnight's hard practice, he is doing remarkably well. in learning this trick lower the bar to the height of the shoulder and start the "circle" with a jump, which materially assists your progress during the revolution. all boys who practise on the horizontal bar probably have in mind the "giant swing," the hardest and most daring feat on the bar; but that is a long way in the future, and many other tricks must be mastered before it should even be attempted. perhaps the best of these intermediate exercises is the "hook swing." this is a very neat trick. you sit on the bar, apparently fall backward, catching the bar in the knee joints, and swing around, until you come up in your original position without touching your hands to the bar. it is not so hard as it looks if you go about it in the right way, and this is the proper way: first practise by hanging head downward from the bar by the knees. any boy can do this; but to learn the rest of the trick you need two assistants, who take hold of your hands and swing you gently at first, gradually increasing the swing as you gain confidence. when you can swing easily and safely without losing your grip and falling to the mattress as you swing backward, straighten your knees, and you will leave the bar and alight upon your feet. your assistants will save you from falling on your head should you happen to let go with your knees too soon, which you would certainly do more times than once should you attempt the trick alone. practise this until you can do it without help. the next step is to sit on the bar, which should be lowered to within four feet of the ground, and fall backward. when you come to the end of the swing, let go with your knees and alight on your feet. at first you will need help in this, as in the early part of the practice. when this is learned you can go half-way around. the object now is to come back to the position you originally had on the top of the bar. the mistake that nine boys out of ten make at this point is in thinking that all that is needed to complete the revolution is to give the body a harder swing. when you dropped from the bar in the way i have just described it was because you straightened your knees. if you bent your knees more at this point in the swing, and at the same time threw your head back, you would have found yourself on the bar instead of on the mattress. to prevent accident at first, you should have an assistant stand in front of you, so that in case you should pitch forward the moment you reach the top of the bar, you will fall into his arms. in case you should swing so hard that you cannot stop when your body becomes erect, you will simply make another half-revolution backward, when you can straighten your legs and come down on your feet in the way described already. the most important exercises on the parallel bars are called the "dip" and the "grasshopper." to do a "dip," stand between the bars, placing your hands upon them, and raise your body to arm's length. then lower the body and raise it again by bending and straightening the arms. to do a "grasshopper," begin in the same manner, but as the arms are almost straight make a little forward jump, lifting your hands from the bars, and bringing them down a few inches in advance of their original position. in this way you can travel from one end of the bar to the other, as this trick can be done equally well forward and backward. the jump may be combined with a swing in an exercise called the "pump." these tricks are easily learned; they are very safe and make muscle fast. the chief danger in their use lies in their over-indulgence. in this, as in all other gymnastic exercises, enough is as good as a feast. the flying trapeze is the most difficult of all the apparatus, and feats on the double trapeze are dangerous even to the trained gymnast. after you have mastered the exercises already described, it will be time enough for you to think about the trapeze. do not practise just before your meal hour, nor directly after it. the best time is from an hour and a half to two hours after eating. do not practise for over an hour a day at first; that is sufficient for any boy provided he does not waste his time. it should be remembered that gymnastic feats are not necessary for health. it is quite possible to exercise all the muscles without an indulgence in dangerous displays; but many boys have the courage, the desire, and the skill to pass from exercises to gymnastics. we may supplement our remarks by adding some observations upon how he became a gymnast by a writer who chooses to be known as "an ex-little fellow." he says: i have no doubt at least one of the readers of this book is a little fellow. he has just as much pluck as his bigger brother, his eye is as true and his mind as quick, but he does not weigh enough to be a success at athletics. his arms are too weak to knock out home-runs; his legs are not strong enough to carry a football through a rush line; and as for his back, the muscles are not hard enough, and the other fellow always turns him over when they are wrestling on the grass. this little fellow doubtless thinks he is made that way, and cannot help himself. no matter how much he dislikes it, he feels that he will have to go through life watching bigger and stronger fellows playing all the games and having most of the fun. now this is all a mistake, that is, if the little fellow has as much pluck and perseverance as little fellows generally have. the writer of this sketch was a little fellow himself not many years ago. he remembers how he used to look with complete and absolute disgust on his bony little arms and thin pipe-stem legs. he used to look at the big muscles of one or two companions with hopeless envy. in fact, it got so bad that this particular little fellow determined to get strong, if it took years to do it. the first thing was to get a bar. i selected a nice spot in the garden, planted deep in the ground two heavy timber uprights, and fastened firmly across the top, with mortised ends, a long heavy pitchfork handle, which was purchased at a village store, at a cost, i believe, of tenpence. when the turning-pole was finished, the next thing was to learn to do something. the first thing i learned was to hang on the pole. this may not seem like a very exciting trick, but the fact is my muscles were so weak that it took all my strength to hang there. after hanging awhile i learned to swing a little back and forth, working up higher and higher, and it was a proud day when i was able to swing my body up over the bar, and rest my stomach on the top of it. then i had to learn to "chin myself." this came more slowly; but daily practice at dumb-bells and constant tugging at the bar gradually hardened the biceps and back, until on one happy day my arms bent to the strain, my head went up, and my chin projected triumphantly over the bar. by this time the other boys became interested. they began to put bars in their own yards, and the little fellow had to superintend the operation and give instructions. the uprights should be about three by three, and planted with side braces. the post-holes should be at least three feet deep, and after the posts are set, filled in with stones and earth firmly stamped down. the bar must be just a couple of inches out of one's reach standing under it flat footed. half a dozen private bars resulted in a gymnasium in an empty stable loft, equipped with a bar, a ladder, and two trapezes. the little fellow watched his arms and legs with great concern, and could not for the life of him see that they were getting any bigger. [illustration: "other boys became interested."] it did not take many months for the breeze to blow over with the other boys, but the little fellow kept on. when the weather got too cold for the out-door bar, he read blaikie's _how to get strong_, and went through the prescribed dumb-bell exercises every night before going to bed. then two pairs of cleats were put in the door-frame, as mr blaikie directs, and a short bar cut to fit them. it did not improve the looks of the bedroom door, but the little fellow was determined to have muscle at any cost, and swung on the high bar, and pushed on the low one every night for the whole winter. the next spring he was happy. his chest was beginning to stand out in front of his shoulders, and his biceps were swelling a little. he and his chum purchased a boat that summer, and rowed on the river every day, until they were brown as indians, and could beat most of the light craft on the river. the following year the little fellow went to the city, and joined a y.m.c.a. gymnasium. there was plenty of good apparatus here, and he watched the other fellows and tried their tricks. a year or two in this gymnasium, with daily rowing in the summer, began to tell. the little fellow stripped at pounds now; his arms were brown and sinewy; he could hold a good steady stroke for ten or fifteen miles in a working boat; could run several miles at a dog-trot; and had learned to "handle his body" on the bar. then he went to college, and in the gymnasium his arms, brown to the shoulders from rowing in the sun, won him among his classmates the sobriquet of "athlete." this was very agreeable to the little fellow. four years of work and practice in a college gymnasium could have only one result. at the end of that time the little fellow was no longer a little fellow. he weighed in his clothes pounds, and every muscle in his body was hard and well trained. the friends who came down to college to see him get his diploma were greatly surprised to see him on the programme as captain of the gymnastic team, and still more astonished to see him no longer a little fellow, but a stout gymnast circling the bar, swinging gaily on the trapezes, and building pyramids with his nimble _confreres_. that is not very long ago, and now the little fellow is surprised to find himself spoken of as about the best gymnast in one of the largest amateur athletic clubs in the country. so much for our "ex-little fellow"; and now we may recount how mr. e. lawrence levy became the amateur champion weight lifter of the world. although when a boy at school he was proficient in nearly every branch of athletics, and an adept at all games, it was not until later years that he turned his attention to gymnastics. it came about in this way. when twenty-five years old, mr. levy, having passed from school-boy to tutor, started a school of his own, and with a genuine love of athletics and a knowledge of the benefit which boys may gain from them by following them within reason, he had fitted up in his school-room a trapeze on which he was wont to practise with his pupils. finding that it was scarcely safe to do this without skilled tuition, he sent for professor hubbard, the instructor of the birmingham athletic club. the result was that the trapeze was removed from the school-room to the playground, where other appliances such as horizontal and parallel bars were also fixed. here mr. levy again joined his pupils, and then, after three or four lessons, he, to the instructor's surprise, accomplished several feats which are, as a rule, only achieved by practised gymnasts. finding that he was outstripping his boys, he determined to join the birmingham athletic club. here he was able to measure himself against men of his own age and strength. it was at the club gymnasium that he one night saw the heavy dumb-bells belonging to two professional "strong men." he tried to lift the bells, but failed. this seems to have shaped his future course. instead of being discouraged by failure, he determined to overcome all obstacles and go in for heavy dumb-bell exercise. he began with comparatively light bells, and with these he practised in the solitude of his school-room for hours at a time. then he bought two new bells weighing lbs. each, using them assiduously until he could do almost anything with them--holding them out at arms' length, bringing them down to the sides of his legs and up again. when he had thoroughly mastered the "twenty-eights," he tried two "fifty-sixes." these he retained for months, being determined not to attempt the heavier bells until he was quite perfect with the lighter ones. at length mr. levy was able to put up the lb. dumb-bell. this was more than any member of the birmingham gymnasium had ever done, and it then became necessary to add two lb. dumb-bells to the collection. with these mr. levy began quietly practising, one at a time. then he took to using them together, and gradually overcoming the difficulties of the harder work, succeeded one evening in putting them up simultaneously. from that point he never went back. having done as much with the dumb-bells as at the time seemed possible, he decided to add the lifting of bar-bells to his exercises. he bought three, weighing lbs., lbs. and lbs. he practised assiduously with these, but all the time he was yearning to do still bigger feats with dumb-bells. at last his opportunity came. one friday evening, on visiting the gymnasium, he found a dumb-bell weighing lbs. it had been sent there for exhibition by some professionals who were visiting the city. he tried to put it up, and failed; but the dogged perseverance which marked his whole career came once again to his aid. finding that the huge plaything was to be left at the gymnasium till the following tuesday, he began practising indefatigably, and on the tuesday evening, in the presence of his club fellows, he achieved his self-imposed task. the next week a dumb-bell of the same weight ( lbs.) was added to his private collection, and he used it regularly. this private collection now consisted of two lbs., two lbs., two lbs., two lbs., one lbs., and one lbs. in dumb-bells, the three bar-bells already mentioned, and two iron bars, one lbs. and one lbs.--all these, together with two ring weights of lbs. each, representing a total weight of nearly sixteen hundred pounds. mr. levy appeared constantly in public. in he won the contest, held then for the first time, for the amateur weight-lifting championship, and afterwards he succeeded, at northampton, in establishing a new record by putting up above his head no fewer than ten times a bar-bell weighing in all lbs. of the recognised records for weight-lifting he held as many as nine; but mr. levy did not confine himself to one branch of gymnastics, nor made gymnastics his only athletic exercise. each year at the grand "display" of the birmingham athletic club he figured as a leader in exercises on the horizontal and parallel bars and on the rings. he was also an enthusiastic and expert cyclist, and took an intelligent interest in nearly every form of manly sport. he was, too, a busy brain worker. his height was feet - / inches; his chest measurement inches; he weighed st. lbs., and had biceps measuring inches and a forearm of - / inches. at twenty-five years of age, before he took to gymnastics, his chest measurement was inches, and the circumference of his biceps was twelve inches. [illustration: "achieved his self-imposed task."] to my readers i commend mr. levy as an example of what pluck and perseverance will do when used to a rational end. for the benefit of those who may wish to follow in his footsteps, i will quote some advice from his own pen:-- "in gymnastics it is never too late to begin. there may be some who may want, like i did, to emulate the deeds of the strong men whom every age supplies; to them i would say, give yourself up to your favourite exercise as you would to music if you would excel in it. athleticism is as jealous an accomplishment as any art you would acquire. excel in it and you will find your reward in that rough physical vigour which the world has not ceased to admire. in order to gain it you will go through a course of training which will lay the impress of health on all you do. instead of defying nature you will learn more readily to obey her, and your obedience will be gratefully, cheerfully accorded, for you will realise how magnificent it is to be strong yourself, and by your example and your deeds inspire others to dignify their physical powers." it would be difficult to say which ranks the higher in the estimation of modern boys--brain or muscle. certain it is that in these days boys of "grit" feel a contemptuous pity for the youth who is "all head and no muscle." possibly most readers will admit that muscular and mental development should go together, and that modern athletics are the necessary adjunct of school life for the building up of a "sound mind in a sound body" (_mens sana in corpore sano_). of the ancients it may be said that their faith was in "muscle." even old homer, philosopher and poet, goes so far as to say, "there is no greater honour for a man during his life than that he should be accomplished in the use of his hands and feet." it was the "man of muscle" who in ancient greece received the highest honours and rewards; it was for him that breaches were made in the city walls that he might pass through in his triumphal march. it was he who was relieved from the payment of taxes, whose statue was erected at the public cost, and whose praise was sung by the poets. in ancient days leaders and rulers were selected simply on account of their development of "muscle." hence we read of caius maximinus, who from the lowly position of herdsman, was raised to the dignity of a roman emperor on account of his physical strength. this maximinus, it is said, could squeeze to powder the hardest stone with his fingers, and history tells us that on one occasion he "knocked down six men without drawing breath!" those fingers of his must surely have been moved by muscles of iron, and his "biceps" must have appeared a veritable mountain! a consideration of the fact that maximinus was upwards of eight feet in height renders these feats less surprising, but to most beef-eating british boys it will perhaps be a "staggerer" to learn that the mighty deeds of maximinus were performed on a vegetable diet. [illustration: milo of crotona.] the history of another muscular leader, milo of crotona, may possibly have some elements of truth in it, and we can quite imagine his marching with his countrymen against an army of sybarites, clothed in a lion's skin and brandishing a tremendous club; but it will take more than the proverbial "grain of salt" to enable us to swallow the story of his running a mile with a four-year-old ox on his shoulders, killing the animal, and _eating the carcase, every inch, in one day_! it is not the way of modern athletes to show their strength by killing four-year-old oxen, or knocking men down like ninepins. they let us see their development of muscle at the wrestling match, at the oar and the wicket, at swimming and cycling, at their walking, running, and leaping performances, and one great advantage of this is that the ladies, who were excluded from the ancient "gymnasia" on pain of death, can in these days, by their presence, not only secure enjoyment to themselves, but give pleasure and encouragement to many an aspirant for athletic fame, who, if for no other reason, would endure the hardest training to "win the plaudits of the fair." in the matter of training and developing the muscles, the old italian proverb will, as in so many other cases, apply, "_chi va piano va sano e lontano_," or, as we should say, "he that goes gently and steadily goes safely and far." there must be moderation in the commencement, or there will be a "breakdown" in the end. no youth who doubts the soundness of his heart and lungs should go in for muscular training--for heavy work with the dumb-bells, for instance--without medical advice. to weakly constitutions training may be injurious--even fatal. in developing the voluntary muscles, as of the arm and leg, the growth of which we can measure, we must be careful of the involuntary muscles--those regulating the heart and lungs, and which are naturally and unconsciously brought into use. of course, those muscles most brought into play by special exercise will be most developed--of the legs and thighs, for instance, in _walking_, and those of the arms, legs, and loins in _rowing_. for the general development of muscle, it is, of course, well to "take on" those sets of muscles not used in one's ordinary occupation. thus a youth who is sitting the greater part of his time at study or work should walk, swim, and row; one who has a walking occupation would do well to take both to rowing and swimming; whilst a "waterman" would do best to go in for hard walking. every one knows that diet has a great deal to do with the development or deterioration of "muscle," and that meat, vegetables, and drink should be very judiciously combined. weston--whose great walk, in , of , miles in days, was spoken of by dr. andrew blyth as "the greatest recorded labour, if its continuity be considered, that a human being has ever taken without injury"--dieted himself as follows:-- breakfast ( . a.m.).--porridge, eggs or fish, bread and butter, toast or mutton, and coffee. lunch ( a.m.).--bread and butter, and coffee. dinner ( p.m.).--mutton broth, meat, potatoes, cabbage, bread pudding, and soda water or ginger ale. tea ( p.m.).--a little toast, and tea or coffee. supper ( . p.m.).--toast, figs, sponge cake, pudding, and milk or soda water. it will be thus seen that alcohol formed no part of weston's diet, and that his principal drinks were _tea_, _coffee_, and _milk_. this says much for the advantage of the practice of total abstinence, especially in view of the fact of the _continuity_ of muscular exertion. the number of steps taken in weston's great walk has been calculated at about , , , and the _daily_ work of the muscles equivalent to that of raising tons one foot. another testimony to the advantage of abstinence from stimulants in the development of "muscle" is given by louis cyr, the canadian athlete, who secured the title of, "strongest man in the world" at a paris exhibition. he weighed lbs., and mentioned, among his feats, that he could break with his bare fist a stone two inches thick, four inches wide, and six inches long. he took his wife (who weighed lbs.) and balanced her on the top of a -ft. ladder, resting on his chin. cyr said that the great secret of his strength was his total abstinence from all alcoholic drinks, and this bears out dr. b. w. richardson's statement that "the idea of alcohol giving force and activity to the muscles is entirely false." chapter iii walking, running, and jumping $walking.$--as a rule, the walking of long distances in a short time is a sad mistake. there is little or no pleasure in it, and the injury it may do you quite counter-balances the satisfaction you may feel in having accomplished it. i wouldn't give a pin to be able to do my three miles in min. secs. like webster, because i know perfectly well that my mind would gain nothing, or my body either from such an achievement. every day of the year, unless specially hindered, i walk between eight and ten miles, and i am always discontented if anything stands in the way of my walk. from my own experience, i feel sure that boys, whether training for football, or school examinations, cannot do better for themselves than walk whenever they have the chance. you never know what call may suddenly be put upon the muscles of your legs. a life may depend upon your ability to sprint seven or eight miles in the hour. and if you can walk as many miles straight off and enjoy every yard of it, you may rely on being able to walk and run the distance in the time. a few words may be said on style in walking. it is simply wonderful how people differ in this respect. hardly two persons walk alike. they either carry their heads, or bodies, or arms differently, or there is a distinct difference in the way they use their legs or feet. however, there is nothing very sad about this. variety is charming, even in pedestrianism, though in professional walkers this variety is apt to show itself in a walk that is almost twin brother to a trot. the following words of the once celebrated westhall are valuable for boys and men who walk for health and pleasure, as well as professionals who walk for pots or purses:--"to be a good and fair walker the attitude should be upright, or nearly so, with the shoulders well back, though not stiffly so, and the arms, when in motion, held well up in a bent position, and at every stride swinging with the movement of the legs well across the chest, which should be well thrown out. the loins should be slack, to give plenty of freedom to the hips, and the leg _perfectly straight_, thrown out from the hip bodily and directly in front of the body, and allowed to reach the ground with the heel being decidedly the first portion of the foot to meet it." some people insist on the toes being turned out in a most unmistakable way when walking. it is not at all a pretty sight, and much more suggestive of a duck waddling out of a pond than a well-trained human being. besides, it throws an undesirable and harmful amount of strain upon the smaller toes. better to point the toes downwards and forwards, _never_ outwards; spring sharply towards the tiptoe, straightening the knee. learn also to hold the ground with the great toe at the beginning and at the end of each step. we cannot grasp the ground; good foothold is only to be obtained by pressure of the toes against it. this may, at first reading, seem rather strange counsel; but if we have any physical relationship with monkeys, the strangeness of it is at once removed. mark how the monkey holds with his feet. perhaps a million years ago we also (or rather our prototypes) held the ground with our feet in like manner. one thing is certain, that bad walkers (bad in style, i mean) are very ugly to see, whereas there is something majestic about the carriage of a good walker. $sprinting.$--not many athletes can excel in all kinds of running, and the champion sprinter is not generally a winner of long-distance races. moreover, it is necessary for each runner to decide which he will be, for the training for each is different. train gradually. at first take sharp walks of three or four miles. this will make the muscles begin to harden. then run steadily for a quarter of a mile at a time, not troubling much about the speed. cultivate the use of the toes and stride straight forward. towards the end of the run the speed may be increased, for the muscles will then be in working order. even now, however, the young sprinter should not tire himself. a week should be employed in this way before the more severe training is undertaken. never begin to run violently at first, and this rule should be observed particularly in cold weather, for until the muscles have warmed to their work they are liable to strain, or even to suffer more severe injury. practise starting. if you have a friend ask him to act as starter, and start over and over again, going to the mark and putting yourself in position time after time. in a short race like this a good start often makes all the difference, for it means sometimes a gain of a yard. $middle distance races.$--speed wins short-distance races; endurance wins long-distance races, but a combination of each is needed in the medium distance contests. $long distances.$--the training for long-distance races needs patience and endurance, for the tax upon the runner is great. boys should not compete in long distances. no one under eighteen years of age should run a mile. the method of training is to run a quarter, or half a mile, according to the strength of the runner, and then each day to increase the distance or to run the same distance at a greater speed. gradually by this process the lungs, the heart, and the muscles are strengthened until feats hitherto impossible become easy. in a long-distance race judgment must be exercised whether to go the distance rapidly and trust to endurance or to run warily and win by a spurt at the end, when it may be that your opponent is exhausted. $the long jump.$--speed is an important element in this feat, more important indeed than the spring. experts take a run of from a hundred to two hundred feet as though they were running a sprint race and are going at their highest speed when they rise from the ground. when they are coming to the ground again they thrust their legs forward as far as they can, and so gain a foot or even more. this needs practice, however, for if the leaper loses his balance and falls backward his jump does not count. to start from the mark also needs practice, and one of the methods of mastering this feat is to run slowly to a point about nine paces short of the starting place. in training this point may be marked by a piece of paper. then sprint from the paper to the starting place. experts are able to jump twenty-four feet, and a leap of twenty-two is excellent, but not many can hope to reach these lengths. $the high jump.$--here the athlete begins his run to the centre of the bar slowly, then he increases his speed a little, finishing with a quick run and a bound. the spring is taken in something like a crouching position with the head drawn in, but in the air the shoulders are lifted and the arms and legs jerked upwards. as the jumper crosses the bar he shoots out his legs, raises his shoulders still higher, and twists his body until he faces downwards. in fact he is then nearly horizontal, and an amateur champion of the world has likened his position at this stage to that of an arrow crossing a bow. when he comes to the ground he faces the bar. some jumpers rise from the right foot, some from the left. the young athlete should find for himself which method suits him best. it is usual to take the leap as far in front of the bar as the bar is from the ground. thus, if the bar is four feet high the leap would begin four feet from a point on the ground directly under the bar. the run usually begins twelve good paces from the bar, and consists of one bound after another, concluding with three short energetic ones. then comes the spring from a crouching position. if the start is from the right foot, this foot should be almost parallel to the bar, and the heel of this foot should be the last to leave the ground. a run would carry you far, but in this feat it is the vigorous spring which carries you high. there are those who can jump more than six-feet high in this way, but they are among the champions. chapter iv hockey and indian clubs $hockey.$--hockey is a game which has become very popular in england during the past few years. it is generally believed to be a southern form of the highland game of shinty, the great game of the clansmen in years gone past, and still played in many of the northern glens, notably on the dumbartonshire side of loch lomond. the hockey of the north is not played according to any scale of points, the winning team being that which secures most goals; in the south, where it is frequently played on ice as well as on _terra firma_, certain marks of merit are awarded, after the style of rugby union football. the modern hockey stick is to some extent an artificial contrivance after the style of the driver or play club of golf. indeed, to golf it bears some little semblance, and strangers frequently confound the two pastimes. the scottish school-boy, when hockey comes on in its turn with other recreations of the playground, sets out for the woodlands with a strong, sharp pocket-knife. he examines carefully all the hedge-rows to see if there is any young plant which has a natural turn at the end. if he can find such with a three feet shaft and a four-inch crook at the end he sets to work there and then, and in due time his "shinty" or hockey stick is pruned and ready for the game. the full-grown highland player will possibly provide himself with a very heavy oak sapling, and with this he will strike powerful strokes, with his right hand, or both hands if required, when in a close contested maul or fray in front of the goal. these naturally-grown clubs have more spring in them than those of artificial make, but unless they are carefully bound with cord the head is apt to give after a little hard play. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] a good deal of the art of the game consists in passing or nursing, as in association football. a novice would strike the knag or knob away from him as soon as he had obtained his opportunity. not so the adept, who would "dribble" it forward, to use a football phrase, a few yards at a time, work it on to his partner, back up, and keep following it, then, with one swinging blow, make a shot for goal. in hockey on the ice the dribbling game is seen to most advantage, as the skilful skater can take the knag a hundred yards or more by adroit nursing or passing; were he to strike it away with the first blow the chances are that it would be immediately returned with interest, and a goal scored to the opposite side. [illustration] [illustration] in the highlands it is a grand sight to see two opposing bodies of clansmen--met as of old they met with targe and claymore--to fight out a friendly game. everything is cast aside but shirt and kilt, and bare-headed and bare-legged the contestants seem to have walked out of the picture of some ancient highland foray. striking off in mid-ground the welkin soon rings with their shouts in gaelic, their cheers and expostulations. blows that were meant for the knag sometimes fall heavy upon an opponent's knees, and soon legs are to be seen streaming with blood. in the heat of the play they feel it not, though next day they will possibly not have a part of their under limbs without bruises between ankles and knees. with terrific swing donald or duncan, who stands six-feet two in his socks, will drive it like a cannon ball through the air; and arrested by malcolm's head in its flight the latter drops like a stone, only to recover his senses in a minute again and go off in wild pursuit. when the sun sinks, the game is proclaimed over, and both sides shake hands, dress, and depart homeward, well pleased with their sport, no matter whether they may have won or lost. [illustration] $indian clubs.$--club swinging, if carried out in the correct style, brings almost every muscle into play, develops the chest and arms, imparts an easy carriage to the figure, and, if persevered in, under proper conditions to be hereafter mentioned, will ultimately enable the most round-shouldered individual to assume that lissom and perpendicular attitude which is the characteristic of the finished athlete. first let me impress upon you the importance of avoiding heavy clubs when you commence the exercise, or even after becoming moderately proficient. difficult feats are not easy to accomplish with very heavy clubs, besides the latter, instead of strengthening the muscles, are more likely to produce the opposite effect. directly the club is heavy enough to sway you about on your feet, the exercise is doing you harm, and your attitude will appear ungraceful. should you be ambitious to swing very heavy clubs, be advised to proceed cautiously, and gradually increase the weight at long intervals. clubs recommended for ordinary use should weigh between - / and lbs. each, as that weight affords plenty of muscular exertion to strong and comparatively weak men alike, especially in difficult exercises. after becoming fairly proficient with the lighter weights, heavier clubs might be used with advantage, say three or four pounds each, but a practised athlete of great muscular power may safely swing clubs of twenty pounds or more. a club, say twenty-two inches in length, made of willow which should weigh about - / lbs., is the most suitable for young boys or ladies. the club should be well tapered towards the top and artistically shaped: an ill-shaped club is a very awkward and unsatisfactory instrument. in nearly all exercises the feet should be some distance apart in proportion to your height: for a man of five feet nine inches, about the proper distance between heels would be seventeen inches. for many exercises the shoulders should be kept square to the front, while in others it is necessary to turn more or less to the right or left. if the shoulders are turned through half a right angle, reckoning from the position with the shoulders square, the shoulders are said to be half-right or half-left; if the shoulders are turned through a complete right angle, the shoulders are considered full right or full left as the case may be. style is a most important item to be considered, not only for the sake of appearance, but also in order that the utmost physical benefit may be derived from the exercise. an eminent authority, in speaking of style, remarks: "if you swing clubs without regard to style, you will naturally contrive to cast almost all the labour upon your strongest muscles, so that the exercise, instead of searching out and strengthening your weak points, will merely tend to increase the muscles which are already disproportionately developed; whereas, if you attend carefully to style, you will be compelled to bring a great variety into play, so that your weakest muscles will be at first most severely taxed, and will gradually become developed in proportion to those which are naturally strong." it is necessary that the knees be kept straight and the muscles of the legs well braced, as there is a tendency at first, especially with heavy clubs, to let the knees bend in the course of certain movements; the head should be carried erect, and should turn with the shoulders, so that you always look in a direction at right angles to the line of the shoulders. the best way to keep the head steady and in its proper position is to fix the eyes on some point a trifle above their own level, in a direction at right angles to the line of the shoulders for the time being. should you allow your eyes to wander, you will find it impossible to keep the head steady. in summing up the chief points relating to style, the following should be kept in view, viz.:-- ( ) all unnecessary movement of the body should be avoided, the head should be carried erect, and the feet firmly placed at a distance apart in proportion to your height. ( ) in swings, keep the arm as nearly straight as possible; in twists, the hand should be kept almost in the same place throughout the movement. ( ) the movement of the club should be kept even, and avoid all abrupt or sudden changes of pace. ( ) the clubs should be kept in accurate turn with each other. in order to correct your own style, a good plan is to practise before a looking-glass. the proper position for holding the club before beginning an exercise is called "the carry." stand erect and grasp the club with the right hand, lift the club and hold it up vertically, with the hand just in a line, and not raised higher than the shoulder. club exercises are divided into four series. the first, called outward, are those in which the right club moves in the same direction as the hands of a clock facing you, whilst the left club moves against the hands of the clock. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] inward exercises are those in which these conditions are entirely reversed, and parallel exercises are those in which both clubs swing with or against the clock. windmill exercises are explained at fig. , the subject is made clear in fig. , where, for the sake of simplicity, both hands are holding the same club; the right hand, which is travelling in the same direction as a clock facing the athlete, is making an outward circle, as the left hand is working against the clock, the left hand is making an inward circle, and as both hands are swinging with the clock, a parallel exercise would be in progress, if there were two clubs instead of one as shown in the illustration. the outward front swing follows "the carry" as a natural consequence. straighten the arm completely till the hand is above and about three inches in front of the shoulder; the point of the club should then be allowed to move slightly forward, with the wrist turned in, then let the hand and club move to the right, the arm being kept straight, and the club being kept in a straight line with the arm throughout the movement. a circle can then be described and a return made to the initial position. to make this description more easily understood, i have a capital illustration in front of me, and i cannot do better than quote it. "if you were to stand with a wall about ten inches in front of you, the point of the club, would, in the preparatory position, just touch the wall at the highest point you could reach with the club; and as you did the swing, the point of the club would always touch the wall, and, if it were chalked, would draw a circle on the wall, of which the radius would be as nearly as possible equal to the length of your arm and the club together." this is one of those simple-looking movements which are by no means easy of accomplishment. the arm should be kept straight with the arm and the club in a line, and avoid stooping as the club passes in front of the legs. beginners should practise front swings, and follow them up until they are done with before attempting anything else. circles, swings, and twists.--it should be noted that circles are divided into "swings" and "twists". the club and forearm acting in a straight line during the movement would come under the heading of "swings," whilst circles swung from the wrist with the hand as a centre point are reckoned as "twists." some of the very advanced movements, however, unite the characteristics of both swings and twists, and it is difficult to say under which heading they should be classed. fig. illustrates the outward front swing with both clubs. the exercise shown is a cross windmill, the performer with both clubs straight above the shoulder swings the left club outwards; so soon as the left club points downwards he will swing the right club outwards, and it will arrive at the lowest point just as the left club has completed its circle. the outward back twist.--from "the carry," raise the hand a little above the shoulder, passing it slightly to the rear, so that the forefinger is level with and within two inches of the lobe of the ear, the elbow being raised to the right till it is nearly as high as the shoulder, allowing the club to slope a little backwards from the hand. from this preparatory position, let the point of the club move to the right, and, keeping the hand close to the ear throughout the movement, a circle can be described by the point of the club. in this twist get the point of the club sufficiently to the right and to the rear as the club descends, in order to avoid letting the point of the club pass too far to the rear as it ascends. care should be taken to keep the hand in the same place throughout the twist, and don't duck the head forward during the ascent of the club. this tendency is produced by the fear of a blow on the head while the club is travelling in its upward course. windmill exercises.--the exercises known as windmill are very interesting. as in parallel exercises, the one club does outward circles and the other inward circles, keeping exact pace with each other, the one being always half a circle ahead of the other; therefore, when one club points straight up, the other points straight down, so that when viewed from the front, the clubs appear always to point in exactly opposite directions. a windmill exercise is difficult to learn, but when grasped, you should at once tackle the corresponding form on the other side. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows the inward back twist being cross windmilled. the outward cross front twist.--in this twist the hand should be kept close to the left breast throughout the movement, and as the club descends, turn the wrist out and bend it over, the while turning the wrist out as the club ascends till it is horizontal on the left, again turning it sharply as the club finishes its ascent. twists similar to the cross front twist may be performed with the hand above or below the height of the shoulder, also a cross front twist may be done with the hand at the height of and in front of either the right or left hip. avoid letting the clubs go too far forward while they are below the horizontal, and too far back during the higher part of the movement. each front swing should be done in good style, and endeavour not to stoop as the clubs pass each other when they begin to ascend. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. a.] fig. shows the outward cross front twist with the right hand at arm's length, whilst the left club is simultaneously making an outward back twist at arm's length, it must be noted, that although the right club is moving towards the performer, yet as it is moving in the same direction as the hand of a clock, parallel, and in front of the twist made, it is called an outward twist. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows an outward back twist at arm's length with the right club, the left club is making an outward front twist, the only difference being, that the circle is made with the left club entirely in front of the left arm, instead of in the rear of it. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows an inward swing with the right club done simultaneously with an inward swing with the left club. this exercise can be made into a cross inside windmill in the same way that fig. can be made into a regular outside exercise, instead of being a cross outside windmill. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows an inside back twist at arm's length above the head and an inward cross front twist at arm's length downwards, the connecting inward front swings being also shown. this is very difficult. parallel exercises.--these consist of an outward circle with one club and an inward circle with the other, in which the two circles are begun together, and in which the two clubs keep exact pace with each other throughout, consequently both clubs appear to be always parallel to each other. this is called a "parallel" combination. when the various parallel combinations have become familiar to the learner, he may continue such combinations in succession to each other and profit thereby. parallel exercises are considered the greatest test of proficiency with clubs, as the slightest error will cause a divergence of the clubs and be at once detected. endeavour to master a parallel combination thoroughly, and then the combination on the other side will come easy enough. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows a parallel exercise, an inward front swing with r. being done simultaneously with an outward front swing with l. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows an outward back twist with r. and an inward cross twist with l. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows an inward back twist with r. and an outward back twist with l., followed by an inward front swing with r. and an outward front swing with l. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows an inward back twist with r. and an outward front swing with l. [illustration: fig. a.] fig. a shows an outward front swing with r. and an inward back twist with l. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] figs. , , show some of the movements of clubs as generally practised on the continent, but we consider dumb-bells more suitable for lunging movements. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] figs. , show some wrist exercises, which are sufficiently plain to need no explanation. fig. shows the outward cross front twist with the r. hand near left breast, while the left club is making an outward front swing; the corresponding movement would be an outward cross front with the l. whilst the r. made the outward front swing. miscellaneous circles.--circles which may be done with the arm passed behind the neck, and the hand brought forward over the left shoulder, require extraordinary length of arm and elasticity. circles are sometimes done in which the centre of gravity of the club is caused to remain stationary while the hand moves in a circle, which conveys the impression that the club is revolving about an axle through its centre of gravity. these are difficult movements, and very attractive. throwing the clubs.--these exercises require great dexterity before satisfactory results can be obtained. to let go the club and cause it to turn twice or more in the air and catch it again, is a feat that entails endless practice. dealing only with the right club, a few brief notes regarding some of the simpler movements must suffice. ( ) perform an outward front swing, and as the club approaches the horizontal in its ascent let it go, and after it has made one revolution in the air catch it again; this is the outward throw. ( ) the inward throw is an exact counterpart of the outward throw, but done by an inward swing. ( ) "the double outward throw" and "the double inward throw" are done by allowing the club to turn twice before catching it. there are endless varieties of other throws, all of which allow unlimited action, as the shoulder cannot be kept strictly in position, because the clubs have to be carefully watched while they are in the air. without doubt, indian club exercise is an attractive pastime, and entails no strain on the system, unless by the foolish practice of using too heavy clubs. chapter v swimming, rowing, and water polo $swimming.$--a glance at some books of instruction conveys the impression that swimming is difficult and complicated; but many boys learn in three or four days, and we know a timid boy who had much to overcome in fear of the water who learnt in fourteen without more aid than he obtained from reading directions in books. it is easier to learn in a tepid indoor bath, because the novice is not worried by having to keep himself warm, and he has the rail, a sure bottom, and the side of the bath to help him. a friendly companion who will support his chest with one hand at first, especially if he can instruct him too, will shorten the period of learning. there is no need to go into deep water, nor to run any risks in learning to swim. the action of the arms may be practised in or out of the water. draw the arms to the chest with the elbows touching the sides. close the fingers and thumb of each hand, and make the hands slightly hollow. the hands will be under the chin and the hollowed palms downwards. push them out in front of your nose, not vigorously, but quietly and steadily, for so far the action is one that retards the swimmer rather than advances him. once at their full extent, however, the hands should be turned almost back to back, and then each should be swept away from the other in a semi-circle, something like the action of the oars when a boat is being rowed. when the elbows touch the body the stroke ends, and the hands should go back to their position under the chin ready for another stroke. more important than the arms in swimming are the legs, but their movements are very simple and easy to learn. grasp the rail that runs round the bath with one hand and place the other hand flat upon the side of the bath about a foot below. draw the legs up to the body, with the heels touching each other, toes of each foot turned outwards, the toes of the right foot to the right, the toes of the left foot to the left. keep the knees wide apart and turned outwards. when the legs have been drawn up as far as possible the soles of the feet should be only just under the water. now shoot both legs out vigorously, not only as far as they will go, but as widely asunder as you can spread them. then bring the heels smartly together so that the legs return in a line with the body again. this last movement is very important, for it is in displacing the wedge of water between the widely opened legs that the body receives its forward impulse. writers upon swimming have likened this action to the flight of the slippery orange pip when it is squeezed in the fingers of the school-boy. when the use of arms and legs is practised together the legs are drawn up and the hands are placed under the chin at the same time, and the hands and legs are sent out from the body together. the head should be thrown back well, and it will help the learner to do this if he looks at the sky or at the ceiling of the bath when he is learning. it is easier to swim upon the back than upon the chest. the movement of the legs is the same, and the movement of the hands not very different. lie backwards upon the water and with the hands together stretch the arms behind the head, palms upwards, thumbs touching. then sweep the hands away from each other, using them like oars, and so bringing them back with a wide curve to the hips. upon the back it is possible to swim without the use of the arms at all. learning to swim makes one sadly out of breath, but with practice the art becomes easy, and we swim with almost as much ease as we walk. having learned plain swimming it is not difficult to add gradually the numerous other methods of propelling the body through the water. $rowing.$--to watch and imitate a good rower is the best way to acquire a good style, but a few hints will help. sit squarely upon the seat and stretch your legs straight before you, but with your toes turned out slightly. rowers are not agreed about the knees. some keep them together; others have them apart, and they will tell you that this arrangement permits the body to come further forward over the knees. your feet should be placed firmly against the stretcher, and this must be let out or shortened, to suit the length of the rower. one foot may be placed in the strap which is often attached to the stretcher. the outside hand is placed upon the handle of the oar, with the thumb as well as the fingers above it, while the other hand grasps it firmly lower down, keeping the nut towards you. the arms are now quickly thrust forward till they are quite straight at the elbows, after which the back follows the arms by bending forward at the hips. be careful, however, to avoid round shoulders. when your hands have reached their full stretch raise them, and the blade will drop quietly into the water. then with the water just covering the blade, the body is brought back with a strong but not clumsy movement, till it reaches a little beyond the perpendicular of the back of the seat, when the hands are brought back to the ribs, the elbows gliding near the hips; and at the last moment, as the hand touches the ribs, the wrist of the inside hand is lowered, the knuckles being at the same time brought against the chest, and the oar is made to revolve in the rowlock. this is called "feathering" the oar, a process by which it is brought neatly out of the water. now push the oar rapidly forward again, first, however, restoring it to its original position in the rowlock. this is done by raising the wrist, and then darting the arms forward till the elbows are quite straight. now the rower is at his starting point. to "back water" these actions are reversed. the oar is first reversed in the rowlock, and then it is pushed through the water with as much power as is needed, and pulled through the air. when the oars on one side are pulled, and those on the other are backed, the boat is made to turn round completely in a small space. expert rowers have arrived at the following maxims: straighten the arms before bending the body forward; drop the oar neatly into the water; draw the oar straight through at the same depth; feather the oar cleanly, and without bringing the oar out before doing so; use the back and shoulders freely, keeping the arms as straight as possible; keep your eyes fixed on the rower before you. by this means the body is almost sure to swing backwards and forwards regularly in a straight line. if you look out of the boat you will probably lose this rhythmic motion. $sculling.$--this process is different from that of rowing in that the sculler has a scull for each hand, whereas the rower uses both hands for one oar. the rower sits near the side of the boat, the sculler in the centre of the seat. the sculls are lighter than oars, the action quicker. there are from thirty to forty strokes a minute in sculling, but the average is about thirty-two. the boy who goes out sculling alone is often his own steerer, and so needs to keep a sharp look-out over his shoulder. having taken a seat in the centre, stretch out your legs to their fullest extent and adjust the stretcher. grasp the sculls, one in each hand, by the handles, and bend your body forward until your head is well over your knees. throw your arms well forward, and straight, so that the sculls will be thrown well backwards. then dip the sculls, try to keep the dip uniform, and pull hard. the stroke comes to an end when the elbows are brought to the top of the hips, and the hands to the chest, with the body well back as a result of the strong pull. the sculls are "feathered" as they leave the water by the depressing of the elbows and the bending upwards of the wrists, as the back of the hands are turned towards the forearms, an operation which offers the least resistance to the water when releasing the sculls to obtain the position known as the return, that is, the position to begin again. to turn a boat in the water the sculler must back water with one scull and pull with the other. to do this one scull is reversed, its rounded face being towards the rear as the sculler pushes it from him. at the same time pull sharply with the other scull until the boat's head has been turned round completely. boats without rudders are managed in the water, either by pulling both sides alike, in which case the boat moves in a straight line, or by reversing the action of the oars, equally on both sides, pushing them through the water instead of pulling them, and called backing water. in this case the boat recedes. by pulling one side only, the boat describes a part of a circle, which is made smaller by pulling one oar, and backing the other. by means of a rudder the boat may be made to take almost any direction without reference to the rowers. a few experiments with a rudder will soon demonstrate what its powers are. [illustration: water polo.] $water polo.$--boys who can swim will find this excellent sport. each player should provide himself with a sound cask. place it upon its side and weight it with lead or other material, making this ballast fast so that it cannot move about. now make the cask quite water-tight. upon one end fix a horse's head made of wood, upon the other a tail. these features may be made as extravagant and comic as the owner pleases. get a paddle like a canoe paddle, and astride of this horse take to the water. choose sides as at football and have for goals stakes driven into the bed of the river or floating objects moored into position. the ball should be a light hollow india-rubber one, or a bladder from the butcher. some players use the inner part of a football. the paddle both strikes the ball and propels the steed. this game should never be played unless the players are accompanied by a capable person in a boat who can go to the assistance of those who may be in difficulties. chapter vi paperchasing, football, golf, and boxing $paperchasing.$--this may be practised with more or less success all the year round, but it is in the winter time that it can best be enjoyed. it is then that the air is cool and invigorating, and that the fields, being unoccupied by crops, may be run over without any very great damage being done. for boys it is a grand game; it affords a welcome change from the scrimmages and knocks of football and fives; and if the distance run be not too far, nor the pace too fast, there are few who cannot take part in it with pleasure. an important point in its favour is that the expenses connected with it are small. the paperchaser wears jersey, knickerbockers and stockings as at football, with the addition, in very cold weather, of woollen mittens to keep the wrists warm, and the substitution of light leather or rubber and canvas shoes, for heavy boots. for each of the "hares" there must be provided a bag in which to carry the "scent." these bags should be of stout linen or canvas and shaped like a life-buoy, so that they go round the runner--under the left shoulder and over the right--with a hole in the under-side, by means of which they are filled and emptied. time was when the "scent" consisted of paper torn up very small, the preparation of which afforded almost as much fun as the chase itself; but nowadays we have grown luxurious, and fill the bags with the paper shavings which may be purchased for a very small sum from any bookbinder or printer. much of the success of a paperchase depends on the choosing of the hares. of these there are generally two or three--more often the former--and it is necessary that one of them should have a good knowledge of the surrounding country. the time of their departure having been noted, they start off and lay a trail as they go. sometimes one will lay for a while, and then the other will take a turn; occasionally one will lead and lay his trail, and the other following some little distance in the rear, will look out for gaps and fill them in. it is not necessary to lay a continuous trail, but care should be taken that it is quite easy to see from one patch of scent to the next. when the wind is high, it is always well in crossing from one field to another, to sprinkle some scent on the hedge itself. the laying of an occasional "false" scent adds to the troubles of the hounds, and gives the hares a chance of regaining some of the advantage which they naturally lose in choosing their course. a "false" is usually managed by the hares separating, and each laying a trail in different directions; then one ceases laying, and makes his way straight across country to join his companion, and they go on again together as before. in laying a false trail, much ingenuity may be shown. one way is to make the wrong one much the more distinct of the two; but this must not always be done, or naturally it will soon cease to have any effect. in selecting a course, it is well to choose a circular one, so that in case of accidents, the distance from home is not very far; and it is a very good plan, and one which is likely to be of advantage to all, to start out against the wind and to return with it. the reason for this is that it is easier to face the wind when starting out fresh than when returning home fatigued at the end of a run. the hounds, or pack, must be provided with a captain and a "whipper-in"--the former to set the pace and generally take command, and the latter to look after the stragglers and see that none are left behind. both should be good runners, and if possible should have had some experience of the game. after an interval--the length of which is arranged with the hares before they start, and depends chiefly on the distance it is proposed to travel--the pack set out on their journey. the pace should be a steady jog-trot, especially at the beginning; afterwards, if all goes well, it may be increased. it is a rule that so long as the hares are not in sight, all must follow the trail; but if once they are seen, it becomes a case of "catch who can," the scent is ignored, and all go off straightway in pursuit. if the hares are not seen and there appears to be no likelihood of their being caught, it is usual for the captain on getting within a mile or so of home, to give the word for a race and for the hounds to set off then to compete among themselves for the honour of being the first to reach the goal. carried out on these lines, paperchasing provides plenty of fun, and is as healthy a pastime as can be found. now and again there will be a ducking caused by a failure to clear a brook, or a stumble at a fence; but if the victims of these mishaps keep moving, and immediately they reach home, change their clothes, little harm will be done. two warnings may be given: do not go too far; and when feeling tired, do not strain yourself by trying to race. a six or seven miles spin is quite long enough for any one; and it is better to go all through at a jog-trot, and even to walk occasionally, than to sow the seeds of future ills by striving to outdo fleeter rivals. $hints on football.$--football is one of the games which cannot be learned from books. its best lessons are those taught by hard experience, and as much may be learned in an afternoon's play and in watching a match between two good teams, as by a diligent study of all the books on the game that have ever been written; but at the same time there are a number of unwritten rules which, although they often take years to learn, are of service to every player; and i have therefore deemed it wise to collect them and put them down here in black and white in the hope that they may be of use to many who, with some experience of the game, and eager to improve their play, have no opportunity for seeing big matches, and no one whom they can ask for advice. these rules are fourteen in number, and should be learned by heart by every player. they apply specially to the rugby game, but some of them are of use also to those who favour the association pastime:-- . never play immediately after a meal. it is best to have dinner two hours before the game begins. . in passing a ball to a comrade send it smartly and quickly straight into his hands. . never pass the ball when you are near your own goal line, and never pass straight back except when opposite your opponents' goal, and the player to whom you pass is well placed for dropping a goal. . never be too eager to pick up the ball and run with it. a neat dribble with the feet is often most effective, and it is generally very difficult to stop. . in collaring an opponent always keep your eyes open, and always go hard and low. . never "speculate" or take flying kicks at the ball. . when fairly held by an opponent, do not waste your strength by useless struggling, but at once cry "held," and put down the ball. . when you have the ball in your possession, and find it impossible to pass it to advantage or to proceed, always punt into touch. . in handing off an opponent, turn your thumb inside your hand and turn the palm outwards with the fingers held together. . when one of your own side is running with the ball, always follow up close behind, but a little on one side of him. when passed by an opponent who has it, try to get round again to meet him before he reaches your goal line. . in your spare time practise punting, drop-kicking, and place-kicking, with both feet. an otherwise good player is often left out of a team in order to make room for one who is not quite so good, but is able to kick. . study the laws of the game whenever you have an opportunity. . always keep your temper and do not talk. obey your captain at once, and unhesitatingly accept the decision of the referee. . change your clothes as soon as possible after playing, and in going home be careful to wrap up well. in conclusion, i would point out that if properly played rugby football is not dangerous. the great majority of accidents which occur are due to the neglect of one of the simple rules here laid down--through useless struggling, loose collaring, wild kicking, or blind rushing. the rules for the association and the rugby game may be obtained for one penny each, so we have refrained from reproducing them here. [illustration: driving] $golf.$--this is another of those games well learned on the field, by observation of the best players, and by hints from friends. we have, however, compiled a series of injunctions based upon long experience. driving.--lower your left shoulder. stand still and do not see-saw with your body. plant your feet squarely. grasp your club lightly yet firmly in the hollow of your fingers. slowly swing well back and complete your stroke well through, pushing to the very end with your right hand. it is a disadvantage to try to get under the ball. [illustration] the brassy.--in using this club swing as far back as you can, slowly. the mashie and iron.--swing back very slowly and have the forefinger of your right hand well down the club, which should be held lightly. go well through with the stroke and rise slightly off your left heel. putting.--grasp the club firmly, swing back very slowly, and go well through with the stroke. [illustration: out of the furze] [illustration: out of a bunker] [illustration: putting] general advice.--in all kinds of strokes swing back slowly with your left shoulder down and the forefinger of your right hand well down the club. ever have your eye upon the ball, and finish every stroke to the very end. in all your strokes let your arms go well out from your body. your hands should be close together on your club and the right hand well round to the left but not under the club. press the ground with your feet and stand well back upon your heels. $hints on boxing.$--it is true that boxing has become associated with all manner of ruffianism, but it is true also that it is one of the most effective forms of physical exercise, and that low life and brutality need no more enter into this pastime than into cricket. all the muscles are exercised, and dexterity, nimbleness, prompt decision, quickness of sight and many other admirable qualities are promoted. the right arm is held across the body so as to protect the pit of the stomach. the elbow of the left arm is held to the side. this position enables the boxer to hit from the shoulder, an important matter in boxing. the right leg bears most of the weight of the body, an arrangement which permits rapid movement backwards and forwards as occasion demands with a minimum of exposure. the left side should be towards your antagonist, the left hand has the principal part of hitting allotted to it, the right stops, parries, and at close quarters hits too. study all these things carefully before a mirror, noting what parts are exposed and the manner in which the exposure may be remedied. throw your head well back, and watch your opponent's eyes, for there you get the earliest indication of his intentions, and therefore you are able to make your arrangements for circumventing his plans. when you strike let it be from the shoulder and with all the weight of your body pressing the right foot upon the ground and making a kind of spring. do not draw back your hand to make a stroke, because that gives your adversary warning. come upon him unawares and then recover your position immediately. generally the time to strike is when your left toe is level with his heel, but if his reach is longer or shorter than yours this rule may need modification. remember that a curved blow is longer on its way than a straight one. if your adversary strikes at your face or the upper part of the chest, do not retreat from the blow, but fling your right arm sharply outwards and upwards, catching your opponent's arm by the wrist, and throwing it out of the direction in which it was aimed. this generally lays open your opponent's head, and gives opportunity for a smart return blow with the left hand; it is then near his head, and has only a short distance to go. this return blow is called the "counter," and is very effective, as it arrives when your opponent is expecting to give rather than receive a blow. this plan of campaign may be practised before a mirror. "stopping" comes in where this parry is impracticable. if your adversary strikes at your body you must either get away, stop, or suffer the blow in hopes of being able to hit him in return. in stopping you receive the blow on your arm, and break its force. chapter vii on the ice $figure skating.$--as soon as the skater has gained confidence and can skate in the ordinary way, he should begin to master the art of skating upon the outside edge. put upon the ice a small stone, piece of wood, or any other object to serve for a centre. from this stand three yards with your right side towards it. leaning a little in the direction of this centre and pressing your weight upon the outer edge of the blade of the skate, push yourself round and round the centre with your left foot. then practise going round on the outside edge of your left skate in a similar way. difficult as these movements will be at first, they become easy like other hard tasks by practice, and they open the way to graceful figure skating. when the two circles have been mastered it is quite easy to cut a figure $ $ upon the ice. begin on the outside edge of the right skate as though you meant to go in a circle, but allow your left foot to hang behind your right foot. there it will act as a kind of weight, your body will tend to swing round and you will cut the second part of the $ $ travelling backwards, and upon the inner edge of the skate. the impetus gained in cutting the first part of the figure will carry you to the end. going in the other direction cut another $[| ]$ with your left foot, and when you can do these you are on the high road to complete success as a skater. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] $sailing on skates.$--boys who are so fortunate as to live where there is a large sheet of ice will find much fun in sailing. if you have the money the draper will supply you with calico, or sheeting, or other similar material, two yards wide, and a journey to the joiner will be necessary, as we shall see. a b in figure is the yard made of wood, one and a half inches thick in the middle, tapering to each end to five-eighths of an inch. at c and d holes are bored for the lashings of the sail. e f is the sprit, and we get its length by measuring the boy who is going to use the sail from his neck to his ankles. this gives the length of the sprit, and the yard should be made twice as long. we have given the longest that the sprit should be. it may be shorter, and then, of course, the yard would be shortened in proportion. the sprit is tapered towards f and a hole is bored at g for lashings. the sprit is connected with the yard by what sailors call a crotch. we have given a representation of it in fig. . the cord is used to lash the sprit to the yard. c d g in fig. shows the sail. it is cut to allow a broad hem, and may be sewn rapidly with a sewing machine. a strong loop of tape or cord should be sewed at each corner of the sail c d g, and at the head of the sail, that is from c to d, eyelets should be made six inches apart. at each of these the sail is tied to the yard and also at g. a reference to figures , and will show how the sail is used, but practice will be needed and much studying of the effect of wind upon the sail before the art of sailing on skates has been mastered. a wooden rod may be attached to f, fig. . this will aid in the management of the sail, as is shown in figures and . $curling.$--like most other pastimes, curling is best learned when you are young. your good golfer, who "swipes" clean and clever from the tee, picked up that draw and swing which the able golfer so much prides himself upon, in youth. it is quite true that laddies in scotland first learn to skate; yet many of the best hands at "the roaring game" have learned to throw a "stane" ere fifteen. you cannot learn young enough at anything, a true sportsman will tell you. that little, bare-legged herd laddie, who sits on the banks of the ettrick or yarrow, will laugh at the middle-aged tyro who vainly tries to fling a fly where there is no fish lying. the young yachtsman gets his tiller hand in his first matches in an open boat; the trigger finger of the crack shot is made over his early successes at rooks or rabbits; and the good seat in the saddle on the back of the shetland pony; but our boys are ready for their _bonspeil_, which means _a good spell_ or game. before giving a description of an actual game, the writer will endeavour to give some idea of what curling is like. in germany it has been successfully introduced by sir edward malet, the english ambassador, and there is every reason to believe that in a few years it will take as strong a hold of the english people, as already golf has done. pennant, in his tour of the north ( ), writes of it as follows:--"of all the sports of these parts, that of curling is the favourite, and one unknown in england. it is an amusement of the winter, and played on the ice, by sliding from one mark to another great stones of from forty to seventy pounds weight, of a hemispherical form, with an iron or wooden handle at the top. the object of the player is to lay his stone as near the mark as possible, to guard that of his partner, which had been well laid before, or to strike his antagonist's." [illustration: the roaring game] "the game is played on a carefully-chosen piece of ice called the rink, which should be forty-two yards long, unless special circumstances, such as thaw, and consequently dull ice, require it to be shortened. this piece of ice should be as level, smooth, and free from cracks as possible. there is usually a trifling bias, which however to the skilled curler rather adds interest to the game, as it calls forth additional science in the play." [illustration: bringing down the stones] "when the rink is chosen, a little mark is made at each end. this is called the 'tee,' and near that point stands, in his turn, each player, whose object is to hurl or slide his stones to the opposite end by a swinging motion of the arm. each opponent also endeavours to place his stones nearer the tee than those of his opponents." so far for pennant's description of curling in the olden time. the old style, thanks to the edinburgh men, who play on duddingston loch, has long gone out. seventy pound stones would no longer be tolerated by any body of sportsmen affiliated under the royal caledonian curling club. in the olden times it seems, in some parts of scotland, notably in the south-west, to have been a game of strength rather than of skill, and the man who threw his huge block the farthest, and struck his opponent's stone from the tee, or "cock," was considered to be the superior player. the stones are not now much more than half this weight, and so highly are the soles polished that they slip along keen ice so much faster with slight exertion on the part of the player, that they pass the tee or mark altogether, and go clean off the rink. the rinks or sides have been chosen--four players, one of whom acts as skip or director. he is generally the ablest and most experienced curler, and equal to the responsible duty of guarding the winning shot, if in his favour, or securing it if against him, with his last stone. the rink, which is also the name of the diagram of the game, is drawn off according to the rules of the royal caledonian curling club, and carefully swept clear of all snow or hoar frost. the skip takes up his station at the tee, which is the innermost of a set of circles, known as the "hoose," no stone outside of the outer one counting in the actual score. sweeping scores are drawn for the guidance of the players; one down the centre, which practically is a sort of hockey arrangement, as you must stick to your own side of the rink. [illustration: preparing for the game] sweeping commences half-down, that is, at the centre of the forty-two yards between tee and tee, and can be carried on by the players' side up to the tee, when, if it still has a little impetus, the opposing skip will sweep it out of the house altogether. when this happens after a stone has been brought on when apparently lagging, it is generally greeted with what in parliamentary phrase would be called "opposition cheers and laughter." in this a skip may show very superior judgment, and order his men to desist from sweeping. at his words "up hands," brooms must be raised immediately. in front of the house or counting circle is the hog score. if stones are not thrown with sufficient force to be taken over this with the assistance of the sweepers they are shoved off the ice as dead. this is sometimes galling to a young player who, when it happens, as it does repeatedly happen on soft ice, is practically put out of the game. but the "crampits" have been adjusted. these are foot-boards, grated so that they hold firmly to the ice. on these both feet must be placed when the stone is delivered. the skip gives his directions to his first player to place him a stone on the near edge of the outer ring. why not exactly at the tee? because if there it would form a rest for the stone of his opponent and be forced out. our young player, who is wielding a beautifully polished pair of ailsa craigs, with a sweep or two of the ice does exactly what is wanted. his opponent is asked to play to the face of this stone. this he does, hurling it out and laying his own almost in its place. the next stone of the leading player fails to catch it, and goes away to the rear, dead. the fourth stone played effectually covers or guards the winner. the next pair of players give up their brooms to the leaders, and take up their position at the crampits. a gentle draw past guard and winning stone is counselled; and this is well executed, the brooms taking the stone to the very edge of the tee or centre circle. the next player fails to remove this, and being slow guards his opponent's stone. [illustration: soop her up] this is a piece of good fortune for the other side, who now have a second shot drawn by a very skilful player. the third pair of players cannot well get home and try to wick, and _curl in_ (from the latter expression we have _curling_). this is done by putting with a turn of the wrist a certain bias or screw, by means of the handle when the stone is being delivered. the position of the game is not changed when the skips lay aside their brooms. there is a little more than half of the winning shot visible through a port or channel. through this the skip, against whom the shot counts, threads his stone gently and easily and rubs the winner out. his opponent has no chance now, unless he rattles out the nearest guards. this he tries to do, but his opponent guards again, this time just across the hog score. a gentle draw, with an inner twist, might succeed. it is bravely attempted, but it is short a foot, and the leading skip claims one shot--victory for a well contested end. and so the game will last for twenty more heads, the winning rink being that which has the majority of shots. it is a happy, healthy game, not so well-known in england as it ought to be. in germany some enthusiasts have introduced it, and from the military-like character in which it is carried out, guarding and storming and knocking out occupants of the fortress, it is likely there to come greatly into favour. it is to be hoped that we may oft see the pond where, in the language of an old scottish curling poet-- "drawn are the rinks where lines and curves combine, the tee, the house, hog score and central line; the cramps are laid, the champions ready stand, with eye intent and trusty broom in hand." those who decide to include this game in their activities should put themselves into touch with the royal caledonian curling club through its honorary secretary, a. davidson smith, esq., at the headquarters of the club, york place, edinburgh. they will then be able to obtain the rules for the proper playing of this delightful game. chapter viii angling $hints by an old hand.$--when fishing in ponds, lakes, meres, canals, or in waters where there is no stream, the depth should be carefully taken the night before, or when ground-baiting, and marked on the rod, or by measuring the distance from the plummet to the cap of the float with a piece of cotton or string. if the angler prefers the bait to be within touch of the bottom, the better plan is to use a self-cocking float, and always use the finest possible tackle in clear water; but if an ordinary float be employed, and the novice wishes the bait to lie six or eight inches on the bottom (a good plan), the lowest shot should be from in. to in. from the hook. this will neither interfere with the proper cocking of the float nor with the angler striking, for, from the moment the fish seizes the bait to the indication of a bite, the resistance of (at most) two or three small shots is infinitesimal. if the bottom be at all muddy, then the plummet should be as light as possible, or into the ooze it will sink, and when this is known to be the case, the depth may be obtained by the aid of a small pellet of bread and bran. should it drop off the hook before the depth is obtained, the pellet should be made a little stiffer. a piece of "tea lead" from a tea-chest, or lead wire, similar to that used on the gut in lea fishing (some use nothing else), may be carefully tied round the bottom of the float, to make it cock without using any shots on the tackle, and painted the same colour as the float, or, failing this, the usual self-cocking float sold at the tackle-shops may be used. gentles should be kept in plenty of damp sand for a few days in an earthenware pan, biscuit-tin, or tin pail, in a cellar, or any dark, cool place, when they will be ready for use. the sides of the pan or tin should not be allowed to get wet, or many of the gentles will make their escape. they should be kept in what is termed golden sand. this sand, which should be damp, is almost as fine to the touch as barley-meal, of a deep rich golden colour, and they will live in it for days without turning into the chrysalis state, which they do in a comparatively short time if exposed to the sun--a practice to which many anglers are addicted, and then wonder the gentles change colour. it is a great mistake to use silver sand, as it over-scours and makes them attenuated and hard. i have repeatedly seen them in this state. so much for sand. the finest gentles i ever saw were obtained from the best rump steak and a sheep's head, and kept in coarse bran; but for taking out the black steck or "saddle-back" near the head, and scouring them until perfectly white, give me the sand mentioned above and plenty of it. the weight floats required may be arranged and tested before they are wound on the winder for final use. this saves the beginner considerable time and trouble at the water-side. if he has a four-line winder, with lines already weighted or shotted for roach, perch, bream, tench, so much the better. a piece of cork about the size and shape of a tonquin bean attached to the line may sometimes be used with success for fishing-swims, within easy distance from the side, in smooth clear water, near patches of weeds, flags, or candocks, the angler taking great care to keep out of sight, and to be as still as possible. when the bean-like piece of cork goes under or runs, strike gently. never use long-shanked hooks (the well-known crystal roach hooks, for instance) for such baits as gentles, cockspur, or small worms, small pellets of paste, wheat and malt. a considerable portion of the shank is certain to become bare in a short time, and so prevent the fish from biting. i have repeatedly seen nearly the whole shank of a crystal hook bare, and the small worm, gentles, and more especially a grain of creed wheat, dangling from the bend as a kidney might from a butcher's hook; and i have an idea that no fish properly constituted would be stupid enough to be caught under such absurd conditions. i may just mention in passing, that when fishing with gentles, the last one put on the hook should have the point to come through the skin of the thick or tail end, and the twirling thin or head end to hang clear of the hook. one gentle on a no. or hook will often do the trick, when they won't look at a bunch of gentles. use as small hooks as possible. they will hook a fish, or for the matter of that, get fast into almost anything, much quicker than large hooks: they penetrate sooner, hold very fast, and pierce the lips of such fish as trout, perch, chub, barbel, carp, when a large hook would not. for instance, the other day i hooked a lb. barbel in the centre of the upper lip with a no. sneck-bend, and it was quite a job to extract it. i once saw four splendid chub, all caught with similar hooks; and on several occasions i have caught good perch with roach hooks. if the novice will only remember not to allow slack line when playing a good fish on a small hook, provided the tackle is good and strong, a fish should seldom escape. beginners often use hooks three times too big for the fish they are after, and it goes without saying, that the smaller the hook the finer the gut should be; for a small hook on thick, coarse gut is not to be thought of. on the other hand, never use a too small hook for too large a pellet of paste, with the hook embedded in the centre, instead of the point just protruding. i have seen an angler fishing under these conditions for chub with cheese paste miss five fish out of six, the damson-like pellet being pulled clean out of the mouth of the chub, without the slightest chance of hooking the fish. we will now supplement what our "old hand" has told us by other hints. $bait and other matters.$--we shall not occupy space discussing rods, and such things. each boy settles these questions for himself, in accordance with the money he can spare, after a talk with the dealer and a contemplation of his wares. such accessories as landing nets he leaves generally until he is grown up, and manages very well without them. he may, however, provide himself with a clearing ring and line, because he is likely to feel the need for these often. this useful clearing tackle consists of a number of yards of strong cord, to the end of which is fastened a heavy ring of lead or brass. if the hook should get fast in a weed or anything else, this ring is put over the butt of the rod, and allowed to slip down the line to the hook. the rod should be held in the right hand, the top pointing downwards, the clearing-line in the left; the ring falling on the hook from its weight usually clears the hook. if not, the angler should grasp the rod firmly, and draw the line sideways, and break away. in this case, he seldom loses more than a hook; but without the use of a clearing-line he frequently loses his float as well as his hook and line, and sometimes breaks his rod. the brass clearing-rings are best, because they are jointed, and can be used when the angler has a reel on his rod. an old angler advises that after the young fisherman has made choice of a place to fish, he should first plumb the depth truly, and with as little disturbance to the water as may be. if the water be still throw in small pieces of ground bait; if there is a strong current large pieces. keep as far from the water as you can, and go slily to work, for even the shaking of the bank will frighten some of these fish. the bait should be dropped into the water quietly. stand as far from the edge of the water as possible, and never let your shadow fall upon the water. when it is possible hide behind a bush or a tree. in baiting a hook insert the point of the hook near to the top of the worm's head, and carry it down to within a quarter of an inch of its tail. to do this you must work up the worm with your left thumb and finger, while with your right you are gradually pressing the hook downwards. if too much of the worm hangs loose the fish will seldom take the whole in their mouth, and will not be hooked. to bait a hook well with a worm is necessary to ensure catching a fish when you strike; and it consists in drawing the worm without injuring it quite over and up the shank of the hook, leaving only a small lively part of the tail below. if you bait with half a worm, choose the tail end, and insert the point of the hook into the top part, and bring it down nearly to the end of the tail, leaving only a very small piece of it free. if you bait with two worms on the same hook, draw the first up above the shank, and put the second on in the same manner as directed with one worm, but insert the hook near the tail of the second worm; then draw the first one down on the second over the shank of the hook. red worm.--found with the brandling but not so common. at their best in tan heaps, but are found also in the banks of ditches and sewers. marsh worms.--known also as blue heads. found in marshes at night, especially after rain. a good bait for gudgeon, trout, perch, bream, and grayling. tag tail.--tail has a yellow tint. found in fields in moist spring weather. often preferred when the water is muddy, especially for trout. water worms.--found in sedges and at the bottom of dock roots. turn up the long slimy moss on weirs for them. they are of a clear bluish white, occasionally very light purple, becoming red at the head. fish eat them voraciously. ash grub.--look for these in the bark of trees. they are good for grayling, dace, roach, or chub. cow dung bait.--from may to the end of september these may be found under cow dung. they are eaten by roach, chub, grayling, and dace. gentles.--the usual term, used in angling, for maggots. putrid meat, especially liver, will produce them. they may be obtained from butchers or fell-mongers. good for most fish. lob worm.--sometimes called the dew worm, or the wachel. it is the ordinary large garden worm. dig for them if they are needed at once. if wet straw is strewed upon the ground for a couple of days they will come to the surface. in the evenings they come out, and a quiet search with a lantern in gardens, or church-yards, or on lawns will discover them. they are useful for trout, eels, large perch, barbel, chub, and salmon. brandling.--search for these in chaff pits, old heaps of compost, rotten tan, sweepings, manure of all kinds and tanners' bark. good for trout, grayling, carp, bream, and indeed for almost every fish. miscellaneous baits.--cockchafer, black or evening beetle, grasshoppers, moths, may-flies, caddis worms, bees, caterpillars, wasp-grubs, baked for half an hour, paste made of bread or cheese. ground bait.--in addition to the bait upon the hook the angler usually strews what is known as ground bait, and so attracts the fish to where he is angling. it is chiefly by the judicious use of ground baits, and by fishing at a proper depth, that one angler is more successful than another, although fishing with the same baits and within a few yards of each other. if a place can be ground baited frequently fish begin to come there regularly for food. care must be taken not to glut the fish, and the bait upon the hook ought to be more attractive than the bait flung into the stream. the ground bait most in use includes bran mixed with clay, and made into balls of about the size of a pigeon's egg. if the current is strong a stone in the ball may be needed. another ground bait is made by cutting the crust from a loaf. then cut the loaf into slices each about two inches thick. put these slices into a deep vessel of water, and when the bread has been well soaked squeeze it until it is nearly dry. add bran and knead the whole until the mixture is as stiff as clay. this is well adapted for still waters. another ground bait is made of barley-meal one part, mashed potatoes three parts, stiff clay two parts, worked thoroughly well together, but better even than this is one composed of stiff clay with as much bran as it will hold without destroying its stickiness. at the water side separate pieces about the size of the egg of a goose, into which stick a few worms and gentles. as these drop from the dissolving clay they are seized on by the fish, who continue to wait in the expectation of more, and are thus ready to take the angler's bait, especially if it is more tempting than the ground bait. boiled malt, barley, wheat, and such things, mixed with coarse sand to sink them also answer the purpose. $trout-fishing.$--in the easter holidays boys are apt to find it difficult to decide just what to do. football is nearly over, cricket is hardly in. it is still somewhat early for bird-nesting, except for rooks, and perhaps blackbirds and thrushes. just at this juncture the obliging trout come into season, and best of all, are ravenously hungry. now is the time for the beginner to try his hand with the deceitful fly. do not be discouraged, even if you have made a dismal failure of it last august. in the summer holidays it requires a practised hand to take trout with fly; but in april on a moorland stream a boy may go out and actually have some success on his first attempt. it will be wiser, certainly, to practise a little first, in your own garden, with all the tackle except the fly. by "tackle" i don't mean necessarily a glittering rod, fresh from the shop, with a brilliant winch and gaudy fittings. it is well to get all these things if you can afford them, though they should be toned down before using; but want of money need not prevent a boy from trying his hand at trout-fishing. a long willow wand, or even a hazel stick will throw a fly if properly managed; and running tackle is not an absolute necessity, though in every respect advantageous. the only things that must be bought are the hooks, and these are very cheap, as most boys know. for this time of year your flies should be march browns and blue uprights, and need not be tied on very fine gut. the outfit that is required then need cost but a few shillings, but if you can spare more get a small fishing-basket, and a fly-book, with a stock of flies. thus equipped and with good boots you may fish for weeks without needing to visit a shop. in order to learn how to throw a fly you should persuade a friend to show you the way he does it. this need not be at the river, nor need you tax your friend's time to any great extent. after you have once learnt the knack practice only is required to enable you to throw a fly fairly, though it may be years before you can do so well. this preliminary trial (during which you will have wound the line round your neck a few times) being over, you can go with some confidence to the stream. arrived at the bank, don't peer over to see whether there are any trout, because if you do there won't be any--at least, not after you have shown yourself. if convenient, make for a point some distance down-stream, and work upwards. by this plan you will have a chance of circumventing the trout, even if the water be clear, and not rough. in rough or coloured water these tactics are not necessary, and, in fact, it is as well, because much easier, to fish down-stream under such circumstances. let us take first the case of clear water, not very rough. keep back from the edge and stoop a little, taking advantage of any cover, even the stump of a thistle. watch for a rise, and, if possible, throw your fly lightly a little above it, and let it float down over the fish. should the fish be extra silly he may take your fly, and then you must strike, as in bait-fishing, but with less force. if you are fishing a northern stream, or a devon or cornwall brook, you will find it worth while to go on casting even if you see no rises; but on hampshire, or other slow running rivers, the usual plan is to wait for a rise. but this style of fishing, though practised with some success by the lucky fellows who are in winchester school, is not altogether suited for the restless nature of a boy. to return to the fish which has taken your fly. being a little one (for nothing large would be so silly), he will give you little trouble to land. take care, though, to guide him down-stream; which, being below him, you can easily do. lift him out as quietly as you can, and lose no time in getting your flies on the water once more. i say flies, because you will find it best to use two in ordinary fly-fishing. the upper fly, or "bob," as it is called, should be two feet or more from the tail, and should only have about three inches of gut attached to it, so that it may stick out nearly at right angles with the line. it should be fastened to a knot in the gut, so that it may not slip up and down. there are several ways of fastening it on, but they cannot be fully explained without diagrams, and a boy of any ingenuity can easily find out for himself. the plan most commonly adopted, that of looping it on, though it is not so neat as a knot, has the advantage of permitting the fly to be changed easily--a great point when the trout are fickle. [illustration] having landed your first trout, do not try again in the same place, but work gradually upwards, trying every likely pool and eddy; but not casting more than two or three times in one place. if you succeed in getting two or three little trout on your first attempt in clear water you may think yourself lucky. in april 'tis likely enough you may find the water coloured and high. if it is in flood, or approaching to it, of course the worm or minnow should be used; but of these anon. we will suppose the stream to be but little above its usual level, and of that rich brownish colour so dear to the heart of the angler. doubtless a worm or a minnow might still succeed; but a fly will give abundant sport, and that without requiring a high degree of skill. your mode of procedure need not now be so cautious as before described; and, in fact, you will find down-stream fishing often best in a coloured water. throw, then, a long line right across the stream, near the edge of which you can safely show yourself, and work your flies across and towards you, striking smartly at any rise. you will often miss, for in down-stream fishing a strike tends to pull the fly out of the fish's mouth, besides which the trout, on touching the surface, having his head towards you, is apt to get a sight of your rod, and to rise "short." if the weather and water are both favourable for down-stream fishing, you will have lots of rises, and some of the fish at least will fasten, so that you have a chance of getting a dozen or so on a good day, even before you have acquired any great skill. the best fly for thick water i have found to be the soldier palmer, a red fly with gold twist, but it will not always succeed. a march brown, or a blue upright, or blue palmer with silver twist, may also be useful. remember that the thicker the water the larger and more gaudy the fly may be. we have to consider the chance of the water being too thick for fly. then either minnow or worm will answer, the former in moderately thick water, and the latter in an absolute flood, unless the water is like pea soup. the minnow is used on a short line, with a longish rod. it requires considerable skill, and cannot be practised with safety in strange water by the beginner, or the minnow will constantly be getting lost by fouling snags. as minnows are expensive, this is a bad sort of sport for a boy with limited pocket-money. it is a favourite, however, with the professional angler in the north, and _he_ doesn't lose his minnows. it is a treat to see one of these gentry spin a rough run with his minnow, and take two or three good trout where an amateur would do nothing but lose tackle. the best way to learn to spin a minnow is to watch an old hand do it; but if the stream you fish is free from snags you might find it worth while to try to learn without such teaching. if so, be careful to keep the tip of the rod near the water, and, using a short line, to spin your minnow near the surface. if you get a run don't snatch your minnow away, but keep it steadily on. very likely the trout may bite short, but there is always a good chance that one of the revolving hooks may catch his jaw. if you do hook a fish get him out quickly, for your tackle being stout (as it must be for minnow-fishing) will bear the strain of anything short of a snatch. to turn to worm-fishing. it is, of course, comparatively easy to get a few fish with a worm, but it takes a practised hand to take a basketful, even from thick water. a couple of shot will generally be enough, and they should be about a foot from the hook, which should be large, unless you use the stewart tackle, which consists of two or three small hooks. a small marsh worm is considered best, but a brandling or a red worm will answer; or in a flood the tail half of a lob worm. the worm should be kept rolling along the bottom of fairly swift water, where the soil is gravelly; and a little time should be given when you feel a bite. in this way not only are large trout often taken in a flood, but sea trout, grilse, and sometimes salmon. a delicate hand is the chief requisite; but much judgment is also required in deciding which pools to fish, and when to shift your ground, according to the rising or falling of the water. there is a sort of worm-fishing which is very different from the kind just described. the tackle used is much finer, and the method altogether different. for as it is practised in the clearest water and in the hottest weather, it is necessary to take great care not to be seen, and to avoid the slightest possible disturbance of the water. a very small red worm is used on one or two tiny hooks, and the boy who can take good trout in this way is as much a skilled angler as any fly-fisher can claim to be. $fishing for roach.$--most boys know what a roach is like, so it will be enough by way of description to say that it is a fish of the carp tribe, of a silvery colour, and covered with scales. its fins are of a pale, pinkish grey, and its mouth is small and soft, suited best for vegetable food. the roach grows sometimes to two pounds in weight, but in most rivers one pound is considered large, whilst in ponds the fish seems to deteriorate, and swarms of little roach are generally to be seen, but very few fish of over a quarter of a pound. in rivers roach should not be killed unless they are seven or eight inches long; but in ponds, where they are very numerous, it is best to keep all that are caught. more food is thus left for the remainder. the roach spawns in may, and is, therefore, out of condition from the end of april till june or july. it is fattest and most healthy in autumn and winter, and when caught from a clear river will be found fairly good eating. pond roach taste muddy; but before we bring our fish to table we must learn how to catch it. the rod should be long, light, and stiff. white cane is best, but is very dear; and the rods now to be had at many tackle-makers for three or four shillings will answer nearly as well. they are of japanese make, and have no metal on them, which makes them light and cheap, though less durable than the expensive english rods. for the line, if roach only are expected, nothing is better than good single horse-hair. if there are large carp about, fine gut will be better; but carp do not feed after october. in any case, it will be found convenient to have a few inches of fine plaited silk for that part of the line which is next the rod. the float should be as small as can conveniently be used, and if the fish are very shy, a little rough bit of stick is sometimes preferable. a porcupine quill is generally best, and just enough shot to sink it within a quarter of an inch, or less, of the surface should be put on the line. one of the shot should be placed within six inches of the hook, and the rest about a foot higher. the hook should be of fine wire and about no. . it is important to see that the hair or gut on which this is tied is perfectly round and clear. with regard to baits, the very best are wasp-grubs; but these are often unobtainable, and gentles (the maggots of the friendly bluebottle) answer fairly well. a cleaner and pleasanter bait to use is paste, made from bread one day old. this should be dipped in water, and then quickly squeezed dry with clean hands, or in a cloth. in some rivers--the ouse for instance--boiled wheat is a very good bait. in order to find the depth, use a little roll of lead, called a plummet. this should be attached to the line, close to the hook, by being partly unrolled, to admit the hook, and then fastened again; and the depth should be plumbed as soon as the tackle is ready, and before bait is prepared. the operation necessarily disturbs the fish, and time must elapse before they will feed. it is desirable to keep well away from the water while putting your rod together, and, if possible, even while fishing. many roach fishers carry a light square box, or basket, which serves for a seat. these anglers will sit still for hours, patiently waiting for the roach to come on; they are often very successful. when a roach is hooked, the angler retains his seat, and in order to bring the fish to the net, will remove the butt and second joint of the rod. this is also done when rebaiting. it is the great length of the rod and the shortness of the line that makes this necessary. but to return to the method of fishing: the depth being ascertained, the float should be so placed that the bait will just touch the bottom at the shallowest part of the swim, and only a foot of line should be used between the float and the top of the rod. calm weather is best for roach-fishing, as it is easier to see the bites; but if there is a gentle wind from south or west, sport is often good. in summer, evening is much the best, but at this time of year roach will often feed all day. let us suppose that you start fishing on a calm afternoon in february or march, and on reaching the river, which is free for fishing, wonder where to begin. it is lined with rushes, but here and there are gaps, and on the banks at some of these points you notice scraps of ground-bait on the ground, and you also see that the grass is trampled and worn. this shows that anglers have found the spot a good one. seat yourself, or stand quietly near one of these points, and put your rod together. then attach your line and plummet as described, and when all the rest is ready put in a little ground-bait, some yards above your swim. chewed bread will do if you have no bran to mix with it. if your tackle is in order, and the roach are there, you will have a nibble before many minutes; but at this stage of your education it is useless to strike at nibbles. keep on the alert, and you will find that if you can manage to strike as the float is sinking, when a bite occurs, you will hook your fish; not otherwise. a gentle jerk is enough, as your little hook is sharp, and the roach's mouth soft. violence risks breaking the line, and in any case disturbs the fish unduly. if the roach is of good size, remember that your tackle is weak, and play your fish carefully; and don't attempt to get it out, whether with net or otherwise, till quite exhausted. even if you have only a small fish it is well to land him gently, or you will scare others. when placing the line do not flop it in, but let it sink bait first, and be prepared for a bite the moment the float cocks, for the first few seconds are the best. there is also a good chance at the end of the swim. if there is a stream the top of your rod must follow the course of the float. the rule, as to only a foot of line above the float, may be relaxed if the swim is long, for to walk along is most undesirable; it scares the fish by shaking the banks. you should stand still, or better sit still while roach-fishing. even this rule has many exceptions. if, for instance, the stream is very rapid, the saving in time effected by following your float may more than compensate for the disturbance caused by your footsteps. in swift or flooded streams fish are less easily scared than when the water is quiet. under these circumstances a worm is often better bait than paste, or even than gentles. again, in clear water which is swift and not deep it may be desirable to let out line by using running tackle. in this way you may reach fish which are too shy to let you get within casting distance of them. the nottingham anglers are particularly expert at this sort of fishing, and use rods and reels which are specially adapted for it. they are very successful on their own river, the trent, and have introduced their style on the thames, and even the lea, and have sometimes taken fish when ordinary fishing was useless. they are very skilful in casting from the reel without unwinding any line first; but many different circumstances must be studied before the sort of fishing most effective can be chosen. rules are very necessary; but the young angler will soon find that the most important thing is to find out when the exceptions, which are so numerous and important, come in. this can best be learnt by careful study of the habits of the fish, carried on patiently, day after day, at the water-side. $the fishing season.$--on june th the "close" time comes to an end, and boys may fish in free water for any kind of fish, from bleak to barbel. if we have had a very genial spring, many fish will have finished spawning and be getting into condition, so that there will be no harm in taking advantage of legal permission, and beginning to fish as soon as opportunity occurs. it will be found that many fish, especially chub and dace, can be caught much better at this season by flies, either natural or artificial, than by the usual float and shot system. a common house fly, used either on the top of the water or sunk by a single shot, will be found very effective, both for these fish and for roach, rudd, and bleak. chub will take any large insect readily, if it is presented to them in an artistic manner--that is, in such a way that they can see little of either tackle or angler. on some parts of the lea the wooded banks and deep holes afford capital chances for dapping for chub--a kind of fishing in which a boy with some patience and ingenuity should be very successful. no cumbrous tackle is required, only a long, light, and stiff rod, and two or three yards of medium gut, ending in a foot or two of finer stuff, with a largish hook, about no. or . running tackle would seldom be of use, as the awkward places, overgrown by bushes, in which the best chub are usually hooked, make it very desirable to keep your line short. if the chub run large (two pounds or more), you will have to use stout tackle, or even carry a landing net. if you have a bamboo rod, which is hollow throughout (through the knots), it is a good plan to pass the line through the middle, instead of the rings. in this way one disadvantage of using running tackle is avoided--the rod can be pushed through bushes, etc., without entangling the line. another and more lively plan for chub catching is to whip for them with the artificial fly; and in this case running tackle is, of course, necessary. in the shallower parts of the rivers you will get more dace and bleak than chub in this way, and very pretty sport it is, only second to trout-fishing. when you are trying for roach only, it is best to use a sunk fly, and to move it up and down very gently. you can feel the roach bite if you have a delicate hand, but if you find this difficult put on a small gentle with the fly. this can be seen at a considerable depth, and will disappear, of course, when the roach takes the fly. it also forms an additional attraction, and at a pinch will do alone; but i have found the house fly generally more effective. single hair is best for your line, unless you see large chub cruising about, which is often the case. in this sort of fishing you can generally watch your quarry, and you have to be very careful that they do not see too much of you. it will be found far more interesting than regular bottom-fishing, and requires more thought and more resource for its successful prosecution. among the insects most useful for bait, the grasshopper stands (or jumps) pre-eminent, but is not often obtainable much before july. the cow-dung fly has a brilliant yellow colour, which is very fascinating to roach; and the green caterpillar (to be obtained by tapping the boughs of oaks) is almost irresistible, especially to trout. the oak-fly, called also "the up and down fly," from the position it always assumes on the oak trunk, is equally attractive, and no doubt would be appreciated also by other fish. the hottest and calmest weather is best for this sort of fishing, as it is usually worst for the other sorts. in case the day should be windy or otherwise unsuitable for dapping, and yet the season too early to fish the deeps, a good plan is to put on a very small quill float, and one shot; and, using a no. or hook and a single gentle, to fish the shallow gravelly runs from as great a distance as you can manage. the "nottingham" method is very useful for this purpose. this consists in using a free running wooden reel, and a light line, and throwing from the reel. it is difficult, but very useful on open rivers, where fishing fine and far off is essential. of course, you have to fish down-stream by this method, and will often miss your fish when striking; but that is better than getting no bites--the usual result of fishing under your nose at this time of year. occasionally you may get hold of a barbel in this way, when using gentles for bait; and, if so, it will not be easy to land him, though he is not so strong now as he would be later on. bream-fishing will be coming on before long, and the early boy will get the bream. before sunrise is the best time, and for this fish-tackle of a different sort is required. a strong rod with rings is useful, and the gut and reel line may be stout. if the water is deep, use a long float and fairly heavy lead, and fish on the bottom with a worm (a small lob by preference) on a large hook. put in ground-bait, over-night if possible, and lose no time when fishing. a three-pound bream can be got out in two minutes, and twenty or thirty may thus be had in an hour or two of early morning, and, perhaps, not another all day, though in the norfolk broads i've known the bites continue till mid-day. roach-fishing proper is not in season till august, and has been described in these pages. jack should be let alone for a month or two yet, and perch are scarcely in order. in conclusion, let me suggest that all fish found to be out of condition should be gently returned to the water. chapter ix canoes and yachts to speak of canoes is to recall the name of john macgregor, m.a., the author of those delightful books _a thousand miles in the rob roy canoe on rivers and lakes of europe_; _the rob roy on the baltic_; _the voyage alone in the yawl rob roy_, and other interesting works. when the first of these was issued other people built canoes, the canoe club was formed with the then prince of wales, afterwards king edward the seventh, as commodore. macgregor was enthusiastic about canoes. when he contemplated his voyage of a thousand miles he concluded that "no row-boat would serve on a land-water voyage of this sort, for in the wildest parts of the best rivers the channel is too narrow for oars, or, if wide enough, it is often too shallow; and the tortuous passages, the rocks and banks, the weeds and snags, the milldams, barriers, fallen trees, rapids, whirlpools, and waterfalls that constantly occur on a river winding among hills, make those very parts where the scenery is wildest and best to be quite unapproachable in such a boat, for it would be swamped by the sharp waves, or upset over the sunken rocks, which cannot be seen by a steersman. "now these very things which bother the 'pair oar,' become cheery excitements to the voyager in a canoe. for now, as he sits in his little bark, he looks forward, and not backward. he sees all his course, and the scenery besides. with one sweep of his paddle he can turn aside when only a foot from destruction. he can steer within an inch in a narrow place, and can easily pass through reeds and weeds or branches and grass; can work his sail without changing his seat; can shove with his paddle when aground, and can jump out in good time to prevent a bad smash. he can wade and haul his craft over shallows, or drag it on dry ground, through fields and hedges, over dykes, barriers, and walls; can carry it by hand up ladders and stairs, and can transport his canoe over high mountains and broad plains in a cart drawn by a man, a horse, or a cow. "besides all this, the covered canoe is far stronger than an open boat, and may be fearlessly dropped into a deep pool, a lock, or a millrace, and when the breakers are high in the open sea or in river rapids, they can only wash over the deck of a canoe, while it is always dry within. "the canoe is also safer than a rowing-boat, because you sit so low in it, and never require to shift your place or lose hold of the paddle; while for comfort during long hours, for days and weeks of hard work, the canoe is evidently the best, because you lean all the time against a swinging backboard, and when the paddle rests on your lap you are at ease as in an arm-chair; so that, while drifting along with the current or the wind, you can gaze around, and eat or read, or sketch, or chat with the starers on the bank, and yet, in a moment of sudden alarm, the hands are at once on the faithful paddle ready for action. "finally, you can lie at full length in the canoe, with a sail as an awning for the sun, or a shelter for rain, and you can sleep at night under its cover, or inside it when made for that purpose, with at least as much room for turning in your bed as sufficed for the great duke of wellington; or, if you are tired of the water for a time, you can leave your boat at an inn--where it will not be 'eating its head off,' like a horse; or you can send it home, or sell it, and take to the road yourself, or sink back again into the lazy cushions of a first-class carriage, and dream you are seeing the world. "but it may well be asked from one who thus praises the paddle, 'has he travelled in other ways, so as to know their several pleasures? has he climbed glaciers and volcanoes, dived into caves and catacombs, trotted in the norway carriole, ambled on an arab, and galloped on the russian steppes? does he know the charms of a nile boat, or a trinity eight, or a yankee steamer, or a sail in the Ã�gean, or a mule in spain? has he swung upon a camel, or glided in a sleigh, or sailed a yacht, or trundled in a rantoone?' "yes, he has thoroughly enjoyed these and other modes of locomotion, fast and slow. and now having used the canoe in europe, asia, africa, and america, he finds the pleasure of the paddle is the best of them all. "the rob roy canoe was built of oak, with a deck of cedar. she was made just short enough to go into the german railway waggons; that is to say, fifteen feet in length, twenty-eight inches broad, nine inches wide, and weighed eighty pounds. my baggage for three months was in a black bag one foot square and six inches deep. a paddle seven feet long, with a blade at each end, and a lug-sail and jib, were the means of propulsion; and a pretty blue silk union jack was the only ornament." after the cruise the author had a better canoe constructed, shorter, and narrower (but with the same name), and in her he voyaged through sweden, norway and denmark, holstein, and some german waters. the account of this voyage is given in _the rob roy on the baltic_, th edition (low and marston). the later improvements of the canoe are described in that book, with woodcuts. the full description of a third canoe for sleeping in during a six months' voyage is given in _the rob roy on the jordan, nile, red sea, and gennesareth, a canoe cruise in palestine and egypt and the waters of damascus_, th edition, with eighty illustrations and maps (murray). a fourth canoe was used in the zuyder zee and among the isles of holland and the friesland coast; and the latest rob roy (number ) ran through the shetland isles and the orkneys, and scotch lakes. $the building of the rob roy.$--john macgregor has told us that among the many who are building canoes, there may be some persons who have undue expectations as to what such boats can do. now, the three kinds of canoes, for racing, for sailing, and for travelling, are quite distinct in their forms and capabilities. a long, narrow, light racing-canoe, with a long, spooned paddle, will attain great speed. a sailing-canoe with flat bearing, and some keel, will sail off the wind admirably. the "travelling-canoe" has to sail, to paddle, and to bear portage and rough handling. the endeavour to combine these three qualities in suitable proportions, without sacrificing more of any of them than can be well dispensed with, has led to the building of the canoe now to be described; and the new rob roy has been a great success. the old rob roy canoe, which made a voyage through france, germany, &c., was specially built for the purpose; and it is described in the book which gives an account of that journey. a more detailed description was given in the transactions of the institute of naval architects, but the numerous improvements suggested during that voyage, and in careful experiments afterwards, were embodied in the new rob roy, so that this novel, inexpensive, and healthful mode of travelling might be facilitated. the rob roy was designed to sail steadily, to paddle easily, to float lightly, to turn readily, and to bear rough usage on stones and banks, and in carts, railways, and steamers; to be durable and dry, as well as comfortable and safe. to secure these objects every plank and timber was carefully considered beforehand, as to its size, shape, and material, and the result has been most successful. in the efforts to obtain a suitable canoe for this purpose ready made, it was soon found that boat-builders might be proficient at the cabinet-makers' work of their calling, without any knowledge of the principles required for a new design, especially when sailing, paddling, and carrying had to be provided for at once, and the requirements for each were not understood, except by those who had personally observed them, and had known how to work the paddle as well as the saw and the plane. a canoe ought to fit a man like a coat; and to secure this the measure of the man should be taken for his canoe. the first regulating standard is the length of the man's foot, which will determine the height of the canoe from keel to deck; next, the length of his leg, which governs the size of the "well;" and then the weight of the crew and luggage, which regulates the displacement to be provided for. the following description is for a canoe to be used by a man feet high, stone weight, and with boots foot long in the sole. the rob roy is built of the best oak, except the top streak of mahogany, and the deck of fine cedar. the weight, without fittings, is lb., and with all complete, lb. lightness is not of so much consequence in this case as good line, for a light boat if crank, will tire the canoeist far more in a week's cruise than would a heavier but stiff craft, which does not strain his body at every moment to keep her poised under the alternate strokes of the paddle or the sudden pressure of a squall on the sail. [illustration: fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. _scale of figs & . / of an inch to the foot._] the illustration on page represents, on a scale a quarter of an inch to the foot, fig. , a section, with masts and sails; fig. a bird's-eye view of the deck. the woodcuts at pages , represent, on a scale of an inch to the foot, figs. and , cross sections at the beam and at the stretcher; figs , , and , the backboard and the apron; the rest of the drawings showing particular portions more minutely. the principal dimensions are:--length over all, a s, feet; from stem to beam, b, feet inches; beam, outside ( inches abaft midships), inches; depth from top of deck at c, fore end of the well, to upper surface of keel, inches; keel, depth, outside, inch, with an iron band along its whole length, / inch wide; camber, inch; depth at gunwale, - / inches. the upper streak is of mahogany, and quite vertical at the beam, where its depth is inches. the garboard streaks, and the next on each side are strong, while the next two on each side are light, as it is found that they are less exposed than the others, particularly in a canoe where all these lower streaks are of oak. the stem and stern posts project over deck, the canoe, if turned over, will rest on the upper edge of the combing, round the well, / inch deep, projecting / inch, of steamed oak, curved at the corners, and adding, by its angular position, very much to the strength of the deck about the well. the well is inches from c to d, and inches from e to f, so placed that d m is feet, and thus the beam of the boat being aft of the midships the weight of the luggage g, and of the masts and sails stowed forward, brings the boat to nearly an even keel. the additional basket of cooking-things at i (fig. ) brings her a little by the stern. for a boat without luggage the beam should be foot abaft midships to secure an even keel. [illustration: fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. ] the deck is supported on four carlines forward and three aft, the latter portion being thus more strengthened, because, in some cases, it is required to support the weight of the canoeist sitting on the deck with his legs in the water. each carline has a piece cut out of its end (see fig. ), so that the water inside may run along to the beam when the canoe is canted to sponge it out. the after edge of the carline at c is bevelled off (fig. in section), so as not to catch the shins of your legs. all the carlines are narrow and deep, to economize strength, and the deck is screwed to them with brass screws, so that it might be removed for internal repairs. a flat piece is inserted under the deck at the mast-hole h, which is also furnished with a flanged brass ring. the deck is so arched as to enable the feet to rest comfortably on the broad stretcher j (fig. ), the centre of it being cut down in a curve in order that the mast and sails, rolled together, may rest there when there is no luggage, and be kept under the deck, but above any wet on the floor. when there is luggage (as in this voyage) i usually put the mast and sails under the after deck. the cedar deck round the well at e f is firmly secured by knee-pieces, and the boat may thus be lifted up _by any part_, and may be sat upon _in any position_, without injury. the luggage for three months, weighing - / lbs., is carried in a black leather-cloth bag, foot by foot by inches deep (g, figs. and ). a water-tight compartment may be made by an after bulkhead, with a lid to open, so as to allow the air to circulate when on shore. the floor-boards, about feet long, rest on the timbers until, at the part below c (fig. ), they end at p p (fig. ), in notched grooves, which fit into short oak pieces m n, / inch thick, sloping forwards on each side of the keel o. their ends rest on the garboard streaks, and so lower the heels nearly inch below the level of the floor-board on the top of the timbers. the canoeist sits on the floor-boards, i prefer this to any cushion or mat whatever; but if a mat or cushion be used, it should be firmly fixed, especially in rough water. the canoeist's knees touch the combing and the apron boards, while his heels touch the keel. thus the dotted lines in fig. , from the stretcher to the deck, show how the shin-bones are supported in comfort, enabling the paddler to sit for hours together without straining. but comfort is additionally secured by my new kind of backboard, shown in figs. and , in section and elevation. this consists of two strips of oak, inches long, - / inches wide, and united by a cross piece at y, and another at x, the latter being grooved (fig. ) so as to rest on the top of the combing, and to oscillate with the movement of the canoeist's back, which is thus supported on both sides along the muscles, while the spine is untouched between the strips. the dotted line u (fig. ) is a strong cord passed round all (through a hole in the deck or two eyes), and this serves to keep the backboard in general upright, while it is free to vibrate, or, when on shore, to be closed down flat on deck or to be removed entirely in a moment by unloosing the cord. the use of this backboard is a leading feature of the canoe, and adds very much indeed to the canoeist's comfort, and, therefore, to his efficiency. the length and width of the oaken strips, and the width of the interval between them, ought to be carefully adjusted to the size and "build" of the canoeist, just as a saddle ought to fit a horse and its rider too. the paddle is feet long, flat-bladed, with a breadth of inches in each palm, which is copper-banded, and made of the best spruce fir, the weight being little over lbs. the spoon-shaped blade is better for speed, and a longer paddle is suitable for a racing-boat, but for a travelling canoe, where long paddling, occasional sailing, and frequent "shoving," require the instrument to combine lightness, straight edge, handiness, and strength, it is found that a short paddle is best for the varied work of a protracted voyage. leather cups have been usually employed on the wrists of the paddle to catch the dripping water, but round india-rubber rings look much better and answer every purpose, if placed just above the points where the paddle dips into the water in an ordinary stroke. these rings may be had for twopence, and can be slipped on over the broad blade. if necessary, two are used on each side, and they bear rough usage well, while if they strike the cedar deck, no injury is done to it. [illustration: fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. ] after numerous experiments, the following very simple plan has been devised for a waterproof apron, and its application at once removes one of the chief objections to canoes in rough water, as heretofore constructed. it is necessary to have a covering for the well which shall effectually exclude the water, and yet be so attached as not to hamper the canoeist in case of an upset, or when he desires to get out of the boat in a more legitimate manner. these desiderata are completely secured by the new apron, which is not permanently attached in any manner to the boat, but is formed as follows:-a piece of light wood, of the form in fig. , feet long and inches deep at the deepest part, is placed along each side of the deck vertically, so as just to rest against the outside of each knee of the canoeist, and then a piece of macintosh cloth (drab colour is best) is tightly nailed along and over these, so as to form an apron, supported at each side on z (fig. ), and sloping from the highest part forwards down to the deck in front of the combing, over which its edge projects inch, and then lies flat. the other or after end is so cut and formed as to fit the body neatly, and the ends may be tucked in behind, or, when the waves are very rough, they should be secured _outside_ the backboard by a string with a knot. when this apron is so applied, and the knees are in position, their pressure keeps the whole apron steady, and the splash of small waves is not enough to move it. in rough water i place a string across the end and round two screw nails on the deck; or an india-rubber cord run through the hemmed end, but best of all is a strip of wood bent across the deck with its ends under two screws or chocks. a button-hole at the highest point of the apron allows it to be supported on the waistcoat. when you have to get out on shore, or when sailing, it is usually best to stow the apron away, so that the legs may be turned into any desired position of ease. the apron i used in this tour had been perfectly fitted by myself to me and the boat. several others, a little like it (very little!), roughly made for other canoes, have, as might be expected, failed to give satisfaction. one important advantage of a canoe is the capacity for sailing without altering the canoeist's seat; and we shall now describe the mast and sails found by experience to be most convenient, after three masts had been broken and eight sets of sails had more or less failed. the mast is - / inches thick (tapering), and feet inches long, of which the part above deck is feet inches. the lug-sail k (fig. ), has a yard and a boom, each feet inches long, so that when furled the end of the boom and mast come together. the fore-leach is feet long, and the after-leach feet inches, giving an area of about square feet. the yard and boom are of bamboo, and the yard passes into a broad hem on the sail-head, while the halyard is rove aloft through a small boxwood block / inch long, and with a brass sheave, and through another (a brass blind pulley) well fastened on the side of the mast near the deck, so that the sail can be lowered and hoisted readily. the lower joint of a fishing-rod, feet inches long, is a spare boom. the tack end of the boom is made fast to the mast by a flat piece of leather, lashed to its upper part and to the mast, and so as to be free to swing in every direction; after many other plans had failed this was quite successful, and lasted through the whole voyage. no hole is made in the mast, and no nail or screw driven into it, for these are causes of weakness. two cord loops, about inches apart, near the mast-head, support the flagstaff, of bamboo-cane feet long, and with a silk flag inches by inches. when the mast is not used this flagstaff is detached and placed in the mast-hole, which it fits by a button inches wide, permanently fixed on the staff, the lower end of which rests in the mast-step. the halyard and sheet should be of woven cord, which does not untwist, and is soft to handle in the wet. the sheet when not in hand may be belayed round a cleat on deck on either side of the apron, where it is highest, and thus these cleats are protected from the paddle. for the sake of convenience the mast is stepped so far forward as to allow the boom to swing past the canoeist's breast when the sail is jibbed or brought over. this also allows the luggage-bag to be between the stretcher and the mast. thus the mast-hole h is at feet inches distance from the stem. the mast-step is a simple wedge-like piece of oak (see r, fig. ), made fast to the keel, and abutting on the garboard streak on each side, with a square hole in it for the foot of the mast. it may be thought that the mast is thus stepped too far forward, but the importance of having the sail free to swing, without lying against the canoeist's body, or getting entangled with his paddle, which is used in steering, is so great, that some sacrifice must be made to secure this point. however, it is found that the boat sails very well on a wind with this sail, if the breeze is strong; and in light breezes it is only expedient to sail with the wind well aft, when the jib can also be used. a canoe must have a strong, light, flexible painter, suitable for constant use, because a great deal has to be done by its means in towing on dull water, guiding the boat while wading down shallows or beside falls, lowering into lochs, hauling her over hedges, walls, locks, banks, and even houses; and raising or lowering her (with luggage in) to and from steamboats. the "alpine club" rope, used in the new rob roy, was found to be hard and "kinky" when wet, and the softer rope used in the old rob roy was far better. another kind of brown-tanned rope has been recommended. the painter should not be longer than twice the length of the boat. each end is whipped with wax-end, which sort of fine twine is also invaluable for all the other fastenings, as it never slips. the painter passes through a hole in the stem, and another in the stern-post, and is drawn tight to lie on deck in the lines ay and sy, fig. ; the slack of about four feet is belayed round the windward cleat and coiled outside, so that it may be seized instantly when you go ashore, or have to jump out to save a smash or an overset in a dangerous place. this mode of fixing and belaying the painter i adopted after numerous trials of other plans, and it is found to be far the best. the jib is a triangle of feet hoist and feet foot, the fore-leach fast by a loop, passing under the painter and over the stem; the head is fixed by a loop over the mast-head, and under the flagstaff button. thus the jib can be struck while the canoeist remains in the boat, by pushing off these two loops with his paddle. to set the jib, it is best to land. this is much more generally convenient than to have jib-tackle on the mast. (i have now discarded the jib entirely.) the sails are of calico, without any seam. this lasts quite well enough, dries speedily, and sets well, too, provided that care is taken to have it cut out with the selvage along the after-leach, and not along any of the other sides. inattention to this last direction simply ruins sails; and it cannot be too often repeated that the success of the six rob roy voyages could not be expected if great care had not been devoted to all these details. a good travelling canoe costing £ ought to last a long time, for it is not racked and pulled in pieces at every stroke, as a rowing-boat is. the paddle.--it has been said that the use of a canoe paddle must contract the chest, but this is certainly a mistake. if indeed, you merely dapple each blade of the paddle in the water without taking the full length of the stroke the shoulders are not thrown back, and the effect will be injurious; but exactly the same is true if you scull or row with a short jerky stroke. in a proper use of the paddle the arms ought to be in turn fully extended, and then brought well back, so that the elbow grazes the side, and the chest is then well plied in both directions. in very shallow water the paddle should be clasped lightly (turning the thumbs upwards then), so that if it strikes the bottom or a rock the hand will yield and not the blade be broken. the distance between the hands should be that of the breadth of the chest. one can tell a _tyro_ in a moment by seeing him with his hands two feet apart, and therefore with a shortened stroke or too long a paddle. great caution should be used when placing the blade in advance to meet a rock, or even a gravel bank, otherwise it gets jammed in the rock or gravel, or the boat overrides it. it is better in such a case to retard the speed rather by dragging the paddle (tenderly), and always with its flat side downwards, so that the edge does not get nipped. for long cruises lightness is the first necessity. an ounce more or less makes a great difference when you have to carry it with outstretched arms all day. my paddle weighs two pounds. a swivel crutch on deck on the quarter is used sometimes. in my shetland cruise i used a single paddle blade and steered by my feet acting on a light rudder by two cords. this plan has many advantages for a sailing cruise and general work, but it is not good for rapids. rudder.--for long sailing this is useful, and foot-lines should be used, or a rod to the yoke. i used the rod for sailing in the dutch cruise always. leeboards.--these may be made of wooden triangles one foot each way, hung at each side by two corners. the lee one is thus pressed against the gunwale, and acts well. centre-board.--when the "rothion" sailed across the english channel, the late hon. james gordon used a centre-board at my suggestion, and his rob roy thus furnished held her wind admirably. the centre-board might come up through a slit one foot long in the garboard streak (not through the keel) into a closed mackintosh bag, so that when raised it would turn to one side, and lie flat on the bilge within. the apron.--the canoeist soon finds that this is the most difficult part of the boat to arrange with perfect satisfaction. i have had more experiments and trouble and thought about the apron than upon any other part of the canoe's arrangements. a full wooden hatch does well for common work, but not for rough cruising. now and then the legs need "play," and if the hatch is rigid at the height thus needed, it is much too high in ordinary times; and it curbs the freedom for the arms near the deck, being also unwieldy for instant debarking in rapids, and for stowing away. the detached apron of the baltic pattern is wet in use. side pieces on deck to clutch the wooden cheeks kept out by a cane across the knees, and a permanent flap on deck, covering the fore end of the mackintosh, are great improvements. the jordan rob roy had a sheet mackintosh apron, with only a cane fixed in the combing to keep the apron off the knees. for her cruise she had under this apron six inches of the after part of wood. the loose breast flap and side flaps rolled up (usually) form a curved edging near the body. by lifting this hatch, and laying it forward, the whole apron is folded forward of the knees, and in one foot of space fore and aft. this plan is a complete success; and at last my apron is all right. when a single bladed paddle is used the apron is needed only in rough water, that is, one day in four. stretcher.--the form described with a cut in the "rob roy on the jordan," is a very great improvement. each foot has a light board abutting on the carline above and the timber below, so that ample room is given for the luggage bag, and much strength is combined with extreme lightness. sail.--many forms have been tried, but the club sailing matches have often been won by a lug sail. this rig is also the safest of all, and the boom can be detached from a hook on the mast to stow away. portable canoes.--a wooden canoe in four pieces is easily made, although somewhat heavy. the additional expense is soon saved, if the canoe is taken often by railway as a box. colonel bradford's india-rubber canoe packs up into a parcel five feet long, and one foot across. in the eastern trip a canoe in two pieces might have been readily carried on a horse, but the rob roy, undivided, was thus carried easily. berthon's collapsible boat company presented to me a charming collapsible canoe, nine feet long, and which is very cheap, safe, light, and can easily be carried in one hand. the shortest canoe in the club was the wharbe, feet inches long. but i have paddled the little "dingy" only eight feet long, which was carried aboard the rob roy yawl. i think feet the best length for a cruising canoe. i have designed a cork canoe in three pieces, five feet, four feet, and three feet long; the last to pack in the next, and both in the large middle one; weight about lbs. sun.--when there is a brilliant glare of the sun, and it is low, and directly in front, and the eyes are dazzled by its reflection on the water, a good plan is to direct the bow to some point you are to steer for, and then observe the reflection of the sun on the cedar deck of the boat. having done this you may lower the peak of your hat so as to cut off the direct rays of the sun, and its reflected rays on the water, while you steer simply by the light on the deck. caution.--when a great current moves across a river to a point where it seems very unlikely to have an exit, you may be certain that some unusual conformation of the banks or of the river bed will be found there, and caution should be used in approaching the place. this, however, is less necessary when the river is deep. weeds.--the ripple and bubbles among weeds are so totally different from those on free water that their appearance at a distance as a criterion of the depth, current, and direction of the channel must be learned separately. in general, where weeds are under water, and can sway or wave about, there will be water enough to pass--the requisite three inches. backing up stream against long weeds is so troublesome, and so sure to sway the stern round athwart stream, that it is best to force the boat forward instead, even if you have to get out and pull her through. paddling through rushes, or flags, or other plants, so as to cut off a corner, is a mistake. much more "way" is lost then by the friction than might be supposed. stores on the rob roy.--paddle, painter ( feet at first, but cut down to feet), sponge, waterproof cover, feet by feet inches, silk blue union jack, inches by inches, on a staff two feet long. mast, boom, and yard. lug sail, jib, and spare jib (used as a sun shawl). stretcher, two back boards, floor-boards, basket holding a mackintosh coat. for repairs--iron and brass screws, sheet copper and copper nails, putty and whitelead, a gimlet, cord, string, and thread, one spare button, needle, pins, canvas wading shoes (wooden clogs would be better); all the above should be left with the boat. black bag for months' luggage, size, inches by inches, by inches deep (just right), closed by three buttons, and with shoulder-strap. flannel norfolk jacket (flaps not too long, else they dip in the water, or the pockets are inverted in getting out and in); wide flannel trousers, gathered by a broad back buckle belt, second trousers for shore should have braces, but in the boat the back buttons are in the way. flannel shirt on, and another for shore. before me while writing this there are various head covers used in different tours, but for boating the straw hat is best of all. thin alpaca black sunday coat, thick waistcoat, black leather light-soled shoes (should be strong for rocks and village pavements), cloth cap (only used as a bag), collars, pocket handkerchiefs, ribbon tie, pairs of cotton socks (easily got off for sudden wading, and drying quickly on deck). brush, comb, and tooth-brush. testament, passport (scarcely needed now), leather purse, large (and _full_), circular notes, small change in silver and copper for frequent use, blue spectacles in strong case, book for journal and sketches, black, blue, and red chalk, and steel pen. maps, cutting off a six inch square at a time for pocket reference. guide-books and pleasant evening reading book. cut off covers and useless pages, and every page as read; no needless weight should be carried hundreds of miles; even a fly settling on the boat must be refused a free passage. medicine (rhubarb and court plaster), small knife, and pencil. $rocks and currents.$--even if a set of rules could be laid down for the management of a boat in the difficult parts of a river, it would not be made easier until practice has given the boatman that quick judgment as to their application which has to be patiently acquired in all athletic exercises. but the canoeist, who passes many hours daily in the consideration of the river problems always set before him, will feel some interest in this attempt to classify those that occur most frequently. steering a boat in a current among rocks is like walking on a crowded pavement, where the other passengers are going in various directions, and at various speeds. a great deal of practice, and lessons enforced by collisions, are needed to make a pedestrian _au fait_ in a crowd. but years of walking produce a certain power, which insensibly directs a man in his course and his speed. after this capacity becomes, as it were, instinctive, a man can walk briskly along fleet-street at four p.m., and, without any distinct thought about other people, or about his own progress, he can get safe to the end. indeed, if he does begin to think of rules or how to apply them, he is almost sure to knock up against somebody. nay, if two men meet as they walk through a crowd, and each of them "catches the eye" of the other, they will probably cease to move instinctively, and, with uncertain data to reason from, a collision is often the result. the importance of this subject of "boating instinct" will be considered sufficient to justify these remarks when the canoeist has by much practice at last attained to that desirable proficiency which enables him to steer without thinking about it, and therefore to enjoy the conversation of other people on the bank, or the scenery, while he is rapidly speeding through rocks, eddies, and currents. as the descent of a current among rocks resembles a walk along the pavement through a crowd, so the passage _across_ a rapid is even more strictly in resemblance with the course of a man who has to cross a street where vehicles are passing at uncertain intervals and at various speeds, though all in the same direction. for it is plain that the thing to be done is nearly the same, whether the obstacles (as breakers) are fixed and the current carries you towards them, or the obstacles (as cabs and carts) are moving, while you have to walk through them on _terra firma_. to cross park-lane in the afternoon requires the very same sort of calculation as the passage across the stream in a rapid on the rhine. we may divide the rocks thus encountered in fast water into two classes--( ) those that are _sunk_, so that the boat may possibly float over them, and which do not deflect the direction of the surface current. ( ) those that are _breakers_, and so deflect the current, and do not allow the boat to float over them. the currents may be divided into--( ) those that are equable in force, and in the same direction through the course to be steered. ( ) those that alter their direction in a part of that course. in the problems before the canoeist will be found the combinations of every degree and variety of these rocks and currents, but the actual circumstances he has to deal with at any specified moment may be generally ranged under one or other of the six cases depicted in the accompanying woodcut. in each of the figures in the diagram the current is supposed to run towards the top of the page, and the general course of the canoe is supposed to be with the current. the particular direction of the current is indicated by the dotted lines. the rocks when shaded are supposed to be _sunk_, and when not shaded they are _breakers_. thus the current is uniform in figs. , , ; and it is otherwise in figs. , , . the rocks are all sunk in figs. , , , and ; whereas in figs. and there are breakers. the black line in all the figures shows the proper course of the centre of the boat, and it is well to habituate oneself to make the course such as that this line shall never be nearer to the rock than one-half of the boat's length. the simplest case that can occur is when the canoe is merely floating without "way" through a current, and the current bears it near a rock. if this be a breaker, the current, being deflected, will generally carry the boat to one side. the steering in such cases is so easy, and its frequent occurrence gives so much practice, that no more need be said about it. but if the rock be a sunk rock, and if it be not quite plain from the appearance of the water that there is depth enough over the rock to float the boat, then it is necessary to pass either above the rock, as in fig. , or below it, as in fig. . a few days' practice is not thrown away if the canoeist seizes every opportunity of performing under easy circumstances feats which may at other times have to be done under necessity, and which would not be so well done then if attempted for the first time. let him, therefore, as soon as possible, become adept in crossing above or below a single sunk rock with his _boat's bow pointed to any angle of the semi-circle before him_. [illustration] next we have to consider the cases in which more than one rock will have to be avoided. now, however great the number of the rocks may be, they can be divided into sets of three, and in each of the figures , , , it is supposed that (for reasons which may be different in each case, but always sufficient) the canoe has to pass between rocks a and b, and then between b and c, but must not pass otherwise between a and c. in fig. the course is below b, and above c, being a combination of the instance in fig. with that in fig. . the precise angle to the line of the course which the boat's longer axis ought to have will depend upon what is to be done next after passing between b and c, and hence the importance of being able to effect the passages in fig. and fig. , with the axis at any required angle. we may next suppose that one of the three rocks, say b, as in fig. , is a breaker which will deflect the current (as indicated by the dotted stream lines), and it will then be necessary to modify the angle of the boat's axis, though the boat's centre has to be kept in the same course as before. it will be seen at once that if a were a breaker the angle would be influenced in another manner, and that if c were a breaker the angle at which the boat should emerge from the group of rocks would be influenced by the stream from c also; but it is only necessary to remind the reader that all the combinations and permutations of breakers and sunk rocks need not be separately discussed,--they may be met by the experience obtained in one case of each class of circumstances. fig. represents a _circular current_ over the group of three rocks. this is a very deceptive case, for it looks so easy that at first it is likely to be treated carelessly. if the boat were supposed to be a substance floating, but without weight, it would have its direction of motion instantly altered by that of the current. but the boat has weight, and as it has velocity (that of the current even if the boat is not urged also by the paddle so as to have "way" through the water), therefore it will have _momentum_, and the tendency will be to continue the motion in a straight line, instead of a curve guided solely by the current. in all these cases, therefore, it will be found that the boat _insists_ upon passing between a and c, where it must not be allowed to go (on the hypothesis we have started with), and if it effects a compromise by running upon c, that will be by no means satisfactory. this class of cases includes all those in which the river makes a quick turn round a rock or a tongue b, where the boundary formed by the rock a on the outer bend of the stream is a solid bank, or a fringe of growing trees, or of faggots artificially built as a protection against the erosion of the water. this case occurs, therefore, very frequently in some fast rivers, say, at least, a hundred times in a day's work, and perhaps no test of a man's experience and capacity as a canoeist is more decisive than his manner of steering round a fast, sharp bend. the tendency of the canoeist in such cases is always to bring the boat round by paddling _forward_ with the outer hand, thereby adding to the "way," and making the force of the current in its circular turn less powerful relatively. whereas, the proper plan is to _back_ with the inner hand, and so to stop all way in the direction of the boat's length, and to give the current its full force on the boat. repeated lessons are needed before this is learned thoroughly. the case we have last remarked upon is made easier if either a or c is a breaker, but it is very much increased in difficulty if the rock b is a breaker or is a strong tongue of bank, and so deflects the current outwards at this critical point. the difficulty is often increased by the fact that the water inside of the curve of the stream may be shoal, and so the paddle on that side strikes the bottom or grinds along it in backing. when the curve is all in deep water, and there is a pool after b, the boat ought not to be turned too quickly in endeavouring to avoid the rock c, else it will sometimes then enter the eddy below b, which runs up stream sometimes for fifty yards. in such a case the absurd position you are thereby thrown into naturally causes you to struggle to resist or stem this current; but i have found, after repeated trials of every plan i could think of, that if once the back current has taken the canoe it is best to let the boat swing with the eddy so as to make an entire circuit, until the bow can come back towards b (and below it), when the nose of the boat may be again thrust into the main stream, which will now turn the boat round again to its proper course. much time and labour may be spent uselessly in a wrong and obstinate contest with an eddy. in fig. , where the three rocks are in a straight line, and the middle one is a breaker, an instance is given when the proper course must be kept by _backing_ during the first part of it. we must suppose that the canoeist has attained the power of backing with perfect ease, for this will be quite necessary if he intends to take his boat safely through several hundred combinations of sunk rocks and breakers. presuming this, the case in fig. will be easy enough, though a little reflection will show that it might be very difficult, or almost impossible, if the canoeist could give only a forward motion to the boat. to pass most artistically, then, through the group of rocks in fig. the stern should be turned towards a, as shown in the diagram, and the passage across the current, between a and b, is to be effected solely by backing (and chiefly in this case with the left hand) until the furthest point of the right of the curve is reached, with the boat's length still as before in the position represented in the figure. then the forward action of both hands will take the canoe speedily through the passage between b and c. cases of this sort are rendered more difficult by the distance of c from the point above a, where you are situated when the instant decision has to be made as to what to do, and it would usually be imprudent to rise in the boat in such a place to survey the rock c. if it is evident that the plan described above will not be applicable, because other and future circumstances will require the boat's bow to emerge in the opposite direction (pointing to the right), then you must enter forwards, and must back between b and c, so as to be ready, after passing c, to drive forward, and to the right. it is plain that this is very much more difficult than the former case, for your backing now has to be done against the full stream from the breaker b. in all these instances the action of the wind has been entirely omitted from consideration, but it must not be forgotten that a strong breeze materially complicates the problem before the canoeist. this is especially so when the wind is aft; when it is ahead you are not likely to forget its presence. a strong fair wind (that has scarcely been felt with your back to it) and the swift stream and the boat's speed from paddling being all in one direction, the breeze will suddenly become a new element in the case when you try to cross above a rock as in fig. , and find that the wind carries you broadside on against all your calculations. as for sailing among rocks in a current, if the rapid is long the canoe must be directed solely by the paddle, and in short groups of rocks the course to be steered by a boat sailing is the same as if it were paddled, though the action of the wind has to be carefully taken into consideration. in all these things free boldness and skill come best after lessons of experience, and the canoeist will find himself ready and able, at the end of his voyage, to sail down a rapid which he would have approached very timidly, at the beginning, even with the paddle. but perhaps enough has been said for the experienced paddler, while surely more than enough has been said to show the tyro aspirant what varied work he has to do, and how interesting are the circumstances that will occupy his attention on a delightful river cruise. $the boy as yacht owner.$--boys who live near a sheet of water may like to know how to make--or to have made for them by a carpenter--a homely rough-hewn yacht. they may not be able to win the american cup with it, but they may have much fun on board, and it will be difficult to wreck. indeed, it is said to be impossible to upset a yacht of this pattern. the natives of south america use yachts of this build, and even go to sea in this kind of craft. we do not advise our readers to round cape horn or to cross the bay of biscay in a yacht like this, but on a lake or river they are not likely to come to grief. all the same, skill in swimming should precede boating of all kinds. a, b, c, d represent six pine logs, each one fourteen feet long and eight inches in diameter. the six joined together make a deck four feet wide. both ends of each log are roughly trimmed with an adze and underneath each log is bevelled along three feet of its length at each end. the middle eight feet of each log is thus left in its natural state, round and still bearing its bark; but three feet at each end of each log is trimmed to slope and taper towards its termination. e is four feet seven inches from the bow and represents a hole down to the water two inches wide and eighteen inches long. it is formed by cutting an inch away from each of the two centre logs to make two inches, and making the length of the indentation eighteen inches on each of these two logs. the purpose of the hole is to hold a centre-board, which is passed through it to act instead of a keel. it is a piece of two-inch plank eighteen inches wide. next the bow ends of the logs are fastened together by what joiners call rabbeting and bolting. fig. represents a rabbet, and gives the dimensions. one of these rabbets is cut upon the upper side of each log, one foot six inches from the bow, so that when all the logs have been served exactly alike, and they have been placed in position side by side, these indentations form an unbroken channel across the boat. now a piece of the toughest dry wood--the bolt--shaped like fig. , should be made to fit this groove, and should then be placed therein. at h, i, in fig. bore with an auger holes three-quarters of an inch in diameter through the bolt, and right on through the log. into these holes fit pegs of hard, very dry wood. [illustration: fig. .] if these pegs and the bolt fit tightly when they are quite dry they will swell and fit very much tighter when they become wet. two and a half feet further back at j, k, the logs are rabbeted again in precisely the same way, and again at l m, n o, and p q. the mast should be as long as the boat, and at its base four and a half inches in diameter. generally it consists of a small tree, a spruce fir, or something of that kind. the boom, seen in the completed picture, is almost as long as the mast, though more slender, and it must have a fork at its thickest end. a lighter bough, with a fork, three feet six-inches long, is needed as a rest for the boom. [illustration] the mast is fixed at r in fig. , and is secured as in fig. . it stands in a hole four inches in diameter and four inches deep. a and b in fig. stand a foot away from the mast in holes three inches in diameter and three inches deep. a and b are each eighteen inches long, and c is a piece of two-inch plank eighteen inches wide, and it has a hole bored in it four inches in diameter to admit the mast. at s, t, u, v, in fig. holes are bored three inches in diameter exactly upon the middle of the next to the outermost log on each side of the boat. these are fitted with forked uprights, those at s and t are eight inches long; those at u and v are twelve inches long. at w, x, y and z in fig. bore holes three inches in diameter and three inches deep, w and x being one foot away from n, o. two feet from w and x should be y z. a and b are holes of the same size over the middle logs of the boat. in w, x, y and z should be forked uprights fourteen inches long. in a and b are uprights sixteen inches long with a cross piece upon which to rest the oar of the steersman. fig. shows what the arrangements are with regard to these uprights. a little before the mast, on each side of the boat, a pole runs through the forks of the uprights. the ends of these poles are joined aft by a piece of one-inch plank, upon which sits the man at the helm. a shelter may be made with a piece of sailcloth or other material as shown in fig. . [illustration] the helm consists of a pole four feet long, which is fixed at an angle of forty-five degrees to a piece of inch plank two feet long and eight inches wide, as shown in fig. . it will be found that the vessel easily answers this helm, which is used like an oar. along the mast the sail is nine feet long. it does not run on rings, but is nailed to the mast. the corner is tied securely to the end of the boom, whose length is ten feet. the boom rests with its fork upon the mast and is prevented from slipping away by a forked, upright support. it is an easy matter to unfurl the sail. take the fork of the boom from the mast, and the sail collapses instantaneously. much navigation can be learned in a vessel of this kind, and it may be that some future admiral will have his small beginnings in a craft of this homely character. chapter x cooking in camp in the last chapter we had much to say of the famous canoe traveller, the late john macgregor, and our readers will welcome an account of his portable cooking apparatus, because even if they do not go voyages in a boat they will find it useful for picnics and camping out. this apparatus, the voyager tells us, "has been designed after numerous experiments with various portable cooking-machines which i could procure for trial, and, as it succeeds better than any of them, and has been approved by trial in five of my own voyages, and in another to iceland, besides shorter trips, and in the abyssinian campaign, it may be of some use to describe the contrivance here." the object proposed was to provide a light but strong apparatus which could speedily boil water and heat or fry other materials even in wet and windy weather, and with fuel enough carried in itself for several days' use. fig. is a section of the rob roy cuisine as it is made up for carrying. there is first a strong waterproof bag about one foot high, and closed at the top by a running cord. at the bottom is the cuisine itself, _a_, which occupies a space of only six inches by three inches (when of smaller size), and has the various parts packed inside, except the drinking cup _b_. provisions, such as bread and cold meat or eggs, may be stowed in the bag above the cuisine, and if the string of it be then attached to a nail fixed in the boat, the whole will be kept steady. for use, when it is desired to boil water, the cuisine being opened, the lower part is a copper pan, _c_, fig. , with a handle, _e_, which can be fixed either into a socket in the side of the pan, or another socket in the side of the lid, as represented in figs. and . three iron legs also fix into sockets and support the pan over the spirit-lamp, _f_, by which the pan, two-thirds full of liquid, will be boiled in five minutes. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the lamp is the main feature of the apparatus, and it is represented in section in fig. . it consists of two cylinders, one within the other. the space between these (shaded dark) is closed at top and bottom, and a tube _b_, fixed through the bottom, rises with one open end inside, and another (a small nozzle) curved upwards in the open internal cylinder. another tube, _h_, opens into the annular chamber between the cylinders, and it has a funnel-shaped mouth at the outer end, through which the chamber may be filled, while a screw in the inside allows a handle, fig. (in section), to have its end, _j_, screwed in. a small hole in the upper surface is closed by a little cork, which will be expelled if the pressure within is so high as to require escape by this safety-valve. the hole may be in any part of the annular cover (but is not shown in the sketch), and in such case the hole shown in the handle is omitted. the outer cylinder of the lamp, being larger than the inner one, has a bottom, _k_, fig. , which forms a circular tray of about two inches wide and half an inch deep. the original form of the lamp, which was first brought to notice by the cook of the royal canoe club, had a detached tray for the bottom, but now, instead of this plan for the admission of air into the lamp, two saw cuts are made, each about an inch long. one of them is shown below _f_, fig. , and thus the lamp and tray are united in one compact piece while there still is access for air. the late professor j. d. forbes, who used this lamp, says it was introduced into this country from russia by dr. samuel brown, and that "the jet of burning spirit has such force as to resist the blast of a hurricane." to put the lamp in operation, unscrew its handle from the position in fig. , so that it will be as in figs. and . then from a tin flask (which has been packed with the rest of the things in the pan) pour spirits of wine--or, if the odour is not objected to, methylated spirit, into the measure _m_, fig. , and from that into the interior of the lamp through the opening at _h_. next screw in the handle, and place the lamp level under the pan, and pour nearly another measure full into the interior tray. set fire to this, and shelter it for a few seconds if there be much wind. i used this always with complete success on the jordan, nile, danube, and many other rivers. in a short time the flame heats the spirits in the closed chamber, and the spirituous steam is forced by pressure down the tube, and inflames at the nozzle, from which it issues with much force and some noise in a lighted column, which is about one foot in height when unimpeded. this powerful flame operates on the whole of the bottom and lower edge of the pan, and it cannot be blown out by wind nor by a blast from the mouth, but may be instantly extinguished by sharply placing the flat bottom of the measure upon it. the cover may be put on so as to rest with the flat bottom downwards, and with or without the handle. if tea is to be made with the water when it boils, the requisite quantity is to be placed in the tea vessel, _n_, fig. , which has perforated sides, and, its lid being closed, this is placed in the water, where it will rest on the curved side, and can be agitated now and then for a minute, after which insert the handle in the socket of the pan and remove the lamp, allowing the tea to infuse for four minutes, when the tea vessel may be removed and the made tea may be poured out into the cup. the dry tea can be conveniently carried in a paper inside the tea vessel. salt is carried in the box _o_, and the matches are in the box _p_. coffee may be best carried in the state of essence in a bottle. an egg-spoon and a soup-spoon are supplied. a flat clasp knife and fork may be had extra. if bacon is to be fried, or eggs to be poached or cooked _sur le plat_, they may be put into the lid and held by hand over the lamp-flame, so as to warm all parts equally, or the slower heat of a simple flame may be employed by lighting the measure full of spirits and then placing it on the bottom of the upturned pan as shown at fig. , where it will be observed that the three legs are placed in their sockets with the convex curve of each turned outward, so that the lid, as a frying-pan, can rest upon their three points. the spirit-flask contains enough for six separate charges of the lamp, and the cost of using methylated spirits at s. d. a gallon is not one penny a meal. the lamp-flame lasts from ten to fifteen minutes, and the weight of the _cuisine_, exclusive of the bag and cup, is about two pounds. these cuisines, improved by the suggestions obtained in their use, should be carefully made with the best materials and workmanship, and the cost would be about two and a half guineas; or if with tin boiler instead of copper, and brass lamp, £ s. d. many of much larger size (to cook for twenty men) have been used in australia. the lamp above described was used daily in my yawl but the other fittings were on a more enlarged scale, as extreme lightness was not then required. the norwegian cooking apparatus of another kind entirely will be a valuable adjunct to the yachtsman's stores. by means of this, meat or pudding after being heated for only _five minutes_, and then enclosed in a box which retains the heat, will be found to be perfectly cooked after three hours, though no more heat has been applied to it. [illustration] since john macgegor used this stove there have been other wickless stoves invented, and sold at more moderate prices. for instance there are the primus and the optimus and the wickless oil stove of the wilson engineering company. several such stoves, of which two are illustrated here, are included in the lists of messrs. a. w. gamage, ltd., and they are useful indoors and in the open. chapter xi butterflies and moths for those boys who have the good fortune to live in britain, few hobbies are better or more enticing than collecting butterflies and moths. the following apparatus will be enough to start with: ( ) a butterfly net; ( ) a few dozens of one ounce and two ounce deep willow pill-boxes, which may be strengthened by a little liquid shellac glue run round the inside edges; ( ) a handbag which excludes the light; ( ) a two-pound biscuit-tin with tightly-fitting lid; ( ) a zinc pinning box, cork lined; ( ) some entomological pins in three sizes; ( ) some setting boards or blocks; and ( ) a store box for keeping the specimens when dry enough to remove from the setting boards. we will now consider these items in detail. the butterfly net can quite easily be home-made, though, where money is plentiful, it is best bought with the other things above named. to make the net-frame, obtain from a dealer what is called a y-piece, in brass tube. then obtain a piece of short walking-stick, not more than two feet long, which will fit into the lower section of the y, which has a broader tube than the two upper sections. a short stick is always best, because more handy and sure in manipulation when catching the butterflies. into the upper sections of the y place the ends of a piece of cane about three or four feet long, being careful that each end of the cane fits tightly into the brass sockets. then get a lady friend to make for you a green or white leno-muslin bag net, with a brown calico hem attached, into which the cane runs. this net should be made just deep enough to reach with the hand to the bottom, or an inch or so deeper only. mind the bottom is made round, and not jelly-bag shaped with a point, which will ruin nearly all your captures before they are secured. before using the net, have the muslin steeped in water for a whole night, so as to take all the stiffness out of the muslin. it will require several rinsings before the size is all removed, and it becomes quite soft. never mind the loss of colour if green--it will only look the more workman-like. in using the net to catch the specimens, like so many other things, it requires practice to make perfect; but when once the knack is obtained, it should be a rare thing to miss a specimen. don't race after them, but wait until the butterfly hovers over a flower, or flies steadily past, then, with a bold, steady stroke, catch it in the centre of the net opening, at the same moment giving the wrist a sharp half-turn, which will close the mouth of the net, and so secure the novelty. carry the empty pill-boxes in the right-hand side pocket of the coat, transferring them to the left-hand side as filled, so that the full and empty boxes never get mixed in the pockets. having safely netted the butterfly, place the net on the ground, and take a suitable sized pill-box in the right hand. remove the lid, which is to be placed in the ball of the hand loosely under the bottom of the pill-box. this leaves the left hand free. then insert the right hand into the net, and cover the butterfly with the pill-box, holding it with the left hand from the outside of the net, carefully keeping the gauze tightly over the box with the left forefinger. the right hand, which is now free, still contains the lid of the pill-box, which gently place over the butterfly, slowly drawing out the gauze remaining between the lid and the box. quickly transfer the filled box, which should contain _only one_ specimen, into the dark left-hand pocket. most butterflies will at once become quiet in the dark, if it is not too hot. as opportunity occurs, it is best to transfer them to the hand-bag, which should be left near, under the shade of a bush in a cool place. by this means every specimen should be so boxed without the apparent loss of a single scale from their wings. only take good specimens--don't be tempted to get a quantity, but rather go in for fine quality. especially avoid any which are chipped, rubbed, or otherwise unfit for cabinet specimens. it is a great mistake to take imperfect specimens, for they give just as much trouble as the finest, and are never of use either for the collection or for scientific purposes. if it is not convenient on arrival home to immediately set out our captures, they should not be killed, but placed in the biscuit-tin or left in the bag just as they are, in a cold, dark cellar, or like place, where they will be all right for a couple of days or more, remaining perfectly still. having brought home our captures we now produce the biscuit-tin. this is to be used for the "lethal-chamber," where the specimens are to be sent to sleep, but not to "awake refreshed." the processes of by-gone times for killing butterflies for collections have been many, the most primitive, perhaps, being pinching the under side of the thorax, or that part of the body to which the wings are attached. doubtless, there are in the various collections of butterflies, large numbers of fine specimens which have been so killed; but it is an objectionable plan, because even when skilfully executed, the specimens are more or less mutilated in the structure, and are consequently difficult to set out with accuracy. we are almost certain by this method to break off a leg or two, or otherwise render the specimen imperfect. chloroform is used by some people to kill their butterflies, but it is unsatisfactory, for it often renders them very rigid and too stiff to immediately set out, which is a great disadvantage. much the same may be said of the fumes of cyanide of potassium, which constitute the active properties of the "killing bottles" sold by the dealers. it is, however, always wise to keep one of these bottles in the hand-bag, in case something very special is to be immediately stupefied. it must, however, be a good large bottle, with wide mouth, for it is needed generally for the big butterflies, such as the larger fritillaries, purple emperors, and the like in size and strength. there is nothing, however, so good for obtaining perfect specimens as boxing the butterflies in the nets, conveying them home in a dark hand-bag, and then killing them in a biscuit-tin with the fumes of _strong_ liquid ammonia. it is best to buy a four-ounce tightly-stoppered squat-bottle for keeping the ammonia, which, when not in use, should be placed out of the light, in a drawer or cupboard, taking care the stopper is tightly fixed. in buying the ammonia ask the chemist for that with a specific gravity of . , which is commonly kept by them. some chemists will try to persuade the buyer that it is not safe, so as to supply a weaker article; in which case don't trade with him again, for anything weaker will not only not kill the butterflies, but simply irritate them into knocking themselves into small pieces. now to proceed. we place about a large teaspoonful of the liquid ammonia into a little cup, or better, in a small mustard-tin lid, taking care to keep our eyes and nose clear of the fumes. place this as quickly as possible at the bottom of the biscuit-tin, and over it loosely a piece of paper, so as to let out the fumes, but to stop the pill-boxes from falling into the fluid, and so doing damage to box and contents. then place the boxes containing the butterflies into the tin and tightly close the lid and leave them for not less than half an hour, or better still, a little longer. the boxes thus placed may be left overnight and opened next morning, if more convenient; but in that case it is best to put in with them a small piece of damp sponge about the size of a walnut, so as to keep the specimens from getting too dry. this damp atmosphere should also be there when the butterflies are stored away alive in the dark, for a day or two, as described already. on opening the lid of the biscuit-tin containing the ammonia and pill-boxes, be careful to keep your face well away, or the puff of vapour may be very painful. there is no danger whatever to be feared from the use of ammonia in this manner, but still it may lead to temporary discomfort, such as pain in the eyes and loss of breath for a moment. having removed the lid proceed in the following manner: first place on the table before you a sheet of white paper or a blotting-pad. by your side on the table have a small tea-tray, or other flat receptacle. take out of the tin one of the top pill-boxes, open the lid, and shake out the butterfly on the sheet of paper in front of you. then put the lid of the pill-box with its top turned downwards, on the tea-tray, and place the remainder of the pill-box, _sideways_ within the lid. the object is to let the air get to the inside of the boxes, so as to evaporate the ammonia still remaining about them, or the next butterfly to occupy the box will object to the stale fumes of "smelling salts," and probably knock itself about in consequence. the boxes may be thus all emptied and left to air, which will not require much more than an hour, or even less, if the tray be placed in the sunshine near an open window. by placing each box sideways in its lid, the boxes and lids all fit one another, and do not get tiresomely mixed. in shaking out the butterflies place them in rows neatly on the paper, so that you know which was the first to leave the boxes, for that row should be the first pinned, having been exposed longer to the fresh air, to permit the ammonia attached to them to evaporate. if pinned too soon, the ammonia is apt to affect the metal of the pin and make it brittle where it passes through the body of the insect. the action of this gas is most peculiar on the colours of some insects, especially on that of the small heath butterfly, marbled whites, or some of the blues. when seen for the first time one is horror-stricken, and apt to exclaim that the specimens are ruined with the nasty stuff. this, however, soon all passes away as the ammonia evaporates and the normal colours reappear in all their former beauty. some collectors rail against ammonia, using themselves some worse killing medium. there is no other such medium which will allow of one, after pinning the insect, to move it up and down quickly in the air with the effect that the wings are as flaccid as though the specimen were alive. it leaves not the slightest trace of rigidity, which is of the highest importance for quick and successful setting out. the next proceeding is one which requires delicate handling and touch, which can only come with practice. it is pinning the insects. to do this there is only one way which permits of the specimen being afterwards exactly set out, and that is, the "proper way." any deviation from it, simple as it is, leads to all sorts of trouble and vexation when we come to set the butterflies out on the blocks. take the butterfly--with the wings closed together over the back, so that the under side only can be seen--between the left hand first finger and thumb. touch it deftly, but firmly, holding no more than is necessary of the under side of the thorax, where the legs are fixed. be very careful not to break off any of the legs, or rub off any scales from the body or legs. a small pair of curved forceps are of great use in delicately placing the butterfly in position between the fingers. the proper position allows of the wings to more than half open, when gently blown upon with one's breath. then choose a pin of suitable size, rather a little large than otherwise, and pass it through the centre of the upper part of the thorax, just where the two front wings meet. mind it is exactly in the centre and so placed that the pin's head leans somewhat forward when the pin is fully in the body. pass the pin well through the body, so that at least one third of its length is clear of the underside of the butterfly, and all as nearly as possible the same distance through. when we have pinned the specimens, we proceed to set or spread them out on the blocks to dry. in selecting these, say they are for butterflies, do not get the slot groove down the centre too wide, as is needed for the fat-bodied moths. those blocks used in this country are generally somewhat rounded on each side where the wings are to rest. this is called "round-setting" in distinction to "flat-setting," which means that the wings, when quite dry, remain set out flatly at right angles from the body; while round-setting leaves them drooping at the tips in an unnatural manner. round-setting is considered, outside the british islands, an insular abomination. it was the style, unfortunately, adopted in this country with the dawn of the present activity among british entomologists, and everybody knows how difficult it is to change even such a simple fashion as the round-setting of butterflies. simple as the matter seems at first sight, it has contributed more than any other cause to the generally shameful ignorance which prevails among british entomologists of even the butterflies of the continent of europe outside our islands. because they can only be obtained from abroad "flat-set," most of our collectors would hardly look at a "foreign" butterfly; and so the study of the british species has been blocked for years, entirely from this cause, which fostered so largely the prejudice in favour of "british specimens." a "british" camberwell beauty is now worth a sovereign, if taken in britain, although it doubtless flew over from the opposite continent; but the same specimen, if taken in france or belgium, would not be worth sixpence to a british collector. now all this is wrong and should not be. of course, it is quite right to know what does occur in our country, but there is no need for these absurd differences in value of the specimens, whether taken in britain or on the mainland of europe. it leads to fraud, and it is sad to think that some professional dealers have actually made more than comfortable livings, chiefly by inducing young or inexperienced people to pay long prices for "british" specimens which were perhaps captured in germany, where they were set on rounded blocks, sent out for the purpose to deceive english people, because they were "round-set" and pinned with birmingham-made pins! another result of this insular prejudice is that some species of butterflies very closely allied to others have been overlooked for want of familiarity with another continental species. a case of this kind was the cause of our last addition to the british list being so long overlooked. there was this butterfly, quite common, year after year, within twenty miles of london, and flying over fifty miles of country, overlooked; all because of our want of knowledge of even the commonest european species. we therefore recommend the flat-setting, and if the new generation of students of butterflies will adopt it, the round-setting style will disappear in a very few years. the blocks should be covered with very fine cork, or may be of soft wood, if the steel pins can be obtained. then they would be cheaper, as the cork covering adds much to the expense, besides being always unsatisfactory, in consequence of the holes in the cork, which hold mites and such vermin. place the setting block on the table, with the top furthest away from you. proceed to select the various butterflies from your damp collecting-box which will best suit the size of the block, allowing about a quarter of an inch clear from the outer edge on each side. then, with the forceps, take hold of the upper part of the pin near to the body and firmly drive it in the same leaning position as it is fixed into the body, firmly into the _exact centre_ of the groove. if the pin will not go readily into the block, make a lead for it with a sharp-pointed penknife. do not be tempted to push down the body on the pin, or your specimens will, on removal from the blocks, be all sorts of heights on the pins, and quite unfit for cabinet purposes. next see that the shoulders of the wings just touch the edge of the block, so as to place the wings flat, without tilting up the tips. observe carefully that the bodies are straight and lifted by placing under them bits of paper or cotton wool so as to extend on an even plane with the thorax and wings. continue placing your specimens until exhausted in number, or until the block is quite full, after leaving a clear space between each butterfly sufficient to lift the wing tips slightly forward of the front part of the head. then with a sharp penknife, very neatly cut a thin nick in the under edge of the ends of the block directly below the shoulder piece of the centre groove. there should be four of these little nicks. next get a piece of _glazed_ cotton thread, and tie a knot at one end. insert this knot in the top left-hand nick, the knotted end being below the block. very gently, but firmly, bring the thread over the end of the block, close to the shoulder, down the left-hand side closely into the inner edge of the block, catching it in the bottom left-hand nick under the block. this will have had the effect of placing all the wings firmly on that side of the block. then carry the thread underneath the block into the top right-hand nick and over the end of the block, down the right-hand upper side, over the lower end, firmly fix in that nick and cut off the thread. great care must be taken to pull the thread over the wings not so tightly as to mark them. a good plan is to push under each upper end of the thread a thin pin which eases it, so as to avoid damaging the top and bottom specimens in the row while setting them into their respective places. these pins may afterwards be withdrawn. next proceed with a very fine pointed needle to gently lift all the wings into their proper places so as to get the effect of "a well-set butterfly." it may be found that the thread is too slack in places to hold down the wings in proper position. that may be obviated by neatly cross-pinning down the thread on either side at intervals between the butterflies. when all the specimens have been arranged with perfect uniformity, take two slips of tracing-paper, which have been previously cut to fit the length of the block, and each must be three-fourths the breadth of one side of the setting block. then lay one of these strips of paper on the left-hand side, being very careful to keep just clear of the thread. all the wings will be seen plainly through the transparent paper and can be readjusted if any slip out of position. next place with the forceps a no. entomological pin firmly through the top and at the bottom of the paper, near the edge next the cotton. place another between the first and second butterfly on the block, and so on down the row; also, _as you go along_, place another pin between the outer indentation where the upper and lower wings meet; also put a fourth pin by the tip of the upper wing. these pins should firmly secure the paper over the wings, which, when thus treated on both sides, will dry into the desired position for cabinet specimens. the greatest care must be taken not to allow any pin-point to enter the wing or fringe of a butterfly, or it will be quite spoiled. next very carefully and gently undo the fastened thread, first taking out any cross pins which secure it. after its removal gently stroke from the body towards the paper on each side with a soft camel's hair brush any disturbed scales. with practice there should not be the least damage done by the thread, which leaves no mark whatever if _moved at once_ when the papers are firmly fixed. if they should be left on carelessly, or by any mistake, the threads will be certain to mark every butterfly, to their complete disfigurement. keep the blocks which contain the set-out butterflies in a dry cupboard or other safe place. when thus drying they fall an easy prey to earwigs, wasps, ants, cockroaches, and such like "small beasts," which will strip off all the bodies on a block in a single night. they should not be exposed to too bright a light whilst drying on the blocks, or they often suffer in colour. when single specimens have to be set out it is easy to work the thread by putting a pin through the knot and holding down the other end with the left-hand forefinger until the paper is fixed, and then treating the other wings in like manner. it is advisable to leave the butterflies on the blocks for about a week, though the surest test is to touch the body gently with a pin, and if _quite hard_, it is safe to remove the insects to a store box without fear of the wings springing. after removing the butterflies, pass over the surface of the block some hard substance, such as the back of an ivory-handled knife, to rub down any little roughness made by the pins on the surface, where the wings are placed, when setting any fresh insects on the same block. most of the butterflies are easily reared through all their stages, from the eggs up to the perfect insect. this is by far the most interesting part of the study. until within the last few years, when the writer of these chapters pressed some of his friends to look more closely into the life histories of our common butterflies, it was the custom of some naturalists to sneer at "butterfly-catchers." since then a wonderful book has been published on the butterflies of the eastern portion of north america by mr. scudder, and all these scoffers must feel very small when they see such splendid science in the study of butterflies. now, many people, who never thought of rearing a butterfly, are giving careful attention to them in all their stages. several kinds of butterflies are readily induced to lay their eggs in captivity when carefully managed. various species differ much in this--some may be depended upon with certainty, such as the "green-veined white" (_pieris napi_), which will deposit its eggs at night upon a piece of watercress, under the influence of a warm room, and the bright light of a paraffin lamp. this species, however, is quite an exception, for, as a rule, every attention should be given to copying their natural surroundings as closely as possible. a good plan is to have ready planted in a large flower-pot a plant of the food of the particular species from which it is desired to have eggs, or, as they are called by the entomologists, the ova--that being, as you know, the plural of ovum, the latin for an egg. having got your plant nicely established in its flower-pot, buy a piece of wire-netting, about a foot wide, and bend it round so as to fit just _inside_ the flower-pot. by cutting the wire so as to overlap a little, it is easy to twist or hook the ends, so as to make a cylinder to just fit inside the pot. then cover this with very open muslin all round and over the top, neatly stretched, so as not to look untidy or to stop a single ray of sunshine which can get through. having had several of these cages prepared, they may be used at the moment when you bring home the freshly-caught females. the sooner the female butterflies are placed in the cage the better, for if they remain too long in the pill-box they are apt to get too dry, and so never recover enough to deposit their ova. after firmly tying the cage to the pot, do not disturb them when once in the cages, so long as they are alive; but leave them out of doors, where they get all the sunlight or rain. if the plant be watered, that is best done by soaking the flower-pot in water up to two-thirds the height of the soil, and not by removing the cage. still, in dry weather it is best to sprinkle the cage with water, so that the captive may drink, which they often require to do. another way, especially in the case of small butterflies, is to use large glass jam-pots, with a piece of muslin tied over the top. in these pots should be a little sprig of food-plant in a small bottle of water, and also a bit of damp sponge to keep up a moist atmosphere, without which there will rarely be any eggs. the pots may be placed in the sunlight in a room near an open window, but care should be taken that the glass does not get too hot, or both parent and eggs may be killed. when the eggs hatch, never, if possible, touch, except with a camel-hair brush, the young caterpillars--or larvæ as they are scientifically called, that being the plural for larva, a single caterpillar. pupa is the singular, and pupæ the plural, for the chrysalis; imago the singular, and imagines the plural, for the perfect insects or complete butterflies. these scientific terms are quite easy to learn, and are the best to use when referring to the various stages of insects generally. in selecting females for depositing ova, take those which are a little worn, and not too recently emerged from pupæ, as they are the more likely to produce fertile eggs. when the ova hatch, watch them very closely, at least three or four times a day. if they are on growing food, do not touch them at all, but if they require moving for any reason, a soft, sharp-pointed camel-hair pencil is the best tool to use. glass jam-pots are very nice for feeding young larvæ of any kind. the method is, to change the food daily, taking care to remove at the same time all dirt made by the larvæ, which is called "frass." cleanliness in rearing larvæ is the first consideration, and the next most important thing is to always gather their food from the same tree as that from which they began to feed when hatched. if they are fed on growing plants this does not, of course, apply. tie over the mouth of the pot with fine unglazed calico, and over this place a piece of glass so as to stop, as far as possible, the drying of the food plant in the jar. be very particular to supply the fresh food always quite dry, and never in a wet condition, which is apt to give the larvæ diarrh[oe]a, to which in captivity they are very subject. never give more food than the young larvæ are likely to eat, increasing the supply as they get older. when changing the larvæ always count them, or some will be lost and thrown out with the withered food. the best plan is to spread out a sheet of white paper on a table, and empty the contents of the jar on it. then examine the interior of the jar, seeing that every little one is out. having cleaned it out with a clean, dry duster, put in the fresh food. then lift in with the hair-pencil any active larvæ. those which are sulky-looking on the leaves clip off with part of the leaf, and drop into the jar. they may be changing their skin, and, if disturbed then, will probably not recover. the food should be changed at least once every day. while growing, larvæ of butterflies generally like plenty of light, but it is unsafe to leave the sunshine too long on the jars, in case the living contents get baked, as will the food certainly. some species while in the larval stage, feed only at night, hiding away in the daylight. these are matters which will soon be found out by experience. we have never heard of any one having reared all the british species through their stages, but we know one friend who reared no less than eighteen different kinds through, from ova to imagines, in a single season. $moth catching.$--students of natural history in search of moths which they may identify by a reference to such works upon the subject as those by the rev. j. g. wood, will find an interesting method of catching them in preparing "treacles." the fancy "golden syrups" of the kitchen should be avoided. ask the grocer to get common treacle--green treacle they call it in the trade. to a pound of this will be added a wineglassful of stale beer and about three-quarters of a wineglassful of the most inferior rum you can buy. a few drops of oil of aniseed will improve this dreadful concoction. do not add the rum, beer, and aniseed to the treacle at once, but keep them in a bottle apart until you are going to use the mixture. with a companion who carries a net, look out now for isolated trees that have a rough bark. do not waste attention on dead trees, fences, nor chestnut trees, willows, nor flowering ivy. in warm, damp weather when there is no moon, go out with a bottle of this mixture and a house-painter's brush, "a sash tool," as painters call it, will serve you well, and a lantern, some pill-boxes or similar small receptacles. having selected a tree daub it well with your mixture in a patch about a foot long and half a foot broad. so pass from tree to tree. come back at last to the first tree again. your companion should hold the net under the treacle patch for some of the moths that have come to enjoy the rum and treacle will fall when you turn the lantern light upon them. those that do not may be taken from the tree by an upward scoop of a pill-box, and then secured by the lid. try to avoid getting the sticky mixture upon the handle of the brush and upon your hands, for it will prevent your deft manipulation of your pill boxes. after the first night very little treacle will be needed to freshen the patches, but the mixture may be used freely on your first round. the treacling season begins about march and goes on until the end of april. may does not yield many moths, nor the first week in june, but after that you may go round again with your bottle until the end of september. you may find sometimes that toads and bats poach on your preserves. [illustration] another way to secure specimens of moths is to make a moth trap. our diagram gives a plan of it, that is a representation of it as seen from above if we look down at it with the lid off. a, b, c, d is a box. it may be made for the purpose, or a soap box or other case may be purchased from the grocer for a few coppers. e, f, and g are panes of glass, held in grooves. h is another pane of glass which comes up to the lid, and cuts the box into two unequal parts. j is the reflector of a lighted lamp placed in front of it. there will need to be a hole in the lid over the lamp, and a flower pot upside down may be put over this hole. it is best to have three doors into the larger compartment; one in the lid and one in each of the two sides, k and l, so that two hands may be used in putting the moths that come to the light into pill boxes. chapter xii hints on aquariums it is better to have several aquariums than one. often the mistake is made of gathering together all kinds of savage and voracious creatures that prey upon each other. pretty as they are, there is no need to buy the glass aquariums, and indeed better in every way for the inhabitants is a large tub put out of doors in a place where there is not too much sun. clean sand or gravel should be strewed upon the bottom and in this water-plants may be fixed. if you have any bivalves they will love to burrow in it, and some kinds of fish love to rest upon a bottom of this kind. large stones should be built to reach half-way up the tub, with spaces between so that the fish may dart out of the light whenever they wish. if you keep fish that need running water it will be necessary to put the tub under a tap, and to pierce a hole near the top of the tub for the superfluous water to flow away. in this case it will be as well to cover the tub with a net, or the fish may be found to have leapt over the edge. boys may make their own net from the instructions given in chapter xix., or may buy cheap gauze or other similar material. if the tub is for newts and such things as do not live wholly in the water, then the stones should be built until they come above the water and so form a little island. for these creatures the water should not be so deep, and there should be an abundance of weeds. freshwater shrimps and crayfish should have a shallow tub or trough, a sandy bottom, and places in which they can hide. here, too, there must be water running in and out always. by these means we imitate the natural surroundings of the shrimps and crayfish, for they delight in the running water of shallow streams that have a bottom of sand and stones. the outlet for the waste water should be protected with a grating and probably with gauze, or some of the inhabitants of the tub will escape. there are many objections to glass vessels, though some of their faults may be corrected. they trouble the fish with too much light, but if a brown paper case of the same size and shape as the aquarium be made it can be slipped over the vessel and removed occasionally when you wish to observe the movements of the fish. glass soon becomes foul, and needs frequent cleaning. in any case the aquarium should be kept out of the sun, and for this reason a northern window is best. whatever form of aquarium is selected there must be soil and sand at the bottom, weeds, and shelter for the fish. the bell glass is the least favourable form of aquarium, but even that may be made tolerable if the hints we have given are adopted. in the square or oblong form only one side need be glass and the remaining three sides wood, metal or slate. the sand that forms the bottom of an aquarium should be quite clean. if you have found it in the bottom of a swift stream it will not need much washing, but if from any other place it should be washed thoroughly. put a large bucket under a tap, and as the water runs into the bucket strew the sand gradually into the moving water with one hand, and stir the water as hard as you can with the other. keep this going until the water that runs out of the bucket is quite clean. even now, however, the sand may not be thoroughly cleansed. put a drop of the water upon a piece of clean glass, and when the water has been evaporated there should be no sediment. when the sand, plants, pebbles and stones have been arranged in an aquarium it is best to introduce the water gently by means of a syphon, a method explained in chapter xix. the aquarium may be emptied in the same way. there are a number of ways of supplying the fish with the amount of oxygen they need. one is to change the water frequently, another already mentioned is to have running water and a pipe for the surplus water; a third means is to have a fountain, an attractive element described in chapter xix. these methods, however, are mechanical and artificial. the natural way of providing the oxygen is to secure the aid of water plants. these absorb carbonic acid gas, and, having made use of the carbon in their growth, set free the oxygen, which is waste as far as they are concerned. thus in a well-balanced aquarium the fish provide the plants with carbonic acid gas, and receive back the oxygen which they need; the plants provide the fish with oxygen which they do not want, but which is the very life of the fish, and receive back the carbon without which they would die. water-beetles, newts and some other creatures come to the surface for their air, and take no oxygen, or very little, from the water. for many reasons the best aquarium is a pond in the garden, for here we may have greater variety of animal and vegetable life, and beautiful surroundings of plant life too. the pond should be about three feet deep, and the banks should slope, so that there will be a little spade work at first. the bottom may be of clay, but it is better for many reasons to have cement. the points mentioned with regard to the indoor aquarium apply here also, but many of the arrangements are more easily carried out in the pond than in the tank. $plants for the aquarium.$--the duckweeds float and need no planting. they spread rapidly. there are four kinds: the lesser duckweed (_lemna minor_); the ivy-leaved duckweed (_lemna trisulca_). then there is the american pondweed (_anacharis alsinastrum_), a weed that almost blocks slow moving rivers and canals. it will grow either attached to the bottom or floating. not only does it supply the fish with air but with food also. the hornwort (_ceratophyllum demersum_) needs no soil, and gives off much oxygen, though probably not so much as _vallisneria spiralis_, a great favourite in the aquarium. easier to obtain is the water crowfoot (_ranunculus aquatilis_), and we may mention also the broad-leaved pondweed (_potamogeton natans_), close-leaved pondweed (_potamogeton densus_), the perfoliate pondweed (_p. perfoliatus_), the curled pondweed (_p. crispus_), the starwort (_callitriche verna_), the grassy pondweed (_potamogeton gramineus_), and the enterprising boy will find many others for himself in ponds, streams, and canals. foreign plants are sold by dealers. for the garden pond the beautiful water lilies may be obtained. the weeds should be prevented from occupying too much space, and if the creatures in the aquarium do not keep them in check by eating them it will be necessary to remove some of the plants occasionally. $sanitation.$--if a fish dies remove it at once, or its dead body will pollute the water. to clean a glass aquarium let the water run away through a siphon until only a few inches remain, then clean the sides with a piece of rag tied upon a stick. now siphon the remaining water away, at the same time supplying fresh water. do not throw a lot of food to the fishes. what they do not eat decays and poisons the water. if there are molluscs in the aquarium this danger is lessened, for many of them act as scavengers, and they are assisted by freshwater shrimps, tadpoles, and beetles. the shrimps, however, may eat the living as well as the dead, and the tadpoles, instead of being allowed to eat, may themselves be eaten. $the food supply.$--fish eat the buds and tender shoots of pond weeds. they may have also a moderate supply of small worms, gentles, different kinds of larvæ, and what are called ants' eggs. frogs and toads eat insects, little beetles, worms, grubs, caterpillars, and newts need an occasional worm. $the fish.$--many of the fish that swarm in most ponds and streams are suitable for the aquarium. the carp is related to the goldfish, which is the golden carp. it is quiet and harmless, and will not interfere with other creatures in the aquarium. minnows are pretty, and should have running water, and the roach is another suitable fish for life in captivity. the gudgeon, loach, and bullhead serve for bottom fish. jack and sticklebacks are extremely interesting, but need a place for themselves, as they eat any other inhabitants of the same aquarium. $fishes as pets.$--perhaps, writes one of our contributors, the most interesting of freshwater fishes to watch is the stickleback, especially if a pair can be kept during the breeding season in a good-sized aquarium, so that they have the opportunity to collect materials and build their curious nest in the natural way. the male fish develops during this season a most beautiful vermilion-coloured breast, and is exceedingly pugnacious, so that it is useless to attempt to keep two males in the same aquarium. in fact, the stickleback is often so quarrelsome that it is not desirable to try to keep other fish with him, unless they are much larger than he is. the easiest fish to keep alive are the carp (to which tribe the goldfish belongs) and the minnow. these can be kept for years without much difficulty, and will not be likely to injure one another, or any other fish that may be placed in the same tank. small rudd are also very good pets, and are nearly as hardy and equally harmless. roach are easily obtained, and will not quarrel, but they are not quite so strong. perch, on the contrary, will live a long time if regularly fed, but it will not do to put any smaller fish, except sticklebacks, with them; yet they look so handsome that an aquarium containing two or three perch and a pair of sticklebacks is perhaps better worth looking at than one which can only boast of shoals of roach or other soft-mouthed fishes. dace and chub are pretty and harmless, but require more changes of water than is usually convenient, or they will soon die. tench are tenacious of life, but sluggish and fond of lying at the bottom. small bream are fairly lively, and i have found them moderately hardy. they do not require water of special purity. gudgeons live very well, and may be kept with minnows, being good friends together. the loach and the bullhead are fairly hardy, but have little other attraction. the grayling is very delicate, and it is not possible to keep her long, except under very favourable conditions. the ruffe or pope is hardy, like its relative the perch, and might, if obtainable (it is not a common fish), be placed in a perch tank, as a humble companion. the bleak is almost as delicate as the grayling; and the jack is too ravenous for any fish to live in his company except another jack _of his own size_. this about ends the list, excepting that i've left till the last the noblest of fish--trout and salmon. with regard to the latter i don't want to encourage a boy in the notion that he can keep a ten-pound salmon in a tank. nevertheless, i have for many successive seasons kept salmon for weeks or months in a small tank; but these were young ones, very young, about the size of tadpoles, in fact, and not unlike them in some respects. they are almost indistinguishable from the young trout with which i keep them. of course, they are but babies, and they have their feeding bottles attached, and do not want feeding till these are absorbed. to return to trout. these fish, when about a year old, are very interesting, and if a constant change of water can be secured may be kept alive for years. even without this advantage, i have kept them many months, and have found their little ways very curious. the trait i objected to the most was the habit of cannibalism which the larger fish developed. i found one fish of about one and a half ounces with another about half that size half way down its throat. this makes it desirable to keep only such trout as are about the same size together. they will gradually, though very slowly, get tame, and will come out from their shelter under a weed to eat a caddis as you drop it from your hand. this was only the case with some of the fish, others remaining as shy as ever in spite of petting. it is best to choose fish that have been taken by net, but trout taken by a fly, or roach taken by a small hook in the lip, will live very well. i have kept trout for months that i had caught with fly and carried home for miles. some of these were from a quarter to half-a-pound in weight; but i found smaller fish would thrive better. for food, caddis or other water insects are best; but gentles would perhaps do, if the former are not to be had. i found the freshwater shrimp capital food, as it keeps alive, of course, till the trout is inclined to eat. one of the chief causes of mortality in the aquarium is the fouling of water by the decomposition of surplus food. if you are obliged to use dead matter, such as chopped liver, or meat, be careful to remove any that may be left. flies may be put on the surface, and will be appreciated; but the trout will seldom take them while you are watching, though they will often eat the caddis as you put them in, and even chase the shrimps. on the whole, i think perch are the best fish to make pets of, as they can be taught even to take worms from your hand, and require much less water running in and out than do the trout. i've known a perch to live for years in a tin bath in my stable; whereas the trout would not be happy without a long tank, and continual change of water. if you have only a very small aquarium it may be better to be contented with a few minnows. these, with the water weeds and little fresh-water snails, which should be in every aquarium, will be quite enough to make it look pretty. chapter xiii in the playing fields $nickie, nickie, night.$--before the period when lucifer matches came into general usage and were manufactured at a moderate price, our grandparents relied on the flint, the steel, and the tinder-box to produce fire. these implements have been very completely dealt with by various writers and illustrators, who have given us some idea of the importance they were to every household. to the student, and to the curious who desire a more tangible acquaintance, we may remark that a very fine collection of tinder-boxes, flints, and steels can be seen both at the british museum and at the guildhall museum of the city of london. a very favourite boys' game, in the earlier part of the nineteenth century, which necessitated the possession of at least a flint and steel, the game being played in the after-dark of evening, was somewhat similar to the modern game of "touch." the game was called "nickie, nickie, night," and admitted any number of players. a boy was elected to the position of "nickie," and he could only retain this position by fleetness of foot and dexterity in avoiding his pursuers, the pursuers being formed by the remaining number of players. the game was played in any open locality, and "nickie" being allowed a start of perhaps thirty to forty seconds, disappeared into the darkness, shouts of "nickie! nickie! night! show your light! show your light!" resounding from the waiting boys, whereupon nickie struck a few sparks from his flint and steel, indicating to the others his position; these at once tore off in his direction; while he, as quickly and silently as possible, changed his locality to elude capture. having baffled his pursuers, nickie would, if a good player, again quickly chink flint and steel, drawing off the boys in a new direction; and so the game would continue amidst the greatest excitement, fun, and laughter; nickie, like a will-o'-the-wisp, darting here, there, and everywhere, greeted with shouts of "nickie! nickie! night! show your light!" until, being ultimately captured, he gave way to a new nickie, and took his place amongst the pursuers. [illustration] our illustrations of flint and tinder-box are selected from numerous patterns; in many cases--older readers will probably remember the immense variety of these--the tinder-box was round, and the steel consisted of an old file stuck in a wooden handle, the flint being frequently picked up from among the stones in the roadway. [illustration] $how to make a kite.$--take a lath, a, b, which should be three feet long and about an inch wide. one of the ordinary laths used by builders will be quite suitable if one of the lighter ones is selected, and if care is taken to choose a straight one. next take a cane or other piece of light flexible wood, and bind the centre of it tightly at the point g an inch below a. bend the cane into a semi-circle and connect c and d with string. if this has been done properly the distance from c to d will be two feet. now connect d b c with string and the frame will be ready. many years ago it was possible to cover a kite with ordinary newspaper, but the paper that is used now is not strong enough, and it is better to use calico. place the frame upon the calico and cut round the frame with scissors, not close to the frame, but leaving a margin of calico. turn this over string and cane and stitch it in position. this may be done with a sewing machine. at e midway between h g bore a hole with a pricker, and another at f, which is the same distance from h as e is. string a foot long should connect e and f, and this is kept in position by having knotted ends so that the ends cannot pass through the holes at e and f. this string will not be tight, but will hang loosely. at c and d tassels about eight inches long may be fixed. the tail is made by folding paper. take a number of pieces about five inches long and four broad, and fold them as though you were making spills for the lighting of candles. how long the tail should be is a matter for experiment. try it with forty and a tassel at the end, and you will see afterwards when you try to fly the kite if that is the right length and weight. attach your long flying line now to the string that connects e and f, about four and a half inches below e. choose a breezy day and ask someone to face the wind and hold the kite aloft. keeping the line tight, run a few yards in the face of the wind to give the kite a start upon its upward journey. now is the time to see if the tail is too heavy or too light. if the kite labours upwards and shows a tendency to come straight down, tail first, then it may be inferred that the tail is too heavy, and by reducing the number of "chickens" as they are called in some parts of the country, and by taking from the tassel the kite may be relieved of its too heavy burden. if, on the other hand, the tail is not heavy enough, the kite will plunge madly from side to side and will dive downwards head foremost, demanding more "chickens" or a heavier tassel. the kite may be flown in the dark with a chinese lantern where the tassel is. [illustration] $rackets.$--a racket ground is in the form of a parallelogram, not less than fifty yards long and twenty-five broad. sometimes a wall of a garden may be adapted by fixing boards and net-work along the top, if there is space enough below. the wall should be painted black, and the ground be divided into four equal divisions, distinctly marked. the flooring of the court should be paved. the divisions are, two close to the wall, a and b, and two in front of them, c and d. these divisions are occupied by those who play the game. the wall should be marked by a broad line of white paint e at forty-two inches from the ground, and above this line each ball should strike. the ball weighs one ounce, and should be white. when it becomes dirty its whiteness is renewed by dipping it into a bag of chalk, so that it may be seen against the black wall. the game may be played by two or more players. when it is played by four, one stands in each of the compartments, a, b, c, d; those near the wall being called in-hand, and those furthest from it out-hand players. when two play, each player has two of the divisions, and the one who takes the a and b is called in-hand player, and the other out-hand player. having decided who is to begin the game, the in-hand player nearest the wall strikes his ball against the wall; if it strikes under the line, goes over the wall, does not rebound into the out-hand spaces, or goes beyond the racket ground, the striker is out, and the out-hand player takes his place; but if the player is successful, and the ball rebounds into the out-hand spaces, and as it rises is sent back to the wall, to rebound into one of the in spaces, the game proceeds. in a close-court game the "server" who serves the ball properly above the line but not into his adversary's court is allowed three trials before his "hand" is out. the game is, that the in-player should send the ball in such a manner against the wall that, on its rebound, the opposite player, or players, shall be able to pick it up or strike it. when this happens, he who struck the ball counts one point, or an ace, and the play proceeds until one player or players scores eleven, or fifteen, as the players decide. this game may be played either in an open court, that is in a court with only one wall, against which the game is played, or in a closed court surrounded by four walls. sometimes there is an ordinary high front wall, and a smaller back wall, omitting the side walls. the close-court game is the best, but the expense compels many to adopt the open-court game. $fives$.--this game needs a high wall, free from abutments, and under it a smooth, dry, paved ground. a line is drawn on the wall, about three feet from the ground; another line is drawn upon the ground itself about feet from the wall, a; and two others are drawn on each side as boundaries, b, c. the player needs a ball of tightly-sewn leather and a fives-bat. this has a long handle, and an oval bowl of wood. the ball is hard, capable of bouncing, small and white. the game may be played by two or four people; in the last arrangement, two on each side. the game may be played either single-handed or with partners. when it is played with partners, the players toss up for first innings. the first player takes the ball, and strikes it against the wall with his bat above the line on the wall, and so that it may fall outside the line on the ground. the other then strikes it, and the players continue to hit it against the wall, either before it comes to the ground or at the first rebound, until one of them missing it, or driving it out of bounds, or beneath the wall-line, loses or goes out. the ball may fall anywhere within the side boundaries, after being once struck up by the player who is in. the game is usually fifteen, but is sometimes extended to twenty-five. this is bat-fives, and is not unlike rackets, except that it may be played in any open court, and that another kind of bat and a larger ball are used. fives was originally played with the hand, instead of a racket. $prisoners' base.$--appoint the two best players captains, and let them choose their men alternately. next mark the homes and prisons. two semicircles are drawn, large enough to hold the two sides, the distance between the semicircles being about twenty yards. these are the "homes," or "bounds." twenty yards in front of these, two other semicircles, of a rather larger size, are drawn. these are the prisons, and the prison of each party is in a line with the enemy's home. having settled which side shall commence the game the captain of that side orders out one of his own side who must run at least beyond the prisons before he returns. as soon as he has started, the captain of the other side sends out one of his men to try to touch him before he can regain his own home. if this is accomplished, the successful runner is permitted to return home while the boy who has been touched must go to the prison belonging to his enemies' side; from which he cannot move until someone from his own side releases him, by evading the enemy and touching him. this is not easy, because in order to reach the prison, the player must cross the enemy's headquarters. it is allowable for the prisoner to stretch his hand as far towards his rescuer as possible, but he must keep some part of his body within the prison; and if a number of prisoners are captured, it is sufficient for one to remain within the prison, while the rest, by joining hands make a line towards the boy who is trying to release them. when this is done, both the prisoner and his rescuer return home, no one being able to touch them until they have reached their home and started off again. the game, however, is not only confined to the two originally sent out. as soon as a captain sees his man in difficulty he sends out a third, who is in his turn pursued by another from the other side; each being able to touch any who have preceded, but none who have left their home after him. the captains direct, and hold themselves ready in case of an emergency, and the side wins which imprisons the whole of the boys upon the other side. $french and english.$--choose two sides in the usual way. one side takes hold of one end of a stout rope, and the other side of the other end. a line is made midway between the sides, each strives to pull the other over it, and those who are so pulled over, lose the game. two captains should be appointed, and each should have a code of signals to communicate with his own side, that he may direct them when to stop, when to slacken, or when to pull hard. in this game sometimes a good captain may win even when he has an inferior team. for instance, if he sees all the boys are pulling their hardest, the captain of the other side sees that his opponents are leaning back too much, that is they are trusting to their weight rather than to their strength. he gives the signal to slacken, when down go the enemy, and are then dragged over the line with the greatest ease. if the enemy begins to be tired a united and sudden tug will generally bring them upright, and once moved, the victory is easily gained. no knots are to be allowed on the rope, nor is the game won, unless the whole side has been dragged over the line. $fight for the flag.$--a game played from a mound, and any number may play. each party chooses a captain, and having done this, divide themselves into attackers and defenders. the defending party provide themselves with a small flag, which is fixed on a staff on the top of the mound, and then arrange themselves round it so as to defend it from the attacks of their opponents, who advance towards the hillock, and try to throw down those who oppose them. those who are so thrown on either side, are called "dead men," and must lie quiet till the game is finished. this happens either when all the attacking party are dead, or when the flag has been carried off by one of them. the player who carries off the flag is called the knight, and is chosen captain for the next game. $hop-scotch.$--a game played by hopping on one foot and kicking an oyster-shell or piece of tile or stone from one compartment to the other, without placing the lifted foot, except in one case, upon the ground, and without allowing the shell or tile to rest on any of the lines. a diagram is first drawn consisting of twelve compartments, each being numbered, and at its further end the picture of a plum pudding with knife and fork. in commencing the game, the players take their stand at the place marked by a, and throw for innings. he who can go nearest to the plum in the centre of the pudding, plays first. [illustration] the winner begins by throwing his shell into no. ; he then hops into the space, and kicks the tile out to a; he next throws the tile into no. , kicks it from no. to no. , and thence out. he then throws it into no. , kicks it from to , from to , and out. he next throws it into no. , kicks it from to , from to , from to , and out; and so he goes on till he has passed the cross and comes to no. , when he is allowed to rest, by standing with one foot in no. and the other in no. ; but he must go on hopping before he kicks the tile home. he then passes through the beds , , and , as he did those of , , , , , etc., and so on, till he gets to plum pudding, when he may rest, and placing his tile on the plum, he is required, while standing on one foot, to kick it with such force as to send it through all the other beds to a at one kick. if one player throws his tile into the wrong compartment, or when he is kicking it out, he loses his innings, as he does also if the tile or his foot at any time rests on a line, or if he kicks his tile out of the diagram. we give also diagrams for simpler forms of the game. $turnpike.$--although turnpike-keepers upon the roads have long since been abolished, there is no reason why the game of turnpike, played with hoops, should be played no longer. any number of boys may play, but we will suppose there are six. one should have a hoop and the others will then be turnpike-keepers. these take two stones or two bricks and place them about two inches apart upon the ground. we may call each pair of stones or bricks the toll-bar, and each toll-bar should be some distance from the others. it is the task of the boy with the hoop to pass between the stones without touching them, and if he goes through the five then he turns and comes through them again from the other side, and so on until he fails. if he touches a toll-bar then the keeper of the bar takes that hoop, and he who had hitherto been driving the hoop becomes the keeper of that particular toll-bar at which he failed. if the hoop driver touches his hoop with his hands, or allows it to fall he must give it to the nearest toll-bar keeper and take his place while the toll-bar keeper becomes a hoop driver. each keeper must stand upon that side of his toll-gate which is towards the right hand of the hoop driver, so that when the hoop driver returns he must cross to the other side of his toll-bar. if he is on the wrong side the hoop driver need not trouble to pass through his toll-bar at all. if the boys prefer it there may be more hoop drivers and fewer toll-bar keepers. $posting.$--places called posting-stations are formed at regular intervals in a large circle or oval, and at each place a player takes his stand. every player, except the hoop driver, has charge of one of these stations. suppose there are seven players--a, b, c, d, e, f, and g, and that g holds the hoop. the other six players having taken their places, g starts from the station belonging to f, and drives the hoop towards a, who waits, with hoop-stick in hand, ready to relieve g of his hoop. g stops at the posting-station, while a runs the hoop to b, who takes charge of it, and delivers it to c. c trundles the hoop to d; d takes it to e; e to f, and f conveys it to the first player, g. in this way the game continues, until all the players have worked round the circle five or six times. the game is rendered more boisterous by increasing the numbers of players, and having two or three hoop drivers. do not touch the hoop with your hands, and do not let the hoop fall. $fox.$--one player is called fox, and he has a den where none of the players may annoy him. the other players arm themselves with knotted handkerchiefs, and wait for reynard's appearance. he is also armed with a knotted handkerchief, and hops out of his den. when he is out, the other players attack him with their handkerchiefs, and he endeavours to strike one of them without putting down his other foot. if he puts down his foot he has to run back as fast as he can, without the right to strike the other players, who flog him the whole way. if, however, he succeeds in striking one without losing his balance, the one so struck becomes fox; and, as he has both feet down, is thrashed to his den. $drop ball.$--a line must be drawn three feet from the wall at which this game of ball is to be played. the player must kneel outside this line, and never cross it; if the ball falls inside the line it is reckoned a miss. each time the player throws up the ball and catches it it counts a point. there are many ways of playing this game. . throwing the ball and catching it before it touches the ground. . clapping the hands after throwing, before the ball touches the ground. . putting one knee to the ground before catching the ball. . putting one knee to the ground and clapping the hands before catching the ball. . circling round on one heel before catching the ball. . circling round on one heel and counting , , , or any number agreed upon, before catching the ball. . strike the player nearest you before catching the ball. there should not be too many players, for they would have to wait too long for a turn. $jingling.$--the game should be played on soft grass inside a large circle, enclosed with ropes. the players should not exceed ten. all except one of the nimblest, who is the jingler, have their eyes blindfolded with handkerchiefs. the jingler holds a bell in his hand, which he is obliged to keep ringing. the aim of the jingler is to elude the pursuit of his companions, who follow him by the sound of the bell within the boundaries of the rope, for he is forbidden to pass beyond it. if he be caught in the time allotted for the game, generally twenty minutes, the player who caught him wins the match; if they are not able to take him, he is proclaimed the victor. $the fugleman.$--the fugleman places himself in a prominent place, and arranges the other boys before him in a line. he then begins with grotesque gestures, which all the boys are compelled to copy. those who are seen to laugh are immediately ordered to stand out of the line, and when half the number of players are so put out, the others are allowed to ride them three times round the playground, while the fugleman with a knotted handkerchief beats the steeds from behind. chapter xiv the garden $how to dig.$--it is beyond the scope of this book to enter into all the intricacies of gardening. to do this we should need a volume larger than this devoted to that subject alone. whatever branch of gardening a boy may pursue, however, whether he grows gooseberries, sweet peas, or cabbages, he will need to know how to dig. one of the pleasures of life is to come to a garden that has been neglected or to a plot of land that hitherto has been a field and to see it gradually become a well kept garden without a weed, under the magic of good spade work. it is like subduing an enemy. the simplest way to dig is to take a spade full of earth, turn it over, and put it back where you found it. this, however, is only for lightening the soil when the garden has been cultivated already. you would not subdue an unruly garden in that way. $shallow trenching.$--if abcd is a plot of land and you are beginning at the ab end, dig out the earth abef and convey it to the dc end and put it near but off the plot you are digging. now dig efgh and throw the earth from that into the trench abef and so on for the rest of the plot. when you have come to the end of the plot there will be a trench, but this will be filled by the earth you took there at the beginning of your digging. [illustration: shallow trenching.] $deep trenching.$--the best basis for gardening, however, is a more drastic, deeper trenching than this. let abcd be the plot we are going to dig deeply. divide it into equal parts by the line ef. make the line gh - / feet from fc. dig out the earth from ghcf and carry it to x where it may be put in a heap. make the line ij feet from gh. dig out the earth one spade deep from ghij and throw it upon the heap at x. this earth at x taken from the top is known as top soil. now return to gfch and go another spade deeper, throwing the soil of this digging into a heap at y. still at gfch break up the soil there with a fork, and manure and refuse may be placed there. weeds put down here would have no chance to grow again. go now to gijh, dig out the subsoil there and put it into gfch. on the top of this subsoil so removed place the top soil from kijl. go on like this until you come to eb, when the top soil from aemn should go to noqr and the subsoil of aemn into noqr and the top soil from mnpq into ebon. when you get to df you will find the subsoil at y and the top soil at x ready for the filling of the last trench. it is important to keep the top soil on the top and the subsoil underneath. drive the spade into the earth in a perpendicular direction and the full depth of the blade. let the garden endure the winter with a rough surface so that the soil may present as many surfaces to the frost as possible. jack frost is one of the very best gardeners, and to see soil before he has bitten it and afterwards will be a revelation to the young gardener. $double digging.$--the deep trenching just described, in which the top soil was kept upon the top, and the subsoil underneath, is excellent where the subsoil is unfit for plant food, but there is a problem which it does not solve. suppose we come to a garden matted hard upon the surface with buttercups, convolvulus, grass, twitch, groundsel, thistles and other tiresome weeds, then the last thing we desire is that these should remain on top. you cannot pull up the weeds by hand because the ground is so hard that you do no more than break the weeds, leaving the roots embedded firmly in the earth. before there is any peace in the garden these weeds must be killed, and we will now describe how to do it. suppose abcd is the plot of ground. from ab measure four feet and draw the line ef. from abfe take out the soil one spade deep, that is the top soil, and put it in a heap at g outside the plot. now from abfe take out the soil another spade deep, the subsoil, and put it in a heap at h. now from ef measure two feet and draw the line ij. take the top soil, weeds and everything, from efji and throw it to abkl--kl is two feet from ab--leaving klfe empty for the present. now take the subsoil from efji and throw it into abkl, that is upon the top of the top soil you have just thrown there. now measure another two feet from ij and draw the line mn. the soil from ijnm will go into klfe, top soil first and the subsoil on the top of it. proceed in this way, two feet at a time, and when you come to cd throw the soil at g and h into the trench that will be left, top soil first and subsoil upon the top of it. the plot abcd will now be well dug, and all the weeds will be deep under the soil where they will speedily die and decay; and even supposing that the subsoil you had brought to the top is not good, you may double dig again next year and so recover the old top soil minus the weeds. any weeds that grow now may be eradicated easily from the loose soil, and even the weeds of twitch and convolvulus may be followed down and extracted. unless you have unlimited time and patience to look after them do not be tempted to leave grass paths, but dig the garden from side to side. grass paths are always spreading upon the garden and making the edges weedy and untidy. if you prefer it you may do this double digging with the plot divided as we divided it for deep trenching. [illustration: deep trenching.] $how to sow seed.$--it is not wise to sow old seed. even if they grow the plants are often without vigour. go to a seedsman who has a good character and do not buy seed because its price is low. the soil must be fine and firm, porous and moist. it must not be sticky nor dry. the seeds will not germinate until they can have both warmth and moisture. sow thinly because crowded plants do not grow well. it is best to sow small flower seeds in pans and boxes well drained, as explained in our article on window-boxes to follow. level the surface of the earth and make it firm. water it with a fine spray and then stand it in the shade for about five hours. now scatter the seed thinly and cover it very lightly with sifted earth. white-washed or paper shaded glass may be placed over the box or pan until the seeds appear. the glass will keep the air warm and moist. except in the case of the very small seeds, the depth at which they are sown should be about three times their size or thickness. in the garden do not sow broadcast, but in drills, as the ground can then be more easily weeded and kept loose when the seeds have grown. after sowing press the soil well down and then water gently so that the seeds are not washed out, and the water drains away quickly. the soil must not be allowed to get quite dry, and yet excessive moisture must be avoided. too much watering is a common cause of failure. if the soil becomes caked before the seedlings appear or patches be lifted by them, break it up with the point of a knife, and then water gently and just sufficiently to settle the soil round the plants. do not water seeds or seedlings with water that is colder than the soil, and in summer do not water until the evening. if the watering of very small seeds is necessary, stand the pans or boxes in a shallow vessel of water for an hour. for watering seedlings use a vaporiser, or dip a hair brush in water, shake off most of the fluid, and then, while holding the brush over the plants draw the hand along the bristles several times. when the seedlings are up, loosen the soil around them very gently. $a window box.$--there are not many forms of gardening that are so pleasant as that of having a window box. there need be no bearing of the heat and burden of the day, no laborious double digging, no tedious weeding, no back-aching hoeing, no hard days with the wheelbarrow. the window box, too, is not merely a fine weather friend. as you sit in your room upon a rainy day it is at the window beside you, and if your window is open the scent from the flowers comes in with every breeze. if you have a succession of window-boxes you can have a blaze of flowers upon your window sill at most seasons of the year. [illustration: double digging.] the box need not be made elaborately, and though some people do give themselves much trouble yet flowers look as well or even better in such a roughly made box painted green as most boys can make out of a packing case bought for a few coppers from the grocer. you may put plants already in pots in your box, but if you desire to grow flowers in the box itself it will be necessary to fill it with earth. before this is done holes about the size of a farthing should be bored in the bottom of the box with a brace and bit or with that more homely if unjoiner-like tool the red hot poker. these are to provide drainage. then there should come between one and two inches of broken stones and upon this the earth. as a rule this may be the ordinary earth from the garden, but it is better to add some coarse sand if you have it, and if in your walks into woods and along the hedges you can secure some leaf mould to put with the earth so much the better. well decayed manure, odds and ends of mortar and lime which the builders may have left about will all help to provide the flowers with food. there are so many flowers that look well in window-boxes that no complete list can be given. boys should be ever on the look out to find from the boxes of other people what thrives in these boxes. each end of the box should be left for climbers that will run up each side of the window, and no better plant for this position can be named than the delicate canary creeper with its pale green leaves and dainty yellow flowers. nasturtiums, too, look well in this position, and no better border for the front of the box can be imagined than the blue of the beautiful lobelia. another good climber is convolvulus major. these climbers live for one season only, but one that grows year after year is tropæolum pentaphyllum. in the winter the tubers of this plant are kept in sand and are placed in position each spring. plants that hang over the front of the box are graceful like single petunias and rock bindweed, and for the rest each boy can make a selection of his favourites for the remaining part of the box. if he likes he may have a number of boxes so that when one has had its day another may be ready. in the spring box he would have crocuses, snowdrops, squills, daffodils and such flowers; then a box with primroses, tulips and hyacinths; and after that a box of pinks, lilies of the valley, anemones, and next the real summer flowers and blooms of autumn. let the plants be watered regularly with water that is not too cold, and if it be possible use rain water. chapter xv the boy as artist it would be idle to pretend that it is possible in the chapter of a book, or indeed in a book itself, to give instruction that would make a boy an artist; but most people have the capacity to make sketches, and this is a pleasing and useful training of the eye and hand. the power to bring away a sketch of a scene that has charmed us is one well worth the cultivation, and in the making of the sketch we see many things that would otherwise escape our notice. if a boy finds he has special ability in this direction he should read the lives of artists, visit picture galleries, and join an art class, where he will be conducted through the severe discipline that leads him to drawing the living human form, amusing himself meanwhile by sketching in the lanes and woods, among the mountains, or wherever he happens to be, even if it is in the streets. $hints on sketching.$--the drawing of a cathedral with all its complexities and innumerable details is governed by the same rules as the drawing of a barn or even of a brick, and these rules are simple, and are easily stated. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] in sketching we have to draw things as they seem, not as we know them to be. the top of a bucket is a perfect circle; yet when we draw it, unless we look down upon it from a point exactly above its centre, we represent it by an oval. similarly, when we look along a stretch of railway line we know that the lines are exactly parallel, but they seem to draw nearer to each other. the rails of a fence are of equal height, and have been put at equal distances apart, but as we look along the fence it seems as though further away the workman had used shorter posts, and had put them nearer together. if we can see through a railway tunnel, it looks as though the way out at the other end were smaller than the way in at this; but we know they are of the same size. the rules under which lines seem to draw together and spaces become smaller have been called the rules of perspective, and it is important that we should learn these rules. luckily they are few and not difficult to understand, and we will learn them as we go along in drawing a few simple forms that shall include them. in fig. we have a box, its corner towards us. in the box itself the lines a b, c d, and e f would be the same distance from each other from end to end, and if they were made ever so long would never meet, but here in the drawing they meet at g. in the same way the lines a h, c e, and d f, which in the actual box are parallel or equi-distant and so draw no nearer to each other, meet in the drawing at i. in the drawing, as in reality, the lines e h, c a, and d b are parallel, and would never meet, however far we might lengthen them. the lines of the brass round the key-hole follow the same rules. let this box illustrate another matter. we move it into a slightly different position, so that we almost lose sight of the end e c a h. this end, in the language of artists, is now said to be "fore-shortened." the lines that draw nearer together are said to "vanish." the point where they meet is their vanishing point. [illustration: fig. .] we will give some further examples of the same rules of perspective applied to different forms. the young artist standing before a scene he is going to sketch should decide what point is opposite his eyes. it may be some place in a church wall or in a tree, or even in the sky. however, having fixed it, mark it also upon your paper, and then draw a horizontal line through it. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . rigg's farm, near aysgarth, wensleydale.] in the scene we have selected we stand upon a hill and look at a farmhouse that stands upon another hill. the point opposite our eyes is the window a. it will be noticed that the lines above the eyes come down to the line of sight or horizontal line, b c. those below rise to it. lines that are parallel to each other, whether they are roof lines tiles, the tops or bottoms of windows, meet in the same point, so that if you get one of those lines right, it is easy to get all the others right by continuing them to the same point. from this sketch, and the foregoing examples, we arrive at the following rules:-- [illustration: sketch at norton.] parallel lines, as they recede, vanish to a point. horizontal, receding lines, if they are below the level of the eyes, appear to rise. horizontal, receding lines, if they are above the level of the eyes, appear to descend. spaces, as they recede, appear to become smaller. [illustration: saskia van ulenburgh, rembrandt's wife. _from a drawing by rembrandt in the berlin museum._] objects, as they recede, appear to become smaller. all horizontal receding lines have their vanishing point upon the line of sight. all parallel retiring lines have the same vanishing point as each other. all horizontal lines which are parallel with the picture plane are drawn parallel with each other, and with the line of sight. all horizontal retiring lines forming right angles with the picture plane, or with our position, have the point of sight for their vanishing point. we have here introduced a new term, the picture plane. the best way to understand this is to imagine you are looking at everything through a pane of glass. in this case the glass would be the picture plane, and if we could stand steadily enough in one place and trace upon the window pane the lines of the streets and houses, we should find the lines upon the pane following the rules we have given. many of the rules of perspective are to be seen in the sketch of rigg's farm, wensleydale, yorkshire, fig. . the receding lines of the road, the grass edges, and the walls; the front of the farmhouse is so much foreshortened that it is possible to see only a very small part of it, though the building is really a long one. we have given also a sketch by rembrandt, and a pen and ink landscape drawing made at norton in north derbyshire by charles ashmore. $stencilling.$--the use of stencils is familiar to most people in one form or other. ladies frequently use stencil plates in which their names or initials are cut out to mark linen. a commoner use is that of metal plates in which the letters of the alphabet are cut out in thin metal for use in labelling trunks, boxes in commerce, with the name and destination of the owner, merchant, or goods. it is possible that a very delicate form of stencilling is familiar to many of my readers, which is used to multiply copies of letters, circulars or notices to go through the post. the machine consists of a handle to which is attached a small wheel which has projecting from its rim a series of sharp points. the letters are formed by writing with this wheel. as the wheel passes over the paper the points pierce small round holes, sufficiently close to each other to indicate the letters, while the paper between the holes are bridges or ties holding the inside of the loops firmly to the rest of the sheet. this writing becomes the stencil. to obtain copies, the stencil is laid over a sheet of paper, and a brush charged with colour is rubbed across. the colour passes through the holes to the paper beneath, and the copy is secured. in making the metal stencil plates of letters, ties or bridges have to be left to prevent the inner parts of the letters becoming solid like a printer's. such letters as i, f, j, t, and some others, can be given in their complete form, though in the case of the f, it would be better, that is, the stencil plate would be firmer, if a tie were left where the top horizontal line joins the perpendicular stem. in cutting stencils this matter of tying or supporting all the interior or enclosed parts of the composition is very important, and should never be lost sight of. it is better to err in an excess of ties, than to risk the falling to pieces of the whole by insufficient support. the reader will perceive that if the white parts of the loops in the letter b are not connected with the outer surrounding whites, they would fall out, and the letter would stencil solid, while if only one tie is given, the loops would get out of position, as the paper swells with the moisture of the paint. instances of these ties will be found in nearly all the illustrations, particularly in the mooresque design, fig. . it is the aim of the designer to make these ties a part of the composition, and an assistance in the effect of the whole. but cases will occur where the composition must be ruthlessly cut across as in the greek design, fig. , where in one repeat the central portions are shown with ties, and in the other in its complete form. the restoration is made with the brush afterwards. the ties should be broad or narrow according to the strength of the material of which the stencil is made, and the number of repeats for which it will be used. [illustration: fig. . frieze or dado.] [illustration: fig. a. altered for vertical use.] [illustration: fig. . mooresque design for dado.] stencilling is employed as an easy method of repeating the same ornament, figures, or letters, with exactness and speed. if i desired to use the simple greek composition fig. , as a frieze in the study in which i am writing, not by any means a large room, being about feet by feet, it would be necessary to repeat it between and times. if i had to draw this in by hand, and laboriously paint it, probably the enthusiasm for art which projected the scheme would be frittered away long before i completed it, and i should throw it up in disgust and call in the paperhanger to put on the usual wall furnishing. but if the design were cut out in stencil, it would take but little if any longer to stencil the frieze than it would for the hanger to paper it, and the scheme being carried out in the other details, i should have the satisfaction and enjoyment of a room specially decorated to suit my own taste, and unique according to the originality of the design. [illustration: fig. . frieze: silverweed, frog.] [illustration: and toad.] in the article on the use of leaves which follows, it is suggested that the forms of leaves to be met with in the field, hedgerow or wood, are peculiarly adapted to ornamental purposes, stencilling in decoration of the home among others. but this use of natural forms in ornament requires taste and consideration. to stick a leaf here and another there, without a purpose or design in the composition, is not ornament. i propose, with the aid of the printer, to give an idea of the principles which govern the making of designs. the first one is _repetition_. to use a star thus * singly, is not ornament. place a number of stars side by side at regular distances between parallel lines thus:-- ================================ * * * * * * * * * * * ================================ and you have a design, elementary, it is true, but as far as it goes decorative. in place of the star put a clover leaf, a conventional flower such as is used in fig. , or a briar leaf laid slanting to the right or left, and you have a border which may be used for a light frieze or the top of a dado. arrange the stars in parallel rows thus:-- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * so that each star falls midway between the star above and below, and you have the elements of a design such as is very commonly used in wall-papers, prints, and nearly all forms of decoration under the name of diaper patterns. again, in place of the star put some other form, as an ivy leaf or a small spray. but in this class of design we shall not be much concerned in room decoration, as they are only used for large panels. another principle in ornament is _alternation_. it may be illustrated thus:-- ==================================================== || * || * || * || * || * ==================================================== in which parallel lines alternate with stars. this composition is not more crude than much of what passes for decoration at the present time. for our immediate purpose let a shapely leaf take the place of the upright lines and a flower the place of the star, and you have a more advanced border, and if the masses are well balanced and drawn, one agreeable to the eye. i think the printer can illustrate another principle of design for us in _symmetry_ thus:-- =========================================== * ! * ! * ! * ! * !=! !=! !=! !=! * - * - * - * - * =========================================== in which three exclamation marks are placed side by side at different levels, with parallel lines and a hyphen below, alternating with stars. or a simpler form still of the same principle may be given thus:-- ===================================================== + + + + + * | * | * | * | * | * + + + + + ===================================================== in which the double dagger alternates with a star. if you draw a perpendicular line up the central exclamation mark or the daggers, the right and left sides will be found to be alike or symmetrical. in place of the daggers or the exclamation marks, draw the leaves of the wild rose, one in the centre and one inclining to the right, another to the left; put a flower in place of the parallel lines, and you will have a symmetrical composition, the stalks being prolonged below. this principle of design is clearly shown in the two designs, figs. and a. a perpendicular line divides the designs into two equal parts. this is two-sided symmetry, what we are more particularly concerned with. another principle in ornament is _balance_ of _parts_. this is symmetry of another order, in which the two sides of the composition, although different in all the details, yet preserve the same weight or balance. the general effect is the same. this is illustrated in fig. , which is a design for a frieze. in no place could a line be drawn which would divide the composition into two similar parts, but by the disposition of the leaves of the silverweed there is an equal distribution of weight on either side of the design. this balance of parts is important to preserve when the design departs from the symmetrical in its arrangements. it makes all the difference between a pleasing and unsatisfactory composition, and is not to be acquired without considerable practice. the chrysanthemum design, fig. , is an illustration of this principle. it is designed for the panels of a door, or the sides of a grate, or to go round a door in the form of a vertical border, but in every case where it can be placed in pairs with the flowers away from the centre, to be done by reversing the stencil. [illustration: fig. . dado or frieze: oak and squirrels.] having thus cleared the ground for practical work, we can describe the way to make stencils. for our purpose the best material for the stencil is the oiled paper used in the letter-copying press. this will be found strong, hard, and non-absorbent. it is comparatively cheap and can be purchased at most stationers. in cases in which this paper would not be large enough, which may happen in some of the running patterns, cartridge paper, or better still, hot-pressed whatman's, if coated on both sides with knotting varnish (to be procured at any oilman's shop), would do very well. for smaller subjects, which are not required for more than a score repeats, ordinary note paper, the highly polished kind that crackles like sheet iron when bent is excellent, and has been largely used by the writer. the knife used is one with a blade that runs to a sharp point. this point must be kept with a keen edge, so that one cut will go through the paper, leaving a clear edge. hold the blade of the knife at right angles to the paper, which must rest upon a clean sheet of glass. if cut upon any yielding surface, the paper will bruise. a hone should be close at hand to keep a good edge to the knife. it is important to get a clean, square cut, with no ragged margins. to get the drawing on the paper, first make a rough sketch giving the size and general character of the design on ordinary sketching paper. if the design is symmetrical, _i.e._, both sides alike, rule a perpendicular line. draw as clearly and carefully as possible one-half the composition, that is all that will appear on the left-hand side of the line. when you are satisfied with this, place a piece of looking-glass exactly on the vertical line; you will see the image of your drawing in the glass, but in reverse, thus completing the design. if looking-glass is not available, a coat of brunswick black on one side of any piece of glass will give you a sufficiently good reflector. probably you will not be altogether satisfied with the drawing as shown complete in the glass. the lines are not agreeable ones, or pretty in curve, or the balance of the parts is not quite as you would like it. make the alterations you feel necessary, and apply the glass again. when satisfied, place tracing-paper over the drawing. this may be fastened down by drawing-pins, a touch of gum, or pieces of the free edge of postage-stamps. indicate carefully by clear marks the position of the vertical line, and proceed to draw a firm outline of the design, with, say, an f pencil or an hb. when done, remove the tracing-paper and fold it exactly down the vertical line, with the pencil drawing outside. double it, in fact. then placing it on a sheet of white paper, draw the other half, thus completing the design. put it, pencilled side downwards, on the oil paper or note-paper, and rub off with your thumb nail. go over the design, marking all the ties very distinctly. then cut out as before, taking care not to cut through the ties. in practice you will find it best to begin cutting at the ties; the paper will readily spin round on the glass so that you can follow the curves of the design with your knife. should you cut through a tie, it must be made good. cut off a slip of paper of the same size, put on some of the knotting, and when it is tacky, stick down the strengthening slip. the stencil may include more than one repeat of the pattern, the more repeats there are the quicker the work can be done. some decorators in making stencils do rather more than they intend to use when stencilling, so that parts overlap, which is done to get the repeat true. i find it better, more exact, to work from two lines on the stencil, one a horizontal line and another a vertical line. by using a needle point (a needle in a wood handle), i rule a horizontal line upon the wall in the position the horizontal line on the stencil should fall. this is altogether indistinguishable when the work is finished. then, vertically to this line, with the same point, i indicate where the repeats should fall, and then go ahead. it is a considerable help to get a friend to join in the work, as he can assist in holding the stencil on the surface to be decorated, giving you more freedom in the use of the right hand. if working alone the stencil is held with the left hand while the colour is applied with the free hand. the straight lines are not stencilled, they are run on by the help of a bevelled straight-edge. the position of these lines is indicated by ruling as above or by twanging a piece of string charged with charcoal dust in the position required. [illustration: fig. . running border.] in decorating your room, the first point to be decided is to what extent and where you will apply the work. if cost is not a great consideration, undoubtedly the best thing to do is to paint the wall over with a pleasing tone in oil colours. a frieze running round the room immediately under the moulding, the depth being according to the height of the room; a dado running round the bottom of the walls, high enough to clear the top of the chair-backs: and if the room is large enough, the division of the room into panels by ornamental columns at the corners, and appropriate divisions. a border may be run round the doors and the sides of the fireplace may receive separate attention if there are surfaces suitable for stencilling. but it is usual to apply this system of decoration to distempered walls, in which case the decoration to be applied would probably be above the dado (which would be papered in some richly decorated pattern), a frieze under the ceiling, and a border round the door. in mixing the distemper (whiting and size), powder colours are used to get the tone desired. this will vary with the taste of the reader, the use the room is put to, and the aspect, whether on the shady or sunny side of the house. do not let it be too dark, or muddy in tone: a cheerful terra-cotta, with a dash of amber in it, if on the shady side; or some tone of sage green, french grey, or peacock blue, if on the sunny side. perhaps the best way is to keep your eyes open when passing some decorator's establishment, or buying the paper for the dado, and fix upon the tone of colour you would like. then mix some harmonizing tints which will go well with the wall colour for your stencil work. you will find that if you decide upon stencilling in dark tones upon light, that it will be more pleasing to get these richer, that is more pure, than the ground colour. the three rich or primary colours are red, blue, and yellow. in mixing your stencil colours, approach these in purity, according to the tone used. these powder colours are obtained by ounces or pounds at colourmen's shops. the first thought to the beginner, if he wishes to darken a tone, is to put black (lamp-black) in. in practice this must be used sparingly. rather get your strength of tint by using pure colours. with distemper colours, you will find that they are much darker wet than dry. if you wish to employ more colours than one, each colour should have a separate stencil. [illustration: fig. . pilaster: chrysanthemums.] having made your stencils, fixed upon and mixed your colours, and indicated the position of the repeats, the next step is the direct application of the colour. this is usually done with flat-headed hog-hair brushes, about / of an inch across, specially made for the purpose. with your palette knife spread out a thin film of the colour on the palette, which may be the back of a plate, or a glazed tile, charge the flat end of the brush with it, and bring it down perpendicularly upon the stencil. don't overcharge the brush. if the pattern is irregular in its details, do every other one with one side of the stencil, and then having been round, wash off the colour from the stencil, and turn it round and do the intervening repeats. the lines are put on with a smaller brush, using the bevelled side of the straight-edge to guide the hand, using more pressure for a broad line, and charging the brush heavily with colour. brushes specially made for lining, known as fitch hair tools, cost, according to size, from - / d. to d. each. stencilling brushes cost only a few pence. the method of producing designs, stencils, and using the stencils is employed in the production of designs for paper-hangings, carpets, floor cloths, damasks and most flat manufactured materials, except that the white used is flake-white, and the colours are mixed with gum and water. the colours are known in the trade as tempera colours. the ground is laid evenly upon strained cartridge paper, and absolute flatness of tint in working out the design may be gained by using stencils. in making irregular designs, that is designs which are not symmetrical, the whole composition has to be drawn and traced. in decorating a room, there is a very considerable range of choice in the styles available, some idea of which is given in the accompanying designs, from the purely ornamental ones of figs. and to the natural treatment of figs. and . the design suitable for the top of a dado as fig. would, with a slight modification, equally suit the frieze of a room, as both are horizontal treatments; but for perpendicular applications, the designs should be redrawn. some idea of the fresh treatment required is given in fig. a, where the parts of the composition have been re-arranged to suit a vertical position. should it be desired to adopt two colours, the principle to be acted upon is to make the smaller masses darker tones, and more intense colours, the larger the mass, the lighter and more neutral the tone should be. fig. is equally adapted for a frieze or dado top. it is designed in squares, so that by a re-arrangement of the squares, _i.e._, by placing the squirrel squares under the oak-leaf squares, it can be made suitable for a vertical treatment, or for the body of the dado. in designing such patterns as fig. , where again two or more colours may well be used, care should be taken that the repeats fit well in with one another, so that no ugly spaces are left unfurnished, as decorators say, and also to prevent the recurrence of horizontal or diagonal lines. this is a failure with many commercial designs and is a fault very distressing to the eye. $how a portrait bust is made.$--the chief work of the sculptor consists in working in clay; therein lies the main portion of his art, and there are those at the head of their profession who rarely handle a chisel, and then only to give a final touch here and there after their carver has finished his work. moreover, there are many more busts made in bronze and in terra-cotta than in marble; but the initial procedure of building up is the same in all cases. the first thing a sculptor does in setting about a bust is to fix a square, upright peg, or support, about twenty inches in length, into a wooden platform eighteen inches square. the platform, in order to prevent warping, should be made of two pieces of board so joined as to have the grain of the one running transverse to the other. the peg is generally furnished with a bar, like a latin cross, and is provided at the top with what is called an armature, that is, two pieces of lead piping looped over the peg from side to side, so as to form, as it were, the outline of a head. the ends of one piece are nailed to either side of the top of the peg, and the ends of the other to the back and front of it; or the armature may consist (as some sculptors prefer that it should) of a "loop" of lead-piping, fixed to a large nail, with what is called a "butterfly" attached (see illustration). the transverse, or crosspiece, is fitted into a slot cut in the upright, and is intended to support the shoulders of the bust, the armature serving as the skeleton, so to speak, of the head. being made of lead, the armature can be bent this way and that, and twisted about, even after it has been covered with clay. this is a very important matter, as a portrait frequently consists as much in a characteristic pose of the head as in the exact representation of features, and the peculiarity or habit of the one whose bust is to be made cannot always be perceived at the first sitting, everybody attitudinising more or less at first when about to have a likeness taken. but after a while the sitter is sure to forget himself; then the natural pose comes, and the sculptor flexes his armature this way or that, and secures the right expression, in so far as the turn or "cant" of the head is concerned. [illustration: how a bust is made.] having thus prepared his skeleton, the sculptor is now ready to begin with the more important matter of modelling. but first of all he has to see that his clay is all right. the clay commonly used for this purpose is the china clay of the potter; but at a pinch any clay will do, and i know of more than one sculptor who, in his impecunious days, has been obliged to turn to the common clay of the brick-field. the essential thing is that it should not be rotten and friable, but rather elastic, spreading easily and cohering well. when the clay is too dry it is put in water over night. in the morning it is in such a state that it may be passed through a coarse sieve, and so the rough particles be got rid of. then, when it has dried until of the consistency of putty, it is ready for use. the sculptor now takes four or five largish lumps and rolls them with his hands into long strips, from half to three-quarters of a foot in length, and of the thickness of a good-sized ruler. he then takes portions of these strips and applies them bit by bit to the armature and the transverse bar, thus gradually building up the general shape of the head and shoulders. care has to be taken from the first to have an eye to the features and contour of the head that is being modelled. it is not necessary that the model should keep seated in the same attitude all the time. if required to do so, he or she, as the case may be, is apt to acquire a very stiff pose, with the result that the stiffness may be transferred to the bust. the best way is to let the sitter converse freely, and assume a natural position. by this means the habitual expression is seized, and a good likeness is more likely to be the result. when a general rough outline of the head has been secured, it is then time to begin to work for exactitude of feature and facial expression. this the artist does by putting on a bit here, and taking off a bit there. all this is done with the fingers and thumb. occasionally it may be necessary to use a tool, but rarely. the best sculptors work mainly with the instrument nature has provided them withal, the hands. with his fingers the artist has more freedom in handling his material, and in communicating to it that life-like expression which is the aim and object of his art. no tool yet invented by man enables him to enjoy such fineness of touch, or to give so much breadth or such delicacy of detail to his work, as that which he naturally commands in the use of his fingers. of course, a bust is not modelled in an hour, nor in a day. a good sculptor will finish one in four or five sittings of an hour or an hour and a half each; others will require a dozen or more. everything depends upon the facility of the artist in seizing upon expression. this will be the difficult point with the beginner. he may, after a while, get the general outline of the head and face of his sitter and feel utterly helpless to go further. but then is the time to exercise patience. michael angelo did not become a sculptor in a day, nor yet in a year. when the tyro feels that he cannot go further, it is generally because he does not see further. of course, he sees that his portrait is not like; but he has not yet learned to see in detail, in minutiae. that he must now begin to do by observing every little point, depression, curve, wrinkle, wart, hair, and so forth. and then, what his mind has learned to take note of, his hand will soon learn to imitate. all the time the work is in progress the clay must be kept moist, otherwise it will crack and fall to pieces. this is commonly done by spraying it with a garden syringe, and covering it over at night with wet cloths. when the bust is finished, if it has to be cast in bronze, or reproduced in marble, a cast of it is taken in plaster of paris; but if it is intended to fire it, and make a terra-cotta bust of it, the operation of hollowing it is necessary. this is effected by slicing off the crown of the head with a piece of thin wire or thread, and then scooping out the inside until a uniform thickness of about an inch and a half is left. when this is done the bust will be easily freed from its peg, and the armature attached to it. the next thing is to set it aside to dry. this takes some time, and only when it is quite free from all moisture is it ready to be taken to the kiln to bake or fire. the kiln in which it is fired is the ordinary one of the potter. this having been done, the work is complete. if the bust has to be reproduced in bronze, the plaster cast must be taken to the bronze casters, where the transformation will be effected. the process of making an exact reproduction in marble is generally done by the sculptor himself, or by his assistant, and is more or less a mere mechanical operation, the carvers working by points, as they are called, mathematically accurate, by means of which he is enabled to make an exact copy of the cast. when this is done the sculptor goes over it carefully with his chisel and gives some final touches by way of finish, and to add to the vividness and life-likeness, so to speak, of expression. $how to use leaves.$--there is one desirable quality in the hobby i am about to recommend boys, and that is its inexpensive character. a quarter of a yard of nainsook muslin, a tube or two of oil paint, a good-sized handful of lint or cotton wool, two or three sheets of foolscap, and as many of cartridge paper, and you are set up for any number of wet days or vacant half-holidays. the leaves can be obtained free of cost, anywhere and at any time, winter or summer, and in any number. ivy leaves do well, leaves of the black or red currant or gooseberry bushes are better, and the flowering currant better still. brambles, lime, and plane trees which grow everywhere, and most trees or bushes except holly, will give you excellent subjects. some boys know how to keep in the good graces of the housekeeper, and would "borrow" the muslin from her. (say you would like it fine.) probably one of your sisters paints a bit, and would lend you the burnt sienna tube (oil colour) upon the same terms; of course, the wool or lint you would get from the housekeeper with the muslin; while an application to the pater for some foolscap--you would prefer blue, it is more business-like--would be sure to be successful, for somehow fathers like to encourage boys when they mean to do something serious; and there is left only the cartridge paper to finish the outfit. perhaps somewhere in the establishment there is even a store of this; if not, there is nothing for it but a visit to the stationer and an attack upon the pocket-money. now to proceed. make the cotton wool into a nice round even ball, quite free from lumps, particularly at the bottom. fold the muslin to get a double thickness, place the wool inside, make it into a mass about the size of a cricket-ball, tie this tightly, leaving enough muslin free to take hold of easily. (see fig. .) [illustration: dabber. fig. .] [illustration: maple leaf centre. fig. .] next get your leaves. the front or back garden, or the greenhouse, will probably afford all you want, to begin with. choose in preference leaves which lie flat, with no bulgings or cockles; you will get much better results. put them in a dish or basin large enough to take them easily, and cover with a damp cloth. if you have to go farther afield for your leaves take with you, if possible, a tin box or botanist's vasculum, and sprinkle a little water upon them. if not able to obtain such a box, then a wooden or cardboard one must do, but pack the leaves in damp moss, if able to get any. when you reach home cover up as before. you are now ready to commence. squeeze out some colour upon the foolscap, spread this evenly with the muslin dabber, not by smearing but by dabbing, with a slight twisting motion of the wrist, taking care that the colour is evenly distributed on the paper and the dabber. then try it by bringing down the dabber upon a clean sheet of paper with a smart blow. if the colour comes away evenly you are ready to begin upon the leaves; if not, work away with the dabber on the foolscap till you get better results. patience will do it. take one of your flattest leaves, and remove all moisture from the surface. a piece of blotting-paper is good for this purpose. then, with a series of good hard raps with the dabber--don't be afraid of hurting the leaf--get the colour evenly upon the face, working as near to the veins as possible. cut a piece of cartridge paper twice the size of the leaf--and now comes the careful treatment--put the leaf down, handling it by the stalk, in the place you want it; don't shift it about or attempt any fresh arrangement. to do so would smear the paper. bring down the upper half of the paper upon the leaf, and hold steadily with the left hand. then, with the forefinger of the right hand inside your handkerchief or a cloth, rest upon the outside of the paper, taking care not to let the leaf inside slip about. you may use some amount of pressure; the colour will not yield itself up too readily. if the leaf is full of sap, less force must be used, or you will crush the tissue. now raise the paper and remove the leaf. probably you will not be satisfied with the first attempt. some parts will be faint, other parts loaded with colour. possibly also the leaf has shifted a little. if this has not occurred you will have got a portrait of the leaf, showing the cutting of the edges and the ramifications of the veins. now try again, either upon the same leaf or a fresh one. at each fresh attempt you will be getting more skilful in handling the leaf, in the use of the dabber, and the careful placing and rubbing to get the impression. and the dabber, too, will be getting into better condition. the colour will have penetrated the muslin and gone a little way into the wool. use as little colour as possible, getting the colour on rather by smart blows than any other way. it would be well to have the cartridge paper folded ready for use, in appropriate sizes, a little too large, to permit of after-trimming. [illustration: hawthorn border. fig. .] [illustration: plaque: w. veitch's creeper leaves. fig. .] you will find that leaves are not alike in the character of the surface. some are covered with hairs, like the mulleins; these will take almost any quantity of colour. perhaps you had better begin upon such leaves. others have a few stiff hairs, and others, again, are quite free from such appendages. these require least colour of all. you will find, too, that it is better to commence with the back of the leaf. the veins are usually more prominent, and the impression obtained is more interesting. there is greater difficulty in getting the colour on all parts of the leaf, close up to the principal veins, and the rubbing for the impression is harder. but by patience and perseverance, to quote the copybook, you will soon obtain pleasing results. i don't think i can tell you much more that will aid you in getting good impressions. i have recommended the use of burnt sienna, because it is a cheap and easily worked colour; but any oil colour can be used, either straight from the tube, or mixed to suit your judgment or taste. greens, olives, russets, browns, greys, yellows, or even reds, can be used. you can certainly get some startling effects with these, if removed some distance from nature; or by using two or more colours and dabbers you may graduate the tones or colours on the same leaf. suppose you want an autumn effect. mix or choose your yellow, and prepare also an orange-red colour. coat the leaf first of all with the yellow--don't use gamboge--then with the red dabber apply that colour to the end or margin of the leaf, and take off as before [illustration: leaves of the ginko tree. fig. .] you may say, what is the use of it all when the necessary skill is obtained? you will find it a very good and useful hobby even to so obtain a series of prints of the leaves of our forest trees. there are, perhaps, more of these than you are aware of. and there is another point--the leaves of any particular plant vary very much in shape. a collection of these variations, if at all complete, would be held even by botanists to be very valuable indeed. then, what a number of forest trees there are! the common and wych elms, the oak and maple, the two chestnuts, the spanish and horse--a full-grown leaf of the latter you will find a large order--the beech and hornbeam (note the difference in the margin), the wild cherry, crab, and sloe, the dogwood, the two buckthorns, the service tree, the wayfaring tree, the back of the leaf of which you will find good to begin with. a good instance of the variety in form in the leaves of one plant is the now common wall plant, veitch's virginian creeper, which i have used to decorate a plaque in fig. . the seedling leaves, too, are well worthy of collection--they vary very much from the more adult leaves. i have no need to write more upon this, as, if you make the collection of leaves a hobby, these details will come. but the use of leaves does not stop here. more than any other part of the plant, leaves are used by the designer for sculptural details, and for decoration in all its branches. but most boys are not designers or skilful draughtsmen, neither have they the time to make drawings or paintings which would give the results so easily obtained by this process. even excellent artists shrink from giving the amount of details which are secured in these transfers from the objects themselves. some applications of foliage which can be done from the leaves themselves are given as hints of what is possible. these vary in difficulty, until the results are to be described only as works of art. figs. and are applications of leaves to the decoration of occasional tables, which more frequently than not are ebonised. fig. is an arrangement of the leaves of the "ginko," or adiantum tree. when the table is ready for the varnish, apply the leaves in the positions marked out beforehand. in the illustration a band of colour is supposed to be previously painted to the shape indicated, and should be some rich olive or russet tone, upon which the leaves are printed in a lighter, say a sage green. a very good scale of colours, adapted for use on black, is used by the japanese on the trays to be found in almost any house. you may not be able to get "ginko" leaves, but several of the adiantums have fronds the pinnæ of which could be similarly used. an arrangement of maple leaves in fig. could be copied for the centre of the table, and similarly treated. by-the-by, should you in placing the leaf make any false marks, these can be easily removed while the colour is wet by wiping off with a cloth, using turpentine or spirit of wine if obstinate. [illustration: photo. mount decorated with bramble leaves. fig. .] fig. is an arrangement of bramble leaves. a very considerable variety of form is usually found on the same plant; this variety has been utilised. use pale tones of colour, and make out the stalks with a brush afterwards. it will be found useful to roughly indicate the position of the leaves by pencil or chalk after having placed them, and before applying their painted surfaces. it is intended as a decoration to a photographic mount. if the mount is of a dark tea-green colour a very considerable richness of effect can be obtained. the chief difficulty will be the careful adjustment and selection of the leaves. fig. is the application of veitch's ampelopsis to a terra-cotta plaque. you will find this more difficult, as the surfaces to which the leaves are applied are not flat, and the material is absorbent to a high degree. first give the plaque a coating of size; this will keep the colour on the surface. roughly sketch the position of the leaves in pencil; apply colour more copiously to the leaves, and transfer. when dry give a coating of quick-drying varnish. copal, dissolved in methylated spirits, will prove the most satisfactory. the end of the spray is done all at once. the stems, stalks, and tendrils are put in afterwards by brush work. fig. is the most difficult of all. it is an arrangement of hawthorn leaves in different tones of colour, and intended for a title-page or elaborate mount. the leaves can be easily obtained in considerable variety. roughly mark out the places the leaves should occupy. some are in front of others; do these first in a paler green. cut out paper shapes to cover them, and stick them down temporarily after they are dry. then, in darker and richer tones of colour, transfer the back leaves; when dry remove the covers, and touch up with a brush any deficiencies. add the stalks, stems, and thorns, and paint in the haws. there are many other applications to which these prints from leaves could be put. a branch of oak running across the panels of a door, a simple leaf upon the cover of a book, nicely done; in the making of stencil plates, for borders, friezes, and dados, or a conventional pattern for wall papers. studies for wood carving can easily be obtained from the store of prints from leaves, such as the strawberry, potentilla, goose-grass, buttercup, dandelion, and many wayside plants. when the stalk or principal vein is too succulent or thick, it would be well to pare it down, to permit of easier rubbing, not attempting to get an impression from more than one surface of the leaf. it may be useful to some readers to give the prices at which the materials may be obtained. the cheaper colours are in every respect quite as good for the purpose as the more expensive ones, and should cost about threepence a tube from an artists' colourman. a small camel-hair brush, from a penny upwards, would do; but it might be sable in preference, from sixpence upwards. you can get a good-sized sheet of cartridge paper for a penny. the nainsook muslin should be new, and of a fine quality. any holes in it would be fatal to good work. a penny or two would buy the foolscap paper. [illustration: the apparatus.] [illustration: the points.] $pyrography.$--the outfit consists of a platinum point, sometimes called the burner, an alcohol lamp, and a benzine bottle with rubber tubing terminating in a bulb as shown in the illustration. the points or burners may be obtained in many sizes for fine or broad lines. the work is done upon unvarnished wood, which should be seasoned and free from resin. sometimes designs are drawn too upon calf, cardboard, and even upon velvet, but upon these materials be careful the point is not too hot. to use the pyrography apparatus fill both the alcohol lamp and the benzine bottle half full. upon the benzine bottle put the rubber stopper that has the metal nozzle and join the bellows and the tubing. now light your alcohol lamp, and in its flame hold with your right hand the platinum point, and with your left hand work the bulb steadily and continuously. the platinum point will thus become red hot and it must be kept so. with this hot point draw upon the wood and you will find that all kinds of designs and effects are possible by using different points, and, indeed, by using the same in different ways and at different temperatures. the judicious use of sandpaper improves the general effect afterwards, and a wax finish may be obtained by the application of pure bees'-wax slowly melted in turpentine. when it is in a syrupy state apply it with a cloth, and a few days later brush away the superfluous wax and wipe tenderly with a soft cloth. the general effect may be heightened by the use of colour. the young pyrographist may practise upon some of the designs given in the other sections of this chapter, and he will be able to purchase his outfit with directions for its use. messrs. gamage, in holborn, and messrs. benetfink, in cheapside, have many kinds of apparatus and accessories. chapter xvi ventriloquism and polyphony $ventriloquism.$--ventriloquism is no more a gift than is the ability to talk or sing; it does not depend on any peculiar formation of the throat; it is, in fact, an art which can be acquired by almost any one possessing a voice of average compass (some twelve notes), together with an ordinarily good ear for music. if, in addition to these, the tyro show any aptitude for acting and mimicry, there is prospect of his becoming an expert performer. broadly speaking, ventriloquism consists in a close imitation of sound _as it falls upon the ear_, the ventriloquist effecting this by skilfully modifying the cavity of the mouth in such a way as to give his voice a deceptive character. the young ventriloquist must study all sorts and conditions of sounds and voices _as they fall on the ear_. he must become familiar with the models he seeks to imitate. he must, for example, note that a voice from the cellar, heard in a room above, has a subdued and muffled sound, many of the consonants being strangely altered, so that the words, "i'm down here in the cellar, sir!" would sound more like, "in'e down here in a zellar, zir!" again, in listening to the knife-grinder, he must observe, first the _bur-r-r_ of the wheel, and then a combination of the _bur-r-r_ with a prolonged _iss_ when the knife touches the grindstone. these little hints will, we trust, sufficiently impress the beginner with the necessity of learning _to listen with new ears_ whilst endeavouring to speak with a new voice. you will observe, too, that the character of the assumed voice is determined chiefly by the shape of the mouth. this is the more important, because misguided learners are so apt to strain the larynx. there should be no pressure on the throat, though some pressure must necessarily be exerted on the chest and the abdominal muscles by reason of the slow rate at which the air is allowed to leave the lungs; for, be it carefully noted, _the ventriloquial voice can only be spoken during a slow expiration of the breath_. consequently, the learner must exercise himself in controlling the breath, for which purpose let him practise filling the lungs with air and then reading aloud as long a passage as he can whilst the air is being slowly expelled. with regard to modifying the natural voice, every one knows how this can be done by extraneous means. a speaking-trumpet, for example, renders it loud and harsh, whilst a hand placed lightly over the mouth makes it low and muffled. at an evening party where we had been amusing some juvenile friends, a voice seemed to come from the chimney in obedience to one of the boys, who stood before the fireplace as a new fledged professor of ventriloquism, and we considered the imitation to be rather good until, upon lifting the table-cloth near us, we discovered a confederate on the floor, talking into an empty jug. this, of course, was mere jugglery, but genuine ventriloquism is to be attained by a careful management of the breath whilst _modifying the shape of the cavity of the mouth_ by a proper adjustment of lips, teeth, jaws, tongue and palate. and here let us point out that, although the best ventriloquial effects can only be produced by the mature voice, it is well to begin practising at an early age, in order to make the vocal organs strong and flexible. the present writer began experimenting at the age of twelve, only resting therefrom, as every boy should, during that beautiful period of "gruffiness" consequent on the breaking of the voice. after that we went on again, making slow headway, until one memorable night when we received undoubted assurance of our ability to deceive. it was at a party given by a bluff sea-captain in a northern town, and a young gentleman was singing a very sentimental ditty to a saddened audience, when we essayed between whiles to imitate the singer in a falsetto voice, muffled, as if coming through the closed shutters, towards which we took care to cast an occasional glance of annoyance. presently the captain rose and left the room on tiptoe, at the same time indicating by vigorous pantomime that the singer was to proceed with his song. before long a tremendous splash of water was heard on the pavement outside, and our host soon after re-entered, remarking that he had taught those young vagabonds not to mock people outside the shutters, for he'd given them "billows" from the top bed-room window. there are in reality only three well-defined ventriloquial voices: ( ) the _distant_ voice, as from the roof, the street, etc.; ( ) the _resonant_ voice, as from a chimney, cupboard, cellar, etc.; and ( ) the _falsetto_ voice. "but," exclaims the intelligent reader, "how can each voice be used for various imaginary places? will the _distant_ voice serve equally well for roof or street?" it will; and this brings us to a very important point, viz., that we judge of the _direction_ of sound partly by means of the sense of sight. a railway traveller, for instance, seated in a waiting-room, is often perplexed as to whether an approaching train is "up" or "down" until he notes the demeanour of those on the platform who can see the train coming in. it is always difficult to determine the direction from which distant sounds proceed, and frequently of sounds much nearer. but this uncertainty is of vital importance to the ventriloquist, as it enables him "to make the ears the fool of the other senses." when he uses the _distant_ voice, the audience will be unable to refer it to any particular quarter, unless the place be suggested to them by the performer. the moment he does this, however, by word or sign or mere glance even, the imagination of the audience does the rest, and the illusion is complete. it is plain, therefore, that the tyro should have some taste for acting, otherwise he can neither conceal the internal efforts he is making, nor invest his shadowy characters with any degree of naturalness. coming now to practical details, let the student attempt _the distant voice_ in the following manner. say the word "hallo!" just in your ordinary speaking voice, in order to fix the pitch. then open the mouth slightly, draw in the lower jaw a little, and firmly fix both jaws. next, stretch or arch the soft palate as in the act of yawning take a deep breath, and utter the word "hallo!" in the same pitch as before, but softly, and _without moving the lips_, endeavouring at the same time to direct the sound against the soft palate by turning the tongue well back so as to strike the roof of the mouth. at first your strange gurglings may alarm the household, and much fatigue may be felt in the jaws and tongue, but persevere and you will soon acquire a new voice of startling character. _the resonant voice_ is produced on the lower tones of the scale, the sound being forced into the nasal passages with a jerky explosive delivery of the breath. the parts against which the voice and the tongue should respectively strike may be felt by prolonging the sound of the letter _n_ on a low note with the mouth nearly closed and the lower jaw drawn back a little as before. in this way utter the sentence, "joe's down here in the cellar!" and the words will sound deep and muffled and be accompanied by a resonant hum. _remember always to keep the lips and jaws immovable_, even at the cost of mutilating your words. these will greatly improve by-and-by. the practised ventriloquist can, of course, judge the effect he is producing, but the learner, as soon as he makes any progress, had better get a companion to criticize his efforts. _the falsetto voice_ is feminine and must be familiar to all. if spoken with the lower jaw drawn in and the mouth all but closed it will strike against the hard palate and produce a thin, metallic voice like that of a child. it can also be used for "distant" effects, according to the method set forth for voice no. . the _falsetto_ voice is frequently used for "doll-talking"--a branch of the ventriloquial art concerning which, and polyphonism also, we shall have something to say presently. meanwhile, devote a few minutes daily to each of the following exercises:-- ( ) singing the common musical scale to the vowel sounds, as well as to the syllables _ha_ and _coo_. all good vocal exercises are an aid to ventriloquism. ( ) practising the management of the breath as already described. ( ) experimenting with the three ventriloquial voices. ( ) studying all the peculiarities of voices and other sounds _as they fall upon the ear_. the learner still finds it difficult, no doubt, to enunciate his words at all clearly without moving the lips and jaws, but this difficulty, though it will never quite vanish, may be greatly reduced. the vowels run smoothly enough, but the consonants give trouble, particularly the _labials_, _b_, _p_, _m_, and their first cousins, the _spirants_, _v_, _f_, _w_. as to the _spirants_, one may soon acquire the knack of sounding _f_ fairly well, so this must be used for _v_ also, unless one can hit upon that nearer substitute got by compounding _g_ and _f_. to catch this sound with lips and jaws immovable, pronounce the word _never_ as "_negfer_," quickly, with a light touch on the _g_. the sound of _w_ is well represented by that of _oo_. for the _labials_, however, demanding as they do a positive closing of the lips, we must substitute the letters _g_, _k_, _ng_. thus, the sentence, "jim broke seven of tom's pens this morning," would be rendered as "jing groke se(g)fen of tong's kens this ng-orning," and the query, "when am i to come up?" would become "oohen ang i to cung uk?" such sentences, though good for practice, are bad for exhibition, and must be carefully avoided in the preparation of dialogue. nevertheless, they look much more imperfect here than they would sound in the mouth of an able ventriloquist; besides, as nobody expects to hear perfect words from a distant source, the audience readily accepts the performer's mode of rendering them. in this connection it should be remarked that the performer may occasionally turn his face from view, and allow his lips free play, although, as a rule, either a side face, or a three-quarters face should be presented to the audience, and, pretty frequently, a front face also. we have next to deal with _ventriloquial perspective_, which appertains to the gradual increase or decrease in the _loudness_ of a sound as it approaches or recedes. attention to this will give our assumed voices just the magic touch. for the receding voice, speak more and more gently, whilst gradually closing the mouth, until the sound is shut off. for an approaching voice, reverse the process, but in either case take care to _maintain the original pitch_. this is just where beginners stumble; they mostly alter the pitch at every step, graduating it from a growl to a squeak, or _vice versa_; nor do they observe how the words spoken by a receding voice grow less and less _distinct_ until only the vowel sounds remain. the following presentment of these important matters may impress itself on the reader's mind:--good-night! good-night! goo'-nigh'! 'oo'-nigh'! 'igh'! we shall now give in outline a few sketches for the student to fill in with dialogue of his own. the "situations" will readily suggest some simple conversations well suited for effective treatment. for _the man in the chimney_, assume a voice of low pitch, strongly resonant throughout. express your belief that somebody is up the chimney, and stoop near the fireplace to question the intruder in a soft and rather high-pitched voice. then draw down the corner of the mouth turned from the audience, and deliver your answers with force, so that the sound may be deflected from the stone-work supporting the mantel-piece. your man in the chimney is a rough, cantankerous fellow, who accounts for his presence in the most absurd way, and answers with great warmth, especially when there is a fire in the grate. as soon as he begins to ascend the chimney, step back a pace, keeping your face in the same direction. to wind up, either leave him stuck in the chimney, or dismiss him by way of the roof. in speaking to _the man on the roof_, begin by taking a deliberate look at the ceiling, and then shout "hallo-o!" the answer, given in the _distant_ voice, should sound almost like an echo. before answering, turn your face to the audience, and, with the head in an easy, listening attitude, produce the reply softly on a note of _middle pitch_. the man on the roof rarely speaks more than a few sentences. the audience seem to understand how trying it is for him to converse at such a distance, so he is humanely dismissed very soon, and may then be heard faintly answering as he wanders on from roof to roof, or reaches the ground by a ladder. sometimes, however, the voice grows in strength and resonance as the man enters the chimney, and descends almost to the hearthrug; at other times, if the night is particularly cold, you may ask him to remain where he is in the silvery moonlight. [illustration: the man in the hall.] [illustration: the talking hand.] [illustration: the trap door.] [illustration: raising the trap door.] _the man in the hall_ is a capital voice to practise. with your hand on the handle of the door, parley with the rough fellow who is trying to push it open from the other side. at this stage use the _resonant_ voice, and explode your answers against the panel of the door. as the man is noisy, you may produce a striking effect by alternately opening and shutting the door rapidly, accompanying the action with a sudden swelling and sinking of the voice, remembering at the same time to maintain the original pitch. much amusement will arise if your visitor happens to be a sweep who has come to the wrong house, but insists on cleaning the drawing-room chimney. you may even put your head outside the door for a moment to remonstrate with him, and then step back suddenly with the mark of a grimy hand upon your face--self-inflicted, of course, with a burnt cork. as the voice moves away, its resonant quality should be moderated, and, in case the man talks himself out into the street, it should merge into the _distant voice_. sometimes, however, affairs take a novel turn, and the sweep, in seeking an exit, wanders into the cellar, where he may be heard making unkind remarks in accents faint and sooty. the voice of _the man in the cellar_ is a modified form of the _resonant_ voice, delivered with less force and less of the nasal quality. a fine effect may be introduced by making your man slowly ascend and descend the cellar steps, talking or singing all the time. moreover, this effect may be greatly heightened by using a trap-door made in the following manner. cover a sheet of stout cardboard (about - / ft. square) with grained wall-paper to imitate woodwork, and let it dry thoroughly under pressure, as warping would render it useless. on it paint two large hinges with black enamel, and near the front edge fix a large black ring by means of a loop of leather or black tape. the ring may be either a wooden curtain-ring or a coil of cane bound with "wax-end." to the under-side of the board glue two leather tabs, in line with the hinges, but projecting, so that the trap may thereby be fastened to the floor with drawing-pins. before the audience arrive, fix the trap-door in position, well to the right or left of the platform or other space, and take care to indicate the thickness of the woodwork on the edge which is to face the performer. under the trap a corresponding square of black tissue paper should be pinned to the floor, so that, when the trap is raised, a dark hole may appear beneath. during the performance, the trap must be lifted with considerable toil, else its flimsy nature will be discovered, and perhaps cause an untimely titter. if managed properly, however, it is most realistic, and may be employed in a startling way to convey the idea of a man raising it from below. this is done by fixing to the upper edge of the board a piece of strong black thread (invisible to the audience) at a few yards distance and attaching the other end to a strong finger-ring to be worn by the performer. the ring, if placed on a table or chair near the trap-door, may be slipped on the finger at the right moment, and will thus enable the performer, whenever he raises his arm with a gesture of alarm or of command, to raise the trap-door at the same time. doll-talking is a branch of our subject which finds great favour with boys, for it is often as funny as droll figures and smart witty dialogue can make it. the nature of the dialogue, indeed, is of much more importance here than in pure ventriloquism. the voices are easy to acquire, but not so easy to describe. draw back the lower jaw pretty well; press the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth; raise the rest of the tongue until it nearly touches (and it _will_ touch every now and then) the roof of the mouth, and then project the sound forcibly against the hard palate, just above the front teeth. the falsetto voice treated in this way, sometimes becomes almost perfect, enabling the ventriloquist to sound nearly every letter; whilst appearing to be absolutely mute. fix upon two well-contrasted characters: one speaking in a shrill falsetto, the other in a hard, metallic voice of middle pitch. figures for this purpose can be purchased at some of the london toy bazaars and conjurers' shops. a pair of large dolls, with practical mouths and eyes, would cost about two pounds, but heads may be purchased separately and fixed to home-made bodies. these heads, which represent a funny man, an old woman, a little girl and a negro, range in price from five shillings and sixpence to eighteen and sixpence, the latter kind being life-size. the pairs of dolls mostly used are styled "tommy and joey," "tommy and granny," etc. the performer places a doll on each knee and holds a lively conversation with them, often interrupted, however, by the crying, giggling, and singing of the dolls, whose unseasonable jokes and general naughtiness call down upon their wooden heads many a resounding blow. [illustration: betty bouncer.] there is a cheaper figure, however, called "the talking hand," which may be bought at almost any large toy shop for about half-a-crown. as great fun can be got from this figure, we shall now tell our boys how to make it at the cost of a few pence. get a quarter-yard of unbleached calico, fold it double and trace upon it an outline of the right hand and wrist. then cut round the outline, taking care to leave a broad margin and a long thumb. stitch round the glove, turn it inside out, and insert the hand. now close the hand, and, with a soft blacklead, mark in roughly the eyes, nose, etc. the projecting knuckles will form the nose and the thumb the lower jaw. to give the latter a better appearance fill out the tip with wadding and sew it to that part of the glove just above it. having withdrawn your hand, flatten the glove, and proceed to mark in the features more carefully with good writing-ink and a quill pen. the furrows in the face and the hair should also be marked with black ink, but the wide mouth and the tip of the nose with red ink. colour the face with powdered chalk (yellow ochre and red) rubbed in with pellets of blotting-paper. take care to make the eyes extra large and paint them with chinese white. to complete the figure, sew to the glove a cap-frill, a shawl of red flannel, and a large bow under the chin, and "betty bouncer" becomes one of the most comical creatures you ever saw, ready to talk, laugh, or cry to order, while as to singing--well, you should just see the old lady getting her top note! the chief subject of our next section will be _polyphonism_, or the imitation of various musical instruments, cries of animals, and other sounds. meanwhile the young ventriloquist will find quite enough to do in practising: (_a_) sentences containing labials and spirants; (_b_) voices saying "good-night," etc., in a monotone, whilst approaching or receding; (_c_) voices at the door, on the roof, up the chimney, in the cellar; (_d_) the "talking hand" or other figures. $polyphony.$--polyphony is the art of imitating sounds of various kinds, usually, without attempting to deceive the hearer as to their direction. it may therefore be studied independently of ventriloquism. already the art is much in vogue. we all know the boy who occasionally alarms the street with the yelp of an injured dog, or imitates the "cock's shrill clarion" cleverly enough to deceive half the roosters in the neighbourhood and make quiet people mutter of canes and constables. as in ventriloquism, so now the learner must first of all study closely the sounds he wishes to imitate. very often they may be roughly indicated in words or syllables, and this is very helpful. indeed, many words in our language, such as buzz, bang, tinkle, thud, crash, splash, and the like, originated in this very way. let us begin with a few easy examples. _knife-grinding_ sounds like the combination of a _bur-r-r_--made by fluttering the lips--with a prolonged _ss_. _sawing_ may be indicated by the syllables _shuh-szee_ uttered alternately with the difference of a semitone. _planing_ can be effectively rendered by strongly whispering _shee-yick_, _shee-ic-yick_, _ll-ll-luc_, and then _yu-yu-yook_ as a long shaving curls out of the plane. with regard to musical instruments, there is the _ta-ra-ra_ of the trumpet, the _pangka-bongka_ of the banjo, the _zhing-sching_ of the cymbals, the _pom-pome_ of the trombone, the _r-rhumbu-dhumba_ of the drum, the explosive _plim-blim_ of the harp, and the _floo-lu-loo_ of the flute, whilst the notes of a clarionet may be imitated by the player's running rapidly down the scale from a sharp nasal _pli-li-li-plan-plah_ into a deeper _glug-lu-lu-glah_. syllables like the foregoing give, as it were, an outline for the polyphonist to fill in with sound of the right colour or quality. thus, a tune on the cornet should be sung to a _ra-ra-ra_ forced through the tightly compressed lips, and the _flu-lu-loo_ of the flute, with its roundness of tone and breathiness, should be vocalised in the falsetto while the cheeks are distended with air. an amusing and realistic imitation of the _jew's-harp_ can be given in the following manner. stiffen the first and second fingers of the left hand and place them firmly over the lips, but lightly, so as to allow the lips perfectly free play. then give a strongly nasal rendering of some monotonous air whilst ringing the changes as rapidly as possible on the syllables _whanga-whonga whee-whaw whoodle-ongle eedle-ongle whow-zeedle oodle-ee whay-whonga whaw_, during which beat time upon the projecting fingers with the right forefinger as if twanging the tongue of the instrument. by following on the lines now laid down the apt learner may even become skilful enough to imitate an entire brass band, a feat which has been performed by at least one ventriloquist of our acquaintance. some sounds, of course, it is almost impossible to reduce to writing, as, for example, the hollow "skaw" and murmur produced by a multitude of skaters, or the roar of an excited crowd, but in listening to these sounds, it is useful to remember that we may often obtain a key tone to work upon by partly closing the ears--just as a painter can often find the prevailing tint of a confused mass of objects by partly closing the eyes. [illustration: phantom poodles.] [illustration: "i have to watch charlotte!"] when the young polyphonist has acquired some degree of skill, he need not be at a loss to entertain his friends, provided he is fairly resourceful as regards acting. but acting is of the greatest importance to the polyphonist. as a knife-grinder he must work an imaginary wheel, and deftly turn the blade of a table knife upon the stone; as a waiter about to "pop" a cork with a strong click of the tongue against the palate--he should first insert a shadowy cork-screw with a chirrupy squeak; and as a cook frizzling bacon, he may do a cardboard rasher to a turn on a battledore or fire-shovel. even the buzz of a bluebottle (made sometimes by a prolonged cornet note, sometimes by a stream of air forced through the compressed lips) will occasion much amusement if the performer acts the part of a languid mortal lolling behind his newspaper in the dog days, and murmuring,-- "oh! for the green of a lane, where one might lie and be lazy! buzz! goes a fly in the pane-- bluebottles drive me crazy!" then might follow a reckless chase after that fly, which should finally buzz itself crazy beneath the huntsman's handkerchief. again, the barking of dogs may not be much in itself, yet we have seen a performer cause roars of laughter by making his phantom poodles dance, tumble, and leap over chairs and through a hoop, to a lively tune on the piano. as a final step in polyphony, the learner should practise the _ventriloquial treatment of noises_. this adds greatly to the effectiveness of a ventriloquial sketch; as when the man in the cellar takes to sawing and planing; or goes home accompanied by a dog, whose barking, mingled with the shouts of the man, grows fainter and fainter in the distance; or, it may be, the moaning of the wind is heard without, while a last-century watchman proclaims the hour in a storm-tossed voice. to show how perfect such displays may become, we may instance the case of thomas ring, a conjurer who gave an entertainment before the entire english court in the seventeenth century. from behind a screen he imitated the voices of three butchers engaged in a conversation, which was presently interrupted by a barking dog. the dog having been whipped, a bleating calf was dragged in, a knife whetted, and the calf killed amid the talk and laughter of the men. all this is, no doubt, within the reach of some of our living ventriloquists. [illustration: "bluebottles drive me crazy!"] [illustration: good-bye.] and now a few necessary hints must be given in regard to the management of an audience. get your hearers seated in front of you, not around you, with the front row at a distance of at least ten or twelve feet. politely impose silence upon them, and take care to repeat your opening question two or three times before replying in the ventriloquial voice, because this straining the attention stimulates the imagination of your audience, and makes the illusion more complete. another important point--keep the assumed voice and the natural voice in contrast all the time, by means of a running fire of questions; finally, never use elaborate apparatus. besides, ordinary windows, doors, and fireplaces, an old chest, a folding screen, a trap-door, and perhaps one or two "practical" dolls, will amply suffice. ventriloquists who employ a whole family of ingeniously contrived figures--we have seen some of these dance a jig--should get them to talk by machinery as well. there is very little artistic merit in such performances. nor should the performer be suspiciously surrounded by scenery; it may cause misunderstanding, as the following instance will prove:-- a ventriloquist performing at a london theatre some years ago imitated a voice on the roof so successfully as to induce a man in the audience to ascend to the roof in search of a confederate. unfortunately, however, two other men, filled with the self-same idea, also found their way to the roof in company, and mistaking the first man for the guilty person, gave him a sound thrashing. in drawing our instructions to a close, let us point out that the proper end and aim of ventriloquism should be not to play the pranks of "valentine vox," but to afford our friends innocent amusement. of course, no manly boy would ever think of frightening little children; but he might be tempted to give older people a little surprise. it is therefore well he should know that persons altogether ignorant of ventriloquism may be wonderfully deceived. one morning, just after a new servant had come to the house, we noticed a doll in the kitchen, sitting bolt upright and staring as hard as her glass eyes would let her. so, going up to it, in presence of the girl, we shook hands gravely, and said, "good morning, dolly!" to which she sweetly replied, "good morning, sir! i have to watch charlotte!" the effect produced on the girl was so pronounced that for days after she would hardly touch the uncanny creature. on another occasion, at a house in kentish town, affairs took a more serious turn; for a young woman, upon hearing a gruff voice proceed from the chimney, astonished a company of six or eight persons by falling on her knees in broad daylight to implore the troubled spirit to unburden its mind. upon this we at once desisted, and explained, though not without difficulty, the nature of the deception. the ventriloquist should therefore use his strange power with caution, and mainly, as we have said, for the innocent amusement of every one concerned. at the same time he will reap from his studies certain advantages often lost sight of, viz., the training given to the ear as regards the nice discrimination of sound--musical and non-musical--and the command obtained over the vocal organs with respect to elocution. the whole of our instructions may be summarized thus: ( ) listen to sound intently; ( ) learn to analyze it; ( ) experiment patiently and regularly; ( ) cultivate acting. with these points in view, no reader possessing an average voice, together with some aptitude for mimicry, should fail to acquire the coveted art. some folks may fear that these practical lessons will produce ventriloquists by the score. to such we reply, rest easy, good people! ventriloquism, like every other art, requires patience and perseverance for its attainment. consequently, many a reader, sufficiently gifted by nature, will fail in its pursuit. it is the enthusiasts who will succeed, and they, after all, are the ones who deserve the reward. chapter xvii the boy as magician $cremated alive.$--the curtain rises and a young and beautiful girl, clothed in white, is introduced to the spectators as the victim who has been doomed to cremation, which will be instantaneously accomplished. the girl mounts upon a table placed at the back of a kind of alcove, consisting of a three-sided screen, and above her is suspended a big fire-proof sack, folded up as shown in fig. . the table upon which the victim stands ready for sacrifice appears to have four legs, and under this table burn, or appear to burn, four candles, the purpose being to indicate to the public that the space beneath the table is open, perfectly free, and beyond suspicion of any trickery. the sack, which forms a cylindrical screen under which the victim is to be burned, has been previously handed round to the spectators, so that they might assure themselves that it was entire, without any hole or split, lacing, or other artifice allowing of an escape from behind--a precaution invariably taken to allay the too ready suspicions of incredulous spectators. all these verifications being made, and the audience perfectly satisfied as to the _bona fides_ of the case, the sack is lowered upon the victim, a pistol is fired, and the cremation commences. flames and smoke (see fig. ) soon indicate to the terrified spectators that the fire is pursuing its destructive work. when the flames have ceased, the sack, composed as we have stated, of an incombustible material, is raised, and there is seen upon the table, in the midst of the still smoking _débris_, only a few bones and a skull (fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. . fig. . cremated alive.] an examination of the conditions under which the disappearance has taken place does not in the least reveal the methods by which it has been so rapidly accomplished; but as it is clearly inadmissible that the sacrifice of a young and beautiful person should thus take place every evening for the simple gratification of the public, one is, of course, pushed to the conclusion that there must be some trick. and a trick there is of a most ingenious character, as will be seen by the following explanation, the comprehension of which will be aided by fig. . [illustration: fig. .] in this particular case the illusion is a happy combination of suitable appliances underneath the scene and of the well-known properties of plane mirrors placed on the incline. the table upon which our victim mounts for cremation has, as a matter of fact, only two legs, instead of four, and the two others are only seen by the spectators as a reflection of the two real legs in the two glasses inclined at an angle of degrees with each other, and at degrees with the two side panels of the three-fold screen which contains the scene of the disappearance. it is precisely the same with the two candles, which, in consequence of their reflection in the mirrors, appear to be four in number, whilst the central rod hides the edges of the mirrors. thanks to the combination of the glasses and panels, and to the adoption of a uniform surface for these panels, the reflection of the two sides in the two lower glasses appears to be but the continuation of the panel at the back. the triangular box, of which the two glasses comprise the two sides, and the floor the bottom, has its surface formed of two parts; the one made up of the top of the table itself, and the other of pieces of mirror which reflect the back panel, and pieces of material of the same colour as the panel itself. it is easy from this to understand the whole course of the operations, more or less fantastic, which the spectator watches with such breathless interest. as soon as the victim is hidden by the sack which comes down upon her, she at once escapes by a secret trap-door in the top of the table, as is shown in fig. ; she then rapidly puts into position the skull and bones, as well as some inflammable material, to which she sets fire when she hears the pistol shot. she then, closing the trap, tranquilly retires, and remains hidden in the triangular space arranged between the back panel and the two glasses until the fall of the curtain. $money dissolved in water.$--for this trick the young magician needs a glass, which may be either the ordinary tumbler or a wine-glass, as shown in our illustration (fig. ). it must be of such a size that if a half-crown be dropped into the glass, it shall, lying flat, nearly or quite fill the bottom space. the conjuror must be provided also with a glass disc, of the thickness of a half-crown, and in diameter exactly corresponding with the bottom space of the glass. this, when about to perform the trick, he holds concealed in his right hand, after the manner of _a_ in fig. . filling the glass about three-quarters full, as shown in fig. , he hands it to a spectator to hold. he then asks the loan of a half-crown, and a lady's pocket-handkerchief. taking the coin as _c_ in fig. , he accordingly throws the handkerchief over it, or, rather, makes believe to do so, for in reality, under cover of the handkerchief, he deftly substitutes the glass disc, and holds this between his fingers, while the coin takes its place in his palm. he now asks the person holding the glass to take charge of the coin also. he is instructed to hold it (the glass disc) just over the glass, the four corners of the handkerchief hanging down around it, and at the word "three," to drop it into the glass. the conjuror counts "one, two, _three_?" at the word three the supposed coin falls, and is heard to tinkle upon the glass. [illustration] touch the glass through the handkerchief with your magic wand, and state that by the time you have counted three the half-crown will have dissolved. count three very slowly, then the handkerchief is removed, the water is seen, but the supposed coin has vanished, for the disc, being of glass, lies quite invisible at the bottom; and if it fits the water may be poured away without the disc falling out, the thin layer of water remaining underneath it holding it by atmospheric pressure to the bottom of the tumbler. it is not worth while to do this unless some one challenges you to pour off the water, then the challenge should be accepted readily. the conjurer should now pay back the half-crown, but it will assist the illusion if he pays it back with two shillings and a sixpence, or in some other coins, instead of in the form in which it was borrowed. $the vanished half-crown.$--the trick of the dissolved half-crown may be varied. in this case the coin should be marked by the owner. upon finding it is not in the water when the handkerchief has been removed pretend to be anxious about its loss. say you will pay it back in instalments, and offer a shilling towards it. when the money-lender tries to take the proffered shilling it vanishes too. this is managed by boring a hole in the shilling, tying some elastic through the hole, and stitching the other end of the elastic up your sleeve. then as soon as you leave hold of the coin it darts back up your sleeve. "has that gone too!" you exclaim. "well, we must try to find that half-crown; perhaps it is in this ball of worsted," you say, as you pick one from the table. hand the ball of worsted to someone to examine and they declare that the coin is not in it. as you walk back to the table secretly exchange this ball for another. now this other ball of worsted has been prepared in this way. it has been wound round a tin tube about three inches long, a tube through which half-a-crown may be passed. when you have the marked coin at the beginning of the trick you should have the ball of worsted in your pocket, and putting your hand there, should put the coin through the tube into the ball of worsted. then take the tube away and press the ball into its proper shape. it is this ball that you now place in an empty glass, and giving the end of the worsted to some lady in the audience, ask her to unwind it. as she does so the half-crown will begin to rattle upon the glass. $magic florins.$--take four half sheets of note-paper from any table, and then borrow four florins; these florins you place upon a table about a foot apart, and gently lay the half sheets over each. you then take up one sheet and discover the florin underneath. placing the paper on one side you take up the coin, and without touching, in some extraordinary way, make it pass through the next paper. you lift it, and sure enough, there lie _two_ florins. you then lift the third paper, to find the florin you placed there. again, in the same mysterious manner you pass the coin through the paper. it makes no hole going through, but when the paper is lifted up there are the three of them. now you lift up the last piece of paper, thereby uncovering the last florin. repeating the same process, you then request one of the audience to lift the paper, so that he or she may see that there is no deception. this being done, there lie the four florins as cosy as little fledglings in a nest. the extreme simplicity of the trick is the most taking part of it. and now to explain this seeming mystery. one great golden rule of conjuring successfully is, as it were, to take your audience into partnership with you. when you borrowed the four florins of course they thought that was all you wanted. but you began the trick with one in your left hand cunningly concealed under the four sheets, all of which you hold in that hand. then placing the four borrowed coins on the table (which, by the by, must have a thick cloth on it to deaden the sound), twelve inches apart, with the right hand you take the three top sheets. this leaves you with the fourth sheet in the left hand, the coin below being held in position by gentle pressure from fingers below, and thumb above. then simultaneously with each hand you place a sheet of paper over two of the four coins on the table. doing it simultaneously distracts the audience's attention from what you are doing with your left hand; for it is at this particular moment that the trick is being performed. as you place the paper down, with a gentle and even motion of the thumb you leave the fifth coin there, too, taking great care that it does not clash with the one there already. now you have two coins under that sheet, though the audience only know of one. there is one under each of the other three sheets. you take one of these sheets up now and take the coin between the top of the thumb and fingers of the left hand, then with the fingers and thumb of the right hand you pretend to take it, but in reality you let it fall into the palm of the left hand, a feat that must be practised carefully before a mirror. you close the fingers of the right hand over the imaginary coin in them, and act as if it were there. one way of aiding the deception is to follow the right hand with your eyes as it goes away from the left, at the same time dropping the left hand in an easy unconstrained position to the side. now choosing the sheet which covers the two coins (though the audience only know of one), you place the right hand a few inches above it, and open the fingers, making some mysterious passes. of course, nothing passes in reality, but when you proceed to lift up the sheet and display the second coin, the audience will either think that they could not see it, or that you are a very mysterious person, which, indeed, you are. the remainder of the trick is only a repetition of what has been already explained; but it excites more and more astonishment as it proceeds. the bewilderment of the audience culminates in the last act, when, as before, you have pretended to take the coin in the right hand (really having left it in the left), and making the passes, request one of the audience to lift up the last sheet--there lie all the four florins. meanwhile, your left has dropped quietly to your side, the coin in it been slipped noiselessly into the pocket, and both hands are free to return to their astonished owners the four borrowed coins. this trick is a particularly effective one, requiring, as it does, no paraphernalia except what are always to be met with in almost every room. only let the beginner recollect this. he must never begin the trick without the fifth coin, or he will come to grief. nor must he accede to requests to "do it again," or he will be detected. $magic pens.$--take a small quantity of "aniline violet," obtainable at any chemist's, two pennyworth making about two dozen pens, and make it into a thick paste with water, taking care not to leave any lumps; then add a few drops of mucilage or good gum. do not add too much, or the paste will not set well. apply a small quantity of the paste thus made to the hollow part of a clean pen, within a quarter of an inch of the point, and leave it for a few hours to dry. when dry, tell your friends that you will write anything they like to tell you with the pen, but instead of using ink, you will use water. then dip the pen into the water, taking care not to show the side with the paste on, and write whatever they ask you to, the writing appearing the same as if you were using an ordinary pen. $the magic bottle.$--you will need two cardboard cases open at each end, and large enough to slip easily over the bottles; a specially constructed bottle, the upper part of which can contain a liquid, and the lower part containing an open space in which a glass can stand; an imitation bottle made of tin and large enough to just slide over the special bottle; and two glasses. with this apparatus before us we are ready to proceed with the performance. we introduce an empty glass and what appears to be an ordinary wine bottle, but which is really a special bottle, with its tin case over it, and containing a second wine-glass inside. by careful manipulation we pour the contents from the upper part of the bottle into the wine-glass, and then setting the bottle down in its position, pour back half the liquid, which now runs through a hole in the partition into the glass beneath. so that the audience sees one glass half full, two cardboard cases, and what appears to be the bottle (as in figure), but which really is our special bottle covered by its tin case, shaped and coloured like a bottle, and a second glass half full beneath it. now we show the cardboard cases to prove that they are empty, and then place one case over the glass and another over the bottle. at this stage everything depends on the talk of the performer, who, by his jokes and comicalities, somewhat diverts the attention of his audience. some excuse is now invented for changing the cases, and in doing this by nipping the one over the bottle the tin case is lifted off with it (as in fig. ), and placed over the glass, then on again raising the cases, the glass has disappeared, and there are now two bottles instead. again, the cases are put over the bottles, and again they are raised, but by nipping both the cases, the bottles are lifted with them, and now only the two glasses appear. again the cases are put on, and the bottle and glass restored as at first, and so a number of changes can be worked at will, the performer, of course, talking all the while and referring in the language of magicians to his power and skill in causing the bottle and the glasses to obey his will. fig. shows the construction of the special bottle with its two linings and the space for the glass to stand within it. [illustration] $the magic wand.$--by means of this wand (a piece of thin glass rod) we may produce fire at will. take a teaspoonful of castor sugar, and rather less than half a teaspoonful of ground chlorate of potash, thoroughly mix without friction, and place on a saucer standing on an old tray. secretly dip the point of the glass rod in sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) and then touch the mass on the saucer. $another wand trick.$--leave the room under some pretext and bring in with you a wand that has been made hot. touch the wick of a candle, in which you have concealed previously a piece of phosphorus, and tell it to light and it will obey. it is better to use a candle that has already been lighted, because such a wick lights more readily. $the dancing egg.$--request someone to play the piano, and, touching an egg with your magic wand, call upon it to dance. it will do so if you observe the following directions. let the egg be boiled hard and brought into the room piping hot. make a small hole in the shell and through this push into the egg a quill that contains quicksilver, and has both ends firmly sealed. so long as the egg retains its heat, so long will it dance. $mystic thread.$--have suspended by a long thread an ordinary ring. let someone in the audience strike a match and set fire to the thread. it burns, but the ring does not fall because the thread has been thoroughly steeped in common salt and water. $eggs without hens.$--have a bag made of calico or similar material. have it made double and just inside the mouth of the part you keep towards you have six little pockets made. into each of these put an egg that has been blown or sucked until nothing remains in it. you may now shake the bag and turn it inside out to show it is empty, and yet you are able to produce one egg after another. one may be a full one, and if you break this the trick will seem more real. $feathers from a handkerchief.$--obtain some long feathers--the longer the better. take off your coat and lay the feathers in the left sleeve with the quills near the wrist. now put on your coat with the feathers still there. borrow a large handkerchief, and after flourishing it, to show it conceals nothing, throw it over your left arm. when you take it up again take with it one of the feathers, and when you shake the handkerchief again out drops the feather. if the feather is large and curved it will not appear as though it had been up your sleeve. repeat the process with suitable talk until all the feathers have been produced. $ink changed to water.$--fit a black silk lining into a glass vessel so that it lines the sides but not the bottom. put water in the glass and gold fish, but let the audience see nothing except the black lining. behind the glass have a spoon with ink in it. speak to the audience with an empty spoon in your hand, and then go to the glass, secretly change the spoons and pretend to take a spoonful of ink from the glass. now show the spoon with the ink in it to the audience, and they will believe the vessel is full of ink. throw a cloth over the glass and call upon the ink to change to water. remove the cloth, and with it the black lining, and there you have the water and the gold fish swimming in it. $the mysterious box.$--secure a little round box, into the bottom of which a half-crown will fit exactly. line the box with dark paper and cover one side of a half-crown with the same material. retaining this half-crown, pass the box round to be examined so that the audience may be sure it has no false bottom. now borrow half-a-crown, and as you return to the table exchange it for your prepared one. show this to the audience, keeping the papered side carefully towards you, and let them see you drop it into the box. in doing this keep the papered side upwards. close the box and shake it up and down so that the coin rattles. now touch the box with your wand and charge the coin to pass into a box, vase, or any other object in another part of the room into which you have previously placed half-a-crown. shake the box again, this time from side to side, and there will be no rattle. open it, the coin cannot be seen. now ask the audience to go to the place where you have planted the other half-crown, and while they are looking for it take out your papered half-crown. when they have found the other half-crown hand round the box again for them to examine. simple as is this trick, it is very puzzling to the audience. $how threepence vanished.$--place a threepenny piece upon the palm of your hand. close your hand, but have a piece of wax upon the nail of your middle finger. press this upon the coin, open your hand, and the coin will be out of sight. $the hat trick.$--borrow a hat, for a trick with a hat always has an air of importance. now, with a deal of elaboration, take a glass of water and proceed deliberately to cover the glass over with the hat. you undertake to drink the water without removing the hat. your challenge is accepted. you stoop beneath the table and commence making a loud sucking noise with the lips, as though you were drawing the water through the table. with a sharp "now, sir!" the curiosity of your opponent will make him lift up the hat; you instantly seize the glass and swallow the contents, saying, "you perceive, sir, i have drunk the water and i have not removed the hat." $card tricks.$--inseparable kings.--take four kings. beneath the last place any two cards, which you take care to conceal. then show the four kings and replace the six cards under the pack. then take a king and place it on the top of the pack, place one of the two other cards in the middle, and the other about the same place, and then, turning up the pack, show that one king is still at the bottom. then let the cards be cut, and as three kings were left below, all must necessarily get together somewhere about the middle of the pack. of course in placing the two other cards you pretend to be placing two kings. to guess chosen cards.--make a set of all the clubs and spades, and another set of hearts and diamonds. shuffle well each set, and even let them be shuffled by the spectators. then request a person to draw a card from one of the sets, and another person to draw one from the second set. you now take a set in each hand, presenting them to the two persons requesting them to replace the drawn cards. you must pretend to present to each person the set from which he drew his card, but in reality you present the red set to the person who drew the black card, and the black set to the person who drew the red card. to tell a card thought of.--take twenty-one cards of a pack, and deal them out one by one in three lots, requesting someone to think of a card, and remember in which lot it is. having dealt out the cards, ask him in which lot the card is. take up the lots successively, and place the lot containing the card in the middle. deal out the cards again, and ask him to state in which lot the card is; and proceed as before, placing the lot containing the card in the middle. deal out the cards in like manner a third time, proceeding as before. then deal them out as usual, and the eleventh card will be the one thought of, infallibly. this is the usual way of showing the card thought of; but, as the trick may be partly discovered by the counting, it is better to hold the cards in your hand, and take out the eleventh card, counting to yourself, of course, from the left hand, but pretending to be considering the guess. cheating the maid.--for this amusing trick you arrange the cards thus: holding the pack in your hands, find all the knaves, place one of them next to your left hand, and the other three on the table. then find a queen, which also place on the table. then say:--"three scamps went into a tavern, and ordered drink. here they are--the three knaves. 'who's to pay? i can't,' said the first. 'i won't,' said the second. 'i wish she may get it,' said the third. 'i'll manage it,' said the first, the greatest rogue of the three. 'i say, my pretty girl, haven't you some very old wine in your cellar?' here's the barmaid thus addressed by the rogue in question (showing the queen), and she replied:--'oh, yes, sir, prime old wine.' 'let's have a bottle.' off went the barmaid. (put the queen in your pocket.) 'now for it, my lads,' said the knave in question; '"run" is the word. let's be off in opposite directions, and meet to-night; you know where.' hereupon they decamped, taking opposite directions, which i will indicate by placing one on the top of the pack, one at the bottom, and the other in the middle. "when the poor barmaid returned (taking out the queen from your pocket) with the wine, great was her astonishment to find the room empty. 'lor!' she exclaimed, 'why, i do declare--did you ever!--oh! but i'm not agoing to be sarved so. i'll catch the rogues, all of them--that i will.' and off she went after them, as shown by placing her on or after the first. "now, to catch the three seems impossible; but the ladies have always smiled at impossibilities, and wonders never cease; for, if you have the goodness to cut these cards, you will find that she has caught the three rogues." when the cards are cut, proceed in the usual way after cutting; and taking up the cards, you will find the queen and three knaves together, which you take out and exhibit to the astonished audience. one of these knaves is not one of the three first exhibited, but the one which you slipped on your left hand at first. there is no chance of detection, however; simply for the reason before given--nobody suspects the trick. another guessing trick.--lay out twenty cards of any kind, two by two, and request a friend to think of two in a line; that is, one of the ten sets formed by the twenty cards. this done you take up the sets in the order in which they lie, and place them in rows according to the letters of the following words:-- +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | c | i | c | o | s | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d | e | d | i | t | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | t | u | m | u | s | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | n | e | m | o | n | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ you may use a diagram like the above, but as the words are easily retained it had better be dispensed with, distributing the cards on the table just as though upon the diagram, which will make the trick more puzzling and extraordinary. proceed as follows:--place the cards two by two on similar letters: thus, place the two cards of the first set on the two d's in _dedit_; the two cards of the second set on the two _i'_s of _cicos_ and _dedit_; the two of the third set on the two _c'_s, and so on with the ten sets. all the letters of the words being thus covered, ask the friend who has thought of the cards to tell you in which lines these cards are. if both are in the first line (_cicos_), they must be those on the two _c_'s; if they are both in the second line, they cover the _d_'s in _dedit_; both in the third line, they cover the _u_'s in _tumus_; both in the fourth, they cover the _n_'s in _nemon_. if one be in the first line and the other in the second, they cover the _i_'s in _cicos_ and _dedit_, and thus of the rest--the two cards thought of _necessarily_ covering two _similar letters_, whilst each of the letters occurs only _twice_ in the diagram. to tell a card thought of.--take any number--say twenty. pretend to shuffle them with the faces towards you and remember the first card as you close the pack--say, the ten of diamonds. tell the friend that the only condition you require is to be told the order in which the card is dealt out by you; in other words he must tell you whether in dealing it comes out first, second, third, etc. remembering your first card, you may then turn your back to him, and deal out the cards one by one, and one upon the top of the other, requesting him to think of a card and its order as before said. then take up the cards, and shuffle them repeatedly by throwing a portion of them from the bottom to the top, taking care not to mix the cards or letting any drop, and then let the friend cut them as often as he pleases. then take the cards in hand. pretend to examine them mysteriously, but in reality only look for your card--the first dealt out--the ten of diamonds, for instance. now, suppose he tells you that the card he thought of came out fifth. then, for a certainty, it is the fourth card on the right of the ten of diamonds, in spite of all shuffling, for shuffling cannot alter the order or sequence of the cards. always remember to count from your own card inclusive to the number of the card thought of towards your right hand. but, should your card happen to be so near the right hand or the top as not to allow sufficient counting, then count as far as it admits to the right and then continue at the left. thus, suppose there are only two cards above the ten of diamonds, then count two more on the left, making the fifth. if the card you remember, or your first card, is first, then count the requisite number on the left, always beginning with your card, however. the reason of this trick is simply that by merely cutting the cards and shuffling them in the way indicated, you do not alter the sequence of the cards. another method.--form three ranks of five cards each, and request a person to think of one of these cards, and tell you in which rank it is. take up the cards of the three ranks, taking care to place the cards of the ranks in which is the card thought of between those of the two other ranks. make three more ranks as before. ask him again in which rank the card is, and take them up, placing the rank in which the card is between the two others. operate in like manner a third time, and the card thought of will infallibly be the third of the rank named. observe, however, you must not form each rank with five consecutive cards; but you must place the cards one by one, placing one successively in each rank: thus, one at the top on the left of the first rank, one below that first for the second rank, one below the second for the third rank, then one in the first, one in the second, one in the third, and so on. this trick, which is very easy, always produces a great effect. it only requires a little attention, and it can never fail unless you make a mistake in arranging the cards. to tell chosen cards.--the cards may be easily divided into two numerical parts, even and odd: by taking a king for four points, a queen for three, a knave for two, and the other cards for their especial points, we may make up two sets of sixteen cards each, the even composing one, and the odd the other. these two sets being before the performer, he takes one, shuffles it well, and lets a person take a card. he then takes the other, shuffles it, and lets another person take a card. then, whilst each person is looking at his card, which he is requested to do, the performer dexterously changes the place of the two sets, and he requests them to replace the cards in the set whence they took them. it follows that he who took a card from the even set places it in the odd set, and he who took it from the odd set places it in the even set. consequently all the shuffling and cutting in the world will be useless, for the performer has only to spread out the cards of each set to point out the cards drawn. singular arrangement of sixteen cards.--take the four kings, the four queens, the four knaves, and the four tens of a pack, and ask if there be any one in the company who can form a square with them in such a manner that, taken in any direction, from right to left, from the top to the bottom, by the diagonal--anyhow, in fact--there will always be in each line a king, queen, knave, and a ten. everybody will think the thing easy, but it is certain that no one will succeed in doing it. when they "give it up," take the sixteen cards and arrange them as follows, when the king, queen, knave, and ten will stand as required. +----------+----------+----------+---------+ | ten | jack | queen | king | | of | of | of | of | | spades. | clubs. | diamonds.| hearts. | +----------+----------+----------+---------+ | king | queen | jack | ten | | of | of | of | of | | spades. | hearts. | diamonds.| clubs. | +----------+----------+----------+---------+ | jack | ten | king | queen | | of | of | of | of | | hearts. | diamonds.| clubs. | clubs. | +----------+----------+----------+---------+ | queen | king | ten | jack | | of | of | of | of | | spades. | diamonds.| hearts. | spades. | +----------+----------+----------+---------+ the card that cannot be found.--take any number of cards and spread them out fan-like in your hand, faces fronting the spectators. ask one of them to select a card. you tell him to take it, and then to place it at the bottom of the pack. you hold up the pack, so that the spectators may see that the card is really at the bottom. suppose this card is the king of hearts. then, pretending to take that card, you take the card preceding it, and place it at a point corresponding to a in the following figure. a c b d you then take the card drawn, namely, the king of hearts, and place it at the point corresponding to b in the above figure. finally, you take any two other cards, and place them at c and d. of course, the cards are placed face downwards. after this location of the cards, you tell the person who has chosen the card that you will change the position of the cards, by pushing alternately that at the point a to b, and that at d to c, and _vice versa_; and you defy him to follow you in these gyrations of the card, and to find it. of course, seeing no difficulty in the thing, and believing with everybody that his card is placed at the point a, he will undertake to follow and find his card. then performing what you undertake to do, you rapidly change the places of the cards, and yet slowly enough to enable the person to keep in view the card which he thinks his own, and so that you may not lose sight of the one you placed at b. having thus disarranged the cards for a few moments, you ask the person to perform his promise by pointing out his card. feeling sure that he never lost sight of it, he instantly turns one of the cards and is astonished to find that it is not his own. then you say:--"i told you you would not be able to follow your card in its ramble. but i have done what you couldn't do: here is your card!" the astonishment of the spectators is increased when you actually show the card; for, having made them observe, in the first instance, that you did not even look at the drawn card, they are utterly at a loss to discover the means you employed to find out and produce the card in question. chapter xviii pets $cavies or guinea pigs.$--in starting these little chats, suppose we commence with cavies. some who ought to know better have said that cavies are very dull, stupid little animals, but i entirely disagree with this, as will also the lad who has kept them for ever so short a time; they are bright, intelligent little fellows, and most pleasant to make pets of, and although they belong to the rodent or rat family are not the least vicious. cavies are extremely clean in their habits, very handsome in colour, and if their little houses are kept clean there is no disagreeable smell from them. now before you buy your "guineas" you should build and furnish their house, and i will proceed to tell you how to do this. the selection of a suitable place comes first. if you live in the country there is generally an outhouse or wood-shed, and if so here is the spot to commence operations; if, on the other hand, you only have a small garden or back-yard, then select a spot in it which gets a fair share of pure air and sunlight, and which is protected from the cruel east winds. the smooth-haired cavy must have a hutch not less than ft. long, to in. from front to back, and about the same height. let the floor of your hutch have a slight fall to the back so as to carry off the moisture; the roof must also have a slope, and should be covered with tarred felt, or brown paper well tarred and sanded, which makes a capital waterproof covering. in the front of your hutch have a closely and well-fitting wooden door, large enough for you to clean out the interior comfortably; the other portion of the front must be covered with wire netting of a very close mesh. be sure that your doors fasten securely, as some cavies have a habit of shaking them, and if not properly secured, open comes the door and out drops poor guinea, who is almost sure to be killed. it is always best to have the hutch two or three feet from the ground, and resting on four legs, which is much better than nailing it to the wall. after having got so far, go carefully over your work to see that there are no cracks or crannies in your hutch, as these let in draughts, which lead to disease and death. cover the floor of the hutch with fine sawdust, and over this some sweet chopped hay, and your house is ready for its occupants. without going fully into the history of the cavy, i may say that it is a native of south america, where in many parts it is very numerous. in its wild state the cavy, where the ground is suitable, burrows like a rabbit; in damp, marshy places it hides under the many plants that flourish in such neighbourhoods. they are not difficult to catch, and not being of a savage nature are easily tamed. in their native haunts they are greatly esteemed as an article of food, and although i have never had the pleasure of tasting cavy flesh, i am told by those who have, and who are well able to give an opinion, that it is delicious; and i see no reason to doubt it, as cavies are exceedingly cleanly in their habits and feeding. there are several varieties of cavies, and as these are bred in almost every colour they afford the greatest pleasure, not only to the lad who is fond of experimenting, but also to hundreds of men and women. that the various colours can be easily bred and well fixed, has been proved beyond doubt by the many handsome little specimens that are to be seen at any of our exhibitions to-day. as we have them now, we may for our purpose divide the cavy into three classes or divisions, namely, long-haired (peruvians), rough-haired (abyssinian), and smooth-haired; but before going on with their description i would like to say a word as to handling them. this may seem superfluous, but it is not so, as they are easily injured; therefore, when you have occasion to lift your pet put your finger and thumb of the right hand round its neck, not tightly, but sufficiently firm to hinder it slipping, gently raise it and place it on your left hand, and so it can be safely lifted about and handled. in mating your cavies remember that the boar (male) controls the colour and outward characteristics of the future family, consequently he should be as typical in colour and shape as possible, and not younger than ten or twelve months; the sow (female) must not be less than about six months old, and in selecting her see that she is very tame and gentle, as she gives the inward characteristics to the young ones. of course, in keeping cavies, as in any other variety of pets, a very great deal depends on the individual fancy, and, therefore, i shall give a short description of the three classes mentioned, and leave you boys to select which you think will give you the greatest pleasure. the peruvian cavy.--the peruvian cavy is noted for its long hair, which is its chief characteristic, and when nicely combed and brushed it would be hard to find a handsomer little fellow. the hair grows right over its head and face, so that it is sometimes difficult to see either its eyes or ears; yet its beautiful bright eyes are always on the look out, and can see you and all your movements. on the body the hair grows to such a length that it trails on the ground, some actually having it as long as seven or eight inches. the hair or fur should be as long, soft, and silky as possible, and to keep it in proper order a good deal of attention is necessary; it grows very evenly from a natural parting, from the crown of the head to the stern, falling over to each side, and to keep your pet neat and trim as well as healthy you must brush its coat regularly, using a soft brush, and if any part is matted take a wide-toothed comb and very gently comb it out. you boys know what it is to comb your hair when it is matted, and how it hurts if roughly done. remember, therefore, that without care you will not only cause your pet pain, but, as the fur or hair on it is only, comparatively speaking, slightly attached to the skin, carelessness will result in pulling it out, thus leaving bare and unsightly patches. if, however, the brush is regularly used, there will be little or no need of the comb. the abyssinian cavy.--the next variety that claims our notice is the quaint little abyssinian or rough-haired cavy. unlike the peruvian, the hair of the abyssinian is short and hard or rough to the touch, and instead of growing all one way it is rosetted, as it were, in bunches, each rosette or bunch being separate and distinct, and the more evenly these are distributed over the body the more charming the result. what do my readers think of one of these little fellows--a beautiful tortoiseshell, very well rosetted, and with short, hard hair, being sold for upwards of £ ? but such is a fact. it was bred by a lady who takes a very great interest in master cavy, and who exhibits some most beautiful specimens, and it was disposed of for the sum mentioned. the abyssinian is a hardy little chap and must not be "coddled" up in a warm hutch. keep him dry and sheltered from draughts and he will thrive merrily. smooth-haired cavies.--last, but not least in any shape or form, comes the smooth-haired variety, which you boys all know, i am sure, and which is, as it fully deserves to be, the favourite. the coat of the smooth-haired cavy is soft and velvety to the touch, and the immense number of colours in which it is now bred makes it a most delightful little pet. i will not go through the many different colours further than to mention that we have them black, white, golden, brown, grey, red, and the various sub-divisions and blendings between these colours. the cavy has a good-sized head, is roman-nosed, has a very thick, or bull, neck, and a nicely rounded body, tapering towards the stern; eyes full and bright, and small, neatly-shaped ears; his whole make-up giving him the appearance of a cheerful, happy, and contented little fellow. now, as to feeding, remember that regularity and cleanliness must be observed, and that a variety or change in food is very much relished, and is necessary for the health of your cavies. for breakfast, which give early, provide some bread and milk sop, in which now and again put a piece of boiled potato; and as a change, in cold weather some barley-meal, scalded in boiling water and made into a nice crumbly mass. this latter is very warm and comforting, too, for supper, in cold frosty weather. as dry food, you must have good sound oats, wheat, a few crushed peas, bran, and hay. green food must on no account be overlooked, as it is one of the most valuable things for keeping the blood cool and the stomach in proper working order; but remember that all green food _must be fresh_ and dry. almost any green stuff is relished, but there are a few kinds that are very good: lettuce, cabbage leaves (not too many), parsley, celery tops, carrot, turnip, beet-root, chickweed, groundsel, and chicory. clean water must be always at hand, and a drink of milk now and then is much appreciated. as cavies are very apt to scratch their food all over the hutch, and so waste a lot of it, you should always feed in dishes or troughs. the heavy earthenware troughs, with flanged edges, which are used for rabbits, are best, as they cannot be upset, nor the food scratched out easily. i prefer earthenware to any other material, as it is so easily cleansed, and there is nothing about it that will poison or give a disagreeable taste to the food. though water and dry food should always be at hand for your cavies, never leave soft food or greens long in the hutch, as these soon become tainted, and if eaten in that state bring on disease. let them eat their fill of soft food and greens, and then take away any that is left. the lad who pays proper attention to his pets will soon be able to gauge to a nicety the amount of food they require. $rabbits.$--if you have sufficient pocket-money you can buy a hutch ready-made, or you can build it on similar lines to that for cavies, but of course much larger. for ordinary-sized rabbits a hutch - / ft. long by or in. will do, but for lop-eared and belgians it should be - / ft. by ft.; whilst for flemish giants ft. by ft. it is always preferable to have your hutch in some outhouse, where, though the inmates will have plenty of fresh air, they will be protected from very cold winds and rain. as there is a deal of moisture from rabbits, it is a good plan to have the floor of the outhouse cemented and connected with a drain, so as to carry off the wet that comes from the hutches; but as this cannot always be managed by boys who keep a few rabbits as pets, you should have a piece of guttering fixed along the back of the hutch and so placed that it will drain into a pail, in which put some sawdust and a little disinfectant, which will keep down any unpleasant smell. this pail you must empty every two or three days. in every hutch i like a part of it boarded off as a sleeping-room, which can be easily done by making a wooden partition and slipping it into the hutch, allowing a space of inches for this purpose. this partition must have a hole cut in it large enough for the rabbits to pop in and out comfortably. over this part of the hutch you must have a well-fitting wooden door, not only to keep them warm, but to darken the nest and so make them comfortable. in giving your rabbits their food, remember that you cannot measure the quantity exactly, any more than you can say that because you have eaten so much to-day you will want exactly so much to-morrow and every day during the week. study and observation are the only true guides. in giving soft food and green food let them have as much as they eat up _greedily_ and no more. feed twice a day, as early as possible in the morning and about sundown. in the morning give soft food, such as barley-meal, pollard, sharps, middlings, and bran, which mix with scalding water into a soft, rather crumbly than sticky mess. a few tea-leaves in the soft food now and then is a nice change. of course, these foods must not be all mixed together, but given on different mornings, so as to provide a nice variety. as there is not much feeding in bran it should always have one of the other foods mixed in it. when they have had breakfast put sufficient corn into their troughs to last them all day to nibble at, and for this oats are best; but as a change, once or twice a week crack up some barley for them. a feed, once a week, of grey peas, steeped till well soaked, will also be much relished. bits of biscuit and dry, stale crusts are also good, and can be given at any meal. for the evening feed give a bit of sweet hay, dry, sweet clover, and green food of almost any description that grows, so long as it is fresh and dry. it is impossible here to mention all the greens they will eat, but amongst others i may mention parsley, chicory, dandelion, lettuce, cabbage, celery, clover in flower; carrots, turnips, and mangolds (a slice or two) are very good. be very careful not to leave any soft food or greens lying about the hutch, as they soon spoil, and not only smell offensively, but injure the rabbits. on the floors of your hutches spread sawdust (pinewood sawdust is first-rate when it can be had), and over this some nice clean straw; and always keep in the hutch a little of one of the many disinfectants that are now manufactured. drinking vessels and feeding troughs should all be made of glazed earthenware, the latter having a flange round them to prevent the rabbit scratching out the food, and being heavy enough to prevent them being pulled about and upset. once more, do not neglect cleanliness and regularity in feeding. the lop-eared rabbit.--one of the oldest varieties of the rabbit when these were first taken in hand and bred as fancy or domestic stock, was the lop-ear; and so, paying reverence to his age, i will give him the first place. at the majority of rabbit shows i see lads and young men, as well as old ones, congregated in eager groups round the pens containing the lops, or, as they are sometimes called, the king of the fancy. i need scarcely tell our boys that the great feature in the lop rabbit is the immense lop or hanging ears. well do i remember in the early days how proud the owner of a lop was if he could show to those assembled a specimen whose ears measured from tip to tip inches; yet to-day, such a rabbit (if an adult) would not be looked at by the judges in a show, for specimens inches and upwards are now produced. in measuring the ears you must understand it is done as follows: take hold of one ear, lay it flat out full length, but not stretching it to hurt the rabbit, then place a rule at the extreme tip of the ear, pass it along, across the head, and so on to the tip of the other ear, which must be held out at full length as was the other, and so you have the proper measurement of your specimen so far as length is concerned. besides this, however, you want width of ear, and this should, roughly speaking, be one quarter the total length, measured across the widest part of one ear. the ears of the lop must be as long as possible and wide in proportion; not set on too closely on top of the head; thick at the root, and fall gracefully down the sides of the cheeks, nicely rounded at the tip and free from knots or lumps; the head large, with full, round, bright eyes. the body, when in repose, should be rather low at the shoulders, rising in a graceful curve to the hind quarters, which should be gradually and nicely rounded off, the head resting on the pouch or dew-lap; the tail must be straight, and carried close to the body, and the fore-legs straight and strong. lops are bred in various colours, such as black, yellow, fawn, blue, grey, and tortoiseshell, so that there is any amount of room for experimenting. some people, i am sorry to say, have the absurd idea that constant pulling and stretching the ears of their rabbits, whilst even in the nest, greatly helps to lengthen them, but like many cruel and ignorant ideas it is altogether wrong. all that lop rabbits require to develop the length of ear and keep them healthy is regular feeding, cleanliness, and being kept at a temperature of from to degrees fahrenheit; to secure which, during spring, autumn, and winter, artificial heat must be supplied, the best for the purpose probably being hot-water pipes. lops breed freely, but, as the young ones require a good deal of nourishment, the doe should, in order not to weaken her too much, only be allowed to bring up two or three, the others being given to nurse-does or foster-mothers, which can generally be had easily if a little trouble is taken to enquire for one or two amongst friends who keep rabbits. a healthy common rabbit makes a good foster-mother. the himalayan rabbit.--it would be difficult to find a more handsome little rabbit than the himalayan, and as it is one of the healthiest and hardiest of the coney family, i propose to give a few particulars of it. to commence, then, the himalayan, or, as it has been called, the chinese rabbit, has a perfectly white body, with dark chocolate-brown (as nearly black as can be) ears, nose, feet, and tail, and pink or rich golden eyes, the whole appearance being that of a very handsome animal. the ears must be short, close together, and stand very erect, so much so that if you bend them in any direction they immediately spring back into their proper position when released. the eye is round, bright, and rather full, and as i have just said, pink or rich golden in colour; the shape is very graceful, rather long than short or stumpy, giving it all the appearance of a thoroughbred animal. the coat is short, pure white, and fine and silky in texture, and the weight of a full-grown specimen should not exceed about six lbs. the fur is greatly in request for the making of imitation ermine, and good skins are always saleable to the manufacturers. now that we have this beautiful little rabbit in our hutch, how are we to preserve its distinctive markings in all their beauty? for be it remembered that the white turns yellow, and the black or dark brown markings grey, unless proper attention is paid to them. in chinese or russian markets where these rabbits are on sale, we are told that the colour, especially on the feet, is not so distinct as is seen in our domestic specimens; and this i can quite understand, as, with their constant burrowing and scratching amongst damp sand, earth, lime, etc., the colour on the feet will soon be affected. a very great deal of care is bestowed by those who exhibit himalayans in order to have their handsome markings as even as possible; for instance, the ears, from roots to tips, should be as dark as possible, and the nose the same colour, as well as all four feet and tail. this is often difficult to get; still, were it all as simple as a b c, there would be little honour in producing what any one else could produce without trouble. as on many other questions, considerable discussion has been carried on as to how best to preserve the distinct colour. many argued that the rabbits should be kept in entirely dark hutches, as they said the light not only destroyed the colour, but the rabbits in their wild state lived in dark burrows; just so, but these people forgot that such of the wild specimens as are to be seen in the foreign markets are not of that dark or nearly black colour, especially so far as their feet are concerned, as are those which are domesticated. others took up the extreme opposition view, and recommended as much light as possible. these latter were further astray than their "dark" opponents, for there is no doubt that constant exposure to the full light does destroy the purity of both black and white. another thing that was overlooked by the advocates of light was that too much exposure to light affected the eyes of the himalayan, which, as i have said, are pink, for it is a well-known fact that human beings, as well as animals and birds who have pink eyes, avoid a strong light. himalayans are best provided for in a partially darkened or shaded hutch, and this can be easily arranged, especially if the hutch stands in an outhouse or shed; if not, then partially cover the front with a bit of sacking or anything that will keep off the full glare. if your himalayan is allowed to sleep or sit about in a wet hutch the colour of the feet will soon be destroyed; but if the hutch is built as i previously described, all water from the rabbit will soon run away. however, in the case of the rabbit under notice, it is best to make "assurance doubly sure," so, on the bottom of your hutch put a nice layer of fine sand or sawdust, and over this straw or dried ferns, then any water will run through and be absorbed by the sand or sawdust, which should be raked over each morning, and renewed once a week. do not give your himalayan too much green meat, and never any that is wet or stale, as they are rather prone to scours. a few acorns are always a valuable thing to have on hand, and immediately bunny is seen to be relaxed; give one or two, and you will soon see the great good they will do. silver and angora rabbits.--amongst the many beautiful specimens that are to be seen now-a-days at exhibitions and in the rabbitries of breeders, the silver varieties hold a deservedly high place. the various colours include silver grey (light, medium, and dark shade), silver brown, silver cream, silver fawn, and silver blue. the silvers are of medium size, and should weigh between six lbs. and seven lbs., be compactly built, having a very neat head, ears moderately short, clear bright eyes, and with that general appearance of activity that denotes a healthy constitution. the coat or fur is close-fitting and smooth to the touch. the skin or ground colour of the silver grey should be blue, the fur consisting of black, white, and blue hair, and, according to its distribution, so we have the three shades of light, medium, or dark, as mentioned. when the silver grey is born it is black, the colour only beginning to develop between the age of one and two months, and being fully developed at about five or six months, when their coats are very handsome. some breeders, in order to get the silvering as quickly as possible, help nature by keeping their pets in artificially heated hutches; they succeed in thus accelerating development, but, as we have found from many years' experience, those who so interfere, and think they know more than mother nature, have generally to pay the penalty for their presumption; for rabbits, too quickly developed, although their coats have a beautiful appearance, do not continue so long in that grand bloom and brightness that denotes the rabbit that has been allowed to get its coat as nature intended. all the warmth that is necessary can be obtained by having the hutches water-tight, kept clean, and protected from the extremes of heat and cold. during the years the silver grey colour was being perfected, it is needless to say, crosses of various colours had to be resorted to, and amongst these were white rabbits, which naturally threw offspring with white or very pale ground (skin) colour in many cases, and as the fur grew, it was observed that the white hair predominated, giving the rabbit a cream or fawn colour, the lighter being designated creams, whilst the darker (or medium) were called fawns. the silver brown was another outcome of the various crosses, the belgian, wild english, and common grey hutch rabbit, all leaving their trace in the silver variety, the under coat and top coat being, as the name denotes, a brown colour; this colour, pretty as it is, is not so "taking" to the eye as the other handsome ones are, and so it has not been kept or bred so carefully as the foregoing colours mentioned. the silver blue is still a rare colour, and has not yet reached anything like such perfection as the others; a correct blue, whilst evenly silvered, should show a beautiful blue colour all through. although not so frequently seen, the angora is an exceedingly handsome rabbit, but needs a good deal of attention to keep it as it ought to be. the great feature of this breed is the immense length of its wool--not hair, mind, boys--which should be of the finest quality, soft as silk, pure white, and well distributed all over the body; the face and ears have less wool, in proportion to the other parts, but finer and more silky. the head is not very broad, and is surmounted with a pair of small and neatly-shaped ears, the eyes being pink and bright, a beautiful contrast to the snow-white wool. the weight should not exceed seven lbs. or eight lbs., although from the amount of wool they carry, they look very much heavier. angoras must be kept in large hutches, on the bottoms of which have nice, clean, soft, oat straw. to keep their coats in proper order, they must be gently combed and brushed at least every other day, care being taken to pull as little wool out as possible. should any part of the coat become matted, do not "tug" at it with the comb, which should be a wide-toothed one, but disentangle it with your fingers, and use a little warm water on it to help; if it is too securely matted to enable you to loosen it, there is nothing for it but to clip it off, which will, of course, spoil its appearance till the wool grows again. a healthy, well-groomed angora is one of the handsomest pets possible; but on the other hand, if neglected, the coat becomes foul and matted, and a more disconsolate, miserable-looking animal it would be difficult to imagine. the hutches must be cleaned out thrice a week, and a manger fixed in which to put hay or clover, of which they are very fond, and which is good for them. belgian hares.--the belgian hare is a large and very handsome variety of our domestic rabbit. although designated "hare," it is not a hare at all, but a rabbit pure and simple, although it has more of the hare-like form and colour than any other variety. being a large animal, scaling from eight pounds to ten pounds in weight, it is necessary that it should be kept in a large, roomy hutch. an old and experienced breeder says the hutch should be at least feet long, by feet broad, and inches high, and the shaded sleeping compartment inches wider than in the ordinary hutch. the belgian in colour somewhat resembles the english hare, being of a sandy-brown or golden-foxey colour, ticked as evenly as possible with dark chocolate, thus giving the fur, which should be short, firm and glossy, a very handsome appearance; the head is of good size, broad between the eyes, and gradually tapering towards the nose; the eyes, a special feature in belgians, are a beautiful brown colour, full, bright, and wild-looking; the ears, about five inches long, should be laced round the edges with black, and carried very neatly and closely together; the body should be long, giving it a graceful, hare-like carriage, so much esteemed, and the legs strong, long, and straight. belgians are very apt to develop a dew-lap or pouch, or as some have called it a large double chin; this is a defect, but, owing to an undoubted cross at a remote time with the lop rabbit, is very difficult to avoid. many specimens now-a-days do not show this point until they get old and fat. one of the best preventatives we believe is large airy hutches, and the avoidance of over-feeding. where it can be done, belgians should be allowed to run in a nice dry open shed, or failing this, an hour's run three or four times a week on a nice, dry grass plot. plenty of room, judicious feeding, and cleanliness, work wonders in the development of the belgian hare. dutch rabbits.--unlike the belgian, the dutch rabbit is noted for its small size, and is generally called the dwarf or bantam representative of the domestic rabbit. there are few lads who have not been captivated by the handsome little dutchman, and there are few large rabbitries where some of them are not kept, such great favourites are they. the breed being of small size should not exceed about five pounds in weight, and many grand ones are to be found under that weight. the pretty markings, combined with the various colours of this variety and the difficulties in getting both colour and markings exactly as they ought to be, makes the breeding of them very fascinating to those fond of experiments, and who delight in observing the various developments of the little animal. probably the most favourite colours are the blacks and the blues; but greys, tortoiseshells, and yellows, are all alike handsome. the head of the dutch rabbit is shapely and not large, the ears small, neat, and carried slightly backwards; the eyes in this variety are frequently not both of the same colour owing to crossing for various colours, and the too frequent and pernicious habit of in-breeding. it is, however, necessary that both eyes should match, and be bright and sparkling; the body rises from behind the shoulders, curving nicely over the stern, and giving the rabbit a compact, well-put-together shape; legs, medium length, straight, and fine in bone. now to come to the markings of this little aristocrat of the rabbitry. from between the ears comes a narrow white line, gradually widening as it descends to, and encircles the smellers, and continuing round the face, this is called the "blaze," the cheeks and ears are of the same colour as the body, whilst the chest, fore-legs, and shoulders are pure white, and the hind feet for about an inch and a half should also be white, the whole remaining part of the rabbit being a solid colour, as black, blue, grey, etc. the collar of white which runs round the shoulders should descend in a straight line, as though cut with scissors, encircling the fore-legs. the markings of a dutch rabbit should be sharply defined, and not blur or run into each other. for instance, in a black dutch, the cheeks, ears, and body from behind the shoulders should be a bright, solid, glossy black, and the remaining part pure white, a very beautiful contrast indeed. one great advantage in keeping and breeding dutch rabbits is that they are small and can be more successfully brought up in cool, outdoor hutches. if your rabbit has canker of the ear, clear out the discharge by gentle pressure with a sponge or soft rag soaked in warm water, taking great care that none of the water falls into the ear. when dry after this bathing, apply the following lotion, which any druggist will make up for you: sulphate of zinc grains, water ounces, wine of opium drachm, mixed. or you might try a mixture of one part goulard's extract of lead to five parts of pure olive oil. hold the rabbit's head on one side and pour into the ear half a teaspoonful of either of the above twice a day. give plenty of the best food, for if the rabbit does not feed well the chances of recovery are slight. $cage birds.$--canaries.--having determined to keep a bird, the first thing is to provide proper accommodation for it, and here let us suppose the lad has only accommodation for one, or at most, a pair of birds. very well, then, procure a cage. oh, yes, says the boy; of course, i know that. just so, but do not forget that there are cages _and_ cages, and that whilst some look very pretty and are quite an ornament, they are perhaps the most unsuitable and miserable of prisons for poor little dick; avoid by all means round cages, which are the worst possible for the poor little inmates, who have no room to exercise themselves, and where it is quite impossible for them to get out of the way of draughts or shelter themselves from the scorching sun. the best and most convenient cages are those which have plain wire in front, the rest being made of wood; the larger the size the better, as a great thing is to give the inmates plenty of room for exercise. the size that i have used for years in which to keep a pair of canaries or other small birds, is as follows:--length in., depth, from back to front, in., and height in. in such a cage small birds will live healthily for years. next in importance to size of cage is where to hang it, and a great deal depends upon this point. first, then, let me impress upon you never to hang dickey (except, perhaps, for an hour or two's change in fine, but not too sunny weather) in front of the window, for here the bird is exposed to draughts and every change of temperature, which is more injurious to the health and well-being of your pet than anything else. select a part of the room against one of the walls as free from draught as possible, and where there is plenty of light and air; and be particular not to hang the cage higher than (but rather below) the level of the gas, as when that is lighted the air in the higher parts of the room becomes very hot, and anything but comfortable or healthy for the bird. now that you have got your cage, which will be fitted with the necessary perches, drinking glasses, and seed hoppers, examine it carefully to see that it is clean and free from insects, then fill your water-glasses, and put seed in the tins or hoppers, and on the bottom of the cage a good supply of sand and small grit, which can be bought in penny bags at all corn chandlers or bird-shops, and your house is ready for master dick. perches are usually too thin. they should not be like a lead pencil, but more like your thumb, and flat on top. feed regularly each morning, on either the mixed seed, or, as we prefer it, buy some good, clean, sweet, canary seed and summer rape seed, and mix them yourself, one part of the latter to two parts of the former; clean water each day, and a wee bit of nice, dry, fresh, green food, such as groundsel, watercress, lettuce, chickweed, or plantain, as they are in season. do not indulge your bird in luxuries, but dickey will enjoy (and it will do it good) now and then, a morsel of sweet, ripe apple, pear, grape, or cherry. following these directions, and keeping the cage thoroughly clean, you will find dickey a delightful pet and one that will repay you for any little trouble. whenever you have occasion to go near the cage, either to look at the bird or to feed or clean it, always speak to it cheerfully but quietly, and so gain its confidence, and you will soon be surprised how earnestly it will greet you whenever you come into the room. it will greatly contribute to the health and vigour of your bird if you can now and then let it fly in the room where the cage is. close the room door and windows, and, yourself and dick being the only inmates, talk to him and then open the cage-door and sit down, and you will be amused at the bird's antics; first he will hop on the ledge of the door, then, looking this way and that, he will either try his wings on a fly round the room or drop to a table or chair-back, and so investigate the whole surroundings; do not startle the bird whilst it is out or it will get frightened and dash itself about. if it seems unable to find its way back to the cage, talk to it and drive it gently in that direction, but never wave a handkerchief or paper at it or you will probably frighten it to death. zebra-finches.--one of the merriest, boldest, most impudent and inquisitive little fellows is the handsome zebra, or chestnut-eared, finch; a prettier or more charming little pet it would be difficult to find. zebra-finches are the hardiest and best known of the australian finches, and are natives of queensland and new south wales, where they are found in great numbers; they are stoutly built, compact little birds, measuring between four and five inches from beak to end of tail, the tail itself being about an inch and a half long. the hen is soberly clad in grey with yellow beak and legs, but her mate is a handsome little fellow and somewhat difficult to describe; his beak is red; head, neck, and throat grey, the feathers on the latter being pencilled with white, which gives it a very beautiful appearance; the ears are a bright chestnut colour, and a line of black and one of white surround the beak; the breast is white, sides darker chestnut spotted with white; back and wings grey; tail black, barred and spotted with white; legs orange colour. no description, however, can adequately convey the handsome appearance of master zebra-finch when in the full beauty of his plumage. he is a fearless little fellow and bold to the extent of rashness in defending his mate, for he will attack birds many times larger than himself, and generally comes off the victor; and then doesn't he let you know it; how he struts about, blowing himself out and trumpeting to his heart's content. they are most lovable little birds, their every action being full of grace. zebra-finches do not sing, but the male bird's note is a sweet trumpeting sound, very cheerful and pleasant, and varying in tone. watch him making love to his little mate or helping her to make a nest; how low and soothing is his little trumpet, and how much it is appreciated is easily perceived by the joyous twitterings of his soberly clad lady-love; listen to him again when he is "showing-off"; with what vigour does he blow his trumpet, and how proudly he hops about, especially if he has just thrashed a bigger fellow than himself. i kept a pair for several years in a cage, such as i described to you, and although kept in a room where more or less noise was going on all day they were as happy as the day was long, and being continually petted and talked to became very tame, "master jocky" never failing to trumpet to us when we went to the cage or spoke coaxingly to him; his little wife "jenny" was, however, very shy and always allowed her lord and master to do all the talking, she chiming in now and again as though saying "hear, hear," to his remarks. as i had not, at the time, convenience for an aviary, i made a point, as soon as the birds were thoroughly tamed, of opening the cage-door every afternoon for an hour or two so that they might fly round the room; and how they did enjoy themselves! the first time i opened the cage-door they made no rush for freedom, but seemed to talk the matter over with each other, and then jocky came to the open door, trumpeting his best to attract my attention. i spoke to him, and then, apparently reassured, he launched himself forth across to where i was and back again to his cage; then he enticed jenny to come out, and they flew round and round, resting close together on the top of the cage now and then, when he would trumpet in his loudest and most vigorous tones; they would thus tire themselves out, and in a few minutes after would be sound asleep. thus they lived joyously for years, but she at last succumbed to egg-binding, which, unfortunately, with this variety is more common and more fatal than with many others. they had lived together so long and so happily that poor little jock never got over his sorrow, his delightful little trumpetings soon lost their bonny sound, and do what we could we failed to rouse him to anything like what he used to be, and so one morning when we took the cover off his cage he was dead. we all sorrowed over their deaths, for they made themselves most lovable little companions to one and all of us. dr. greene, the naturalist, speaking of his first experience with these delightful little birds, says:-- "as soon as i got them home, i turned the birds loose into a greenhouse in which was nothing but a grape-vine in full foliage. i shall never forget the delight of the little couple as they rushed into the midst of the leaves, the male trumpeting loudly and his mate twittering in joyful response. they paired almost as soon as i let them out of the cage, and in a minute or two the hen bird was hopping about with a little bit of fibre she had picked up off the floor in her beak, looking for a place to build her nest in; this she was not long in finding, and on my supplying her with some fine hay, she very soon, or, i should say they, for the male helped in the construction, made a little domed nest among the vine branches, and in less than a week were engaged in the important duty of incubation, male and female sitting alternately on five tiny white eggs." zebra-finches breed freely, especially when kept in cages in a rather warm temperature. the young ones, which are hatched in about twelve days, do not leave the nest till fully fledged, when they almost immediately commence to feed themselves, when they must be removed or they will interfere with the old birds. when kept in an aviary not supplied with heat artificially, they generally content themselves with two or perhaps three broods a year, which is much better for them. it must be remembered that when kept in an aviary with other birds they are inclined to be quarrelsome and masterful, frequently either taking possession of some other nest or pulling it to pieces to construct their own, in spite of the fact that abundant nest-making material is lying about. for food, canary seed and millet is the best, and will keep them vigorous and in good health. as a change give them a few hay-seeds, a spray of millet, or some grass in flower, which they will greatly enjoy, as also now and again a morsel of sweet apple or pear. when bringing up young, give a small piece of sponge cake and a little of the yolk of a hard-boiled egg crushed and mixed with sweet biscuit. always see that they have plenty of grit, and keep a piece of rock-salt and cuttlefish-shell for them to peck at. they are very cleanly birds, and when the weather is not too cold, should be allowed a bath at least twice or thrice a week. budgerigars.--this beautiful little bird, called variously "undulated grass parrakeet," "zebra grass parrakeet," and "shell parrot," is a native of south australia, and is deservedly a very general favourite, its hardy constitution, the readiness with which it adapts itself to confinement, its handsome plumage, and its winning ways, all tending to make it a great pet. it can be kept in a large cage, but is much merrier and more contented in a garden aviary, where it may be kept all the year round so long as it has an inner compartment to retire to in very severe cold or wet weather. it is a miniature long-tailed parrot, measuring seven or eight inches, of which the tail is about half that length; its general colour is a brilliant grass-green, the head pale primrose, whilst the neck, shoulders, and wings are yellow-green, the feathers being edged with grey, giving it an undulating appearance, hence one of its names; the two long middle-tail feathers are blue, whilst the others are yellow with green tips; the beak is white, chin yellow, spotted with blue, which latter colour also runs down each side of the beak like a moustache; legs and feet grey or slate colour. the male bird is distinguished from the female by the blue colour of the cere round the nostrils, which in the female is of a brown shade. budgerigars breed well in confinement, the season lasting from about december to july, during which two or three broods will be produced. several pairs can be kept together in one aviary, the only thing to be particular about is to provide sufficient nesting material, otherwise quarrels ensue. in the native woods these handsome little fellows generally make their nests in the hollows of gum-trees, taking very little trouble as to furnishing it; in an aviary they will select almost any hole or corner; but one of the best nests i know of is the husk of a cocoa-nut, which should have a hole cut in one end; this should be hung high up so that mice cannot reach it, and a perch should be provided close to the hole, where the male will sit and sing his love ditties, and tell his wife all the gossip of the day, whilst she is attending to her maternal duties inside. the hen lays three, four, five and sometimes six eggs, the youngsters being hatched in fourteen or fifteen days. when feeding-time comes the young ones do not open their mouths as do so many young birds, but the parents take the beak of their offspring into their own, and the youngsters feed themselves on the food which the old ones disgorge for them. the young birds leave the nest when five or six weeks old, as soon as they are fully fledged, and in a few days leave the parents, who soon set about nesting again; the first thing they do being to thoroughly clean out the husk for the reception of the next batch of eggs. if husks cannot be got conveniently, little wooden boxes (which should have some sawdust put in so that the eggs will not roll about) holes in the wall, or a rotten wood log will do. when kept in small cages budgerigars, not having room to properly "show off," are apt to become silent, but once in an aviary and the change is marvellous, as they dart about, tumbling, twisting, and climbing in all positions in the most graceful and delightful manner, and singing a pleasant little song all the while, stopping now and again as though to exchange confidences and to express delight at their surroundings. these birds do not bathe, but one of their greatest delights is to tumble and roll about in wet grass; if, therefore, the aviary has not a grass bottom, a large sod should be supplied and artificial rain produced by the aid of the watering can. when thus tumbling about, and the sun glints on their plumage it sparkles like so many gems. so far as food is concerned these charming little birds are easily satisfied, canary seed and white millet being sufficient to keep them healthy and vigorous, the only change necessary being when they are feeding young ones, when a little stale bread soaked in water and squeezed dry, and a few oats, should be added to their bill of fare; the simpler the diet the better, so do not indulge them with tit-bits. in the aviary or cage always have a supply of clean drinking water at hand, pounded oyster shells, as well as sand, fine shell grit and cuttlefish bone, which can be had at all bird shops, seed dealers, etc. being such hardy, sprightly little fellows, the handsome budgerigars are not liable to so many illnesses as frequently fall to the lot of our caged pets; now and again one may have a fit, due probably to improper feeding; should such occur, be careful to correct your feeding, and give grass in flower, dandelion, or a bit of groundsel. cramp they sometimes suffer from, which is produced by cold or damp, the latter more especially; a simple remedy is the removal of the bird to a warm and dry atmosphere. all cage-birds (hens) are liable to egg-binding, one of the most serious complaints, and difficult to deal with, and budgerigars suffer from it like the rest; it is seldom curable, but immediately the hen is observed to be suffering she should be taken gently, very gently, in hand, and a drop or two of castor oil or sweet oil put in her mouth, whilst the egg passage should be gently oiled with a feather, and then held over the mouth of a jug of hot water, so that the steam may get to the part affected, and so relax it and assist in the delivery of the egg. a bird which has been egg-bound should not be allowed to mate and go to nest again, as sooner or later she will again suffer from the distressing complaint and die. any one fond of birds cannot fail to be delighted and charmed with such a handsome, good-tempered, loving, and jolly little fellow as the budgerigar. $how to treat dogs.$--twice a day feed the dog moderately. paunch and tripe are excellent for dogs. boil this food, cut into small pieces, in a moderate quantity of water, and when the meat is sufficiently done throw into the gravy some good dog biscuits. when these are soft mix meat, biscuits and gravy well together. for an occasional change oatmeal or rice may be given instead of meat. during the summer boil a cabbage with the food twice a week, for unless dogs have vegetable food occasionally they are liable to have mange and scurvy. in winter put mashed potatoes in the food sometimes, for these contain the properties for which dogs sometimes eat the coarse grass in some parts called couch grass, in others twitch. once or twice a week a dog should have boiled liver and sometimes milk in which powdered brimstone has been placed. always he should be able to drink clean water. a dog's kennel should be in a dry, sheltered place and lifted from the ground. it should face south or west. let him have plenty of dry straw. wheat straw and oat straw are best; it is said that barley straw will cause mange. cedar or pine shavings are good if you can secure some. in cold weather a piece of canvas or carpet should be nailed to hang over the entrance, and great care should be taken to keep the kennel dry, or there will be mange and lameness. a kennel with an adjustable bottom which can be removed to be cleaned, is better than one with a fixed bottom. at least every two weeks the kennel should be thoroughly cleaned. apply some good disinfectant to every crevice with a brush, then expose the inside to the sun and air to dry it. it is usual to chain the dog to the kennel, but a better plan is to place in front of the kennel a stout wire about fifteen feet long stretched between two posts that are about three feet above the ground. the ring at the end of the dog's chain should have this wire running through it. this plan gives him a much wider range. to destroy vermin in a dog rub soft soap well into his coat, and in about a quarter of an hour lather it well into him, and then wash it away with an abundance of tepid water. when dogs have the "husk," a kind of cough, they should be fed with finely chopped suet boiled in milk, with a little garlic also finely chopped added to the suet. for worms, administer a teaspoonful of salt either dry or dissolved in lukewarm water. this is also a good remedy when distemper begins, for it acts as an emetic. the least exercise a dog should have is an hour each day. dogs kept in the house should have exercise for half an hour before breakfast and after supper too. a run at mid-day, too, is an advantage. to lead them out soberly on a chain and back again is not sufficient for a dog. he needs more lively exercise than that. a large dog should run six miles each day. brush your dog's coat each day and wash him once a week. bad habits should be checked when the dog is young, with a whip if that is necessary, but without cruelty. a little whip goes a long way with a dog. even the sight of it is sufficient usually. be sure he understands for what he is being punished, and be consistent. don't laugh at him for one thing one day, and punish him for it another. do not let him annoy neighbours by barking. if you do it will serve you right if the neighbours obtain an order from the magistrates for his destruction. they are entitled to do this, and, indeed the right ought to be exercised more often than it is. so far we have mentioned grown dogs only, but a few hints about puppies may be given. when these are five or six weeks old they may be weaned. feed them now for three weeks upon boiled milk, sometimes breaking into it a little stale bread. then they may begin to have soup made of meat and vegetables occasionally. when they are between six weeks and a year old they may be fed three times a day, the most generous meal at night before they go to sleep. $the raven.$--if you keep a raven be prepared for unending mischief and destruction. he needs plenty of room, and will eat most things. raw meat is perhaps his favourite diet, and he is pleased with rats, mice, small birds, beetles, grubs or worms, and bread. he ought to be fed once, and once only, each day, for he will find insects, worms, and other delicacies for himself. from time to time he loves to retire to a place that is sheltered, warm and dark, and where no one can see him. $white mice.$--the principal food for white mice is bread-and-milk, oatmeal grits, and any other common food, except cheese, which is bad for them. they should be kept particularly clean, and their cages overhauled each day and the bedding changed, or they will smell offensively. cages may be adapted from boxes. give them more room than the bought cages give them, and a dark compartment. $jackdaws.$--the jackdaw is tamed easily, and can be taught to say a few words. it is as alert as a terrier for visitors, and affectionate towards its friends. jack loves a bath, and may be fed on bread and milk, oats, mice, small birds, insects, and meat. $the jay.$--the jay is not so impatient of captivity as the magpie, and will tolerate confinement in a large cage. it will eat meat, small birds, mice, insects, worms, and is particularly fond of eggs. it eats, too, much vegetable food. $the magpie.$--do not keep a magpie unless you can give him generous room. he is a very clever talker and mimic. he is extremely fond of bathing, and a plentiful supply of water is needful to keep his beautiful plumage in good condition. the food of the magpie is the same as that of the jackdaw. $the hedgehog.$--this animal likes insects and snails, frogs and mice, and will even kill a snake, and eat it. in its wild state it sleeps all the winter, rolled up in a hole which it has filled with grass, moss, or leaves; and when tamed it will hide itself in some dark place for weeks, and never make its appearance, unless it should feel hungry. hedgehogs destroy beetles, eating them quickly and gladly. they need no looking after, but will fend for themselves, though it is better to have a little hutch to put them into sometimes. their feeding-time is in the night; and if there are black-beetles in the kitchen, the best plan is to leave the hedgehog there. $silkworms.$--buy a few eggs, which should be of a lilac or grey colour. avoid yellow ones. the silkworm when hatched is black, and about one-fourth of an inch long. the desire for food is the first sign of life, and it is more alive then than at any other time. when about eight days have elapsed its head becomes enlarged and it turns ill, refuses food, and remains torpid for about three days. this seems to be caused by the pressure of the skin, which has become too tight. the difference in the size of the worm from the beginning to the end of the caterpillar state is such, that the worm has been provided with several skins, each of which it throws off in succession. the silkworm feeds on the leaves of the white mulberry; or, when these cannot be obtained, upon those of the black mulberry; or even upon the leaves of the lettuce. the eggs should be bought about the end of april and placed in trays made of pasteboard. over the case put thin gauze. the trays may be placed in a window facing the south, where they are fully exposed to the sun, and there they should remain undisturbed till the eggs begin to hatch. as the worms appear they should be removed into other trays, and fed with the mulberry leaves. the temperature should be from sixty-six to seventy degrees, and the room ventilated, and preserved free from damp and from too much dryness. the trays should be kept clean, dead leaves and any other refuse cleared away. in moving the caterpillars from one tray to another they should not be touched by the fingers, but removed by threads of cotton passed under their bodies, or with a camel-hair brush. the caterpillar has four moultings, which may be all over in four days each, if the heat of the room be increased to from ninety-five to one hundred degrees of fahrenheit. when the heat is lower, the first moulting takes place on the fourth or fifth day after hatching, the second in four days more, the third in five or six days more, and the last in about eight days. ten days more are required after this moulting, so that in about thirty-two days after hatching the caterpillar is fully grown. [illustration] at the end of this time the silkworms change to a clear pink or flesh colour, and look semi-transparent; they refuse food, become restless, and prepare to spin their cocoon. care should be taken to raise the walls of their tray or they will climb over and be lost. the cocoon nest should now be prepared by twisting the corners of a piece of writing-paper, and raising its edges into the form shown in the illustration. a number of these should be prepared and fixed to a piece of tape, with their pointed ends downwards; and into each one a single worm should be placed when it refuses its food, and seems inclined to spin: it will then weave its web so as to leave a space within. the cocoon consists of three layers of silk: the first is loose and flossy, and is of no use for the silk manufacture; the second is closer, the silk crossing from side to side; and the third is still finer, and is stuck firmly together, so as to form a compact inner coating. when the cocoon is completed, the enclosed caterpillar once more casts its skin, with its head and jaws attached to it. it is now a conical chrysalis of the ordinary shape. at first the chrysalis, when opened, contains only a yellow fluid, but by degrees the parts of the moth appear, and in a fortnight or three weeks a swelling of the chrysalis indicates the approach of another change. a rupture down its back comes next, and the moth bursts through its coating into the hollow of the cocoon, and if left to itself would soon eat its way through. the chrysalis, however, must be stopped from eating through the cocoon; and the silk must be wound. when, by shaking the cocoon, it is found to rattle, then it is time to wind the silk. the cocoon is placed in a cup of warm water, after the loose outward silk has been removed, and then, an end being taken, the whole filament may be wound off on a piece of card. the length of the thread of a cocoon varies from to , feet. when the silk is wound off the aurelia presents itself, and being put in a separate case, it remains motionless for about twenty days, when it appears as a pale yellow moth. the male soon dies; the females lay their eggs on the slips of paper provided for that purpose. they then soon die. chapter xix things boys can make $a way to bind magazines.$--first, we must have a frame in which to stitch the sheets together. here is mine in fig. . i made it myself, and any handy lad can make one. the frame shown has an opening a foot long, so it is big enough to bind a book as long as that, or any smaller magazine. i have drawn it fitted with five strings, which would be the right number for a full-sized magazine; more or less strings are required according to the size of the book. they are, as may be seen, passed through holes bored opposite to each other above and below, and fixed tight with pegs. these strings are tapes / inch wide, which mother or sister will supply. now for the sewing. we have stripped off the wrappers, cleaned the backs of the sheets, and laid them in order, the last sheet on the top. but to make neat work, we should have what bookbinders call "end papers"--plain pieces of paper cut and folded to the size of the magazine--to go at the beginning and end of the volume; one leaf of each will be pasted down by-and-by to the inside of the cover adjoining it. we begin by laying an end paper on the frame with its back against the tapes. we take a needle and thread, tie a knot at the end of the latter, and pass the needle, as in fig. , through the middle of tape no. , and through the paper, drawing the thread to the knot. how we then go on is shown by the dotted line in fig. ; at the nearer side of tape no. we pass the needle out again, carry it behind the tape, in again at the farther side of the tape, and so on, till we finally bring it out on the near side of tape no. . please to notice that we do not pass the needle _through_ any tape except through no. at first starting; with that exception, the thread merely _goes behind_ the tapes. [illustration: fig. .] when we have reached the last tape and brought the needle out on the near side of it, we lay a sheet, in this case the _last_ sheet, of the magazine, on the frame, and pass the needle through it inwards on the farther side of tape no. , and then work back to the nearest side of tape no. . another sheet is now laid on, and so we proceed till the whole volume, including the front end paper, is stitched together. if we now lay a good heavy weight on our volume, we can squeeze it into narrower compass, for as the threads merely go round the tapes, they will slip down them; and we can then glue the back. everybody has not a glue-pot, but everybody can get a d. bottle of le page's liquid glue, and nothing is better or more handy. damp a strip of paper, or better, of thin muslin, and rub it down on the glue; it will strengthen the back. leave the volume under pressure till the glue has set, and we may then take it out of the frame and cut off the tapes to, say, about two inches long on each side. [illustration: _fig. ._] and now we are ready for our covers; a couple of pieces of stiff millboard, the wreckage of some old draper's box, will do very well. we cut them to size, and glue down the tapes upon them, as is shown in fig. ; and when the volume is heavy it is well to paste a strip of thin muslin over the hinge, as indicated by the dotted lines at _a_, to keep all tight. i have just spoken of paste; we shall want it for everything else that we have to do, so i will tell you how to make it. take a couple of tablespoonfuls of flour and half a teaspoonful of powdered alum, beat them carefully with cold water to the consistency of thin cream, and boil briskly for four minutes, stirring all the time. what we want to do now is to put a back to our volume. we want something that will look well, and be strong, and nothing that i have tried has been equal to "window-blind holland." a dark green i prefer, but colour is a matter of taste. this material will not stretch out of place in pasting, as bookbinders' cloth is apt to do. fig. shows how the back piece is cut. the middle part _b_ has a strip of stiff paper pasted on it, which is not exactly the width of the back of the volume, but just a shade wider, that when pasted in place, it may have the proper curve outwards. the flap _c_ is to be turned and pasted down on this strip of paper, but the flaps _d_ and _d_ will be turned and pasted down inside the covers, after the back has been pasted in its place on the volume; and when that has been done, the volume should be kept under pressure till the paste is dry. [illustration: fig. ., fig. .] we must, of course, cover the sides of our volume; bookbinders' cloth or marbled paper, both of which are very inexpensive, are what i commonly use. after that, we can line the insides of the covers by pasting down on them a leaf of the end paper. and only one more thing now remains to be done, that is to letter a label neatly, and to paste it on the back. $scrap book and index.$--keep _two_ scrap-books--one for cuttings and the other for notes. the scrap-book might be made of brown paper. take an ordinary quarto exercise-book, with about pages in it, and set apart the first fifteen pages for forming the index, for a scrap-book or a note-book without an index is as absurd as a public library without a catalogue. on the first page of your scrap-book write, in clear style, your name and address. next, put the date on which you commenced to insert cuttings in the book. and then you might add an appropriate motto. how would this title-page do? [illustration: "when found make a note of." captain cuttle. * * * * * my newspaper cuttings. * * * * * frederick cowley, , abbey road, knutsford. _commenced jan. th_, . ] [illustration: fig. a.] having finished the all-important question of a title-page, which might be much more ornamental than the one above, begin the index on page of the book. take a strip of paper of the same length as the pages in your book, and by doubling it in half twice and then dividing it into three equal parts, mark it off into twelve portions, as shown in fig. b. [illustration: fig. b. strip, the same length as the page. ] now place your strip alongside of the edge of page , and rule a line on the page exactly where the figure has been put. only a tiny line, about three-quarters of an inch in length, is needed. on page , again place your strip along the edge, and rule a line where the figure occurs. on page rule a line where the figure is; on page rule a line where the figure is; on page rule a line where the figure is; and so on, till on page you rule a line where the figure is. i expect you see why i have done this. now neatly cut from the bottom of page a strip, three-quarters of an inch wide, as far as the line you have ruled. this will leave at the top of the page a piece of paper jutting out. on this write the letters [a | b] in ink. then on page cut your strip three-quarters of an inch wide, up to the ruled line, and write [c | d] on the little square which projects underneath [a | b]; and continue to write two letters of the alphabet on each page till you get to page , when you must write [uv | w]. on page you can write [xy | z]. now your index is complete so far as the lettering. the edge of your book should look something like fig. c. if you want the index to look still better, you should write the letters alternately in red and black ink. on the first line of page in your book put a, and turning over the leaf write b on the top line. on page write c, and turning overleaf write d upon the top line. thus you will have allotted a page to each letter in the alphabet, with the exception of the last six letters. i think i should put on the top line of page u v, and overleaf write w, as w needs more room than u v. on page write x y, and overleaf z. [illustration: fig. c.] now that the mysteries of what the bookbinders call "index cutting" have been overcome, nothing remains to be done in the way of preparing your scrap-book for the reception of the numerous newspaper cuttings which i hope will find a home therein. we will suppose you are interested in cricket. here comes the usefulness of your book. when the averages of the county cricket are published you can cut out the list and paste it in your book, and enter in your index, under c, the fact thus: "cricket, county averages, ," the referring to the page on which you have pasted the cutting. when brown _minor_ is trying to prove that his county of kent was third on the list, you will be able to convince him of his error by a reference to the page in your scrap-book, whereon you have pasted a cutting headed "county championship." reserve a few pages in your book for cuttings from the comic papers. you have no idea, until you commence, how interesting and engrossing your scrap-book will prove. in the newspapers there are so many curious little incidents recorded as to swimming, cycling, football, science, which you will be glad to preserve for future reference. then, any little facts about your favourite hero may well find a place in your book. and when you have filled one book, commence another, and thus manufacture your own library of "best bits." [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] $net making.$--in fig. we have a netting needle and the way of filling it, in fig. a mesh stick. the stick may be almost any shape and about nine inches long. it regulates the mesh of the net, for the mesh is twice the circumference of the stick, so you may make a coarse net for tennis or a finer one to protect your strawberries, or a hammock net, or any kind you wish. fix a hook into a wall or door, or in some other similar position. take a piece of twine, a foot long will serve, tie the ends together, and hang the circle a thus made over the hook as in fig. . take the needle in your right hand and pass it through the loop. at b hold the loop and the twine that comes from the needle. now cast a turn of the twine so that it rests on the upper part of your left hand and wrist, and also over loop a. next pass the needle in an upward direction, pulling slowly and finishing with a tight knot. what makes the knot is shown at fig. . in fig. the knot loose and tight is shown. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] slowly as this is done a time will come when you can do it rapidly. when you have tightened the knot, hold the mesh stick in the left hand, lay the twine over the stick with the knot resting at its edge, as in fig. . pass the needle through the loop that has thus been made, pull the twine firmly round your mesh stick, then throw a turn of the twine over your wrist and so make the same knot again. throw the twine once more round the stick and make one more stitch through our old friend loop a. at this stage slip all you have done from your mesh stick, and you will find two half meshes attached to your loop a. in fig. these are shown as and . treat and as you treated loop a, that is first in make and in . now you have your first completed mesh, . mesh also is made on , the knots being one on the top of the other. now go on in the same way, making the meshes in the order that you find them numbered in fig. . the taking of two stitches through the last mesh of each row is the widening process, and this operation is maintained to the end of the net as far as the top edge is concerned. on the other edge, however, as soon as you have reached the width you need you must change this policy to that of taking the stitch through the last two meshes of the preceding row as in fig. . when the net is as long as you need it this narrowing as it is called is applied to both edges, and the fourth corner is finished off by taking the stitch through the last two meshes. then they should be tied fast. do not widen or narrow at the wrong edges as you work. to prevent this mistake some netters lie a piece of ribbon upon the top or narrowing edge. nets for fishing and for such pursuits may be made in this way. first make a square, then go along the edges of the square, narrowing at regular intervals until the net is of the size needed. gloves may be worn if the fingers become chafed, or the knots may be drawn tight in such a way that the strain is on the needle and not on the finger. when a new needleful is commenced be sure to make the first knot very firm. among the useful articles that may be made in this way are tennis nets, onion bags, nets for the protection of growing fruit, and hammock nets. $photographic enlargements.$--there are so many excellent sources, easily available, from which boys may learn how to use their cameras, so many developers, toners, and fixers ready to their hands at the chemist's, that we have not occupied space here with a general dissertation upon photography. we think, however, a chapter on enlargements will be welcome. the rapid development of bromide printing paper, and the ease by which enlargements may be produced thereon, has created quite a new era in amateur photography. no longer is it necessary to carry about an unwieldy heavy kit, which destroys half the pleasure of the amateur, when "on pictures bent," for now he may make use of even the smallest form of camera, and enlarge his pictures when he has returned from his meanderings. enlargements may be produced in several ways. the negative itself may be enlarged, or what is simpler still a direct enlargement may be made on bromide paper. the latter may be easily effected in two ways--( ) by means of daylight, or ( ) by artificial light. it is with the former that the writer intends to deal in the present paper. a word first as to the kind of negative best adapted for enlarging purposes. the quarter-plate size will be found most suitable, and these may be successfully enlarged to by . the negative must be perfectly sharp, full of crisp detail, and perfect in every way. any small defect in a negative is fatal to its enlargement, as it is made so much more apparent by magnification. most amateurs find a room at the top of the house the most convenient for enlarging purposes, and one with only one window is best, and that preferably with an uninterrupted view of the sky. the light must next be excluded by pasting brown paper over the entire window, or by having a tightly-fitting wooden frame made to answer the same purpose. provision is then made to fit into the frame a quarter-plate printing frame, in which is placed the negative. by this means no light is permitted to enter the room, save that which filters through the negative. as a general rule, it will be found necessary to fit on the outside of the window frame a reflector of some sort, and a piece of white glazed board fixed at an angle will be found as effective as anything. this will concentrate the light and produce an equal amount of illumination over the entire negative. the arrangement of the camera calls next for consideration. if the camera possessed by the would-be enlarger is one which focuses from the front, no adaptation of any sort will be required. all that is necessary is to place an oblong table close to the window, so arranging it that the camera when placed thereon will be on the same level as the negative. the ground-glass at the back of the camera being removed, place the camera as near to the negative as possible, which must have its film side facing the room. to prevent any escape of light through the body of the camera there should be as little space as possible between the negative and the camera, a black cloth being thrown over the end of the latter to make quite certain. at the other end of the table is fixed the enlarging board, on which the bromide is affixed by means of drawing pins. the farther this board is from the lens, the greater the enlargement, of course. a few experimental trials will soon show the tyro the proper distance the board should be placed, and this discovered, the place should be marked for future reference. it will be found a great convenience to have a piece of ruby glass fixed in the end of the lens cap, as this will enable the operator to see the full size of the image on the enlarging board, and thus obviate any difficulty as to the exact spot in which the bromide paper should be. the greatest difficulty experienced by the beginner in enlarging is undoubtedly the gauging of the correct exposure. light varies so, that it will be found necessary to give the same negative longer or shorter exposures at different times. the best plan is to make a table of approximate exposures by experimenting with a few strips of bromide paper, giving each a different exposure. these strips should then be pasted in a note-book for any future reference, together with the following particulars:--( ) time of day and year; ( ) intensity of the light; ( ) density of negative; ( ) brand of paper; and ( ) size of the enlargement. an observant worker will soon master all these little difficulties, and when once success has been achieved, enlarging pictures from small negatives will be found to be one of the most interesting branches of photographic operations. $magic lantern slides.$--draw first on paper the figures you wish to paint, lay the paper on the table, and cover it over with a piece of glass of the right size and shape. draw the outlines with a fine camel's hair pencil or a pen, in black paint mixed with varnish, and when this is dry, add the proper colours. the transparent colours are alone to be used in this kind of painting, and these include aureolin, gamboge, italian pink, indian yellow, madder lake, crimson lake, prussian blue, indigo, burnt sienna, madder brown, vandyke brown, lamp black. ox gall will cause the colours to flow more easily on glass. be careful that the glass is not greasy. both water colours and oil colours are available. an easy way to make diagrams and other outline drawings for the magic lantern is to take a piece of frosted glass of the right size and draw upon it, using indian ink. the frost enables you to do this, but would prevent the maximum of light passing through the glass when it was in the lantern. accordingly, to remove the frost now that it has served its purpose, pour canada balsam upon it, cover with another piece of glass and bind the two pieces together as other magic lantern slides are bound. a curious effect may be obtained by a magic lantern slide made as follows:--tint vaseline with cochineal and place some between glasses of the magic lantern slide size, making a kind of vaseline sandwich. put this slide in the lantern and focus it, and then insert a knife point a little way between the two pieces of glass and so let them be alternately forced asunder and drawn together. the effect upon the vaseline as seen upon the sheet is very peculiar. $three ways of making a hectograph.$--it happens often that a boy, especially if he be the secretary of a cricket or football club, needs to send away many letters or notices, all alike; and few things are so wearisome as this writing of the same thing over and over again. if he will make for himself a hectograph he need write his notice no more than once and yet he may have more copies than he is likely to need. here is the mixture that will prove so useful: gelatine, ounces; glycerine, fluid ounces; carbolic acid, / fluid ounce; water, fluid ounces. first add the water to the gelatine and let it stand until the gelatine is quite soft. now place all this in the glycerine and heat it over the fire until the gelatine has been dissolved, and then until the water has passed away in steam. the carbolic acid is to keep the mixture from turning sour, and it must be added gradually now, before cooling begins. pour the whole into some shallow tray like the lid of one of those square tin boxes in which grocers keep biscuits. when the mixture has become firm and cold it is ready to be used. get a bottle of aniline ink and write or sketch whatever you desire to multiply. when the ink is dry place your letter or drawing face downwards upon the pad you have made with the gelatine. rub the back of the paper with your hand to force the ink upon the gelatine. when the paper has been upon the hectograph for some time strip it off and you will find that your drawing or writing has been transferred to the gelatine. if you now press clean paper upon this drawing or writing it will be printed upon the paper, and so you may have copy after copy. when you have as many as you need clean the surface of the hectograph for the next time you wish to use it. this may be done with a soft sponge and tepid water, but this process being rather tedious, most boys will be pleased to hear of an easier method, though it causes the hectograph in time to lose its clean appearance. put it in the oven and let it melt, and when it is cold again it will be ready for the next letter or drawing. the following is another way to make a hectograph: take of pure glycerine, parts; water, parts; barium sulphate, parts; sugar, - / parts; gelatine, - / parts. mix well together, and allow all to stand for twenty-four hours; then heat gently over a slow fire until the whole is melted, stirring continuously until the various ingredients are thoroughly amalgamated. it may now be poured into the shallow tin or dish prepared to receive it, and allowed to stand for a day where it will be free from dust. it should not be used until absolutely cold and firm. here is another method we have found very successful. take ounces of fine russian glue and fluid ounces of cold water. let the glue steep in the water until the water has been absorbed, or nearly so. now place the glue and water in a vessel upon the fire until the glue melts. it need not boil. add eight fluid ounces of common glycerine and six drops of carbolic acid, and also as much paris white as will make the solution milky. stir well and then pour the mixture into a shallow tray. in about twelve hours it will have set. for ink judson's purple dye will serve. $how to make a filter.$--you should procure a common flower-pot, nine or ten inches deep. put in a layer of animal charcoal two inches thick. wood charcoal may be used, but animal charcoal--that is charcoal made from bones--is best. on this put a layer of well washed sand. for the way to wash sand see page . the layer is two inches thick. then comes a two-inch layer of small pebbles, each about as large as a pea. at the hole at the bottom of the flower-pot should be a fragment of brick which fits the hole loosely. put the filter on a stool or on a shelf. there should be a hole in the stool or shelf to correspond with the hole in the flower-pot, and under the hole a vessel to catch the filtered water. the first drops that come through the filter may not be clear, but in about a quarter of an hour clear water will commence to issue from the hole in the bottom of the flower-pot. take out the sand and the pebbles and wash them thoroughly once in six weeks, and once in four months replace the vegetable charcoal. $the syphon.$--in aquarium work and in other occupations it is necessary sometimes to empty water from a vessel by means of a syphon. suppose that we wish to empty a bucket. the simplest thing would be to take the bucket and turn it upside down. suppose, however, the bucket were fast and could not be moved, or suppose there were some dregs or sediment in the bucket which we did not wish to disturb, then we should find a syphon useful. suppose a bucket is on a table. one end of a pipe is in the water in the bucket and the other end is dangling down. now if we can once induce the water to flow through the pipe the water will continue to run, although at first it has to run up-hill a little, a most unwaterlike proceeding. there are two ways of inducing the flow. if you take the lower end of the pipe and suck, water will be brought over the elbow. or if before you put the pipe in position you fill it with water, it will flow, and in each case it will continue to flow until it has emptied the bucket; that is, if the pipe reaches to the bottom of the bucket. $how to make a fountain.$--a fountain is based on the principle that water strives to find its own level. the water tries to rise as high as the reservoir which feeds it, and would succeed, but the pressure of the air prevents it. in a u tube the water keeps at the same level in each part of the tube, but if you were to cork one arm of the tube it would not come so high there, because the air would not allow it. the writer of this article when he was a boy made fountains for a fern rockery and for a garden aquarium in the following simple way:--upon the garden wall he placed a bucket. at the bottom of the bucket he punched a hole and inserted one end of a length of india-rubber tube bought from a shop where they sell the appliances for the teaching of chemistry. at the same place he bought some pieces of glass tubing of such a size that it would fit inside the rubber tubing. explain to the man in the shop, and he will know exactly what you need. take a few inches of the tube and hold the middle of it in the gas flame, or in a bunsen burner if you have one. when the glass is soft draw the ends asunder gently, and you will find you have two pieces of glass shaped like a fountain-pen filler. it may be that one end of each of these two pieces of tube may have been closed by this process, but all that needs to be done is to file the sharp point until you have come to where the tube is open again. this serves for the nozzle of the fountain. there were no fountain pens when the author made his fountain, and it has just occurred to him that perhaps the best thing would be to buy a fountain pen-filler at once and have your nozzle ready-made. if you make your own you may not get it right first time. it may be crooked or the opening too large or too small. however, there will be this advantage, you may make many nozzles, and so by changing them have a variety of sprays. the finer the opening the higher will be the jet. it is not difficult to apply the fountain to an aquarium. for a rockery it will be easy to arrange the pipe and nozzle, and to fix it in position with the stones. $case for shaving papers.$--decide upon the size of paper you like best. cut a piece of millboard, celluloid, or even thin wood the same size, and upon this paint an attractive design. now cut a strip of the same material as wide as this piece, but only an inch, or less, deep. arrange piece, paper and strip as in the sketch. a is the piece of millboard, b the sheets of paper, c the strip. at d e f bore holes and secure the whole with paper fasteners put through these. this pad may hang upon the wall with ribbon, but the design and not the strip should hang outwards. when all the pieces of paper have been used the paper fasteners may be unfastened, and a new set of papers introduced. the turned-down ends of the paper fasteners are ugly and are liable to scratch. paste over them very neatly a strip of brown paper or other suitable material. $a blotting pad.$--a very serviceable blotting-pad may be made upon the same principle as the case for shaving papers. the measurements only will be different, and a pad of writing paper may be made in the same way. [illustration: shaving papers.] [illustration: hygrometer.] $a hygrometer.$--this is a greek word made up of _hygros_ meaning moist, and _metron_ a measure. it indicates how much or how little moisture there is in the air. in the diagram is a small nail a, a thread b, or better still, a long hair begged from your mother, sister, or friend. c is a weight of some kind. the author had a penny that had a hole in it. hang this on a wall in your bedroom or in an outhouse, or even in some sheltered place out of doors. when you hang it up rule a line at d, and put the date. in damp weather the weight will rise, in dry it will descend so you may rule other lines showing where it was at different times of the year. the hair should be as free from oil as possible. you may have noticed that the clothes line slackens in dry weather, and tightens on rainy days, and this applies also to the cords of the window blinds. there is a story that when some men were putting a london monument in position, by a miscalculation it needed to be raised just a few inches more, and this elevation the men were unable to bring about. at last, from the crowd that had gathered to watch the proceedings, a sailor bawled, "wet the ropes." they wetted the ropes, and up went the heavy monument into its right place. chapter xx fireside amusements $chess in twelve easy lessons.$--there is nothing like beginning at the beginning, so i first give a diagram of the board and men as set out for play. [illustration: black. white.] it will be noticed that in the above diagram the square at the bottom right hand is a white one, and it is in this way that, by custom, the chess-board is always placed. the board is divided into squares, coloured alternately black and white, or some similar distinctive colours. the squares are always called "white" and "black," whatever their actual colour may be, and similarly the men are invariably termed "white" and "black," though, as a matter of fact, often coloured white and red. having got the board in proper position, with its white square at the bottom right-hand corner, the next thing is to set up the men in proper order. there are thirty-two men in all--sixteen white and sixteen black. they consist of the following:-- two kings: one white, one black. the white king stands on the fourth square, counting from the white player's _right_ hand, and the black king stands on the fourth square, counting from the black player's _left_ hand. this brings the two kings opposite each other, the white king standing on a black square and the black king on a white square. two queens: one white and one black. the white queen stands on the white square to the left of the square occupied by the king. similarly, the black queen stands on the black square next to the black king. it is of importance in setting up the men to bear in mind that the queens stand on squares of the same colour as themselves, the white queen being on a white square and the black queen on a black square. four bishops: two white and two black. these stand on the squares adjoining their respective king and queen. the one next the king is called the king's bishop, and the one next the queen is known as the queen's bishop. four knights: two white and two black. these stand on the squares adjoining the bishops. the knight nearest the king is called the king's knight; the other is called the queen's knight. four rooks: two white and two black. these occupy the four corner squares, the one nearest the king being termed the king's rook; the one nearest the queen the queen's rook. the rooks are sometimes called castles. these sixteen men are collectively called pieces. sixteen pawns: eight white and eight black. these stand on the squares immediately in front of the sixteen pieces. they are named after the pieces in front of which they stand, as the king's pawn, the queen's pawn, the king's bishop's pawn, and so on. as it would be very cumbrous to use the full name of each piece or pawn every time it may be necessary to refer to it, i shall in future use the recognised english notation, as follows:-- k for king. q for queen. b for bishop. kt for knight. p for pawn. other abbreviations will be-- sq for square. ch for check. dis ch for discovered check; and doub-ch for double check. written in this notation, king's rook's pawn becomes k r p, and queen's bishop's square q b sq, and so on. now for the practical use of this lesson. let all the readers who wish to learn the game first of all set the board before them as herein described. then let them place the white men in their proper order on the board, beginning with the k. similarly let them place the black men on the board, beginning also with the k. as a second try, let them place the men on the board beginning with one of the r's, and going across to the other r. finally, let them familiarise themselves with the english notation, as given above. by the time they have done this they will be in a position to benefit by a further lesson. ii the board.--the chess-board is not merely something upon which the game of chess is played; it is part of the game itself, for it limits, and, to some extent, controls the action of the men. in my first lesson i gave a diagram of the board with the men set out for play, and i now give an outline diagram of the board on which the name of each square is given, both from the white and the black side. now, in order to read the moves correctly, it is of the greatest importance for the student to understand the method of naming the various squares. from the diagram on page it is clear that, according to our english style, each square has two names, the white player naming the squares from his own side, and the black player from his. thus, what the white player calls his king's square the black player calls his king's eighth, and so on with all the other squares. all the boys who are taking an interest in these lessons should get this point fixed in their minds to avoid mistakes. [illustration: from black's side. from white's side.] iii the squares running across the board are termed _ranks_; those running up and down, _files_; and those in a slanting direction, _diagonals_. the squares, as will be seen, are named from the pieces, which, at starting, occupy their first rank; thus the square at the lower right-hand corner is white's king's rook's square (k r sq); the square immediately in front is white's king's rook's second (k r )--the word square being omitted; the next in front is white's k r , and so on till you come to white's k r . in a similar way you get white's k kt sq, or or , etc., or white's k or q sq, or or , and so on. similarly, by turning the board round, you count the squares from the black side as black's k r sq, or , etc., or black's k or q sq, or or , etc. the files are also named in a similar manner; thus the file running from white's k sq to black's k sq is called the k's file, and so with all the other files. the ranks are simply called first rank, second rank, etc. the diagonals have no special name, with the exception of the two running direct from one corner of the board to the other--that is, the diagonal from white's k r sq to black's q r sq, and that from white's q r sq to black's k r sq. these are called the long diagonals. of course, some of the very sharp boys who read this will at once exclaim, "why, they are the only diagonals a square can have, for a rectangular figure can only have two diagonals." well, that is all right in mathematics, but in chess, use or custom has brought about the practice of calling all the sloping lines of squares diagonals, and the two which, according to mathematics, are really diagonals, the long diagonals. having thus described the board, i next proceed to describe the moves of the various men. the king.--the king is by far the most important man on the board, inasmuch as a successful attack upon him (as will be explained later on) involves the loss of the game. on the other hand, his moves are much more circumscribed and his powers of attack more limited than those of any other man except the pawn. he moves only one square at a time, but that move can be made in any direction--that is, to any adjacent square, either forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally. place the king on his own square and he can move to q sq, q , k , k b , or k b sq. similarly, if he be placed on a centre square, he can move on to any of the eight adjacent squares. the king captures in the same direction in which he moves; that is, if any one of the enemy's men stands on an adjacent square to his own, he can occupy that square, the other piece being removed from the board, or "taken" or "captured," as it is termed. the king cannot move on to any square commanded by an enemy's man, or, as it is technically called, he cannot move into check; neither can the two kings occupy adjacent squares. once during the progress of each game the king has the option of an extension of his ordinary move, but this i will describe under its proper head of castling. the queen.--the queen is by far the most powerful piece on the board, as she possesses such a wide range of moves. like the king, she can move in any direction--forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally; but these moves are not confined to the adjacent squares, for the only limits to her range of moves are the sides of the board, provided no piece or pawn is in the way of her march. place the queen on her own square, and she can be moved to any one of twenty-one squares, namely, q b sq, q kt sq, q r sq, k sq, k b sq, k kt sq, k r sq, q , , , , , and squares, q b , q kt , q r , k , k b , k kt , and k r . similarly placed on a centre square, say q or , or k or , and it will be found that she commands (that is, can be moved to) no less than twenty-seven squares on a clear board. the queen takes in the same direction as she moves; this she does by displacing the enemy's man, and occupying the vacated square herself. the rook.--next in importance comes the rook. this piece moves forward, backward, or sideways, as far as the open board permits, but not diagonally. place the k r on its own square, and it can move to fourteen squares, namely, r's , , , , , and squares, k kt sq, k b sq, k sq, q sq, q b sq, q kt sq and q r sq. placed on any position on the open board, in a corner, at the side, or in the centre, it will be found that it always commands fourteen squares, neither more nor less. it captures in the same direction as it moves in a similar manner to the king or queen; that is, by removing the enemy's attacked man and occupying the square so vacated. iv the bishop.--the bishop moves diagonally only (that is, in a similar manner to a man at draughts) but he can pass over any number of squares that may be open to him. place the k b on its own square, and it can move on to any of the following seven squares, viz.: kt , r , k , q , b , kt , or r . placed on a centre square, it commands thirteen squares in all. it captures in the same direction as it moves, and in a manner similar to the k and q. from the nature of its move the b can never leave the squares of the colour on which it originally stood. therefore the white k b is always on a white square, and the black k b upon a black one. the knight.--whilst the move of the kt is one of the most beautiful upon the chess-board, it is, at the same time, the most difficult to describe, though a knowledge of its move is not by any means difficult to acquire by a little practice. it may be described as a combination of the shortest move of the r with the shortest move of the b; that is, one square in a straight direction--forward, backward, or sideways--and one square in a diagonal direction. place the k kt on its own square, and it can move on to the following three squares, viz.: k , b , and r . it will be seen that its imaginary r's move would bring it over kt , and then its imaginary b's move places it on b or r . or its imaginary r's move takes it over b sq., and then its imaginary b's move places it on k . placed on a centre square, say k's , it commands eight squares--k b , k kt , k kt , b , q , q b , q b , and q . it will be noticed that it invariably moves on to a square differing in colour from that which it has just left; or, in other words, that it leaps from a white square to a black one, and from a black square to a white one. this peculiarity arises from the combination of the r and b moves. place the kt again on k's (a white square), and it will be seen that the imaginary r's move brings it on to a square of a different colour (in this case a black one), either k , q , k , or b --and then the imaginary b's move keeps it on the same colour. the knight captures as it moves in the same manner as the other pieces--that is, the captured piece is removed from the board, and the capturing kt occupies the vacated square. it has one advantage possessed by no other man, and that is the power of leaping over any intervening piece or pawn, whether belonging to its own side or the enemy's. for example, when the men are first set out in battle array, the only piece that can move without some of the pawns first making an opening is the kt, for it can at once spring on to b or r , despite the intervening pawns. the pawns.--the pawn moves in one direction only, and that is one square straight forward (that is the shortest p's move, except that on its first move it has the option of moving forward either one or two squares). place the k p on its square, and it can move either to k or k . place on k , however, it can only move to k . unlike the pieces, the pawn does not capture in the same direction that it moves, but diagonally, one square only (the bishop's shortest move). place a pawn at k , and whilst it can move to k it can only capture at b or q . the capture is effected, as it is by the pieces, by removing the enemy's man and placing the pawn on the square thus left vacant. the pawn has the privilege of claiming promotion as soon as it reaches the eight square. this is done by its being exchanged for any piece of its own colour (excepting a king) which the player may desire. this is technically called "queening a pawn," although it does not follow that a queen is always called for. it is not necessary that the player should have lost a piece when he thus promotes a pawn, and it therefore follows that he can have two or more queens or three or more rooks, etc., on the board at the same time. this last statement may puzzle a good many boys, some of whom may say: "i am under the impression that there is only one set of chessmen used at a game of chess. if this is so i do not see that there can be two or more queens, etc., of the same colour on the board at the same time. will you kindly explain this?" they would be perfectly right in stating that only one set of men is used in a game. the set constitutes thirty-two men (sixteen white and sixteen black), and these thirty-two men form a complete set. to distinguish one piece from another different figures are used, but the shape of these figures is purely conventional, and flat counters could be used with the name or with some other distinguishing mark written on them. as a matter of fact, indeed, the mohammedans do play chess with such counters, sculptured figures of any kind being prohibited by the koran. now, supposing a set is rendered incomplete by a man being lost, the place of the lost man can be taken by anything that will serve to denote that the piece should be on the board. i have often played a game where a thimble has done duty for a bishop, and a small paper-weight for a rook, and so on. so that it is quite easy to get something to do duty as a second queen, etc. in clubs and chess resorts, where there are many sets of men, a second queen, if need be, is borrowed from another set. sometimes, where only one set of men is available, a rook (if one has been captured) is turned upside down, the promoted pawn is placed on the top, and there you have a most excellent substitute for a queen. supposing, however, that no piece has been lost when the pawn is promoted, then a piece of twisted paper can be placed on the head of the pawn, and again we have a good substitute for a queen. some boys may ask me to explain to them what is meant by "castling" and "taking _en passant_," and as it is somewhat difficult to do so without the use of diagrams, i think i cannot do better than give the required explanation. v castling.--in describing the move of the k, i stated that once during the game the k had the option of an extension of his ordinary move, and promised to describe it later on. this extended move of the k--or rather combined moves of k and r--is termed "castling." there are two species of castling, one on the k's side, the other on the q's side, as shown on the diagrams upon the next page. the operation of castling can only be performed once on each side in a game, and that under the following conditions:-- . the king must not be in check. . the king must not have moved. . the rook must not have moved. . the king must not pass over or occupy any square commanded by an adverse man. . all the squares between the king and the rook must be unoccupied. [illustration:] these five points being kept in view, castling is performed as follows:--on the king's side by the k being moved to k kt sq and the k r over him to k b sq. on the queen's side by the k being moved to q b sq and the q r over him to q sq. by inspecting the diagrams this will be made clear. in castling it will be observed that the k moves two squares (to the right or left, as the case may be), and the r leaps over him to the adjoining square. in castling it is always best to move the k first to show clearly that castling is the move intended. the diagrams show only white's method of castling, but black castles exactly in the same way. it must be borne in mind that previous checks do not prevent the k castling, so long as he has not been moved, and is not in check at the time of castling. the young player must also remember that though the k be on his own square, and the r on its square with no intervening piece, yet castling cannot be performed if either the k or r has moved, and then come back to his original square. pawn taking en passant.--this method of capturing can only be exercised by a p standing on its fifth square, and the captured p on the move immediately preceding the capture, have been played from the second to the fourth square. the following diagram will assist the student. [illustration:] if black in this position move the p to k , then the white p at b can capture it in the usual course, that is by taking it off the square it occupied at k and occupying the vacated square. should, however, the black p go to k's then the white p at b could capture it _en passant_, or "in passing" as the term means. this is done by lifting the b p from k (to which square it has gone) and placing the w p not on the square thus left vacant but on the k (black k ) precisely as if the black p had only moved to k . in the position on the diagram, should the black p go to k , then the white p at q's fourth could capture it in the ordinary manner. it must be borne in mind that the right of capturing _en passant_ must be exercised on the move immediately following the one which the adverse pawn has made its move from the second to the fourth square, otherwise the right lapses. vi i now resume the easy lessons by giving a list of technical terms. adverse piece, adverse pawn.--an "adverse piece" is a piece of an opposite colour to your own, and, of course, belongs to your adversary. similarly, an "adverse pawn" is a pawn of an opposite colour to your own. attack.--the combined action of several men against an adverse position. attacks, of course, are generally made directly against the king, but occasionally they are directed against some weak point in the enemy's position apart from the king. to attack: attacked.--a piece or pawn attacks an adverse man when it threatens to capture it on the move. a piece or pawn is said to be "attacked" when it is threatened with capture on the move by an adverse man. castling.--this combined move of k and r i have fully described previously. check.--this term signifies that the king is attacked by an adverse piece or pawn. it is one of the very fundamental principles of the game that the king cannot be captured, and therefore when a move is made by which he is attacked, notice thereof must be given by audibly saying "check." the king is now said to be "checked," or "in check," and this check must be at once parried. there are three methods by which this can be done:-- . by moving the king on to a square not commanded by any of the adverse men. . by interposing a man between the attacking piece and the king. . by capturing the attacking man. there are three descriptions of checks:-- . the "direct check," which is given by a piece or pawn directly attacking the king. . the "discovered check," or "check by discovery," which is given by a piece, which, whilst it does not attack the king directly, yet by its removal, uncovers an attack from another piece. . "double check," which is a combination of the "direct check" and the "discovered check." this is brought about by a piece directly attacking the king and at the same time uncovering an attack from another piece. this last is the most dangerous form of all the checks, for it cannot be parried either by interposition or capturing. the available defences of the king are therefore greatly lessened, as he must move to get out of check. vii checkmate.--when the king is in check and has no power of escape--that is, the attacking piece cannot be captured, the king moved, or a piece interposed between the king and the attacking piece--it is "checkmate," and the game is lost for his side. to escape from a double check the king must move, and if there is no square to which he can move the game is lost, though both the attacking pieces are _en prise_, for it is plain that if one be taken the check from the other yet remains. the diagram on page will help the student to understand these different checks. in the first place let white play r to q , and it is a _direct_ check. the black k cannot move out of check, as all the squares adjoining his present position are either guarded by white pieces, or blocked by black ones; neither can the r be taken, for no black piece attacks it. black, however, has one move to parry the check, and that is by playing q to q , or interposing the q as it is termed. similarly, white can play q to q sq, again giving _direct_ check, to which black can again only reply q to q . once more, white can play p to r , becoming a q or a b and giving _direct_ check, to which black's only reply is q, q kt . in the second place, if white play kt to q he gives a _discovered_ check; that is, by so moving his kt he uncovers the attack of the q upon the k, or, in other words, the kt moving discovers the check by the q. in reply to this move black has again only one move, that being p to b or interposing the p. if white play b r , q , b , or kt sq. there is again a _discovered_ check, for the r now attacks the k. in reply to this black has three lines of play, namely, k takes kt (at k ) which is left unguarded by the removal of the b, or by playing the q either to k , or kt interposing. if the b had gone to kt the q could only interpose at k ; and if it had gone to kt or r the k could not then capture the kt, but, instead, could have moved to k out of check. [illustration: black-- men. white-- men.] in the third place if the b move to k there is then given _double_ check, for whilst the b now directly checks himself, by moving he has also discovered the check from the r, and the king to get out of this double attack must move. he has two lines of escape, one by capturing the kt at k's third, the other by capturing the attacking b. in the fourth place let white play p k , and the k is in direct check; but it is now _checkmate_, for the k has no possible move out of check, and the checking pawn cannot be taken. again, let white play kt, kt , and he gives double check, for the kt checks directly, and has also discovered the check by the q. once more this is _checkmate_, for the k has no possible move. it is true that the b could capture the attacking kt, but then the q still checks and the danger of mate has not been averted; similarly, the p could cover at b , but the attack from the kt remains all the same. this aptly illustrates what i have already said as to the extra danger of a double check. viii close game.--see "game" later on. combinations.--the concentrated action of two or more pieces and pawns, operating in common either for attack or defence. command: commanded.--to "command" a square is to have the power of moving a piece on to it, or to capture an enemy's piece that already occupies it. to "command" the board is to have the pieces so placed that a great many of the squares are commanded. counter gambit.--see "game" later on. counter attack.--see "game" later on. debut.--a french word, meaning "opening," sometimes used by english writers on chess. defi.--a french word meaning "challenge," and sometimes used in english chess books. develop: development.--to develop a piece is to bring it into more active play. to develop a game is to bring as many pieces as you possibly can into active co-operation. doubled pawn.--two pawns of the same colour standing on the same file are said to be "doubled." generally, but not always, this is a weak position for the pawns to occupy, as one cannot support the other. doubled rooks.--when two rooks of the same colour occupy the same file, or the same rank with no man of their own colour intervening they are said to be "doubled." this is one of the strongest positions the rooks can occupy. end game.--see "game" later on. en passant.--a french term, meaning "in passing," and applied to a peculiar capture of p by p, which i have fully described previously. en prise.--a french term signifying "exposed," or in danger of capture. in chess a piece or pawn is said to be _en prise_ when it is attacked by an enemy's piece and not sufficiently guarded. we do not say, however, that the k is _en prise_ when attacked, but in check, as already explained. establish.--to establish a piece or pawn is to place it in such a position that it cannot be dislodged by the enemy's pieces, except at a loss. to establish a centre of pawns is to occupy the centre squares of the board with pawns, which mutually strengthen and support each other. exchange.--the winning of one piece by the losing of another. exchange, to win the.--the winning of a superior piece by losing an inferior one. especially used when a rook is won at the expense of a b or kt. the player on winning the r is said to have "won the exchange"; the player losing the r is said to have "lost the exchange." ix file.--each line of squares stretching from one player's side of the board to the other is termed a "file," and appears perpendicular in printed diagrams. each file is named from the piece which originally stood on its outermost square, as the king's file, the queen's file, the k r's file, and so on. the lines of squares stretching horizontally across the board are termed "ranks." file: open.--an open file is one unoccupied by pieces or pawns, and it is a great point that a rook should be played so as to command such a file. in the diagram on page the k b's file is "open," whilst white has doubled his rooks on the otherwise "open" k kt's file. fork.--a term originally applied to the attack of a pawn upon two of the opponent's men at the same time. it is now, however, so extended as to include the minor pieces when any one of them--more especially the kt, however--attacks two pieces at the same time. in the diagram the black pawn on q kt "forks" the q and b. if white plays p q ch, then the p "forks" both k and q. if the kt goes to q ch, it also "forks" k and q. similarly if kt b it "forks" the q and r, and lastly, if b takes kt ch, it "forks" k and q. a "fork" from a kt on two superior pieces is always dangerous, and often fatal, whilst that from a pawn is also dangerous. [illustration: black-- men. white-- men.] x gambit.--see "game." game.--besides its ordinary meaning, the word is used in a technical sense, such as "open game," "close game," etc. a game of chess has three phases more or less well defined. the "opening," the "mid game," and the "end game." the "opening."--the first or developing moves in a game, wherein the pieces are brought from their original comparatively inoperative position into active co-operation, both for attack and defence. it is here that book play comes in, and in the study of openings the young student of chess will find wide scope. the "mid game."--that portion of the game immediately following the opening; the pieces being developed on both sides, combinations result, and attack, defence, and counter-attack take place. it is here that the native skill of the player finds full scope for its display. the "end game."--the final scene of all, after the bustle and life of the mid-game pieces have been exchanged, the board stripped of the men, and the combat reduced to narrower bounds. here again book knowledge is of the greatest benefit to the player. it is to be noted that some games never pass into the third stage, for the attack in the mid-game may have been so strong that surrender was imperative forthwith. nay, in the hands of a weak player, or by some gross blunder, a game may be finished even in the "opening" stage. the "openings" may be thus classified-- (_a_) games, when neither player offers any sacrifice of material force in order to gain some strategical advantage. (_b_) gambits, when the first player offers to sacrifice some material force in order to quickly develop his game, or otherwise to gain some advantage in position. a pawn is generally sacrificed in the gambits. (_c_) counter gambits, when the second player makes the sacrifice. (_d_) defences, when the game gains its distinctive character from the line of play adopted by the second player. some "defences" may properly be termed _counter attacks_. there are many well-known openings, all of which have a distinctive name, sometimes that of their inventor, sometimes that of a well-known player who may have made them familiar, sometimes from some place or incident with which they have been connected. thus there are the "scotch game," the "steinitz gambit," the "greco counter gambit," the "philidor defence," and "petroff defence," the latter of which should be more properly termed "petroff counter attack." then there are many other recognised openings. xi game, close.--a "close" game is one wherein the development both of pieces and pawns is mainly of a conservative or non-committal nature, the pawns being very cautiously advanced, and the pieces mainly massed behind them. the term "close" is used to designate this class of openings, because, as a rule, for many moves the board presents a crowded appearance, owing to the massing of the pieces and pawns, and the few exchanges effected. great nicety is required in playing the "close" game, so that when the time does come for dissolving the close position, the pieces may occupy commanding positions. game, open.--an "open game" is one wherein the opening moves are of a more immediately attacking nature, and where the pieces are more quickly marched to the front. the game is termed "open" because the board, as a rule, soon presents an open appearance. pieces and pawns are often got rid of early, and attack and defence embarked on at an early stage. formerly all games commencing p k on each side were classed as open, and all games, such as the french, etc., wherein one or both players adopted other opening moves were classed as "close." this is, however, now given up, for as a matter of fact, many french defences develop into very "open" games indeed, whilst games commencing p k , p k often early take on a "close" character. "hole," a.--this is a modern term greatly used by mr. steinitz, who may be considered as the "great apostle" of what is called the "modern school" of chess. as used by him, a "hole" means any square on the third rank left unguarded by a pawn during the developing or opening moves. for example, if a player having advanced both his k p and q p, should follow this up by advancing his k b p, or his q b p, in each case he creates a "hole"; in one instance at k , in the other at q . these "holes" are regarded by modern theorists as very dangerous, for an adverse piece can often be posted with great advantage on the unguarded square. xii interpose.--to move a man between an attacked man and the opponent's piece which attacks it. very often "checks" to the king, and attacks upon the queen are warded off by interposing a pawn or piece. as an illustration of "interposing" let the student refer to the diagram on page . if white play q r ch, then black plays ... p kt , thereby warding off the check. the pawn thus moved is said to be interposed. similarly, if it were black's turn to move, and he played q k ch, or r q ch, then white could play either ... r kt sq, or ... kt b sq, either piece then warding off the check, or "interposing." isolated pawn.--when a pawn occupies any file, both the adjoining files of which are unoccupied by any pawns or pawn of the same colour, such pawn is said to be "isolated." in the diagram on page , white's pawns on q b and q r are both "isolated." isolated pawns in an end game are often weak, whilst pawns on adjoining files are generally strong. j'adoube.--this is a french term, and means "i adjust," and is used by players who may touch a man without intending to move it. any english expression signifying that the man is touched merely with the intention of adjusting it on the board may be used. any man that may be touched without such intimation being given, must be moved should it be the player's turn to move, hence the importance of saying "_j'adoube_" (or similar words) in such cases. young players (and indeed old ones also for that matter) should never get into a habit of touching any piece unless they intend to move it, except such piece manifestly needs to be adjusted on its square. such a habit is likely to irritate your opponent. $draughts in nineteen easy lessons.$--it is very easy to learn the moves of the men on the draught-board, but it is not quite so easy to learn to play draughts. draughts is not a complex game like chess, but simple and straightforward, and herein lies its charm to many people who are afraid of chess with its variety of men, and their diverse powers and moves. in draughts there is only one description of men when the board is set for play, and the only addition is when any of these men become promoted to kings by gaining the opposite side of the board from that whence they started. it is plain then that any boy can learn the moves of the game in a few minutes, and can at once commence to play. english draughts is played on the white squares of a -square board, the squares of which are alternately coloured white and black, white and red, or in some other similar distinctive manner. there are men-- white and black. [illustration: black. white.] above is a diagram of the numbered draught-board, and it is well for the beginners to number the white squares of their draught-board in a similar manner. the best way to do this is to write the numbers on small pieces of paper and stick these on the upper left-hand corner of the squares. then when the men are placed on the squares the numbers can still be read. it will be observed that the position of the board is the reverse of that of the chess-board, for here a black, and not a white square, occupies the lower right-hand corner. this brings what is technically called "the double corner" to the right hand of the player. the black "double corner" is formed by the squares and ; the white "double corner" by squares and . at the commencement of the game the black men occupy the rows of squares numbered from to , and the white the rows numbered from to , the intervening two rows, numbered from to , being vacant. the row to is black's crown-head, and the row to white's crown-head; the square being black's "single corner," the square white's "single corner." by usage in this country black is always given the first move, which again reverses the custom observed in chess. the first move at draughts, however, gives no advantage to the player having it, whereas in chess the advantage of the first move is of some moment. ii at draughts the men move forward diagonally from square to square. that is, a black man on can move to or , and a white man on can move to or . when a man reaches the far side of the board he becomes a king, or is crowned; that is, a second man is placed on top of him. a king moves precisely in a similar way to an ordinary man, except that he can go either backwards or forwards; that is, a king (either black or white) on can go to or , or or . in capturing or taking, the capturing piece jumps over the captured piece or pieces. supposing a black man is on and a white man on , whilst is vacant, then the black man can capture the white man. this he does by jumping over him to square , and the captured man is removed from the board. if a second white man stood on , and were vacant, the black man could jump over both the white men, and go to . the king captures in a similar manner, except that he can capture as he moves either backwards or forwards. iii a game at draughts is won when all the pieces of one colour have either been captured, or forced into such a position that their ultimate capture is certain, or where the remaining pieces of one colour are so blocked that the player thereof cannot move any of them when it is his turn to move, and the player, who thus captures or blocks all his opponent's men, is the winner of the game. a game at draughts is drawn when an end game results wherein the two forces are so balanced, both in number and position, that neither side can force the capture or blocking of all the pieces of the opposite side. the following positions are illustrations of the close of games. white to move and black to win. (fig. .) in this position white cannot go to , or he would lose at once; he therefore plays - , and the game goes on - , - , - , - , - , - , - . white has now no other move than - , whereupon the black king jumps over it and the game is won. had white had a king instead of a man he would just as surely have lost. black to move and win. (fig. .) in this position the pieces are perfectly equal on both sides, but black has the advantage in position. he played - , and the game goes on - , - , - , - . now white has no other move than - , whereupon the black king jumps over it to , and the remaining white man is "blocked" and consequently black has won. iv further illustrations of won and drawn games are the following positions:-- white to move and win. (fig .) black men on , , , , , , , and . kings on , , , and . white man on . kings on and . this is a position well known to old hands at the game; though it is not likely to occur in actual play, yet it illustrates the power of the "block." white has only three pieces against black's twelve, yet he wins the day. here is the play which brings this about:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - white now plays - and - alternately, and the black men must go forward until they are blocked; and white therefore wins. now, to illustrate one form of the draw, let the student look again at the first position in third easy lesson. had it been black's turn to move, no more than a draw would result, for black must play - , whereupon white plays - and runs down to , making a king and drawing. in the following position white has two kings to one, yet black, by the strength of his position, forces the draw. black to move and draw. (fig. .) black king on . white kings on and . the black now plays - or , white replies - or , whereupon the black king comes back to and the draw is manifest. v when a man reaches the crown-head in capturing, and thus becomes a king, that completes the move, although there may be a piece or pieces which could have been captured if it had been a king and not a man, which made the original capture. many of the finest stroke problems are based upon this peculiarity, for the opposing player has thereby time to make a move. the subjoined position (fig. ) shows another won game, the victory being brought about by white gaining a move through the black having to stop to be crowned. black men on , , , and . (fig. .) white men on , , and . white plays - , then black must play - and becomes a king. then the game goes on - , - , - . black must now play - , and white follows him up and takes him . if the piece on had been a king this could not have been brought about, for after going to , thereby taking the man on , the move would not then have been finished, but the king would have continued by taking the man on , thus winning easily. [illustration: black--one piece. white--one piece. fig. .] [illustration: black-- pieces. white-- pieces. fig. .] [illustration: black-- pieces. white-- pieces. fig. .] [illustration: black-- piece. white-- pieces. fig. .] many young players are puzzled how to force the victory when they have two kings against one, the single king being within reach of the "double corner." take the following position as an example:-- black kings on and . (fig. .) white king on . black wins thus:-- - - - - - - - - - - (a) - - - - - b. wins. (a) it is here that many young players miss the point. they play - and black moves to - and the work is all to do over again. vi the last lesson showed how to win with two kings against one, the latter being able to reach the double corner. three kings can also win against two, even when each of these latter can reach a separate double corner. the way to win has often puzzled young players, but yet it is comparatively easy. the following position shows how to force the victory:-- black kings on , , and . (fig. .) white kings on and . black to move and win. the win is brought about thus:-- - (a) - (c) - - (f) - - - (e) - - (b) - (d) - b. wins. (a) one of the black kings must now go into the double corner. (b) this is an important move, forcing as it does the remaining king into the other double corner. (c) for if - , then - wins. (d) compulsory, for if - , then - wins. (e) if - , then - wins. (f) if - , then - wins. it will be noticed that black must force the exchange of a king, and then he wins with two kings against one, as shown in fifth lesson. vii already it has been pointed out that the weaker side, though a man down, can often force a draw by correct play. here is a position from sturge:-- black man on . king on . (fig. .) white men on and . king on . black to play and draw. the draw is brought about thus:-- - - - - - - - drawn. here is another example of a draw, this time by payne:-- black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . kings on and . black to move and draw. this position is more complicated than the former, and white can vary his moves to a considerable extent, but black, by careful play, can always force the draw. the point is that black must hold the white man on . here is a leading line of play:-- - - - (a) - - - - - - - - drawn. (a) if - then - draws. this is a useful position as similar endings often occur in actual play, and all younger students should study it carefully. viii here are some examples of easy forced wins. payne has the following:-- black man on . king on . (fig. .) white man on . king on . black to move and win. the win is brought about thus:-- - - - - - - - b. wins. another very interesting position is:-- black man on . kings on and . (fig. .) [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] white man on . kings on and . black to move and win. black wins thus:-- - - - - - b. wins. ix some of the finest play in end games occurs in positions when two kings more or less sheltered by the double corner are opposed by three kings or two kings and a man. the point for the player with the strong forces to seize, is either to force the exchange of a king for a king, or to give up a king for a forced won position. it is here that great nicety of judgment is required, and the greatest attention is necessary if the game is to be won. the following position is from payne:-- black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . kings on and . either to move. white wins. here is the win when black moves first:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - white wins (b) - - (a) - (a) here comes white's opportunity of sacrificing a king, thereby obtaining a position won by force. (b) for this king must ultimately "fix" the king now on . this is the victory when white moves first:-- - - - - - - - - - - (b) - - - - (c) - - - - - (d) - - - - - (a) - - - white wins (e) (a) not - , for then black wins two for one by - , and this danger must be guarded against for several moves. (b) this is the decisive moment when the sacrifice of the king must be prepared. (c) - , too, would lose, for white would then move up his king now on , and ultimately man off. (d) if - , - , - , - , and white wins. (e) black must play - or - , and then comes - , - , - , and all is over. x the play in these "double corner" positions is always of a very delicate nature. here is a drawn position from payne, requiring great nicety of play:-- black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . kings on and . black to move and draw. the draw is proved thus:-- - - - - - - - - (a) - - - drawn. (a) black keeps command of square and so forces the draw. here is another drawn position, from rogers:-- black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . kings on and . black to move and draw. the play on the position runs thus:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - (b) - (a) - - drawn. (a) - - - - - - - - drawn. (b) white cannot crown the man or force an exchange, and hence the game is drawn. [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] xi when the forces on each side are reduced to two men, or a man and a king each, many positions occur which are won, lost, or drawn by well-known and long-recognised lines of play, and all who wish to become draught players should have a knowledge of them. here is such a position:-- black man on . king on . (fig. .) white man on . king on . black to move and win. here is the win:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - (a) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black wins - - - by "first - - - position." (a) - - - - - - - black wins - - - by "first - - - position." here is another position:-- black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . king on . black to move and win. this is the play for the defeat of your opponent:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black wins - - - by "first - - - position." - - - - - - the student will notice that all these victories are by "first position." this so-called "first position" will be explained in the next lesson. xii we now come to the ending known amongst all draught players as the "first position." black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . king on . black to move and win. if the student refers to the solution of the position on the first diagram in the eleventh lesson, he will find that the play shown in note (a) ends with the position shown above. the victory is brought about thus:-- - - - - - - - (a) - - - - - - - - (b) see - - - position - - - below. (a) - - - black - - - wins. - - (b) - - - - - - - black - - - wins. a more advanced stage of "first position." black kings on and . (fig. .) white man on . king on . white to move. black to win. this position is formed at the end of main play of both positions given in eleventh easy lesson, as well as of main play in the position on the first diagram above. white has two lines of play. first-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black - - - wins. [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] second-- (a) - - - black - - - wins. - - - (a) both - and - lose at once by - . xiii a careful study of the principles underlying the play given in the positions in the eleventh and twelfth lessons will suffice to show the student how to secure success (if that is possible) when two kings are opposed to man and king, the latter commanding or occupying his opponent's double corner, where also the man can only hope to be crowned. if the single man and the king cannot be forced to take up some of the positions shown at some part of the different lines of the play, then the game will be drawn. the next class is composed of endings in which two kings are opposed to two kings and a man. the following diagram shows what is called the "third position." black man on . kings on and . (fig. .) white kings on and . black to move and win. the end is brought about thus-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black wins. xiv another class of endings is when three pieces are opposed to three pieces, generally, of course, drawn, but yet in some cases admitting of forced wins by delicate play. the following is a characteristic specimen of such a forced victory, and should be carefully studied by all young students of the game. it is well known to experts as the "second position." black men on and . king on . (fig. .) white men on and . king on . black to move and win. the play for the victory follows:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black wins. xv the position given below is well known to experts, and the play upon it is very fine; but with the proviso, "black to move and win," it cannot easily occur in actual play, as the student will speedily discover if he examine the position carefully. nevertheless, it aptly illustrates an important principle in end game play, and is well worthy of careful study. it is known as the "fourth position." [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] black man on . kings on , , and . (fig. .) white man on . kings on and . black to move and win, or white to move and draw. the black victory is brought about as follows:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black - - - wins. - - - the draw arises thus:-- - - - - - - - - - - drawn. - - - black can vary his play to some extent, but he can never man off to advantage, or force a winning position by any line of play, and the position is drawn. xvi here is an example of a black win brought about by very fine play, and well worthy of attentive study. it is by the celebrated james wyllie:-- black man on . kings on , , . (fig. .) white men on , . kings on , . white to move, black to win. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (b) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black - - - wins. - (a) - - - - - var. (a.) - - - black - - - wins. - - var. (b.) - - - - - - - - - - - black - - - wins. xvii the position given in the last easy lesson showed a black win when it was white's turn to play, but it is only a draw if black had to play first. let the student add to the diagram the condition "black to move, white to draw." the draw is brought about as follows:-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - drawn. - - - - (a) - - - - - var.(a.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - drawn - - - [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] here is a neat winning stroke from sturges:-- black kings on , , . (fig. .) white kings on , . black to move and win. the win is forced thus:-- - , - , - . black wins. xviii i give the following beautiful example of a black win by w. g. w. leggett:-- black man on . kings on and . (fig. .) white men on , , . king on . black to move and win. the win is thus brought about:-- - (b) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (a) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - black wins. var. (a.) - - - - - - - black - - - wins. var. (b.) - - - black - - - wins. xix classified list of principal openings. - opening. edinburgh [illustration: black. white. fig. .] [illustration: black. white. fig. .] - opening double corner - choice - , - , - - opening denny - - opening kelso - - opening. ayrshire lassie - , - , - , - second double corner - , - virginia - , - , - glasgow (irregular) - , - , - , - - , - , - wilter (irregular) - , - , - , - - fife - , - , - , - - souter - , - , - , - - sunderland - , - , - , - - defiance - , - , - , - will o' the wisp - , - , - old fourteenth - , - , - , - - alma - , - , - , - - glasgow - , - , - , - - laird and lady - , - , - , - - centre - , - , - , - - doctor - , - , - , - - , - , - , - - nailor - , - , - , - cuckoo - , - , - , - wilter - , - , - wilter-cross - , - , - , - - , - cross - , - cross choice - , - , - dyke (second irregular) - , - , - , - - , - , - single corner - , - , - , - - flora temple - , - , - , - - maid of the mill - , - , - maid of the mill - , - , - , - (irregular) - pioneer - , - , - , - white dyke - , - , - , - albemarle - , - , - , - - , - erie - , - , - , - - dyke - , - , - dyke (irregular) - , - , - , - - boston - , - , - , - wagram - , - , - , - switcher - , - - opening. bristol - , - liverpool - , - , - , - - paisley - , - manchester - , - london - , - white doctor - , - , - , - - , - , - leeds - , - newcastle - , - - opening. dundee - the losing game. as a matter of fact very fine scientific play is possible with this form of draughts, but all the same the youngest beginner can play at it, and very amusing results will follow. the object in the game is for one of the players to give all his men away, or get them fixed immovably, which, of course, would be a lost game in ordinary draughts, but is a won one at the losing game. it must be borne in mind, in playing the losing game, that it is not good policy to give away men at the beginning of the game so as to be left with three men against six, or two against five, for as a matter of fact in most positions the player with the superior forces can give all his men away, leaving the other player with one or more of his men left. here is where the laugh comes in. the hasty player keeps giving away his men until possibly he has only one left, whilst his more wary opponent has three or four. but can he give that man away and so win? not much! he soon finds he is perfectly helpless, and the other player can force him to take all his men, whilst his solitary man or king remains still on the board, a woeful example of "vaulting ambition, overleaping itself and falling on t'other side." in the losing game it is a case of "the more haste the least speed," for he who is too hasty to give away his men at the beginning finds he cannot give the remainder away at the end. from the first "position" must be played for, the board opened, and men exchanged carefully, so that at the end the player who wants to win may have such advantage that he can compel his opponent to capture his remaining pieces. when the game is reduced to one man on each side he who has "the move," as it is called, which would enable him to win, or draw, at the least, in the ordinary game must lose at the losing game. here is an example of a losing game. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - white wins, - - - for his sole - - - remaining man - - - is blocked. - - - - - - - - - another form of the losing game is for one player to have all his twelve men against a single man of the other player. i give a position of this kind as [illustration: a problem in the losing game. black. white. fig. .] the black men on their original squares. white man on . black to move and win, that is, give all his men away. another funny form of draughts is for one player to give the other the odds of having once (or oftener during the progress of the game) the right of moving twice in succession, this right being exercised at such time as the odds-receiver may choose. there should be great disparity in the strength of the two players, as the odds is really very great. the interchanged men. as a final poser for those who like to puzzle their brains, i give the following as a problem. place the men in due order on the draught-board, and then by a series of legal moves reverse the position of the men, that is, the black men must stand where the white men came from, and _vice versa_. $quaternions.$--quaternions is the name of a somewhat easy yet interesting game played on a checkered board (similar to a draughts board) with thirty-two counters or draughtsmen (sixteen white and sixteen black). the players move alternately by placing one of their men on a white square of the board, and the object of the game is to get four men of the same colour in a line, either perpendicular, horizontal, or diagonally, and the player who first succeeds in doing this wins the game. of course, each player also does his best to stop his opponent from forming his quaternion or file of four. should neither player be able to form a quaternion, then the game is drawn. to show clearly what a quaternion is, i give the following diagram:-- [illustration: black. white. fig. .] the four men on squares , , , and , form a quaternion, and similarly do those on , , , and , and those on , , , and . the numbers here given to the squares are the same as in draughts. the point to be borne in mind in playing the game is to try to unite a perpendicular with a horizontal line of squares, or with a diagonal line. by careful play three men can be got on one of these lines, and three on a communicating line, each having a vacant square. the player of the opposite colour can fill only one of these squares, and consequently cannot prevent the formation of the quaternion on the other line. the most careful play on both sides is required from the very first move, or the game can be forced right off. i give a diagram of an opening:-- [illustration: black. white. fig. .] it is now black's turn to play, and he must stop white from forming a line of three men with a vacant square at each end. to do this he must place a man either on or . supposing he plays on to , then white can force the game thus:-- white. black. black plays on to stop white getting an open three; would not be so good. the position is now as diagrammed:-- [illustration: black to play. fig. .] it will be seen that white has now three on a perpendicular (beginning at ) with a vacant square, and he also has three on a diagonal (also beginning at ) with a vacant square. black can now only occupy one of the vacant squares, and white thereupon occupies the other, thereby forming his quaternion and winning. black lost the game on his second play by placing his man on ; had he gone on to his game would have been as good as white's. now for a few general hints. open the game on the middle of the board. play to squares near those occupied by your opponent's men. keep your men in connection (with an eye to forming threes, as in the illustrative game given above). keep forming threes as long as you can so as to force your opponent to stop the threatened quaternion. keep a wary eye always on your opponent's game, and try to confine him as much as possible so as to prevent him from forming threes with an adjacent vacant square. play the cautious game rather than the risky one--that is, keep the draw always in hand, and win if you can. $consequences.$--each player has a slip of paper. three inches broad and eight inches long is a convenient shape and size. each player writes upon the top an adjective which might be applied to a lady, and then folds the top of the slip so as to cover the word. all now pass their slips to their neighbours so that each one has another slip. without looking at the adjective, which should be well covered by the fold, each writes the name of a lady who is in the room, and folds the slip again so that no writing may be seen. once more the slips are passed along, and upon the new slip which each player has now should be written an adjective applicable to a gentleman. fold the paper and pass it along again. this process is repeated until this adjective has been followed by the name of some gentleman of the party, then by the name of a place, next by what the gentleman said to the lady, then her reply. after that come the consequences, and finally what the world said. all the slips are now dropped into a hat, and someone is appointed to read them one by one, supplying the verbs in the right place. they will create roars of laughter, for they will run something like this: simpering jane cook met knock-kneed peter thompson up a tree. he said to her, "well, i am surprised" and she replied, "does your mother know you're out?" the consequences were that he pawned his boots, and the world said, "i told you so." $concert.$--the players having selected a "conductor," seat themselves round him. the conductor now gives to each a musical instrument, and shows how it is to be played. when all are provided with their imaginary instruments, he orders them to tune, and so gives each musician a chance to make all sorts of noises. next the conductor waves an imaginary _baton_, and begins to hum a lively tune, in which he is accompanied by his band, each player imitating with his hands the different movements made in performing on his supposed instrument. every now and then the conductor pretends to play an instrument, and the player to whom it belongs must instantly alter his movements for those of the conductor, and continue to beat time until the conductor abandons his instrument. should a player fail to take the conductor's office at the proper time, he must pay a forfeit. $shadow buff.$--a sheet or other large piece of white linen should be fastened at one end of the room, so that it hangs without wrinkles; buff seats himself on a low stool with his face to the sheet, and a table, on which is a lighted candle, should be placed about four or five feet behind him, and the rest of the lights in the room extinguished. buff's playfellows next pass in succession, between him and the candle, distorting their features as much as possible--hopping, limping, and performing odd antics, so as to make their shadows very unlike themselves. buff, who is not blindfolded, must try to guess to whom the shadows belong, and if he guesses correctly, the player whose shadow he recognises takes his place. buff is allowed only one guess for each person, and must not turn his head either to the right or to the left to see who passes. $the boat race.$--a most exciting game, and one that is particularly suited to parties. any number of players may take part in it, the more the merrier, and they must be divided into two sides. the players stand in two rows, facing one another; at one end of the line there is the starter and at the other the umpire. at the word "go!" the starter drops a penny into the hands of each of the two men nearest him. these two men then drop it into the outstretched palms of the people next to them, and so the pennies are passed along from one to the other, and the winning side is the one which manages to get its penny into the hands of the umpire first. a great point which all the players must bear in mind is that on no account must the coin be touched by the fingers. each player must secure the penny in the palms of his hands placed together, and must drop the penny into the hands of the man next him by simply opening his palms. this greatly adds to the fun of the game. in the hurry to pass on the coin the excited player will drop the money and pick it up in his fingers, and his side is then disqualified for that game. $a musical glass.$--take a thin cut-glass goblet, and having cut out of stiff writing-paper a cross with arms of equal length, lay it on the top of the glass, and turn down each end of the four arms, so that the cross will not slip off. having thus fitted the cross, take it off the glass and pour water into the glass until it is nearly full. now wipe the rim carefully, so that no particle of moisture remains on it, and replace the cross. you can make the glass vibrate and give out a sound by rubbing your damped finger over some part of the exterior. that is why it is called a musical glass; but an even more wonderful experiment may be made with it. you rub the glass with your damped finger under one of the arms of the cross; the cross will not move. rub it between any two of the arms, and the cross will begin to turn slowly, as if by magic, and will not stop turning until one of the arms reaches a point immediately over the place you are rubbing. you can then move your finger round the glass and make the cross move as you please. $boomerangs.$--the wooden boomerang of the australian savage has elements of danger, and attempts should not be made to throw it except away from other people and from animals. even the thrower will do well to have a tree behind which he can retire; but meanwhile much fun can be derived from small boomerangs made of pasteboard. they should be cut in the shapes given, a and b are the best. there is no need to be very exact, but the card should not be bent and should be capable of lying flat upon a table. other similar shapes may be invented. the curious flight of a little boomerang of this kind is induced by placing it upon a book with one of its ends projecting over the side of the book. raise the book to a level with your eyes and then with a pencil or penholder strike sharply the edge of the boomerang near the end. do not treat the boomerang as though you were playing at tip-cat or "peggy," and avoid smiting it upon its upward flat surface. when you have learned to hit it properly it will skim through the air, then rise a little, and finally come back to some place not far from its starting-point. in any case its peculiar movements are likely to be amusing. a flip with the finger nail is another way to start the boomerang upon its course. $an amusing game.$--in this game the ball is an empty egg-shell, and the field a covered table. after the sides have been chosen--any number of persons taking part--the players kneel at both sides of the table, a captain at the head on one side, and another captain at the foot on the other side. in front of each captain are placed two upright articles--candlesticks, tumblers, or what not. these are the goals, across which a ribbon is stretched. [illustration: boomerangs.] the egg-shell is placed in the centre of the table, and put in play by both captains blowing at it. all the other players then assist in the blowing, which keeps the ball moving about the table at such a rapid succession of tangents as to cause a great deal of fun. soon most of the players will be helpless with laughter. a touchdown, which scores four points, is made by blowing the ball through the opponents' goal. the captain of the victorious side then takes the ball back to the opposite goal and blows it across the table, the object being to pass it through the same goal again. this, if successful, scores two more points. the time limit of the game is thirty minutes, divided into two parts of fifteen minutes each. after the first half the two teams change positions, as in football. $nine men's morris.$--two persons, having each of them nine pieces, or men, different in colour from those of his opponent, lay them down alternately, one by one, upon the spots; and the aim of both players is to prevent his antagonist from placing three of his pieces so as to form a row of three without the intervention of an opposing piece. if a row be formed, he that made it is at liberty to take up one of his competitor's pieces from any part he thinks most to his advantage; unless he has made a row, which must not be touched. when all the pieces are laid down, they are played backwards and forwards in any direction that the lines run, but can only move from one spot to another at one time. he that takes all his antagonist's pieces, is the winner. [illustration: nine men's morris. fox and geese.] $fox and geese.$--fifteen draughtsmen serve for the flock of geese. the fox may be two draughtsmen placed one upon another. the game is played on a board marked as shown in the illustration. sometimes holes are pricked at the junction of the lines and pegs are used instead of draughtsmen. the fox is placed in the middle of the board, and the geese as shown in the illustration. the game is to confine the fox to some spot on the board, so that there shall be either the edge of the board or else two rows of men round him. when the fox cannot escape, the game is done, and the player of the geese wins; but when one of the geese is left on a point next to that occupied by the fox, and is not supported by another goose behind, or by the edge of the board, the fox can take it, and by jumping over its head to the next space, as in draughts, he may, perhaps, escape the others, as all the geese are compelled to move forwards towards the end of the board that was unoccupied at the commencement of the game. the fox is allowed to move either backwards or forwards. neither the fox nor a goose must be moved more than one space at a time. if the fox neglects to take when he has a chance, he is huffed, and one of the captured geese is restored to the board. the fox should avoid getting into the lower square of the board if possible, as he will find it difficult to extricate himself from a position which can be so easily blockaded. [illustration: fox and geese--a second method.] a second method.--there is another way of playing fox and geese on a chessboard, with four white men, representing the geese, and one black one, for the fox. the geese are placed on the four white squares nearest one player, and the fox may be put where his owner pleases. the best place for him is that marked in the diagram. the geese can move forward only, and the fox moves either way. the object of the geese is to pen the fox so that he cannot move, and the fox has to break through. the geese have a great advantage, and a good player keeps them in a line as much as he can. this the fox tries to prevent, and if the geese make a false move he is able generally to break through the line. $puzzles.$--dead dogs made living.--the dead dogs are, by placing two lines upon them, to be suddenly aroused to life and made to run away. how and where should these lines be placed, and what should be the shapes of them? the springs puzzle.--a is a wall, b c d three houses, and e f g three springs. it is required to bring the water from e to d, from g to b, and from f to c, without one pipe or channel crossing the other, and without passing outside of the wall a. three-square puzzle.--cut seventeen slips of cardboard of equal lengths, and put them on a table to form six squares, as in the figure. now take away five of the pieces, leaving only three perfect squares. six and five make nine.--draw six vertical lines, and, by adding five more lines let the whole make nine. cylinder puzzle.--cut a piece of cardboard about four inches long, of the oblong shape of the figure, and make three holes in it as shown. make one piece of wood pass through, and also exactly fill, each of the three holes. [illustration: dead dogs made living.] [illustration: the springs puzzle.] [illustration: three square puzzle.] [illustration: six and five make nine.] [illustration: cylinder puzzle.] [illustration: a button puzzle.] a button puzzle.--in the middle of a piece of leather make two parallel cuts, and below a small hole of the width of the distance between the cuts, pass a piece of string under the slit and through the hole, as in the diagram, and tie two buttons much larger than the hole to the ends of the string. the problem is to draw the string out without taking off the buttons. a slit puzzle.--cut a round piece of wood as in a, and four others, like b. get them all into the cross-shaped slit, as in c. [illustration: a slit puzzle.] [illustration: creeping through a small space.] creeping through a small space.--take a piece of cardboard or of leather, the shape and size suggested in the diagram. cut it in such a way that you may creep through it, still keeping it in one piece. an ingenious square.--here is a way to place one to nine in three rows of three figures each, so that they will add up to fifteen in eight different ways. [illustration] +--+--+--+ | | | | +--+--|--| | | | | +--+--+--+ | | | | +--+--+--+ [illustration: circle puzzle.] +-------------------+ |o o o| | | | | | o o | |o o| | o o | | | | | |o o o| +-------------------+ the cabinet-maker's problem.--a cabinet-maker had a round piece of veneering, with which he has to cover the tops of two oval stools. it so happens that the area of the stools, without the hand-holes in the centre, and the circular piece, are the same. how must he cut his veneer so as to be exactly enough for his purpose? circle puzzle.--secure a piece of cardboard, the size and shape of the diagram, and punch in it twelve holes in the position shown in the diagram. cut the cardboard into four pieces of equal size, each piece to be of the same shape, and to contain three holes, without cutting into any of them. the nuns.--twenty-four nuns were placed in a convent by night to count nine each way, as in the figure. four of them went for a walk; how were the remaining nuns arranged in the square so as still to count nine each way? the four who went out returned, bringing with them four friends; how were they all arranged still to count nine each way, and thus to deceive the sister in charge, as to whether there were , , , or in the square? [illustration: the nuns.] cross-cutting.--how can you cut out of a single piece of paper, and with one cut of the scissors, a perfect cross, and all the other forms that are shown in the diagram? cross puzzle.--cut three pieces of paper to the shape of a, one to the shape of b, and one to that of c. let them be of the same relative sizes as in the diagram. place the pieces together so as to form a cross. more cross cutting.--with three pieces of cardboard of the form and size of a, and one each of b and c, to form a cross. [illustration: cross cutting.] [illustration: cross puzzle.] [illustration: more cross cutting.] a problem for surveyors.--a gentleman who lived in a house on an estate decided that he would divide the estate into five building plots. there were ten fine old trees, and his instructions to the surveyor were: don't count my house in the division. i shall have that extra, but divide the remainder of the park into five equal parts with straight boundaries. i shall retain one part for my own grounds. be careful to arrange that each plot shall have two of the trees. how did the surveyor divide the estate? [illustration: a problem for surveyors.] another problem for surveyors.--a squire planted a number of oaks when his heir was born, and on the twenty-seventh birthday of the young man there was a tree for every year, and yet though there were only trees, there were ten rows and six trees in each row, which made sixty, the age of the squire himself. how did he manage it? halfpence puzzle.--place ten halfpence in a row on the table. take up one of them and place it on another, never in any case passing over more than two halfpence. repeat the operation until no halfpenny remains by itself in the row. puzzling advice.--read the following:-- if your b m t put : when your is . putting : the miser's ruse.--a miser once asked his tenants to dinner at an inn, and asked the landlord to join the party. when the bill was presented, the miser suggested that they should cast lots who should pay the score. it was decided that they should be counted by the days of the week, and that every time he who counted called "saturday," the person so named should leave the room until there was only one man left, and he should pay. how did the miser manage to throw the expense on the landlord? two eyes better than one.--put a coin on a table's edge, with half the coin's edge overlapping. move three yards away and close one eye; now advance, and try to knock it off with one finger, keeping the one eye shut all the time. [illustration: the double handcuffs.] wolf, goat, and cabbages.--suppose a man has a wolf, a goat, and some cabbages on the bank of a river, and he wishes to cross with them, and that his boat is only large enough to carry one out of the three besides himself. he must, therefore, take them over one by one, in such a manner that the wolf shall have no opportunity of devouring the goat, or the goat the cabbages. in which way is he to do this? the double handcuffs.--ask two friends to allow their hands to be fastened together with string, which must be looped, as shown in the illustration. now tell them to liberate themselves without unfastening the knots, or cutting the string. answers to puzzles. [illustration: dead dogs made living.] [illustration: the springs puzzle.] three-square puzzle.--take away the pieces numbered , , , , , and three squares only will remain. [illustration: six and five make] a slit puzzle.--arrange the pieces side by side in the short arms of the cross, draw out the centre piece, and the rest will follow easily. the same process reversed will put them back again. [illustration: slit puzzle.] [illustration: creeping through a small space.] creeping through a small space.--double the cardboard or leather lengthways down the middle, and then cut first to the right, nearly to the end, and then to the left and so on to the end of the card; then open it and cut down the middle, except the two ends. by opening the card or leather, a person may pass through it. a tough leaf may be treated in this way. [illustration: circle puzzle.] the cabinet-maker's problem.--the cabinet-maker must find the centre of the circle, and strike another circle, half the diameter of the first, and having the same centre. then cut the whole into four parts, by means of two lines drawn at right angles to each other, then cut along the inner circle, and put the pieces together as in the following diagram. [illustration: cabinet-maker's problem.] [illustration: the nuns.] [illustration: more cross cutting.] button puzzle.--pull the narrow slip of the leather through the hole, and the string and buttons may be released. [illustration: cross cutting.] [illustration: cross puzzle.] cross cutting.--take a piece of writing paper about three times as long as it is broad, say six inches long and two wide. fold the upper corner down, as shown in fig. ; then fold the other upper corner over the first, and it will appear as in fig. ; you next fold the paper in half lengthwise, and it will appear as in fig. . then the last fold is made lengthwise also, in the middle of the paper, and it will exhibit the form of fig. , which, when cut through with the scissors in the direction of the dotted line, will give all the forms mentioned. [illustration: cylinder puzzle.] cylinder puzzle.--take a round cylinder of the diameter of the circular hole, and of the height of the square hole. having drawn a straight line across the end, dividing it into two equal parts, cut an equal section from either side to the edge of the circular base, a figure like that represented by the woodcut in the margin would then be produced, which would fulfil the required conditions. halfpence puzzle.--place the fourth on the first, seventh on the third, fifth upon the ninth, the second upon the sixth, and the eighth upon the tenth. puzzling advice.-- if your grate be (great b) empty, put coal on. when your grate is (great is) full, stop putting coal on. the miser's ruse.--the counting, which stopped at every seventh man, was made to begin at the sixth from the landlord, who sat at the end of the table. wolf, goat, and cabbages.--first he takes over the goat; he then returns and takes the wolf; he leaves the wolf on the other side, and brings back the goat; he now takes over the cabbages, and comes back once more to fetch the goat. thus the wolf will never be left with the goat, nor the goat with the cabbages. [illustration: a problem for surveyors.] [illustration: another problem for surveyors.] the double handcuffs.--this is the way to do it. c must gather up into a loop the string which binds his hands, pass it under the string fastened round either of b's wrists, and slip it over b's hands. this done, both will be set free. to replace the strings, reverse the process. chapter xxi work and play at the bench $wood carving.$--the best kinds of wood include white holly, walnut and sycamore, and pieces of empty cigar boxes, often spanish cedar, are not to be despised. a pocket-knife, some bradawls, a few files, flat, round and triangular, a fine saw and some coarse sandpaper complete the tools needed for most of the work. draw very carefully upon paper the design with which you wish to ornament some article you may have made with wood. when you have at last drawn the design quite accurately there are many ways in which you may transfer the drawing to the wood. it may be pasted upon the wood so that paper and wood will be cut away together in those parts that are to fall below the general surface of the wood and at the end the paper that remains may be washed away. another way is to cut out the design with scissors, lay it upon the wood and go carefully round the edges with a lead pencil; or you may without cutting it out place it upon the wood and prick through the design or at any rate the principal points with a pin. if you were to scribble with crayon, coloured chalk or pencil upon the back of the paper and were then to lay the paper upon the wood and go over the design with a hard point, using some pressure, the design would be transferred to the wood, or still another way would be to use carbon paper (see chap. xxiv.) between the paper and the wood instead of scribbling upon the back of the paper. however, we will suppose the design in some way or another has been placed in pencil upon the wood. now with regard to every part in which the intention is to take out the wood completely from front to back bore a hole. then take your fret-cutter's saw or dentist's saw and unfastening one end put this end through the hole and fasten it again. saw perpendicularly. at this stage the young carver will need to decide whether he will follow the pencil lines exactly. if he is a very expert sawyer he may, but it is much safer to leave a little wood to be removed by pocket-knife, chisel, or file. it is easy to do this; but if he saws out a little too much wood, if he transgresses the pencil line, he cannot put back the wood he has wrongfully cut away. after the filing a little rubbing with sandpaper will complete the work. sometimes it is an advantage to adjust the saw in its frame with the teeth inside or sideways. $how to make a schooner.$--take a block of wood two feet four inches long, eight inches wide, and eight inches deep. we name this as a convenient size; but a boy may if he likes make his boat twice this size, or half this size, and so long as he makes his alterations in proportion it will not matter. try to get the wood without knots or other faults. white pine or deal with a straight grain is the best, for this wood is easy to cut into shape, and it is light. [illustration: fig. ] before the schooner is shaped it should be hollowed. draw a straight line with pencil along the centre of the upper surface of the block a b (fig. ). if the breadth of the block is eight inches then the centre will be four inches from each edge. next, in a similar way divide the length of the block into two equal parts with a pencil line c d. if the length is two feet four inches then this line will be one foot two from each end of the block. now divide the length into three equal parts by the lines e f and g h. one third of two feet four inches is nine inches and one third of an inch, so that each of the three parts will have this measurement. draw now the line i j c b and when this line is of the right shape make a tracing of it, and from the tracing a cardboard model. by placing this model upon the other side of the line a b and drawing round its edge you will get the line b d k i and it will be exactly like i j c b, a very important matter. with a knife, gouge, and chisel the boat may now be hollowed with care, and we may repeat that it is easier to hollow the block before its outside has been shaped than afterwards, because it stands now more firmly upon the table or bench. the shape of the outside is shown in fig. , and it should be noticed that the line l m n is not straight but curves so that m is the lowest point and l and n the highest. upon the counter at o a hole must be bored for the stern-post, which will come through at p in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] it is well from time to time to try the boat in water to see if it floats evenly, or if more has been taken from one side than the other. these little matters should be corrected, and a number of little touches will be needed here and there with tools or sandpaper before the vessel is right inside and out. then put a deck of thin wood over the hollowed part. this should be fitted very carefully so that no water can pass into the hold of the ship. if bulwarks are desired the deck may be half an inch or an inch below the edge of the vessel, but if the deck is flush with the sides of the hull there will be no place for water to lodge. we now come to the masts, of which there will be two. for the foremast make a hole through the deck at q on fig. . it is about an inch from the line g h. at r two inches from the line e f a similar hole should penetrate the deck for the main mast. the circumference of the lower masts should be one inch and three quarters, but an inch will serve for the topmasts. the bowsprit and the booms should measure one inch and a quarter round, and the gaffs an inch. [illustration: a schooner.] a bobstay. b bowsprit. c forestay. d stay foresail. e foremast. f gaff foresail. g fore gaff. h fore boom. i mainmast. j mainsail. k main boom. l main gaff. m main topmast. n gaff topsail. o main topmast stay. p fore peak haulyards. q fore throat haulyards. r main peak haulyards. s main throat haulyards. t mainsheet. u foresheet. v stay foresheet. w rudder. x lead ballast. y forecap and cross trees. z maincap and cross trees. linen will serve for the sails, and odds and ends of fishing lines for the ropes and rigging, with stouter cord like whipcord for the shrouds. the caps, deadeyes, blocks and such things may be made, but the process is wearisome and difficult and perhaps the better way is to buy them. the following measurements will be useful:-- inches bowsprit - / foremast mainmast topmast fore boom - / fore gaff main boom main gaff the sails should be made to fit these. if the schooner has been properly made she will sail well with the rudder but slightly turned to one side. if it is necessary to turn her rudder much she will lose speed and will not rank in the first class. to steady the schooner it is necessary to nail or screw along her keel, a strip of lead as ballast. err upon the side of making this too heavy, because it is easier to cut and file away than it is to add. $the making of a cutter.$--having made a schooner it will not be difficult to make a cutter from the appended diagrams with a few particulars regarding the measurements. [illustration] the cutter has but one mast reaching about fifteen inches above the deck. this is surmounted by a seven-inch top-mast, so that the complete height above the deck is twenty-two inches. here are the other measurements. bowsprit, inches from the stem of the vessel to the end. main gaff, inches long. main boom, inches. [illustration: a cutter.] a bobstay. b bowsprit. c forestay. d foresail. e jib. f topmost stay. g mast. h topmast. i mainsail. j main boom. k main gaff. l gaff topsail. m peak haulyards. n throat haulyards. o main sheet. p rudder. q lead ballast. r jib sheets. s the cap. t cross trees. $a sleigh that can be steered.$--with the sketches we shall give, a boy unaided, or with a little assistance from a carpenter, will be able to make a sleigh that he can steer. take a piece of board - / feet long, six inches wide and / of an inch thick. ash is excellent. avoid large knots. let fig. represent the face of the board. from b measure three inches to c. connect a c. from a measure two feet, four times. these measurements will give you d e f g. from c repeat this process and you will have h i j and k. saw from a to c; from d to h; from e to i; f to j, and from g to k. you will have now four pieces of wood like the piece in fig. and some wood to spare for a purpose that will be explained soon. with regard to your four pieces of wood which are to serve for runners remember that two will be right-hand runners and two left-hand runners, because the treatment of each kind varies a little. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] with regard to fig. draw the curved line a e. no rule can be given for this except that b e represents eight inches. cut the curve from a to e, round off the angle c d b a little, and you will have a runner from which the three remaining runners may be made. this runner however is not yet finished. from c in fig. measure - / inches to f, then another - / inches to g. make f h one inch deep and g i. then connect h i. measure inches from g to j and then mark off j k l m making it like h g f i. now direct your attention to the upper edge of the runner represented in fig. . two points will have been fixed already. m j, g f. to find the remaining points n o, p q draw the lines m n; j o; g p and f q making the angles n m j; o j m; p g f and q f g the same as the angle b d c in fig. . now saw and chisel out carefully n o m j l k and p q g f i h making what joiners call mortices. in repeating this process upon the other runners remember to have the narrower end of these dovetails inside the sledge. the arrangement will be as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the next thing is to connect your four runners with cross bars (fig. ) which are each fourteen inches long, two and a half inches broad, and one inch thick. of these cross bars there are four. the distance from a to b and from c to d is one inch in each case. these ends are shaped to form what joiners call dovetails, and they should fit exactly into the mortices upon the upper edges of the runners. the black dots represent screws. one of the cross bars does not appear in fig. . the runners should be shod with iron by the blacksmith. he will need eleven-and-a-half feet of half round / inch rolled iron, divided into four, a piece for each runner. each piece will be inches long pierced for screws as in fig. . a and b are an inch from centre to centre. c is eight inches from the end, d another ten inches; e a further ten inches. f g are like a and b. take now a piece of board one foot wide, fifteen inches long and one inch thick (fig. ). find the centre by connecting b and c and a and d by straight lines. the place where they cross, e, will be the centre. this board should be placed lengthways upon the cross bars of the front portion of your sleigh and should be fixed very securely in position with long screws. it should be at a in the completed sleigh, fig. . now for the long board upon which you sit, the board that connects the two pairs of runners, the board marked b in the completed sleigh, fig. . its width is sixteen inches, its length - / feet, its thickness - / inches. it is known as the reach board and should be of seasoned pine. this board is represented in fig. . fix your compass at a and describe a semi-circle, and then at b. a and b are each seven inches from the end of the board and seven inches from the sides. by the aid of these lines you will be able to give your board rounded ends as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] having decided which end of this board you will have forward measure underneath inches from the front extremity and at that point draw the line a b (fig. ). now take the piece of wood you spared from your runners and saw it lengthwise into two equal parts. make each part precisely as long as your reach board is wide. screw one at c d in fig. so that its outer edge is close to the line a b. the screws go through the reach board into the cross piece. in the centre of the cross piece bore a hole with a half inch bit right through cross piece and reach board, this is for the bolt. now take that other piece of runner wood and fix hinges upon it as shown in fig. . the hinges should be Ã� hinges, and should move round to their full extent each way. leaving the reach board for a few minutes we go to the pair of runners that will be at the back of the sleigh. it will be seen that we connected these with two cross pieces. it is upon the back cross piece that we have to place our piece of wood that has the hinges upon it. lay it upon the cross piece and when the two are even all round fasten the remaining flap of the hinges with screws upon this cross piece of the runners. these two cross pieces of wood will be separated only by the thickness of the hinges if the work has been deftly done. place the reach board so that the outer edge of the cross piece shall come exactly to a line we may draw now upon the under-side of the reach board five inches from its backward end as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fasten there the reach board to the cross piece with screws. the front pair of runners is fastened by passing a half inch bolt through the half inch hole we bored in the reach board and in the top of the front pair of runners. here you will need a few washers and a nut. each back runner should be fastened to the reach board by a loose chain as shown in the completed sleigh. foot rests of bent iron or of wood are a great advantage. place these where you need them. the sleigh is steered by means of two strong cords. fig. is merely general. some of the details do not appear there. [illustration: fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. .] $baby's sleigh.$--in fig. we have the sleigh as it looks when it is finished. to upholster it would add to our difficulties, so we will depend upon an abundance of cushions for baby's comfort. in fig we have a piece of strong board a b c d / of an inch thick, two feet long and one foot wide. from c to e is three inches, from c to g seven inches and from d to f three inches. the curve from a to g must be drawn according to the taste of the young joiner. when this side has been cut out it is easy to make the other from it. now for the backboard. in fig. a b c d we have a piece of wood fifteen inches square. the inside lines at the bottom are one and a half inches from d and c. e and f are three inches from a and b. put your compasses at i for a centre and draw the curve e f. if your compasses are not large enough a piece of pencil tied to a string will serve. the front board may be made like the lower half of the back board. nail or screw the parts together and put on a bottom that fits. inside, the seat rests on two strips, one screwed upon each side. these strips are of wood three eighths of an inch thick, an inch wide and eight inches long. the seat may be about a foot wide. the runners come next. in fig. a b c d, we have a board three quarters of an inch thick, three feet long and seven inches wide. the distance from d to e is eight inches. from a measure eight inches along the upper edge to g, then two inches to h and from h draw the line h f. draw the curve a h. f should be three inches from the line b c. from f draw a straight line to c. cut out the runner and use it as a pattern for the making of another. to connect the two runners use a couple of cross bars of hard wood each an inch and a half wide, one inch thick and a foot long. cut the ends as shown in fig. , the cuts being three quarters of an inch deep. carpenters call an arrangement of this kind a tenon. the front cross bar will connect the two runners fifteen inches from the front and the back cross bar will be fifteen inches further back than that. the method of fixing them is shown in fig. . the cuts a and b--mortices, joiners call them--are half an inch deep. having placed the tenons in the mortices fasten them there with screws. now get a board ten inches wide, half an inch thick and two feet long and screw this to the bars. if you want the runners shod with iron the blacksmith will do this for you. place now the car in position upon the runners, and bore two quarter-inch holes in the centre of the bottom, one under the seat and the other in front. make two corresponding holes in the board of the sleigh and so with two bolts and nuts secure the car to the runners. [illustration: hammock from a barrel.] $a hammock from a barrel.$--look round for a clean barrel. perhaps an apple barrel will be as easy to find as any. strip off the hoops and draw all the nails. measure three inches from the top, and three inches from the bottom of the barrel, and draw thence a line round the top and a line round the bottom of the barrel, keeping it three inches from top or bottom all the way round. upon these lines, and upon each stave, bore two holes with a brace and bit. place the holes so that they are about the same distance from each other and from the edges of the staves. if some of the staves are wider than others, each will need slightly different treatment. a stout rope should be threaded through these holes in the manner shown in the diagram. about twenty feet of rope will be sufficient. an inch or thereabouts should be left between each stave. cushions add to the comfort of this simple hammock. [illustration: hammock from a barrel.] [illustration: Ã�olian harp.] $an Ã�olian harp.$--make a shallow box of thin dry pine. the top piece should be free from knots and three-sixteenths of an inch thick. this is the sounding board. the sides and bottom of the box may be of wood one quarter of an inch in thickness. the harp should be two inches shorter than the width of the window in which you are going to place it. the width of the box itself may be ten inches, its depth two and a half inches. the ends should be of hard wood, for they have to bear the strain of the strings. in one end put studs or rings or eyes to which are fastened the wires or catgut strings. at the other end should be a corresponding row of violin pegs if you use catgut, or iron piano pins if you use wire. if you do use wire it should be of steel. in the diagram you will see the two bridges of hard wood glued diagonally across each end for the strings to rest upon. if steel wire is employed a piece of wire should run along the top of each bridge to prevent the other wires from cutting into the wood. four holes, each an inch in diameter, in the sounding board improves the harp. the tuning may be harmonics, thirds, fifths, and octaves. raise the sash of the window, and place the harp so that the wind blows across the strings. chapter xxii science for the play-hour $a home-made electrical machine.$--to make a really first-class machine of the modern type would require a good deal of mechanical skill, even supposing my readers to be the happy possessors of the necessary tools and materials; but the older type of machine--though of course not so powerful--will probably do quite well enough for most of their purposes. i will, therefore, describe one of the simplest forms of these machines, such as any one, with a little care and patience, can make for himself. the first thing to do is to get a general idea of what you are going to construct, which may be had from the illustration, and from the actual machines you may sometimes see in a shop window or in a scientific collection, like the science departments of the south kensington museum. it is the making of the cylinder machine we are going to work out, and, therefore, to begin with, the glass cylinder must be procured. this can be had from a dealer in chemical apparatus and costs only a few pence for the smaller size--about inches by inches. at the same time purchase a round glass rod, / inch diameter by inches long; a sheet or two of tinfoil, and sixpennyworth of amalgam. from a carpenter or timber-merchant you will require a base-board for the machine, say inches by inches, by inch thick, and of heavy wood; also two uprights, which are to stand on the base-board to support the cylinder. these may be inches tall, by inches by / inch. having now the principal parts of the frame, the work of fitting together can be begun by making a circular hole (centre about - / inches from the end) in one wooden upright, to take easily one of the projecting glass pieces, or pivots, at the ends of the cylinder--probably / inch diameter will do. this hole may be made with a brace and suitable bit, or failing that, with a round chisel--taking care not to split the wood. in one end of the other upright cut a slot of same width as the hole, the bottoms of both being on the same level. then rest the two glass pivots in the hole and slot, holding the uprights vertically on the base-board, when the cylinder should be quite horizontal. if it is not so, deepen the slot, or shorten either upright, as required. drill a hole through the two sides of the slot at the top, and insert a round nail to keep the pivot from having too much play. it will next be necessary to secure these supports to the board, which may be done by driving stout screws from below, together with the aid of some strong glue. if you have the skill it will be better to sink the supports / inch into the surface. the position should be such, that the cylinder is not quite over the middle of the board. (see illustrations.) next remove the cylinder by a little side working, and screw a piece of wood, - / inches by / inch by about inches, to the supports and base. this is to act as a brace to the supports, and also for holding tightening screws for the rubber. we now come to the preparation of the rubber, which is an important detail. get a wooden block - / inches by / inch and inch shorter than the cylinder. smoothe off all the corners, and glue on one long edge, a piece of thin leather (chamois will do); fold over the flat side, and then glue it again at the other long edge; double it back _loosely_, and glue again in original place. this should make a sort of bag on one side of the block, which should now be stuffed with _dry_ wool or hemp, and the two ends fastened down. a piece of black silk, about inches by inches, must be attached to the bottom edge. [illustration: front view, showing rubber seen through cylinder; conductor removed. a a supports; r rubber; b brace board; c c adjusting screws; f rubber stand.] [illustration: end view. h handle; d conductor; e glass support. rubber, silk flap and support. a home-made electrical machine.] now place the cylinder on its bearings, and press the rubber against the middle of one side, which will show what length to make the rubber stand. the thickness may be / inch, and the breadth inches; one end being screwed to the rubber block at the back, and the other resting on the base-board, but attached to the brace piece by two bolts with adjustable nuts. these you can get at an ironmonger's--thumb nuts are preferable, as they can be tightened up without pliers. as this board will be on a slope, the cushion block must be bevelled off with a chisel, so that it may rest "squarely" against the glass. the adjusting screws will enable the pressure on the glass to be regulated. be careful to see that the silk flap (attached to the bottom edge of the rubber) comes _between_ the leather and the cylinder, and then folds over the cylinder to about the middle of the opposite side. we next come to the "prime conductor," which is a piece of rounded wood, inches in diameter and inch less than the length of the cylinder. the end corners must be made round with a knife and sandpaper, so the whole surface may be quite smooth. then lay on _evenly_ with paste, a sheet of tinfoil, notching it so that it may fold nicely over the spherical ends, and take out any ridges by rubbing with the knife handle. an insulating support must be given to the conductor, as it is to hold the accumulated electric energy, and for this the glass rod above mentioned is required. make a suitable hole in one side of the conductor, and in it fix one end of the rod with cement. the other end can be fixed to the base-board in the same way; or a separate stand may be used; but before doing this, drive a horizontal row of strong pins along a side of the conductor, at right angles with the rod. these should be / inch apart, starting and finishing / inch from where the surface becomes spherical at the two ends; the heads should be cut off previously with pliers, and the external length, when driven into the wood, should not exceed / inch. now erect the conductor, and see that the rod brings it level or thereabouts with the centre line of the cylinder-side. the points should not quite touch the latter; and the silk flap must not hang down far enough to come between. there remains now but one piece of mechanism to construct--the handle. this is apt to give trouble at first, but with care may be successfully completed. a short piece of hard wood (say - / inches long), half of circular and half of square section, must be procured, and the rounded half cemented into one of the glass pivots. this must be done with good cement and both the glass and wood warmed, and cleaned first of all. be careful not to crack the glass by too rapid heating. a thin layer of cement is best, while, of course, the wooden rod ought to fit closely. the square end now projecting must be provided with a handle, the making of which will serve to pass the time during which the cement is drying. cut a square hole to fit the end in a piece of wood say / inch by - / inches by inch, which is the handle shaft. pass a bolt through the lower part and secure the handle-bobbin itself by a nut. if nothing else can be got, a cotton-reel makes a fair handle when the flanges are cut off. if the nut works loose, pinch the threads at the end of the screw, or add a "lock nut"--_i.e._ an extra nut. dry the cylinder and put a wooden stopper in the other glass pivot to keep out damp. take care to have the handle on the right-hand end of the machine when the rubber is closest to you and the conductor opposite; notice also that of the supports the _slotted_ one should now be on the _left_-hand side. all the woodwork, as well as the ends and pivots of the cylinder, and the glass rod should be painted with shellac varnish, which may generally be had ready mixed from paint merchants, or may be made at home by dissolving shellac in methylated spirits. a stick of red sealing-wax gives a more pleasing colour for the glass work if added to the shellac solution. all through the construction of the machine must be borne in mind the fact that rough edges or points "attract" away the electricity, and, therefore, all the edges and corners must be well rounded off and smoothed with sandpaper, and everything must be kept clean and free from dust. when the shellac is dry, let all the parts, especially the rubber, cylinder, and rod, have a good warming before the fire. then fixing the cylinder in its place, press the rubber firmly against it by means of the adjusting screws. after turning for a few minutes, the handle should become stiffer, and a small spark be obtained on touching the conductor. if not, tighten up the screws a little more. it is also advisable to lay a little amalgam with tallow on the rubber, _between_ the silk and the leather: a piece of tinfoil is also said to be of advantage when amalgam is not handy. sometimes, too, a wire connection from the back of the cushion to a neighbouring gas or water pipe helps the success of the machine, but if proper attention be paid to warming and cleaning and the avoiding of edges and corners, success is almost certain after a short time. a delicate test is to observe whether a thread is attracted by the conductor, and if so, a spark may be soon looked for. an iron clamp or two will be found of great assistance for holding down the base-board to the corner of a table. $the indestructible candles.$--when a candle burns, the matter of which the candle is composed, is not lost nor destroyed. it is simply changing its form, and every part of it may be accounted for. if we take a cold clean tumbler and hold it over the flame of the candle (fig. ) we shall see that the inside becomes moist with water, and on touching it our fingers are made wet. on the tumbler becoming warm, this moisture disappears. if we could surround the tumbler with an ice jacket, we should see the water from the flame of the candle dripping down, and if this were caught in a vessel we could obtain from an ordinary candle about a wine-glassful of water. we may therefore produce water from a burning candle. the cause of the water being formed is that there is in the fat of the candle, as one of its constituents, hydrogen, and as the candle burns, this unites with the oxygen of the air to form water. wherever water is found it always consists of hydrogen and oxygen in combination, and of nothing else. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] $presence of hydrogen proved.$--we may prove the presence of hydrogen gas by bringing a lighted taper within two or three inches of the wick of a candle just after it has been extinguished. on holding the lighted taper in the stream of smoke coming from the wick, we shall see a tiny flame run down the smoke and re-light the candle. the hydrogen gas coming from the hot fat is being carried off in the smoke. it is very inflammable, and the flame from the taper ignites it, and in turn rekindles the candle. when the stream of smoke has ceased, it does not matter how near we hold the taper to the wick without actually touching, it will not be re-lighted. (see fig. .) $the hydrogen located.$--a still better way of showing the presence of this gas is by bending a piece of glass tubing of small-bore, into the shape shown in fig. . glass tubing may be bent easily to any shape by holding it in the flame of an ordinary gas burner. the tube becomes covered with soot, and this prevents its getting hot too rapidly, and so enables the tube to bend easily and evenly. the bending must never be forced, but very gently done as the glass softens. (see fig. .) a little practice will enable any boy to make a first-rate bend. on carefully observing the flame of the candle we shall see that it really consists of three distinct parts. round the wick it looks black, this is really a hollow chamber filled with unconsumed hydrogen. next to this is a bright luminous cone, and outside of that is an almost invisible covering of blue flame. in the black space gas is unconsumed, in the luminous part the combustion is only partial, but outside of all, where there is most oxygen, the combustion is complete, and the flame can hardly be discovered. now when the flame is quite steady the tube must be gently inserted at an angle into the black cone; after a few minutes, on applying a light at the end of the tube, although the candle is still burning, we shall see that this free hydrogen will burn there too with a small bluish flame. $the candle's carbon.$--as the candle burns, another part of its constituents is passing off into the air as soot or carbon, and this can be shown by holding a sheet of white paper or cardboard in the top of the flame, or better still, a cold saucer, on which there will be a copious deposit of black soot. this is another proof that as a candle burns it is not destroying matter, but only changing its form; from the white fat of the candle, black sooty carbon is liberated by the process of incomplete combustion that is going on. (see fig. .) $carbonic acid gas.$--when substances containing carbon are burnt, one of the products is an invisible gas, commonly called carbonic acid gas. after an explosion in a mine, all the workings are filled with a deadly gas, which often kills more men than the explosion. this is called choke damp, and is the same as carbonic acid gas. whenever a fire burns--gas, lamp, coal fire, or candle, this gas is one of the products. let us fasten a piece of wire round our candle, and, after lighting it, lower it down into a glass bottle with a wide mouth. at first the candle burns dimly, and then, when a current of air is established, brightens. now cover the mouth of the jar with a piece of card or the hand, and we shall see that the candle again burns dimly and quickly goes out. the jar now contains a considerable quantity of this carbonic acid gas. we may prove its presence by pouring into the jar a little clear lime-water and shaking it up. the carbonic acid gas will turn the lime-water milky. (see fig. .) lime-water can be purchased at any chemist's very cheaply, or it can be made by pouring water on a piece of quicklime, well shaking it, and then allowing it to settle. the clear lime-water may then be poured off. the lime may be used again and again until it is all dissolved. $our use of oxygen.$--we are breathing out carbonic acid gas; and on breathing through a piece of glass tubing into some of the clear lime-water we shall see that it will be turned milky in just the same way as when the candle burned. we are using up oxygen to support life, the candle uses up oxygen to support life, and in both cases the product is carbonic acid gas, as we have proved by means of the lime-water test. (see fig. .) $convincing proof.$--all that we have done up to the present supports our statement that the matter of the candle is not destroyed. in fact we have accounted for all its parts excepting that of a little mineral ash which will be left after the candle has burned away. we may, however, show in a very convincing way that our contention is true. an ordinary gas chimney is obtained, and at about three inches from one end a piece of wire gauze is placed, and the open end filled up with quicklime, at the lower end a cork is fixed upon which a short piece of candle is placed. there must also be a hole in the cork for the admission of air; when all is ready, carefully counterpoise the scales. then remove the cork and light the candle and quickly replace. after burning a short time it will be found that the chimney glass bears down the beam because of increased weight. the products of the burning candle have united with the oxygen of the air, and these products, consisting chiefly of carbonic acid gas and water, have been caught by the quicklime. because of the added oxygen they are heavier than the original candle. (see fig. .) $capillary attraction.$--there is still one interesting thing to illustrate about the burning candle, and that is the way in which the particles of fat ascend the wick to reach the flame. this is accomplished by what is known as capillary attraction. a very good illustration of this is afforded by a piece of salt standing upon a plate, on which is poured some salt water coloured blue with indigo or ink. the liquid will rise up the pillar of salt, and eventually reach the top. it rises by the force of capillary attraction. let the pillar of salt represent the wick of the candle, and the coloured water, the fat, and the illustration is complete. $analysis of candle flame.$--our candle can still give us some useful and suggestive illustrations of flame and combustion. we have seen that unconsumed gaseous vapours can be obtained from the flame by means of a bent glass tube. in the candle flame (fig. ) we see that this is because of the way the flame is built. the part marked _o_ is the gaseous chamber, _i_ is the luminous part, and _e_ is where combustion is complete. on taking a sheet of clean white paper and pressing it down on the candle flame for a moment or two we shall get the fact of this hollow chamber demonstrated by the smoke ring upon the paper, which will appear thus-- the paper is left clean at the hollow chamber, but marked with smoke at the luminous part of the flame. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] now we must find the differences between the non-luminous outer flame and the luminous inner flame. to do this thoroughly we must have a bunsen burner to afford the best illustration. this is not an expensive item. a cheap and simple form of it can be obtained for s. d. to understand the nature of the flame we must first understand the principles of the bunsen. it is a burner in which a mixture of air and gas is consumed. a is a brass tube, mounted on a solid foot k, with a small tube c to admit the gas. there are two holes at the bottom of the brass tube to admit air in the direction of the arrows, and a movable brass collar fits over these holes, so that the air can be admitted or excluded at will. on igniting the gas, with the holes of the bunsen open, we shall see that it burns with a non-luminous but exceedingly hot flame. on closing the holes we shall notice that the flame becomes luminous, much more languid, and does not give off nearly so much heat. (see fig. .) we must ask ourselves the question, what is the cause of this difference? the answer is a simple but very instructive one. coal-gas, like the fat of the candle, contains carbon, and in the luminous flame, owing to the limited supply of oxygen, these particles of carbon are made white hot, and so emit light, but are not entirely consumed till they reach the outer edge of the flame, where combustion is more complete, owing to the contact of the flame with the air, and even then many of them escape; and so where gas is burnt the ceilings after a time become blackened. in the non-luminous flame, owing to the air being admitted and mixed with the gas, the increased supply of oxygen renders combustion more complete, greatly increases the heat of the flame, but renders it incapable of giving light. now, the reasons for the differences of the two flames are made clear. a very clever modification of this principle has been utilised in what is known as the argand burner, in which the gas and air are not mixed as in a bunsen, but the burner is made circular, and the air is made to pass up the centre of the flame, so that it gets its supply of oxygen, burns steadily, and presents a very large surface of luminous flame. (see fig. .) $a pretty experiment.$--let us now go back to our candle flame. we see that it gives light, emits smoke, and does not yield a very large amount of heat. we have learnt that it gives light because the particles of carbon are heated to a white heat, but not entirely consumed. these particles in the flame are held very closely together, and so present a continuous surface. if we could get inside the flame and scatter them we should have a pretty shower of glowing sparks. we can illustrate this by the following experiment. take as much gunpowder as will rest on a sixpence, and a like quantity of iron filings, mix them together on a small tin dish. (see fig. .) this must be done carefully and without friction. then ignite with a taper. the gunpowder burns, makes the particles of iron red hot, and scatters them in a beautiful shower of glowing sparks. this is a fair representation of pulling a candle flame to pieces, the only difference is that the glowing particles are of iron instead of carbon. $artificial lightning.$--this may be further illustrated by putting a flame together. we may accomplish this by passing any very fine particles of carbonaceous matter through a non-luminous flame, and we shall see that whilst these particles pass through the flame it will give light owing to their presence. we require a little lycopodium, a piece of glass tubing one foot long, and about a quarter-inch bore, and the non-luminous flame of the bunsen burner or a spirit lamp. insert into one end of the tube a little of the lycopodium powder, and then, pea-shooter fashion, apply the mouth to the other end of the tube, and blow the contents into the flame. there will be a great flash of light whilst these infinitely small particles are passing through the flame, thus establishing the fact that luminosity is due to the presence of unconsumed solid matter in the flame. this experiment is sometimes called "making artificial lightning," and in a dark room it is very effective. (see fig. .) $flames that laugh.$--what makes the candle flame burn steadily is the next problem before us, and we shall see that it is very simple and at the same time most philosophical. it tells us the reason why candles are made round, and not square. the section of a candle being circular, with the wick in the centre, it can, as it burns, get its supply of oxygen from all directions at an equal distance; thus it burns regularly and steadily. if the candle were square, the four corners being at a greater distance from the wick than the sides, we should have four columns of fat standing up at the corners, and as the air rushed in to feed the flame it would come into contact with these, and so the current would be broken and the flame would become unsteady. we can show this by placing some cotton wool on tin dishes, and saturating it with methylated spirits and igniting it. this will give us what are known as laughing flames, because they burn so unsteadily. the air rushing in to feed the flame comes into contact with the wool, which impedes it, and so the flame has a dancing or laughing appearance. this experiment may be made very pretty by rendering the flames coloured. to do this add to the cotton wool, before pouring on the methylated spirit, chloride of copper; this will give a green flame; to another, chloride of strontium; this will colour the flame red; to another, common salt; this will give a yellow coloration. all these should be shown in a dark room. $the importance of oxygen.$--by previous experiment we have seen that oxygen is necessary to a flame, and our ingenious readers may now make a piece of apparatus to prove this. (see fig. .) it consists of two pieces of glass tube standing upright near the two ends of a board, in which there is a covered channel communicating with the two. a small candle is lighted and placed in one of the tubes. the air heated by the flame rises in the tube and causes a corresponding descent of cold air down the other tube. this gives us a good illustration of ventilation produced by artificial heat. so great is the down draught, that if we hold a lighted taper over the mouth of the cold tube the smoke and the flame will be carried down, with the result that the candle is soon extinguished. the reason for this is that the smoke and burnt air from the taper contain insufficient oxygen to feed the candle flame, and it dies. to make this apparatus, obtain a piece of deal board about ten inches long and four inches wide, cut along the middle a groove about three quarters of an inch deep, and about the same width, leaving about half an inch at each end uncut. cover this groove with a tightly-fitting slip. over the two ends of the groove are fastened two small blocks of cork pierced with apertures, into which fit the vertical glass tubes; these should be about ten inches high and about three-quarters of an inch bore. fig. , which is a section of one end of the apparatus, shows how a small candle like those used on christmas trees is held erect by a wooden socket at the end of the groove so as not to impede the current of fresh air. $rates of combustion.$--we must remember that all things do not burn at the same rate. iron rust is a product of very slow combustion. in using up food to maintain the heat of the body, combustion goes on more quickly than in rusting iron, the candle burns more quickly still, gas still faster, the bunsen burner faster still. we may get an idea of the different rates of combustion by the two following experiments. on a tin dish place half a thimbleful of gunpowder and lay on it a tiny piece of gun-cotton. ignite the gun-cotton; it burns so fast that it has no time to set fire to the gunpowder, which may now be ignited in its turn by the taper. another example is the laying of two long trains of gunpowder, one fine grain and the other coarse. it will be found that the two flames travel at very different rates along the same path. $the egg and bottle trick.$--an ordinary water-bottle, a hard-boiled egg, divested of its shell, and a piece of thin paper are all that is requisite. how can we make this egg get inside the bottle? light the paper, quickly thrust it into the bottle, and immediately place the egg over the mouth of the bottle, gently pressing it closely down to the glass. the burning paper consumes some of the air, a partial vacuum is formed, and air pressure will force the egg into the bottle with a loud detonation. (see fig. .) $making water boil by means of coldness.$--heat some water to boiling in a glass flask over a spirit lamp. after the water has boiled for a minute or two, quickly insert a well-fitting cork, and remove the flask from the flame. wrap a duster or towel round the neck of the flask, and, holding it over a basin (in case of breakage), pour gently a stream of cold water on to the flask. the steam inside is condensed, a partial vacuum is formed, and as long as any heat remains in the water, it will boil, whilst the stream of cold water is continued on the outside. when ebullition no longer occurs, it will be found that the cork is held in so tightly by air pressure that it is very difficult to draw it. (see fig. .) $fire designs.$--this is very simple, amusing, and effective. make a saturated solution of nitrate of potash (common nitre or saltpetre), by dissolving the substance in warm water, until no more will dissolve; then draw with a smooth stick of wood any design or wording on sheets of white tissue paper, let it thoroughly dry, and the drawing will become invisible. by means of a spark from a smouldering match ignite the potassium nitrate at any part of the drawing, first laying the paper on a plate or tray in a darkened room. the fire will smoulder along the line of the invisible drawing until the design is complete. (see fig. .) $the magic wine glass.$--the holding of a wine-glass to a substance mouth upwards without its falling off, may be accomplished thus. obtain a wine-glass with a very even edge (this may be done by grinding on a flat stone), a square of blotting-paper, and a piece of glass. about half fill the glass with water, place upon its rim the blotting paper, and then the piece of glass. whilst pressing them closely down invert the glass. the blotting-paper absorbs some of the water, a partial vacuum is formed, and on holding the sheet of glass, the wine-glass will remain suspended, being held on by atmospheric pressure. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] $the floating needle.$--the idea of making a needle float upon water at first sight seems an impossibility but it can be done, and that with comparative ease. take a fine needle, and rub the fingers over it gently to grease it. now lay it very carefully on a piece of thin tissue paper on the surface of the water, as shown. presently the paper will sink, and leave the needle floating on the water. the thin coating of grease serves to protect the needle from actual contact with the water, and thus enables it to float. (see fig. .) $a glass of water turned upside down.$--a tumbler is filled with water, a piece of paper laid on, and the surface and the tumbler deftly inverted, the atmospheric pressure being unable to enter the glass, the water is kept in, so long as the paper holds. the effect of the experiment is very greatly increased, if, instead of using paper, a piece of thin mica, cut to the size of the glass, is used. the audience cannot then discover what prevents the water from running out. any gasfitter will supply a piece of mica. $the inexhaustible bottle.$--this wonderful bottle, from which five separate liquids can be poured, owes its marvellous qualities to the application of the simple law of atmospheric pressure. it is made of tin, and encloses five internal cylinders, each of which has a tube from the upper end running into the neck of the bottle, and another tube from the lower end opening into the side. the cylinders are filled with different liquids--water, milk, tea, coffee, lemonade. whilst the fingers are kept over the holes the bottle may be inverted, and nothing will run out. on opening the holes one by one the liquid may be poured out, according to the wishes of the audience, and greatly to their astonishment. (see fig. .) $the magic writing.$--fill a deep tumbler with water, and add a few crystals of iodide of potassium and a few drops of sulphuric acid. the liquid will remain perfectly clear like water. on some strips of white cardboard write various names with starch paste; when dry these will be invisible. on dipping the cardboard into the liquid the name will appear in blue writing, owing to the formation of starch iodide, which is blue. by previously preparing the names of those present at the experiment, by a little manipulation you can, to the astonishment of the audience, produce any name called for. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] $producing smoke at will.$--two glass cylinders are the best for this, but ordinary tumblers will do. with a separate feather make the inside of each tumbler quite wet, one with hydrochloric acid, and the other with liquid ammonia. both glasses appear to be quite empty, and nothing occurs. but on bringing the mouths of the two vessels together, a thick white smoke is at once developed. the hydrochloric acid gas and the ammonia gas unite chemically, and form the solid white powder known as sal-ammoniac. (see fig. .) $a novel fountain.$--this is a pretty experiment, and owes its action to the fact that ammonia gas is very soluble in water. in a basin place some water. fit up a flask with a small-bore glass tube, about eighteen inches long, as shown. the end entering the flask should be drawn out so that there is only a small opening. in the flask place about a teaspoonful of liquid ammonia, and heat it over a spirit lamp. as soon as the liquid boils a large amount of ammonia gas is disengaged, and fills the flask and the tube. now close the tube by means of the finger, and invert the flask over the basin of water. when the end of the tube is under the water remove your finger, and then, as the water dissolves the gas, it will rise in the tube, and will presently play into the flask like a fountain until the flask is full. (see fig. .) $to boil water in a paper bag.$--"here is a sheet of note-paper; can you boil me a little water in it?" this would appear to be a thorough puzzler, yet it is exceedingly easy to do. fold a piece of paper so that it will hold water, now suspend it above the flame of a lamp. the water will so readily take up all the heat that there is none left with which to burn the paper, and presently it will bubble and give off steam. (see fig. .) $illuminated water.$--wet a lump of loaf sugar with phosphorized ether, and throw it into a basin of water in a dark room. the surface of the water will become luminous. blow on the water, and you will have phosphorescent waves, and the air, too, will be illuminated. in winter the water should be warmed a little. if the phosphorized ether be applied to the hand or to other warm bodies these will become luminous. the ether will not injure the hand. $brilliant crystals.$--spread upon a plate of glass or upon a smooth slate, a few drops of nitrate of silver, previously diluted with double its quantity of soft water. place at the bottom of it, flat upon the glass, and in contact with the fluid, a copper or zinc wire, bent to any figure, and let the whole remain undisturbed in a horizontal position. in a few hours a brilliant crystallization of metallic silver will make its appearance around the wire upon the glass, and this arrangement of crystals will extend gradually till the whole quantity of fluid has been acted on by the wire. $a well of fire.$--add gradually one ounce, by measure, of sulphuric acid, to five or six ounces of water in an earthenware basin; and add to it also, gradually, about three quarters of an ounce of granulated zinc. a rapid production of hydrogen gas will instantly take place. then add, from time to time, a few pieces of phosphorus of the size of a pea. a multitude of gas bubbles will be produced, which will fire on the surface of the effervescing liquid; the whole surface of the liquid will become luminous, and fire balls, with jets of fire, will dart from the bottom through the fluid with great rapidity and a hissing noise. $the writing on the wall.$--take a piece of phosphorus from the bottle in which it is kept, and, while the room is lighted write upon a whitewashed wall any word or sentence, or draw any object. now put out the light, and the writing will appear in illuminated letters. care must be taken to dip the pencil of phosphorus in cold water frequently while you are using it. otherwise it will burn. $to make a ghost.$--put one part of phosphorus into six of olive oil, and let it dissolve in a slightly warm place. shut your eyes tightly and rub the mixture upon your face. in the dark your face will be luminous, your eyes and mouth like dark spots. altogether you will have a very ghastly appearance. there is no danger in the experiment, and the effect might be useful in charades or home theatricals. $a seeming conflagration.$--take half an ounce of sal-ammoniac, one ounce of camphor, and two ounces of aqua vitae. put them into an earthen vessel that is small at the top. set fire to the contents, and the room will seem to be on fire. $three haloes.$--one of the pleasing experiments of dr. brewster was to take a saturated solution of alum, and having spread a few drops of it over a plate of glass, it will crystallize rapidly though the crystals are so small you may scarcely see them. when this plate of glass is held between you and the sun or artificial light, with the eyes very near to the smooth side of the glass, there will be seen three beautiful haloes of light. $beautiful crystals.$--pour three ounces of diluted nitric acid into a glass vessel, and add gradually to it two ounces of bismuth, broken by a hammer into small pieces. the metal will be attacked with great energy, and nitrate of bismuth will be formed. crystallize the solution by a gentle heat, and preserve the crystals, which possess great beauty, under a glass. $the centre of gravity.$--a shilling may be made to balance on the point of a needle with very simple apparatus. put a bottle on the table with a cork in its neck; into the cork stick a middle-sized needle in an upright position. in another cork cut a slit, and insert the shilling, then into this cork stick a couple of forks, one on each side, with the handles inclining outwards. now poise the rim of the shilling upon the point of the needle, and it will rotate without falling. so long as the centre of gravity is kept within the points of support of a body it cannot fall. the balancing shilling may be transposed to the edge of a bottle, and it will still perform, even as the bottle is being tilted. $what a vacuum can do.$--take a new or nearly new penny and rub it briskly upon your coat sleeve until it is warm. then slide it up and down upon a door panel, pressing it closely to the wood. now hold it in one place for a few seconds and you will find it will stick there, because between the penny and the surface of the door there is a layer of air which was slightly heated. as it became cool a partial vacuum was formed, and the pressure of the outer air held the penny to the door. $an experiment in leverage.$--it would seem almost impossible that a column of iron or a plank or a spar of any kind could be so placed that one end of the spar needs support only, whilst the other end would extend from, say the edge of a precipice, horizontally into space; but that such can be done is very easily demonstrated, by very simple materials almost always at hand. by adopting the principle we may easily perform an interesting scientific parlour experiment, which always causes difficulty to the non-studious section of humanity, until the apparent mystery is explained. in illustrating this experiment the prongs of two ordinary table forks are fastened together, one over the other--net fashion--thus causing the handles of the forks to form the termini of an angle of about degrees. now take an ordinary lucifer match and place one end between the network of the prongs firmly. then place the other end of the match upon the edge of an elevation, such as a tumbler or cup, when the match, acting as a lever, with the forks giving a hundred or a thousand times additional weight to the lever, will rest (or apparently float in the air) without further support. ask your friends to try the experiment, after placing the materials before them, and find how many can perform it without guidance. $coloured fires.$--it is perilous to make some coloured fires, especially those in which there is sulphur, and even if they do not explode their fumes are harmful, so that their use in the house for charades or other home purposes is objectionable and at times positively dangerous. we give, however, a number of coloured fires that are free from these drawbacks, though all the same it is wiser to reduce the ingredients to powder quite separately before they are mixed, and if a pestle and mortar are used all traces of one powder should be removed before another is introduced. each ingredient should be reduced to a fine powder. red fire. parts. strontia shellac chlorate of potash charcoal green fire. nitrate of barytes shellac calomel (chloride of mercury) chlorate of potash green fire. nitrate of barytes shellac chlorate of potash charcoal blue fire. parts. chlorate of potash salpetre ammonia sulphate of copper arsenite of copper shellac blue fire. ammonia sulphate of copper chlorate of potash shellac charcoal red fire. nitrate of strontia shellac chlorate of potash - / charcoal chapter xxiii home-made toys it may be that some of these toys would amuse only little boys, but we have included them because our directions will enable older boys to entertain their little sisters and brothers. $how to make fire balloons.$--you will require for materials, tissue paper, which may be all white, or varied in colour. a balloon of white and red gores alternately is perhaps the best, as it may be used day or night; and as the balloon is constantly turning when it is in the air, the stripes add to the effect. then again there are conditions of the clouds and atmosphere when a white balloon ascending by daylight would be scarcely visible, and for parachute purposes a daylight ascent is desirable. tissue paper, then, paste, bonnet wire or cane, finer wire; some tow, cotton wool, or common sponge, or better than all, some round lamp-cotton, and methylated spirit or tallow, as fuel for your furnace. the shaping of the gores which are to form your balloon must be your first consideration. you will find it advisable not to go in for overgrown balloons. they are far more troublesome to build, and to manage when they are built, and are little if any more effective than those of moderate dimensions. about four feet in height is the size which produces the best results, and in making it one is neither cramped for room, nor are the gores of unmanageable proportions. twelve or fourteen gores, if you use two colours, or thirteen if you confine yourself to one, will be needed; and it will be wise not to attempt to emulate the graceful pear-shape of the ordinary passenger _gas_ balloon, but to aim at something approaching much nearer to a ball in form. the pear-shaped balloon would take fire to a certainty. fig. is an example of the unsafe form which is to be avoided; fig. is a perfectly safe model. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fire balloons.] a piece of common cardboard or stout brown paper, six feet in length and a foot in width, will serve for a pattern gore. fold it exactly in half lengthwise, and then mark off each foot, beginning at the bottom (fig. ). at _a_ measure off horizontally inches; at _b_, which is the first foot, - / inches; at _c_, inches; at a point inches above _d_, the third foot, measure off inches; at _e_ - / inches, marking each point. then connect the points by as graceful a curve as may be, and cut through the line thus obtained, unfold the pattern, and you have your standard gore. sufficient tissue paper should have been pasted together by the narrow edges from which to cut the , , or lengths of feet each. the sheets should now be placed one upon the other, and the pattern being opened out and laid upon the top, the whole of the gores may be cut at one operation. fold a gore in half lengthwise and lay it upon your table or the floor, and upon this place a second about half an inch within the margin of the first (fig. ). with a stiff brush--sable is the best--paste the protruding edge of the lower gore, turn it over the edge of the upper and smooth it down with a duster. if you have a warm flat-iron by your side, and laying a piece of flannel or cloth over the join, you run the iron carefully along, the paste will dry at once and all fear of puckering or displacement will be obviated. fold the upper gore lengthwise as you did the lower, and proceed in the same way with the remainder of the gores until the whole have been pasted (fig. ). if your balloon is a very big one it will be advisable to lay a string inside each seam as you paste it, leaving the ends long enough to tie round the hoop which is to go at the bottom or neck of your balloon. a piece of bonnet wire or split cane feet long, bent to a circle, will form this hoop, and this must now be pasted at the bottom, and the neck _may_ be strengthened by pasting inside a strip of stouter paper, such as foolscap or cartridge, snicked with the scissors so that it may take the right shape readily. now a circular piece of stronger paper, "curl" paper for instance, about inches or a foot across, should be pasted over the top to cover the hole where the points of the gores approach each other, and to this should be pasted a piece of yet stronger paper, writing paper for instance, to form the loop by which the balloon is to be supported during the process of inflation. the handle of a saucepan-lid should be the model to be followed. this is the method to be adopted if you want to produce a balloon of a shape which will bear criticism, but if you are not particular in this respect, a rough and ready gore may be made by a much simpler process. you have only to take four sheets of tissue paper and paste them together by the narrow edges. then trim off the two outside sheets as shown in fig. , and from the pieces so trimmed off, add a small piece at the top a, and there is your pattern gore in a little less than no time. you can then paste several together as already directed, arranging the number as you wish your balloon to be pudgy and safe, or lanky and dangerous. the next thing is to provide the means of ascension. [illustration: fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. .] lamp cotton is the best material for the wick, though any of the other substances already mentioned may be used if this is not come-at-able. it may be saturated with methylated spirit, or, if the material is easily accessible, melted tallow. in the latter case the wick should then be sprinkled with turpentine that it may catch fire readily. the tallow gives the best light, and lasts the longest. two pieces of thin wire should be attached to the hoop as shown in fig. , w w, and your ball of lamp-wick is to be placed in the centre, l w. the placing of the wick is the last operation, but of course, it will have been prepared beforehand. it is simply a loosely rolled ball of lamp-cotton through which a piece of fine wire has been passed and the ends formed into hooks (fig. ). the size of the ball must be governed by the dimensions of the balloon and by your ambition as to the height to which it is to rise. the wick may easily be made large enough to carry the balloon out of sight altogether, especially if tallow be used. in this case the wick should have been saturated with melted tallow beforehand, but where methylated spirit is used the proceedings must be delayed till the moment of ascension. with a fan--a folded newspaper will do as well as anything--fan the balloon full of air to start with. then your assistant must elevate the balloon to the right height by the aid of a smooth stick inserted in the loop, and he must stand on something to raise him to the right level. now the air in the inflated balloon must be warmed by holding beneath it a paper torch, care being taken that no flame touches the balloon, or it will be shrivelled up by the fire in a moment and your labour wasted. another assistant meanwhile should have been looking after the methylated spirit--if you use the tallow you can do without him. the spirit should be kept in a closely corked bottle and as far from your paper torch as possible. when the balloon begins to try to rise give the word to assistant no. , who will pour some of the spirit into the jam-pot in which the wick is lying, wait till it is saturated, and then, taking it from the jam-pot, run with it to the balloon and attach it to the cross wire by the hooks. directly it is in position, give the word to assistant no. to let go; touch the wick with a light, and up will sail the balloon into the air. a windy day should, naturally, be avoided, or your balloon is not likely to proceed far on its journey in safety. but a good deal more is to be got out of a fire balloon than a mere ascension, and even the mere ascension may be improved. you may, for instance, attach a car to the balloon (fig. ) and a couple of figures a a--it matters little how rough they are--will, very shortly after the liberation of the balloon, look so natural that the balloon will be taken for the real thing. when it has mounted but a little distance there is nothing by which its size may be compared, and if netting is imitated by lines drawn with a pen and ink, the illusion will be yet more complete. the car may be made of a square of writing paper with the four edges folded over equally all round. the corners should then be pinched together, folded over as in the illustration, and secured with a little paste. a parachute may be dropped "from the clouds." this may be simply a square of paper with a string at each corner and a figure hanging on at the ends (fig. ). the figure may be as rough as you like, detail would be lost. or, two squares of paper may be used, the strings being crossed over the lower and kept in place by the upper, which should be pasted upon it (fig. ). a more elaborate parachute may be made by folding a square of paper from corner to corner into a triangle. this should be folded again and once again from corner to corner when it will take the shape of fig. . a cut through the dotted line and a couple of holes pierced at the dots will give, when opened out, fig. ; and a string passed through each hole and made to carry a car will give the complete parachute (fig. ). a piece of cotton or twine should be passed through the parachute to attach it to the balloon. then a piece of wire should be twisted and bent, as in fig. , _w_. fasten to this with thin wire a piece of time-fuse, _t f_, turned up as shown, and to the bend _b_ attach the cotton. at the moment of ascension, light the top end of the fuse at _a_, and when it has burned to _b_ the parachute will be liberated. fireworks may be lighted in the same way. you will need time-fuse, quickmatch, and such fireworks as you prefer. blue lights, squibs, and fireworks of that description should be arranged as in fig. . here _c_ is a cork or bung with holes bored in it for the insertion of the fireworks _f f f f_. _q_ is the quickmatch which is to light them simultaneously when the time-fuse, _t f_, has burnt far enough. a catherine wheel may be pinned at the bottom of the cork and connected with the quickmatch, or the pin may be dispensed with, when it will whizz through the darkness in grand style. one of the most successful effects may be obtained with the balls or stars from roman candles. you can, of course, pull the candles to pieces, but a better plan is to buy the balls at d. a dozen. bend a piece of wire into a circle (fig. ) and take two wires across at a right angle. then place the balls, one by one, in pieces of tissue paper and cover them with meal powder and tie up the ends (fig. ), fastening them on the wire, as shown in fig. . a piece of time-fuse, or quickmatch, _q_, as you want the stars to drop singly or in a shower, must next be passed through each ball packet and connected with lighted time-fuse. of course the fireworks should hang some distance below the balloon. crackers or maroons may be arranged as in figs. and , and many other devices invented. your balloon may also carry up a piece of magnesium wire with which the country may be lighted up, or it may take up a chinese lantern--in fact there is no end to the fun which may be got out of it. you will find it difficult, however, to get an effect to beat the roman candle balls. quickmatch costs d. or d. a six-feet length, according to the thickness required; time-fuse one penny an inch. $bubble balloons.$--one reason for the short life of the bubble as usually blown is the excessive evaporation which takes place from the large surface presented to the air. as this evaporation of the fluid goes on, the film gets thinner, the tension gets more acute, accompanied by ever changing and brightening hues of colour, until the thin walls can no longer bear the strain, and the bubble bursts into fine spray. another, perhaps, more powerful reason is the unequal strength of the walls, due to the drainage of the moisture from the upper parts of the bubble into the lower parts by its own weight. this produces a weak and thin area, denoted by the refraction of the blue rays of light in the top of the bubble, and it cannot resist the pressure from within. there are two ways of prolonging the life of a bubble. when the breath is first driven into the liquid, the force used is sufficient to send the fluid surging in all directions, and the film is fairly well nourished. presently as the soapy water dipped out by the bowl of the pipe gets distributed over the walls of the bubble and it increases in size, this no longer acts, and drainage from the top at once sets in. if the blowing is now continued, the end so much the more quickly approaches. to enable you to continue enlarging the bubble and lengthen its life, feed it. this may be done readily and safely, by dipping a camel-hair brush in the soapy emulsion and, letting it touch the bubble at the top, when the fluid will stream down over the surface, thickening the film, and permitting you to get a bubble as big as your hat. this is only a temporary expedient, a flank movement, and merely defers the end by a minute or two. to attack the difficulty with more success, change the mixture. shred some castile soap, which may be purchased by the pennyworth at the chemist's, and beat up in the usual way with water; you will find that much more can be done with this preparation than the usual household soap. if your aim is merely to produce an overgrown, sagging, wobbling bubble, feed with a brush as above. for further experiments do not blow large unmanageable ones, but an ordinary sized bubble blown in this liquid will enable you to show its toughness, length of life, and other qualities. if your coat is made of a woollen fabric, release some bubbles on the shoulder; they will roll down the sleeve and tumble off to the floor, if they do not meet with any cotton fabric on the way; this is due to the repulsion which exists between wool and the watery film, doubtless due to the presence of fat in some form upon the fibres. while upon the sleeve they may be carried about the room, or passed from one person to another. this repulsion may be further utilized, too, and the bubble treated as a shuttlecock. to do this, procure the ordinary wooden bat used by your sister for the game of bat and shuttlecock. cover it with a piece of flannel, fine or coarse will do. then blow a bubble not too large, so that the film shall be robust and heavy. such is the toughness of the skin of the bubble, and the repulsion of the woollen surface to the soapy film, that it may be batted nearly two hundred times before the collapse takes place. by striking it on the side and getting some work into the bubble, it revolves slowly and the drainage from the upper part is counteracted. two or more can play thus with the glittering ball, passing it on, or a ring of players may be formed and a stream of bubbles passed round from one member to another. another form of the game is the keeping up a number of bubbles by the same bat. as the bubbles are very light they fall slowly, and six or eight may be kept up by the player. by having two bats, one in each hand, this becomes a game of considerable skill, and will tax the concentrated attention of the player to the utmost. now cut some circular discs out of note-paper about the size of a sixpence, larger rather than smaller. get a reel of fine white cotton, and pass the end of the thread through the centre of the disc. tie a knot in the cotton, so that it cannot readily be pulled through the hole. then dip the disc in the mixture till the paper is wet. blow your bubble, and before you release it from the pipe bowl, place the dripping disc of paper on the side of the bubble by dangling it from your right hand by the cotton. when it is in complete contact, a slight turn of the wrist releases the bubble from the pipe, and you will find that you have it attached to the paper disc, which in the meantime has sunk to the lowest part of the bubble. it can now be carried about by means of the disc. there is so much carbon dioxide in the breath that bubbles blown in this way have very little power of rising, as the difference in the heat of the breath does not sufficiently counterbalance the heavier weight of the expired air. by attaching a piece of india-rubber tubing to the stem of the pipe and gas burner, you can get a supply of lighter gas which will make the bubble into a balloon. having effected this arrangement, dip the pipe in the mixture and turn on the gas. feed the top of the bubble with more fluid, and when it has reached a size which satisfies you, attach the paper disc as before. it will be an easy task to detach the bubble, which will rise towards the ceiling, until the weight of the thread counterbalances the buoyancy of the gas. it will probably rise to the ceiling, where it is quite safe, as a cushion of air will prevent the bubble striking the surface. instead of the long thread, make out of the thinnest and lightest paper you can get, a small car, attach cotton to the corners of the car and gather the threads together and tie them so that the car hangs level. attach this to the cotton which bears the paper disc, and connect the disc with the bubble as before, wetting only the disc. you will have a miniature gossamer balloon. cut out two small figures of men in paper and put inside the car. do all this before blowing the bubble. if you have a glass shade, a number of these bubbles balanced by threads may be kept for hours inside. you will find it very interesting to watch the changes of colour in the films as they get thinner through evaporation. to check this, put under the shade a wet sponge, this will moisten the air enclosed in the shade, and prolong the life of the bubbles. no great skill is required in making the above experiments, and variations of an amusing character can be made by cutting out figures of animals and men and attaching them to the disc in place of the car. if the figures are painted so much better will the trick look. to make the mixture still stronger add nearly half as much again of pure glycerine. $boxing by electricity.$--a b c is a piece of iron wire inserted in the board d e f g. cut out the boxer h in cardboard. on one side of this figure paste tinfoil bringing the tinfoil to the other side of the figure just a little at the edges. you will be able to get your tinfoil from the packages of tea, chocolate, tobacco or other source. fasten the boxer to the board with sealing-wax. now make the other boxer i in the same way and suspend him from the iron wire by means of thread. borrow a lamp glass or the chimney from the incandescent gas burner and fit a cork k into the bottom. through the cork pass a nail l. connect the nail with the boxer by means of the wire m. warm and dry the lamp chimney, and rub it with fur or silk. the boxer i will rush at boxer h, then retreat hurriedly, and this will be repeated as long as you rub the lamp chimney. men, skilled in the science of electricity, will tell you that the reason for these strange proceedings is that the rubbing of the lamp chimney produces electricity; this passes along the wire to boxer h who becomes charged with the mysterious property. this electricity attracts boxer i who goes for boxer h. when he touches he becomes charged with the same kind of electricity and is then attracted no longer but repelled, and he continues to be repelled until his electricity has drained away by the linen thread, wire and board to the earth. then he is ready for another "round." [illustration: boxing by electricity.] $a prancing horse.$--carve the figure of a horse, and having fixed a bent wire to the under part of its body, place a small ball of lead upon the end of the wire. place the hind legs of the horse upon the table, and it will prance to and fro. sometimes the figure of a man is treated in the same way and in yorkshire it used to be called a "saaging tommy," to saag being an old word meaning to saw or see-saw. [illustration: a prancing horse.] $boats made of pasteboard.$--pasteboard is not a very satisfactory material of which to construct model boats, if these are wanted to sail, but it is possible to make them. the best plan for making pasteboard waterproof is to paint it with a solution of sealing wax. to make this, take sealing wax of the colour you prefer, break it into small pieces and place it in a wide-mouthed bottle. now pour in some methylated spirits and shake occasionally until the wax is all dissolved. if too thick, add more spirit; if too thin, more wax. apply with a brush. owing to the evaporation of the spirit, this paint dries hard and glossy in an hour. [illustration: a simple top.] $a simple top.$--procure a piece of white cardboard, two inches square, and cut it into a sexagon, as shown in fig. . now bore a small hole in the middle, into which push an ordinary match. you may number the sections of the sexagon and see who scores the highest number, counting the figure resting against the table as it falls. fig. shows the top complete. [illustration: the apple or potato mill.] $the apple or potato mill.$--this is made by boring a hole in a nut, just large enough to pass a thin skewer through; the kernel should then be extracted, and another hole bored in the side of the nut, as in the diagram. a skewer should next be cut large enough at the top to form a head. a piece of string is then tied to the skewer, and passed through the hole in the side of the nut, and an apple or potato stuck on the end of the skewer. the mill should be twirled round in the same way as the humming top to wind up the string, holding the nut stationary between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand. when this is done, the string must be pulled out rapidly, and the mill will spin. many other toys may be made upon the same principle, and some of these we will now describe. [illustration: whirling mac.] $whirling mac.$--our illustration shows how the apple mill may be modified for a whirling mac. the arms and legs of the figure should be tied loosely to the body and the skirt should be loose too. tie the string to the spindle inside the nut and have a button on the end of the string so that you may have a firm hold. now twist the figure round until all the string is wound, then hold the nut firmly in your left hand and draw the string out suddenly and swiftly with your right hand. the figure will whirl round, throwing out his arms and legs. when the string comes to an end slacken it, and the impetus of the figure will cause it to wind the string again. thus you may go on and on until you are tired. [illustration: fig. ., fig. ., fig. ., fig. . flying machine.] $a flying machine.$--similar in principle is the flying machine now to be described. in fig. _a_ is a handle cut in any hard wood four and a half inches long. into the top of this handle bore a hole down its centre about one inch deep, and force into this a piece of wire so that the wire will be quite firm. this wire should be of iron or steel, with a diameter of one-eighth of an inch, and it should be about three and a half inches long. it will be easier to force the wire into the wood if it is sharpened. the hole you have bored is only an inch deep; force the wire half an inch deeper than that. obtain now from your mother or sister an ordinary cotton spool about one and a quarter inches long. this is shown at _b_ in fig. . in the same figure _c_ is a kind of wheel made as follows. if you cannot find something ready made take a small piece of well-seasoned wood. cut it until it is an inch in diameter and five-eighths of an inch deep. see fig. . down the middle bore the hole _a_ large enough that the wire you put down the handle in fig. may turn easily in it. mark the upper surface of the wheel into four equal parts, and then you will be able to draw four perpendicular lines round this wheel at equal distances. two of these lines are shown in fig. . now draw the line _a b_ in fig. half way down the wheel. follow this line round and bore four pairs of holes as deeply as you can without piercing the centre hole. one pair is shown in fig. . each little hole is about a quarter of an inch from its neighbour. these pairs of holes must be the same distance from each other; they are for the wings you see in fig. , and which we will now proceed to make. take forty-two inches of light brass wire. divide this into four equal parts. you will then have four pieces of ten and a half inches each. bend each one into the shape shown in fig. . these wings will be about four inches long and about two inches broad at their widest part. the ends of the wire should be about a quarter of an inch apart. cover these wire frames with light tough paper, using as little paste as possible. the wings are inserted slanting like the sails of a windmill. now let us go back to the spool. upon the upper surface midway between its centre hole and the edge of the spool insert a piece of strong wire or the end of a broken knitting needle. the wire should be rigid, and should project from the spool about half an inch. when you put your wheel and wings upon the spool this wire will rest beside one of the wings and cause it to turn when the spool turns. now take a piece of cord and wind it away from you with your right hand round the spool. hold the handle firmly in your left hand and withdraw the string rapidly. the wheel and wings will mount rapidly in the air for about fifty feet and then come steadily down. [illustration: a dancing figure.] $a dancing figure.$--the illustration shows the back view of a toy easily constructed but capable of affording much amusement to the little ones. a is an ordinary lath glued to a cardboard figure of a man. the arms and legs too are of cardboard fixed loosely with short string knotted at each end. at the extremities of the arms and legs the strings b and c are tied and connected with the string d. pull the string d and the figure will throw up his arms and legs wildly. bears and other figures may be made upon the same principle. a string f may be put at e and then the lath is not necessary, for the performer can then hold string f in one hand and pull string d with the other. [illustration: the lively donkey.] $the lively donkey.$--on stout paper or cardboard draw upon a large scale the illustration. divide the drawing into three parts by cutting out the circle. you may now pin the parts upon the wall in such attitudes as are shown in the smaller illustration, or if you cut out many donkeys you may have all these attitudes and more. [illustration: camera obscura.] $a camera obscura.$--obtain an oblong box, about two feet long, twelve inches wide, and eight high. in one end of this a tube must be fitted containing a lens. it must be possible to slide the tube backwards and forwards so as to obtain the focus. inside the box should be a plain mirror reclining backwards from the tube at an angle of forty-five degrees. see a b in the figure. at the top of the box at c is a square of frosted glass or a piece of tissue paper, upon which from beneath the picture will be thrown, and may be seen by raising the lid d. to use the camera place the tube with the lens in it opposite the object or scene, and having adjusted the focus, the image will be thrown upon the ground-glass or tissue paper. $jig saw puzzle.$--this old form of toy has been revived lately. it is easily made. glue upon a thin piece of wood a picture, a coloured one is best. then with a fret saw cut picture and board into all manner of wild shapes, shake them into disorder and then try to put them back again into their proper position. jig saw is a piece of american slang for fret saw. $the wonderful chicken.$--with the help of the diagram it will not be difficult to construct a chicken that will move its head and tail in a comic manner. a b c d is a box that acts as a base and conceals the pendulum. it will need to have a slit in the top for the strings which hold the pendulum. the chicken is of wood and its body has two sides. one side has been removed so that the mechanism may be seen, but when the chicken is complete the mechanism is hidden. it will be seen that the head and tail are attached to the body with nails, but in such a way that they are not rigid but will move up and down. e is a pendulum of lead or other heavy material, and as it swings to and fro the strings cause the head and tail to bob up and down alternately. other moving figures may be made upon the same principle. longer strings, and a longer box to accommodate them, give slower and more lasting movements. [illustration: the wonderful chicken.] $the mouse in the trap.$--cut a piece of cardboard of the size of a penny, and paint on one side a mouse, and on the other a trap; fasten two pieces of thread one on each side at opposite points of the card, so that the card can be made to revolve by twirling the threads with the finger and thumb. while the toy is in its revolution, the mouse will be seen inside the trap. many others may be made upon the same principle. $distorted landscapes.$--take a piece of smooth white pasteboard and sketch a picture upon it. prick the outlines in every part with a pin or needle, then put the pricked drawing in a perpendicular position, and place a lighted candle behind it. stand in front of it another piece of pasteboard, and trace with a pencil the lines given by the light, and you will have a peculiar distorted landscape. take away the candle and the pricked drawing, and put your eye where the light was, and the drawing will lose its peculiarities. to find the proper position for your eye it will be best to cut out a piece of card, adjust it, and look through a hole made to occupy the place where stood the flame of the candle. [illustration: the mouse in the trap.] [illustration: fig. ., fig. ., fig. .] $the working woodman.$--the wind, as well as a pendulum, may be used to make wooden figures move. in fig. we have two pieces of wood, each an inch thick, an inch and a half wide, and twelve inches long. if we place them as in fig. we have four arms five and a quarter inches long. each one of these four arms has now to be cut into a shape to adapt it as a windmill sail; that is it has to be made into a slanting thin blade not more than an eighth of an inch thick, and all the blades must present a similar slope to the wind. as mistakes are likely to occur, here we will endeavour to make the point clear. take the arm a, fig. . suppose you have slanted this from x to y. now imagine that b comes round to a's position, then it, too, must be sloped in precisely the same way, and not sloped from y to x. the same applies to arms c and d. imagine them coming to this upright position, and make them all alike as they arrive there. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration] [illustration] the method of fixing the four arms into one piece is shown in fig. . a hole should now be bored exactly in the centre at the crossing of the arms. the platform upon which the figure of the woodman will stand, shown in fig. , consists of a piece of wood half an inch thick, six inches wide and twelve inches long. at each end is screwed a block to hold the shaft which communicates the movement of the sails to the figure. this shaft is a piece of strong wire fifteen inches long, bent into a crank, as shown in the diagram, and working round and round in the two blocks. the end of the wire that comes through the centre of the windmill sails should be bent up or down to prevent it from slipping out of position. the vane, which will cause the mill to keep in the right position whichever way the wind blows, is shown twice in fig. . it is of thin wood, and is fastened to the underside of the platform by means of the little catch, which should be left when the vane is made. the figures whose parts are shown should be cut out of thin wood with a fret-saw, and put together so that the joints turn easily on the pins that are put through them. two bodies are needed. to adjust the figure take off one side of the body and place the woodman in the act of completing his stroke, with the axe touching the wood, then put a peg or small tack or nail immediately behind the projection on the top of the legs. this will keep his body from bending too far forward. now let the axe be raised to the beginning of the stroke, and put a peg in front of the projection. the arm is connected with the crank by a piece of wire. you may not find the right place at first, but a few trials will put you right. bore a hole in the arm, put the wire through, and twist it round to keep it there. [illustration] a sawyer may be made upon the same principle, as the illustrations show, or you may have a simple windmill and no figures. fix the platform and its figures on the top of a pole with a pivot so that they may turn freely in the wind. before you bore the hole through the platform balance the whole carefully upon the pole or you will put the hole in the wrong place. $the skip-jack.$--the skip-jack is made out of the merry-thought of a goose. a strong doubled string must be tied at the two ends of the bone, and a piece of wood about three inches long put between the strings, as shown in the illustration, and twisted round until the string has the force of a spring. a bit of shoemaker's wax should then be put in the hollow of the bone at the place where the end of the piece of wood touches, and when the wood is pressed slightly on the wax the toy is set. the wood sticks only a very short time, and then springs forcibly up. the skip-jack is placed on the ground with the wax downwards. upon this principle toy frogs are made sometimes. [illustration: the skip-jack.] [illustration: the jolly pea.] $the jolly pea.$--stick through a pea, or small ball of pith, two pins at right angles, and put upon the points pieces of sealing-wax. the pea may be kept dancing in the air at a short distance from the end of a straight tube, by means of a current of breath from the mouth. this imparts a rotatory motion to the pea. a piece of broken clay tobacco pipe serves very well. some boys prefer one pin (the vertical one) and dispense with the cross pin. [illustration: revolving serpent.] $a revolving serpent.$--draw on a piece of cardboard a spiral serpent, as shown in the figure. cut along the lines with a sharp knife, and mount it on a needle fixed in a cork. the serpent will now revolve on its own account. its movements may be greatly accelerated by fixing it by means of a bent wire over the flame of a lamp or candle. chapter xxiv concerning many things $a simple shelter.$--a very easy way to rig up a shelter from sun or rain is given in the accompanying sketch. two poles with a deep notch in the top of each, a rope, two pegs, a sheet, and a few large stones complete the shelter. an ingenious boy could arrange an end, or two if he needs them. [illustration: a simple shelter.] $a calendar on your fingers.$--this is the way that an old-timer manages to keep account of the days of the week that months open with. it will be found correct and interesting to people who have a memory for such things: "what day of the week did january come in on?" asked grandfather martin. "if you can tell that, i can tell you the day that any month will come in on, by help of a little lingo i learned from my father when i was a boy. friday, did you say?" and he held up his hand preparatory to counting his fingers. "now, april is the fourth month; let us see--'at dover dwelt george brown, esq., good christopher finch, and david frier.' we go by the first letters of these words-- , , , : 'at dover dwelt george'--g is the letter, and it is the seventh in the alphabet. january came in on friday you say, friday, saturday, sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday--seven; april comes in on thursday. take february--second month: 'at dover.' d is the letter, and fourth in the alphabet. friday, one; saturday, two; sunday, three; monday, four; february comes in on monday. "if you make no mistake in using the rule, it will give you the answer every time." "but it did not give the answer for april," said harry, who had been referring to an almanac. "april began on friday." "to be sure, boy! this is leap year, is it not?" leap year requires the addition of one day for the last ten months, to allow for the th of february. so all fools' day came on friday this year. "i never knew anybody outside of my father's family," continued the old gentleman, "who knew this little lingo and how to use it. he taught it to his children, and i have tried to teach it to mine, but they seem to forget it, and i am afraid it will get lost. when father used to go to presbytery, fifty years ago, it often happened that a question of dates and their relation to days would come up, and no almanac at hand; in fact, the question might be as to some day of the next year; but almanac or not, my father could always find the fact wanted with just the little key of the first day of the year." $leap year.$--divide the year by . if nothing remains it is leap year. for instance / = so that is leap year. if , or remain these figures give the years after leap year. remember, leap year lapses once a century. $spiders and the weather.$--if the weather is likely to become rainy, windy, or anything but fine, spiders fix the terminating filaments, on which the whole web is suspended, unusually short. if these filaments are made unusually long we may expect a spell of fine weather. in proportion to their length is the fineness of the weather. spiders are generally indolent in rainy weather. if they are active in rain the rain will not long continue. $a barometer.$--put two drams of pure nitre and half a dram of chloride of ammonia, reduced to powder, into two ounces of spirits of wine, or pure alcohol, and place this mixture in a glass tube, ten inches long and about an inch in diameter, the upper extremity of which must be covered with a piece of skin or bladder, pierced with small holes. if the weather is to be fine, the solid matters remain at the bottom of the tube, and the alcohol is transparent. if rain is to fall in a short time, some of the solid particles rise and fall in the alcohol, which becomes somewhat thick. when a storm or even a squall is about to come on all the solid matters rise from the bottom of the tube and form a crust on the surface of the alcohol, which appears in a state of fermentation. these appearances take place twenty-four hours before the storm comes, and the point of the horizon from which it is to blow is indicated by the particles gathering most on the side of the tube opposite to that part whence the wind is to come. $another simple barometer.$--take a common phial bottle, and cut off the rim and part of the neck. this may be done by means of a piece of string, or better still, whipcord, twisted round it, and pulled strongly in a sawing position by two persons, one of whom holds the bottle firmly in his left hand. heated in a few minutes by the friction of the string, and then dipped suddenly into cold water, the bottle will be beheaded easily. let the bottle be filled now with water, and applying the finger to its mouth, turn it quickly upside down. when you remove your finger it will be found that only a few drops will escape. without cork or stopper of any kind, the water will be retained within the bottle by the pressure of the external air. now let a bit of tape be tied round the middle of the bottle to which the two ends of a string may be attached so as to form a loop to hang on a nail. let it be thus suspended in a perpendicular manner, with the mouth downwards. when the weather is fair, and inclined to remain fair, the water will be level with the section of the neck, or perhaps elevated above it, and forming a concave surface. when the weather is disposed to be wet a drop will appear at the mouth, which will enlarge till it falls, and then another drop so long as the humidity of the air continues. $how to go to sea.$--decide first whether you will go by wind or steam, as steamboat seamen and sailing-ship sailors are distinct, the former having little to do with actual seamanship, the latter everything. consequently, most parents are well advised to send their boys on sailing ships only. parents generally are at their wits' end to know what to do with boys with the sea "craze." therefore they are, as a general rule, "rushed" into paying exorbitant sums for apprenticing fees, only to find, after a voyage, their sons refuse to go again, having had enough to tire them of it. now, the best and safest way to get boys comfortably berthed as apprentices is to see by the daily papers, or the _shipping gazette_, the names of the largest firms advertising australian voyages, or voyages to the east indies, and write them particulars briefly, enclosing a stamped envelope for reply. the large firms keep a book or register, where boys' names are entered, so that when an apprentice is required the first on the page has the preference. this is the simplest and safest way, for there are always plenty of sharpers advertising for boys in the london and liverpool journals, offering midship berths and other "baits" at the moderate sum of from £ to £ . this is by no means a high estimate, for by some of the gentry larger sums are asked, and these reap golden harvests. these sharpers act as intermediates between the office people and themselves, sharing the bounty. now, few are aware that when apprenticing boys to the sea a trial voyage is necessary. a number of lads after one voyage prefer shore. therefore, before any binding moneys are paid, be careful to see that the indentures are made out clearly, as often they are carefully worded, or "blinded," as it is called at sea; so that if by chance money were paid down the difficulty would be to get it refunded, for if this is not stipulated, and a wish is afterwards expressed to cancel agreements, the purchase-money is forfeited. an excellent plan is to have a paper drawn up and signed by both parties, witnessed, and the indentures made up after the first trial trip; but it must be understood that the time of the first voyage, if it be a long one, makes a difference, as unless lads are apprenticed off-hand the "time" is counted as nothing. there is a pamphlet sold by mercantile stationers at one shilling containing much information, showing parts, and describing the various builds of sea-going craft. the contents of this should be completely mastered before any boy joins a ship, as it will help him to know part of his duties in addition to the nautical language, thereby showing to his officers that he is not a "know-nothing" lad. it will also help him in a variety of ways, it being in point of fact the a b c of ship life. "do as you are told with a will" is an expression often made use of, and in fact it must be practised by all contemplating sea life. "ship shape" is another saying suggested by the rigid discipline exercised by mariners. on one large vessel the following maxim was painted on the walls of the midship quarters: "there is a place for everything; put everything in its place." one of the things a captain or the mates dislike to see is a boy clambering over the rigging in port; time and circumstance will soon teach him that part of his duties, so that while he is in port a lad should busy himself in tidying up the deck, or by doing the work allotted to him. a boy does well to be on board his ship a day or two before departing, so as to get acquainted with the various parts, also to get himself known, and somewhat used to the deck. apprentices are expected to have a stout chest made for the purpose of storing clothes and sundries. some companies provide the articles necessary for the mess-room use, but it is well to inquire of berth-mates, or the steward, and arrange accordingly. a stout tin box, capable of holding linen is necessary, and the following articles must be procured:-- white shirt, collars, and a uniform suit for shore wear. this must be made in accordance with the rules of the company, the coat and waistcoat brass-buttoned, and the cap embellished with the house flag design and gold cordage. for ship wear no complete list can be given, the principal articles being the following: oilskin suit, one pair of sea boots, one or two pairs of half wellingtons; flannel shirts, and as many pairs of trousers and shoes as can be procured, the limit of these being at least three pairs. the numerous small articles may be left to discretion. another word of warning--do not deal with slop-shop outfitters advertising "rig outs" at low figures, but rather go to respectable tailors and traders, and purchase, or have made, the articles separately. with strict obedience, promptitude, and a cheerful disposition a lad can hardly fail to get promoted. $to make your own toffee.$--to one pound of the best demerara sugar add about a quarter of a pint of cold water and a pinch of cream of tartar. go on boiling it until when you drop a little into cold water it goes hard. you may look for this stage in about ten minutes. next take it off and add three ounces of butter cut into small pieces. boil again and test in the same way for hardness. at this stage put in lemon juice to flavour it and then pour the mixture into oiled tins. when it is nearly cold mark it into squares, and when it is quite cold divide it according to these marks. $steam rings.$--when the kettle is boiling and sending steam from its spout gently raise the lid and then shut it down again deftly. this will force the steam rapidly from the spout in the shape of very pretty rings which will rise in the air, growing larger and larger. $skeleton leaves.$--leaves from which the reader intends to derive the skeleton should be gathered fresh from tree or shrub, and put in an earthen pan filled with rain water and placed in the sunshine. when the substance of the leaf becomes soft and easily detached, they should be removed to another pan, containing clean water, in which they must be shaken about until the soft tissue breaks away from the skeleton. wash again in fresh water, and so continue until only the ribs and nervures remain. a soft tooth-brush, carefully used, will assist in the final part of this operation, the leaf being held in the palm of the hand during the process. now for the bleaching. purchase two pennyworth of purified chloride of lime, and dissolve it in a pint of water. in this solution put your skeleton leaves, and keep them under observation. as soon as one has become quite white it should be taken out and rinsed in clear water, then carefully dried. the softening process will take weeks, in some tougher species of leaf it may take months. this period may be lessened by using a small quantity of either muriatic acid or chloride of lime, but with either of these agents there is danger of rotting the skeleton. the rain-water process is the safest and most permanent. $to imitate a nightingale.$--many years ago a clever frenchman analysed the song of the nightingale and made out that it consists of the following sounds:-- temee temee temee tan spretu zqua querree pee pee teeo teeo teeo tix quteeo quteeo quteeo zquo zquo zquo zquo zee zee zee zee zee zee zee querrer teeu zqula peepee quee. $pith beads.$--a little boy we know amuses himself by threading pieces of pith and then painting the pith with water colours. when his mother wears the necklace he has made in this way people are very curious to know what the beads are, and fancy they must have been made by the natives of foreign parts, probably of the south sea islands. $hints on handwriting.$--although typewriters are excellent things, they are comparatively useless just in those particular cases where distinct handwriting is of the greatest importance, and where it is so very rarely met with. by some strange process of reasoning, it has come about that almost any sort of writing is thought good enough for a postcard, telegram, or medical prescription. the same man who would make a very fair performance when engaged on a long communication, in which the context would be almost certain to help the reader to decipher a queer word here and there, will dash off the most puzzling penmanship when writing a short but urgent note or postcard. the very brevity of the communication adds to the difficulty of understanding it. when the present writer was at school, it was impressed upon us that, whatever else might be faulty, the addressing of the envelope should be as near perfection as we could make it. the postman of the present day will tell you that this arrangement is now reversed, and, with the exception of letters sent out by business firms, the addresses he has to grapple with are very badly and incompletely written. here are a few short hints, the acting upon which will vastly improve the most slovenly handwriting in a week, if persevered in. in the first place, reduce the slope of your handwriting until it is almost, if not quite vertical. then break yourself of the habit of crowding your letters too closely together, on the one hand, and sprawling them out unduly, on the other. instead of sprawling the letters out so, write each character compactly, but join it to the following one by a distinct link-stroke, as it were. this is the sort of writing approved of by the civil service commissioners. at one time much stress was laid upon the importance of thick and thin strokes, hair strokes, and so on. excepting in the case of professional engravers, and for artistic purposes, all these refinements are out of date. what is of vastly more importance is the making of a careful distinction between the letters m, n, and u, and again between the letters e and i. good test-words to practice with are these: union, commence, ounce, suit, sweet, manumotive, immense, unite, untie. characters which extend above or below the line should not do so more than is sufficient to prevent their being mistaken for other letters. all the i's should be dotted and the t's crossed. finally, the last letter of every word should be written distinctly, no matter in what hurry you may be, for it is wonderful what an aid to legibility the observance of this simple rule will afford. those who follow these hints may never write a pretty hand, but they can scarcely fail to write a legible one, no small accomplishment in these days, when so many of us can do almost any out-of-the-way thing, but find it difficult to sign our names distinctly. $secret writing.$--mix well some lard with a little venice turpentine, and rub a small part of it equally on very thin paper by means of a piece of fine sponge, or in some other way. lay this with the greasy side downwards upon a sheet of note-paper, and write your message upon the plain side of the greasy paper with a style or the thin end of your pen-holder, using a little pressure. nothing will be seen on the note-paper; but what you have written may be made visible there by dusting upon it some pounded charcoal or other coloured dust. shake or blow this dust away and there will remain as much of it as has fallen upon the parts where your style pressed the lard upon the note-paper. $resin bubbles.$--if the end of a copper tube or of a tobacco pipe be dipped in melted resin at a temperature a little above that of boiling water, taken out and held nearly in a vertical position, and blown through, bubbles will be formed of all possible sizes, from that of a hen's egg down to sizes which can hardly be seen. these bubbles have a very pleasing appearance and are permanent. $etching on glass.$--cover the glass with a thin coat of beeswax, and draw your design with a needle cutting down through the wax to the surface of the glass. place the glass in a shallow bath, and cover it evenly with fluor-spar to the depth of an eight of an inch. now pour sulphuric acid diluted with three times its weight of water upon the spar. let this remain three or four hours. pour away the acid, remove the spar, and clean the glass with turpentine, and your design will be found upon the glass. $how to make carbon paper.$--carbonic paper for use with order books, and for other purposes, is made as follows: cold lard well mixed with lamp-black is well rubbed into the paper with a soft piece of cotton rag. when evenly and thoroughly done, wipe the surface gently with flannel until the colour ceases to come off; it is then ready for use. to obtain similar papers but of other colours, substitute ordinary paint powders for the lamp-black. the most suitable colours will be found to be venetian red, prussian blue, chrome green. $the making of paste.$--there are so many occupations with which boys amuse themselves that need paste that we have included a few recipes. a simple paste.--for a breakfast cup full of a simple paste, needed for use at the moment, and not required to be kept for many days, take a heaped tablespoonful of flour. mix it thoroughly with cold water as though you were mixing mustard, then fill the cup with boiling water, pour the whole into a saucepan, and let it boil gently for a few minutes. it is then ready for use. you may use starch instead of flour. a large quantity that will last.--in a quart of water dissolve a teaspoonful of pure powdered alum. into this stir as much flour as will make a thick cream, and keep on stirring until the mixture is smooth and until every lump has been removed. thoroughly mix with this a teaspoonful of powdered resin, and into this mixture pour a cup of boiling water. keep on stirring, and if the mixture does not thicken from the action of the boiling water assist it to thicken by placing it upon the fire for a minute or two. afterwards add a few drops of oil of cloves to preserve it from going sour. pour the paste into some vessel that has a cover, and keep it covered and in a cool place. in this form it will be thicker and stronger than is necessary for general use, but take a little as you need it and reduce it to its right consistency with warm water. $rice glue.$--mix rice flour well with cold water, then simmer it gently over the fire. this makes a fine kind of paste, durable and effective. mixed thickly it may be used as a modelling clay, and when it is dry it takes a high polish. $dressing the skins of small animals.$--different dressings have been recommended, most of which contain arsenic or corrosive sublimate, which are deadly poisons; but really all that is necessary is simple alum, a pound of which can be bought for three-halfpence. stretch the skin fur downwards on a board, and fasten it with tacks. put powdered alum over it, and rub it in well. continue to do this every two or three days for a fortnight. then remove the alum, and with a knife scrape carefully off any bits of flesh or fat that may be left on the skin. when dried, to render it soft, rub a little yolk of egg or oil into it, and draw it backwards and forwards across the edge of a blunt knife, fixed for the purpose. drawing through a ring, or well rubbing between the hands will also serve to soften it. $casts of medals and coins.$--cut a strip of brown paper about six inches long by one inch deep. rub a little oil or grease all over that side of the coin you wish to reproduce, cleaning off all superfluous grease with a little cotton wool, but still leaving the surface greased. then roll the paper round the edge of the coin so that it resembles a pill-box with a metal bottom, and fix the loose end with a dab of sealing wax. into this pour a mixture of plaster of paris and water made to the consistence of cream, tapping the box lightly on the table to cause the plaster to settle down free from bubbles. when the plaster is set quite hard, strip off the paper, and you have your plaster mould. by soaking this with oil and fastening a strip of paper round it as round the coin, you have a complete mould into which you can pour plaster and so take a cast exactly like the original except in colour, which however may be imitated with water colours. another plan is to make the mould of a different substance, such as isinglass; thoroughly dissolve isinglass in spirits of wine, then pour upon the coin as before, and set aside for a day or two. when quite hard it will separate easily and be found as clear as a bit of glass. $removal of ink blots.$--ink-blots can be removed from paper by painting over with a camel-hair brush dipped in a solution of drachms muriate of tin in drachms of water. when the ink has quite disappeared, rinse the paper in clean water; then dry it. $grease removed from paper.$--to remove grease spots from paper, gently warm the greasy part and press it, under and over, with blotting-paper. repeatedly change the blotting-paper until most of the grease has disappeared. then heat a very little oil of turpentine until nearly boiling, again warm the paper, and apply the turpentine to the grease spot by means of a camel's hair brush, on both sides of the paper. repeat this process until the grease has _quite_ disappeared. finally, with a clean brush, dipped in spirits of wine, again brush over the spot, and as the spirit evaporates the paper will be left free from grease or stain. remember that oil of turpentine is very inflammable. it would be safer to heat it in the oven. $invisible ink.$--take an ounce of oil of vitriol, and mix with a pint of rain water, and when cool write with a clean pen. when it is cold it will disappear. heat it and it will appear in black ink. here are some other inks which appear and disappear at the writer's will:-- solution of nitro-muriate of cobalt, when heated turns green; solution of acetate of cobalt, with a little nitre becomes rose-colour when warm. inks which remain visible when heated, but do not disappear when cooled include, onion-juice, yellow; equal parts of copper and sal-ammoniac in water, yellow; aquafortis, spirits of salt, oil of vitriol, and salt and water, yellow or brown. inks which appear when exposed to light may be made with diluted solution of nitrate of silver, or with diluted solution of terchloride of gold. $how leaves keep clean.$--while leaf shapes have formed a subject of study ever since botanical science has existed, it is only recently that one of the most remarkable purposes which the points of leaves serve has been clearly brought out. it has been shown, as the result of some special investigations made in germany, that the long points quickly drain off the excess of moisture deposited upon the foliage in heavy rains. this ready method of disposing of a surplus of moisture is important to some plants. it also serves as a means of cleaning the surface of the leaves. round leaves do not so easily get rid of the rain water, and it has been noticed that they remain dusty and dirty after a shower, the escape of the water by evaporation not tending to cleanse them, while long, narrow, pointed leaves are washed clean and bright. [illustration] [illustration: deaf and dumb alphabet] [illustration: deaf and dumb alphabet single hand.] [illustration: deaf and dumb alphabet single hand.] [illustration: how to tie knots.] [illustration:] [illustration:] the end index alcohol and athletics, alphabet, deaf and dumb, angling, apple mill, aquariums, artist, the boy as, Ã�olian harp, an, how to make, balloons, bubble, balloons, fire, to make, barometers, simple, barrel, hammock made from a, beads of pith, binding books, blotting pad, boat race, game of, boats made of pasteboard, books, how to bind, boomerangs, bottle, the inexhaustible, boxing, boxing by electricity, bubble balloons, bubbles of resin, budgerigars, bust in clay, how made, butterflies, cage birds, calendar, a, on your fingers, camera obscura, a, camp, cooking in, canaries, candle, the chemistry of a, canoes, canoes, steering of, carbon paper, how to make, card tricks, casting coins and medals, cavies, chess, how to play, chicken, the wonderful, coins, how to cast, coloured fires, concert, game of, conflagration, a seeming, conjuring, consequences, game of, cooking in camp, cremated alive, crystals, beautiful, crystals, brilliant, curling, cutter, model, how to make, cyr louis, dancing figure, deaf and dumb alphabet, digging, distorted landscapes, dogs, donkey, the lively, draughts, how to play, draughts, the losing game, drawing, drop ball, dumb bells, , , , egg and bottle trick, electricity, boxing by, electrical machine, an, how to make, enlargement of photographs, etching on glass, fight for the flag, filter, how to make a, fire, a well of, fire balloons, to make, fires, coloured, fire designs, fishing, fives, flying machine, football, fountain, a novel, fountain, how to make a, fox, fox and geese, french and english, fugleman, game, an amusing, games, gardening, ghost, to make a, glass, etching on, glue made of rice, golf, gravity, the centre of, grease, to remove, guinea pigs, gymnastics, haloes, three, hammock, how to make a, handwriting, hints on, harp, Ã�olian, an, how to make, hectograph, how to make, hedgehog, the, hockey, hoops, games with, hop-scotch, horizontal bar, , horse, a prancing, hurdle races, hygrometer, a, illusions, optical, index, how to make, indian clubs, , ink, invisible, ink, removal of, jackdaws, jay, the, jig saw puzzle, jingling, jumping, , kite, how to make a, knots, how to tie, landscapes, distorted, lantern slides, leap year, leverage, an experiment in, leaves, how they keep clean, leaves, how to use, leaves, skeleton, levy, mr. e. lawrence, mac, a whirling, macgregor, john, magazines, how to bind, magician, the boy as, magic lantern slides, magpie, the, medals, how to cast, mice, white, modelling with clay, moths, mouse, the, in the trap, musical glass, a, needle, the floating, net making, newspaper cuttings book, nickie nickie night, nightingale, to imitate a, nine men's morris, optical illusions, paperchasing, parallel bars, pasteboard, boats made of, paste, how to make, pea, the jolly, perspective, rules of, pets, photographic enlargements, pith beads, polyphony, portrait bust, how made, posting, potatoe mill, prisoners' base, puzzles, puzzles, puzzles, answers to, pyrography, quaternions, how to play, rabbits, rackets, raven, the, resin bubbles, rice glue, rings, exercises with, rings of steam, rob roy canoe, , rowing, running, , sailing on skates, schooner, model, how to make, scrap book, how to make, sculling, sea, how to go to, secret writing, seed, how to sow, serpent, a revolving, shadow buff, shaving papers, case for, shelter, a simple, silkworms, skates, sailing on, skating, skeleton leaves, sketching, skins, how to dress, skip-jack, the, sleigh for baby, how to make, sleigh, how to make, slides for magic lantern, smoke produced at will, spiders and the weather, sprinting, steam rings, steeplechasing, stencilling, swimming, syphon, the, tent, a simple, toffee, to make your own, top, a simple, training for athletics, trapeze, turnpike, vacuum, a, what it can do, ventriloquism, walking, , , water boiled by coldness, water boiled in paper bag, water, illuminated, water polo, water upside down, weather, the, and spiders, weston's walk, whirling mac, a, white mice, window box, wine glass, the magic, wood carving, woodman, the working, writing pad, writing, secret, writing, the magic, writing, the, on the wall, yachts, , zebra finches, printed by the london and norwich press, limited london and norwich transcriber's notes: the symbol [| ] represents a reversed numeral three. missing punctuation has been added in several places. the symbol [a | b] represents an a printed vertically above a b. the oe ligature is rendered as [oe]. italics are rendered between underscores, e.g. _italics_. bold text is rendered between dollar signs, e.g. $bold$. small caps are rendered with all caps. the following table lists other changes made by the transcriber. +---------------------------+ | transcriber's changes | +-----+----------+----------+ |page |as printed|changed to| +-----+----------+----------+ | | throught | thought | | |shufflling|shuffling | | | | v | +-----+----------+----------+ [transcriber's note the "list of illustrations" was added. many of the figures were not in sequential order within the original publication and are transcribed as printed. emphasis notation for italic is _text_ and bold is =text=. whole and fractional parts of numbers is displayed as - / .] home-made toys for girls and boys books by a. neely hall _ vo. cloth. illustrated with hundreds of full-page and working drawings by the author and norman p. hall_ =the boy craftsman= { price _net_ $ . { postpaid . =handicraft for handy boys= { price _net_ $ . { postpaid . =the handy boy= { price _net_ $ . { postpaid . lothrop, lee & shepard co., boston [illustration: figs. and . an auto delivery-wagon built of cigar-boxes. (see page .)] home-made toys for girls and boys wooden and cardboard toys, mechanical and electrical toys _by_ a. neely hall _author of_ "_the boy craftsman_", "_handicraft for handy boys_", "_the handy boy_" _etc._ with over three hundred illustrations and working-drawings by the author and norman p. hall boston lothrop, lee & shepard co. copyright, , by lothrop, lee & shepard company published, august, _all rights reserved_ home-made toys for girls and boys norwood press j. s. cushing co.--berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. _constructive ideas expel destructive ideas from the juvenile mind._ introductory notes through the author's handicraft volumes, and magazine and newspaper articles, thousands of boys and girls who never realized they could make their own toys, have succeeded in constructing models which would do credit to santa claus' master toy-makers. the success of this new home industry has suggested the need of a volume devoted entirely to toy-making, and in home-made toys for girls and boys the author has brought together a large number of the toy ideas from his former handicraft volumes, and from his articles published in the _ladies' home journal_, _woman's home companion_, _good housekeeping_, the _boys' magazine_, and other publications, and he believes that as collected and arranged the material will be found a veritable gold-mine of toy-making information. go to any toy store and price the toys similar to those described within these covers, then estimate if you can how much the other toys you do not find would cost if manufactured, and you will discover that one hundred dollars would not cover their value. one splendid thing about these home-made toys is that the greater part of them require little more than the pick-up material found at home. few boys and girls are given a one hundred dollar assortment of toys at a time, yet any one can own a collection of this value who is willing to spend the time necessary to follow the instructions given in this book. probably, though, some of the toys will be wanted now, and the others one, two or three seasons hence, because, you see, the book is an all-the-year-round handy book with suggestions for every season. some of the toys will be of especial interest to boys, yet girls who like what boys like will enjoy making them also. home-made toys are generally longer lived than store toys because the boy or girl who expends a certain amount of effort producing gives them better care. home-made toys have a greater value than boughten ones because there is as much fun making them as playing with them. doing something interesting, getting satisfying results out of the work, putting an idea into tangible form, and having a toy to show of which it can be said, "i made this all myself,"--these are the factors in toy-making so fascinating to boys and girls. it is no less a child's nature to want to do that which is most pleasing to him, than an adult's, so why not encourage this wholesome activity of toy-making to which the child takes as readily as a duck takes to water? it trains the mind to think clearly, the hands to work cleverly, replaces destructive thoughts with constructive ideas, and, in making the boy or girl dependent upon himself or herself for toys, is invaluable in developing resourcefulness. recognizing how easily the child's interest is attracted and held by anything of a building nature, toy manufacturers have placed scores of so-called "construction sets" upon the market, but, though excellent as these outfits are, the toys they form are merely assembled, not really made by the boy or girl, and much of the value of making is lost. exactly as good models as those assembled with "construction sets" can be made of pick-up materials, as chapters in this book show. in fact, some of the models in the manufacturers' instruction pamphlets--merry-go-rounds, ferris wheels and swings--are almost identical with home-made models devised long ago by the author for his readers. furthermore, there are many, very many toys in home-made toys for girls and boys which are beyond the limited possibilities of "construction sets." a. n. h. oak park, illinois, may , . [illustration] contents chapter i page home-made windmills the paper pinwheel--the pinion-wheel windmill--to mount the pinion-wheel--the four-blade windmill--to mount the windmill--the eight-blade windmill--the hub--the eight blades--the shaft--the tail--to pivot the windmill--to operate a toy jumping-jack. chapter ii home-made kites how to make a malay--the sticks--framing the sticks--covering the framework--attaching the bridle--flying-line--the box-kite--the kite sticks--the side frames--covering for the end cells--assembling the kite--attaching the bridle--a good hand kite-reel--a body kite-reel. chapter iii a home-made model aeroplane accuracy in model construction--the most successful type of model--the fuselage--the thrust bearings--the bow hooks--the main plane--the elevator--the fin--the propellers--how to prepare the propellers--the propeller blank--the propeller-shafts--the motors--the home-made motor-winder--how the egg-beater winds the motors--care in winding the motors--position to take for launching a model. chapter iv a home-made toy motor-boat how operated--the hull bottom--the sides--the deck--the propeller--the propeller-shaft--the bearing plate--the thrust bearing--the rubber-band motor--to wind the motor--how to elaborate upon the design and construction. chapter v home-made toy water-motors a varnish-can water-motor--the case--the water-motor wheel--the eight paddles--the wheel shaft--an outlet--a pulley-belt--pulley-wheels--connecting up the water-motor--another water-motor--the water-motor wheel--the wheel supports--to mount the wheel--the pulley wheel--the water-motor case. chapter vi a home-made toy railway the trolley-line--supports for trolley-line--power for operating--railway--tracks--the cars--a gondola car--a street car--other cars--operation of the railway--a station. chapter vii home-made toy elevators a toy elevator that appears magical in its operation--adapting elevator to toy office building--floors--partitions--the elevator car--the elevator guides--the cables--the counter-balance--the smoke-stack--the overhead pulleys--how the car operates--ballast--to make the car rise--a simple control--two levers--an outdoor elevator--the guide supports--the car--the guides--the counter-balance--the lifting cable--the lowering cable. chapter viii home-made mechanical toys the simple construction of small mechanical toys--a buzz-saw whirligig--operating the whirligig--the clog-dancer--a toy jumping-jack--a cricket-rattle--the turtle toy--to make the turtle crawl. chapter ix home-made tops top spinning on the south sea islands--clock wheel tops--a rug-tack top--a spool top--a spinning top race-track--a shoe-polish can top--a spiral top--a merry-go-round top--how the top spins--horses and riders--a flag. x/ /x chapter x home-made clockwork toys the necessary materials--how to prepare the clockwork--the merry-go-round--the standard--the tent--the tent-poles--the horses--the sleighs--the shafts--the girl riders--the boy riders--the platform--how to operate the merry-go-round--other animals--a miniature ferris wheel--the standard--the clockwork motor--the station platform--the wheel--rims--hubs--spokes--assembling the wheel--the cars--axles--how to mount the wheel--the platform steps--the "flying airships"--the standard--the mast--the cars--increasing the speed of the clockwork--an electric motor--an automobile--the frame--the belt--testing the machine--the cardboard sides--the wheels--the mud-guards--the lamps--the steering-wheel--the horn--the brake--the chauffeur--painting the machine--an automobile delivery wagon--the cardboard sides--the wheels--other portions--painting the wagon--a clockwork railway. chapter xi home-made electrical toys an electro-magnet derrick--the electro-magnet--a home-made switch--the derrick--the windlass--the hoisting cables--how the derrick works--a toy shocking machine--the induction-coil--the primary-coil--the secondary-coil--the handles--an interrupter--how the interrupter works--a toy electric motor truck--the wheels--the upper shaft--the belts--the battery--the bi-chromate battery fluid--amalgamating a zinc pencil--the seat and canopy-top--the seat-arms--the steering-wheel--the levers. chapter xii a home-made toy shooting gallery the framework--the circular target--the animal targets--the card-shooting pistol--how to number the targets--how to shoot at the targets. chapter xiii a home-made doll-house the building material--the floor plans--the partitions--the elevator-shaft--the side walls--the rear wall--the front wall--the windows--the roof--the chimney--an elevator--the car--the guide-wires--the pulleys--the chain cable--the counter-balance--the gable-ends--spring-catches--the stairway--stringers--treads and risers--newel-posts--hand-rails--balusters--the front steps--the window openings--the window glass--the front and rear doors--the outside trimmings--the interior woodwork--setting the nail-heads--painting. chapter xiv furnishing the home-made doll-house the walls and ceiling--hardwood floors--carpets--rugs--window-shades--lace curtains--portières--pictures--a cosey-corner--buying furnishings--making furniture. chapter xv a home-made toy stable dimensions of stable--the first story--the roof--the gable-end--the stall partitions--the feed-troughs--windows--ladder to hay-loft--feed-hoist--the drop-front--a stable door--painting--if you prefer a garage. chapter xvi a home-made doll apartment building a new idea in doll-houses--how the three units are arranged to form a three-story building or six-room apartment--building material--the room dimensions--the first story unit--the second story unit--the third story unit--the door and window openings--the bay windows--the joints between the units--the roof construction--the chimney--the windows--the front door--the inside doorways--the interior trim--a fireplace--lighting fixtures--decorating--painting the outside walls. chapter xvii home-made doll furniture metal furniture--miniature mission furniture--material--drawing the patterns and enlarging by squares--the chairs--the settee--tables--a dining-room table--a side-board--a mirror--the grandfather's clock--kitchen furniture--the beds--the dresser--a wash-stand--finishing. other cigar-box furniture a folding-bed--a dresser--a wardrobe. chapter xviii home-made cigar-box toys material--cutting--an express-wagon--a cart--an auto delivery-wagon--a jack-in-the-box--a round-seated chair--a round center-table--a dining-table--a square-seated chair--a doll's cradle--finishing the cigar-box wood. chapter xix home-made spool and cardboard toys material--a baby carriage--a two-wheel cart--a toy merry-go-round--a teeter-board--a doll swing--a sofa--a chair--a square center-table--a round center-table. chapter xx a home-made toy mail-box playing postman--material for mail-box--the sides, ends, and bottom of box--the top--the letter-drop--the collection-drop--reinforcing the corners--covering the box--a collection schedule card--how to hang up the mail-box--a mail-bag--the way to play post-office. chapter xxi a home-made reflectoscope the working principle of the reflectoscope--material for making one--the lens opening--ventilator holes--the interior arrangement--a hood for the ventilators--if oil lamps are used--if electric light is used--how to mount the lens--puttying cracks--painting the inside of the box--the back boards--the picture holder--how the lens reverses pictures--adjustments. index list of half-tone illustrations (in addition to text illustrations) figs. and . an auto delivery-wagon built of cigar boxes (page ) _frontispiece_ facing page fig. . launching the toy motor-boat fig. . the buzz-saw whizzes when you twist the cord } fig. . the eccentric clog-dancer is a circus in himself } fig. . pull the string and jack jumps comically } fig. . whirling the cricket-rattle makes it chirp } fig. . the crawling turtle's shell is a jelly-mould } fig. . a merry-go-round } fig. . a clockwork motor } fig. . a ferris wheel } fig. . a flying airship } fig. . the car completed } fig. . the framework } fig. . the home-made doll-house } fig. . interior view of doll-house } fig. . the most stylish apartments in doll town } fig. . how the three stories are arranged side by } side to form a six-room apartment } fig. . an express-wagon } fig. . a cart. } fig. . a jack-in-the-box } fig. . the skeleton of the jack-in-the-box } fig. . a round-seated chair } fig. . a round center-table } - fig. . a dining-table } fig. . a square-seated chair } fig. . a doll's cradle } fig. . the home-made mail-box strapped to the face of a door } fig. . the home-made mail-box strapped to a chair-back } list of illustrations page fig. . the paper pinwheel is the simplest pinwheel to make. fig. . diagram for paper pinwheel. fig. . how the paper pinwheel is folded. fig. . a pinion-wheel windmill. fig. . diagram for pinion-wheel windmill. fig. . a four-blade windmill. fig. . hub. fig. . how to slot end of shaft for tail fig. . an eight-blade windmill. fig. . spool hub. fig. . blades. fig. . shaft. fig. . tail. fig. . how the windmill may be rigged up to operate a toy jumping-jack. fig. . how the jumping-jack is supported. fig. . spool hub. fig. . a malay tailless kite. fig. . completed malay kite with belly-band attached. fig. . framework of malay kite. fig. . detail of vertical stick. fig. . detail of bow-stick. fig. . detail of end of bow-stick. fig. . raising the box-kite. fig. . the box-kite. fig. . make two side frames like this. fig. . cross-section of the box-kite. fig. . detail of diagonal braces. fig. . a good hand kite-reel. figs. and . details of hand kite-reel. fig. . a body kite-reel. fig. . detail of axle support. fig. . detail of crank. fig. . launching a model aeroplane. fig. . plan. fig. . side elevation (without rubber motor). fig. . detail of fuselage and motor of the wells model. fig. . detail of thrust bearing, propeller-shaft, and connections. fig. . detail of bow hook and how rubber motor is connected to it. fig. . detail of the main plane framework of the wells model. fig. . detail of the elevator framework. fig. . detail of fin. fig. . the wells model propeller. fig. . how to prepare a -inch propeller. fig. . a home-made motor winder. fig. . the kind of egg-beater to use. fig. . how the motors are connected to winder for winding. fig. . launching the toy motor-boat. fig. . the completed motor-boat. fig. . stern, with motor in place. fig. . diagram of hull. figs. and . how the hull, sides, stern and deck pieces are assembled fig. . longitudinal section of assembled motor-boat. figs. - . details of propeller. fig. . rubber-band motor fig. . a varnish-can water-motor in operation. fig. . the completed varnish-can water-motor. figs. and . sections through water-motor case. fig. . the completed water-motor wheel. figs. and . details of water-motor wheel. figs. - . how to make a water-tight connection between faucet and water-motor. fig. . a small water-motor that can be operated in a wash-basin. fig. . the water-motor wheel. figs. and . details of water-motor wheel. fig. . support for water-motor wheel. fig. . upright. fig. . the toy railway in operation. fig. . support for trolley-line. fig. . the tracks. fig. . a top view of car truck. fig. . spool wheels. fig. . the completed car truck. fig. . fig. . a gondola car. fig. . side view. fig. . end view. figs. - . details of toy street car. fig. . the railway depot. fig. . a toy office building with elevator. fig. . section through elevator shaft. fig. . floors. fig. . partitions. fig. . front view of elevator shaft. figs. . and . elevator car details. fig. . detail of brake and controlling levers. fig. . an outdoor elevator. fig. . supports for elevator guides and cables. fig. . elevator car. fig. . counter-balance. fig. . the buzz-saw whizzes when you twist the cord. fig. . the eccentric clog-dancer is a circus in himself. fig. . pull the string and jack jumps comically. fig. . detail of buzz-saw whirligig shown in fig. . fig. . details of body of the clog-dancer shown in fig. . fig. . details of body of the jumping-jack shown in fig. . fig. . whirling the cricket-rattle makes it chirp. fig. . the crawling turtle's shell is a jelly mould. fig. . details of the noisy cricket-rattle shown fig. . fig. . how head, feet, and tail are attached to a jelly mould to make the turtle shown in fig. . fig. . the spool wheels and the rubber-bands which propel them. figs. and . clock wheel tops. fig. . upholstering tack top. fig. . how to hold upholstering tack for spinning. figs. and . details of spool top. fig. . a shoe-polish can top. figs. - . details of shoe-polish can top. fig. . a spinning top race-track. fig. . a spiral top. fig. . diagram of spiral for spiral top. fig. . a merry-go-round top. fig. . detail of merry-go-round top. fig. . how horses are mounted upon top platform. fig. . a merry-go-round. fig. . a clockwork motor. fig. . a ferris wheel. fig. . the "flying airships." fig. . how the clockwork motor is fastened to the cigar-box cover. (this box has been cut down to the proper length for the ferris wheel.) fig. . plan of top of standard for merry-go-round. fig. . pattern for tent of merry-go-round. fig. . the tent ready to be fastened upon a tent-pole. fig. . full-size pattern for the horses of the merry-go-round. fig. . pattern for the merry-go-round sleighs. fig. . a completed sleigh showing attachment to shaft. fig. . full-size pattern for the girl riders. fig. . full-size pattern for the boy riders. fig. . how the second leg of the boy is attached. fig. . standard for the ferris wheel. fig. . make two supports like this for the ferris wheel standard. figs. and . how a spool is fastened to the top of the support for a hub. fig. . how to lay out the cardboard rims of the ferris wheel. fig. . the spokes fitted into the spool hub. fig. . the rim slipped into the end of the spokes. fig. . a spool hub for the wheel. fig. . how the spokes, rims, and axles are fastened together. fig. . pattern for the ferris wheel cars. fig. . a completed car for the ferris wheel. fig. . the car completed. fig. . the framework. fig. . top view of wooden frame. figs. - . patterns for the automobile touring-car. fig. . chauffeur. fig. . cardboard side of automobile. fig. . the hood. fig. . the steering-wheel. fig. . an automobile delivery wagon. fig. . an electro-magnet derrick. figs. - . the electro-magnet. fig. . how the electro-magnet is connected up. fig. . a home-made switch. fig. . details of switch. fig. . detail of mast. fig. . detail of pulley. fig. . detail of boom. fig. . detail of derrick windlass. fig. . detail of the toy shocking machine. figs. - . details of induction-coil. figs. and . details of shocking-coil handles. fig. . interrupter for shocking-coil. figs. - . details of interrupter. fig. . a toy electric motor truck. fig. . top view of electric motor truck. figs. - . details of axle and belt shaft. fig. . two home-made battery cells connected in series. fig. . a single cell. figs. and . details of zinc and carbon. fig. . plan of motor truck bottom. fig. . section through bottom. fig. . details of seat and canopy-top. fig. . pattern of canopy-top. fig. . the completed toy shooting gallery. fig. . the box framework. figs. - . details of targets. fig. . the card-shooting pistol. figs. - . detail of card-shooting pistol. fig. . the home-made doll-house. fig. . interior view of doll-house. figs. - . plans of doll-house and patterns for partitions. fig. . the chimney. fig. . front view of elevator-shaft and stairs. figs. - . details of the elevator. fig. . the front gable-end. figs. - . details of stairs. fig. . exterior of stable. fig. . interior of stable. fig. . front gable-end. fig. . stall partitions. fig. . ladder to hay-loft. fig. . the most stylish apartments in doll town. fig. . how the three stories are arranged side by side to form a six-room apartment. fig. . plan of the six-room doll apartment. fig. . the first story unit and diagram of partitions. fig. . the second story unit and diagram of partitions. fig. . the third story unit and diagram of partitions. fig. . in cutting the opening for the bay windows, leave a narrow strip over the opening, as above, for a "beam." figs. and . how the removable roof is constructed. fig. . how the chimney and chimney cap are made. fig. . the living-room mantel. fig. . details of mantel. figs. - . two lighting fixtures and how to make them. figs. - . patterns for furniture. fig. . chairs. fig. . chairs. fig. . a settee. fig. . a table. fig. . another design. fig. . a side-board. fig. . a mirror. fig. . a grandfather's clock. fig. . a bed. fig. . another design. fig. . a dresser. fig. . a wash-stand. fig. . a doll's folding-bed. fig. . folding-bed (open). fig. . foot. fig. . dresser completed. fig. . a doll's dresser. fig. . cross-section of the express-wagon. fig. . an express-wagon. fig. . a cart. fig. . cross-section of the express-wagon. figs. and . an auto delivery-wagon built of cigar-boxes. frontispiece fig. . a jack-in-the-box. fig. . the skeleton of the jack-in-the-box. fig. . a round-seated chair. fig. . a round center-table. fig. . a dining-table. fig. . a square-seated chair. fig. . a doll's cradle. fig. . pedestal of center-table. fig. . leg of dining-table. fig. . pattern for cradle rockers. fig. . doll carriage. figs. - . details of doll carriage. fig. . baby carriage hood. fig. . diagram of hood. fig. . carriage handles. fig. . the two-wheel cart. fig. - . details of cart. fig. . merry-go-round. fig. . teeter. fig. . cardboard strip for merry-go-round and teeter. fig. . boy and girl riders for merry-go-round and teeter. fig. . doll swing. fig. . detail of swing. figs. and . details of swing seat. fig. . sofa. figs. - . details of sofa. fig. . chair. fig. . square center-table. fig. . round center-table. fig. . the home-made mail-box strapped to the face of a door. fig. . the home-made mail-box strapped to a chair backk. fig. . diagram for making sides, ends, and bottom of mail-box. fig. . diagram for making top. fig. . diagram for making end pieces of letter-drop. fig. . diagram for making front piece of letter-drop. fig. . the sides, ends, and bottom folded ready to be put together. fig. . top, showing how portion is bent up for back of letter-drop. fig. . ends of letter-drop. fig. . front of letter-drop. fig. . top, with letter-drop completed. fig. . diagram for making collection-drop. fig. . how the collection-drop is folded. fig. . the collection-drop hinged in place. fig. . the complete reflectoscope. fig. . detail of ventilator top. fig. . plan of reflectoscope. fig. . cross-section of reflectoscope figs. and . details of lens mounting fig. . view of back of reflectoscope fig. . detail of post card holder. home-made toys for girls and boys home-made toys [illustration] for girls and boys [illustration] chapter i home-made windmills no mechanical toy is more interesting to make, nor more interesting to watch in operation, than a miniature windmill. it is a very simple toy to construct, and the material for making one can usually be found at hand, which are two reasons why nearly every boy and girl at one time or another builds one. =the paper pinwheel= shown in fig. is one of the best whirlers ever devised. a slight forward thrust of the stick handle upon which it is mounted starts it in motion, and when you run with the stick extended in front of you it whirls at a merry speed. [illustration: fig. .--the paper pinwheel is the simplest pinwheel to make.] a piece of paper or inches square is needed for the pinwheel. fold this piece of paper diagonally from corner to corner, both ways. then open the paper, and with a pair of scissors cut along the diagonal creases, from the corners to within / inch of the center (fig. ). next, fold corners _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ over to the center, as shown in fig. , run a pin through the corners and through the center of the sheet of paper, drive the point of this pin into the end of the stick handle, and the pinwheel will be completed. [illustration: fig. .--diagram for paper pinwheel.] [illustration: fig. .--how the paper pinwheel is folded.] =the pinion-wheel windmill= in fig. may be made of cardboard or tin. a circular piece or inches in diameter is required. after marking out the outer edge with a compass, describe an inner circle about inch inside of it; then draw two lines through the center at right angles to each other, and another pair at an angle of degrees to these. these lines are shown by the heavy radial lines in fig. . one-half inch from each of these lines draw a parallel line, as indicated by dotted lines in fig. . the next thing to do is to cut out the disk, and cut along the heavy lines just as far as the lines are shown in the diagram (fig. ), and then to bend up the blades thus separated, to an angle of about degrees, bending on the second set of radial lines (dotted lines in fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a pinion-wheel windmill.] you had better make a cardboard pinion-wheel first, then a tin one afterwards, as cardboard is so much easier to cut. a pair of heavy shears will be necessary for cutting a tin wheel, and a cold chisel for separating the edges of the blades. [illustration: fig. .--diagram for pinion-wheel windmill.] =to mount the pinion-wheel= drive a long nail through the center, through the hole in a spool, and into the end of a stick. then nail the stick to a post or a fence top. =the four-blade windmill= shown in fig. has a hub inches in diameter and inch thick (fig. ). this should be cut out of hard wood. draw two lines across one face, through the center, and at right angles to each other. then carry these lines across the edge of the block, not at right angles to the sides, but at an angle of degrees. saw along these lines to a depth of - / inches. the ends of the windmill blades are to fit in these slots. cut the blades of equal size, inches long, inches wide on the wide edge, and - / inches wide on the narrow edge, and fasten them in the slots with nails. [illustration: fig. .--a four-blade windmill.] [illustration: fig. .--hub.] [illustration: fig. .--how to slot end of shaft for tail.] with the blades in position, pivot the hub to the end of the windmill shaft, a stick inches long (fig. ). the end opposite to that to which the hub is pivoted is whittled round, and slotted with a saw to receive a tail (fig. ). the tail may be of the same size as the blades, though it is shown shorter in the illustration. =mount the windmill= upon a post, pivoting its shaft at the balancing center with a nail or screw. bore a hole large enough so the shaft will turn freely upon the pivot, and the windmill will thus keep headed into the wind. =the eight-blade windmill= in fig. has a spool hub (fig. ), and blades made of cigar-box wood, shingles, tin, or cardboard (fig. ). you will see by figs. and that the blades are nailed to the side of short spoke sticks, and the sticks are driven into holes bored in the spool hub. the hub turns on the rounded end of the shaft stick (fig. ), and the square end of this shaft is slotted to receive the fan-shaped tail (figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .--an eight-blade windmill.] =for the hub= use a large ribbon-spool. you can get one at any drygoods store. locate eight holes around the center of the spool at equal distances from one another, and bore these with a gimlet or bit, or cut them with the small blade of your jack-knife. =cut the eight blades= inches long, inches wide on their wide edge, and - / inches wide on their narrow edge. prepare the hub sticks about / inch by / inch by - / inches in size, and whittle one end pointed to fit in the hub (fig. ). fasten the blades to the spokes with nails long enough to drive through the spokes and clinch on the under side. glue the spokes in the hub holes, turning them so the blades will stand at about the angle shown. [illustration: fig. .--spool hub.] [illustration: fig. .--blades.] [illustration: fig. .--shaft.] [illustration: fig. .--tail.] =the shaft= should be made of a hard wood stick about / inch by - / inches by inches in size. cut the round end small enough so the hub will turn freely on it, and punch a small hole through it so a brad may be driven through to hold the hub in place. cut the slot in the square end with a saw. =cut the tail= of the shape shown in fig. . =pivot the windmill= upon the top of a post support, in the same manner as directed for the other windmills. figure shows how the toy windmill may be rigged up [illustration: fig. .--how the windmill may be rigged up to operate a toy jumping-jack.] =to operate a toy jumping-jack=, by supporting the jumping-jack on a bracket, and connecting its string to the hub of the windmill. you can make your jumping-jack like the one in fig. , the details of which are shown in fig. . cut the upright of the bracket (_a_, figs. and ) inches long, and the crosspiece (_b_) inches long. nail _a_ to _b_, and nail the jumping-jack at its center to the end of _b_ (fig. ). fasten the triangular block (_c_) to the lower end of _a_, and then nail both _a_ and _c_ to the edge of the shaft at a point that will bring the string of the jumping-jack a trifle beyond the windmill blades. fasten a small stick with a brad driven in one end, in notches cut in the hub's flanges (fig. ), and connect the brad and jack's string with a piece of wire or strong string. then as the windmill revolves it will operate the toy in the manner indicated in figs. and . [illustration: fig. .--how the jumping-jack is supported.] [illustration: fig. .--spool hub.] chapter ii home-made kites the malay tailless kite is probably the most practical kind ever invented. it will fly in a wind that the tail variety could not withstand, and it will fly in a breeze too light to carry up most other forms of kites. it is also a strong pulling kite, and can be used for sending aloft lanterns and flags. for the purpose of lifting, the pulling strength can be doubled by flying two malays in tandem. [illustration: fig. .--a malay tailless kite.] =how to make a malay.= figure shows a malay kite in flight, fig. a detail of the completed kite, fig. the completed framework, and figs. , , and the details for preparing the frame sticks. =the sticks.= this kite has a vertical stick and a bow-stick, each of which should be inches long, about / inch wide, and / inch thick, for a kite of medium size. in the cutting of the sticks lies half the secret of making a kite that will fly successfully. drive a small nail or large tack into each end of the two sticks, to fasten the framing-string to (figs. and ), and notch the side edges of the bow-stick near each end for the attachment of the bow-string (figs. and ). the amount to bend the bow-stick is important. for a kite with a bow inches long the distance between the string and stick should be inches (fig. ). use a strong twine for the bow-string, and tie it securely to the notched ends. [illustration: fig. .--completed malay kite with belly-band attached.] =framing the sticks.= fasten the bow-stick at its exact center to the vertical stick, placing it inches down from the top of the vertical stick, as indicated in fig. . drive a couple of brads through the two sticks to hold them together, and then reinforce the connection by wrapping the joint with strong linen thread, crossing the thread in the manner shown. when the two sticks have been joined, connect their ends with the framing-string. stretch this string from stick to stick, and tie securely to the end nails. instead of the end nails, the sticks may be notched to receive the framing-string, but the nails are more satisfactory because the string can be tied fast to them and will not slip. =covering the framework.= the strong light-weight brown wrapping-paper now so generally used makes an excellent covering for the framework. a few sheets can be purchased at a near-by store for the purpose. you will likely have to paste together two or more sheets to make one large enough. the paper should be placed on the outer face of the bow-stick, and should be allowed a little fullness instead of being stretched tight as on hexagonal tail kites. lap the edges of the paper over the framing-string in the ordinary way of covering a kite. [illustration: fig. .--framework of malay kite.] =attach the bridle= at the intersection of the bow-stick and vertical stick, and at the lower end of the vertical stick (fig. ), and make it of the right length so when held over to one side it will reach to the end of the bow, as indicated in fig. . tie the flying line securely at the point _a_ (fig. ); then the kite will be ready for its maiden flight. =flying-line.= the kind of cord which a mason uses for his plumb-lines is splendid for flying the malay kite. if you cannot get some balls of this, be certain that what you do get can be relied upon, because it is provoking to lose a kite which you have taken a great deal of pains in making, through the breaking of the flying line. [illustration: fig. .--detail of vertical stick.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of bow-stick.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of end of bow-stick.] =the box-kite.= of the more pretentious kites, none is as popular as the rectangular box-kite. box-kites may be purchased ready-made in a number of sizes, but they are not cheap, and it will pay any boy to take the time necessary to make one. while their construction requires considerable more work than the single-plane type of kite, it is not difficult. figures and show a kite of scientifically developed proportions. pine, spruce, and whitewood are the best materials for =the kite sticks=, though any strong, light-weight wood of straight grain may be used if easier to obtain. if you live near a lumber yard or planing-mill, possibly you can get strips of just the size you require from the waste heap, for the mere asking, or for a few cents get them ripped out of a board. if not, you will find it easy enough to cut them yourself with a sharp rip-saw. [illustration: fig. .--raising the box-kite.] =the side frames.= cut the four horizontal sticks / inch thick and / inch wide, by inches long (_a_, fig. ), and the four upright connecting sticks (_b_, fig. ) / inch thick, / inch wide, and inches long. tack the upright sticks to the horizontal ones inches from the ends of the latter, as shown in fig. , using slender brads for the purpose, and clinching the projecting ends. in fastening these sticks, be careful to set sticks _b_ at right angles to sticks _a_. [illustration: fig. .--the box-kite.] after fastening together the side-frame sticks as shown in fig. , lay them aside until you have prepared the cross-section of the kite. [illustration: fig. .--make two side frames like this.] =the covering for the end cells.= a light-weight muslin or tough paper should be used for this material. cheese-cloth will do if you give it a coat of thin varnish to fill up the pores and make it air-tight, after it has been put on. the light-weight brown wrapping-paper now so commonly used is good covering material. the cell bands for the kite illustrated should be inches wide and feet inches long. if of cloth, they should be hemmed along each edge to prevent raveling and to make a firm edge. if of paper, the edges should be folded over a light framing-cord and pasted. sew together the ends of the cloth bands, or paste the ends of the paper bands, lapping them so the measurement around the inside will be exactly feet inches, the proper measurement around the sticks of the finished kite. [illustration: fig. .--cross-section of the box-kite.] =assembling the kite.= slip the bands over the side frames, spread the frames to their fullest extent, and hold them in this position by means of sticks sprung in temporarily between upright sticks _b_. then measure the proper length for the diagonal braces _c_ (fig. ). these sticks should be notched at their ends to fit over the sticks _a_, as shown in fig. , and they should be a trifle long so they will be slightly bow-shaped when put in place. in this way the frames will keep the cloth or paper bands stretched tight. the notched ends of the diagonals should be _lashed_ with thread to keep them from splitting. lashings of thread around the frame sticks _a_, as shown in figs. and , will keep the ends of the braces from slipping away from the uprights _b_, which is the proper position for them. bind the braces together at their centers with thread, as shown in figs. and . coat the lashings with glue after winding them, and the thread will hold its position better. the cloth or paper bands should be fastened to each horizontal frame stick with two tacks placed near the edges of the bands. [illustration: fig. .--detail of diagonal braces.] there are several methods of =attaching the bridle=, but that shown in fig. is generally considered the most satisfactory. of course, the kite is flown other side up, with the bridle underneath. the three-point attachment has cords fastened at the two outer corners of one cell, and a third cord to the center of the outer edge of the other cell; and the four-point attachment has cords attached at the four outer corners of the kite. the ends of the bridle should be brought together and tied at a distance of about feet from the kite. it is a good plan to connect the ends to a fancy-work ring. [illustration: fig. .--a good hand kite-reel.] =a good hand kite-reel= that can be held in one hand and operated by the other is shown in fig. . get a / -lb. size baking-powder can for the winding-spool, locate the center of the cover and bottom end, and with a can-opener cut a hole inch in diameter through each (fig. ). then cut two wooden disks inches in diameter for the spool flanges. these may be cut out of thin wood. if you do not wish to take the trouble to cut them round, just saw off the four corners diagonally, making the pieces octagonal. bore a -inch hole through the center of each piece. tack the can cover to the exact center of one disk, as shown in fig. , and the can to the exact center of the other. then fit the cover on the can, and glue a strip of cloth or heavy paper around the joint to keep the cover from working off, and the spool will be completed. [illustration: figs. and .--details of hand kite-reel.] the axle upon which the spool turns is a piece of broom-handle inches or so in length (fig. ). bore two holes through it in the positions shown, for pins to keep the spool in its proper place. wooden pegs can be cut for pins. for a winding handle, pivot a spool on the right-hand disk by means of a nail or screw. the inner flange of the spool handle may be cut off as shown in fig. . both hands are frequently needed to haul in string quickly enough to bring a kite around into the wind, or to handle it when it pulls very strong, and then there is nothing to do but drop the hand reel upon the ground, unless you have an assistant to give it to. this is where the advantage of [illustration: fig. .--a body kite-reel.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of axle support.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of crank.] =a body kite-reel= comes in. with it strapped about the waist, it will go wherever you go, and always be within easy reach. figure shows one simple to make. the spool of this is made similar to that of the hand reel shown in fig. . if, however, you wish a larger winding-spool, you can use a larger can than the baking-powder can--a tomato can or syrup can--and increase the diameter of the wooden flanges accordingly. instead of the spool turning upon the broom-handle axle, the axle turns with the spool, so the spool must be fastened to the axle. the axle supports _a_ (figs. and ) should be about inches long, inches wide at the wide end, and inches wide at the narrow end. cut the holes to receive the axle ends a trifle large so the axle will turn easily. cut the connecting crosspieces _b_ of the right length so there will be about / inch between the ends of the spool and supports _a_. cut the crank stick _c_ as shown in fig. , bore a hole for the axle end to fit in, bore another hole in the edge for a set-screw to hold the stick in place on the axle end, and pivot a spool in place for a handle. if the hole in the spool is too large for the head of the nail used for pivoting, slip a small iron or leather washer over the nail. an old belt or shawl-strap should be used for strapping the kite-reel to your body. fasten this to the ends of the axle supports _a_ by nailing the strips _d_ to them as shown in fig. . chapter iii a home-made model aeroplane model aeronautics has become nearly as popular as kite flying, and girls as well as boys have taken to building these unique air toys. the model aeroplane requires more work than ordinary kite construction. it also requires more patience and greater accuracy, because each part of the little aircraft must be made just so, assembled just so, and "tuned-up" just so, to produce a model which will give a good account of itself. of course your first model will probably not be perfect. but if you do your work correctly and carefully it will fly, and the experience you have acquired will make it possible to turn out a more nearly perfect second model. many types of model aeroplanes have been devised, but those of the simplest form of construction have made the best showing. the majority of record-breaking models have been of one type--a triangular framework, equipped with two planes, and a pair of propellers operated by a pair of rubber-strand motors. a most successful model of this type is shown in fig. , and described and illustrated on the following pages. this model has a distance record of feet made at the aero club of illinois' aviation field at cicero, chicago, where it flew feet beyond the fence of the acre field. the model weighs but - / ounces, has -inch propellers of inch pitch, and is in every essential a speed machine. [illustration: fig. .--launching a model aeroplane.] the first part of the model to make is the triangular =fuselage=, or _motor base_. this consists of two side sticks, _splines_, or _spars_ (_a_, fig. ) of straight-grained white pine cut to the dimensions marked upon the drawing, with their bow ends beveled off for a distance of - / inches, glued together, and bound with thread. the stern ends have a spread of inches, and are braced at that distance by the _separator b_ (fig. ). this separator is fastened flatwise between sticks _a_, and its edges are reduced as shown in the small section drawing of fig. so they will offer less resistance to the air. this piece is fastened between sticks _a_ with brads. separators _c_, _d_, and _e_ are of the sizes marked in fig. , and of the proper length to fit between side sticks a at the places indicated on the drawing. they are cut oval-shaped, as shown in the small section drawing in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--plan. fig. .--side elevation (without rubber motor). figs. and .--working-drawings of model aeroplane designed and built by harry wells. this model has a record of feet made at the aero club of illinois' aviation field at cicero, chicago.] before fastening the separators in position, =the thrust bearings= for the propellers, and the _end plates_ for connecting the wire _stays_, must be prepared. figure shows a dimensioned detail of the thrust bearings, and fig. shows how they are bound to the ends of sticks _a_ with thread. these are cut out of brass, bent into the shape shown, and have a hole pierced through the folded tip for the propeller-shaft to run through, another through one end for the brad to pass through that pins stick _a_ to _b_, and another through the other end to fasten the end of the wire stays to. the small detail in fig. shows the end plates for the wire stays. these are made no longer than is necessary for the connecting holes for the wire-stay ends. pierce a hole through the center of each plate for the brad to pass through which fastens sticks _a_ to the ends of the separators. the plates are bound to sticks _a_ with thread. [illustration: fig. .--detail of fuselage and motor of the wells model.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of thrust bearing, propeller-shaft, and connections.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of bow hook and how rubber motor is connected to it.] =the bow hooks= support the bow ends of the rubber motor, and are made upon the ends of a piece of heavy piano-wire bent v-shaped to fit over the ends of sticks _a_ (fig. ). bind the wire to the sticks with thread, coating the thread with glue to make it hold fast (fig. ). =the main plane= has a framework built as shown in fig. , with the front or _entering-edge_, and the rear or _following_-_edge_, made of sticks of white pine or other light-weight wood, and the _ribs_ and _tips_ on the ends made of no. gauge aluminum wire. the ends of the frame sticks are cut away on their outer edge, to receive the ends of the wire forming the tips, and the ends of these wires, and the laps of the wire ribs, are bound in position with thread, and the thread then coated with glue to hold it in position. =the elevator=, or front plane, has a framework made as shown in fig. . its entering-edge is a stick, and its following-edge, ribs, and end tips, are made of no. gauge aluminum wire. you will notice by fig. that the center ribs cross the following-edge of the frame and are bent up in the form of a flat loop. this loop rests against the under side of the fuselage, and gives the elevator its proper angle for stability (fig. ). the tips are bent up to add stability. the frames of the main plane and elevator are covered with china-silk, which may either be sewed or glued in place, and this is given a thin coat of shellac to make it air-tight and taut. the covering must be put on smoothly to reduce to a minimum what is known as _skin resistance_--the resistance that the plane makes to the air while passing through it. the main plane and elevator are held to the fuselage by means of rubber-bands slipped beneath them and over the fuselage, and unlike the planes of the majority of models, are fastened to the under side of the fuselage. figure shows the approximate position of the elevator. that of the main plane will vary under different air conditions, sometimes being placed over the separator _c_, and at other times closer to separator _b_ than is shown in fig. . therefore, you must adjust your plane and elevator--this operation is known as _tuning_--to suit the condition of the atmosphere, until you find the positions where they will give the machine the greatest stability. a great factor in the successful flight of a model aeroplane lies in properly tuning the planes, both laterally and longitudinally, and of course the planes must balance at their centers, in order to make the machine balance properly. [illustration: fig. .--detail of the main plane framework of the wells model.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of the elevator framework.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of fin.] =the fin= directly over the center of the elevator (figs. and ) is provided for stability, and may be used as a rudder by turning it slightly to one side or the other. it is made of no. gauge sheet aluminum, cut to the form shown in fig. . its vertical edge is bent around a piece of heavy wire, as shown in the plan detail of fig. , and the lower end of the wire is fastened upright between the bow ends of sticks _a_. [illustration: fig. .--the wells model propeller.] =the propellers= are the most difficult part of the model aeroplane to make. they must be very accurately cut, and must be of identical size and _pitch_. the pitch of a propeller is, theoretically, the distance forward that it advances in one complete revolution. figure shows one of the propellers of harry wells' machine, which is inches in length and has a -inch pitch. figure shows =how to prepare the propellers=. the pair must be opposites, that is, one must be of right-hand pitch and the other of left-hand pitch, or, in other words, the upper end of the right-hand pitch propeller turns to the right, and that of the left-hand pitch propeller turns to the left, when viewing them from the rear. [illustration: fig. .--how to prepare a -inch propeller.] step _a_ consists in properly planing up a straight-grained block of white pine - / inches thick, inches wide, and inches long, with its sides and ends straight and true, for =the propeller blank=. draw a line around the four faces of this block at the exact center of the length. then on faces _c_ and _d_, lay off a distance of / inch on the center-line, measuring from the edge of face =b=, for the thickness of the propeller-hub, and draw diagonal lines from the upper and lower left-hand corners of faces _c_ and _d_ to the end of the hub center-line (step _b_). then cut away the portions outside of these lines, as shown in step _c_. lay out the hub upon faces _a_ and _b_ of the block, with a / -inch diameter, and bore a small hole through the center to receive the propeller-shaft (step _c_). draw diagonals from the corners to the center-line of the hub (step _d_); then cut away the wood outside of these lines (step _e_). the next step (_f_) consists in laying out the form of the propeller blade upon all four sides and ends of the block, and step _g_ is the final one of cutting out the propeller, scooping out its blades concave on one side, and carving them convex on the opposite side. a very sharp knife must be used for cutting; and the work must be done slowly and carefully, because the least slip is likely to ruin the propeller. the _entering-edge_ of each blade is the almost straight edge, and should be cut very thin. the ends of the blades should also be cut thin, while the hub should be cut away as much as can safely be done without weakening the propeller. when you have completed cutting the propellers, place them at their centers across the edge of a knife-blade, and if they do not balance perfectly, locate the trouble and correct it. finish the work with fine emery-paper, and then shellac it. some boys glue silk over the ends of their propeller blades, for a distance of / inch or so, to reinforce them and make them less likely to split. =the propeller-shafts= are made of heavy piano-wire, bent into a hook at one end (fig. ) to receive the rubber strands of the motor, and cut of the right length to extend through the hole in the bearing, through a glass bead, through the propeller, and then to bend over the side of the hub (figs. and ). by bending over the end of the shaft against the hub, it is held securely in place. =the motors= consist of twelve strands of / -inch flat rubber, each, and as these are yard in length, exactly yards of rubber are required. the rubber is not connected direct to the hooks on the bow and propeller-shafts, as the wire would quickly cut through the strands. instead, small rings are bent out of wire, with pieces of small rubber-tubing slipped over the wire, and the ends of the rubber strands are looped through these rings and bound in place with thread (fig. ). the wire rings are then slipped on and off the hooks quickly. as light and heat cause rubber to deteriorate, you must remove the motors from the machine after use, pack away in a covered box, and keep in a cool place, in order to get the longest life possible out of the rubber. it has been found that rubber motors can be wound much farther by lubricating them with glycerine. it is only necessary to put a few drops of the glycerine upon a clean cloth, and rub it over the outside strands; then wind the motors, and it will work over the surface of the inner strands until all parts are covered. [illustration: fig. .--a home-made motor winder.] [illustration: fig. .--the kind of egg-beater to use.] [illustration: fig. .--how the motors are connected to winder for winding.] of course the rubber motors must be twisted an equal number of turns, in order to make the propellers work the same, and this is usually done with an ingenious winder made from an egg-beater, which winds both motors simultaneously. =the home-made motor-winder= shown in fig. is made from a dover egg-beater (fig. ). to convert the egg-beater into a winder, it is necessary to cut off the loop ends and the center pivot wires on which the loops turn. then bend the cut-off ends of the loops into hooks, and punch them to fit over the pivot wire ends, as before (fig. ). the ends of the pivot wires must be riveted to keep the hooks in position. figure shows =how the egg-beater winds the motors=. while an assistant supports the model by the propeller end, you remove the motor rings from the hooks on the bow of the fuselage, and slip them on to the hooks of the egg-beater. then you turn the crank of the winder, counting the turns as you do so, and when you have wound the motors as far as you wish, slip off the motor rings, and slip them back on to the bow hooks of the model aeroplane. motors of models like that shown in this chapter are wound one-thousand turns or more for each flight. =wind the motors slowly=, especially after the first row of knots begin, as it puts the rubber to the least amount of strain by doing this. quick winding not only strains the rubber but makes the knots form in bunches, and uneven winding, of course, produces an uneven unwinding. the propellers must be held after the motors have been wound, to keep them in check. figure shows =the position to take for launching a model= from the hand. the machine should not be thrown forward, as the movement would cause too great a disturbance of the air, resulting in the machine losing its stability, and probably upsetting. the best method is to give the model a slight push that will start it off at a speed a trifle under that produced by its propellers. chapter iv a home-made toy motor-boat the toy motor-boat shown in figs. and is propelled by a tin propeller run by a rubber-band motor. a handful of rubber-bands will cost only a few cents, and the rest of the working material can be picked up at home. [illustration: fig. .--the completed motor-boat.] [illustration: fig. .--stern, with motor in place.] =prepare the bottom of the hull= out of a piece of wood inch thick, making it of the shape and dimensions shown in fig. . be careful to curve the side edges the same. use a saw for cutting out the piece, then smooth up the edges with a plane and sandpaper. the stern should be sawed off on a bevel as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--diagram of hull.] =the sides= of the hull (_b_, figs. and ) are thin strips - / inches wide. nail one to one edge of the bottom block, then saw off the bow end on a line with the bow of the bottom block, and the stern end on the same slant as the bevel cut on the stern of the bottom block. with one piece in position, nail on the second side and trim off its ends. if you have any difficulty in making a neat joint between the bow ends of sides _b_, take a piece of tin from a can, bend it around the bow, and tack it in place as shown in fig. . the stern piece (_c_, figs. and ) should be cut next, to fit the slanted ends of the sides. [illustration: figs. and .--how the hull, sides, stern and deck pieces are assembled.] =the deck= (_d_) extends from the bow almost to the center of the boat. its top surface should taper in its length and curve from side to side. the piece may be whittled or planed to this shape. fasten it with brads to the top edges of the sides of the boat. [illustration: fig. .--launching the toy motor-boat.] =to complete the boat=, go over the work carefully, trim off all projecting edges, drive nail heads beneath the surfaces, putty nail holes and cracks, and give the wood two coats of paint of whatever color you want to have the motor-boat. =the propeller= (_e_, fig. ) is cut from the side of a tin can. cut a piece inches long and / inch wide, round its ends, and with the point of a nail pierce a hole through it each side of the center of the length of the piece (fig. ). to finish the propeller, it is only necessary to take hold of the two ends and twist the piece into the shape shown in fig. . =the propeller-shaft= requires a short piece of wire with one end bent into a hook (_f_, fig. ). stick the straight end of this shaft through one hole in the propeller, and the hooked end through the other hole, then twist the hooked end over on to the main part of the shaft, as shown in fig. . make a tight twist so the propeller will be held perfectly rigid on the shaft. =the bearing plate= _g_ (figs. and ) supports the propeller. cut it out of a piece of tin - / inches wide by inches long, bend it in half crosswise to give it stiffness, and then bend it lengthwise to the angle shown so it will fit over the slanted stern of the boat. punch two holes through the upper end for nailing the plate to the stern, and a hole at the lower end for the propeller-shaft to run through. =for a thrust bearing=, slip a couple of beads over the propeller-shaft, between the propeller and bearing plate _g_. probably you can find glass beads in your mother's button bag. [illustration: fig. .--longitudinal section of assembled motor-boat.] [illustration: figs. - .--details of propeller.] [illustration: fig. .--rubber-band motor.] after slipping the beads on to the shaft, and sticking the shaft through the hole in bearing plate _g_, bend the end of the shaft into a hook; then screw a small screw-hook into the bottom of the hull, at the bow end (_i_, fig. ), and you will be ready for =the rubber-band motor.= rubber-bands about - / inches in length are best for the purpose. loop these together end to end (fig. ) to form a strand that will reach from hook _i_ to the hook on the propeller-shaft; then form three more strands of this same length, and slip the end loops of all four strands over the hooks. =to wind the motor=, give the propeller about one hundred turns with your finger; then, keep hold of the propeller until you launch the boat. there are many ways of elaborating upon the design and construction of this toy motor-boat, but, having given the necessary instructions for building a simple model, i am going to leave further development for you to work out. here is an opportunity for you to use your ingenuity. devise an adjustable rudder, add a keel, finish off the cockpit with a coaming, install a headlight made from a pocket flashlight--in fact, see just how complete a motor-boat model you can build. chapter v home-made toy water-motors you can own a water-motor like the one shown in fig. , because its construction requires nothing but easily obtained materials. [illustration: fig. .--a varnish-can water-motor in operation.] =the case= of this water-motor is made of an empty varnish can--preferably one of gallon capacity. nothing better could be desired. the tin can makes a light-weight compact case; the spout in the top is in just the right place and of the right size to receive the water power from a faucet; and as the water connections can be made tight there is no possibility of water splashing on to the floor--a big argument in your favor when seeking permission to use the motor in the bath-tub, wash-basin, or kitchen sink. you can get an empty varnish can from any painter, or at a paint store. the first step in converting the can into the motor case consists in removing the bottom. you will find this soldered in place, in all probability, and it can be removed quickly by holding the can over the flame of a gas burner until the solder melts, when a few taps upon the edges will cause the piece of tin to drop off. [illustration: fig. .--the completed varnish-can water-motor.] =the water-motor wheel= is shown in the cross-sections of the water-motor (figs. and ), and figs. to show its details. the diameter of the wheel should be about / inch less than the inside width of the can. in the model from which the drawings were made, this measurement is - / inches. cut the two side pieces of the wheel out of a piece of cigar-box wood, and bore a / -inch hole through the center of each for the wheel axle. fasten a spool to the center of one side piece for a pulley-wheel (fig. ). [illustration: figs. and .--sections through water-motor case.] =prepare eight paddles= - / inches wide and - / inches long, out of cigar-box wood. locate the positions for the ends of the paddles, upon the side pieces, by drawing a horizontal line, a vertical line, and two diagonal lines at angles of degrees, through their centers. this will simplify the matter of spacing the paddles equidistant from one another (fig. ). use brads for fastening the side pieces to the paddle ends. those removed from the cigar boxes will do. =the wheel shaft= should be a trifle shorter than the inside width of the can, and enough smaller than the / -inch hole in the wheel side pieces so the wheel will turn freely. locate the centers for the axle upon the two sides of the can, in the proper position so there will be the same margin above and at the ends of the wheel. drive a nail through each side of the can into the axle end. [illustration: fig. .--the completed water-motor wheel.] [illustration: figs. and .--details of water-motor wheel.] =an outlet= for the water after it has passed over the wheel paddles must be provided, and the best way is to fasten a strip to two opposite sides of the can so as to raise the bottom about an inch, as shown in figs. , , and . =for a pulley-belt= use a piece of heavy cord. cut a slot through the front of the can for the belt to run through, and make this slot large enough so the cord will not rub against the sides (fig. ). =pulley-wheels= for attaining different speeds can be made of spools of various sizes. a bicycle wheel with the tire removed, mounted in a frame, is excellent for a large wheel. =connecting up the water-motor.= if you operate the water-motor in the kitchen sink, you can either build a platform as shown in fig. , to bring the spout of the varnish-can case up to the level of the faucet, or you can set the water-motor in the sink and lead a piece of rubber tubing from the spout to the faucet, as shown in fig. . if you use the latter arrangement, slip the lower end of the rubber tubing over a short piece of glass, brass, or tin tubing, and stick the short tubing through a hole in a cork large enough to fit the spout of the varnish-can case (fig. ). if you raise the water-motor high enough so the faucet will set down into the spout, you can cut a large enough hole for the faucet, through a cork, and then fit the cork in the spout as shown in fig. . [illustration: figs. - .--how to make a water-tight connection between faucet and water-motor.] =another water-motor.= the little water-motor in fig. will furnish sufficient power to operate simple mechanical toys. =the water-motor wheel.= procure two baking-powder can covers for the ends of the water-motor wheel (_a_, fig. ), a cigar-box out of which to make the wheel paddles, and a stick / inch square and inches long for the wheel axle (_b_, fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a small water-motor that can be operated in a wash-basin.] [illustration: fig. .--the water-motor wheel.] cut eight paddles from the cigar-box wood inch wide and inches long. take a pair of these strips and fasten them to one can cover, in line with each other, and close against the sides of the cover (_c_, fig. ). fasten with tacks or brads driven through the cover into the ends of the strips. take another pair of strips and fasten them to the same cover, in a similar manner, at right angles to pair _c_ (_d_, fig. ). then tack the pairs of strips _e_ and _f_ to the cover halfway between pairs _c_ and _d_. with the paddles in position, locate the exact center of the end of the can cover, and drive a nail through at this point into the end of axle _b_. slip the free ends of the paddles into the other can cover, and carefully drive tacks or brads through the cover into them. drive a nail through the center of the cover into the end of axle _b_. [illustration: figs. and .--details of water-motor wheel.] =the wheel supports.= figure shows the supports for the wheel. cut the end pieces _g_ inches wide and inches high, and the cross strips _h_ - / inches wide and - / inches long. nail pieces _g_ to _h_, as shown, allowing the lower ends of _g_ to extend / inch below strips _h_, and leaving a space of / inch between strips _h_. the axle holes in pieces _g_ (fig. ) should be located in the center of the width of these pieces, and halfway between their tops and strips _h_. bore the holes with a gimlet, or make them by driving a large nail through the pieces, and then withdrawing it. =to mount the wheel= upon the supports, withdraw the nails driven into the ends of axle _b_, slip the wheel between uprights _g_, and drive the nails through the holes in _g_ back into the holes in the axle ends (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--support for water-motor wheel.] =the pulley wheel.= one can cover should be converted into a pulley by winding several turns of string around it, near each edge, leaving a groove between the string. coat the string with glue to make it stick fast to the cover. =the water-motor case.= figure shows how the water-motor case is constructed by fastening boards _n_, _i_, _j_, _k_, _l_, and _m_ to the wheel supports _g_. there must be a slot through _i_ and another through _j_, for the string belt to pass through, and a hole through _k_ for the intake of water from a faucet. these can be cut out of the edges of the boards, as shown, before they are nailed in place. leave an opening between boards _n_ and _m_, and the bottom of ends _g_, for an outlet for waste water. chapter vi a home-made toy railway it is often thought that a toy railway is beyond a boy's ingenuity to construct, whereas, in reality, it is one of the simplest toys he can make. this applies to the tracks, stations, and cars of every description, all of which can be made with a few strips of wood, some spools, nails, cardboard, and a bottle of glue, for materials. if you have passed the age of caring for such toys as this, you will, no doubt, enjoy the making of one for your younger brother, or for one of your boy relatives. figure shows a railway set up and in running order. as shown in the illustration, [illustration: fig. .--upright.] [illustration: fig. .--the toy railway in operation.] [illustration: fig. .--support for trolley-line.] =the trolley-line=, or overhead cable, runs around the wheels of two supports, one at either end of the track. prepare four pieces of wood the shape and size of that shown in fig. for the uprights of these supports, and make two wheels three inches in diameter. the wheels may be marked out with a home-made compass--a pencil tied to the end of a piece of string, if you haven't a compass. when the wheels have been cut out, place them in your bench-vise, one at a time, and with a file make a groove around the edge as shown at _c_, fig. . bore a three-eighths-inch hole through each upright at _f_, fig. , and another through the center of each wheel. now fasten two of the uprights six inches apart upon a block of wood, as shown at _a_ and _b_, fig. . whittle a shaft to fit loosely in the holes of the uprights, and, after slipping it into them, fasten one of the wheels upon one end and a small spool upon the other (see _c_ and _d_ in fig. ). a weight of some sort should be fastened to the base, as shown at _e_. the uprights for the other support should be similarly mounted upon another block of wood. fasten the remaining wheel to an axle run through the holes in the uprights, and, as it is unnecessary to have a spool upon the other end of the axle, cut it off short and drive a nail through it to prevent it from slipping through the holes. having thus prepared the supports, place them as far apart as you wish to extend the railway, and run a cord around the two wheels and tie it. then set the supports a little farther apart, if necessary, to tighten the cord. run another cord from spool _d_ to =a water-motor=, steam engine, or whatever power you can get with which to operate the railway. a bicycle inverted with the tire removed from its rear wheel has been used satisfactorily, as has also a sewing-machine with the belt slipped off and the cord from the spool put in its place. a good substitute for the tin tracks ordinarily sold in shops for toy railways will be found in those shown in fig. . these [illustration: fig. .--the tracks.] =tracks= consist of quarter-inch strips mounted upon pieces of cardboard. make a small gimlet-hole in one end of each stick, and drive a short finishing nail in the opposite end (see fig. ). cut the cardboard strips the length of the sticks, and tack them to the sticks as shown in the illustration. if inch and one-half spools are used for the car wheels, the inside gauge of the tracks should be an inch and three-quarters. by lapping the cardboard strips over the ends of the sticks, and the sticks over the ends of the cardboard strips, and placing the nail dowels in the ends of the sticks as in the drawing, a strong track is formed when the pieces are fitted together. this may be extended to any desired length by adding more sections to it. [illustration: fig. .--a top view of car truck.] =the cars= for this railway will have their trucks constructed alike, and it is a simple matter to transform a car from one style into another. figure shows a top view of a truck. for the bed of this cut a three-eighths-inch board twelve inches long by two and one-quarter inches wide, and, after rounding the ends as shown in the drawing, cut a mortise at _a_ and _b_ two and three-eighths inches from either end. [illustration: fig. .--spool wheels.] [illustration: fig. .--the completed car truck.] [illustration: fig. .] procure two one and one-half inch spools for wheels, and drive a wooden peg through the hole in each, cutting off the ends so they project a little beyond the hole, as shown in fig. . then bore four holes in the edges of the truck-bed with a gimlet at _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ (see drawing), and, after setting the spools in mortises _a_ and _b_, pivot them in place with small finishing nails driven into the wooden pegs. these nails should fit loosely in the gimlet holes. in order to drive them into the exact centers of the spools, it is best to locate these points upon the ends of the pegs before placing the spools in the frame. a quarter-inch hole should be bored in the top of the truck-bed at _g_ and _h_ (fig. ) in which to fasten the two uprights _i_ and _j_ (see fig. ). make the uprights four inches long and whittle a peg upon the lower ends to fit holes _g_ and _h_ (see fig. ). bore a hole with a gimlet in the top of each and run a piece of heavy wire from one to the other, bending it as shown in fig. . fasten _k_ between _i_ and _j_, as shown. place a small brass ring upon the wire before you fasten it in place. a small hook should be screwed into one end of the truck and a screw-eye into the other end, for couplings, should you wish to hitch two or more cars together. [illustration: fig. .--a gondola car.] =a gondola car=, such as shown in fig. , should have its truck made similar to fig. , with the exception that it should be two inches shorter, in order that cigar-box strips can be used for the side pieces. cut the strips an inch and one-half high and fasten them to the bed of the car with brads. this car may be used as a trailer. the car shown in fig. is a rather crude affair, but with a little more work may be transformed into a better looking car-- [illustration: fig. .--side view.] [illustration: fig. .--end view.] =a street car= such as is shown in figs. and being an example of what can be made. the sides, ends, and roof of this car are made of cardboard, the patterns for the cutting of which are shown on page . figure shows a cross-section taken through the center of the car. the two side pieces _a_ should be prepared first, as shown in fig. . with a ruler and lead-pencil draw in the windows about as shown in the drawing, using double lines to indicate the sash. then, with a sharp knife, cut out the center of each just inside of the inner line. these windows may be left open or may be covered on the inside with tissue-paper. if tissue-paper is used, oil it to make it more transparent. when the two sides have been prepared, bend each along the dotted lines (see fig. ) and tack one to each side of your car truck as shown in fig. . when properly bent, the distance between the upper part of the sides should be two and three-quarters inches. cut the two inner ends of the car the shape of fig. , using a compass with a radius of two and one-half inches with which to describe the curve at the top. draw in the panels and sash lines as you did those upon the side pieces, being careful to get them on the same level, and cut out the door and window openings. fasten these end pieces between the sides with glue, and also tack them to the uprights of the car (_i_ and _j_, fig. ), which will come just inside of them. the roof is made in two sections (_b_ and _c_, fig. ). for _b_ cut a piece of cardboard twelve and one-quarter by three and three-quarter inches (fig. ), draw the curved end with a compass, using the radius shown on the drawing, and slit the corners as indicated by the dotted lines. when this piece has thus been prepared, remove the wire from the top of the truck (see fig. ). bend the cardboard over the sides and ends of the car, and lap corners _d_ and _e_ over _f_ and _g_, and _h_ and _i_ over _j_ and _k_, tacking them with thread to hold them in place. to fasten this part of the roof to the top of the car, cut a number of small strips of linen, and glue them to the under side of the roof and to the inside face of the sides and ends of the car (see fig. ). the upper portion of the roof _c_ should be made out of a piece of cardboard bent into the shape of fig. , and cut at the ends so the upper portion of _c_ projects a little beyond its sides. draw the ventilation lights upon the sides of _c_ as shown on the drawings, and then fasten the piece upon the top of _b_ with strips of linen in the same manner as you fastened _b_ in place. _c_ should now have the same curve to its top as _b_. cut and glue a piece of cardboard in each end of _c_ to complete the roof. the shape of this piece is shown in fig. . the outer ends of the car should be made as shown in [illustration: figs. - .--details of toy street car.] fig. , and tacked around the ends of the wooden truck platform, and also fastened to the under side of the roof with strips of linen. the window openings may be cut in each end, but it will make a stronger car if they are simply drawn upon it. cut four cardboard steps similar to fig. and tack them to the sides of the front and rear platforms. when the car has been put together, replace the wire in the tops of uprights _i_ and _j_ (fig. ), running the ends through the roof (see fig. ). paint the sides and ends of the car yellow with brown trimmings, and paint the roof a light gray. water colors can be used for the purpose. letter the name of your car-line upon the sides and the number of the car upon each end and side. the route should be lettered upon strips of cardboard with pins run through them as shown in fig. , these strips to stick in the roof of the car (see figs. and ). having seen how the car is made, you will find it a simple matter to make designs for =other cars=, using the same scheme for the trucks, and altering the patterns for the sides, ends, and roof, to suit the design. nothing has, as yet, been said about the =operation of the railway=, and though fig. probably shows sufficiently clear how it is run, a few words may be helpful. the car or cars are placed between the wooden tracks, and the trolley (or cord attached to the ring on top of the car) is tied to the trolley-line as in the illustration. upon starting your engine, water-motor, or whatever motive-power you have, the car will run from one end of the track to the other. when it has reached the support of the trolley-line, it will stop long enough for the cord trolley to pass around the wooden wheel, and then run in the opposite direction until the other support is reached. it will thus be seen that the trolley hangs to the upper part of the cable, or trolley-line, in running one way, and to the lower part on the return run. in changing the direction of the run, the ring to which the trolley is attached slides to the other end of the car. [illustration: fig. .--the railway depot.] =a station= such as is illustrated in fig. is made out of cardboard and mounted upon a seven-eighths-inch board large enough to form a railway platform. after cutting out the side and end pieces, with door and window openings placed as shown in the illustration, fasten them together with strips of linen glued in the corners. make the roof low and extend it over the platform upon each side and over the gable-ends, as shown in the illustration. paint the sides of the depot the regulation depot red, and the roof a shingle or slate color. paint the door and window-sash black, letter the name of the station upon the gable-ends, and with a ruler and lead-pencil rule off the boards upon the sides, and the slate or shingles upon the roof. as this is a typical railway station, two may be made of the same pattern, one for either end of your car line. chapter vii home-made toy elevators the elevator shown in fig. is a unique mechanical toy well worth one's making. release the little car at the top floor, and it will descend to the ground floor, and then return to the starting point, without you having to touch it a second time. a magical elevator? perhaps so. a little mechanical device performs the trick. the same plan may be followed for installing the doll-house elevator in chapter xiii, but the more stories there are the more fun there is in operating the elevator. this is why i have adapted the scheme to =a toy office building.= six stories are shown in fig. , but you can make a modern sky-scraper with as many stories as you like. a packing-case feet inches long, stood on end, was used for the model. another box or two can be added to the top for additional stories. besides the box, or boxes, get enough box boards for floors and partitions. =make the floors= in two pieces (_a_ and _b_, fig. ), so the opening for the elevator shaft can be cut out of the end of one piece in the manner shown. this opening should be about inches square. mark out and cut the boards for all of the floors at one time, and be careful to get the shaft opening the same in each floor. cut the notch _c_ in board _a_ about inch square. fasten the floor boards in place with nails driven through the sides of the box. =the partitions=, a pattern for which is shown in fig. , can be made quicker by omitting the doorway, but this is easy to cut by sawing along the sides and then splitting out the piece between the saw cuts. [illustration: fig. .--a toy office building with elevator.] =the elevator car= should be built up of cigar-box wood, as shown in figs. and . the front portion (_d_) should be about inches wide, - / inches deep, and inches high, and the rear portion (_e_) should be of the same width, inches deep, and - / inches high. fasten these upon the base piece _f_ as shown. =the elevator guides.= bore the holes _g_ through the top and bottom of the car, close to the sides, for guide wires _h_ to run through (figs. and ). these holes may be bored with a screw-eye if you haven't a gimlet or drill. bell-wire, or almost any wire that you have on hand, will do for the guides. fasten two screw-eyes into the under side of the top of the shaft, the same distance apart as holes _g_, and in the proper position so they will come exactly over them (_i_, fig. ). use the car for determining these measurements. then bore two holes through the bottom of the shaft directly below the screw-eyes (_j_, fig. ). attach the wire to one screw-eye, run it down through holes _g_ in the car, through one of the holes _j_, then across to and up through the other hole _j_, up through the other set of holes _g_ in the car, and attach to the second screw-eye _i_. =the cables.= the elevator is lifted by means of cord _l_ (figs. and ). fasten this cord to a tack driven into the top of the car, then run it up and over spool _m_ (figs. and ), over spool _n_ (fig. ), and tie to weight _k_. =the counter-balance.= a bottle, filled with sand to make it weigh more than twice as much as the car, should be used for this. screw a small screw-eye into the cork to tie the cord to. the counter-balance runs up and down in =the smoke-stack=, which is fastened to the back of the building (fig. ). make the stack of cardboard mailing-tubes, joining them end to end with bands of paper pasted around them. fasten the stack to the back of the building with wire straps, and brace the top as shown in fig. , but leave it unattached until you have adjusted =the overhead pulleys=, or _sheaves_. these are spools. you will see by looking at fig. that spool _m_ turns on the axle _o_, and the ends of this axle are cut to fit snugly in screw-eyes _i_. [illustration: fig. .--section through elevator shaft.] fasten pulley spool _n_ in the smoke-stack by means of a wooden axle pushed through holes pierced in the side of the stack, as is shown in the small drawing above, fig. . bore a hole through the back of the building for the cable cord _l_ to run through (_p_, figs. and ), and cut another through the smoke-stack. =how the car operates.= when the weight and cord have been adjusted and the smoke-stack erected, the elevator will run from the ground floor up to the roof of its own accord, because the counter-balance is much heavier than the car. to make it descend it is necessary to add weight to the car, to make it enough heavier than the counter-balance so it will drop of its own accord. this is done with =ballast= consisting of a bottle of sand or salt of twice the combined weight of counter-balance _k_ and the car. after filling the bottle, cork it up, and screw a screw-eye into the cork. then screw the eye of a -inch hook-and-eye into the roof of the building, directly over the center of box _e_ of the elevator (_r_, figs. and ), and attach one end of a rubber-band to the hook and tack the other end to the top of the elevator-shaft (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--floors.] [illustration: fig. .--partitions.] with the hook and rubber-band properly adjusted, this is what happens when the car ascends to the top of the shaft. the bottom of the rear portion of the car strikes bottle _q_, lifts it enough to release the end of the hook (_r_), and the rubber-band springs the hook out of the way (fig. ). the bottle remains upon the rear portion of the car, and its weight carries the car to the bottom of the shaft. =to make the car rise= to the top of the shaft again, remove bottle _q_. replace the bottle upon the end of hook _r_, and it will be in position for the next trip downwards. [illustration: fig. .--front view of elevator shaft.] [illustration: figs. and .--elevator car details.] cut the holes _y_ and _z_ (fig. ) through the outside wall of the shaft for hand holes through which to reach bottle _q_ and hook _r_. [illustration: fig. .--detail of brake and controlling levers.] figures , , and show =a simple control= for stopping the car at the different floor levels. stick _s_ may be a piece of broom-handle, curtain-pole, or flagstaff. bore a hole through the bottom of the shaft, directly below holes _c_ in the floors (_t_, fig. ), and slip the stick through hole _t_ and into slots _c_. then locate on one side of stick _s_ points just below the under face of each floor, and upon the opposite side locate points just above where the back edge of the elevator will come when the car is raised to each floor level (fig. ). remove the stick, and drill or bore a small hole at each point marked; then replace it, nail a small block (_u_, fig. ) across the top end to hold it in place, and drive a nail, with its head filed off, into each of the holes. when stick _s_ is turned to the position shown in fig. , while the car is going down, the first nail below the car will project beneath it and bring it to a stop; and if the stick is turned in the opposite direction while the elevator is going up, the first nail above the car will project over the back edge of portion _e_ and bring the car to a stop. =two levers= operate the brakes (_w_, figs. and ). cut these of the shape shown in fig. , and screw one to each side wall. then tack a piece of cord to stick _s_, wrap the ends of the cord once around, slip them through screw-eyes _v_ screwed into the side walls, and tie to tacks driven into levers _w_. [illustration: fig. .--an outdoor elevator.] one series of brakes can now be set by pulling forward one lever, and the other series by pulling forward the other lever. by driving a nail into stick _s_ at _x_ (fig. ), and a nail into the bottom of the shaft, each side of stick _s_, the levers will turn the stick just far enough in either direction to bring the brakes into operation. if there is a kitchen porch to your house, construct =the outdoor elevator= shown in fig. to run from the ground up to that porch. if you live in an upper story of an apartment building, your elevator can be made to run to a greater height, which, of course, will make more fun. it will save considerable work to use the porch, because for one thing you will not have to build an upper platform to stand upon to reach the elevator car when it runs to the top, and for another thing the supports for the guides and cable can be fastened directly to one of the porch posts. [illustration: fig. .--supports for elevator guides and cables.] figure shows a large detail of =the guide supports.= cross strips _a_, _b_, and _c_ should be or inches long, about inches wide, and inch thick. at a distance of about inch from one end of strips _a_ and _b_ screw a screw-eye into one edge, and inches from those eyes screw a second screw-eye (_d_, fig. ). screw-eyes with / inch eyes are large enough. a dozen will cost about cents at the hardward store. the elevator guides are fastened to these. besides the screw-eyes there must be two clothes-line pulleys for the cable to run over. these cost cents apiece. screw one pulley into the edge of strip _b_, halfway between the two screw-eyes _d_ (_e_, fig. ), the other into an edge of strip _c_ at the same distance from the end that you have placed the pulley in strip _b_ (_f_, fig. ). nail strip _a_ to the porch post as close to the ground as you can get it, strip _b_ to the same face of the same post, about inches above the porch railing, and strip _c_ to the opposite face of the post at the same height as strip _b_. nail these strips securely in place. if you cannot find a starch-box or other small box out of which to make =the car=, go to a grocery store. you will be sure to find just what you want there. it is not likely that the grocer will charge you anything for a small box like this. if you have placed screw-eyes _d_ inches apart, as directed, the width of the box should be a trifle less than this measurement, but if the box you pick up is wider the screw-eyes can be spaced as much farther apart as is necessary to accommodate it. figure shows how the box is converted into the car. screw two screw-eyes into each side of the box, one above the other, as shown at _g_, for the elevator guides to run through, screw another into the exact center of the top (_h_) to tie the hoisting cable to, and screw another into the exact center of the bottom to tie the lowering cable to. nail a narrow strip across the open front of the car, at the bottom, to keep things from falling out. [illustration: fig. .--elevator car.] get heavy wrapping-twine or stovepipe wire for =the guides.= attach these guides to screw-eyes _d_ in strip _b_, first, drop them through screw-eyes _g_ in the sides of the car, and then fasten to screw-eyes _d_ in strip _a_. =the counter-balance= is a large can filled with earth, sand, or small stones. its weight must be equal to about three times that of the empty car. fasten the lifting cable through holes punched in opposite sides of the can (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--counter-balance.] use a strong wrapping-twine for =the lifting cable.= after tying this to the counter-balance, run it over pulley _f_, then over pulley _e_, and tie to screw-eye _h_ in the top of the car. the cable must be of the right length so when the counter-balance has dropped to the ground the car will come just above the porch railing, as shown in fig. . tie =the lowering cable= to the screw-eye screwed into the under side of the car. as long as the weight of the car and its load remains less than half of that of the counter-balance, the counter-balance will drop and by so doing lift the car. the cable attached to the bottom must be pulled to lower the car. those of you boys who own a tree-hut, or intend to build one,[ ] should erect an elevator similar to the one just described, for hoisting supplies to the hut. [footnote : plans for building tree-huts, and a dumb-waiter for supplies, are given in chapter xxv of "the handy boy."] chapter viii home-made mechanical toys those of you boys who have examined the little mechanical toys sold upon the street corners just before christmas probably have been surprised to find how simply they are made, and perhaps it has never occurred to you that you might make toys equally as good for presents for your younger brothers, sisters, or cousins. most of the smaller mechanical toys are not only easy to make, but they require materials which cost little and can usually be picked up at home. sometimes it takes considerable thinking and planning to discover just the things which can be adapted to the various parts of toys; but that is where part of the fun of toy making comes in. =a buzz-saw whirligig= is an interesting toy (fig. ). lay out a disk about inches in diameter upon a piece of cardboard, locate the position for the spool-end on the center of each face, and make four rings outside of this. divide the circumference of the disk into sixteen equal parts, and lay off the teeth as shown. (fig. .) the spool-ends used for centers should have two holes drilled through them for the twisting cord to slip through, and should be fastened to the disk with glue or brads. a cotton string is best for =operating the whirligig.= after slipping it through the holes in the spool-ends, tie the ends together. to work the toy, slip the first finger of each hand through the loop of each end, and whirl the disk in one direction until the string is twisted from both ends as far as the center. then pull firmly on the ends of the string, and the disk will whirl in the opposite direction until the string is untwisted and twisted up again in the opposite direction. as the strings twist, slacken your hold upon the ends, and when it has wound up tight pull again to make it whirl in the opposite direction. the disk should whirl very steadily when working right, and the knack of making the string twist so the disk will do so is attained with a little practice. [illustration: fig. .--detail of buzz-saw whirligig shown in fig. .] =the clog-dancer= (fig. ) is an easily made loose-jointed doll. his dancing-stage is a shingle or piece of stiff cardboard held on the edge of a chair beneath your knee. he is held by means of the string attached to his head, so that his feet rest lightly upon the stage, and he is made to jig by tapping the outer end of the stage with the free hand. with a little practice the figure can be made to go through the steps of the most eccentric clog-dancer. [illustration: fig. .--the buzz-saw whizzes when you twist the cord.] [illustration: fig. .--the eccentric clog-dancer is a circus in himself.] [illustration: fig. .--pull the string and jack jumps comically.] [illustration: fig. .--details of body of the clog-dancer shown in fig. .] the more grotesque the dancer's appearance is, the more amusing his dancing will be, so the cruder you make him the better. figure shows the working details for his construction. the center part of a thread-spool forms the _head_, and a spool-end and the rounded end of a broom-handle form the _hat_. these three pieces are nailed together. the _body_ is a piece of a broom-handle, and a spool-end nailed to it forms the _shoulders_. drive a nail into the end of the body, tie a string to this, and run the string up through the hole in the head, and out through a hole in the hat; tie the string to a fancy-work ring. the _arms_ and _legs_ are made of sticks whittled to the lengths marked in fig. , and about / inch in diameter, and are jointed by driving tacks into their ends and connecting these with heavy linen thread. figure shows how the feet and hands are cut, and how tacks are driven into them for the thread connections. paint the clog-dancer's body, arms, and legs white, his head, hands, and feet black, and mark his eyes, nose, and mouth upon his face in white. [illustration: fig. .--details of body of the jumping-jack shown in fig. .] =a toy jumping-jack= is always amusing, and fig. shows a simply constructed home-made model. you will see by fig. how the figure is made. the peaked _hat_ is half a spool tapered down from the end to the center; and the _head_ is the center from a darning-cotton spool, shaped down at one end for a _neck_, and with eyes, nose, and mouth cut in on one side. figure shows the diagrams for the front and back of the _body_, the _arms_, and the _legs_. these are cut out of cigar-box wood. cut the neck stick a long enough to run through the head and hat, with a square block on the end to fit between the body pieces. the blocks _b_ should be of the same thickness as block _a_. bore the pivotal holes through the arms and legs in the positions shown, using a small gimlet or red-hot nail with which to do the boring, and tie a piece of heavy linen thread through each as shown. the arms and legs are pivoted on brads driven through the front of the body into the back. when the body has been fastened together, bring the ends of the threads together, and tie to a small ring; also knot the threads close to the body to keep them together. in painting jack, you might provide him with a red coat, blue trousers and a blue hat, white stockings, and black shoes. =a cricket-rattle= is about the liveliest form of rattle ever devised (fig. ). after constructing one for your sister or brother, you probably will decide to make one for yourself. for this rattle, first prepare a _notched spool_ (_a_, fig. ). the notches in this need not be cut as perfectly as shown, but the notches in one end of the spool must be exactly opposite those in the other end. whittle the _handle b_ to the shape and size shown, cut the strips _c_ out of cigar-box wood, and prepare the block _d_ as shown. the groove in the edge of _d_ is cut of just the right width to receive the end of the wooden strip _e_. the length of _e_ is best determined after nailing the ends of strips _c_ to _d_, and slipping the handle through the holes in strips _c_ and spool _a_. it should extend from the groove in _d_ into the notches in _a_. make it as wide as the spool is high. paint the rattle red or blue. [illustration: fig. .--details of the noisy cricket-rattle shown fig. .] =the turtle toy= which crawls along the floor when you alternately pull and slacken a thread that runs through its shell, has always been one of the most popular of mechanical toys, and you will be surprised to find how easily our home-made model shown in fig. is put together. the _shell_ is a small tin mold such as is used for molding jellies. one about inches long costs cents. a mold having the form of a bunch of grapes is a pretty good form for the turtle shell, as you will see by the illustrations. [illustration: fig. .--whirling the cricket-rattle makes it chirp.] [illustration: fig. .--the crawling turtle's shell is a jelly mould.] the _head_, the _tail_, and the four _feet_ are cut out of tin from a can, and bent into the forms shown in fig. . then slits are cut through the narrow rim of the mold by piercing the tin with the point of a nail at the proper places for attaching them, as shown in the small detail drawing, and the tab ends are pushed through the slits, bent over, and clinched with a pair of pincers. [illustration: fig. .--how head, feet, and tail are attached to a jelly mould to make the turtle shown in fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--the spool wheels and the rubber-bands which propel them.] a thread spool - / inches long forms the _wheels_ on which the turtle runs, and two rubber-bands - / inches long propel it. cut a piece of a lead pencil a trifle longer then the spool, split it into halves, remove the lead, and insert the rubber bands in the groove; then slip the piece of pencil into the hole in the spool (fig. ). the rubber-band ends must project an equal distance beyond the spool-ends. before fastening the spool to the tin mold shell, tie the end of a piece of heavy linen thread to its center, and then wind about twenty turns about it. pierce a hole through each side of the mold a trifle in front of the center, and after slipping pieces of string through the ends of the rubber-bands (fig. ), tie them through the holes pierced through the sides of the mold. pierce a hole through the shell, directly over the center of the spool, slip the free end of the thread wound on the spool through this hole, and tie it to a fancy-work ring (fig. ). =to make the turtle crawl=, place it upon the floor, pull on the ring, and as the thread unwinds from the spool the rubber-bands will twist; then slacken the thread, and the turtle will crawl along the floor. as the rubber-bands untwist, the thread will wind up on the spool again. continue pulling and slackening the thread alternately, and the turtle will continue to crawl. chapter ix home-made tops there are many styles of tops, probably more than you ever dreamed of, and it will surprise you to hear that the owners of some of the most curious forms are bearded men who take as much delight as any girl or boy in spinning them. a few years ago on murray island, which is way down among the south sea islands, top spinning took such a strong hold upon the attention of the natives that they neglected their work, and families often were without food, boys and girls having to go to school hungry. matters became so serious, in fact, as a result of this fad for top spinning, that, finally, the head chieftain was compelled to restrict it to certain days. there are many experts among these south sea islanders. the men sing songs while their tops spin, cheer them on, and take the greatest precautions to shelter them from wind. an eye witness of a contest reported that the winning top spun minutes, which you must admit is a pretty long time. whip-tops and peg-tops of several varieties can be purchased at the corner candy store, but the kinds i am going to show you how to make cannot be bought anywhere. =clock wheel tops.= a splendid spinner can be made of the little balance-wheel of a broken clock (fig. ). this little wheel is so accurately made that it will spin very steadily from a minute and one-half to two minutes. as the ends of this wheel's axle are pointed, the top will stand in one spot as long as it spins. [illustration: figs. and .--clock wheel tops.] [illustration: fig. .--upholstering tack top.] [illustration: fig. .--how to hold upholstering tack for spinning.] [illustration: figs. and .--details of spool top.] the toothed wheel shown in fig. , or any of the other forms of wheels from a clockwork will make good spinners, yet, unless you file their pivot ends to points, they will not spin in one spot but will glide and hop over the table in spirals. the friction thus produced decreases the length of time that they will spin, but makes them none the less interesting as tops. great fun may be had spinning these wheel tops around the balance-wheel top, while the latter is spinning. figure shows how to hold a clock wheel between the thumb and first finger, for spinning. start it with a snapping movement of the fingers. =a rug-tack top.= a rug tack or large upholstering tack is another good spinner. while the clockwork wheels are spun by twirling them by means of the upper end of the pivots, the tack top is spun by holding the spinning point between the thumb and first finger, as shown in fig. , then giving it a quick twirl and dropping it upon a table. the tack top is an eccentric spinner. first it hops about in a very lively fashion; then, when you think it is about ready to topple over, it regains its balance and for some seconds spins quite as steadily as the clockwork balance-wheel top. the tack top can be spun upon its head as well as upon its point. [illustration: fig. .--a shoe-polish can top.] =a spool top.= the top in fig. is made from a half of a spool and a short piece of lead-pencil. saw a spool into halves, and then taper one half from its beveled end to the center. sharpen the piece of pencil to a point, and push it through the spool until its point projects just a trifle. spin the spool top in the same way as the clock wheel tops. =a spinning top race-track.= by drawing a track upon a piece of cardboard, as shown in fig. , with an opening on the inside, great fun may be had by starting any one of the small tops just described, with the exception of the balance-wheel top, in the center of the space inside of the track, and tilting the cardboard so as to cause the top to spin through the opening on to the track, and around the track. there is a trick in keeping the top from running off the track that can be acquired only with practice. =a shoe-polish can top= (fig. ). this is a sure-enough good looking top, and it spins as well as it looks. it is made of a pencil, a cone-shaped piece cut from a spool, similar to the top shown in fig. , and an empty shoe-polish can. [illustration: figs. - .--details of shoe-polish can top.] the dotted line in fig. indicates how the end of the pencil sticks through a hole in the shoe-polish can, then through the cone-shaped piece of spool. the hole through the can must be located in the exact center, so the top will balance properly. to find the center, place the box bottom down upon a piece of paper, and with a pencil draw a line around it. cut the paper along the center, and you will have a piece the shape and size of the can bottom. fold the piece in half, then in half again the other way (fig. ), open it up, and the intersection of the two folds, indicated by dotted lines in fig. , will be the exact center. with the center located, place the piece of paper first upon the bottom, then upon the top of the can, and punch a hole through the center of it and the can, with the point of a large nail. increase the size of the hole enough to admit the pencil. [illustration: fig. .--a spinning top race-track.] spin this top in the manner shown in fig. . hold the upper part of the pencil between your hands, with the palms together, and slide your hands back and forth, first slowly, then rapidly. release it so as to cause it to drop squarely upon its point upon a level wooden surface. the steadiness of this top's spinning will depend entirely upon the accuracy with which you cut the center hole for the pencil. =a spiral top.= the top in fig. presents a curious appearance while spinning, the spiral design upon it seeming to change its form as the top revolves. [illustration: fig. .--a spiral top.] the only difference between the construction of this top and the shoe-polish can top is in the substitution of the spiral disk for the polish can. a pencil and cone-shaped piece of spool are required as in the case of the other top. [illustration: fig. .--diagram of spiral for spiral top.] the spiral design for the disk, shown in fig. , is large enough so you can make a tracing of it on a piece of transparent paper, and then trace it off upon a piece of cardboard. fill in alternate rings with black ink or water-color, in the way shown, then cut out the disk, pierce a hole through its exact center to fit over the pencil end, and glue the under side to the top of the cone-shaped piece of spool. spin this top in the same way as the shoe-polish can top is spun (fig. ). =a merry-go-round top= (fig. ) is a new idea easily carried out. you will require a cardboard disk inches in diameter, three spools, a pencil, and some light-weight cardboard. [illustration: fig. .--a merry-go-round top.] figure shows the details for this top. if you haven't a compass, use a large-sized dinner plate with which to draw the circumference of the disk (_a_). then cut a conical-shaped piece of spool (_b_), stick the lead-pencil through it for a spinning point (_c_), punch a hole through the disk to fit over the pencil, and tack the disk to _b_. cut off a third of the length of a ribbon spool for _e_, and fasten another spool (_d_) to the top of the pencil. spool _d_ should be glued fast to the pencil, and the spool-end _e_ should turn loosely upon it. coat the lower part of the pencil with glue so it will stick fast in _b_. [illustration: fig. .--detail of merry-go-round top.] =how the top spins.= when you have made this much of the top, spin it to see how it works. wrap the spinning cord--a strong light-weight wrapping-twine--about spool _d_, in the same manner that you wind the cord on any top; then, holding spool end _e_ with the left hand (fig. ), pull steadily upon the cord with the right hand until all is unwound, and gently drop the top upon its spinning point. to get the best results, the cardboard used for the disk platform must be very straight. if it warps, flatten it by pressing it under a pile of books. [illustration: fig. .--how horses are mounted upon top platform.] =horses and riders= for the merry-go-round may be prepared like those of the clockwork merry-go-round in chapter x (figs. , , and ). figure shows how two burnt matches or toothpicks are lashed to the legs of the horses for supports, and fig. shows how holes are pierced through the disk platform to stick them in. =a flag= mounted upon spool _d_ will make the merry-go-round top complete. chapter x home-made clockwork toys the toys shown opposite page are a few of the many mechanical toys which can be operated by clockwork, and they are easy to make, too, requiring no more mechanical ability than is possessed by the average boy old enough to handle the simplest of tools. generally it is easy to find an old clock somewhere about the house, and a clock which has been discarded simply because it has become worthless as a timekeeper is perfectly good for operating these toys, provided the _mainspring_ is in working order. it is not necessary to have a set of works for each toy, for they are so quickly fastened in place that but a minute is required to transfer the works from one toy to another. before commencing work upon the toys, get together =the other necessary materials.= these will consist of cigar boxes, cardboard, cotton or silk spools, glue, brads, and a few pieces from the woodpile, with one or two additional articles which are mentioned later on. brads / inch and inch in length should be purchased for fastening the framework of the toys together, and the cigar boxes should be about inches by inches by inches in size. remove the paper from the boxes as described on page . =to prepare the clockwork= for use, remove it from its case, detach the hands and face, and pry off the small wheel pivoted directly under the hands; this wheel is shown at _a_ in fig. . remove also the _balance-wheel b_ (fig. ) and the _lever c_ pivoted next to it, to increase the speed of the remaining wheels. [illustration: fig. .--how the clockwork motor is fastened to the cigar-box cover. (this box has been cut down to the proper length for the ferris wheel.)] fasten the clockwork motor for =the merry-go-round= shown in fig. to the cover of a cigar box, as illustrated in figs. and , boring holes through the cover with a gimlet for the _pivot_ ends on the back of the works to set into. remove the lower flange from a spool (_d_, fig. ) and fasten the spool on to the central pivot of the clockwork in the position formerly occupied by wheel _a_. the hole in the spool will be too large for the pivot and must be filled up with sealing-wax. to do this, hold a piece of sealing-wax above the spool and melt it with a lighted match, allowing it to drip into the hole until the latter is about half full, then press the wax down with the end of a match until it is compact, smooth it off on the bottom of the spool, and make a dent in it with a pencil to indicate the exact center of the hole. heat the end of the pivot with a lighted match, and press it into the dent in the wax, being careful in doing so to get the spool straight upon the pivot. cut a hole through the bottom of the cigar box belonging to the cover to which you have attached the works, for spool _d_ to project through (fig. ). =to make the standard= for the merry-go-round, cut four strips of wood inches long, and fasten one to each corner of the cigar box, turning the bottom side of the box up; then cut a piece of / -inch board inches square, locate its center _f_ by drawing diagonal lines from corner to corner as shown in fig. , bore a -inch hole through it at this point for spool _d_ (fig. ), and then nail the box to the center of the board as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . a merry-go-round.] [illustration: fig. . a clockwork motor.] [illustration: fig. . a ferris wheel.] [illustration: fig. . the "flying airships."] [illustration: fig. .--plan of top of standard for merry-go-round.] [illustration: fig. .--pattern for tent of merry-go-round.] [illustration: fig. .--the tent ready to be fastened upon a tent-pole.] =the tent= should be laid out upon heavy white paper as shown in fig. . after describing a circle with a radius of inches, describe another circle within it with a radius of - / inches, this inner circle (shown by dotted lines in the diagram) being drawn for a guide in fastening the tent upon its tent-poles. cut out the tent along the outer circle, and from it cut a triangular piece about the size of that included between lines _kl_ and _ml_ in the diagram. cover the under edge of _kl_ and the upper edge of _ml_ with glue, lap _kl_ over to about _nl_, and rub down the edges with a cloth to make as neat a joint between the pieces as possible (fig. ). bore a hole through each corner of the standard top (_g_, _h_, _i_, and _j_, fig. ), then cut four sticks inches long, sandpaper them until smooth, and glue them into these holes for =the tent-poles.= when the tent has dried, tack it to the ends of the poles, being careful to make it set evenly upon them; cut a scalloped border out of red or blue paper and paste it to the edge all around as shown in fig. , and stick a small flag in the peak. [illustration: fig. .--full-size pattern for the horses of the merry-go-round.] =the horses.= a full-size pattern for these is shown in fig. . take a piece of _tracing-paper_ or any thin transparent paper, and place it over the pattern and make an exact copy; then rub a soft lead-pencil over the other side of the paper, turn the paper over with the blackened side down, and transfer the drawing six times upon a piece of light-weight cardboard. paint the horses with water-colors, using the pattern as a guide for shading and marking them, then cut them out with a sharp knife or a pair of scissors. figure shows the pattern for =the sleighs.= draw this out upon a piece of cardboard, cut it out and fold along the dotted lines, then turn in the flaps and glue them to the dashboard and to the back. cut two seats by the pattern given, bend down the flaps and glue them to the sides of the sleigh, and make the back for the front seat like that on the back seat (fig. ). then make another sleigh similar to the one just completed, for two are required for the merry-go-round. paint the sleighs green or yellow with trimmings of a lighter shade. [illustration: fig. .--pattern for the merry-go-round sleighs.] figure shows =the shafts= upon which the horses and sleighs are mounted. cut them - / inches long, whittle them round, and rub them down with sandpaper. the shafts are fastened in a spool hub which has five holes bored in it (_e_, fig. ); bore the holes with a gimlet or small drill, marking them off first with a pencil to be sure of getting them spaced at equal distances. point the ends of the shafts and glue them into the holes in the hub, then connect this spool to spool _d_ with a piece of a lead-pencil inches long (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a completed sleigh showing attachment to shaft.] to fasten the horses to the shafts, punch a hole through three of them at _x_ (fig. ) and slip each one over a shaft, then tack the other three horses to the ends of these shafts at the point _x_. to fasten the sleighs to the remaining shafts, glue one end of a piece of paper to the back of the front seat and the other end around the shaft (fig. ). =the girl riders= for the sleighs are shown full size in fig. , and =the boy riders= for the horses are shown full size in fig. . make tracings from the patterns as you made that of the horse and prepare four girls and six boys. paint their clothes in bright colors. cut a second leg for each boy rider, so he can be made to sit astride of his horse, and glue the leg to his hip as shown in fig. . cut a slit in each seat of the sleigh and stick the flaps on the girl riders in them. [illustration: fig. .--full-size pattern for the girl riders.] [illustration: fig. .--full-size pattern for the boy riders.] [illustration: fig. .--how the second leg of the boy is attached.] =for the platform= shown directly under the horses and sleighs in fig. , cut a piece of cardboard inches in diameter; if you choose to make the ferris wheel before the merry-go-round, you may use the center pieces removed in cutting out the rims, as noted in fig. . punch a hole through the center of this disk large enough for the peg connecting spools _d_ and _e_ to slip through. this platform rests upon the top of spool _d_ and revolves with it. =to operate the merry-go-round.= the key by which the mainspring is wound up is shown screwed in place on the under side of the cigar-box cover in fig. . while winding the mainspring, it will be necessary to have some means of checking it so it will not unwind at the same time, and the best scheme for a check is to bore a small gimlet hole through the cover of the cigar box and stick a match through this and run it between the spokes of one of the clock wheels so as to prevent it from turning. then when you have wound up the spring and are ready to start the merry-go-round, all you have to do is to pull out the match. the model of this toy which the author has before him runs for five minutes with one winding, and any boy can make one which will run as well if he follows the directions given and uses a reasonable amount of carefulness in the work. =other animals= than horses may be used if you wish to follow the arrangement of some of the latest merry-go-rounds, and pictures of these may be found among the colored cut-outs sold in the stationery stores, or if you can draw well, you may copy them from books and magazines. great fun may be had by changing the positions of the boy riders, making them ride backward part of the time and sometimes two and three boys on a horse. doubtless you have heard of the famous ferris wheel, and a good many of you have ridden in the smaller wheels patterned after it, at the amusement parks, so you will be interested in making =a miniature ferris wheel= like the one shown in fig. . =the standard= for supporting the wheel (fig. ) consists of two triangular supports, one with a spool hub fastened to its top for the axle of the wheel to run through and the other with the cigar box inclosing the clockwork fastened to it. figures , , and show the construction of these supports. cut strips _p_ and _q_ inches long and _r_ inches long, and trim off the upper ends of _p_ and _q_ so when they are nailed together the lower ends will be inches apart; nail strip _r_ to the lower ends of _p_ and _q_ (fig. ). to fasten the spool hub to its support, smear one side of a piece of tape with glue and wind it several times around the spool (fig. ), then set the spool on top of the support and press the ends of the tape against the sides of strips _p_ and _q_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--standard for the ferris wheel.] =the clockwork motor= for the ferris wheel is fastened to the cover of a cigar box just as that for the merry-go-round was fastened (fig. ), but the length of the box is cut down as much as the clockwork will allow to make the box as square and compact as possible. it is very necessary to have the axle bearings exactly on a line in order to have the wheel run smoothly, so, in fastening the cigar box to its support, be sure that the center of the hole in spool _d_ (fig. ) is on a level with the spool hub on the opposite support. nail the supports to a -inch by -inch board, inches apart, and fasten a cigar box between them for =the station platform= (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--make two supports like this for the ferris wheel standard.] [illustration: figs. and .--how a spool is fastened to the top of the support for a hub.] =to make the wheel=, first lay out the rims upon a piece of heavy cardboard, using the radii shown in fig. for describing the circles, then lay the sheet of cardboard upon a board and =cut out the rims= with a sharp knife, being careful not to run off of the pencil line. the =hubs= of the wheel are spools with six holes bored in them for the spokes to fit in (fig. ). cut six =spokes= - / inches long by / inch thick for each hub, and cut a slot in one end of each for the cardboard rims to fit in (figs. and ). use a saw rather than a knife in making the slots, for it will make a kerf of just the right width to receive the cardboard and will not be so apt to split the ends of the slender spokes. whittle the hub ends of the spokes to fit the holes in the spool hubs (figs. and ). in [illustration: fig. .--how to lay out the cardboard rims of the ferris wheel.] [illustration: fig. .--the spokes fitted into the spool hub.] [illustration: fig. .--the rim slipped into the end of the spokes.] =putting together the spokes, hubs, and rims= of the wheel, first stick three spokes in a hub and slip a rim into the slots in their ends, then stick the remaining spokes into the hub, one at a time, and spread the rim enough so it can be slipped into their slots (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a spool hub for the wheel.] [illustration: fig. .--how the spokes, rims, and axles are fastened together.] when the hubs, rims, and spokes have been assembled, lay them aside and get some heavy wrapping-paper or thin cardboard out of which =to make the cars.= the pattern for the cars is shown in fig. , and on it you will find all the dimensions necessary for laying it out to the proper size. it will be understood that the unfigured portions of the drawing are the same as those with dimensions marked upon them. the dotted lines at the door and window openings indicate where the cutting is to be done, while all other dotted lines indicate where the cardboard is to be _scored_ and folded. [illustration: fig. .--pattern for the ferris wheel cars.] use a ruler in making the drawing of the car to get the lines straight, and when you have finished it go over it carefully and compare it with the illustration to be sure it is correct, after which make a careful tracing of it, turn it over and transfer the drawing five times upon cardboard. these and your original drawing will give you the required number of cars. cut out the openings with a sharp knife and then do the rest of the cutting with a pair of scissors; punch a / -inch hole in each end of each car with a lead-pencil (fig. ), being careful to get the holes exactly opposite. in folding and gluing the cars, slip the flaps inside and bend the roofs so they will follow the curve of the ends (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a completed car for the ferris wheel.] when the cars have been completed, cut six sticks inches long, whittle them down until they are about / inch in diameter, and sandpaper them until they are perfectly round and smooth. these sticks connect the rims of the wheel and form =the axles= from which the cars are hung (fig. ). great care must be used in fastening them between the rims, for they are easily split, and the best way to do is to start a hole first in the ends of each axle with an awl or by driving a brad part way in and then withdrawing it; then drive a brad through each spoke of one rim into an axle (fig. ); slip the other ends of the axles through the holes in the ends of the cars (fig. ), and nail the spokes of the other rim to them. =to mount the wheel= upon its standard, whittle an axle - / inches long to fit the hubs, then hold the wheel between the two uprights, with the hubs on a line with the spool bearings and run the axle through the holes (fig. ). =build steps= at each end of the platform out of heavy writing-paper or light cardboard. fold the paper or cardboard back and forth, making pleats about / inch wide for the steps, and after gluing it in place cut out the _balustrades_ and glue them to the edges of the steps. make the top step low enough so there will be about / -inch clearance between it and the bottom of the cars (fig. ). after you have made a final inspection to see that everything has been put together properly, your toy will be ready for operation, and i am sure that when you set the clockwork machinery in motion, and the little wheel begins to revolve slowly with each little car balancing upon its axle, you will agree that you have constructed a very interesting toy. =the "flying airships"= is a riding device consisting of a number of cars suspended by steel cables from large arms pivoted to the top of a tower. when the machinery is started, the arms begin to revolve slowly, and the motion produced causes the cars to swing out away from the center. as the speed of the arms increases, the cars swing out farther and farther, until when the highest speed has been reached the cables by which the cars are suspended have taken an oblique position and raised the cars some distance above the ground; then the speed of the engine is gradually diminished, and the cars finally regain their former position. this piece of apparatus is also known as an _aerostat_. you will find the miniature flying airships (fig. ) easy to construct after making a merry-go-round or ferris wheel, as many of its details are identical with those of the other toys. =the standard= for the toy is made similar to the one for the merry-go-round (fig. ), except that the top board is omitted and a circular piece of cardboard of the size of the disks removed in cutting out the rims of the ferris wheel is substituted in its place. cut a hole through the exact center of the piece large enough so it will fit over spool _d_ (fig. ). =cut a mast= about inches long and of the diameter of the hole in the spool and stick it into spool _d_; then inches below the top of the mast fasten a spool with four horizontal arms inches long glued into holes bored in it. fasten a crosspiece - / inches long to the end of each arm with brads, and from these suspend =cars= made similar to those of the ferris wheel, with cords. set a small flag in a hole bored in the top of the mast and then run cords from the top of the mast out to the ends of the arm pieces. with this toy the cars cannot be swung out obliquely as on the large flying airships except by =increasing the speed of the clockwork.= this can be accomplished by removing one or two of the wheels of the clockwork, but it is not advisable to take out more than one wheel in addition to those removed for the merry-go-round (fig. ) because the mainspring would require rewinding too often to make the toy enjoyable. =an electric motor= can be belted to these toys as a substitute for the clockwork, if you own one and prefer to try it out. the clockwork toys just described were invented by the author for his book "handicraft for handy boys," and were the first designs, he believes, devised for home-made mechanical toys of this nature. no doubt you have noticed that manufacturers of the so-called "construction sets"--steel and wood strips supplied with bolts and screws for assembling--have used these very same forms of models to show what can be made with their outfits. but your ferris wheel, merry-go-round, and aerostat, built as described in this chapter, with materials picked up at home, will be the equal of any that can be built, and you will have the satisfaction of knowing that you haven't required an expensive "construction set" for making them. all sorts of toy vehicles can be operated by clockwork. figure shows =an automobile=, and fig. shows how the clockwork motor is mounted upon the chassis and belted to the driving wheel. the same scheme that was used for the cars of the toy railway described in chapter vi will be followed in making [illustration: fig. . the car completed.] [illustration: fig. . the framework.] [illustration: fig. .--top view of wooden frame.] =the frame= of the automobile, as that is about the simplest way, and makes a light, easy-running vehicle. the bed will be cut of a different pattern, however, as will be seen in fig. . lay out the piece to the dimensions shown upon this drawing, and then cut it out, making a mortise in each end for the wheels to fit in. the spool wheels should be mounted in the same manner as those of the railway cars, for which see fig. , chapter vi, and the directions upon page . one end of spool _a_ should be pivoted with a longer finishing nail than those used for the other pivots, so that when driven in place about half an inch will project beyond the frame. a small silk spool should be fastened upon this for a belt-wheel (see _b_, fig. ). the hole in one of these spools is about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, so, in order to make it fit tightly upon the nail, it is necessary to fill in around the nail with sealing-wax. to do this, turn the wooden frame upon its edge and place the spool over the nail, being careful to get the nail in the exact center of the hole. then hold a stick of sealing-wax over the spool, and with a lighted match melt the end and allow it to drip into the hole. when the hole has been partially filled, allow the wax to harden a little, and then press it down around the nail with the end of a match, being careful not to throw the spool out of center by doing so. the hole should then be filled to the top. we are now ready to prepare the clockwork for mounting upon the wooden frame. the works shown in fig. are from an alarm clock, but if you have a striking clock, or one with works a little different from those shown in the illustration, it does not make a bit of difference in the scheme for attaching the works. the three parts shown in the foreground of fig. must first be removed from the works. these will be recognized readily in any clock, as they are pivoted close together, and regulate the speed of the other wheels. when they have been removed, the mainspring will unwind rapidly. the frame of the works shown in the illustration is held together with nuts, so that in removing the wheels it was necessary to unscrew two of them, spring the frame open enough to let the wheels drop out, and then replace the nuts again in their former positions. if the frame of your clockwork is riveted together, the wheels will have to be broken out. a small silk spool, such as _b_ (fig. ), should be fastened upon the small pivot which originally operated the clock's hands, for a belt-wheel. lay the works upon a table with the face-side down, and, after centering the hole of the spool upon the pivot, fasten it in place with sealing-wax in the same manner as you attached spool _b_ (fig. ). the works should now be attached to the wooden frame. place them with the striker uppermost, near the edge of the frame, so that the small belt-wheels are in line with one another. then bore a number of gimlet holes in the wooden frame and run copper wire through them, passing it around the posts of the clock-frame and twisting its ends until the works are firmly fastened in place. a rubber band about an eighth of an inch wide and long enough to reach from one belt-wheel to the other should be procured for =the belt.= this should stretch just enough to cling upon the spools, as more than that would cause too much friction. before going any further with the construction of the automobile =test the machine=, to be sure that it is in perfect running order. wind up the mainspring, pressing a finger against one of the wheels to hold it in check until you are ready to start the machine. when properly made, the clockwork automobile should run a distance of from twenty to twenty-five feet upon a wooden floor, while about three-quarters of that distance should be covered upon a floor with a fairly smooth carpet. =the cardboard sides= and other details of the automobile should now be made. the patterns for these have been so shown in figs to that they can easily be laid out to the proper shape and size by means of the process of enlarging by squares described on page , chapter xvii. white cardboard should be used upon which to draw these pieces, and the thinner it is the easier you will find it to work with. [illustration: figs. - .--patterns for the automobile touring-car.] [illustration: fig. .--chauffeur.] [illustration: fig. .--cardboard side of automobile.] first prepare the two sides, cutting them out by the pattern of fig. . then glue the bottom edge of each side to the edge of the wooden frame, cutting holes in the left side for the belt-wheels and projecting posts to run through (see fig. and _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_, fig. ). the top to the front of the car should now be cut as shown in fig. , the distance between the sides being measured to get the piece of proper dimensions. bend the edges as in fig. , and glue them to the inner surfaces of the side pieces as shown by the dotted lines in fig. . in the same way cut and glue a piece of cardboard between the side pieces at _g_ and _h_ (fig. ) for the seat-backs. the bent edges of these pieces are shown by dotted lines in the illustration. draw four =wheels= as shown in fig. , using a compass with which to describe the circles, and cut them out with a sharp knife. you can cut out between the spokes, if you wish, or leave them solid. glue the wheels to the cardboard, placing their centers about as located at _i_ and _j_, fig. . four =mud-guards= should be cut like fig. , with flaps made along one edge. then bend these guards around the tops of the wheels, and, after applying glue to the flaps, press them against the cardboard side, holding your fingers upon the flaps until the glue has dried (see fig. ). the guards should be placed a little above the tops of the wheels. cut four =lamps= like fig. and glue end _k_ of two upon the front of the automobile at _l_ (fig. ) and one of the other two upon each side at _m_. these lamps are shown in position in the illustration of the completed automobile (fig. ). draw and cut [illustration: fig. .--the hood.] =the steering-wheel= similar to fig. , and, after pivoting it to the end of a strip of cardboard with a pin as shown in fig. , bend the lower end and glue it to the under side of the cardboard top _f_ at _n_ (see fig. , also fig. ). make a =horn= like fig. and glue it to the steering-wheel as shown in fig. . a strip of cardboard about the size of that used for the upright of the steering-wheel should be cut for =the brake=, and glued to the inside surface of the right side of the car at _o_ (fig. ). =the chauffeur= should now be made. cut his head and body the shape and size of fig. , drawing the face upon each side with goggles over the eyes. cut the arms in two pieces the shape of _p_ and _q_ (fig. ), and then pivot _p_ to _q_ at _r_ and the end of _q_ to the shoulder of the body at _s_, using thread for fastening the pieces together. paint the hat, coat, sleeves, and gloves a leather color, and the face flesh color. the body should then be fastened to the hammer of the clockworks with sealing-wax, as shown in fig. , while the left hand should be glued to the edge of the steering-wheel and the right to the end of the brake (see fig. ). by thus attaching the body to the end of the hammer, and winding up the small spring, the chauffeur will shake violently when the auto runs across the floor, showing the vibrations of the machine in a greatly exaggerated and amusing manner. [illustration: fig. .--the steering-wheel.] it is now only necessary to =paint the machine= to complete it. the photograph (fig. ) shows where different colors are needed. the lamps, top, ends, and sides of the front portion of the car should be painted the color of brass, and the rest of the sides, with the exception of a strip along the bottom and the edge of the arms, should be painted vermilion. paint the inside of the car and the edges of the seat-arms tan color, to represent leather upholstering. with black paint, or ink, stripe off the door and trimmings upon the sides and top of the machine, as shown in figs. , , and . blacken the brake and steering-wheel and the spokes and rims of the wheels. along the bottom of each side glue a strip of cardboard for the running-boards. when you have tired of your touring-car, you can easily convert it into =an automobile delivery wagon=, such as illustrated in fig. . to make this you will require the same frame as that used for the touring-car, with the clockworks and belt-wheels attached in the same manner. if you have made the touring-car, remove the cardboard sides from its wooden frame, separating the cardboard from the wood carefully so you can put the machine together again when you wish. if you haven't made this automobile, you will find the details for the construction of the frame in figs. and , and the manner of performing the work described on pages to . [illustration: fig. .--an automobile delivery wagon.] =the cardboard sides= are much easier to prepare than those for the touring-car, as they are straight and require but little cutting. the outline for these is shown in fig. , surrounding the drawing of the completed wagon. lay out one side upon a piece of cardboard, using the dimensions given upon the drawing, and then place it upon a board and cut it out with your knife. using this as a pattern, place it upon another piece of cardboard and run a pencil around its edges, thus marking out the second side. in cutting out the latter piece, run your knife a little inside of the line in order to allow for the increase in size caused by marking it out with the first cardboard side. having prepared the two sides, draw panels upon them in some such form as shown in the illustration, separating them with three lines. draw a small window, with its top slightly arched, near the front edge of each side, and cut an opening for it (see illustration). glue the sides to the edges of the truck in the same manner as those of the touring-car were done, piercing holes for the posts of the clockwork to fit in, and openings for the belt-wheels to project through, in the left side. cut a piece of cardboard for the back of the wagon, fit it between the sides, and fasten it in place by gluing a number of linen strips to it and the sides upon the inner or unexposed surfaces. then cut a piece of cardboard for the roof, making it about two inches longer than the sides, to give it the proper projection over the front of the wagon. fasten this piece in position in the same manner as you fastened the back of the wagon. make the floor and footboard for the wagon out of a piece of cardboard bent as shown in fig. , and fasten it across the top edges of the projecting portions of the sides with linen strips. cut a strip for a seat, and fit it between the sides an inch and one-half above the floor. =the wheels= of an automobile wagon contain fourteen spokes, but as you have the pattern for the touring-car wheels of twelve spokes, you can just as well use it in making the wagon wheels. they should be mounted upon the sides of the wagon, a trifle above the bottoms of the spool wheels, as shown in the illustration, so they will not touch the carpet when the machine is operated. =all other portions= of the wagon should be made of the same patterns given for the touring-car, viz. the chauffeur (figs. and ), the steering-wheel (figs. and ), the brake (fig. ), and the lamps (fig. ). as the legs of the chauffeur will show, it will be necessary to cut a pair out of cardboard (the drawing shows the shape clearly enough to work by) and fasten them to his body. fasten the chauffeur upon the seat and glue his left hand to the steering-wheel, placing the latter in front of him, as shown in the drawing. stick the lower end of the cardboard upright of the steering-wheel upon a pin run through the wagon floor from the under side. glue the upper end of the brake to the chauffeur's hand and the lower end to the side of the wagon. =paint the wagon= with water colors, making the sides, end, and roof olive green, the steering-wheel, brake, and spokes of wheels black, and the lamps yellow or the color of brass. in painting the sides show the battery compartments upon them below what would properly be the bottom of the wagon (see illustration). leave the cardboard white below this box, as it represents no portion of the machine, but is necessarily brought down so far to conceal the wooden frame. it will give the machine a more finished appearance if, after painting, you go over it with black paint and a fine brush and stripe the panels upon the sides, following the lines which you drew upon them with a pencil. letter the word "delivery" upon the center panel of each side, and the firm name in the small panel between the lamp and window. by attaching a set of clockworks in the same manner as described for the automobiles, you can make =a clockwork railway=, constructing the cars similar to the street car shown in fig. , chapter vi, and using the schemes in the same chapter for the tracks and depots. each car should be provided with a clockwork motor, because a single clockwork is not strong enough to pull more than one car. let me know how you succeed in building a clockwork railway. chapter xi home-made electrical toys an entire volume might be filled with plans for electrical toys and yet not exhaust the innumerable forms that are within the ability of a boy to construct. there is room in this chapter for only a few, and i have selected simple ideas, those that can be carried out by a boy having no knowledge of working with electricity, with materials that can be obtained at an expenditure of little or nothing. thus every boy will be able to make these electrical toys. =the electro-magnet derrick= shown in fig. will hoist nails and other small pieces of hardware from the floor to a table top, and as the _boom_, or arm, can be swung from side to side, and raised and lowered, loads can be moved from place to place in the same way as with large derricks. the toy derrick may be used for loading and unloading toy wagons, carts, and trains of cars, provided, of course, you use iron or steel of some sort for your loads. it is easy enough to get nails, brads, tacks, and odd pieces of hardware for the purpose. the model from which fig. was made has lifted a bunch of two hundred and eighty-four brads / inch long. by using smaller brads, or tacks, a much larger number could be lifted. the first part of the toy to construct is =the electro-magnet.= the difference between an electro-magnet and the toy variety of horse-shoe magnet with which every boy is familiar, is that the electro-magnet retains its magnetism only so long as an electric current is passing around it, while the steel magnet retains its influence permanently, after being magnetized, unless it happens to be demagnetized by subjection to heat, or in some other way. [illustration: fig. .--an electro-magnet derrick.] figures to show the details for making a simple home-made electro-magnet. an electro-magnet consists of a center _core_ of soft iron, wrapped with a coil of insulated wire. when an electric current passes over a wire, a _magnetic field_ is formed around the wire; and when several turns of insulated wire are wrapped about a soft iron core, the magnetic fields of all the turns of the coil, or _helix_, combine, forming a very strong magnetic field which strongly magnetizes the iron core. as i have said before, this magnet loses its magnetic influence the instant the current ceases to pass through the surrounding coil of wire. [illustration: figs. - .--the electro-magnet.] you will need a machine-bolt or carriage-bolt - / or inches long, and / inch in diameter, for the core of the magnet, some insulated electric-bell wire for the coil, and a piece of heavy cardboard. cut three washers of a trifle larger diameter than the bolt-head, out of the piece of cardboard (fig. ), and slip these over the bolt as shown in fig. --one at the bolt-head end, the other two at the nut end; then screw the nut on to the end of the bolt. [illustration: fig. .--how the electro-magnet is connected up.] before starting to wind the insulated wire upon the bolt, pierce two holes through the inner cardboard washer of the two at the nut end. then stick the end of the wire through one of these holes, and pull a length of or inches of the wire out between the two washers. starting at this end of the bolt, then, wind the wire around the bolt, keeping the turns even and each turn pressed close against the preceding turn. when the washer at the head end of the bolt has been reached, wind back to the starting point; then wind back to the washer at the head a second time, and again back to the starting point; and so on until six or eight layers of wire have been wound in place. an even number of layers will bring the free end of the wire back to the double-washer end. slip this end through the second hole in the inner washer, and bring it out between the two washers, as you did the first end. then screw the bolt-nut tight against the washers, to hold the wire ends in place (fig. ). the outer cardboard washer will prevent the nut from chafing the insulation on the wire ends. now connect the ends of the coil to the binding-posts of a battery cell, and you will be surprised to find what a strong magnet the head of the bolt core has become. one end of the magnet coil should be connected to a dry-cell, and the other to a switch; and another wire should connect the switch with the dry-cell (fig. ). =a home-made switch= that is easily made is shown in fig. . cut strips _a_, _b_, and _c_ (fig. ) from a tomato can. tack the turned up ends of _a_ to a wooden knob (_d_). this forms the switch lever. strips _b_ and _c_, folded in half, and punched near the ends, form the binding-post plates. [illustration: fig. .--a home-made switch.] [illustration: fig. .--details of switch.] figures and show how to mount the lever and binding-post plates upon the switch base. pivot lever _a_ with a small screw passed through a hole punched near its end, and through the hole near the folded end of plate _c_. fasten plate _b_ with a rug-tack (_f_) so the lever will come in contact with it. screw-eyes _e_ form the binding-posts. [illustration: fig. .--detail of mast.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of pulley.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of boom.] instead of using a separate base, the switch can be mounted as shown in fig. , upon the base of =the derrick=. cut the base about inches wide and inches long (_a_, fig. ). the _mast_ (_b_) is a piece of broom-handle or curtain-pole inches long, and fits loosely in a hole bored in the base. figure shows a detail of the mast. the _pulley_ upon its upper end (_c_) is made of two spool-ends nailed together (fig. ), and it turns upon the axle _d_, which slips through holes in the _plates e_ nailed to the end of the mast. the _lever f_ sticks in a hole in the mast, close to the platform. this is used to swing the _boom_ from side to side. screw-eye _g_ is placed several inches above _f_ to serve the purpose of a pulley to guide the hoisting cables. figure shows a detail of the _boom_. cut the side sticks _h_ inches long, and fasten between them the _separators i_, which should be just long enough to allow clearance for the _spool pulley j_. the pulley is mounted on the axle _k_. screw the lower ends of the boom to the mast, at a point - / inches above the base. =the windlass= for raising the derrick boom, and for hoisting the loads, is shown in detail in fig. . bore a hole through upright _l_ for the axle _m_ to stick through, and cut axle _m_ enough smaller than the spool drums _n_ so they will turn easily. fasten a crank and handle to one end of each spool, and drive a brad through each end of the axle to prevent the drums from sliding off. cut four notches in the inner flange of each spool, as shown, and pivot the catches _o_ to the post _l_, in the positions indicated, so they may be thrown into the notches to lock the windlass (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--detail of derrick windlass.] =the hoisting cables= should be made of strong cord. fasten one end of the cable for raising the boom to a nail (p, fig. ), and run this cord up and over the mast pulley, then down through screw-eye _g_ and over to one drum; tie it securely to the drum so it will not slip around. the other cable should be fastened between the nut and washer of the magnet, as shown in fig. , run up and over the boom pulley _j_, then through screw-eye _g_, and tied to the second drum. figure shows how the dry-cell may be strapped to the base board in front of the mast, and how the wires that connect the electro-magnet, switch, and cell should be twisted around the hoisting cable, part way, and the remainder of their length allowed to hang. be sure to cut the wires long enough to reach from a table-top down to the floor. use flexible wire if you can get it. by mounting the base upon spool wheels, your derrick can be moved along a table-top. spool-ends may be used for the wheels, and can either be screwed to the edge of the base, or be fastened upon axles as the wheels of the _electric motor truck_ are fastened (figs. and ). =how the derrick works.= it is probably unnecessary to explain that a load is picked up by throwing over the switch lever to the contact point and closing the circuit, and that it is dropped by throwing off the switch lever and opening the circuit--which causes the electro-magnet to lose its magnetism. =a toy shocking machine.=.the little shocking machine shown in fig. is a harmless toy with which you can have an endless amount of fun when entertaining friends. the shock it produces is not severe, but strong enough to make your friend's arm and wrist muscles twitch, and perhaps cause him to dance. large shocking coils contract the muscles to such an extent that it is impossible to let go of the metal grips until the current has been shut off, but in our small shocking machine the handles can be dropped the instant the person holding them wishes to do so. [illustration: fig. .--detail of the toy shocking machine.] the shocking machine consists of an _induction-coil_, an _interrupter_, and a pair of _handles_, all of which are easy for a boy to make, and a _wet_ or _dry battery_ of one or two cells to furnish the current. [illustration: figs, - .--details of induction-coil.] =the induction-coil= is the first part to make. this is shown in detail in figs. to . the coil has windings of two sizes of wire upon an iron core. for the core buy a / -inch carriage-bolt - / inches long, and for the wire coils get some no. - or -gauge electric-bell insulated copper wire, and some no. -gauge insulated magnet-wire. to keep the wire from slipping off the ends of the bolt core, cut two cardboard ends about - / inches in diameter. slip one of these on to the bolt next to the head, and the other one next to the nut, as shown in fig. . three layers of the coarse wire should be wound on first, for =the primary-coil.= pierce a hole through one cardboard end, stick the wire through it, and allow about inches to project upon the outside; then commence winding the wire upon the core, placing each turn close to the preceding turn. when the opposite end of the bolt has been reached, wind back to the starting point, then work back to the other end again. there will be in the neighborhood of turns in the three layers. cut off the wire so there will be a -inch projection, and stick the projecting end through a hole in the cardboard end. this completes the primary-coil (fig. ). before winding the small wire on top of the primary-coil, to form =the secondary-coil=, wrap the primary-coil with a layer of bicycle tape, or glue several layers of paper around the coil. then wind on the small wire as you did the coarser wire, being very careful to get it on evenly and smoothly. wind eleven layers on the coil, and run the end of the eleventh layer out through the cardboard end (fig. ). there should be about turns of this wire to the layer, or turns in all. a crank arrangement can be rigged up to make the winding easier, but with patience, and by doing the work slowly, the wire can be wound almost as well by hand. it is difficult to keep track of each preceding turn, while winding, because of the fineness of the wire, and on this account it is a good scheme to coat each layer with bluing after it has been wound on, so that each turn of the following layer will show plainly against the stained layer beneath it. figure shows the complete induction-coil. cut a base block inches wide and inches long, bevel the top edges to give it a trim appearance, and mount the induction-coil to one side of the center (fig. ), strapping it in place by means of two tin straps similar to that shown in fig. , cut from a tin can. the projecting ends of the primary-coil connect with the battery, while the two ends of the secondary-coil connect with the handles. make three binding-post plates out of folded pieces of tin, similar to plates _b_ and _c_, in fig. . tack two of these to the end of the base and connect the secondary-coil wires to them (fig. ), and tack the third near one end of the induction-coil and connect one primary-coil wire to it (fig. ). =for the handles= take two pieces of broom-handle - / inches long, and cover each with a piece of tin (fig. ). the pattern for the tin covering (fig. ) shows how tabs are prepared on the ends and holes punched through them for connecting with the induction-coil. the connecting wires should be or feet long. flexible wire is better than bell-wire for these, because it is more easily handled in passing the handles around. tack the tin covering to the pieces of broom-handle. [illustration: figs. and .--details of shocking-coil handles.] the purpose of the induction-coil is to raise the voltage of the battery. the flow of current must be an interrupted one, in order to shock, and therefore =an interrupter= must be inserted between the battery and one of the wires leading to the primary-coil of the induction-coil. there are several ways to construct an interrupter, but the scheme which i have invented for the model of this shocking-machine (fig. ) serves the purpose nicely, and is a neat appearing little piece of apparatus. this interrupter is easily constructed as you will see by the working details shown in figs. to . [illustration: fig. .--interrupter for shocking-coil.] cut the base block _a_ - / inches wide and - / inches long. make the shaft _b_ - / inches long and of a diameter equal to the hole in a thread spool; and prepare the crank _c_ to fit on the end, and drive a brad into it for a handle. fasten the crank to the shaft with glue, or by driving a small brad through the two. the shaft supports _d_ should be prepared as shown in fig. , - / inches wide across the bottom, / inch wide at the top, and - / inches high. bore a hole through each, a little below the top, and large enough so the shaft will turn easily, and fasten these supports with brads to the sides of base _a_. drive eight brads into a thread spool, spacing them equidistant from one another, and mount this spool upon the shaft (_e_, fig. ), first slipping the shaft through one support, then through the spool, and then through the other support. drive the spool brads a trifle into the shaft to hold the spool in position. the projecting arm _f_ (fig. ) is a strip of tin cut from a can, and must be long enough so each nail-head will strike its end when spool _e_ is revolved. drive a nail into base _a_, at _g_, and, after bending strip _f_ as shown in fig. , fasten it with brads upon the top of an upright made similar to _h_ (fig. ), and nail this upright to the end of base _a_. the upper end of strip _f_ must be bent so it will bear down upon the head of nail _g_. the wire from the primary-coil which is as yet not connected should be attached to nail _g_, and one battery wire should be connected to a binding-post plate _i_ fastened to the lower end of strip _f_. figure shows how the binding-post plate is made out of a doubled piece of tin, with a hole punched through it for a small binding-screw. this completes the interrupter. mount it beside the induction-coil upon the base block, and connect it with the battery and the induction-coil, as shown in fig. . connect the battery cells in series. two cells will be enough. [illustration: figs. - .--details of interrupter.] =how the interrupter works.= when you turn the crank of the interrupter, each nail in spool _e_ raises the end of strip _f_, in passing it, thus breaking the electrical contact between it and the head of nail _g_. if the strip has been bent properly, it will spring back into contact with the head of nail _g_, and each time the contact is made, the person holding the handles will receive a shock. the strength of the current can be regulated somewhat by the speed with which the interrupter crank is turned. the shocks are stronger and more distinct when the crank is turned slowly. home-made electrical toys of a light construction are easily operated by a toy motor, when the motor and battery cell are not carried by the toy; but when both are transported, as in the case of a wagon, the construction must be very carefully worked out, or the motor will not be powerful enough to drive the wheels. =the toy electric motor truck= shown in fig. is of light construction, the axle bearings produce very little friction, and the battery is light and of a powerful type. [illustration: fig. .--a toy electric motor truck.] get an oblong shaped cigar-box for the _bed_ and _sides_ of the truck, several large thread spools for _wheels_ and _pulleys_, two small silk-thread spools, four lead-pencils, or sticks whittled perfectly round and / inch in diameter, for _axles_, _belt-shaft_, and _steering-wheel post_, and six screw-eyes / inch in diameter for the _bearings_. first, place the cigar-box in a wash-boiler or wash-tub of hot water, and allow it to remain there until the paper labels have soaked off or loosened sufficiently so they can be scraped off with a knife. [illustration: fig. .--top view of electric motor truck.] then, after the box has thoroughly dried, cut the two strips _a_ (fig. ), and fasten them to the bottom, one at each side. screw the screw-eye axle bearings into these strips. place them at equal distances from the ends of the strips. =the wheels= are made from the flange ends of the large spools. figure shows the front pencil axle. slip the center portion of one of the large spools on to this for a pulley, then stick the pencil ends through the screw-eyes in strips _a_, and glue the spool-end wheels on to them. the rear axle is like the front one, with the spool pulley omitted (fig. ). =the upper shaft= shown in fig. supports a spool pulley like the one on the front axle, and its screw-eye bearings should be screwed into the top edge of the sides of the box (fig. ), directly over the front axle. slip a silk-spool on to each end of this shaft to keep its ends from slipping out of the screw-eyes. [illustration: figs. - .--details of axle and belt shaft.] =the belts.= as you will see by figs. to , the upper large pulley is belted to the motor pulley, and another belt extends from the upper shaft down to the pulley on the front axle. rubber-bands make the best belts. cut a hole through the bottom of the cigar-box for the belt extending from the upper shaft to the front axle to pass through. screw the toy motor to the cigar-box with its pulley directly in line with the upper shaft pulley. wrap the spool pulleys with bicycle-tape, to keep the rubber-band belts from slipping. =the battery.= a dry battery is too heavy for the motor truck to carry; so we must make a special two-cell battery like that shown in fig. . two glass tumblers to hold the solution, a pair of battery zincs, a pair of carbons, and a bi-chromate of potash solution, are needed. old battery zinc pencils with several inches of the eaten end cut off (fig. ) will do for the zincs, and the carbons from worn-out dry-battery cells cut to a corresponding length will do for the carbons. fasten together the zincs and carbons with rubber-bands, as shown in fig. , after wrapping a piece of bicycle-tape around the upper end of the carbon and inserting a small wad of it between the lower ends of the carbons and zincs, to keep them from touching one another. [illustration: fig. .--two home-made battery cells connected in series.] figure shows a completed cell, and fig. how the two cells are connected in _series_, that is, with the carbon of one connected to the zinc of the other. twisting the connecting wires into coils, as shown, is a good method of taking up the slack. [illustration: fig. .--a single cell.] [illustration: figs. and .--details of zinc and carbon.] =the bi-chromate battery fluid= is made up of bi-chromate of potash, sulphuric acid, and water, in the following proportions: ounces of bi-chromate of potash ounces of sulphuric acid quart of water in making up this solution, first add the acid to the water,--_never add the water to the acid_--and then, when the solution is nearly cool, add the bi-chromate of potash. pour the acid into the water slowly, because the combination of the two creates a great deal of heat, and if the heat forms too quickly your glass bottle is likely to split. label the bottle in which you put this solution poison. as the bi-chromate solution attacks the zinc element of a cell even when the current is not being drawn upon, the zinc should be removed when the cell is not in use. =amalgamating a zinc pencil.= to reduce the eating away of a zinc pencil used in a bi-chromate solution, the zinc should be amalgamated by rubbing a thin coat of mercury over its surface. dip the zinc into the solution, first, then with a rag dipped in the solution rub the mercury on to it. cut an opening through the cigar-box large enough for the two tumblers to set in. then cut a strip of tin about inch wide and inches long, and bend it into a u-shaped hanger, to support the tumbler bottoms. slip the hanger ends under strips _a_, bend them against the sides of the box, and fasten with tacks (figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .--plan of motor truck bottom.] [illustration: fig. .--section through bottom.] figure shows how the battery cells are connected. a small switch can be fastened to the side of the truck to shut off and turn on the current, but, instead, you can simply withdraw one pair of elements from its tumbler to shut off the current. when through playing with the truck, however, it is important to remove both pairs of elements and wash them off, because the bi-chromate solution attacks the zinc elements even when the current is not in use. as the bi-chromate solution stains very badly, it is advisable to operate the motor truck only where there is no danger of ruining anything in case some of the solution spills, as in the basement or workshop. if you wish to use a dry-cell instead of the pair of bi-chromate cells, you can place the cell upon the floor and make the wires connecting it to the motor long enough so the truck can run back and forth across a room. [illustration: fig. --details of seat and canopy-top.] =the seat and canopy-top= details are shown in fig. . make these in about the proportion to the cigar-box shown in fig. . fasten the seat to the edge of the seat-back _b_ with glue and brads, and then fasten the side pieces _a_ to the ends of the seat. the dashboard _e_ is nailed to the bottom piece _d_, and _d_ is nailed to the lower ends of side pieces _a_. figure shows the pattern for the canopy-top. make it of light-weight cardboard, or heavy writing-paper. slash the ends as shown; then turn down the corners, and lap and glue them to form the turned-down canopy ends. fasten the ends to the canopy uprights with tacks. [illustration: fig. .--pattern of canopy-top.] =the seat-arms= are pieces of bent wire, with their ends stuck into holes in the canopy uprights and front edge of the seat. =the steering-wheel= is a section of a spool / inch thick, and is glued upon the end of a pencil or a stick. run the lower end of the pencil through a hole in the bottom of _d_ (fig. ). for =the levers=, fasten two small sticks to the end of the bottom piece _d_ with small staples. chapter xii a home-made toy shooting gallery [illustration: fig. .--the completed toy shooting gallery.] this interesting toy, with its funny animal targets, and a harmless pistol with which to shoot at them, will provide an endless amount of fun for a winter's evening or stormy afternoon. figure shows the completed toy, and fig. the box that forms =the framework.= the targets can be arranged to suit the form of box that you find, and the number may be increased or decreased to suit the space. [illustration: fig. .--the box framework.] the right position for the box is upon its side so its open top forms the front of the target box (fig. ). the horizontal piece _a_ (fig. ) is fastened between the ends of the box, to support targets. it is held in place by nails driven through the box ends into its ends. if your box is much larger than the one shown in the illustration, you can provide two crosspiece supports for targets, instead of one. =the circular target= should be drawn upon a piece of cardboard with a compass, or, by marking around a cup or small saucer to make the outer circle, marking around a can cover for the second circle, and a coin for the center circle. blacken the outside and center rings with ink, or by rubbing with a soft pencil. [illustration: figs. - .--details of targets.] figure shows how the target should be hinged in place to the horizontal strip _a_. tack or glue the lower edge of the piece of cardboard to a block of wood _b_. then cut a hinge-strip out of a piece of dress lining, and either tack or glue one-half of it to block _b_ and the other half to the target support _a_. =the animal targets= are made with pictures cut from magazines and newspapers. the pictures should be colored with crayons or water-colors, to make them as nearly like their right colors as possible. after cutting out the pictures, paste them upon cardboard, mount the pieces of cardboard upon blocks of wood, as shown at _b_ and _c_ (figs. and ), and hinge the blocks to the target supports with cloth strips. _b_ shows the method of hinging the targets to strip _a_, and to the lower side of the box, and _c_ shows the method of hinging the targets to the ends of the box. the former targets fall backwards when struck; the latter targets swing sideways when struck. [illustration: fig. .--the card-shooting pistol.] figure shows =the card-shooting pistol=, and figs. , , and show the details for making it. cut block _a_ about inches long, and block _b_ about inches long. nail _a_ to _b_ as shown. then take two rubber-bands, loop them together end to end, as shown in fig. , and fasten one end of the looped bands to the end of block _a_ by means of a nail driven into the block and bent over as shown in fig. . cut a piece of cardboard about i inch square, notch the center of two opposite edges (fig. ), and fit the loop of the free end of the rubber-bands over the piece of cardboard and into the notches, as shown in figs. and . this completes the pistol. the toy pistol shoots small squares of cardboard, placed in it as shown in figs. and , with one corner slipped beneath the rubber-band loop. =number the targets= as shown in fig. , marking the circular target " ," four of the animal targets " ," and the remaining four " ." each number represents the score of that particular target. [illustration: figs. - .--detail of card-shooting pistol.] =when shooting=, stand or feet away from the target box. aim at the circular target, because that one counts the most. if you miss it, there is the chance, of course, of hitting one of the other targets below or to one side of it and making a smaller score. chapter xiii a home-made doll-house there is nothing more interesting to build than a doll-house, and the construction is within the ability of the average girl. if brother is willing to lend a hand with the carpenter work so much the better. sister can attend to the finishing and furnishing, which are important parts of the work that she can do more handily than a boy can. but there is no reason why either a girl or boy cannot undertake a doll-house like that shown in figs. and , and carry the work to a successful completion, by carefully following the instructions and diagrams in this chapter. =the building material.= the doll-house in the photographs was built of packing cases. you can buy these at a drygoods store at or cents apiece. =the floor plans= are shown in figs. , , and . your boxes may make it necessary to alter the dimensions given, but that will be simple to do. patterns for =the partitions= are shown in figs. and . in cutting the second-floor partitions (fig. ), miter one edge of _e_ and _f_ to allow for the bedroom door opening, shown upon the plan, and miter the edges of _g_ to fit between them above the door. the mitering is shown in the drawings (fig. ). besides cutting a stair opening in the second floor, make an opening three by five inches in the second and third floors for =the elevator-shaft.= care must be taken to have these openings exactly over one another. make the opening in the second floor six by eight inches in the place indicated upon the plan. this will allow for the elevator shaft and stairway. no stairway has been built to the third story, as the elevator serves the purpose, and one would take up too much of the ball-room space. =the side walls= should measure nineteen inches wide by twenty-four inches high, and the other two walls thirty inches wide by twenty-four inches high. that portion of =the rear wall= enclosing the kitchen and bathroom is hinged to open (see fig. ), and =the front wall= is made in two sections, each hinged to a strip of wood an inch and one-half wide nailed to the two edges of the house, as shown in fig. . =the windows= are four by five inches, so four-by-five camera plates can be used for the glass. =the roof= had best be made in two sections, each measuring twenty-eight inches long by twenty-four inches wide. fasten the boards together with battens on the under side and, after mitering the upper edge of each, nail them to the house so that the ridge is fifteen inches above the third floor. then nail a board nineteen inches long by ten inches wide in the peak of the roof (_d_ in fig. ), and a narrow strip three inches from each side wall (_k_ and _l_ in fig. ). these cut off the triangular shape of the ball-room and give it a better appearance. [illustration: fig. . the home-made doll-house.] [illustration: fig. . interior view of doll-house.] [illustration: figs. - .--plans of doll-house and patterns for partitions.] =the chimney= is a solid block of wood with narrow strips nailed to all sides near the top (fig. ). make it eight or ten inches long, and cut off the bottom to fit the slant of the roof. paint the block red, and mark off the mortar joints in white. =an elevator= is something which is found in but few doll-houses. it was built in this house, thinking it might please the young mistress, and it proved such a success that the scheme has been worked out carefully in figs. , , , , and , that you may include it in the house you build. [illustration: fig. .--the chimney.] the cutting of the elevator-shaft has already been described. for material, procure two small pulleys such as is shown in fig. , four feet of brass chain, six feet of no. wire, half a dozen double-pointed tacks or very small screw-eyes, a short piece of lead pipe, and a cigar-box. make [illustration: fig. .--front view of elevator-shaft and stairs.] [illustration: figs. - .--details of the elevator.] =the car= out of the cigar-box, cutting it down to two and one-quarter inches wide, three and three-quarters inches deep, and seven inches high (see fig. ). place two of the double-pointed tacks or screw-eyes in each side of the car for the guide-wires to run through and another in the center of the top from which to attach the brass chain. =the guide-wires= are made of very heavy wire that will not bend easily. cut two of a length to reach from the first floor to the ball-room ceiling, and after running them through the tacks in the sides of the car, stick their ends into small holes bored at _e_, _f_, _g_, and _h_ (fig. ). the upper holes should be bored through the ball-room ceiling, while the lower ones need be bored but part way through the first floor. care must be taken to have these holes in the correct position, so the elevator will run up and down upon the wires without striking the sides of the shaft. the easiest way of fastening the wires in place is to run the upper ends through the holes, until the lower ends can be set into their sockets, and then drive two double-pointed tacks over the top of each wire, as shown at _e_ and _f_ in fig. . now run the elevator up to the top of the shaft, and mark upon the ceiling where the screw-eye in the top of the car strikes. at this point bore a hole through the ceiling and two inches back of it bore another hole, through which to run the weight-chain. when this has been done, cut a short block of wood to fit the peak of the roof and =screw the pulleys= into it two inches apart (fig. ). fit the block in the peak of the roof, centering the front pulley over the top of the car as nearly as possible, and drive a couple of nails through the roof boards into it to hold it in place temporarily. then =attach the chain= to the tack in the top of the car, slip a piece of lead pipe about an inch long over the chain, allowing it to set on the top of the car to make the latter heavier (fig. ), and run the chain up through the first hole in the ceiling, over the pulleys, and down through the second hole. to the end of the chain attach a piece of lead pipe for =the counter-balance= (_c_, fig. ). this should be just heavy enough to make a perfect balance between it and the car, which can be obtained by whittling off the end of the pipe until the weight of the two is the same. make the chain of sufficient length so the weight will rest upon the first floor when the car is at the third floor. you can now tell whether or not the pulleys are in the right positions. when they have been adjusted properly, nail the block firmly in place. =the gable-ends.= the front gable-end consists of four pieces (_a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, in fig. ), the dimensions for the cutting of which are given in the illustration. after preparing these, nail _a_, _b_, and _c_ in their proper positions in the gable of the roof, and trim the edges of _d_, if they need it, to fit between. to prevent the movable section from pushing in too far, it will be necessary to nail a narrow strip of wood to the roof and third floor, just inside of it. the rear gable is made in one piece, and is fastened in place permanently. [illustration: fig. .--the front gable-end.] the movable gable and all hinged portions should have =spring-catches= with which to shut up and lock the house (see the illustrations). =the stairway= is shown in fig. , and the details for its construction will be found in figs. , , , . this stairway is made in two parts, with a platform between. cut a block of wood the shape and size shown in fig. for the platform, with notches at _a_ and _b_ for the tops of the lower stringers to fit in. then =prepare two stringers= of thirteen steps similar to fig. , and two stringers of five steps similar to fig. , laying off the steps by means of a cardboard pattern, or _pitch-board_, of the size shown in fig. . after cutting out these pieces, fasten the tops of the lower stringers in the notches a and b in the platform, and nail the platform in its proper position in the corner of the hall. when this has been done, nail the bottoms of the upper stringers (_e_ in fig. ) to the sides of the platform at _c_ and _d_ (fig. ), and set the tops in notches cut in the edge of the second floor. =the treads and risers= of the steps--the horizontal and vertical boards--should be cut out of cigar-box wood. [illustration: figs. - .--details of stairs.] cut =the newel-posts= out of short square blocks, and =the hand-rails= out of strips of cigar-box wood. make a groove in the under side of the hand-rails to receive the ends of =the balusters=, or spindles. toothpicks are of just the right size for balusters. the delicate portions of the stairways should be glued in place. make slits in the stair treads to stick the bottoms of the balusters in. =the front steps= are clearly shown in fig. . make the solid balustrades out of pieces of box board, and the step treads and risers out of cigar-box wood. prepare the rear steps in the same way. =cut the window openings= in the places indicated upon the plans (figs. to ) and the photographs. first bore holes in the four corners of each window space; then saw from hole to hole with a compass-saw. old camera plates are excellent material for =the window glass.= fasten the glass in the openings with small brads in the same way that glass is fastened in picture-frames, and putty it in the same way that window glass is puttied, to hold it firm. =the front and rear doors= can be painted upon the front of the house. openings are not necessary. =the outside trimmings.= strips of cigar-box wood should be cut up for the outside door and window casings, and be tacked around the openings as shown in fig. . nail a molding or a plain strip of wood to the front edge of the third floor, as shown in fig. . =castors= will make it easier to move the doll-house about. cut four blocks of wood, fasten a castor to each, and nail one block inside each corner of the foundation frame. =the interior woodwork.= cigar-boxes make excellent hardwood floors. fit the pieces close together and fasten with small brads. make the door and window casings, picture-moldings, and baseboards out of strips of cigar-box wood. after completing the carpenter work of the house, =set the nail-heads=,--that is, drive them below the surface of the wood,--putty these holes and all cracks and other defective places, and sandpaper rough surfaces. =paint the house= a cream color, with white trimmings and a green roof. stripe the foundation walls to indicate courses of stone work. paint the front door a mahogany color, with panels indicated upon it, and make the rear door white. the painting of the chimney has already been described. the inside walls should be finished as suggested in chapter xiv. the woodwork may be oiled, or painted with white enamel or any other color desired. =a colonial doll-house= with a number of features not included in this house is described and illustrated in chapter v of "the boy craftsman." chapter xiv furnishing the home-made doll-house with the carpenter work of a doll-house completed, the finishing of the inside,--wall papering and painting,--and selecting of furnishings for the various rooms, remain to be done. this requires as much care as the building of the house, and while any boy can do the work, the help of a sister will perhaps simplify matters and give to the rooms a daintier appearance. =the walls and ceiling= of the kitchen and bathroom should be painted with white lead or white enamel. for the other rooms select paper having a small design, such as is to be found on most ceiling papers. if you have ever watched the paper-hanger at work, you have noticed he puts on the ceiling first, allowing the paper to run down the walls a little way all around instead of trimming it off. then he hangs the wall paper, and if there is no border to cover the joints of the ceiling and wall papers he carries the wall paper up to the ceiling. use flour paste to stick on the paper, and a cloth or photograph-print roller to smooth out the wrinkles. the dining-room should have a wainscot of dark paper below the chair-rail, and a paper with little or no figure upon it above. =all hardwood floors=, the stairs, door and window casings, baseboards, and picture moldings should be varnished thoroughly or given several coats of boiled linseed-oil. all floors, with the exception of the kitchen, bathroom, and hardwood floors, should be fitted with =carpets.= if you do not happen to have suitable scraps on hand, they can be procured at almost any furnishing store where they make up carpets. select pieces with as small patterns as possible. the floors of the bathroom and kitchen should be covered with oilcloth. =rugs= for the hardwood floors may be made out of scraps of carpet. =window-shades= may be made for each window out of linen, and tacked to the top casing so that the bottom of the curtain reaches just above the center of the opening. each window should also have =lace curtains= made out of scraps of lace. they should either be tacked above the windows or hung upon poles made out of no. wire, cut in lengths to fit the windows. screw small brass hooks into the top window-casings for the poles to hang upon. =handsome portières= for the doorways can be made with beads and with the small hollow straws sold for use in kindergartens. for the =bead portières=, cut threads as long as the height of the door and string the beads upon them, alternating the colors in such a way as to produce patterns. then tie the strings together to a piece of wire the width of the doorway, and fasten the wire in the opening. the =straw portières= are made similarly. from magazine illustrations you can select =suitable pictures= for each room, but if you are handy with brush and pencil you may prefer to make the pictures yourself. these may be mounted upon cardboard and have their edges bound with passe-partout paper to give the effect of frames, or frames may be cut out of cardboard and pasted to them. hang the pictures to the picture molding with thread. =a cosey-corner= may be fitted up in the ball-room by fastening a strip of a cigar-box in one corner an inch and one-half above the floor for the seat, and hanging draperies on each side of it. pillows may be made for it out of scraps of silk stuffed with cotton. a doll-house properly proportioned in every detail, including the selection of its furniture, is pleasing to look at, and is to be desired much more than some of the specimens to be found in the stores. these very often have parlor chairs larger than the mantel, beds that either fill two-thirds of the bedroom space or are so small they are hidden from view by the chairs, and other furniture accordingly, all having been selected without any thought as to size or fitness. care must be taken, in buying the furniture, to have the pieces suitable to the rooms. it will no doubt require more time than to purchase the first sets you come across, but when you have completed the selections, the result will be a much better appearing doll-house. by carefully searching the toy-shops you are almost certain of finding what you want for the various rooms, as about everything imaginable in furniture has been manufactured. porcelain bath-tubs, wash-basins with real faucets and running water, gilt furniture, chandeliers, and such articles are tempting to buy. but it is rather expensive to fit up a house in this way, for, though each piece may not amount to very much, they count up very quickly. the suggestions for the making of cigar-box furniture in chapter xvii, and spool and cardboard furniture in chapter xix, will give you plenty of material for furniture and save you the expense of buying this part of the furnishings for your house. chapter xv a home-made toy stable [illustration: fig. .--exterior of stable.] the stable illustrated in figs. and is designed in keeping with the doll-house in chapter xiii. it is shown in the background of the photograph of this doll-house (fig. ). if you prefer a garage instead of this stable, you may omit the stalls, and make one or two large windows in the rear wall in place of the small high windows shown. the building's construction is very simple. the dimensions are: width, twenty-four inches; depth, twelve inches; and height, twenty-two inches. the barn contains five stalls on the ground floor and a hay-loft above. [illustration: fig. .--interior of stable.] to build the stable according to the drawings, a box ten by twelve by twenty-four inches should be procured for =the first story.= if you have a box of different proportions it will be a simple matter to make such alterations in the details as it will require. =the roof= is made in two sections, each fifteen by eighteen inches, and is fastened to the top of the box so that the peak is twenty-two inches above the bottom. =the gable-end= is made in four pieces, as shown in fig. , _a_, _b_, and _c_, to be nailed in place, and _d_ to be movable as in the case of the doll-house. make a three-by-five-inch window in the center of _d_, and fasten the glass in place with strips cut as described in chapter xiii. strips should be nailed to the roof just inside of the movable section to prevent the latter from setting in too far, and a spring catch fastened to _c_ and _d_ as shown, to hold the movable section in place. [illustration: fig. .--front gable-end.] figure gives the patterns and measurements for =the stall partitions=, four of which should be cut out and fastened to the floor of the stable four inches apart, or so they will divide the inside width into five equal stalls. [illustration: fig. .--stall partitions.] =the feed-troughs= are made out of two strips of cigar-boxes fitted between the stalls, as shown in figs. and , and are fastened in place by means of brads and glue. above the stalls cut =small windows= an inch and one-half square in the rear wall. these are the ventilating windows for the stalls, and may be left open. figure shows the construction of =a ladder= to the hay-loft. this is made out of two sticks twelve inches long, with strips of cigar-boxes two inches long glued to them half an inch apart, as shown in the drawing. cut away a section of the hay-loft floor two inches square and stick the end of the ladder up through the opening, fastening the uprights to the edge of the floor (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--ladder to hay-loft.] a stick about three inches long, with a very small pulley attached near the end, should be fastened in the peak of the roof for a =feed-hoist= (see fig. ). the first story has =a drop-front=, as shown in figs. and . this is made from the box-cover. fasten the boards together with battens placed upon the inside, and hinge it to the bottom of the stable. nail two cleats to the under side of the floor (see fig. ) to lift it off the ground just enough to allow the front to drop without springing its hinges. when the front is down it forms an incline upon which to run the horses into the stable. for this reason it is not advisable to cut an opening in it, but merely =represent a stable door= on the outside (see fig. ). this is done with paint and a fine brush. first paint a green panel in the center of the front, and then mark off a couple of panels within this space with black paint, and stripe them diagonally to represent beaded-boards. with strips of wood half an inch wide make =a simple trim= around the door, the sides of the stable, and around the gable, as shown in the illustration. when the carpenter work has been finished, =paint the inside= of the stable white, and the outside the same colors as used for the doll-house (see description in chapter xiii). =if you prefer a garage=, use your ingenuity to fit up the interior of the building as you think it ought to be. chapter xvi a home-made doll apartment building the doll apartment building in this chapter is a new idea in doll-houses. by the illustrations you will see that the apartment building is three stories high, and consists of three units--each one story high--and a roof. during playtime the units are arranged side by side upon the floor so as to form a six-room apartment (fig. ); and afterward they are piled up one upon another as shown in fig. , and the roof placed on top, in a compact form that takes up but little floor space. =building material.= the apartment building is built out of grocery boxes. the boxes used for the units must be of equal size, and the thing to do is to select those in which a standard brand of goods come packed. if one grocery store doesn't have what you want, go to another. if the sides and ends of the boxes are in one piece, it will greatly simplify the matter of cutting the door and window openings. =the room dimensions.= the boxes used in the model illustrated were inches long, inches wide, and inches deep. these provided space for a vestibule inches by inches, a reception-hall - / inches by inches, a living-room inches by - / inches, a dining-room inches by inches, a kitchen inches by inches, a pantry inches by inches, two bedrooms--one inches square and the other inches by inches, and a bathroom - / inches by inches (fig. ). you may have to vary the sizes of your rooms a trifle, if you get boxes of different proportions, but it is probable that you can keep to the same plan arrangement. [illustration: fig. .--plan of the six-room doll apartment.] =the first story unit= is shown in fig. , and diagrams of its two partitions _a_ and _b_, are placed to the right of it; fig. shows =the second story unit=, with diagrams of its three partitions _c_, _d_, and _e_, placed to the left and right of it, and fig. shows =the third story unit=, with diagrams of its two partitions _f_ and _g_ placed to the left of it. [illustration: fig. .--how the three stories are arranged side by side to form a six-room apartment.] [illustration: fig. .--the most stylish apartments in doll town.] [illustration: fig. .--the first story unit and diagram of partitions.] [illustration: fig. .--the second story unit and diagram of partitions.] [illustration: fig. .--the third story unit and diagram of partitions.] =mark the door and window openings= carefully upon the sides of the box, making them as nearly as possible in the same proportion to the wall space as is shown in the illustrations. then, in cutting the openings, bore a number of small holes a trifle inside of the lines, to make an opening large enough to insert a small keyhole-saw or bracket-saw, and the cutting will be easy to do. =the bay windows= on the second and third stories are built of cigar-box wood. instead of cutting away the entire width of the box at the points of attaching these bays, it is a better plan to leave a narrow strip over the opening, as shown in fig. . this will hold the walls together, and will form a "beam" across the ceiling. the side edges of the pieces that form the front of the bay must be slanted off so as to fit at the proper angles, and the window openings must be cut carefully, because the margin of wood around them is narrow and will split easily. fasten together the members of the bays, also the inside partitions, with glue and brads. [illustration: fig. .--in cutting the opening for the bay windows, leave a narrow strip over the opening, as above, for a "beam."] =the joints between the units=, when piled one upon another, are concealed by a band of wood / inch wide nailed around the front and two ends of the bottom of the second and third story units (figs. and ). these bands should project about / inch below the bottoms of these boxes, so as to set down over the boxes beneath. they must not extend around the back of the boxes, and cannot be fastened to the first story box, because they would interfere with placing the boxes close together as in fig. . the first story unit must be raised to the same floor level as the other stories, however, and a thin board of the same thickness as the projection of the strips on the second and third story units must be nailed to its bottom to bring it to the same level (fig. ). [illustration: figs. and .--how the removable roof is constructed.] [illustration: fig. .--how the chimney and chimney cap are made.] =the roof construction= is shown in fig. . boards _h_ (figs. and ) should be cut of the right size to form a projection of - / inches over the front and ends of the building, and the piece _i_ should be cut to the proper shape and size to form an equal projection over the bay windows. strips _j_ and _k_ are inch wide, and should be fastened to boards _h_ so they will come exactly over the front and end walls when the roof is set in place. block _l_ should be cut of such a shape and size that when nailed to strip _k_ its front edges will come directly over the walls of the bay windows. a narrow strip nailed to the under side of the roof boards, close against the walls, will conceal the joint between the roof and top story and make a good finish molding. =the chimney= is made of two blocks (_m_ and _n_, fig. ). notch the lower block to fit over strip _j_, and cut the cap block large enough to project / inch all around. =the windows.= old photograph plates can be cut down to the proper sizes for the window openings, but it will not cost much to have the paint-shop man cut them out of new material, if you haven't any. the glass should be just a trifle smaller than the openings. fasten it in place with narrow strips of cigar-box wood. window sashes can be indicated by striping the glass with black paint. =make the front door= out of a piece of cigar-box wood, and set a piece of glass in an opening cut about the size shown in fig. . this door may be hinged to open, but it is better to fasten it in the opening, because small pieces are easily broken off their hinges. fasten a small block below the front door for a step (fig. ). =the inside doorways=, in the ends of the first story unit and in the back of the second and third story units, may be fitted with pieces of board that can be set in when the units are piled up in the form of the building, but it is not necessary to make this provision. =the interior trim.= the door and window casings, picture moldings, baseboards, and other trimming should be made out of strips of cigar-box wood. tack the strips in place with short brads. [illustration: fig. .--the living-room mantel.] [illustration: fig. .--details of mantel.] =a fireplace= must be provided for the living-room, and one easily constructed out of four pieces of wood is shown in figs. and . cut blocks _o_ and _p_ of the same thickness, and make the shelf piece _q_ of the proper size to project an equal distance over the front and ends. fasten the pieces together, then glue red paper to the wood, and when this has dried mark off brick courses with a pencil. the joints may be accentuated by striping with white or black paint. =lighting fixtures=, simple to make, are shown in two splendid forms in figures and . small brass screw-hooks such as are shown in figure can be purchased at any hardware store, and a couple of dozen of these, a lead pencil, and a number of large beads, will furnish you with enough material for making fixtures for every room in the apartment. you will see by fig. that the lighting fixture shown in fig. consists of a screw-hook with its hooked end stuck through one of the little brass plates removed from another screw-hook, and then pushed into the hole in the end of a short piece of lead-pencil. cut the pencil end about / inch long, push out the piece of lead, and if necessary enlarge the hole to accommodate the hook end. if the piece of pencil comes apart where glued, re-glue it. glue the little brass cap to the top. paint the pencil end white, to represent glass, and indicate metal division strips, or _leading_, with black paint or ink. [illustration: figs. - .--two lighting fixtures and how to make them.] the lighting fixture shown in fig. is made in the same way as the other one, except that a bead instead of the pencil end is used for a globe (fig. ). the fixture in fig. is better suited to the living-room and dining-room, and for fastening each side of the front door; the fixture in fig. is better for the other rooms. =decorating.= suggestions for decorating a doll-house are given in chapter xiv, but here are some additional ideas to suit the conditions of the apartment. it is the modern practice to tint walls of apartments, and the best plan is to cover the walls of each room with plain paper, using a paper of a different color for each room. the dining-room should have a plate-rail on which to stand plates (pictures of plates cut from advertisements and pasted upon cardboard), and the walls below the plate-rail should be paneled with strips of cigar-box wood for division strips (fig. ). =the outside walls= of the apartment building are supposedly brick; therefore paint them a good red, brown, or yellow brick color, and paint the roof cornice, and the horizontal bands between stories, white, as a contrast. chapter xvii home-made doll furniture the metal furniture which you can buy is very pretty when it is new, but this new appearance does not last long after it has come into a youngster's possession, for the pieces are very slender and delicate, and thus easily broken. wooden furniture is the most durable kind, and plain and simple pieces will generally outlast the fancy ones. the designs illustrated in this chapter make very substantial pieces, as there are no spindle legs or fancy arms to break off. they follow the lines of the mission furniture, that simple style used in the early american mission schools, and which is to-day being extensively made in handsome pieces for the furnishings of modern homes. you will find the =miniature mission furniture=, illustrated and described in this chapter, simple to make and something which is easy to sell, for there is nothing like it at present upon the market. cigar-boxes furnish the nicest material for making this furniture, and the various parts can be cut to the right shape and size with =a scroll-saw.= procure small brads and glue with which to fasten the pieces together. =to prepare the cigar-boxes= for use, place them in a tub of boiling water and let them remain there until the paper labels readily pull off. do not use a knife in removing the paper, as it is likely to roughen the wood. the paper will come off by allowing it to soak long enough. when the boxes are clean, set them in the sun to dry, after binding the covers to the backs to prevent them from warping. pull the boxes apart when they are thoroughly dry, and throw out such pieces as have printing upon them, for these would spoil the appearance of the furniture if used. in order to simplify the matter of cutting the parts that make the furniture, the curved pieces have been drawn out carefully on page , so that they can be laid off upon the strips of cigar-boxes without any trouble, by the process of =enlarging by squares.= these drawings are shown one-quarter of their full size (half their width and half their height). to enlarge them procure a piece of cardboard nine by thirteen inches, or a little larger than twice the size of the drawing each way, and divide it into squares just twice the size of those on page . that will make sixteen squares in the width of the cardboard and twenty-four in the length, each half an inch square. in order to get the squares spaced equally, it is best to lay off the points first with a ruler along the top, bottom, and two sides of the sheet of cardboard, and then connect the points with the ruler and a sharp lead-pencil. then number the squares as in the illustration, using the figures along the sides and letters across the top and bottom of the sheet. with the sheet of cardboard thus prepared it is a simple matter to =reproduce the drawings= of figs. to by locating the points of the curves and corners of the pieces, as shown in the illustrations, in corresponding positions in the squares on your cardboard sheet. the curves may be drawn in by eye, after locating them with reference to their surrounding squares, but the surest way of enlarging them accurately is by laying off the points where the curve strikes each horizontal and vertical line in the illustration, upon the enlarged drawing. these points can then be connected with a curved line. make all of the lines heavy so they can be distinguished from your guide lines, and after carefully going over the drawing, comparing it with that on page to see that no mistake has been made in locating the points in enlarging, cut the various pieces apart. these will give you =the patterns= with which to mark out the pieces on the wood. we will first note the construction of =the chairs= shown in figs. and . these are four and one-half inches high, two inches wide, and an inch and one-half deep. cut the back for the chair in fig. four and three-eighths inches high and an inch and three-quarters wide, the sides by the pattern in fig. and the seat an inch and one-quarter by an inch and three-quarters. with the pieces cut out, fasten them together with brads and glue, placing the seat between the arms and back so that it is an inch and one-half above the base. [illustration: figs. - .--patterns for furniture.] [illustration: fig. . chairs fig. .] cut the back for the other chair (fig. ) four and one-half inches high by two inches wide, the seat an inch and a quarter by an inch and three-quarters, and the sides an inch and three-eighths wide by two and one-half high. to get the curve in the bottom edge of the side pieces, use the pattern in fig. . =the settee= (fig. ) should have its sides cut by the pattern of fig. . make the back piece three and three-quarters inches wide and three and one-quarter inches high, and the seat three and three-quarters inches by an inch and one-half. fasten the seat against the back an inch and one-half above the base. [illustration: fig. .--a settee.] =tables= for the living-room, dining-room, bedroom, ball-room, and nursery of a doll-house may be patterned after the designs of figs. and . these should be two and one-half inches high to be of proper proportion for the chairs. [illustration: fig. .--a table.] the pieces necessary to make fig. are a top two inches square, two sides an inch and one-half wide by two and one-half inches high, and a shelf an inch and one-quarter square. fasten the pieces together as in the illustration, placing the shelf between the side pieces an inch from the bottom. the other design (fig. ) will do nicely for =a dining-room table=, or table for the center of the living-room. the top of this should be five inches long and three inches wide. cut the side pieces by the pattern in fig. and, after fastening them to the under side of the table-top four inches apart, brace them with a strip three and three-quarters inches long by half an inch wide, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--another design.] =a side-board= similar to fig. should be made for the dining-room. the pattern for the side pieces is shown in fig. . after sawing these out, cut a piece seven inches long by three inches wide for the back and fasten the side pieces to the edges of it. the location of the shelves can be obtained best by referring to fig. and the pattern in fig. . cut the bottom shelf (_a_ in fig. ) three inches long by an inch and one-quarter wide and fasten it to the side pieces half an inch above the base (line on pattern, fig. ). make shelf _b_ three by one inches and place it at line . _c_ should be three and three-quarters inches long by an inch and one-half wide, with a small notch cut near each end with your knife, to make it fit over the side pieces (see illustration). cut shelf _d_ three inches long by half an inch wide, fastening it in place at line no. , _e_ three inches long by seven-sixteenths of an inch wide, fastening it at line no. , and _f_ three inches long by three-eighths of an inch wide, fastening it at line no. . the top shelf (_g_) is three and three-quarters inches long and half an inch wide and is fastened to the tops of the side pieces as shown in the drawing. the lower portion of the side-board is inclosed with two doors two inches high by an inch and one-half wide. small pieces of cloth may be used for hinges, but it is better to use pins, running them through the shelf above and below (_a_ and _c_, fig. ) into the doors. stick the pins near the edge of the doors and see that they are straight, so the doors will open easily. a small mirror attached to the back between shelves _c_ and _d_ will complete this piece of furniture. [illustration: fig. .--a side-board.] =a mirror= in a frame should be made for the living-room of the doll-house. a neat and suitable design for one of these will be seen in fig. . for its construction cut two sides by means of the pattern in fig. , a piece five inches long by three inches wide for the back, and a strip three inches long by three-eighths of an inch wide for a shelf. fasten the sides to the edges of the back piece, and the shelf between the sides about three-quarters of an inch above the base. now procure a mirror such as you can buy in a toy-shop for five or ten cents (or a piece of a broken mirror cut down to the right size will do very nicely), and attach it to the center of the back. [illustration: fig. .--a mirror.] =the grandfather's clock= (fig. ) makes an effective piece of furniture for the hall or living-room, and is easily made. figure shows the pattern for the front of this clock. the back is made the same, with the omission of the square opening cut in the front frame for the clock-face. cut a block of wood two by two by three-quarters inches to fit between the frames at the top. after nailing the pieces together, procure a face from a toy watch, and fasten it in the opening made for it in the front frame. a button suspended by means of a piece of thread from a tack placed in the bottom of the block forms the pendulum. it will be unnecessary to give any suggestions for [illustration: fig. . a grandfather's clock.] =kitchen furniture=, such as chairs and tables, for these can also be made out of cigar-box wood similar to the designs illustrated in this chapter, with perhaps a few modifications which will make them simpler. now for the making of some pieces of bedroom furniture. you will find in figs. and two designs that are easily carried out, one or both of which may be used for =the beds= of a doll-house. to make fig. , cut the head and foot by means of the pattern in fig. , and cut the two sides by means of the pattern in fig. . after preparing these pieces and fastening them together as shown in the illustration (fig. ), cut a few strips a quarter of an inch wide for slats and fasten them between the sides of the bed. it is advisable to fasten these in place to prevent them from being lost. the side pieces for the other bed (fig. ) are cut out with the same pattern (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a bed.] [illustration: fig. .--another design.] make the head and foot pieces three by four and one-half inches, cutting a piece two by an inch and one-quarter out of the top of each as shown in the drawing (fig. ), and using the pattern of the other bed for cutting the curve in the bottom edge. nail the pieces together in their proper places, after which cut some slats and fasten them in the bottom. =the dresser= (fig. ) is made somewhat similar to the side-board. cut the sides by the same pattern (fig. ) and fasten them to the edges of the back piece, which should be six and one-half inches high by three inches wide. cut shelf _a_ three by one and one-quarter inches, _b_ and _c_ three by one and one-eighth, _d_ three by one and three-sixteenths, and _e_ and _f_ one-half by one and one-quarter inches. fasten shelf _a_ between the sides at line no. (see fig. ), _b_ at line no. , _c_ at line no. , _d_ at line no. , and notch the ends of _e_ and _f_ to fit over the side pieces at line no. . [illustration: fig. .--a dresser.] drawers to fit the lower shelves of the dresser may be made out of small strips of cigar-boxes or pieces of cardboard, glued together. a small mirror fastened in the position shown in the drawing will complete the work upon this piece of furniture. =a wash-stand= can be made for the bathroom and each of the bedrooms similar to fig. . the sides for this should be five inches high by an inch and one-quarter wide, and the shelves one by three inches. fasten the lower shelf three-quarters of an inch above the base, and the top shelf at a height of two and one-half inches. when the stand has been put together, fit a round stick, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, in holes made in the sides with a gimlet (see illustration). this forms the towel-rack. hang a small drapery over the lower portion of the stand. [illustration: fig. .--a wash-stand.] =finishing.= when the pieces of furniture have been completed, they should be rubbed down with emery-paper to remove the rough edges, and also any rough places that may have been caused by soaking the boxes in water. then give the wood several coats of linseed-oil. this makes a beautiful finish for this kind of wood, which may be improved by adding a coat of wax. the little hearts may be painted upon the pieces as shown in the illustration, with a small brush and red paint, or may be cut out of red paper and glued to the wood. if desired, the bedroom furniture may be painted with white enamel. other cigar-box furniture in figs. and will be found some pieces of furniture that are simpler to make than those just described, and although they may not be so pretty, they present a very good appearance when neatly made. the author constructed many pieces of this furniture when a boy, and found them suitable as presents, and something that was always easy to sell. the cost of making a set amounts to but a few cents, cigar-boxes being the principal material. they are also very quickly made, as the boxes require but little cutting. [illustration: fig. .--a doll's folding-bed.] for the construction of =a folding-bed=, such as is shown in figs. and , select two cigar-boxes, one of which will fit inside the other. the smaller box should be a little shorter than the inside opening of the larger box. [illustration: fig. .--folding-bed (open).] [illustration: fig. .--foot.] after removing the paper from each, place the smaller box inside the larger one, as shown in fig. , so that the bottom of the inner box is flush with the edge of the outer box. then drive a brad through both boxes on each side, about three-quarters of an inch from the end as shown at _a_ (fig. ). these brads should run through the outer box into the bottom of the inner box, and should be driven in carefully so as not to split the wood. the inner box should now fold down as shown in fig. , moving upon the brad pivots. purchase a five or ten cent mirror and fasten it to the front of the bed, after which cut two wooden feet similar to fig. and glue the pegs on the ends of these in gimlet holes made above the mirror. finish the wood the same as described for the other cigar-box furniture. [illustration: fig. .--dresser completed.] [illustration: fig. .--a doll's dresser.] =the dresser= shown in fig. is made out of a box the same size as the larger one used for the folding-bed. saw the sides of the box in half, crosswise, and remove the upper half and the end piece. then nail the end across the tops of the remaining halves of the sides. when this has been done, divide up the lower portion of the box into compartments as shown in the drawing (fig. ). this should have a small drapery hung over it. the upper portion of the dresser should have a mirror attached to it, and some lace draped over the top and sides will add greatly to its appearance. all you will have to do in making =a wardrobe= will be to fasten some small hooks inside of a cigar-box, attach the cover with a strip of linen--the same way it was attached before you soaked it off--and hang a mirror on the front. these pieces of furniture were designed for separate sets, and would not do for doll-houses the size of those in the preceding chapters, unless the boxes were cut down to smaller proportions. chapter xviii home-made cigar-box toys cigar-boxes are splendid material for a variety of home-made toys. in this chapter are shown some easily constructed wagons, a jack-in-the-box, a cradle, and several tables and chairs of a different pattern from the doll furniture for which working drawings were given in the preceding chapter. get an assortment of shapes and sizes of boxes at a cigar store, and prepare them for use as directed on page . use / inch and / inch brads, and glue, for fastening the pieces together. a scroll-saw, bracket-saw, coping-saw, or a very sharp jack-knife should be used where =cutting= is necessary. do not attempt to split the wood, as the grain is seldom straight, but lay it down upon a board and _score_ it with a knife in the way in which you would score a piece of cardboard; then break it along the scored line, or continue cutting until the piece is cut in two. if you use a saw, cut a little away from the outlines of the work and then trim up with a knife and sandpaper. the wagons, jack-in-the-box, and doll furniture shown in this chapter were designed with the idea of saving as much cutting as possible, and you will see by the illustrations that in many cases the boxes are not altered. =the express-wagon= shown in fig. is made out of a long flat box. cut down the sides at the front and construct a seat on top of the sides as shown in fig. . cut the front wheels about - / inches in diameter and the rear wheels about - / inches in diameter. if you haven't a compass with which to describe the circles, you can mark out the wheels with cups or glass tumblers. cut the wooden axles as shown in fig. , making the front axle--for the smaller wheels--deeper than the rear one, then fasten them to the wagon and nail the wheels to their ends. drive a tack into the front of the wagon-box and tie a cord to it, or, if you have a small toy horse to hitch to the wagon, fasten a pair of shafts to the under side of the box as is shown upon the two-wheel cart. [illustration: fig. .--cross-section of the express-wagon.] =the cart= in fig. is made out of a square flat box with its wheels fastened to the center of the under side. make the wheels about - / inches in diameter. [illustration: fig. . an express-wagon.] [illustration: fig. . a cart.] =the auto delivery-wagon= (figs. and . see _frontispiece_) requires two boxes - / inches long, inches wide, and - / inches deep. you will see by the illustrations that one box is inverted upon the other. before fastening them together, remove the two ends of the upper box and the rear end of the lower box (leaving the front end for the _dashboard_), and cut inches off the sides at the front and an additional piece inch by - / inches from the sides of the upper box for windows. fasten the boxes together by nailing strips to the ends of side pieces. nail a narrow strip across the top of the rear end of the wagon and hinge a drop _end-gate_ to the wagon-bed with cloth strips. support the end-gate with a cloth strap. tack a curtain of black cloth to the top cross strip and sew two cloth straps to the curtain, so that it may be fastened up in a roll, as shown in the photograph. make the wheels and axles like those of the express wagon, but cut the front and rear wheels, also the two axles, of equal size. cut out a small steering-wheel and fasten it on a short wooden rod inside of the dashboard. make a seat and seat back, nail the back to the seat, and then fasten the seat between the sides of the wagon just below the windows. =a jack-in-the-box= (fig. ) is a simpler toy to make than you might imagine. the box should measure about - / inches by - / inches by inches. hinge the cover to the top with two pieces of heavy cloth; glue one piece to the inside of the cover and box, and the other to the outside. drive a small tack into the front edge of the cover, and below it fasten a small hook on to the box; the hook may be bent from a short piece of wire. a spiral spring from an old bed-spring will do for jack's body, but if you cannot get one of these it is a simple matter to make a spring. take a piece of no. gauge wire about feet in length and wind it around a rolling-pin or anything that is cylindrical and about - / inches in diameter. fasten this spring with doubled-pointed tacks upon a piece of wood cut to fit the inside of the box (fig. ), then procure a small doll's head, baste a circular piece of cardboard to the top of the spring and to this sew the head. make a cloth fool's cap to glue on jack's head, covering his hair entirely, and also a loose jacket to fit over his spiral body; for these use any bright-colored cotton cloth that will fall into folds easily. tack the base of the spring to the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. . leg of dining-table.] [illustration: fig. . pedestal of center-table.] make the seat for =the round-seated chair= shown in fig. inches in diameter, the back inches high, inches wide at the top, and - / inches wide at the seat; cut the front leg - / inches high by - / inches wide. =the round center-table= (fig. ) should have a base built up of four strips as shown in fig. . cut the circular top inches in diameter. a saucer may be used with which to mark this out. select a long flat box for =the dining-table= shown in fig. , and after making four built-up legs as shown in fig. fasten them into the four corners of the box table top with brads and glue. [illustration: fig. . a doll's cradle.] [illustration: fig. . a round-seated chair.] [illustration: fig. . a jack-in-the-box.] [illustration: fig. . a round center-table.] [illustration: fig. .--a dining-table.] [illustration: fig. .--the skeleton of the jack-in-the-box.] [illustration: fig. .--a square-seated chair.] in making the little =square-seated chair= (fig. ), cut the seat about inches wide by - / inches deep, the front legs - / inches high by / inch wide, and the back legs - / inches high by / inch wide. brace the legs and back with crosspieces, and you will have a very firm and artistic dining-room chair. select a box about inches by inches by - / inches in size for making =the doll's cradle= shown in fig. . cut the two rockers by the pattern in fig. and fasten them to the bottom of the box inch from the ends. use the rim of a breakfast plate in drawing the arc of the rockers; then draw the rounded ends, being careful to get them alike. saw out the rockers very particularly so as not to split off the ends. fasten the pieces to the cradle box with brads driven through the box bottom into their top edge. [illustration: fig. .--pattern for cradle rockers.] after the cigar-box toys have been made, rub down the wood with fine sandpaper. then drive all nail-heads below the surface, fill up the holes with putty stained to match the wood as nearly as possible, and finish with two coats of boiled linseed-oil. apply the oil with a rag, then wipe off all surplus oil with a dry cloth. chapter xix home-made spool and cardboard toys all that is required for making the little toys shown in this chapter are spools, cardboard, paper, a straight-grained stick out of which to cut pegs, some tacks, pins, and glue. [illustration: fig. .--doll carriage.] did you ever see a better model of =a baby carriage= than that shown in fig. , with its rounded ends, arched bottom, and adjustable hood? it is easy to make. figure shows the details for constructing the carriage body. cut four wooden pegs to fit loosely in the holes of four spools of equal size, and make them of the right length so when slipped into the holes their ends will project about / inch beyond the spool ends. then cut the bottom strip _b_ inches long by the width of the spools, bend it slightly as shown, to give a curve to the carriage bottom, and tack the ends of the strip to two of the spools (_a_). [illustration: figs. - .--details of doll carriage.] the sides _c_ are of cardboard and should be - / inches wide at the widest point, by the length of the carriage body. punch holes through these side pieces in the right places for the ends of the pegs in spools _a_ to stick through. before fastening the side pieces to spools _a_, you must attach the wheels (figs. and ). cut the cardboard uprights _d_ - / inches long and / inch wide; then after cutting holes through each near the ends, for the spool pegs to slip through, cut down the width between the holes to about / inch (fig. ). slip the lower ends of uprights _d_ over the pegs in spool wheels _e_, then the upper ends over the pegs in spools _a_. glue the upper ends to the ends of spools _a_, then slip the carriage sides _c_ over the pegs of spools _a_, and glue them in place. [illustration: fig. .--baby carriage hood.] [illustration: fig. .--diagram of hood.] [illustration: fig. .--carriage handles.] the carriage hood (fig. ) is made of a piece of stiff paper about - / inches square (fig. ), slashed in three places along two opposite edges for a distance of about - / inches, and then folded over as indicated by dotted lines. bring together the ends of the slashed edges of the piece of paper, as shown in fig. , coat them with glue, and press together until the glue has dried. punch a hole through each side of the top, as shown, for the projecting ends of the spool peg to slip through. the carriage handle is made of two cardboard strips (_f_, fig. ), and a match (_g_). stick the match through holes made near the ends of strips f, and glue the lower ends of the strips to the inside face of the sides (fig. ). this completes the carriage. [illustration: fig. .--the two-wheel cart. fig. - .--details of cart.] =the two-wheel cart= (fig. ) is made of a small box cover, and one of the spools on which crochet-cotton comes. prepare a bent piece of cardboard like that shown in fig. , with ends _a_ turned down at the proper points so there will be only room enough between them for the spool to turn freely. punch a hole through each turned down end for a stick axle to run through. [illustration: fig. .--merry-go-round.] [illustration: fig. .--teeter.] [illustration: fig. .--cardboard strip for merry-go-round and teeter.] [illustration: fig. .--boy and girl riders for merry-go-round and teeter.] then cut two slots through the box cover the same distance apart as ends _a_ (fig. ), centering the pair both crosswise and lengthwise of the cover, and stick ends _a_ through the slots and glue portion _b_ to the cover. cut the wheel axle enough smaller than the spool hole so the spool will turn easily, then push it through the hole in the spool and the holes in ends _a_. glue the end of a cardboard strip to the under side of the cover for a shaft. =the toy merry-go-round= in fig. consists of a strip of heavy cardboard turned up at its ends (fig. ), tacked at its center to the end of a stick cut small enough to turn easily in the hole in a spool. the spool slipped over the stick is grasped by the right hand, and the left hand starts the merry-go-round and keeps it in motion by twirling the stick to which the cardboard strip is fastened. the boy and girl riders, shown in fig. are of the right size so you can trace them off upon a piece of tracing-paper and then transfer to cardboard. after cutting them out of the cardboard, color both sides with crayons or water-colors, and glue them to the turned-up ends of the cardboard strip. [illustration: fig. .--doll swing.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of swing.] =the teeter-board= (fig. ) is made of the same kind of a strip as that used for the merry-go-round (fig. ). tack this strip at its center to the side of a spool, and mount the spool in a cardboard frame in the same way that the spool wheels of the cart are mounted (figs. and ); but make the peg axle to fit tight in the spool hole. prepare a boy and girl rider similar to those made for the merry-go-round (fig. ). the teeter is operated by turning the end of the spool axle first one way then the other. [illustration: figs. and .--details of swing seat.] =the doll swing= shown in fig. has a cardboard base, with two spools fastened to it inches apart to support the framework. tack the base to the ends of the spools. the framework uprights are tightly rolled tubes of paper or inches long, and the top crosspiece is another paper tube inches long. stick the lower ends of the uprights into the spool holes; then fasten the crosspiece to their tops by running pins through it and into the upright ends (fig. ), and then lashing the connections with thread as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--sofa.] the swing seat is made of a spool with a cardboard back fastened to it (figs. and ). suspend the spool with thread from the top of the swing crosspiece. [illustration: figs. - .--details of sofa.] =a sofa= with arm rolls, like that shown in fig. , is a good example of what can be made in spool-and-cardboard doll furniture. prepare the seat and back out of a single piece of cardboard, curving the top and ends of the back as shown, and making the width of the seat the same as the length of the spool arms. fasten the spools by means of a strip of paper bent over them as shown in fig. , and glued to the seat. use small silk-thread spools (fig. ) for feet, and glue them to the seat at the four corners. [illustration: fig. .--chair.] [illustration: fig. .--square center-table.] [illustration: fig. .--round center-table.] =the chair= (fig. ) has a seat and back made out of a single piece of cardboard, with one-third of its length bent out for the seat. glue the seat to a spool base. =the square center-table= (fig. ) has a crochet-cotton spool pedestal, and its top is a square piece of cardboard. glue the spool to the exact center of the top. =the round center-table= (fig. ) is made similarly. use the rim of a cup for marking out the circular top. with a little ingenuity you will be able to devise a great many other pieces of doll furniture, and other toys as well. chapter xx a home-made toy mail-box who wants to play at being uncle sam, and have a postal system right in the house, or out on the front porch where it will be convenient for the children next door to enjoy it, too? every small boy and girl loves to play postman, collect mail from the toy mail-box, cancel the stamps, sort out the letters into the proper routes, and then deliver them to those whom they are addressed to. the mail-box shown in figs. and is easily made, and with =the working material= on hand can be completed in an evening. two sheets of cardboard, a piece of muslin, some silver paper or paint, a piece of tape about yards long, and a needle and thread, are required. the cardboard should be stiff enough to hold its shape, and yet be of light enough weight to cut and fold easily. sheets inches by inches can be bought at any printing-shop, and at some stationery stores, and will not cost more than cents a sheet at the most. if you have some large cardboard boxes, however, you can use them instead by so laying out the different parts that the corners of the boxes will come in the right places for the corners of the mail-box. [illustration: fig. .--diagram for making sides, ends, and bottom of mail-box.] [illustration: fig. .--diagram for making top.] [illustration: fig. .--diagram for making end pieces of letter-drop.] [illustration: fig. .--diagram for making front piece of letter-drop.] figure shows the diagrams for =making the sides, ends, and bottom= of the mail-box, with the dimensions of every portion marked upon them. use a ruler with which to guide your pencil in drawing the straight lines, and a compass or the rim of a -inch plate for describing the arcs for the round tops of the end pieces. you will see that the front, one end, and the bottom are made in one piece, and that the back, other end, and a second bottom (to make that portion doubly strong) are cut from another piece. [illustration: fig. .--the home-made mail-box strapped to the face of a door.] [illustration: fig. .--the home-made mail-box strapped to a chair back.] [illustration: fig. .--the sides, ends, and bottom folded ready to be put together.] the dotted lines upon the diagram indicate where the cardboard should be folded. figure shows the sides, ends, and bottom folded ready to be put together. turn the flaps inside, and glue them to the end pieces, and glue the two bottom pieces together; also sew the cardboard with a double thread to make the joining doubly secure. [illustration: fig. .--top, showing how portion is bent up for back of letter-drop.] [illustration: fig. .--ends of letter-drop.] [illustration: fig. .--front of letter-drop.] [illustration: fig. .--top, with letter-drop completed.] =the top of the box=--the diagram for the cutting of which is shown in fig. --has a piece by inches cut out on all but one long side, and bent up to form the top of =the letter-drop= (fig. ). the diagram for the ends of the letter-drop is shown in fig. , and for the front in fig. ; fig. shows how cloth flaps are glued to the end piece; and fig. shows how the end pieces are fastened to the top of the box by means of these flaps. glue a strip of cloth to each side of the lower edge of the letter-drop front piece for hinges (fig. ), and glue one to the inside and the other to the outside of the top of the box (fig. ). attach rubber-bands to the front and ends of the drop to make it spring shut. glue and sew the top of the box to the flaps provided on the front and back for the purpose. [illustration: fig. .--diagram for making collection-drop.] [illustration: fig. .--how the collection-drop is folded.] [illustration: fig. .--the collection-drop hinged in place.] figure shows the diagram for =the collection-drop=, and fig. how it looks folded. hinge the drop to the box with a cloth strip (fig. ). =reinforcement.= when the work has been finished thus far, cut a number of strips of muslin inch wide and reinforce the corners with them. then take the -yard length of tape, which you procured, and sew it to the back of the box to hang it up by. =covering the box.= silver paper makes the nicest finish for the mail-box, and can be bought of a stationer; but you may paint the cardboard with aluminum radiator paint instead if you prefer. if you use silver paper, stick it on with flour paste. after the paper or paint has dried, paste =a collection schedule card= upon the front of the box. you will need, also, to =letter= the words, "pull down," "letters," etc., where they are shown in the illustrations. =hang up the mail-box= by means of its tape strap, within easy reach, upon the face of a door (fig. ), or to the back of a chair (fig. ). =for a mail-bag= use a school-book bag, or make one just like a real postman's out of brown denim or cambric. letter "u. s. mail" upon the bag with black paint, or cut the letters from black or white muslin and glue them in place. provide a long strap to reach over the postman's shoulder. =the way to play post-office= is for several children to attend to the writing of letters and wrapping of parcels, another to play mail clerk, who puts the post-marks on the mail and sorts it out into "routes" and another to play postman. canceled stamps from old letters may be re-used on the play letters, and a rubber-stamp dater such as they sell at the stationer's for cents may be used for printing the post-marks. chapter xxi a home-made reflectoscope [illustration: fig. .--the complete reflectoscope.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of ventilator top.] this reflecting lantern, shown completed in fig. , is more magical in its operation than a magic-lantern is, because, instead of projecting through transparent slides, it reflects opaque pictures. that makes it possible to use magazine and newspaper pictures, post cards, and photograph prints. you may reflect a greatly enlarged picture of the movements of your watch, and by placing your face against the opening in the reflectoscope, you may show a view of your mouth opening and closing, giant size. the ease with which slides are obtained makes this a desirable lantern to own. [illustration: fig. .--plan of reflectoscope.] =the material.= you must get a box about by by inches in size for the case of the reflectoscope, two oil-lamps, or two or candle-power electric lamps with the parts necessary for connecting them to the electric lighting circuit, three -lb. baking-powder cans and two tomato cans, two pieces of tin about by inches in size, and a lens from a camera, field glass, opera glass, magic-lantern or bicycle-lamp. the bottom of the box will be the front of the reflectoscope. [illustration: fig. .--cross-section of reflectoscope.] =cut the lens opening= through this, at the center of its length, and a trifle above the center of its width. make the hole a trifle larger than the lens. =cut ventilator holes= inches in diameter through the uppermost side of the box, near to the ends and bottom. figures and show =the interior arrangement= of the reflectoscope. place the lamps in the corners of the box, next to the front, and tack in back of them the pieces of tin for reflectors (_a_, figs. and ). bend the reflectors to the curve shown. =if oil lamps are used=, their tops will project through the ventilation holes, as shown in fig. . these openings must be inclosed with =a hood which will conceal the light=, yet allow the heat to escape. the most satisfactory arrangement is that shown in figs. and . a baking-powder can with its bottom removed (_b_) is slipped over the lamp chimney and fitted into the ventilation hole; then a tomato-can (_c_) is inverted over the top of the can and fastened in the slotted ends of three wooden peg stilts (_d_, fig. ), and the pegs are fitted into holes made in the top of the box (figs. and ). fasten the can in the slots of the stilts with tacks (fig. ). =if electric light is used=, the hooded ventilators may be omitted. any boy who understands the wiring of electric-lamp sockets, plugs, and drop-cord will know how to wire up the reflectoscope. mount the lens in a can or mailing-tube jacket (fig. ). if you use a can, remove the bottom. if the lens is smaller in diameter, make a band of cardboard strips to fit around the edge, as shown in fig. , and glue these strips to the inside of the can or mailing-tube. the lens jacket should fit loosely enough in the reflectoscope box opening so it will slide back and forth for focusing. make a tin collar to fit around the jacket, and tack it to the front of the box, to prevent light from escaping (fig. ). before putting on the back of the reflectoscope box, =putty up all cracks= between the boards in the top and front, to make the box light-tight; then =paint the inside of the box= and the cover boards with lamp-black thinned with turpentine, so there will be no reflections other than those produced by the lamp reflectors and the picture. [illustration: figs. and .--details of lens mounting.] [illustration: fig. .--view of back of reflectoscope.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of post card holder.] =nail the back boards in place=, leaving an opening about inches square directly opposite the lens. cut a piece of board to fit this opening (_e_, fig. ) for =the picture holder=, and hinge it in place. a frame for post cards to slide in should be fastened to the picture holder, as shown in fig. . first nail strips _f_ to board _e_, then tack strips _g_ to them so their edges project over strips _f_. a little wooden button (_h_, fig. ) will fasten the holder board shut while each picture is being projected. =the lens reverses pictures= in projecting them, and in order to have them projected right-side up on the screen it is necessary to slip them into the holder frame upside down. =adjustments.= after you have built your reflectoscope, you may find it does not throw sharply-defined images upon your projection screen. in that case you must readjust the focus of the lens, the curve of the lamp reflectors, and the distance between the lens and the projection screen, until the best possible results are obtained. inasmuch as the positions will vary with different lenses, it is impossible for me to give any hard and fast measurements. you will have to determine the distances yourself. the stronger the light, the brighter the projected image will be; therefore, use the strongest light you can get, and place the lantern not more than five feet away from the screen. unless you use an anastigmat lens such as the better grade of cameras are fitted with, you will discover that the corners of pictures are indistinct when you have brought the centers to a sharp focus. this indistinctness can be corrected to a great extent by blocking out the holder to curve the post cards and other pictures so that the ends are closer to the lens than the center is. index a airships," clockwork "flying, . animal targets for toy shooting gallery, . apartment building, doll, . automobile, clockwork, . automobile delivery wagon, clockwork, ; cigar-box, . b baby carriage, doll, . ballast, toy elevator, . balusters, doll-house stairway, . battery, a bi-chromate of potash, . bead portieres, doll-house, . beds, doll-house, , . bi-chromate battery fluid, . boat, toy motor-, . box-kite, . bridle, malay kite, ; box-kite, . buzz-saw whirligig, . c cables, toy elevator, , ; electro-magnet derrick, . cardboard toys, . carpets, doll-house, . carriage, doll baby, . cars, toy railway, ; gondola, ; street, ; other forms of, ; elevator, , , ; ferris wheel, . cart, cigar-box, ; cardboard, . chairs, cigar-box, , , ; cardboard, . chauffeur for clockwork automobile, . cigar-boxes, to prepare, for use, . cigar-box toys, . clock, a grandfather's, . clock wheel top, . clockwork automobile, . clockwork automobile delivery wagon, . clockwork ferris wheel, . clockwork "flying airships," . clockwork merry-go-round, . clockwork motors, , ; increasing speed of, . clockwork railway, . clockwork toys, . clog-dancer, toy, . control, toy elevator, . cosey-corner, doll-house, . counter-balance, , . cradle, doll's, . cricket-rattle, . curtains, doll-house, . d decorating, doll-house, ; doll apartment, . delivery-wagon, clockwork automobile, ; cigar-box, . derrick, electro-magnet, . doll apartment building, . doll-house, ; furnishing the, . dresser, doll, , . e egg-beater motor-winder, . electrical toys, . electric motor truck, toy, . electro-magnet, . electro-magnet derrick, . elevator, model aeroplane, . elevators, toy, . elevator, toy office building, ; an outdoor, ; doll-house, . enlarging by squares, . express-wagon, cigar-box, . f feed-hoist, toy stable, . feed-troughs, toy stable, . ferris wheel, clockwork, . fin, model aeroplane, . fireplace, doll apartment, . fixtures, doll apartment lighting, . floors, toy office building, ; hardwood, for doll-house, . "flying airships," clockwork, . flying-line for kites, . folding-bed, doll, . furniture, cigar-box, , ; cardboard, . fuselage, model aeroplane, . g gable-ends, doll-house, ; toy stable, . garage, toy (_see_ stable). gondola car, . grandfather's clock, . guides, toy elevator, , , . h hand-rail, doll-house stairway, . horses for merry-go-round, cardboard, , . house, doll-, ; furnishing the doll-, ; doll apartment, ; furniture for doll-, , , . i induction-coil, . interrupter, shocking-machine, . j jack-in-the-box, cigar-box, . jumping-jack, . jumping-jack operated by windmill, . k kite, a malay, ; a box-, . kite-reel, a hand, ; a body, . l launching a model aeroplane, . lighting fixtures, doll apartment, . m magnet, electro-, . mail-bag, toy, . mail-box, toy, . malay kite, . mantel, doll apartment, . mechanical toys, . merry-go-round, top, ; clockwork, ; cardboard, . mirror, doll-house, . mission furniture, doll, . model aeroplane, ; propellers for, ; motors for, ; motor-winder for, ; launching a, . motor-boat, toy, . motors, clockwork, , ; increasing speed of, . motors, model aeroplane, ; winder for, . motors, water-(_see_ water-motor). motor, toy motor-boat, . motor truck, toy electric, . motor-winder, egg-beater, . n newel-post, doll-house stairway, . o office building elevator, toy, . p partitions, toy office building, ; doll-house, ; stable stall, . pictures, doll-house, . pinion-wheel windmill, . pinwheel, a paper, . pistol, toy, card-shooting, . planes, model aeroplane, . portieres, doll-house, . post-office with mail-box, to play, . primary coil, induction-coil, . propeller-shaft, model aeroplane, ; toy motor-boat, . propellers, model aeroplane, . propeller, toy motor-boat, . pulley-wheel, , , , . r race-track, spinning-top, . railway, toy, ; trolley-line for, ; power for, ; tracks for, ; cars for, ; gondola car for, ; street car for, ; other cars for, ; operation of, ; station for, ; clockwork, . rattle, cricket, . reel, a hand kite-, ; a body kite-, . reflectoscope, . riders for merry-go-round, , . risers, doll-house stairway, . rugs, doll-house, . rug-tack top, . s secondary-coil, induction-coil, . settee, doll, . shocking machine, . shoe-polish can top, . shooting gallery, toy, . side-board, doll, . sleighs for merry-go-round, cardboard, . sofa, doll, . spinning-top race-track, . spiral top, . spool and cardboard toys, . spool top, . stable, toy, . stairway for doll-house, , . station for toy railway, . straw portieres, doll-house, . street car, toy, . swing, doll, . switch, electro-magnet derrick, . t tables, cigar-box, , , ; cardboard, . tack top, . targets, toy shooting gallery, . teeter-board, . thrust bearings, , . top, clockwork, ; rug-tack, ; spool, ; spinning, race-track, ; shoe-polish can, ; spiral, ; merry-go-round, . tops, . track, spinning-top race, . tracks, toy railway, . treads, doll-house stairway, . trolley-line, toy railway, . troughs, toy stable feed-, . truck, toy electric motor, . turtle toy, . v varnish-can water-motor, . w wagon, cigar-box express-, . wardrobe, doll, . wash-stand, doll, . water-motor, a varnish-can, ; another form of, . wheel, clockwork ferris, . wheel, water-motor, , . whirligig, a buzz-saw, . winder, model aeroplane motor-, . windlass, electro-magnet derrick, . windmill, a paper, ; a pinion-wheel, ; a four-blade, ; an eight-blade, ; jumping-jack operated by a, . window-shades, doll-house, . the boy mechanic book [illustration: four-passenger coasting bobsled see page ] the boy mechanic book things for boys to do how to construct devices for winter sports, motion-picture camera, indoor games, reed furniture, electrical novelties, boats, fishing rods, camps and camp appliances, kites and gliders, pushmobiles, roller coaster, ferris wheel and hundreds of other things which delight every boy with illustrations copyrighted, , by h. h. windsor chicago popular mechanics co. publishers * * * * * transcriber's note: this etext differs from the original as follows. two minor typographical errors were found and corrected. in the chapters on making fly-fishing rods (pages - ), several lists of materials or dimensions that were printed as running text have been reformatted as lists for clarity. the text is unchanged. * * * * * [illustration: after the first station has been selected, it is marked by a pile of stones, a stake, or, if precise work is to be done, a tack in the top of a stake. the table is then set up over this station point and leveled so that the surface of the paper will be truly horizontal (inset: uncle john's farm scale / " = ' jimmy smith--surveyor) ] [illustration: the boy surveyor] plane-table surveying by harold g. mcgee [in the training of a boy for a trade or profession there is none so profitable for outdoor work as that of a surveyor. this article sets forth how to accomplish surveying and the making of simple maps with the use of commonplace tools that any boy can make.--editor.] surveying and map making have always been two of the most interesting things a civil engineer has had to do. and, like george washington, many of the men we look up to today as successes in different lines worked as surveyors in their younger days. surveying takes one out of doors, and is apt to lead him into the unknown and unexplored byways of the earth. though modern surveyors often use precise and expensive instruments, creditable surveys can be made with simple and inexpensive apparatus. of such apparatus, two of the simplest are the plane table and the camera. since one must know the principles of plane-table surveying before he can do camera surveying, this paper will describe the plane table alone, leaving the camera for another chapter. a plane table is simply a drawing board mounted on a tripod so that it can be set up and worked upon in the field. one kind of plane table, which is used in the army for reconnaissance, does not even have a tripod; it is simply strapped to the arm of the man who is using it. plane-table maps vary greatly in scale and the area they represent. landscape artists' plans may show only single city lots, while some topographic maps cover hundreds of square miles on a single sheet. for maps of a small farm, a park, or a residence block in the city, a plane table is almost ideal, since plane-table maps are made with rather simple apparatus and do not require much actual measuring on the ground. most objects are located without ever going to them, or even sending a rod-man to them. [illustration: just a few weeks after george washington's sixteenth birthday, in , lord fairfax, owner of a large estate in virginia, took him into his employ as a surveyor] besides the plane table itself and a sheet of paper, only a small carpenter's level, a tape to measure a few distances with, and some spikes for markers, a hard lead pencil, a ruler, and a few needles are absolutely necessary for this sort of a map. [illustration: three stations are used for setting the plane table in succession to locate the various objects table at sta. a - table at sta. b - table at sta. c ] to start a plane-table map, a station must first be selected from which as many as possible of the objects to be located on the finished map can be seen. ordinarily, the objects one would locate are corners of buildings, fence corners, intersections of roads, corners of lots, banks of streams, possibly trees, and section and quarter-section corners in the country. a railroad, a lake, a mountain, or anything which forms a noticeable landmark in any particular locality, ought to be on the map. in mapping a territory which has never been surveyed before, the first surveyor may name the hills and streams. after the first station has been selected, it is marked by a pile of stones, a stake, or, if precise work is to be done, a tack in the top of a stake. the table is then set up over this station point and leveled so that the surface of the paper will be truly horizontal. generally, too, the board is "oriented," that is, placed so that two of its edges point north and south and two east and west. it is then clamped so that it will not move while working on it. to begin the map, a point on the table is chosen to represent the station on the ground over which the table is set. this point is marked by sticking a fine needle into the paper, vertically. a small triangle should be drawn around the needle hole in the paper and labeled "sta. a," so that it will not be lost in the maze of points which will soon cover the sheet. by sighting past this needle toward some object which is wanted on the map, like the corner of a house, its direction can be marked by setting another needle on the far side of the table, in line with the first and the given object. then, if a ruler or straightedge be placed against these two needles and a fine line drawn connecting them, this line will show the exact direction of the object from sta. a. all the other objects which are wanted on the finished map and can be seen from sta. a are located by direction in the same way. the first points to have their direction thus marked ought to be the next stations to be occupied. if all the objects to be located can be seen from three stations, or even two of three stations, three stations will be sufficient. the distance to one of them from sta. a should be carefully measured and laid off to scale along its direction line on the map. its place on the map should be marked exactly as the first station was, substituting b for a. it is wise, after every few sights at other objects, to take a sight along the line ab to make sure that the board has not turned. a good map is impossible if the board twists. to measure the distance between stations, a or -ft. tape, or some accurate substitute, is necessary. an ordinary piece of iron telegraph wire, ft. long, is a good substitute. a point, about - / ft. from one end, is marked with a little lump of solder. a chisel dent in this solder will mark one end of the -ft. section. then, with a borrowed tape or a good rule, measure off and mark every ft., just as the first point was marked, until the entire ft. have been laid off. the last ft. should be divided into feet. in all this measuring and marking, the wire must be stretched out taut and straight. the extra - / ft. at each end are used for making handles. by estimating the tenths of a foot, measurements can be made with such a tape, or "chain," as an old-time surveyor might call it, just as accurately as they can be laid off on the map. [illustration: an alidade, consisting of two sights and a straightedge, takes the place of the two needles] [illustration] two men are required for measuring, or "chaining," a head and a rear chainman. the rear chainman holds the -ft. end of the tape on the station point, while the head chainman takes his end forward toward the station to which they are measuring. when he has gone nearly the length of the tape, the rear chainman calls "halt." the head chainman stops and draws the tape up tight, while the rear chainman holds his division end on the starting point. then the head chainman sticks a spike into the ground to mark the place where his division end comes, calls out "stuck," and starts on toward the object point. large spikes make good marking pins, especially if they have little red or white strips of cloth tied to them. surveyors use markers. one is stuck into the ground at the starting point and is carried forward by the rear chainman, who also picks up the markers at each -ft. point as soon as the head chainman calls "stuck." in this way, the number of markers which the rear chainman has in his hand is always the same as the number of hundreds of feet which the last set marker is from the starting point. in measuring between two points, care must be taken to draw the tape out taut and straight, its two ends must be level with each other, and it must be exactly in line with the two points between which the measurement is being made. in measuring downhill, one end may have to be held up high, and the point on the ground where the end division would come, found by dropping a stone from the place where it is in the air and watching for the spot where the rock strikes the ground. a surer way to do this is to hold a plumb-bob string on the last division and carefully let the bob down until it touches the ground. a rod with a red or white flag on it ought to be placed at or just beyond the point to which the measurement is to be made so that the rear chainman can easily line in the head chainman. the latter, before he places his marker, looks back to the rear chainman to be told whether or not he is "on line" with the object point. if he is not, and ought to go to the rear chainman's right to get "on," the latter holds out his right arm and the head chainman moves accordingly. when he reaches the right point, the rear chainman signals "all right" by holding out both of his arms and then dropping them to his side; the marker is stuck, and both move up a hundred feet and repeat the process. after all the points possible have been located from sta. a, and the direction lines labeled lightly in pencil so that they can be distinguished when the board has been removed from the station, the plane table is picked up and carried to sta. b. here it is again set up, leveled, and oriented by making the direction of the line ab on the paper exactly the same as that of the line from sta. a to sta. b on the ground. this is done by placing needles at points a and b on the table and then turning the board until the two needles and sta. a are in line. sights are taken on the same objects which were "shot" at sta. a, and to objects which were not visible from sta. a. the intersection of the lines of sight toward a given object from a and from b marks the location on the paper of that object. if the two ends of a straight fence have been located in this way, a straight line joining the points will show the location of the fence on the map. by exactly similar methods, every other object is located on the paper. in order to avoid errors, it is an excellent scheme to locate three stations near the outside edges of the area to be mapped, and locate all objects possible by sights from each of the three stations. if, instead of all three crossing each other at a point, the lines of sight from the three stations form a triangle, something is wrong. if the triangle is very small, it may be safe to use its center as the correct point; if not, the work must be repeated and checked. locating even a few points by this method may prevent some bad blunders. the three stations ought to form as nearly as possible, an equilateral triangle; and the distances between all of them should be measured and laid out accurately on the plane table. [illustration: a rigid tripod is made of strips for legs, which are fastened to a large top] there are two ways in which the map may be finished, inked, or traced. by drawing in the "culture," that is, the things built by man, like the houses, the fences, the roads, and the railroads, in black ink; the topography, that is, the hills and valleys, in brown; the water, in blue, and then erasing all the construction lines, a very neat map can be made. another way is to get some "onion-skin" paper, or some tracing cloth, tack it over the penciled map, and trace the lines right through, using black india ink. this tracing can be blueprinted, just as a photographic film. a plain, neat title, describing location of map; who made it and when; the scale used; why it was made, if it was made for a special purpose, and the direction of the north point, ought to be on every map. the topographic sheets published by the united states geological survey are good samples to follow. they have been published for a great many places all over the country, and single copies can be obtained by sending cents to the director, united states geological survey, washington, d. c. [illustration: from an original drawing of a survey of mount vernon, made by george washington at the age of ] plane tables are almost as easily made as they are bought. if there is no old drawing board around the house, a new bread board from the ten-cent store will serve. for ordinary work, a table which is or in. square will do very well. the board must be mounted on a tripod so that it will be rigid while it is being worked upon and yet can be unclamped and oriented. a brass plate, with a hole in it and a nut soldered over the hole, screwed to the bottom of the board will permit the board and tripod to be bolted together in good shape. another method, which is not nearly as good, is to drill a hole clear through the board, countersink it on top for a bolt head, and bolt the board and tripod head directly together. with the brass plate and nut, the camera tripod can be pressed into service if a nut of the proper size has been used. the camera tripod is, however, apt to be wabbly with a drawing board on top; a much more satisfactory tripod can be built as shown in the accompanying drawings. each leg is made of two strips of wood, / by / in. and ft. long. these strips are screwed together at their lower ends, gripping a spike between them which will prevent the legs from slipping on the ground. the tops of the strips are spread apart and screwed to the opposite ends of an oak or maple cleat. this cleat is, in turn, screwed to the under side of the circular tripod head. in place of the two needles and the ruler described for marking the line of sight, most plane-table men use an alidade, which is a combination of two sights and a straightedge. a very simple alidade may be made by mounting two needles on a ruler. the straight edge of the ruler is placed against the needle which marks the station at which the plane table is set up. then, by swinging the ruler around this needle until its two sighting needles come in line with some object, the line of sight can be drawn directly on the paper along the edge of the ruler. a surveyor in india once made an alidade out of a piece of straightedge and two sights made of native coins hammered out by a native blacksmith. two pieces of cigar box, one with a fine vertical saw slit in it, and the other with a vertical slot and a piece of fine wire or silk thread stretched down the center, glued to a well planed, straight, flat piece of wood, make a fine alidade. a careful worker may be able to put his sights on hinges so that they will fold down when not in use. more than anything else, map making rewards care and accuracy, and shows up slipshod workmanship. if the pencils are sharp, the lines fine, and if the work is checked often, beautiful maps can be made with very simple apparatus. * * * * * white marks on waxed surfaces may be removed by rubbing lightly with a soft rag moistened in alcohol, after which rub with raw linseed oil. machine for sketching pictures an ordinary drawing board, with the attachments shown, provides an easy way to sketch pictures, even if one is not proficient in this line of work. it is only necessary to look through the sight and move the pencil about so that the knot in the thread follows the outline of the landscape or object being drawn. [illustration: this machine aids a person in drawing the true outline of a picture] the size of the machine depends on the one building it, but a fair-sized drawing board is sufficient for the beginner. a strip of wood is fastened to the board, near one edge, which has a metal piece on each end, fastened to the under side and bent up over the end to form an extension for the rod to support the moving parts. the strip of wood should be / in. wide and / in. thick, and the sliding arm, holding the pencil, / in. wide and / in. thick. a like strip, but much shorter than the one fastened to the board, is also fitted with metal pieces in an inverted position so the projections will be downward. a / -in. rod is run through holes in the metal pieces of the strips at both ends, and soldered to those on the strip fastened to the board. this will make a hinged joint, as well as one that will allow the upper strip to slide horizontally. centrally located on the upper strip are two more strips, fastened with screws at right angles to the former, with a space between them of / in. for the sliding center piece holding the pencil. these pieces are further braced with a wire at the back, and crosspieces are screwed both on top and under side, to make a rigid guide for the sliding pencil holder. an upright is fastened to the side of one of these pieces over the center of the upper horizontal sliding piece for a screw eye to hold the thread. another screw eye is turned into the crosspiece just under the one on the support, so that the thread will run perpendicularly between them. two more screw eyes are fastened, one into the upper surface of the rear crosspiece, and the other in the end of the pencil holder, near the pencil. by connecting these screw eyes, as shown, with a thread, having a rubber band fastened in the rear end and a knot tied in it near the screw eye in the upper end of the vertical stick, a means for following the outlines of the picture is provided. a vertical stick is fastened to the front edge of the board by means of a notch and wedge. in the upper end of this stick a very small hole is bored for a sight, similar to a peep sight on a rifle. to use the machine, set the board on a table, or tripod, and level it up in front of the object to be drawn. look through the sight at the front of the board and move the pencil about to keep the knot of the thread on the outlines of the picture to be drawn.--contributed by wm. c. coppess, union city, ind. * * * * * a walnut filler is made of lb. burnt turkey umber, lb. of burnt italian sienna, both ground in oil, then mixed to a paste with qt. of turpentine and pt. of japan drier. [illustration: the boy surveyor] camera surveying by harold g. mcgee [this article explains the preparation of the camera for taking the pictures at each of the three stations, after which the plates are developed, printed and kept until a convenient time may be had for plotting the ground. the succeeding article will give in detail the making of the map from the photographs.--editor.] camera surveying is simply plane-table surveying in which the landscape has been photographically picked up and carried indoors. it has the enormous advantage that one can obtain a record of the utmost fidelity in a small fraction of the time taken to do the field work of even a sketchy plane-table survey, and that plotting can be done in the comfort and with the conveniences of a drafting room. when the hours one can work are short or the periods of clear, dry weather are few and far between, a camera is an ideal surveying instrument. it sees and records with the click of the shutter. surveying by camera was proposed early in the infant days of photography; but not until the eighties were photographic surveys commenced in earnest. with the extensive surveys of the canadian rockies by the canadian government within the past decade and the topographic surveys of the alps, the camera has very recently indeed achieved the dignity of being known as a "sure-enough" surveying instrument. even today, few surveyors have ever used photography for making surveys, even though for mountain topography or any survey which includes a large number of distinctive, inaccessible landmarks, the camera asks no odds of either the plane table or the stadia transit. a camera survey taken of the summer cottage or the camping ground will be a source of great delight while it is being plotted up of winter evenings. there is something weird in watching each tent and dock slip into its place with naught but a pair of dividers and a few pictures to do the trick. and when the map is done, there are all the data to tell just where a tennis court can go or a walk ought to be built. in making surveys, a plate camera will do more accurate work than will a film camera; and a fixed focus is a big help in plotting. in spite of the special and expensive instruments which have been designed solely for surveying work, a little ingenuity on the part of the owner of most any kind of a camera, be it big or little, film or plate, box or folding, will do wonders toward producing good results. [illustration: a t-shaped level with adjusting nuts is located on the camera box, or on the bed of the folding camera] to be used for surveying, a camera must be fitted with a spirit level and some arrangement for cross hairs. a t-shaped level on the bed or the box, carefully adjusted, will show when the plate is vertical and when the perpendicular line from the center of the plate to the center of the lens is horizontal. actual cross hairs in the camera are not as good as four tiny points of v's, one projecting from the middle of each side, top, and bottom of the camera box, just in front of the plate holder. how the level is to be adjusted so that a line between the upper and lower points will be truly vertical, and one through the die-side points truly horizontal and on a level with the center of the lens when the bubbles are in the center of the spirit level, will be described later. [illustration: to prepare a camera for surveying, it is necessary to arrange that the axial center line through lens to the plate shall be level (inset: the camera is set up, complete with thread or pencil-line cross hairs and level, then focused on a stake so that its top will just come to the horizontal cross hair at the center of the plate when the level tube parallel with the center line of lens reads level) ] camera preparation to prepare a camera for surveying, it is necessary to arrange that the axial center line through the lens to the plate shall be level, and that the location of the horizontal and vertical center lines shall be indicated on the plate. a spirit level is the best solution of the first problem, and indicated center points of the second. the spirit level preferably may be of the t-form, with two level tubes, or of the "universal" circular form, with which some hand cameras are equipped. however, ordinary hand-camera levels are generally too rough and difficult of adjustment to insure accurate work. on a view camera, the level may be conveniently located on the bed which carries the lens board. if it is screwed to the under side of the arms it will be convenient for use and out of the way. the bed is likewise a good location for the level on a folding hand camera, while the top of the box is about the only possible location with a box-type instrument. the cross hairs or center-line indicators should be placed on the back of the camera, just in front of the plate. if indicators are used, fine-thread cross hairs or pencil lines drawn on the ground glass must be used temporarily for making adjustments. generally, the two cross hairs will divide the plate vertically and horizontally into four equal parts and the hairs or indicators will join the center point of the sides and top and bottom of the opening immediately in front of the plate. but it is essential that the cross hairs have their intersection in a line perpendicular to the plate and passing through the center of the lens. thus in a camera in which the lens is not placed in the center of the plate, or in which the rising and sliding front has placed the lens off center, either or both of the cross hairs may be off center with regard to the plate. [illustration: the ordinary round level may be used, but it is not so good as the t-level] after the cross-hair indicators and the level have been attached to the camera, adjustments are necessary. surveyors distinguish between permanent and temporary adjustments, permanent adjustments being those for which the instrument maker is responsible, and temporary adjustments being those which can be and are made in the field. the principal permanent or maker's adjustments of the surveying camera are those which insure the center line through the lens, or axial center line, or line of collimation, being perpendicular to the plate, the intersection of the cross hairs being on this line, and that the cross hairs themselves are mutually perpendicular. temporary or field adjustments must be so made that one tube of the spirit level shall be parallel with the axial center line through the lens and the other parallel with the horizontal cross hair. [illustration: the cross hairs or center-line indicators should be placed on the back of the camera] the first field adjustment is made in the following manner. the camera is set up, complete with thread or pencil-line cross hairs and level, and focused on a stake whose top shall just come to the horizontal cross hair at the center of the plate, when the level tube parallel with the center line of the lens reads level. this stake may be driven to the required elevation or a rod may be held on it and the point where, in the image on the ground glass, it is intersected by the cross hair marked with pencil on the rod as it is held vertically on the stake. the distance to this stake is measured from the camera and another similar stake set at the same elevation by the same method, but in an opposite direction and at the same distance from the camera. the two stakes or the mark on the vertical rod which is held on these stakes in turn will be level with each other, though they may not be level with the camera. the camera is then moved to a point very much closer to one stake than to the other and again leveled. the vertical distance from one stake-top or mark on the rod is measured and the camera then focused on the second stake. if the level is actually in adjustment, the distance from the second stake top or mark will be exactly the same as it was on the first. if not, the difference, or "error," is found between the two vertical distances from the cross hair to the two stake tops. half this error is corrected by raising or lowering one end of the level tube by means of the threaded nuts which are placed on it for the purpose. the whole process is then repeated until the vertical distances from the horizontal cross hair at the center to the two level stakes, one close to and one distant from the camera, are identical. the axial center line of the lens, or the line of collimation, is then in adjustment with the level. all that remains is to make the horizontal cross hair parallel with the cross level. [illustration: the maker's adjustments should insure the line of collimation being perpendicular to the plate] this is done by using one marked stake. the camera is leveled as far as the "fore-and-aft" level is concerned and the horizontal cross-hair point at the center marked on the stake. the camera is then swung round until the stake just shows on one edge of the ground glass, the fore-and-aft or longitudinal level being checked to make sure its bubble is still in the center. then the bubble in the cross or transverse level tube is brought to the center by means of the threaded adjusting nuts, and the camera is thrown hard over so that the stake appears along the opposite edge of the plate. this time, the bubble of the longitudinal level being kept in the center, half the error introduced by turning from one edge to the other is corrected. all of the adjustments are then rechecked, and if they are found correct the instrument is ready for use. if a circular level be used, the method of adjustment is exactly the same, the swing of the bubble along the axis of the camera and transverse to it being used to determine the longitudinal and transverse adjustments. slips of paper may be used for lifting one side in place of the adjustment nuts of the t-level. a leveling head or ball-and-socket joint on the top of the tripod will be found of material aid in leveling the instrument. no great mechanical genius is necessary to prepare a camera for or to make a successful camera survey. but if a boy have not patience and an infinite desire for accuracy, camera surveying, or indeed any sort of surveying, will be a source of neither pleasure, satisfaction, nor profit. to make transparent paper transparent paper of parchmentlike appearance and strength, which can be dyed with almost all kinds of aniline dyes and assumes much more brilliant hues than ordinary colored glass, can be made in the following manner: procure a white paper, made of cotton or linen rags, and put it to soak in a saturated solution of camphor in alcohol. when dry, the paper so treated can be cut up into any forms suitable for parts of lamp shades, etc. toasting bread over an open fire having experienced some difficulty in obtaining good toast over a gas or open fire i tried the following plan with good results: an old tin pan was placed over the flame and the ordinary wire bread toaster clasping the slice of bread was held about / in. from the pan. in a few minutes the toast was crisp and ready to serve.--contributed by katy doherty, new york city. adjustable stilts the beginner with stilts always selects short sticks so that he will not be very far from the ground, but as he becomes more experienced, the longer the sticks the better. then, too, the small boy and the large boy require different lengths of sticks. the device shown makes a pair of sticks universal for use of beginners or a boy of any age or height. [illustration: stilts having stirrups that can be set at any desired height] to make the stilts, procure two long sticks of even length, and smooth up the edges; then begin at a point ft. from one end and bore holes, / in. in diameter and in. apart from center to center. if there is no diestock at hand, have a blacksmith, or mechanic, make a thread on both ends of a / -in. rod, in. long. bend the rod in the shape shown, so that the two threaded ends will be just in. apart from center to center. the thread on the straight horizontal end should be so long that a nut can be placed on both sides of the stick. a piece of a garden hose or small rubber hose, slipped on the rod, will keep the shoe sole from slipping. the steps can be set in any two adjacent holes to give the desired height.--contributed by walter veene, san diego, cal. grape arbor built of poles in building outdoor structures, such as grape arbors, pergolas, or arches, it is not necessary to use sawed lumber, as they can be built as substantial, and frequently more artistic and cheap, of poles. these are easily obtained, especially in the country or in the smaller cities where there usually are many trees and gardens. [illustration: arbor made of poles which are supported by one row of uprights (fig. , fig. )] the illustrated grape arbor consists of but one row of uprights. across the top of each is placed a horizontal support for the roof poles, as shown in fig. , which is carried near its outer end by an inclined brace. the brace should be connected at each end with a toe joint, as shown in fig. . the upper end of the upright is beveled off on both sides, to form a double-splayed joint with the crosspiece. in order to securely bind the roof of the arbor, the long poles, or roof beams, should be notched near each end to fit over the supports. similar notches in the poles forming the side of the arbor are to fit the uprights, thereby binding them together and preventing toppling over. each set of long poles connecting two uprights should have the end notches the same distance apart, one pole being used as a gauge. all the joints and notches may be cut with a sharp hatchet. in setting the arbor, the uprights should first be assembled complete with braces and roof supports, and placed in the ground a distance apart corresponding to that of the notches on the long poles. the uprights being set, the long poles are placed and fastened with nails.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, ohio. forcing fruit blossoms for decorations twigs trimmed from the fruit trees rather late in the season had quite large buds on them, and we experimented with them in this way: a large box was filled with wet sand, and the twigs were stuck in it and the box set in the warmest corner of the yard. the buds soon swelled and burst into bloom. we then arranged a smaller box of sand and put the blooming twigs into it, and took it into the house where they remained fresh for several days.--contributed by a. louise culver, oakland, cal. corner cleaner attached to a scrubbing brush [illustration] dirt will accumulate and harden in the corners of a floor and the baseboard just because the end of the scrubbing brush will not enter them. the water gets in with the dirt and leaves a hard crust. this may be easily cleaned out if a metal point is attached to the end of the brush handle, as shown in the illustration. it is used as a scraper to break up the crust and clean it out where the bristles will not enter.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york city. [illustration: the boy surveyor] plotting a camera survey by harold g. mcgee [the camera records pictures that can be taken in camp or on a vacation trip and kept until more leisure may be had in winter for plotting the ground.--editor.] a previously measured base triangle with "stations" at each corner is necessary for making a camera survey, just as it is for the plane-table survey. it is preferable to have each of the three sides measured independently, though if one side has been accurately chained, the other two may be less satisfactorily determined by the use of the plane table. if the camera has a fixed focus, it is possible to make an entire survey from the two ends of a single base line; but this method has no check and should be used only when and where the triangle method is impossible. with an adjustable focus, it will rarely give good results. [illustration: two fine hair lines must be scratched on each plate before it is used to plot from, or to make pictures from which the plotting is done] once the triangle has been laid out, the fieldwork is very simple. the camera is set up at one station, carefully leveled, and then a series of pictures is taken, each single plate overlapping the last so as to form a panorama of the area to be mapped. the focus of the lens must not be changed during a series, and plotting is facilitated by keeping the focus constant during all the exposures which make up a survey. to secure good depth of focus, a small stop is generally used, since it is necessary to use a tripod to keep the camera level. if contours are to be drawn, the height of the lens above the ground at the station should be measured and recorded. after a series has been taken at each station, the fieldwork is complete. it is an excellent plan to keep a record of the plate numbers, and the order in which and the station from which the exposures were made, so that the or plates which a small survey will comprise may not get hopelessly mixed up. if the camera is turned each time to the right, clockwise, and the plates are numbered a- , a- , b- , etc., indicating by a- , for example, the leftmost plate taken at sta. a; by a- , the plate just to the right of a- , just as ii is to the right of i on the clock dial, and by b- , the fourth to the right taken at sta. b, there ought to be no difficulty in identifying the plates after the exact details of the ground are forgotten. [illustration: plot of the ground as it should appear after locating the objects as they are shown on the pictures from each point of the triangle] while the pictures are being taken, "flags" of white wood or with white-cloth streamers tied to them must be stuck in the ground or held at the other stations in order that their exact location can be readily and certainly found on the plates. a few distinctive stakes, some with one and some with two or three strips of cloth tied to them, placed at important points on the ground will help immensely in the location of knolls and shore lines. in plotting a camera survey, either the original plates, the prints, or enlargements may be used. the plates are the most accurate if a corrected lens has been used; and the enlargements made back through the lens will be best if the images on the plates are distorted. in any case, two fine hair lines must be scratched on each plate before it is used to plot from, or to make the prints from which the plotting is to be done. one of these lines should connect the points at the top and bottom of the plate, and the other, the points at the sides. the vertical line divides the objects which were on the right of the center of the camera from those that were on the left, and the horizontal line connecting the points on the sides separates the objects that were above the camera from those that were below. if the survey has been made with a lens that does not cover the plate fully or that has considerable uncorrected aberration, causing distorted shapes near the edges and corners of the picture, results can be materially improved by plotting from enlargements. in making the enlargements, the back of the camera should be removed and the light should be allowed to pass through the plate and the lens in the reverse order and direction of that in which it passed when the negative was made. in this way, the errors which were made by the lens originally will be straightened out, and the resulting enlargements will be free from distortion. to make successful enlargements for surveying work, the easel on which the bromide paper is tacked must be square with the camera, and the paper itself should be flat and smooth. it is just as necessary to keep the easel at a constant distance from the camera during the enlarging as it was to keep the same focus while the original negatives were being made. [illustration: in plotting a camera survey the base triangle is first carefully laid out on the paper to such a scale that the map will be of desirable size] in plotting a camera survey the base triangle is first carefully laid out on the paper to such a scale that the map will be of a desirable size. with the apex of the triangle representing sta. a, say, as a center, a circle is drawn with a radius as nearly equal as possible to the distance between the optical center of the lens and the plate when the picture was taken. ordinarily this will be the focal length of the lens; but if the camera was not focused most sharply on an object a great distance off, the radius may be greater. this radius is called the "mapping constant." when an approximate distance for the mapping constant has been determined by measurements on the camera or by knowing the focal length of the lens, the circle, or rather the arc, fg between the two lines to stations b and c, is drawn. the plates taken at sta. a, and ranged around this circle on the outside and just touching it, will show the landscape exactly as seen from a. in the accompanying diagram showing the method of determining the mapping constant and of locating the traces of the plates, the letters f, g, h, j, p, r and s designate points referring to the true mapping constant, and the construction necessary to locate the traces of the plates. the primed letters f', f'', g', g'', etc., are used to show similar points where the trial mapping constant is either too long or too short. the following description refers equally to the construction necessary with true or trial-mapping constants. next, a line fh is drawn perpendicular to the line ab of the triangle at the point f where the arc intersects it. on this line is laid off, in the proper direction, a distance equal to the distance on the plate or print from sta. b to the center vertical line. from this point is drawn a light line, hj, toward the center of the arc. where this line crosses the arc, at j, a tangent, kjm, is drawn, which will show the location of the plate a- on the drawing. this line is called the trace of the plate. an object which appears both on plate a- and a- is next picked out and its location on the trace of plate a- determined by measuring the distance jn equal to the distance on the plate from the image of the object to the center vertical line. a light line, no, joining this last-found point with sta. a, is then drawn. where this last line crosses the arc, at o, a tangent, op, to the arc is drawn, and the trace of the plate a- is found with the aid of the point which appears on both plates just as plate a- was located from the picture of sta. b. the traces of plates a- and a- are found in exactly the same way as was that of a- . if the radius of the arc has been estimated correctly, sta. c will be found to be exactly on the point where the trace of the plate showing the station crosses the line ac on the paper. if it does not fall on the line ac, which is generally the case, everything must be erased except the original triangle. first, however, a radial line s'g', or s''g'', is drawn from the location of sta. c on the trace of the plate a- , or , as the case may be, to the arc, and the point of intersection of this line and the arc, g' or g'', is preserved. if this point, g' or g'', is outside the base triangle, the next trial arc should be drawn with a larger mapping constant as a radius, or vice versa. if the second mapping constant is off, find again the point of intersection of the radial line through the new location of sta. c on the newly located trace of the last plate and the new arc. join this point and the one found previously, in the same manner, with a straight line, g'g''. the point g where this last drawn line intersects the line ac of the base triangle, will be the point through which the arc, with the correct mapping constant as radius, ought to pass, provided the first two approximations were not too far in error. this third trial ought to make the location of the traces of the plates exactly correct. if, however, the focus of the camera was changed between exposures at one station, the traces of the plates will not all be at an equal distance from the station point, and their location will be an almost impossible task. the traces of the plates taken at stations b and c are found in exactly the same manner as were those for sta. a. after the traces have all been located, it is a good plan to ink them in lightly and erase the pencil construction lines which would otherwise form an impenetrable maze. the traces located, the difficult and tiresome part of the plotting is over; the landscape, brought indoors photographically, is located as with the plane table; all that remains to be done is to take the sights and find the points on the paper which show where the objects were on the ground. [illustration: from each station the mapping constant is laid out by the focal distance of the camera or distance of the plate from the lens, and the location of traces of the plates determined] this taking the sights is a simple matter. with a pair of dividers, the distance from a given object from the center line of the plate is measured. this distance is laid off on the proper side of the point marking the center line of the trace of the same plate; a radial line is drawn through the trace at the given distance from the center-line point and the station at which the given plate is taken; this is one line of sight to the object. the same object is located from another station in the same way; as on the plane table, the intersection of the two lines to the same object marks the location of the point which represents the object on the map. obtaining elevations for the drawing of contours is a slightly longer process. contours are lines joining points of equal elevation; they represent successive shore lines, if the area mapped were inundated and the water should rise slowly foot by foot. if the contours are close together, the ground represented has a steep slope, and vice versa. if, on a map, a number of points are of known elevation, it is simply a question of judgment and practice to tell where contour lines go. before contours can be drawn the elevations of a considerable number of points must be known. if the elevation of any one of them is known and the difference between that one and any other can be found, determining the elevation of the second point is simply a problem in addition or subtraction. if it be desired to find, for instance, the difference in elevation between sta. c and the corner of the fence, as shown in the sketch, two solutions are possible, as follows: first: perpendicular to the line of sight from sta. c to the fence corner, two lines are drawn, one at the intersection of the trace of the plate by the line of sight, and one at the point on the paper which shows the location of the fence corner. on the first of these two lines is laid off the distance y', equal to the distance of the ground at the fence post above or below the horizontal center line on the plate. through this point, on the first perpendicular on the line of sight, is drawn a line through the sta. c and extended to an intersection with the second drawn perpendicular. the distance from the corner of the fence, on the paper, to this intersection is the distance y, the difference in elevation from the center of the camera at sta. c to the ground at the fence post. this solution is longer and less desirable than the second. second: in place of perpendicular lines to the line of sight, the trace of the plate, and a line, through the point representing the object, parallel with the trace, may be used. a datum plane, or reference surface, from which all elevations are measured up to the ground surface must be assumed. the united states geological survey uses mean, or average, sea level for the datum in all its topographic sheets. generally, unless there is a united states geological survey "bench mark," a monument of carefully determined elevation referred to sea level, within the limits of the survey, it is better to assume the elevation of some point, as sta. c, at ft., or greater if necessary to place the datum plane below the ground level at all points within the area to be mapped. other elevations are figured from the assumed elevation of sta. c. allowance must be made for the height of the center of the camera above the ground at sta. c in computing elevations above sta. c. all elevations determined for the purpose of drawing contours are ground elevations and not the elevation of the top of objects located on the map. the topographic sheets of the geological survey are good examples to follow, in drawing contours. for many purposes, contours are not essential, and the refinements necessary for their drawing may be omitted. how to build a skiff the following is a description of an easily constructed -ft. skiff, suitable for rowing and paddling. this is the type used by many duck hunters, as it may be easily pushed through marshes. it is constructed of / -in. dressed pine, or cypress. [illustration: the skiff is especially constructed for use in shallow water and marshes by duck hunters, but with the addition of a keel it makes a good craft for almost any water as a rowboat (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the sides consist of planks, in. wide, but -in. planks may be used, the length being ft. in. two stem pieces are constructed as shown in fig. , and the plank ends are fastened to them with screws. nail a crosspiece on the plank edges in the exact center, so as to space the planks in. apart, as shown in fig. ; then turn it over and nail another crosspiece in the center of the planks for width, and make the spacing of the other edges in. plane the lower edges so that, in placing a board across them, the surfaces will be level. the floor boards are in. wide and fastened on crosswise, being careful to apply plenty of red lead between all joints and using galvanized nails, in. long. [illustration: (fig. )] a deck, in. long, is fastened on each end, as shown in fig. . it is made of strips fastened to a crosspiece. the seats, or thwarts, consist of -in. boards, and are placed on short strips fastened to the side planks about in. from the bottom. the oarlocks are held in a wedge-shaped piece of wood, having a piece of gas pipe in them for a bushing, the whole being fastened at the upper edge of the side planks with screws, as shown in fig. . the location of these must be determined by the builder. [illustration: (fig. )] some calking may be required between the bottom, or floor, boards, if they are not nailed tightly against one another. the calking material may be loosely woven cotton cord, which is well forced into the seams. the first coat of paint should be of red lead mixed with raw linseed oil, and when dry any color may be applied for the second coat. while, for use in shallow water, these boats are not built with a keel, one can be attached to prevent the boat from "sliding off" in a side wind or when turning around. when one is attached, it should be / in. thick, in. wide, and about ft. long.--contributed by b. francis dashiell, baltimore, md. * * * * * an aniline color soluble in alcohol, by adding a little carbolic acid, will hold fast on celluloid. double-swing gate with common hinge [illustration: the post and gate are cut away back of the hinge to allow the latter to swing back] ordinary hinges can be easily bent and so placed on posts that a gate can be swung in either direction. as shown in the illustration, hinges can be made to fit either round or square posts. the gate half of the hinge is fastened in the usual way. the post half is bent and so placed that the hinge pin will approximately be on a line between the centers of the posts. the gate and post should be beveled off to permit a full-open gateway.--contributed by r. r. schmitz, birmingham, ala. testing out induction coils while winding an induction coil, i found it necessary to test the sections for continuity. having no galvanometer, i connected a battery and low-resistance telephone receiver in series with the section and battery. the battery and telephone receiver may also be used for testing out the secondary of an induction coil, to determine if it is burnt out.--contributed by john m. wells, moosomin, can. how to make a surveyor's transit by bennett blacklidge [illustration: detail of parts for the construction of a transit which can be used, with fairly accurate results, in doing amateur surveying for railroad work, town sites and the laying out of maps] a boy who likes to do the things that "grown ups" do can derive considerable pleasure from the making of a transit, which will enable him to start in surveying railroads, laying off town sites, and doing lots of kindred work. it is necessary to have a compass, and one, - / in. in diameter, can be purchased at a reasonable price. a hole is bored with an expansive bit into a board, / in. in thickness, just deep enough to admit the compass snugly, then a circle, a, - / in. in diameter, is drawn, having the same center as the compass hole, and the disk is cut out with a compass or scroll saw. a ring, b, is cut in the same manner from the same material, its inside diameter being such that the ring just fits around the disk a, and the outside diameter, - / in. another block, - / in. in diameter, is glued to the bottom of the small disk a. this will appear as shown at c. a small hole is bored in the center of the bottom block on the under side to receive the threaded end of the screw on a camera tripod. by careful adjustment the threads in the wood will hold the transit firmly. a plumb bob must be attached exactly in the center of the tripod head. this can be easily done if the head is wood, but in case the top is of metal, the line can be attached to the screw with a double loop, as shown at d, so that the bob will hang centrally. two standards are made as shown at e, each about in. high, and fastened to the ring b in the positions shown in the drawing of the complete instrument. an arc of a circle is marked on one of the standards, as shown, to designate angles, the markings being laid out with a bevel protractor. the pointer is a hand from an old alarm clock. the telescope arrangement consists of a piece of pasteboard tubing, about - / in. in diameter, one end being covered with a piece of black paper with a pinhole in the exact center, and the other equipped with "cross hairs." four small notches are cut in the latter end of the tube, exactly quartering it, and two silk threads as fine as can be obtained, are stretched across in these notches. the tube is fastened to a block of wood, in. wide and in. long, with small tacks and two pieces of fine copper wire. this block is pinioned between the standards with two nails. the hand is secured to the nail in such a position that it will point straight down when the tube is level. the instrument is adjusted in the following manner: it is set up where a lone tree can be seen, about one mile distant, and the center of the cross hairs is carefully set on the tree. then a very fine wire is stretched across the compass, as shown at f, and while keeping it directly over the center of the compass it is also placed on a direct line pointing to the tree. very small brass nails, driven in at g and h, serve to fasten it in the position thus found. when this adjustment has been made the telescope can be turned to sight any object, after first placing the instrument so that the needle points to the n on the dial, and a glance at the wire will show the exact direction in which the object is located. the instrument is then taken to a level stretch of road and set up, and a stick is placed on end and marked at the height of the telescope. the stick is taken along the road about yd., the telescope sighted on it, and the hand set. this makes the instrument level enough for all practical purposes. the plumb bob is then dropped, a distance of ft. measured from it on the road, and a mark made. the telescope is sighted on this mark, and a mark is made on the standard at the point of the arc, to which the hand points. another ft. is measured, or ft. from the bob, and another mark made. the telescope is sighted on it, and the location of the hand again marked. this works well up to about ft., then the marks begin to come very close together. this method is used for laying out town sites. the instrument is set up directly over a stake from which to work, and the telescope is turned down until the -ft. mark is indicated, when the operator looks through the telescope and tells his helper where to set the stake. then another is driven at the next point, and so on, until the limit of the instrument is reached. when doing railroad surveying several start out together, one with an ax to cut away brush; one to carry pegs; two to measure, or chain, the distance between stakes, and one to do the sighting. in this manner a line can be run that comes very near being perfectly straight for three miles. a concrete example of how the transit was used to lay out a map of a ranch will now be given. the start was made on an east and west fence. the instrument was set ft. from the fence at one point, and at the other end of the fence the stick was set at a point ft. from the fence. when the stick was sighted, the wire cut the e and w on the compass, thus showing that the fence was set on a line, due east and west. the distance was measured from the fence to the house, which was / mile, and this was noted in a book. this operation was repeated on the rear, and the distance found to be ft. while the compass showed the direction to be deg. west of south. the next line ran ft. and deg. east of south. this was kept up all the way around. after these notes had been obtained, it was an easy matter to take a piece of plain paper and strike a line representing north and south and lay off the directions. a bevel protractor was used to find the degrees. the transit was set on the posts of the corrals and this saved the measuring out from the inclosure. the creek was surveyed in the same manner. so many feet south-west, so many feet west, so many feet deg. south of west, and so on, until its length was run. the transit can also be used for finding distances without measuring. a line from a to b is sighted, and f represents a point / mile distant, the line from f to g being ft. a line is now sighted from a, through g to c. a person standing at d is directed to move toward the point e and he is stopped as soon as sighted in the telescope. he then measures the distance from d to e. suppose this distance is ft. as each ft. means / mile, and the ft., / mile, the point e is - / miles from the transit. this method can be used quite extensively and distances obtained are fairly accurate. * * * * * a small whisk broom makes a handy cleaner to brush the caked grease and lint from pulleys and gear wheels where waste and rags are useless. to enlarge or reduce plots sometimes it is necessary to enlarge or reduce a plot to a different scale. this can be easily and quickly accomplished without resorting to the slow process of protracting the angles and scaling the individual lines. [illustration: enlarging and reducing plots by radial lines from a common point located properly] take any point, p, and from it draw light pencil lines through each of the corners of the plot. on any one of these lines, as ap, lay off with dividers ac equal to cp. place a triangle on the line ab and with a straightedge, or another triangle, laid on the line ap, slide the former to the point c, then draw line cd parallel with ab until it intersects the radial line pb. in the same manner draw line de parallel with bf, and so on, all about the plot. a test of accuracy will be in striking the point c with the last line. if the original plot has a scale of ft. to the inch the reduced plot would be ft. to the inch. if it is required to enlarge the plot to ft. to the inch, make ag equal to ap, and proceed as in the first case, using g as the starting point. the location of the point p is arbitrary and may be outside of the boundary of the plot or figure to be enlarged or reduced, but should be so located, if possible, that the radial line to any corner does not parallel either of the plot lines to that corner. if the point cannot be so located for all the lines, it may be necessary to scale the lines. a little practice in picking out the best location for the point will give gratifying results.--contributed by junius d. mccabe, pittsburgh, pa. a lathe bench while working at a bench, or foot-power lathe, it is quite convenient to have some sort of a seat to sit on while at work, or between operations. in making such a seat, i used a board, in. long and in. wide, for the top, and two boards, in. long and in. wide, for the supports. these boards were / in. thick. the supports were squared at the ends and securely fastened to the top with nails, their positions being in. in from the ends of the top board. these were well braced, as shown, and a cross board was placed between them, near the lower ends. [illustration: the bench provides a seat for the worker in doing operations on a small foot lathe] the projecting ends of the top were cut out, and a box, in. deep, constructed against the supports. a covering was made to fit in each of the openings in the top board and hinged to the outer edge of the box. the boxes made a convenient place for the tools used in the turning work.--contributed by harold r. harvey, buhl, idaho. cleaning and polishing shoes in using the polishes now on the market for tan shoes, i found that the leather cracked in an unreasonably short time. the following was suggested and tried out with good results. wash the shoes with castile soap and water by applying the mixture with a dauber. work up a little lather and then rub dry with a cloth, without rinsing. the leather will be cleaned without becoming dark, and it will not crack. a higher polish may be obtained by using some paste polish in the usual manner.--contributed by george bliss, washington, d. c. shaving cabinet mounted on an adjustable pedestal the illustration represents a shaving cabinet mounted on an adjustable pedestal, whose style and size are such that it may easily be moved about or set away without requiring much room. the material required for its construction is as follows: framed mirror, by in. square-head bolt and wing nut, / by in. cabinet sides, / by by in. partitions and shelf, / by by in. cabinet top, / by by - / in. cabinet bottom, / by by - / in. cabinet backs and doors, / by - / by - / in. cabinet moldings, by by in. cabinet support, by by in. pedestal moldings, by by in. pedestal frames, by by in. base, by by in. screws, nails, and varnish. [illustration: the mirror and cabinet are mounted on a pedestal that can be moved as desired] the sidepieces of the cabinet are extended at one corner, thereby forming the supports for the mirror. the door fits in between the sides and may be attached either by hinges or two wood screws, one on each side, holes being bored in the sides forming a loose fit for the screw so they can freely turn with the door. the pedestal consists of a -in. square box resting on the base block, and secured in place by means of molding strips. the sliding support for the cabinet consists of a -in. square piece secured to the bottom of the cabinet by means of molding, and provided with a slot so the support can freely slide over the clamp bolt, which fastens it in place by clamping it against the pedestal. if it is desired to conceal the head of the bolt, a recess should be made in the pedestal frame for it, as shown, so the support will freely slide over it. before assembling the pedestal it will be necessary to drill a hole in the front side in line with the recess of the back side, and insert the bolt. if this precaution is not taken, it will not be possible to insert the bolt, unless a hole be made for the head either through the back side or front side.--contributed by d. toppan, watervliet, n. y. four-passenger coasting bobsled by r. h. allen [illustration: coasting is one of the best sports a boy enjoys during winter, and a sled of luxury is something to be proud of among others on a hill or toboggan slide] coaster bobs usually have about the same form of construction, and only slight changes from the ordinary are made to satisfy the builder. the one shown has some distinctive features which make it a sled of luxury, and the builder will pride himself in the making. a list of the materials required is given on the opposite page. any wood may be used for the sled, except for the runners, which should be made of ash. shape the runners all alike by cutting one out and using it as a pattern to make the others. after cutting them to the proper shape, a groove is formed on the under edge to admit the curve of a / -in. round iron rod about / in. deep. the iron rods are then shaped to fit over the runner in the groove and extend up the back part of the runner and over the top at the front end. the extensions should be flattened so that two holes can be drilled in them for two wood screws at each end. if the builder does not have the necessary equipment for flattening these ends, a local blacksmith can do it at a nominal price. after the irons are fitted, they are fastened in place. the top edges of the runners are notched for the crosspieces so that the top surfaces of these pieces will come flush with the upper edges of the runners. the location of these pieces is not essential, but should be near the ends of the runners, and the notches of each pair of runners should coincide. when the notches are cut, fit in the pieces snugly, and fasten them with long, slim wood screws. small metal braces are then fastened to the runners and crosspiece on the inside, to stiffen the joint. [illustration: details showing the method of rear-sled oscillation, the bracing, and the steering wheel] as the rear sled must oscillate some, means must be provided for this tilting motion while at the same time preventing sidewise turning. the construction used for this purpose is a hinged joint. the heavy by -in. crosspiece is cut sloping on the width so that it remains in. thick at one edge and tapers down to a feather edge at the opposite side. this makes a wedge-shaped piece, to which surface the three large hinges are attached. the piece is then solidly fastened to the upper edges of the runners that are to be used for the rear sled, and so located that the center of the piece will be in. from the front end of the runners. the supporting crosspiece on the front sled is fastened on top of the runners, at a place where its center will be in. from the front end of the runners. the top board is prepared by making both ends rounding and planing the surfaces smooth. on the under side, the two crosspieces are placed, which should have two / -in. holes bored through the width of each, near the ends, to receive the eyebolts. they are placed, one with its center in. from the end to be used for the rear, and the other with its center in. from the front end, and securely fastened with screws. the shore is placed in the center of the board, and wires are run over it connecting the eyebolts. the eyebolts are then drawn up tightly to make the wire taut over the shore. this will prevent the long board from sagging. list of materials top. - / ft. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick. runners. in, long, in. wide, and in. thick. crosspieces, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. pieces, in, long, in. wide, and in. thick. piece, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. shore, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. seat backs. in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. dowel. ft. long, and in. in diameter. rods. / in. in diameter, and in. long. eyebolts, / in. by in. long. hinges, -in. strap. hinges, -in. strap. on the upper side of the board and beginning at the rear end, the backs are fastened at intervals of in. they are first prepared by rounding the corners on the ends used for the tops, and the opposite ends are cut slightly on an angle to give the back a slant. they are then fastened with the small hinges to the top board. on the edges of the top board, -in. holes are bored about in. deep, and pins driven for foot rests. these are located in. apart, beginning about in. from the front end. the dowel is used for the pins, which are made in. long. [illustration: the top board is well braced on the under side and fitted with four backs on top to make it a luxurious riding sled, and the runners are provided with metal shoes for speed] the steering device consists of a broom handle, cut to in. in length, with one end fastened in a hole bored centrally in the -in. crosspiece of the front sled. a hole is bored in the top board through the center of the crosspiece fastened to the under side for the steering post. the broomstick is run through this hole after first placing two metal washers on it. after running the stick through, a collar is fastened to it just above the top board, so that the top cannot be raised away from the sled. at the upper end of the broomstick a steering wheel is attached, made from a nail-keg hoop. a piece of wood is fastened across its diameter, and the hoop is covered with a piece of garden hose and wrapped with twine. in the center of the crosspiece, a hole is bored to snugly fit on the broom handle, which is then fastened with screws. the rear sled is fastened to the top board with screws through the extending wings of the hinges and into the crosspiece. holes are bored in the front ends of all runners, and a chain or rope is attached in them, the loop end of the rear one being attached to the under side of the top board, and the one in the front used for drawing the sled. to prevent drill from catching as it passes through metal the regular slope of a drill will cause the cutting edge to catch as it breaks through the metal on the opposite side of the piece being drilled. but if a twist drill is ground more flat like a flat drill, it will not "grab" into the metal as it passes through.--contributed by james h. beebee, rochester, n. y. [illustration] an ice boat and catamaran by robert k. patterson this combination is produced by using the regular type of ice boat and substituting boats for the runners, to make the catamaran. in constructing the ice boat, use two poles, or timbers, one ft. and the other - / ft. long, crossed at a point - / ft. from one end of the longer timber. the crossed pieces are firmly braced with wires, as shown. the mast, which should be about ft. long, is set into a mortise cut in the long timber, in. from the front end, and is further stabilized by wires, as shown. a jib boom, about ft. long, as well as a main boom, which is - / ft. long, are hung on the mast in the usual manner. [illustration: the ice boat provides an ideal outing in winter where there is a body of water large enough for sailing] the front runners consist of band-iron strips, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick, with one edge ground like the edge of a skate, and the ends rounding, which are fastened with bolts to the sides of wood pieces, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick, allowing the ground edge to project about inch. when the ice-boat frame is made of poles, the runners are attached to a piece of wood, in. long, shaped as shown and fastened at right angles with bolts running through the shouldered part diagonally. this makes a surface on which the pole end rests and where it is securely fastened with bolts. if squared timbers are used, the runners can be fastened directly to them. the rear, or guiding, runner is fastened between two pieces of wood, so that its edge projects; then it is clamped in a bicycle fork, which should be cut down so that about in. of the forks remain. a hole is bored through the rear end of the long pole to receive the fork head, the upper end of which is supplied with a lever. the lever is attached to the fork head by boring a hole through the lever end at a slight angle to fit the head, allowing sufficient end to be slotted, whereupon a hole is bored through the width of the handle, and a bolt inserted, to act as a clamp. [illustration: the ice-boat details, showing construction with straight poles having detachable runners so the boats can be supplied in their stead to make a sailing catamaran for use in summer] a board is fastened on two crosspieces mortised in the upper part of the pole, for a place to sit on when driving the boat. the sail can be constructed of any good material to the dimensions given. to rig up the ice boat for use as a catamaran, place a pole across the stern, the length of the pole being equal to the one used on the front part of the ice boat. two water-tight boats are constructed, ft. long, in. wide, and in. deep at the center. to make these two boats procure six boards, ft. long, in. wide, and in. thick. three boards are used to make each boat. bend one board so that it will be in an arc of a circle, then nail on the two side boards, after which the edges of the sides are cut away to the shape of the bent board. the runners are removed from the ice boat, and the boats fastened to the pole ends. a rudder is attached in the place of the rear, or guiding, runner. the tops of the boats, or floats, can be covered and made water-tight. mind-reading effect with cards five cards are shown, and some one person is asked to think of two cards in the lot, after which the performer places the cards behind his back and removes any two cards, then shows the remaining three and asks if the two cards in mind have been removed. the answer is always yes, as it cannot be otherwise. to prepare the cards, take any cards from the pack and paste the back of one card to another, making five double cards. removing any two cards behind the performer's back reduces the number of cards to three, and when these are turned over they will not have the same faces so that the ones first seen cannot be shown the second time even though all five cards were turned over and shown. an air pencil to make embossed letters the device illustrated is for making embossed letters on show cards, signs, post cards, etc. a small bulb, such as used on cameras, is procured, also the spout from a small oilcan. the bulb is fastened to the spout as shown. the material for use in the pencil is quick-drying mucilage thickened with flake white. if some special color is desired, tint the mixture with aniline. fill the spout with the mixture and attach the bulb. squeeze the bulb gently while forming the letters, then dust over with bronze, and allow to dry. [illustration: the oilcan spout is the reservoir to hold the paint, and the bulb produces the air pressure] an endless dish or floor mop a good way to use up cord that collects about the house, is to make an endless dish or floor mop of it. procure a thin board that will make a good length and wind the cord around it, then remove it from the board and tie the bunch together in the center. combination tie rack and collar holder an unusual though simple tie rack can be made by supporting the tie bar in the center. by this arrangement the ties can be placed on it from either end, thus avoiding the tedious threading through, required on the ordinary rack supported at each end. collars may be hung on a peg placed above the tie bar. the pieces can be glued together and a good finish given in the usual way. the rack can be hung up by two screw eyes. the material required consists of four pieces, dimensioned / by by in., / by / by - / in., / by / by - / in., and / by / by in. respectively.--contributed by arthur c. vener, dallas, texas. [illustration: collar and tie rack with open-end hangers so that the articles can be slipped on easily without being passed behind a bar as is usually the case] [illustration:] skates made of wood skates that will take the place of the usual steel-runner kind and which will prevent spraining of the ankles, can be made of a few pieces of / -in. boards. four runners are cut out, in. wide at the back and - / in. wide at the front, the length to be in. longer than the shoe. the top edges of a pair of runners are then nailed to the under side of a board in. wide, at its edges. a piece of board, or block, in. wide is fastened between the runners at the rear, and one in. wide, in front. two bolts are run through holes bored in the runners, one just back of the front board, or block, and the other in front of the rear one. four triangular pieces are fastened, one on each corner, so that the heel and toe of the shoe will fit between them, and, if desired, a crosspiece can be nailed in front of the heel. straps are attached to the sides for attaching the skate to the shoe. both skates are made alike.--contributed by f. e. kennar, hennessey, okla. [illustration: skates made of wood to take the place of the steel-runner kind and prevent sprained ankles] * * * * * the best paint for paper roofing is asphaltum varnish. [illustration:] an ice glider by mildred e. thomas the enthusiastic pushmobilist need not put aside his hobby during the winter, as an amusement device for use on ice, which will surpass the very best pushmobile, can be easily made as shown in the illustration. [illustration: the glider is pushed over the ice similarly to a pushmobile, and the speed that can be attained is much greater] similar to an ice yacht, only a great deal smaller, the ice glider will require three ordinary skates, two of which are fastened to the ends of the front crosspiece, so that their blades will stand at an angle of about deg. with their edges outward. to get this angle, tapering blocks are fastened to the crosspiece ends, as shown. the skates are then fastened to these blocks. [illustration: detail of the parts for the construction of the ice glider, or pushmobile] the crosspiece is in. long and about in. wide. in the center of this piece an upright is constructed, in. high. the edges of the front crosspiece are cut on a slant so that a piece nailed to its front and back edge will stand sloping toward the rear. a handle, in. long, is fastened between the two uprights at the upper end. the rear part is made of a board, in. wide and in. long. the remaining skate is fastened in a perfectly straight position on the rear end. the skates may be attached with screws run through holes drilled in the top plates, or with straps. the front end of the rear board has a hole for a bolt to attach it to the center of the front crosspiece, so that the latter will turn to guide the glider. a pusher is prepared from a block of wood, into which nails are driven with their ends projecting on the under side. the block is strapped to one shoe, as shown. [illustration: the block of wood with projecting nails to fasten on the shoe that does the pushing] the glider is used in the same manner as a pushmobile. the pusher can be made in another way by using sole leather instead of the block. small slots are cut in the sides for the straps. nails are driven through the leather so that the points project. either kind of pusher is especially adapted for the pushmobile to prevent wear on the shoe. prony brake for testing small motors the ordinary prony brake is not, as a rule, sensitive enough to make an accurate test on small motors, such as those used in driving sewing machines, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, etc. the arrangement shown in the accompanying sketch has been used for this purpose with good results and was very accurate. the operation of the brake is exceedingly simple. [illustration: prony brake used in connection with a small balance to find the horsepower] a pulley without a crown face is attached to the shaft of the motor, which is fastened to the top of a table or bench, and a balance mounted directly over the pulley. the support for the balance should be a narrow strip, which in turn is supported on two upright pieces, as shown. a light rope is put under the pulley, and the ends are looped over the platforms of the balance so that it does not interfere with the operation of the balance. the ends of the rope should be vertical and parallel. the piece upon which the balance rests is raised by inserting wedges, thus increasing the tension in the rope. the resulting friction of the rope on the pulley increases the load. if the motor is running in the direction indicated by the arrow on the pulley, the tension in the left-hand end of the rope will be greater than in the right-hand end and a weight must be placed on the right-hand platform of the balance. when the weight w is adjusted so that the two pointers on the platforms are exactly opposite each other, the value of the weight w, in pounds, will represent the difference in pull, in pounds, between a and b. if the value of the weight w is known and also the speed of the machine when the weight was determined, the horsepower output can be computed by means of the following equation: . Ã� l Ã� w Ã� r.p.m. hp. = ----------------------- , Ã� in this equation, l is the distance in inches from the center of the pulley to the center of the rope. two ordinary spring balances may be substituted for the beam balance and the difference in their readings taken for the value w. for best results, the tension in the slack end of the rope should be as small as possible, and it may be necessary to wrap the rope one or more times completely around the pulley. a mystic fortune teller fortune telling by means of weights striking glasses or bottles is quite mysterious if controlled in a manner that cannot be seen by the audience. the performer can arrange two strikes for "no," and three for "yes" to answer questions. any kind of bottles, glass, or cups may be used. in the bottles the pendulum can be suspended from the cork, and in the glasses from small tripods set on the table. [illustration: the rocking of the table is caused by the pressure of air in the bulb under the foot, the movement causing the pendulum to swing and strike the glass] the secret of the trick is as follows: a rubber tube with a bulb attached to each end is placed under a rug, one bulb being located under one table leg and the other near the chair of the performer set at some distance from the table where it can be pressed with the foot. some one selects a pendulum; the performer gazes intently at it, and presses the bulb under his foot lightly at first; then, by watching the swaying of the pendulum selected, he will know when to give the second impulse, and continue until the weight strikes the glass. as the pendulums are of different lengths they must necessarily swing at different rates per second. the impulses must be given at the proper time or else the pendulum will be retarded instead of increased in amplitude. a table with four legs is best to use, and the leg diagonally opposite that with the bulb beneath it must not touch the carpet or floor. this can be arranged by placing pieces of cardboard under the other two legs.--contributed by james j. mcintyre. holding prints in a liquid-filled tray [illustration: push pins on the under side of the board raise it and provide a space for the prints in the liquid] after having considerable trouble in keeping my paper prints in the hypo fixing bath from curling, which would force the edges out of the liquid, i found the plan here illustrated a success. i procured a piece of wood, the size of a postcard, and stuck four glass push pins into one surface, one at each corner, and fastened a handle to the center of the upper side. the papers are first placed in the bath, then the board is set over them with the pins down. this holds the prints under the liquid but does not press them tightly together.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. * * * * * a piece of an old gunny sack will polish brass work very nicely. cellar-door holder [illustration] a cellar door that opened up against a wall required a catch of some kind to keep it open at times. as i did not want a catch to show on the wall, i devised a holder as shown. three pieces of wood were nailed to the under side of the door in such positions that they formed a recess in which a fourth piece, in. wide and in. thick, would slide endways. a knob was attached to the upper end of the slide, which served the double purpose of a handle and a stop for the slide. the manner of using the holder is clearly shown.--contributed by h. t. smith, topeka, kansas. an emergency pencil compass [illustration] the need of a compass when none was at hand caused me to quickly devise a substitute for the work. a piece of stiff wire, about the length of the pencil, was procured, and several turns were made around the pencil, as shown. the lower straight end was filed to a point. the wire can be bent to obtain the radius distance.--contributed by preston ware, rome, ga. * * * * * a very effective dip for brass and copper articles, that will leave a clean and bright finish, is qt. of aqua fortis, gal. of sulphuric acid, pt. of water and a pinch of salt. renewing carbon paper when carbon paper has been used several times, the preparation becomes almost worn off on some parts, while other parts of the paper are as good as new. the process of renewing is very simple and it can be done by anyone without special apparatus. all that is necessary is to hold the paper in front of a fire or over a radiator a few seconds. the heat will cause the preparation to dissolve and spread over the paper, so that when it is dry the paper will have a new coating. this can be repeated, and in some cases will double the life of the carbon paper.--contributed by chester m. kearney, danville, quebec. how to clinch a finishing nail [illustration] a wire or finishing nail may be clinched as nicely as a wrought nail, if a nail punch or piece of iron is placed along the side of it, as shown at a, and the nail hammered into an arched form, as at b. the punch or rod is then withdrawn and the arch driven into the wood.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. to prevent washbasin bottom from wearing out the ears from some sirup buckets were removed and three of them soldered, at equal distances apart, on the bottom of the washbasin near the outside edge of the lower part. these prevented the wear from coming on the bottom of the basin, and it lasted several times as long as ordinarily.--contributed by a. a. ashley, blanket, texas. * * * * * to curl feathers, heat slightly before a fire, then stroke with something like the back of a case knife. [illustration] snowshoes: how to make and use them by stillman taylor part i--shapes of snowshoes to the inventive mind of the north american indian we owe the snowshoe, and its conception was doubtless brought about through that prolific source of invention--necessity. the first models were crude web-footed affairs, but improvements in model and manner of filling the frames were gradually added until the perfected and graceful shoe of the present was finally reached. the first snowshoes were made by the indians, and the indians of maine and canada continue to fashion the finest models today. the snowshoe is a necessity for the sportsman and trapper whose pleasure or business leads him out in the open during the winter season, when roads and trails are heavily blanketed by a deep fall of powdery snow. but the use of the web shoe is by no means confined to the dweller in the wilderness, since the charm of wintry wood and plain beckons many lovers of the outdoors to participate in this invigorating sport, and snowshoe tramps are fast growing in popularity in and about our cities and towns. all the modern snowshoes are constructed upon practically the same general lines, although the types of frames differ considerably in size as well as in shape, and the filling of hide is often woven in many varied and intricate patterns. the frame or bow--usually made of ash in order to get strength with light weight--is bent in many shapes, but the one shown in the diagram is a typical general-purpose shoe, and may be called standard. the frame is held in shape by means of two wooden cross braces, neatly mortised into the frame. these braces are spaced some or in. apart, and so divide the shoe into three sections, known as the toe, center, and heel. the filling is woven into a lanyard, which is a light strip of hide firmly laced to the frame through a double row of holes drilled in the wood. the center filling is woven of heavy strands of rawhide, in a fairly coarse mesh, because this part of the shoe must bear the weight of the body and the brunt of wear. the end fillers for toe and heel are woven of lighter strands of hide, and the mesh is, of course, smaller. [illustration: the frame of a snowshoe in its usual construction, showing the crosspieces with their laced fillings of hide and the different parts named, for a ready reference] as may be noted by referring to the drawing, a center opening or "toe hole" is provided, and as the greater strain on the filling lies directly under the ball of the foot, the shoe is reinforced at this point by the "toe cord" running across, and the "toe-cord stays," which are tied in on each side of the toe hole--one end being fastened to the toe cord and the other lashed over the wooden cross bar of the frame. these reinforcing cords are formed of several strands of hide, the stays being again wound with finer strands. to prevent slipping and to secure a good foothold while walking, the manner of attaching the foot to the shoe is of importance, and this is done by making use of a toe strap, which will allow the toe to push down through the toe opening as the heel of the foot is lifted in the act of walking. a second strap, or thong, leading from the top around the foot, above the curve of the heel, is needed to lend additional support in lifting the snowshoe, to effect the easy shambling stride characteristic of the snowshoer. there are, of course, a great number of models or styles, some one style being popular in one locality, while an altogether different style is preferred in another part of the country. the most representative types are well shown in the illustrations, and a brief description will point out their practical advantages, because each model possesses certain merits--one model being designed for fast traveling in the open, another better adapted for brush travel, while others are more convenient for use in a hilly country where much climbing is done, and so on. [illustration: a: snowshoe experts regard this as an extreme style, for it is long and narrow] style a is regarded by snowshoe experts as an extreme style, for it is long and narrow. it is designed for fast traveling over smooth and level country, and over loose, powdery snow. this style is much used by the cree indians, and is usually made in. wide by in. long, with a deeply upcurved toe. it is a good shoe for cross-country work, but is somewhat difficult to manage on broken trails, when the snow is packed, and also affords rather slippery footing when crossing ice. owing to the stout construction of the frame and reinforcement needed to retain the high, curved toe, style a is more difficult to manage than the more conservative models, and its stiffness of frame makes it more fatiguing to wear, while its use is a decided handicap in mountainous districts, because a curved toe always makes hill climbing more difficult. [illustration: b: this snowshoe is considered the ordinary eastern model and one best adapted for all-around use] style b may be considered the ordinary eastern model, and a common style best adapted for all-around use. it is a neat and gracefully designed frame, about in. wide and in. long, and is usually made with a slightly upcurving toe, about in. turn at the toe being correct. when made by the indians of maine, this model is fashioned with a rather heavy heel, which is an advantage for fast walking, while it increases the difficulty in quick turning. [illustration: c: the style illustrated here is splendid for general purposes and is a favorite among hunters and woodsmen] style c is a favorite model among the hunters and woodsmen of new england. this is a splendid style for general purposes in this section of the country, since the full, round toe keeps the toe up near the surface, and lets the heel cut down more than the narrow-toe models. style c is an easy shoe to wear, and while not so fast as the long, narrow frame, its full shape is more convenient for use in the woods. it is usually made with about to - / -in. turn at the toe. [illustration: d: this is the familiar "bear's-paw" model, originated by the northeastern trapper for use on short tramps and in brush] style d is the familiar "bear's paw," a model originating with the northeastern trapper. this model is well adapted for short tramps in the brush, and having a flat toe, is likewise a good shoe for mountain climbing. for tramping about in thick brush, a short, full shoe enables one to take a shorter stride and turn more quickly, but it is a slow shoe for straight-ahead traveling. when purchasing a pair of snowshoes, some few important considerations should be kept in mind, and the size and model will depend upon the man to some extent, since a large, heavy man will require a larger snowshoe than would suffice for a person of lighter weight. height also enters into the choice, and while a small person can travel faster and with less fatigue when equipped with a proportionately small shoe, a tall man will naturally pick out a larger-sized snowshoe for his use. for a country where deep snows prevail, larger sizes are best, but in localities where the snow packs solidly and there is considerable ice, and in mountainous districts, or for rough-country traveling, the smaller sizes will give more satisfaction and prove more durable also. for a wet-snow locality, the center filling should be strung in rather coarse mesh, while for soft, powdery snow, a finer mesh will be the logical choice. there are snowshoes and snowshoes, and while there are fine models regularly stocked by a few of the better sporting-goods firms, there is likewise a deal of poorly made snowshoes on the market. it is well to pay a fair price and secure a dependable handmade article, for the cheaper snowshoes--often filled with seine twine and the cheapest hide (commonly known in the trade as "gut")--will warp and twist in the frame, and the shoddy filling will soon become loosened up and "bag" after a little use. the best snowshoes that the writer is acquainted with are made by the indians, and the filling is ordinarily made of neat's hide; cowhide for the center filling, and calfskin for the toe and heel. a first-class pair of snowshoes may be had for about $ to $ . , and when possible to do so, it is best to have them made to order. this plan is, of course, necessary in case one wishes to incorporate any little wrinkles of his own into their making, or desires a flatter toe, lighter heel, or a different mesh from the usual stock models. where but one pair of snowshoes is purchased, style b will probably prove the best selection, and should be ordered with the flat toe, or a turn not greater than in. the frame may be in either one or two pieces, depending upon the size of the shoe and the ideas of the indian maker, but it is well to specify white ash for the frames in the order. no indian maker would be guilty of using screws or other metal fastenings, but many of the cheap and poorly fashioned snowshoes are fastened at the heel with screws, thus making this a decidedly weak point, since the wood is quite certain to split after a little rough service. in contrast to the poor workmanship of these low-priced snowshoes, the indian-made article is fashioned from sound and properly seasoned wood; the cross bars are snugly fitted by mortising to the frame; the filling is tightly woven, and the heel is properly fastened by lacing with a rawhide it is a good idea to select a filling of good heavy weight and with a firmly woven and open mesh, say, about / in. the toe and heel sections will, of course, be of finer-cut hide and smaller mesh, and it is wise to avoid those shoes employing seine twine for the end filling. some factory-made snowshoes are given a coat or two of varnish, but this, while serving to make them partly waterproof, makes them rather slippery when crossing logs and ice. most woodsmen prefer to leave both frame and filling in their natural condition. the indian-made snowshoe is always thong. however, indian makers are likely to make the toe small and leave the wood to form a rather heavy heel. some few woodsmen and sportsmen may prefer this model, but the majority favor a fuller toe and a lighter heel for general use, because the regulation indian model, cutting down at toe and heel equally deep, increases the difficulty of easy traveling over soft snow, although it is a good shoe when used over broken trails. when buying snowshoes at the store, see that the frames are stoutly and well made, and for all-around use, provided with a generously large toe hole, so that ample foot covering may be used. this point is generally overlooked in the machine-made product, and the toe cords are also frequently roughly formed, thus chafing the feet and making them sore. these details may or may not prove a handicap for short tramps near town, but for long trips through the woods, they are important considerations. the indian manner of tying the snowshoe to the foot by means of a single twisted and knotted thong is a good method of attachment, in that, if the thong is properly adjusted to the requisite snugness in the first place, the shoes may be quickly removed by a simple twist of the ankle. a better fastening is secured by using a fairly wide ( / in.) toe strap and a long thong. the toe strap is placed over the toes, immediately over the ball of the foot, and secured against slipping by weaving the ends in and out between the meshes of the filling until it reaches the frame on either side. this grips the toe strap firmly and does away with the necessity of tying a knot. a narrow thong, about ft. long, is now doubled, the center placed just above the heel of the foot, and the ends passed under the toe cord, just outside of the toe-cord stays on each side. the thong is then brought up and across the toes, one end passing over and the other under the toe strap. each end of the thong is now looped around the crossed thong, on either side, and then carried back over the back of the heel and knotted with a common square or reef knot. calfskin makes a good flexible foot binding, or a suitable strip of folded cloth or canvas may be used. the regulation snowshoe harness, consisting of a leather stirrup for the toe and an instep and heel strap, will be found more comfortable than the thong, and when once adjusted snugly to the foot, the shoes may be quickly taken off and put on again by pushing the heel strap down, when the foot may be slipped out of the toe stirrup. the use of heavy leather shoes is of course undesirable, and the only correct footwear for snowshoeing is a pair of high-cut moccasins, cut roomy enough to allow one or more pairs of heavy woolen stockings to be worn. the heavy and long german socks, extending halfway to the knee, drawn on over the trouser legs, are by far the most comfortable for cold-weather wear. the feet, thus shod, will not only be warm in the coldest weather, but the free use of the toes is not interfered with. leather shoes are cold and stiff, and the heavy soles and heels, chafing against the snowshoes, will soon ruin the filling. soldering and riveting by john d. adams there are two simple processes that every experimenter should master: soldering and riveting. the large soldering copper will find only a very restricted use with the amateur on account not only of its clumsiness, but of the fact that it requires a fire, which is often impracticable to obtain. the experimenter should therefore construct a small alcohol lamp, which, after a little experience, will reveal the following advantages: it may be brought into instant use at any place; it will make a more perfect connection; with a small blowpipe places may be reached that are entirely inaccessible to the large iron; several small pieces may be set in position and soldered without disturbing them, which is quite impossible with the large iron. to make such a lamp, procure a small wide-mouthed bottle so that very little alcohol will be necessary and the lamp may be tipped at any desired angle. a short piece of seamless brass tubing should be procured, or, preferably, one of those capped brass cylinders for holding pencil leads, the button of which should be sawn off and the cap used to keep the alcohol from evaporating. a good, sound cork is next in order, and in cutting the central hole, use the brass tube, which should be sharpened around the lower end. proceed with a rotary motion, and a clean core will be removed. if an ordinary lamp wick is not at hand, soft cotton string may be bundled up as a substitute. such a lamp is safe, odorless and will not blacken the work in the least as in the case of kerosene or gasoline. [illustration: (alcohol lamp)] there are many good soldering fluxes on the market, but that obtained by dissolving as much scrap of zinc as possible in muriatic acid will solder practically everything that may be necessary, provided, of course, the surfaces are filed or scraped bright. wire solder is usually the most convenient, as small pieces can be readily cut off and placed directly on the work where required. a small blowpipe is often a valuable adjunct, as it makes possible a long, narrow flame that may be directed in almost any direction. [illustration: a small torch made of a penholder is handy to use in soldering electrical apparatus] where numerous small connections are to be made, as is often the case with electrical apparatus, the small torch illustrated will be found very convenient. it is simply an old penholder with the wood portion shortened somewhat and the metal end filed off square and cleaned out. this is then filled with wicking, and it is only necessary to dip it in alcohol in order to soak up enough to solder an ordinary connection. the second simple process, of which many fail to appreciate the usefulness in experimental work, is that of riveting--particularly when done on a small scale. very often the material in hand is tempered steel and cannot, therefore, be soldered to advantage, or it may be a case where subsequent heating makes a heat-proof connection imperative. then, again, the joint may require the combined strength of both solder and rivet. when properly set, the strength of the ordinary brass pin, when used as a rivet, is quite great. should the work require a particularly soft rivet, it is only necessary to hold the pin for a moment in the flame of a match. a somewhat larger and stronger rivet may be made by softening and cutting to the required length the small flat-headed nails used in making cigar boxes. the ordinary shingle nail is also of a suitable shape after the burrs have been filed off under the head. [illustration] in setting these small rivets, it is absolutely necessary that they closely fit the holes, as at a, otherwise the result will be as indicated at b in the sketch. be careful not to leave too great a length for rounding over on the metal. this extra length should approximately equal the diameter of the rivet and must be filed flat on the top before riveting. in case of pins, it will be found easier to cut them off to the proper length after they are inserted. use the smallest hammer available, striking many light blows rather than a few heavy ones. [illustration: a few joints where rivets are used to hold the parts solidly together] a whistle cut a circular piece of tin any convenient size, preferably in. in diameter, and bend it across the diameter so that it will be in a narrow u-shape. then drill or punch a hole through both parts as shown. place it in the mouth with the open edges out, being sure to press the lips on the metal tightly on both upper and lower pieces outside of the holes and to rest the tongue against the edge of the tin, even with the holes, and blow. [illustration] the result of the first attempt may not be a sound, but with a little practice any familiar tune may be whistled.--contributed by chas. c. bradley, w. toledo, o. card-and-coin trick if a card is balanced on the finger and a coin placed on the card directly over the finger, one would not think that the card could be flipped out leaving the coin on the finger end. this is easily accomplished, if care is taken to snap the card sharply and squarely.--contributed by r. neland, minneapolis, minn. [illustration] how to make a costumer with but little skill, and such tools as are ordinarily found around a home, a plain but serviceable costumer can be made, as shown in the sketch. the necessary materials for it are: one main post, - / in. square and about - / ft. long; four legs, or foot brackets, / by by in.; four brass clothes hooks, and the necessary screws and varnish for assembling and finishing. [illustration] the center post should be chamfered at the top to relieve the abruptness. the four legs should all be made alike and in some shape that allows them to be fastened to the post in a simple manner. in the sketch, the legs are fastened to the post by one visible screw at the top and one put in on an incline through the bottom edge of the leg. the clothes hooks are fastened to the post in pairs at different heights, thereby preventing the screws of adjacent hooks from running into one another. the finish of the costumer should be such as to match the woodwork of its surroundings.--contributed by harry a. packard, norway, maine. window catch used for locking an extension table to prevent the two ends of an extension table from pulling apart when not desired, an ordinary window catch can be fastened and locked in place to the under side of the table top with one part on each end of the table. if but one catch is used and fastened in the center, it is best to mark it off first, and then pull the table ends apart to fasten the catch more easily. it may be desired to use two catches for a very heavy table, in which case it would be best to place one on either side of the center.--contributed by f. m. griswold, new york, n. y. relieving pressure on heated canned foods for opening in opening a can of food that has been heated, the instant the cover is punctured the steam will force out a part of the contents, which is very annoying. to avoid this, pour a little cold water on the cover and allow it to remain a few seconds, then turn it off and immediately puncture the cover. this will counteract the interior force, and the can may be opened without trouble.--contributed by joseph kohlbecher, jr., san francisco, cal. clothespin bag [illustration] clothespins are usually kept in a bag, and the one our home possessed had a draw string which would always stick and hold the bag shut. the remedy for this, and a time saver also, was to remove the draw string and insert instead a piece of wire, which was afterward shaped to a circle with an eyelet at the joint. the bag can be hung on a nail and the mouth is always open to its fullest extent, yet lies flat against the wall.--contributed by jas. a. hart, philadelphia, pa. [illustration] snowshoes: how to make and use them by stillman taylor part ii--making the shoe [in making the snowshoe it may be necessary to refer to the previous chapter to select the style, or to locate the name of the parts used in the description.--editor.] snowshoe making is an art, and while few, if any, white men can equal the indian in weaving the intricate patterns which they prefer to employ for filling the frames, it is not very difficult to fashion a good solid frame and then fill it by making use of a simple and open system of meshing. for the frames, white ash is much the best wood, but hickory and white birch are dependable substitutes, if the former cannot be obtained. birch is perhaps the best wood to use when the sportsman wishes to cut and split up his own wood, but as suitable material for the frames may be readily purchased for a small sum, probably the majority of the readers will elect to buy the material. any lumber dealer will be able to supply white ash, and it is a simple matter to saw out the frames from the board. the sawed-out frame is inferior to the hand-split bow, but if good, selected material can be obtained, there will be little, if any, difference for ordinary use. when dry and well-seasoned lumber is used, the frame may be made to the proper dimensions, but when green wood is selected, the frame must be made somewhat heavier, to allow for the usual shrinkage in seasoning. for a stout snowshoe frame, the width should be about - / in.; thickness at toe, / in., and thickness at heel, / in. the frame should be cut in. longer than the finished length desired, and in working the wood, remember that the toe of the finished frame will be the center of the stick; the heel, the end of the stick, and the center of the shoe will lie halfway between the heel and toe. [illustration: the design of the snowshoe is traced on a board, and blocks are used to shape the frame or bow] after the frames have been finished, the dry wood must be steamed before it can be safely bent to the required shape, and before doing this, a wooden bending form must be made. an easy way to make this form is to first draw a pattern of the model on a sheet of paper, cut out the pencil mark, and, placing this pattern on a board, carefully trace the design on the wooden form. a number of cleats, or blocks, of wood will now be needed; the inside blocks being nailed in position, but the outside stay blocks being simply provided with nails in the holes, so they may be quickly fastened in position when the steamed frame is ready for the form. to make the frame soft for bending to shape, steaming must be resorted to, and perhaps the easiest way of doing this is to provide boiling water in a wash boiler, place the wood over the top, and soak well by mopping with the boiling water, shifting the stick about until the fibers have become soft and pliable. after or minutes of the hot-water treatment, wrap the stick with cloth and bend it back and forth to render it more and more pliable, then use the hot-water treatment, and repeat the process until the wood is sufficiently soft to bend easily without splintering. the toe being the greatest curve, must be well softened before putting on the form, otherwise the fibers are likely to splinter off at this point. when the frame is well softened, place it on the bending form while hot, slowly bend it against the wooden inside blocks, and nail on the outside blocks to hold it to the proper curve. begin with the toe, and after fastening the outside blocks to hold this end, finish one side, then bend the other half to shape. the bent frame should be allowed to dry on the form for at least a week; if removed before the wood has become thoroughly dry and has taken a permanent set, the frame will not retain its shape. the same bending form may be used for both frames, but if one is in a hurry to finish the shoes, two forms should be made, and considerable pains must be taken to make them exactly alike in every way. [illustration: locate the cross bars by balancing the frame, then fit the ends in shallow mortises] when the frames are dry, secure the tail end of the frame by boring three holes about in. from the end, and fasten with rawhide. the work of fitting the two cross bars may now be undertaken, and the balance of the snowshoe depends upon fitting these bars in their proper places. before cutting the mortise, spring the two bars in the frame about in. apart, and balance the shoe in the center by holding it in the hands. when the frame exactly balances, move the bars sufficiently to make the heel about oz. heavier than the toe, and mark the place where the mortises are to be cut. the cross bars and mortise must be a good tight fit, and a small, sharp chisel will enable the builder to make a neat job. it is not necessary to cut the mortise very deep; / in. is ample to afford a firm and snug mortised joint. the lanyard to which the filling is woven is next put in, by boring pairs of small holes in the toe and heel sections, and lacing a narrow rawhide thong through the obliquely drilled holes. three holes are then bored in the cross bar--one on each side about - / in. from the frame, and the third in the center of the bar; the lanyard being carried through these holes in the cross bar. [illustration: begin weaving the toe filling at the corner of cross bar and frame, carrying it around in a triangle until complete] begin the toe filling first, by making an eye in one end of the thong, put the end through the lanyard loop and then through the eye, thus making a slipknot. start to weave at the corner where the bar and frame are mortised, carry the strand up and twist it around the lanyards in the middle of the toe, then carry it down and make a like twist around the lanyard loop in the opposite corner. the thong is now looped around the next lanyard (no. from the crossbar lanyard) and fastened with the twisted loop knot illustrated. continue the strand across the width of toe space and make a similar loop knot on no. lanyard on the starting side, twist it around the strand first made and loop it under the next cross-bar lanyard loop, then carry it up and twist it around the lanyard loop in the toe of the frame, continuing in the same manner until the last lanyard of the toe is reached, when the space is finished by making the twisted loop knot until the space is entirely filled. it is a difficult matter to describe by text, but the illustrations will point out the correct way, and show the manner of making an endless thong by eye-splicing, as well as illustrating the wooden bodkin or needle used in pulling the woven strands taut. this bodkin is easily made from a small piece of wood, about / in. thick, and about in. long. to simplify matters, the heel may be filled in the same manner as the toe. [illustration: an endless thong is made with eyes cut in the ends of the leather, and each part is run through the eye of the other] for the center, which must be woven strong and tight, a heavier strand of hide must be used. begin with the toe cord first, and to make this amply strong, carry the strand across the frame five or six times, finishing with a half-hitch knot, as shown, then carry it up and twist it around the cross bar to form the first toe-cord stay. [illustration: the heel filling is woven by making the connection with the lanyard in the same manner as for the toe filling] as may be noted, the center section is filled by looping back and twisting the strands as when filling the toe. however, the filling is looped around the frame instead of a lanyard, and a clove hitch is used. a toe hole, in. wide, must be provided for, and when enough of the filling has been woven in to make this opening, the thong is no longer looped around the cross bar, but woven through the toe cord. as the filling ends in the toe cord, it should be woven in and out at this point several times, finishing the toe hole by looping a strand around the cross bar at the side of the toe hole, then passing it down the toe-cord stay by twisting around it; then twisted around the toe cord along the filling to the other side of the toe hole, where it is twisted around the toe-cord stay on the opposite side, looped around the frame and ended in a clove hitch. [illustration: the center must be woven strong and tight, and for this reason a heavier strand of hide must be used] at the first reading, it will doubtless appear difficult, but a careful examination of the illustrations will soon show how the trick is done, and indeed it is really a very simple matter, being one of those things which are easier to do than it is to tell how to do them. the method of filling has been purposely made simple, but the majority of shoes are filled in practically the same manner, which answers quite as well as the more intricate indian design. the knack of using the snowshoe is quickly mastered, providing the shoes are properly attached, to allow the toe ample freedom to work down through the toe hole as each foot is lifted. the shoe is, of course, not actually lifted in the air, but rather slid along the surface, half the width of one shoe covering the other when it is lifted in the act of walking. at first the novice may be inclined to think snowshoes a bit cumbersome and unwieldy, and doubt his ability to penetrate the brush. however, as the snowshoer becomes accustomed to their use, he will experience little if any difficulty in traveling where he wills. when making a trail in a more or less open country, it is a good plan to blaze it thoroughly, thus enabling one to return over the same trail, in case a fall of snow should occur in the meantime, or drifting snow fill up and obliterate the trail first made. when the trail is first broken by traveling over it once by snowshoe, the snow is packed well and forms a solid foundation, and even should a heavy fall of snow cover it, the blaze marks on tree and bush will point out the trail, which will afford faster and easier traveling than breaking a new trail each time one journeys in the same direction. a well-made pair of snowshoes will stand a couple of seasons' hard use, or last for a year or two longer for general wear. to keep them in good shape, they should be dried out after use, although it is never advisable to place them close to a hot fire, or the hide filling will be injured. jumping puts severe strain on the frame of the shoe, and while damage may not occur when so used in deep, soft snow, it is well to avoid the possibility of breakage. accidents will now and then happen, to be sure, and as a thong may snap at some unexpected moment, keep a strand or two of rawhide on hand, to meet this emergency. combination settee rocker and cradle by fastening a frame with hinges to the front of a settee rocker, a combination piece of furniture can be made, which may be used either as a regular settee or as a cradle. for this purpose, a covered frame should be provided, being sufficiently long to extend across the front between the arm supports and having such a width that it will easily fit under the arms when hinged to the seat, as shown in the illustration. to keep the frame in position while serving as a cradle front, or when turned down for regular use, screw hooks are placed at each end, so that, in the former case, the frame, when swung up, can be secured in place by attaching the hooks to screw eyes fastened under the arm supports; while, for regular use, the frame is secured in its swung-down position by fastening the hooks into screw eyes properly placed in the front legs.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. [illustration: a settee rocker with a front attachment to make it into a cradle when desired] [illustration] a snowball thrower by albert bates, jr. the snow fort with its infantry is not complete without the artillery. a set of mortars, or cannon, placed in the fort to hurl snowballs at the entrenched enemy makes the battle more real. a device to substitute the cannon or a mortar can be easily constructed by any boy, and a few of them set in a snow fort will add greatly to the interest of the conflict. [illustration: the dimensioned parts and the detail of the completed snowball thrower] the substitute, which is called a snowball thrower, consists of a base, a, with a standard, b, which stops the arm c, controlled by the bar d, when the trigger e is released. the tripping of the trigger is accomplished by the sloping end of d on the slanting end of the upright f. sides, g, are fastened on the piece f, with their upper ends extending above the bar d, to prevent the latter from jumping out when it is released by the trigger. the trigger e is tripped with the handle h, connected to the piece j, on which all the working parts are mounted. the upper end of the arm c has a piece, k, to which is attached a tin can, l, for holding the snowball to be thrown. a set of door springs, m, furnishes the force to throw the snowball. [illustration: cannonading a snow fort with the use of a snowball thrower] all the parts are given dimensions, and if cut properly, they will fit together to make the thrower as illustrated. springs on the chains of a porch swing two coil springs of medium strength placed in the chains of a porch swing will make it ride easier and also take up any unpleasant jars and rattles occasioned when a person sits heavily in the swing. if the swing is provided with a four-chain suspension, the springs should be used on the two rear chains to get the best results.--contributed by e. k. marshall, oak park, illinois. homemade water meter where it is necessary to measure water in large quantities the meter illustrated will serve the purpose as well as an expensive one, and can be made cheaply. the vessel, or bucket, for measuring the water is made diamond-shaped, as shown in fig. , with a partition in the center to make two pockets of a triangular shape, each holding qt., or any amount of sufficient size to take care of the flow of water. [illustration: when a bucket is filled to the proper amount it is turned out by the weight (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the part forming the pockets is swung on an axis fastened to the lower part, which engages into bearings fastened to the sides of the casing, as shown in fig. . stops, a, are placed in the casing at the right places for each pocket to spill when exactly qt. of water has run into it. it is obvious that when one pocket is filled, the weight will tip it over and bring the other one up under the flow of water. the registering device consists of one or more wheels worked with pawls and ratchets, the first wheel being turned a notch at a time by the pawl b, fig. . if each pocket holds qt., the wheel is marked as shown, as each pocket must discharge to cause the wheel to turn one notch. the second wheel is worked by the lever and pawl c, which is driven with a pin d located in the first wheel. any number of wheels can be made to turn in a like manner.--contributed by f. a. porter, oderville, utah. a snowball maker snowball making is slow when carried on by hand, and where a thrower is employed in a snow fort it becomes necessary to have a number of assistants in making the snowballs. the time of making these balls can be greatly reduced by the use of the snowball maker shown in the illustration. [illustration: a device for making snowballs quickly and perfectly spherical in shape] the base consists of a board, in. long, - / in. wide, and in. thick. a block of wood, a, is hollowed out in the center to make a depression in the shape of a hemisphere, - / in. in diameter and - / in. deep. this block is nailed to the base about in. from one end. to make the dimensions come out right, fasten a block, b, in. high, made of one or more pieces, at the other end of the base with its back edge - / in. from the center of the hemispherical depression. on top of this block a lever, c, in. long is hinged. another block, d, is made with a hemispherical depression like the block a, and fastened to the under side of the lever, so that the depressions in both blocks will coincide. the lever end is shaped into a handle. two uprights, e, are fastened to the back side of the block a as guides for the lever c. a piece is fastened across their tops, and a spring is attached between it and the lever. a curtain-roller spring will be suitable. in making the balls a bunch of snow is thrown into the lower depression and the lever brought down with considerable force.--contributed by abbott w. france, chester, pa. an inexpensive bobsled [illustration: a bobsled of simple construction using ordinary barrel staves for the runners] any boy who can drive a nail and bore a hole can have a bobsled on short notice. the materials necessary are four good, solid barrel staves; four blocks of wood, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two pieces, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; one piece, in. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick; and a good board, ft. long, in. wide, and in. thick. the crosspieces and knees are made with the blocks and the -in. pieces, in. long, as shown; to which the staves are nailed for runners. one of these pieces with the runners is fastened to one end of the board, the other is attached with a bolt in the center. the - / by -in. piece, in. long, is fastened across the top of the board at the front end. a rope fastened to the knees of the front runners provides a means of steering the sled. the sled can be quickly made, and it will serve the purpose well when an expensive one cannot be had.--contributed by h. j. blacklidge, san rafael, cal. motor made of candles [illustration: tallow dripping from the ends alternately lessens the weight of the arms and causes the tube to tip] a tube of tin, or cardboard, having an inside diameter to receive a candle snugly, is hung on an axle in the center that turns in bearings made of wood. the construction of the bearings is simple, and they can be made from three pieces of wood as shown. the tube should be well balanced. pieces of candle are then inserted in the ends, also well balanced. if one is heavier than the other, light it and allow the tallow to run off until it rises; then light the other end. the alternate dripping from the candles will cause the tube to tip back and forth like a walking beam. it will keep going automatically until the candles are entirely consumed.--contributed by geo. jaques, chicago. kettle-handle support [illustration] the handle of a kettle lying on the kettle rim will become so hot that it cannot be held in the bare hand. to keep the handle fairly cool it must be supported in an upright position. to do this, form a piece of spring wire in the shape shown, and slip it over the kettle rim. the shape of the extending end will hold the handle upright and away from the heat. how to make a monorail sled a monorail sled, having a simple tandem arrangement of the runners, is very easily constructed as follows: the runners are cut from -in. plank of the size and shape given in the sketch, and are shod with strap iron, in. wide and / in. thick. round iron or half-round iron should not be used, as these are liable to skid. the square, sharp edges of the strap iron prevent this and grip the surface just as a skate. [illustration: an exhilarating glide accompanied by a buoyant sense of freedom only obtained in the monorail type] the top is a board ft. long and in. thick, securely fastened to the runners as follows: blocks are nailed, or bolted, on either side of the upper edge of the rear runner and the top is fastened to them with screws. the runner is also braced with strap iron, as shown. the same method applies to the front runner, except that only one pair of blocks are used at the center and a thin piece of wood fastened to their tops to serve as the fifth wheel. [illustration: the construction is much more simple than making a double-runner bobsled] the hole for the steering post should be in. from the front end and a little larger in diameter than the steering post. the latter should be rounded where it passes through the hole, but square on the upper end to receive the steering bar, which must be tightly fitted in place. in coasting, the rider lies full length on the board with his hands on the steering bar. this makes the center of gravity so low that there is no necessity for lateral steadying runners, and aside from the exhilarating glide of the ordinary sled, the rider experiences a buoyant sense of freedom and a zest peculiar to the monorail type. then, too, the steering is effected much more easily. instead of dragging the feet, a slight turn of the front runner with a corresponding movement of the body is sufficient to change the direction or to restore the balance. this latter is, of course, maintained quite mechanically, as everyone who rides a bicycle well knows.--contributed by harry hardy, whitby, ont. binding magazines to bind magazines for rough service, proceed as follows: place the magazines carefully one on top of the other in order, and space the upper one, near the back edge, for two rivets, marking off three equal distances, or, perhaps, the center space longer than the other two. make two holes through all the magazines on the marks with an awl, or drill, then drive nails of the right length through them. use small washers on both ends of the nails under the head and at the point, which is cut off and riveted over. this makes a good, serviceable binding for rough use.--contributed by carl w. lindgreen, los angeles, cal. [illustration] a shellac cement as shellac is the basis of almost all cements, a good cement can be made by thickening shellac varnish with dry white lead. the two may be worked together on a piece of glass with a putty knife. [illustration] a blackboard for children take a wide window shade and attach it to a roller as if hanging it to a window. cut it to about ft. in length, hem the lower edge and insert in the slot in the usual manner. procure some black slate paint and cover the shade on one side, giving it two coats. allow sufficient time for the first coat to dry before applying the second coat. a blackboard of this kind is strong, and if attached to the wall with the shade fixtures, it can be rolled out of the way when not in use.--contributed by elizabeth motz rossoter, colorado springs, col. how to make a ski staff a ski staff will greatly assist progress over level stretches and is an aid to the ski runner in preserving his balance. a homemade staff that is easy to construct is shown in fig. . at the upper end is a narrow leather loop for the wrist; at the extreme lower end a spike is placed for use on icy ground, and just above this spike is a disk, or stop, which, in deep snow, prevents the staff from sinking in too far and gives the necessary leverage for steering, propelling or righting oneself as needed. [illustration: the staff, being made of a bamboo pole, is strong as well as light (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the staff is made of a piece of bamboo pole, - / or - / in. in diameter, and - / ft. long. the leather for the loop can be made from an old strap, shaved down thinner and cut to a width of about / in. the stop is a disk of wood, / in. thick and in. in diameter. this material should be well-seasoned white pine or spruce and coated with shellac. a hole is bored through the center of the disk to let it pass upward on the staff about in. here it is fastened with two pieces of heavy wire, a and b, fig. . in this diagram, c is the staff, and d, the stop or disk. the wire a passes through the staff below the wire b and at right angles to it, wherefore the wire b must be bent as shown. both wires are fastened to the stop with staples. the lower end of the staff, as shown in fig. , is plugged with hard wood, which is bored part way through its center to admit a wire spike. slight recesses are made in the sides of this hole to anchor the lead which is poured in around the spike. the point of the latter is sharpened and then the bamboo wound with waxed twine, or fine wire, to prevent its splitting. * * * * * fine emery cloth, glued to both sides of a piece of bristol board, makes a handy tool for cleaning the platinum points of a vibrator. a game played on the ice a novel and interesting winter game for young and old, described as a novelty by a swedish paper, is played as follows: [illustration: a player in action ready to spear a ring that hangs on the line between the poles] two poles of convenient height are erected on the ice; if skating on a shallow pond they may be driven through the ice and into the ground, but if the water is deep, holes must be bored through the ice and the poles will soon freeze solidly in them. a rope is stretched between the poles at such a height as is suited to the size of the players, or as agreed on to make the game more or less difficult, and on this are strung a number of pieces of board, a, each having a ring of spring steel, b, attached to its lower end. the purpose of the game is to run at good speed between the poles and catch a ring on a spear, each player being entitled to make a certain number of runs, and the winner being the one who can catch the most rings. the spears may be made of broom handles tapered toward one end, and with a shield made of tin and attached at a suitable distance from the thicker end (pattern c). the line is fastened at the top of one pole and run through a pulley, d, at the top of the other, thence to a weight or line fastener. each player should start from the same base line and pass between the poles at such a speed that he will glide at least ft. on the other side of the poles without pushing himself forward by the aid of the skates. twenty runs are usually allowed each player, or players may divide into two parties, playing one against the other, etc. an umpire will be needed to see that fair play is maintained and settle any disputes that may arise. an electric display for a show window a novel window display that is very attractive, yet simple in construction and operation, can be made in the following manner: first, make a small watertight chamber, a, as long as the focal length of the lens to be used, and having a glass window, b, at one end, and a small round opening, c, at the other. in this opening is placed a cork through which a glass tube about in. long is inserted. the tube makes a smooth passage for the stream of water flowing out of the box. water from any source of supply enters the chamber through the tube d, which may be a pipe or hose, whichever is most convenient. the interior is painted a dull black. a convenient and compact light is placed at the window end of the box. a very good light can be made by placing an electric light with a reflector in a closed box and fastening a biconvex lens, f, in the side facing the window of the water box. when the electric light and the water are turned on, the light is focused at the point where the water is issuing from the box, and follows the course of the stream of water, illuminating it in a pleasing manner. [illustration: the arrangement of the boxes showing the path of the light rays through the water] a still better effect can be obtained by passing colored plates between the lens f and the window b. a glass disk with sectors of different colors may be revolved by any source of power, such as a small electric motor or even a waterwheel turned by the flowing water. two or three streams of water flowing in different colors make a very pretty display and may be produced by using two or more boxes made up in the same manner. the apparatus should be concealed and nothing but the box end or tube with the flowing water shown.--contributed by grant linton, whitby, ont. strainer for a milk pail [illustration] even though a milker may be careful, small particles of dirt, hairs, etc., will fall into the milk pail. it is true that the milk is strained afterward, but a large percentage of the dirt dissolves and passes through the strainer along with the milk. the best plan to prevent this dirt from falling into the milk is to put a piece of cheesecloth over the pail opening, securing it there by slipping an open wire ring, a, over the rim. the milk will readily pass through the cloth without spattering.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. baking bread in hot sand a driving crew on the river wanted to move camp, but the cook objected as he had started to bake. one of the party suggested using a modified form of the method of baking in vogue more than a century ago, which was to place the dough in the hot earth where a fire had been burning. so, to help the cook out, a barrel was sawed in half and the bread, after being properly protected, was placed in each half barrel and covered with hot sand. two of the men carried the half barrels on their backs. when the new camp was reached the bread was done.--contributed by f. b. ripley, eau claire, wis. how to make small cams [illustration: channels of the cams formed with strips of brass soldered to the drum or disk] in making models of machinery or toy machines, cams are very often required. a simple way of making these is to lay out the cam plate, or drum, and then bend pieces of brass to the correct shape and solder them in place, whereupon they may be smoothed up with a file or scraper. a cam of this sort on a drum is shown in the sketch at a, and on a faceplate, at b. the method is not quite as accurate as milling, but answers the purpose in most cases.--contributed by chas. hattenberger, buffalo, n. y. display holder for coins [illustration: two pieces of glass inclosing between them coins of the same size and thickness] if the luster of coins fresh from the mint is to be preserved, they must be immediately placed so as to be protected against contact with the hands. a good holder that will display both sides of a coin can be made of two pieces of glass, bb, between which is placed a cardboard cut as shown at a. the cardboard should be about the same thickness as the coins. the glass may be framed by using strips of wood rabbeted to receive the edges of both pieces; or their edges may be bound with passe-partout tape. even when a frame is used, it is best to bind the edges as this will prevent tarnish from the air. old negative glass is suitable for making the holder.--contributed by r. b. cole, new haven, conn. holder for skates while sharpening the base of the holder is cut from a board and should be about in. longer than the skate. two clamps are cut as shown at a, from metal of sufficient thickness to hold the skate firmly, then bent to shape and attached to the baseboard with bolts having wing nuts, as shown at b and c. [illustration: the holder provides a way to grind a slight curve in the edge of a skate blade] one edge of the board is provided with two pins, d and e, solidly fastened, which are of sufficient height to bring the center of the blade on a level with the grinder axle. an adjusting screw, f, is provided for the grinder base to adjust the skate blade accurately. the support g is for use on baseboards where skates with strap heels, h, are to be sharpened. the shape of the clamp for this support is shown at j. when the skate is securely clamped to the base the blade can be easily "hollow ground" or given a slight curve on the edge.--contributed by c. g. smith, brooklyn, n. y. a homemade direct-view finder for cameras every hand camera and most of the tripod cameras are equipped with finders of one type or another, and usually one in which the image of the field is reflected upward on a small ground glass--being, in fact, a miniature camera obscura. the later and generally more approved style of finder has a small concave lens conveniently set on the outer edge of the camera. when this direct-vision type of finder is used, the camera is held so that the finder is at the height of the eye, a condition that is particularly desirable. when in a crowd, of course, the professional and many amateurs are familiar with the method of holding the camera inverted over the head and looking up into the finder to determine the range of the field. even this method is inconvenient, often impractical. the up-to-date newspaper photographer insists on having his camera equipped with direct finders, as it saves him much trouble and many failures. anyone with a little ingenuity can change one of the old-type finders into a combination device, either direct or indirect. the sketches are self-explanatory, but it may be said that fig. represents a box camera with a regulation finder set in one corner of the box. to make it a direct finder, a small brass hinge is used. cut off part of one wing, leaving a stub just long enough to be attached to the front of the camera directly above the lens of the finder and so as not to interfere with it, and high enough to permit the other wing to be turned down on the ground glass, with space allowed for the thin glass mirror a, that is to be glued to the under side of the long wing. the joint of the hinge should work quite stiffly in order to keep it from jarring out of any position in which it may be set. [illustration: two types of ordinary view finders and methods of converting them into direct-view finders] if the wing is turned upward at an angle of deg., the finder can be used as a direct-vision instrument when held at the height of the eyes. the image reflected from the small mirror is inverted, but this is no disadvantage to the photographer. the small pocket mirror given out for advertising purposes serves very well for making the reflecting mirror. the finder shown in fig. is another very common kind, and one that is readily converted into the direct type by inserting a close-fitting mirror, b, on the inside of the shield to be used as a reflector of the finder image. if the mirror is too thick, it may interfere with the closing of the shield, though in many cases this is not essential, but if it should be necessary to close down the shield in order to fold the camera, it can usually be readjusted to accommodate the mirror. a non-rolling spool bend a piece of wire in the shape shown in the illustration and attach it to a spool of thread. the ends of the wire should clamp the spool slightly and the loop in the wire will keep it from rolling. place the end of the thread through the loop in the wire and it will not become tangled.--contributed by j. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration] how to make a cartridge belt procure a leather belt, about - / in. wide and long enough to reach about the waist, also a piece of leather, in. wide and twice as long as the belt. attach a buckle to one end of the belt and rivet one end of the narrow piece to the belt near the buckle. cut two slits in the belt, a distance apart equal to the diameter of the cartridge. pass the narrow leather piece through one slit and back through the other, thus forming a loop on the belt to receive a cartridge. about / in. from the first loop form another by cutting two more slits and passing the leather through them as described, and so on, until the belt has loops along its whole length. [illustration: two pieces of leather of different widths forming a belt for holding cartridges] the end of the narrow leather can be riveted to the belt or used in the buckle as desired, the latter way providing an adjustment for cartridges of different sizes.--contributed by robert pound, lavina, mont. removing iodine stains a good way to chemically remove iodine stains from the hands or linen is to wash the stains in a strong solution of hyposulphite of sodium, known as "hypo," which is procurable at any photographic-supply dealer's or drug store. there is no danger of using too strong a solution, but the best results are obtained with a mixture of oz. of hypo to oz. of water. bed-cover fasteners the arrangement shown in the sketch is easily made and will keep the bed covers in place. the covers are provided with eyelets, either sewed, a, or brass eyelets, b, or in. apart along the edge. a wood strip, c, by - / in., is cut as long as the width of the bed and fastened to the frame with wire, bolts, or wedges. screwhooks, about - / in. long, are turned into the strip so that they will match with the eyelets placed in the covers. thus the covers will be kept in place when the bed is occupied, and the bed is also easily made up.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, o. [illustration: the hooks prevent the covers from slipping off the sleeper and keep them straight on the bed] collar fasteners [illustration] an excellent fastener to be used on soft collars can be assembled from an ordinary paper fastener and two shoe buttons of the desired color. this device keeps the soft collar in good shape at the front, and serves the purpose just as well as a more expensive collar fastener. the illustration shows how it is used.--contributed by b. e. ahlport, oakland, cal. operating a bathroom light automatically a device for automatically turning an electric light on and off when entering and leaving the room is illustrated in the sketch. a pull-chain lamp socket is placed upon the wall or ceiling, and is connected to a screw hook in the door by a cord and several rubber bands, as shown. [illustration: operating the electric lamp switch or key by the opening of the door] when the door is opened, the lamp is lit, and when leaving the room the opening of the door again turns it out. the hook should be placed quite close to the edge of the door, to reduce the length of the movement, and even then it is too much for the length of the pull required to operate the switch, hence the need of the rubber bands. the lamp chain pulls out just in., and consequently the lamp is lit when the door is opened part way; and swinging the door farther only stretches the rubber. this is an advantage, however, because the lamp is sure to light regardless of the swing of the door. if no rubber were used, the door would have to open just a certain distance each time. if the cord is connected to the hook with a loop or a ring, it may be easily disconnected during the day when not needed. a light coil spring may be used in place of the rubbers.--contributed by c. m. rogers, ann arbor, michigan. a finger-ring trick [illustration] a coin soldered to some inexpensive ring, or a piece of brass cut from tubing, will make an interesting surprise coin for friends. the ring when placed on the middle finger with the coin in the palm makes the trick complete. ask some one if he has ever seen such a coin, or say it is a very old one, as the date is almost worn away. he will try to pick it up, but will find it fast to the finger.--contributed by wm. jenkins, new york city. preventing marks from basting threads on wool in making up woolen garments it is necessary to press portions of them before removing the basting threads. sometimes the marks of the basting threads show after the pressing. this can be avoided by using silk thread for basting instead of the usual cotton thread. the silk thread will not leave any marks.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, gainesville, ga. * * * * * cranberries will keep fresh for weeks if placed in water in a cool place. skating merry-go-round by henry burich after once making and using the ice merry-go-round as illustrated, no pond will be complete unless it has one or more of these devices. to construct an amusement device of this kind, select a good pole that will reach to the bottom of the pond. the measurement can be obtained by cutting a hole in the ice at the desired place and dropping in a line weighted on one end. a sufficient length of the pole should be driven into the bottom of the pond to make it solid and allow the upper end to project above the surface of the ice at least feet. a turning crosspiece for the upper end of the pole is made as follows: first prepare the end of the pole by sawing it off level, then cutting off the bark and making it round for a metal ring which should be driven on tightly. a pin, about / in. in diameter, is then driven into a hole bored in the end of the pole. the crosspiece is made of by -in. material, at least ft. long. a hole is bored in the center to receive the pin in the pole end. [illustration: skaters holding the rope ends are drawn around in a circle rapidly by the revolving crosspiece, turned near the center by other skaters] the crosspiece is easily pushed around the pole and the faster it goes the closer to the center the pushers can travel. ropes can be tied to the ends of the crosspiece for the skaters to hold on to as they are propelled around in a circle. relieving air pressure when closing record boxes the ordinary pasteboard boxes for holding phonograph records are very hard to close, due to the air pressure on the inside. i overcome this difficulty by making three small holes in the cover with a pin.--contributed by robert bandul, new orleans, la. a steering sled [illustration: the extra runner in front is pivoted, and when turned, guides the sled] an ordinary hand sled can be easily converted into a sled that can be guided like a bobsled by the addition of one extra runner. to attach this runner, a piece of wood is fastened to the under side and in the center at the front end of the sled top. a runner with a crosspiece on top is pivoted to the extending wood piece, which should be of a length to make the position comfortable when the coaster, sitting on the sled top, has his feet on the ends of the crosspiece. careful measurements should be made to have the lower edge of the runner on a level with or a little lower than the sled runners. to hold a straw hat on the head [illustration: the rubber bands are linked like a lock stitch and fastened in the band] on windy days it is almost impossible to make a straw hat stay on the head. to avoid this trouble, place rubber bands through the sweatband. before inserting, make them into loops, as shown, and draw enough to be comfortable to the head. this device will save a good many steps when the wind blows.--contributed by t. d. hall, fort worth, texas. carrying fishhooks in a cane pole the person using a cane pole for fishing can easily provide a place for the hooks and sinkers in the first large joint of the pole. cut the cane off just above the first large joint, and it will leave a space, or in. long, which can be used for the hooks and sinkers. a cork is fitted in the end, to hold them in place.--contributed by victor e. carpenter, south bend, ind. drying small laundered articles where mechanical drying is not in use it takes considerable time to hang out a number of handkerchiefs, laces, collars, etc., and very often the wind will blow away many of them. the task of drying these articles is made light by using a bag of mosquito netting with the articles placed in it and hung on a line. the air can pass through the netting and when the articles are dry it does not take long to take them out.--contributed by edward p. braun, philadelphia, pa. decorative wood panels procure an unplaned board that is deeply scored by the teeth of the saw and mark an outline of the desired figure on its surface. sandpaper the background lightly, cut in a moon and smooth down the tree trunks. the background can be smoothed with a sharp chisel, or large portions planed, but in all cases leave the foliage rough. finish the surfaces with oils or stains, applying colors to suit the parts; a piece of dried red cedar, oiled, will produce a warm red, and a green red cedar, oiled, becomes soft yellow, each producing a very pretty effect. these panels offer unlimited opportunity for originality in design and color finishing of different woods.--contributed by mrs. wm. donovan, seattle, wash. [illustration: the designs are worked into the unfinished surface of boards with sandpaper, sharp chisels and a plane, and then colored with dyes to produce the desired effect] fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part i--a one-piece casting rod the pleasures of outdoor life are most keenly enjoyed by those sportsmen who are familiar with all the little tricks--the "ins and outs"--of the open. it is the active participation in any chosen sport which makes the sport well worth while, for the enjoyment gleaned from little journeys to forest and stream largely rests with the outer's own knowledge of his sport. not all of the fun of fishing lies in the catching of the fish, since the satisfaction which comes through handling a well-balanced rod and tackle must be reckoned the chief contributor to the outing. in other words, the pleasures of fishing do not depend so much upon the number of fish caught, as the manner in which the person fishes for them. the rod is naturally the first and important consideration in the angler's kit, and it is the purpose of these articles to set forth, at first, a few hints which my own long experience leads me to think may be of some assistance to those anglers who enjoy making and repairing their own rods and tackle, to be followed, later, by some suggestions on the art of angling generally. the hints given are merely my own methods, and while they may not be the best way of accomplishing the desired end, a good fishing rod may be constructed. like the majority of amateurs, i have achieved the desired results with a few common tools, namely, a saw, plane, jackknife, file, and sandpaper. these simple tools are really all that is needed to turn out a serviceable and well-finished rod of excellent action. kind of material the great elasticity and durability of the split-cane or split-bamboo rod cannot be easily disputed. the handmade split bamboo is unquestionably the best rod for every kind of fishing, but it is also the most expensive and the most difficult material for the amateur to work. in making the first rod or two, the beginner will be better satisfied with the results in making a good solid-wood rod. of course, glued-up split-bamboo butts, joints, and tip stock may be purchased, and if the angler is determined to have only bamboo, it is advisable to purchase these built-up sections rather than to risk certain failure by attempting to glue the cane. however, there are several good woods particularly well adapted for rod making, and while slightly inferior to the finest bamboo in elasticity and spring, the carefully made solid-wood rod is good enough for any angler and will probably suit the average fisherman as well as any rod that can be purchased. bethabara, or washaba, a native wood of british guinea, makes a fine rod, but it is a heavy wood, very hard, and for this reason is perhaps less desirable than all other woods. with the single exception of snakewood it is the heaviest wood for rod making and is only used for short bait-casting rods. possessing considerable strength bethabara can be worked quite slender, and a -ft. casting tip can be safely made of oz. weight. greenheart, a south american wood, is popular alike with manufacturers and amateur rod makers, and per-cent of the better class of solid-wood rods are made of this material. it resembles bethabara in color, but is lighter in weight, although it apparently possesses about the same strength and elasticity. in point of fact, there is little, if any, choice between these woods, and providing sound and well-selected wood is used, the merits of a rod made of bethabara or greenheart are more likely to be due to the careful workmanship of the maker than to the variety of the wood used. dagame, or dagama, a native of the forests of cuba, is in many respects the ideal material for rod making, as it has strength and elasticity. this wood is straight-grained and free from knots, which makes it easily worked; it polishes well and is durable. while there is always more or less difficulty about procuring first-class bethabara and greenheart, dagame of good quality is easily obtained. lancewood is much used in turning out the cheaper grades of fishing rods, but it is somewhat soft and has a marked tendency to take set under the strain of fishing and warp out of shape. it is less expensive than the other woods, and while it has a straight and even grain, there are numerous small knots present which make this material less satisfactory to work than the other woods. for heavy sea rods, lancewood may serve the purpose fairly well, but for the smaller fishing tools this material is inferior to bethabara, greenheart, and dagame. other woods are often used, and while a good rod may be frequently made from almost any of them, the three mentioned are held in the highest esteem by the angling fraternity. for the first rod, the amateur will make no mistake in selecting dagame, whether the slender fly rod or the more easily constructed short bait-casting tool is to be made. the necessary tools the construction of a thoroughly well-made and nicely balanced rod is more a matter of careful work than outfit, but a few suitable tools will greatly facilitate the labor. a good firm workbench, or table, ft. or more in length, will be needed. a regulation bench vise will come in handy, but one of the small iron vises will do very well. a couple of iron planes, one of medium size for rough planing-up work, and a small -in. block plane for finishing, will be required. as the cutters of the planes must be kept as sharp as possible to do good work, a small oilstone--preferably one in a wood case with cover to keep out dust--will be needed; a coarse single-cut mill file about in. long; a few sheets of no. and no. sandpaper; a sheet or two of fine emery cloth; a small thin "back" or other saw, and a steel cabinet scraper. [illustration: two tools for gauging the diameter of the rods, and a homemade scraper (fig. , fig. , fig. )] a caliper of some kind is a necessity, and while the best is a micrometer, fig. , registering to a thousandth part of an inch, as well as indicating ths, ths, ds, and ths, this tool is somewhat expensive, but a very good caliper may be had in the sliding-arm type, fig. , with the scale graduated to ths and taking work up to in. in diameter. cheaper measuring gauges are to be had in plenty, but as the brass and boxwood scales are provided only with coarse graduations, the better quality of mechanics' tools will give better satisfaction. [illustration: (fig. )] the set of grooved planes used by the professional rod makers are rather expensive, although they are most convenient for quickly rounding up the rod to the desired diameter. however, the beginner may dispense with the planes by making the tool illustrated in fig. . to make this handy little tool purchase a steel wood scraper, such as cabinetmakers use, and file a series of grooves along the edges with a round file. file at right angles to the steel, finishing up with a finer file to give a sharp cutting edge. the tool thus made is very handy for scraping the rod after it has been roughly rounded with the plane. its use will be mentioned later on in the description. five-foot bait-casting rod the short one-piece bait-casting rod with but one ferrule is the easiest rod to make, and for this reason the beginner will do well to select this popular type for the first attempt. as the total length of the rod is to measure ft., exclusive of the agate tip, the wood should be or in. longer to allow for cutting down to inches. having selected a good strip of dagame, / in. square, run the plane along each side and from both ends. this will determine the direction in which the grain runs. drill two holes at the end decided upon for the butt, spacing them about / in. from the end, as shown in fig. . drive a stout brad in the corner of the bench top and hook the butt end over the nail. by rigging the stick up in this manner it will be securely held, and planing may be done with the grain with greater ease and accuracy than when the end of the stick is butted up against a cleat nailed to the bench top. the wood should be planed straight and true from end to end and calipered until it is / in. square. it may appear crooked, but this need not trouble one at this stage of the work, since it may be made perfectly straight later on. overlook any kinks, and do not attempt to straighten the stick by planing more from one side than the other. the chief thing to be done is to fashion a square stick, and when the caliper shows the approximate diameter, draw crosslines at the ends to find the center. the length of the hand grasp should be marked out. if a double grasp is wanted, allow in. from the butt end. this will afford an -in. hand grasp after sawing off the end in which the holes were drilled. for a single hand grasp make an allowance of in. however, the double grasp--with cork above and below the reel seat--is preferred by most anglers because it affords a better grip for the hand when reeling in the line. mark the hand-grasp distance by running a knife mark around the rod in. from the butt end. [illustration: diagram or layout for a one-piece bait-casting rod, showing calipered dimensions for each six inches of length. a paper pattern of any rod may be drawn up, providing the amateur rod maker has a rod to use for a pattern, or possesses the exact diameter of the rod at intervals of six inches along its length (fig. )] lay out a diagram showing the full length of the rod by placing a strip of paper--the unprinted back of a strip of wall paper is just the thing--on the bench and drawing two lines from the diameter of the butt to that of the tip. while the caliber of casting rods differs somewhat, the dimensions given will suit the average angler, and i would advise the beginner to make the rod to these measurements. for the butt, draw a line, exactly / in. long, across the paper and from the center of this line run a straight pencil mark at right angles to the tip end, or in. distant, at which point another crossline is drawn, exactly / in. long, to represent the diameter. connect the ends of these two crosslines to make a long tapering form. divide this pattern into eight equal parts, beginning at in. from the butt end, marking a crossline at every in. this layout is shown exaggerated in fig. . if it is desired to copy a certain rod, find the diameter at the several -in. stations with the caliper and write them down at the corresponding sections of the paper diagram. however, if a splendid all-around casting rod is desired, it is perfectly safe to follow the dimensions given in fig. , which show the manner of dividing the paper pattern into the equal parts and the final diameter of the rod at each -in. station, or line. [illustration: gauge made of sheet brass having slots corresponding in length and width with the caliper-layout measurements (fig. )] procure a small strip of thin brass, or zinc, and file nine slots on one edge to correspond in diameter with the width of the horizontal lines which indicate the diameter of the rod on the pattern. this piece is shown in fig. . by making use of the pattern and the brass gauge, the rod may be given the desired taper and the work will proceed more quickly than if the caliper is alone relied upon to repeatedly check up the work. when a good layout of the work is thus made, the next step is to carefully plane the stick so that it will be evenly tapered in the square. plane with the grain and from the butt toward the tip end, and make frequent tests with caliper and gauge, noting the diameter every in. mark all the thick spots with a pencil, and plane lightly to reduce the wood to the proper diameter. reduce the stick in this manner until all sides have an even taper from the butt to the tip. the stick should now be perfectly square with a nice, even taper. test it by resting the tip end on the floor and bending it from the butt end. note the arch it takes and see if it resumes its original shape when the pressure is released. if it does, the elasticity of the material is as it should be, but if it remains bent or takes "set," the wood is very likely to be imperfectly seasoned and the rod should be hung up in a warm closet, or near the kitchen stove, for a few weeks, to season. to facilitate the work of planing the stick to shape, a length of pine board with a groove in one edge will be found handy. a -ft. length of the ordinary tongue-and-groove board, about in. thick, will be just the thing. as the tip of the rod is smaller than the butt, plane the groove in the board to make it gradually shallower to correspond to the taper of the rod. nail this board, with the groove uppermost, to the edge of the workbench, and place the rod in the groove with one of the square corners up, which can be easily taken off with the finely set plane. plane off the other three corners in a like manner, transforming the square stick into one of octagon form. this part of the work should be carefully done, and the stick frequently calipered at each -in. mark, to obtain the proper taper. it is important to make each of the eight sides as nearly uniform as the caliper and eye can do it. set the cutter of the small plane very fine, lay the strip in the groove and plane off the corner the full length of the stick, then turn another corner uppermost and plane it off, and so on, until the stick is almost round and tapering gradually from the mark of the hand grasp to the tip. to make the rod perfectly round, use the steel scraper in which the grooves were filed and scrape the whole rod to remove any flat or uneven spots, and finish up by sandpapering it down smooth. the action of the rod differs with the material used, and in trying out the action, it is well to tie on the tip and guides and affix the reel by a string in order to try a few casts. if the action seems about right, give the rod a final smoothing down with no. sandpaper. [illustration: the four different types of hand grasps are a wood sleeve bored to fit the butt of the rod; the built-up cork over a wood sleeve; a cane-wound grasp, and the double cord-wound grasps with a reel seat between them (fig. )] for the hand grasp nothing is so good as solid cork, and while hand grasps may be purchased assembled, it is a simple matter to make them. in fig. are shown four kinds of handles, namely, a wood sleeve, or core, a, bored to fit the butt of the rod and shaped for winding the fishing cord; a built-up cork grasp, b, made by cementing cork washers over a wood sleeve, or directly to the butt of the rod; a cane-wound grip, c, mostly used for salt-water fishing, and the double-wound grip, d, made in one piece, then sawed apart in the center, the forward grip being glued in place after the reel seat is in position. to make a grip, select a number of cork washers, which may be obtained from dealers in the wholesale drug trade, or from any large fishing-tackle dealer. make a tool for cutting a hole in their centers from a piece of tubing, or an old ferrule of the required diameter, by filing one edge sharp, then covering the other end with several thicknesses of cloth. turn this tube around in the cork like a wad cutter. if the cutter is sharp, a nice clean cut will result, but the opposite will likely occur if an attempt is made to hammer the tube through the cork. having cut the butt end of the rod off square, about in. from the end, or enough to remove the holes, smear a little hot glue on the end, drop a cork washer over the tip of the rod and work it down to the butt. cut another cork, give the first one a coat of glue, slip the former over the tip and press the two together, and so on, until about corks have been glued together in position. this will give a hand grasp a trifle over in. long. [illustration: the corks glued in place on the butt and the wood sleeve, or reel-seat core, ready to slide down and glue in position (fig. )] a sleeve will be needed for the reel seat to slip over, and a soft-wood core of this sort can be purchased from any dealer in rod-making materials, or it can be made at home. for the material procure a piece of white pine, about / in. in diameter and in. long. a section sawed from a discarded curtain roller will serve the purpose well. bore a / -in. hole through the piece and plane down the outside until it slips inside the reel seat. it should be well made and a good fit, and one end tapered to fit the taper of the reel seat, while the opposite end should be about / in. shorter than the reel seat. slide this wood sleeve down the rod, as shown in fig. , coat the rod and the upper part of the last cork with glue and force the sleeve tightly in place. a day or two should be allowed for the glue to set and thoroughly dry, before giving the hand grasp the final touches. if a lathe is at hand, the hand grasp may be turned to any desired shape, but most anglers prefer a cylindrical-shaped grip, leaving the top cork untrimmed to form a kind of shoulder when the metal reel seat is pressed into the cork. if corks of - / -in. diameter are purchased, but little trimming will be necessary to work the hand grasp down to - / in. in diameter. this size seems to fit the average hand about right. the lower corks will need a little trimming to fit the taper of the butt cap so that it may fit snugly in place. cement the butt cap in place by heating the cap moderately hot, then rub a little of the melted ferrule cement inside the cap, and force it over the cork butt. when the cement has hardened, drive a small brass pin or brad through the cap, and file the ends off flush with the metal surface. all the guides, ferrules, and reel seat are shown in fig. . the regulation metal reel seat is about - / in. long, and in fitting it to the old type of bait rod, the covered hood is affixed to the upper end of the reel seat. this arrangement is satisfactory enough for the -ft. bait rod, but it is rather awkward in fitting it to the short bait-casting rod, as with the hood at the upper end the reel is pushed so far forward that it leaves in. or more of the reel seat exposed, and the hand must grip this smooth metal instead of the cork. to avoid this, it is best to cut the reel seat down to - / in. and affix the reel seat to the rod with the hood at the lower end near the hand. for a single hand grasp, a tapered winding check will be needed to make a neat finish and this should be ordered of the correct diameter to fit the reel seat at the lower end and the diameter of the rod at the other. in the double hand grasp the winding check is used to finish off the upper end of the cork, which is tapering to fit the rod at this point. in assembling the reel seat, push it with the hooded end well down and work it into the cork to make a tight waterproof joint. push the reel seat up the rod, coat the sleeve with cement and push the reel seat home. drive a small pin through the hooded end and reel seat to make the whole rigid. this pin should not be driven through the rod or it will weaken it at this point. just let it enter the wood a short distance to prevent the reel seat from turning. the upper or double grasp is fashioned after the reel seat is in position, and the corks are cemented on and pushed tightly together in the same manner as used in forming the lower grasp. the first cork should be pressed tightly against the upper end of the reel seat and turned about so that the metal may enter the cork and form a tight joint. as many corks as are required to form a grip of proper length are in turn cemented to each other and the rod. after the glue has become dry, the cork may be worked down and tapered to make a smooth, swelled grasp. the winding check is now cemented on, to make a neat finish between the upper grip and the rod. before affixing the guides, go over the rod with fine sandpaper, then wet the wood to raise the grain, and repeat this operation, using old sandpaper. if an extra-fine polish is wanted, rub it down with powdered pumice and oil, or rottenstone and oil, and finish off with an oiled rag. to fit the agate tip, file down the end of the rod with a fine-cut file until it is a good fit in the metal tube. melt a little of the ferrule cement and smear a little on the tip of the rod, then push the agate down in place. spar varnish is often used to protect the rod, but extra-light coach varnish gives a better gloss, and it is as durable and waterproof as any varnish. it is only necessary to purchase a quarter pint of the varnish, as a very small quantity is used. the final varnishing is, of course, done after the rod has been wound and the guides are permanently whipped in position. however, it is an excellent idea to fill the pores of the wood by rubbing it over with a cloth saturated in the varnish before the silk whippings are put on. merely fill the cells of the wood and wipe off all surplus, leaving the rod clean and smooth. the guides may now be fastened in place, and for the -ft. rod, but two of them are necessary. the first guide should be placed - / in. from the metal taper which finishes off the upper hand grasp, and the second guide spaced - / in. from the first. by spacing the guides in this manner, the line will run through them with the least possible friction. winding, or whipping, the rod before whipping on the guides, take a fine file and round off the sharp edges of the base to prevent the possibility of the silk being cut. measure off the required distances at which the guides are to be affixed, and fasten them in position by winding with a few turns of common thread. ordinary silk of no. a size may be used, but no. is the best for small rods. most anglers agree that the size of the silk to use for the whippings should be in proportion to the size of the rod--heavy silk for the heavy rod, and fine silk for the small rod. size a is the finest silk commonly stocked in the stores, but one or more spools of no. and no. may be ordered from any large dealer in fishing tackle. as a rule, size gives a more workmanlike finish to the butt and joints of fly and bait rods, while no. is about right to use for winding the tips. in fact, all rods weighing up to oz. may be whipped with no. size. [illustration: the mountings used on a bait-casting rod consist of a reel seat, butt cap, taper sleeve, narrow agate guide, agate offset top, one ring guide, and a welted, shouldered ferrule (fig. )] in whipping the rod, the so-called invisible knot is used. begin the whipping, as shown at e, fig. , by tucking the end under the first coil and holding it with the left thumb. the spool of silk is held in the right hand and the rod is turned to the left, sufficient tension being kept on the silk so that it can be evenly coiled with each strand tightly against the other. a loop of silk, some in. long, is well waxed and placed so that its end will project a short distance beyond the last coil which finishes the whipping. this detail is shown at f. in whipping on guides, begin the whipping at the base and work over the pointed end of the flange, winding on sufficient silk to extend about / in. beyond the pointed flange of the guide base. when the last coil is made, cut off the thread from the spool and tuck the end under the whipping by pulling on the ends of the waxed loop, as shown at g. cut off the ends neatly with a sharp knife. [illustration: both ends of the silk thread are placed under the winding to form an invisible knot (fig. )] for colors, bright red and a medium shade of apple green are the best, since these colors keep their original tint after varnishing, and are less likely to fade than the more delicate shades. red finished off with a narrow circle of green always looks well, and red with yellow is likewise a good combination. narrow windings look much better than wide whippings, and a dozen turns make about as wide a winding as the angler desires. for edgings, three or four turns of silk are about right, and these should be put on after the wider windings have been whipped on and in the same manner, although it is best to tuck the ends of the edging beneath the wider winding when pulling the end through to make the invisible knot. varnishing the rod after winding the rod, see that all fuzzy ends are neatly clipped off, then go over the silk windings with a coat of shellac. the shellac can be made by dissolving a little white shellac in grain alcohol. warm the shellac and apply it with a small camel's-hair brush, giving the silk only two light coats. allow the rod to stand a couple of days for the shellac to become thoroughly dry. a small camel's-hair brush will be required for the varnishing--one about / in. wide will do. if the varnishing is to be done out of doors, a clear and warm day should be selected, and the can of coach varnish should be placed in a pot of hot water for five minutes, so that the varnish will spread evenly. a temperature of about deg. is best for this work, as the varnish will not spread if cold or in a cold place. the varnish should be evenly brushed on, and care taken that no spots are left untouched. hang up by the tip to dry in a room free from dust. while the varnish will set in four or five hours, it is a good plan to allow three days for drying between coats. two coats will suffice to protect the rod, but as coach varnish, properly applied, is rather thin in body, three coats will give complete protection to the wood. the materials required for this rod are, dagame or greenheart stick, ft. long and / in. square; reel seat with straight hood, / in.; butt cap, in.; taper, small end / in.; offset, or angle, agate top, / in., and narrow agate guides, / in., all in german silver; doz. corks, - / by - / in., and two -yd. spools of silk, red and green, size. automatic watering system for poultry yards where a large number of poultry is cared for, the annoyance and attention necessary to furnish a constant water supply can be overcome by using the system shown in the illustration. for this purpose a storage tank must be provided. this may be some old toilet flush tank, or any open reservoir that will hold sufficient water to keep all the drinking pans supplied. a float is provided and connected with a stop valve, so that when the float drops below a certain level, the valve will be turned open, and a fresh supply of water will enter the storage tank, thereby again raising the float and closing the valve. [illustration: simple arrangement of a flush tank in connection with a system of pipes to supply one or more pans of water for the poultry yard] each drinking pan should be about in. in diameter by in. deep, and is drilled for a / -in. hole to fit a / -in. pipe. at the pan end, the pipe is threaded so that a lock nut and leather washer can be attached on each side of the pan bottom, to provide a watertight joint; at the other end, the pipe is screwed into a tee in the / -in. main line which connects with the storage tank. in using the system, sufficient water is run into the tank to fill the pans about three-quarters full. the float may then be adjusted to a shut-off position for the inlet valve. all pans are automatically kept at one level, even though several may be used considerably more than others. when the general water level has dropped sufficiently, the float, dropping with it, will open the stop valve, and cause the water to enter the tank and pans until the original level is again restored.--contributed by d. e. hall, hadlyme, connecticut. changing pip on a card cut out the center pip on the five-spot of spades with a sharp knife. cut a slot centrally in another card, about / in. wide and - / in. long. glue the surfaces of both cards together near the edges to form a pocket for a slide, which is cut from another card and has one-half of its surface colored black. a drop of sealing wax attached to the back of the sliding part, so that it projects through the slot, provides a means of moving the slide in the pocket. a lightning change can be made from a five-spot to a four-spot while swinging the card. [illustration] to make a special envelope any size of envelope for mailing special papers or documents can be made as follows: all envelopes are of the same shape as shown in fig. ; the size for the papers to be inclosed is represented by the dotted lines in fig. . the projections a are coated with paste, and the flap b is folded over them. the envelope is then ready for the inclosure. the flap c is pasted and folded over as with an ordinary envelope.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york city. [illustration: various stages in the forming of an envelope to make any size for special papers (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] automatically extinguishing a candle candles can be easily fitted with attachments to extinguish the light at a set time. to determine the length of time, it is necessary to mark a candle of the size used and time how long a certain length of it will burn. then it is sufficient to suspend a small metal dome, or cap, to which a string is attached, directly over the flame, and run the opposite end of the string over nails or through screw eyes, so that it can be tied around the candle such a distance from the flame end, that the part between the flame and the string will be consumed in the time desired for the light to burn. when this point is reached, the string slips off the candle, and the cap drops on the flame. [illustration] clothespin newspaper holder a simple newspaper holder can be made by cutting away a portion of one side of an ordinary clothespin, drilling a hole through the thick end for a screw or nail, and fastening it in place where desired. another way is to split off one side of a clothespin and cut the bottom of the remaining part tapering as shown; then drill a hole to avoid splitting the piece and fasten in a convenient place.--contributed by j. p. rupp, norwalk, o. [illustration: shaping a clothespin head and fastening it to a wall provides a holder for newspapers] holder for a dory rudder the rudder of a sailing dory or rowboat often comes off in rough water, and in order to keep it in place and yet have it easily detachable at will, the following method is useful: procure a -in. length of soft-iron rod and bend one end of it into a loop large enough to fit around the rudder pin after the latter is inserted in the eyelet. insert screws at a, b and c, letting them project about / in. from the surface. bend the rod at d and a in the shape shown, and with a little adjustment it will easily snap into position. it will prevent the rudder from riding up out of the eyelets, but can be detached instantly. the device should be applied to the upper pin so as to be within easy reach.--contributed by b. a. thresher, lakeville, connecticut. [illustration: the loop on the iron rod holds the pin of the rudder in the eye] trimming photographs in trimming small photograph prints i experienced some difficulty in getting them square, and i did not care to invest in a trimming board. by following a line drawn around the print with a triangle, it was impossible to make a perfect rectangle. in the place of a trimming board i now use a piece of glass cut a little smaller than the desired print. the edges of the glass are smoothed by filing or grinding them. in making a glass, be sure to have the corners cut at perfect right angles and the edges ground straight. the glass is easily located over the print, and by holding the two tightly together the edges of the print can be trimmed with a pair of shears.--contributed by e. leslie mcfarlane, nashwaaksis, n. b. a metal polish a metal polish that is safe to use about the home is composed of parts alcohol, parts ammonia water, parts water, - / parts carbon tetrachloride, parts kieselguhr, parts white bole, and parts of chalk. these substances can be purchased at a local drug store and should be mixed in the order named. any grease on metal will be dissolved by this solution.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part ii--various two and three-piece rods while the action of the one-piece rod is undeniably better than when the rod is made in two or three pieces, it is less compact to carry. to make a -ft. two-piece bait-casting rod, the same dimensions as given for the one-piece rod will make a very fine fishing tool. it is well to make two tips in view of a possible breakage. the rod may consist of two pieces of equal length, but a rod of better action is secured by making the butt section somewhat shorter with a relatively longer tip. by making the butt section about in. long, exclusive of ferrule and butt cap, and the tip section - / in. long, a splendid little rod is obtained which will fit any of the regulation rod cases of -in. length. to make a - / -oz. rod of this kind with a cork hand grasp, caliper it in the same manner as the one-piece rod, making the butt section - / in. long, tapering from / in. at the upper end of the hand grasp to / in. at the ferrule. the tip is made in. long, tapering from / in. to / in. by making the tip and butt to these lengths, both parts will be of equal length when the ferrules and the tops are added. the material list is as follows, the attachments being made of german silver: dagame or greenheart butt, / in. by ft. long; two tips / in. by ft. long; one / -in. reel seat with straight hood; one -in. butt cap; one taper, / in. at the small end; two / -in. offset agate tops; two / -in. narrow agate guides; two no. size one-ring casting guides; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule, with two closed-end centers, one for each tip; two dozen cork washers, - / in. in diameter, and two spools of winding silk. [illustration: the making of a rod not only affords much pleasure, but the rod can be constructed as desired] the three-piece rod should be made up to ft. in length to secure the best action, but even if so made, the use of the extra ferrules makes the rod less resilient and elastic than the rod of one or two-piece construction. the best action is obtained only when the rod bends to a uniform curve, and since the ferrules cannot conform to this curve, or arc, the more joints incorporated in a rod, the less satisfactory it will be from an angling standpoint. convenience in packing and carrying are the sole merits which the many-jointed rod possesses. complete specifications for making a three-piece bait-casting rod, together with a material list, is as follows: a rod, about - / ft. long with a single or double hand grasp made of cork, will weigh about oz. caliper the butt so that it will taper from / in to / in at the cap of the ferrule, making it - / in. long. the middle joint is tapered from / in. to / in., and is - / in. long. the tips are in. long and are tapered from / in. to / in. dagame or greenheart is used for the butt, joint, and tips, and german silver for the fittings. all pieces are ft. long, the butt is / in., the joint and tips, / in. one / -in. reel seat with straight hood; one -in. butt cap; one taper, small end / in.; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule with two closed centers, one for each tip; two / -in. offset agate tops; two / -in. narrow agate guides; two no. size one-ring casting guides; two dozen cork washers, and winding silk, size or . fly rods for trout and bass having made a good bait-casting rod, the amateur will find little trouble in making a rod with a number of joints, and no special instructions need be given, since the work of planing and smoothing up the wood, and finishing and mounting the rod, is the same as has been described in detail before. for fly fishing for trout, accuracy and delicacy are of more importance than length of cast, and the rod best suited to this phase of angling differs greatly from that used in bait casting. a stiff, heavy rod is entirely unsuited for fly casting, and while it is, of course, possible to make a rod too willowy for the sport, the amateur, working by rule of thumb, is more likely to err on the other side and make the fly rods of too stout a caliber. the idea is simply to help the amateur over the hard part by giving a list of dimensions of a representative trout and a bass fly rod. to make a -ft. trout fly rod, with a cork grasp having a length of in. above the reel seat, caliper the material as follows: the butt is tapered from / in. to / in. at ft. from the butt end; - / ft., / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the middle joint is calipered to / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft, / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft, / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the tips are calipered to / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft, / in., and ft., / in. all joints are made - / in. long. the material used is dagame, or greenheart, the butt being / in. by ft., the joint / in. by ft., and the tips / in. by ft. the attachments, of german silver, are: one / in. reel seat, fly-rod type with butt cap; one taper, / in. at the small end; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule with two closed-end centers, one for each tip; two no. snake guides for the butt joint; three no. snake guides for the middle joint, and six no. snake guides, three for each tip section; two no. agate angle fly tops, the kind to wind on; one dozen cork washers, and two -yd. spools of winding silk, size. a bass fly rod - / ft. long, weighing - / oz., with a cork grasp, - / in. above the reel seat, is calipered as follows: the butt is tapered from / in. to / in. ft. from the end; - / ft. from butt, / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the middle joint is / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the tips, / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft, / in. the joints are - / in. long. the mountings are the same as for the trout fly rod. dagame, or greenheart, wood is used, the butt being / in. by ft., the joint / in. by ft. and the tips / in. by feet. the two-piece salt-water rod with an -in. double cork hand grasp, the whole being - / ft. long, is made to weigh about oz., with the following caliperings: a uniform taper of / in. to / in., from the cork grasp to the ferrule, is given to the butt. the first in. of the tips is / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in.; and to tip, / in. the joints are made - / in. long. dagame, or greenheart, is used with german-silver mountings. both pieces of wood are ft. long, the butt being of / -in. and the tip of / -in. material. one / -in. reel seat with straight hood, one -in. butt cap, one / -in. ferrule, one taper with small end / -in.; one / -in. stirrup-tube agate top; two no. bell guides; two dozen cork washers, and two spools, size a, winding silk. [illustration: the mountings for a fly rod consist of a reel seat with a straight hood, a taper, snake guide, agate angle top, and serrated ferrule. the toothed ends are wound with silk to afford additional strength] the independent-butt rod the independent-butt rod, in which the hand grasp contains the ferrule and the tip is made in one piece, is a favorite type with many of the best fishermen. this mode of construction may be used with all classes of rods, the light fly and bait-casting rods, and the heavier caliber rods used in salt-water angling. in rods of this type, it is only necessary to use the same size ferrule to make as many tips as desired to fit the one butt. tips of several calibers and weights may thus be fashioned to fit the one butt, and if the single-piece tip is too long for some special use, one tip may be made a jointed one for ease in carrying. the independent butt, or hand grasp, is made by fitting the ferrule directly on a length of dagame, or greenheart, which has been rounded so that the seated ferrule will not touch the wood. the ferrule is then cemented and riveted in place, and a soft-pine sleeve is fitted over the wood core and the ferrule. the forward end of the sleeve is, of course, tapered to fit the taper of the reel seat, and when properly fitted, its lower end will project about / in. beyond the pine sleeve. glue the sleeve on this wood core, cement the reel seat to the sleeve, and rivet the reel seat in place. the cork washers are glued in position, working the first one into the metal edge of the reel seat, to make a nice, tight joint at this point. the other corks are then glued in place until the hand grasp is of the desired length. the projecting end of the wood core is then cut off flush with the last cork, and the rod is mounted in the usual manner. in making a double hand grasp, the forward grasp may be fitted over the wood core in the fashion already described in making the hand grasp for the one-piece bait-casting rod, or the forward grasp may be fitted to the tip, just above the ferrule, as preferred. both methods are commonly used, the only difference being in the manner of finishing up the forward grasp. if the forward grip is affixed to the ferruled end of the tip, two tapered thimbles will be required to make a nice finish. the heavy-surf, or tarpon, rod is made up of an independent, detachable butt, in. long, having a solid-cork or cord-wound hand grasp, and a one-piece tip, - / ft. long, altogether weighing - / oz. it is uniformly calipered to taper from / in to / in. one piece of dagame, or greenheart, in. by - / ft., will be required. one -in. reel seat for detachable butt, including one / -in. male ferrule; one - / -in. butt cap; two no. wide, raised agate guides; two no. trumpet guides; one / -in. agate stirrup top; two spools of winding silk, a-size, and two dozen cork washers, or sufficient fishline to cord the butt. the guides are whipped on double, the first set spaced in. from the top, and the second, in. from the reel. the core of the independent, or detachable, butt is constructed of the same material as the rod, which makes the hand grasp somewhat elastic and very much superior to a stiff and rigid butt. homemade ball catch for cabinet doors to make a ball catch, procure a piece of brass, in. long, / in. wide, and about / in. thick, and an old gas burner having a diameter of / in. as described by work, london, the threaded part of the burner is cut off, which forms a contracted end that will hold a steel ball / in. in diameter and allow it to project / in. a hole is drilled in the center of the brass plate, and the barrel soldered in place. a piece of spiral spring is inserted behind the ball. the stiffness of the spring will depend on the use of the catch. the barrel is cut to length and plugged. another plate of brass is fitted with screw holes and a hole in the center to receive the projecting ball part, for the strike. [illustration] combination needle and thread tray when any attempt is made to keep sewing material, such as needles, spools, or buttons, separate, each of the articles is usually kept in some special drawer, or by itself, and when necessary to use one, the others must be found, frequently necessitating many extra steps or much lost time in hunting up the various articles. the illustrated combination tray avoids this difficulty. it consists of two round trays fastened together near one edge with a wood screw, which is loosely fitted in the lower tray but screwed into the upper to permit them being swung apart. extra thickness and weight should be given the bottom piece so no tipping will result when the top is swung out to expose the buttons in the lower section. the thread spools are placed on pegs set in the upper tray, and the cushion in the center is provided for the pins and needles.--contributed by j. harger, honolulu, hawaiian islands. [illustration] repairing worn escapement wheel of a clock when the ordinary clock has served its usefulness and is apparently worn out, the jeweler's price to overhaul it frequently amounts to almost as much as the original purchase price. one weak place in the clock is the escapement wheel. the points soon wear down, thereby producing a greater escapement and pendulum movement, resulting in an increased strain and wear of the clock. if the tips of the teeth on the wheel are bent up slightly with a pair of pliers, the swing of the pendulum will be reduced, thereby increasing the life of the clock. many of the grandfather's clocks can be put in order in this manner so as to serve as a timepiece as well as a cherished ornament.--contributed by c. f. spaulding. chicago, ill. * * * * * a piece of work should never be fingered while filing it in a lathe. [illustration: if he would take full advantage of any sport and reap the greatest pleasure from a day spent in the open, the sportsman should get together a good outfit] fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part iii--trout fishing with fly and bait the art of angling is generally viewed as one of the world's greatest recreations, and while each and every phase of fishing may be said to possess certain charms of its own, fly fishing for trout is regarded by most well-informed sportsmen as the alpha and omega of the angler's art. this is so because the trout family are uncommonly wary and game fish, and the tackle used for their capture is of finer balance and less clumsy than any employed in angling for the coarser game fishes. if he would take full advantage of any sport and reap the greatest pleasure from a day spent in the open, it is really necessary for the sportsman to get together a good outfit. it is not essential to have a very expensive one, but it should be good of its kind, well proportioned for the purpose for which it is to be used. the beginner, who buys without good knowledge of the articles required, or fails to use careful discrimination, is almost certain to accumulate a varied assortment of junk, attractive enough in appearance, perhaps, but well-nigh useless when it is tested out on the stream. a good representative outfit, then, is of the first importance; it means making a good beginning by initiating the novice in the sport under the most favorable conditions. let us then consider the selection of a good fishing kit, a well-balanced rod, the kind of a reel to use with it, the right sort of a line, flies, and the other few items found in the kit of the practical and experienced trout fisherman. selecting a good fly rod the ordinary fishing pole may be bought offhand at almost any hardware store, but a well-balanced rod for fly fishing should be well tested out beforehand. the requirements call for a rod of comparatively light weight, a rod that is elastic and resilient, and yet strong enough to prove durable under the continued strain of much fishing. if the angler has made his own rod, as suggested in former chapters, he will have a good dependable fly rod, but the large majority of anglers who are about to purchase their first fishing kit should carefully consider the selection of the rod. at the outset it must be understood that good tackle is simply a matter of price, the finest rods and reels are necessarily high in price, and the same thing may be said of lines and flies. providing the angler has no objection to paying $ , or more, for a rod, the choice will naturally fall upon the handmade split bamboo. for this amount of money a fair quality fly rod may be purchased, the finer split bamboos costing anywhere up to $ , but under $ it is very doubtful whether the angler can procure a built-up rod that is in every way satisfactory. the question may arise, is a split-bamboo rod necessary? the writer's own long experience says that it is not, and that a finely made solid-wood rod, of greenheart or dagame, is quite as satisfactory in the hands of the average angler as the most expensive split bamboo. a good rod of this sort may be had for $ , and with reasonable care ought to last a lifetime. the points to look for in a fly rod, whether the material is split bamboo or solid wood, is an even taper from the butt to the tip; that is, the rod should register a uniform curve, or arc, the entire length. for general fly casting ft. is a handy length, and a rod of - / oz. weight will prove more durable than a lighter tool. a good elastic rod is wanted for fly casting, but a too willowy or whippy action had best be avoided. however, for small-brook fishing, where the overgrown banks prohibit long casts, a somewhat shorter and stiffer rod will be more useful. for casting in large northern streams, where the current is swift and the trout run to a larger size, a - / or -ft. rod of oz. weight is often preferred. of course, the veteran angler can safely use a much lighter rod than the beginner, and one occasionally meets a man on the stream that uses a -oz. rod for pretty heavy fishing. to be on the safe side, the novice will make no mistake in choosing a rod of fair length and conservative weight. when selecting a rod in the tackle shop, do not rest content with a mere examination of the appearance, but have the dealer affix a reel of the weight and size intended to be used with it. by reeling on a short length of line and reeving it through the guides and then fastening the end to a weight lying upon the floor, a very good idea of the rod's behavior may be gained, since by reeling in the line and putting tension on the rod its elasticity and curve may be seen and felt as well as in actual fishing. to give the utmost satisfaction, the rod should fit its owner, and several rods should be tried until one is found that most fully meets the angler's idea of what a rod should be. if one happens to have a good fly reel, by all means take it along and attach it to the rod while making the tests. it is practically impossible to gauge the balance of a rod without affixing the reel, and many a finely balanced tool will appear badly balanced until the proper-weight reel is affixed to it. the proper kind of reel for fly fishing nothing is so good as the english style of click reel, which is made with a one-piece revolving side plate and with the handle affixed directly to it. any kind of a balanced-handle reel is an out-and-out nuisance on the fly rod, because it has no advantage in quickly recovering the line, and the projecting handle is forever catching the line while casting. in fly casting, the length of cast is regulated by the amount of line taken from the reel before the cast is made, and it is while "pumping" this slack line through the guides, in making the actual cast, that the balanced or projecting handle is very apt to foul the line. a good reel that is smooth-running like a watch will cost about $ , but a very good one may be had for $ , and cheaper ones, while not so durable, may be used with fair satisfaction. the heavier multiplying reels, so essential for bait casting from a free reel, are altogether unsuited for the fly rod, being too heavy when placed below the hand, which is the only proper position for the reel when fly casting. the single-action click reel, having a comparatively large diameter, but being quite narrow between the plates, is the one to use, and hard rubber, or vulcanite, is a good material for the side plates, while the trimmings may be of german silver or aluminum. the all-metal reel is of about equal merit, but whatever the material, the most useful size is one holding about yd. of no. e size waterproof line. a reel of this capacity will measure about in. in diameter and have a width of about / in. between plates. a narrow-spooled reel of this type enables the fisherman to reel in the line plenty fast enough. owing to the fact that the reel is placed below the grip on fly rods, a rather light-weight instrument is needed to balance the rod. of the two extremes, it is better to err on the side of lightness, because a heavy reel makes a butt-heavy rod and, throwing extra weight on the wrist and arm, makes casting increasingly difficult after an hour's fishing. an old hand at the game will appreciate this point better than the novice. [illustration: the english pattern is the best type of reel for trout fishing, and a gun-metal, or other dark finish, is better than shiny nickelplate] [illustration: fly book with clips for holding snelled flies, so that the gut is kept straight between pads of felt] [illustration: aluminum box with clips for holding flies tied on eyed hooks, each clip having places for seven flies] [illustration: a folding-handle landing net may be left at home, but most old anglers like to have it handy when needed] [illustration: willow creel, or basket, leather-bound with a metal fastening, the number three size being about right] [illustration: leader box of black-finished aluminum with felt pads to keep the leaders moist and pliable] [illustration: a three-joint fly rod with cork hand grasp and extra tip, and rod case made of aluminum tubing] the kind of line to use the fly-casting line used by a veteran is generally of silk, enameled and having a double taper; that is, the line is thickest in the center and gradually tapers to a smaller diameter at each end. single-tapered lines are likewise extensively used, and while they cost less, they are tapered at one end only and cannot be reversed to equalize the wear caused by casting. the level line, which has the same diameter throughout its entire length, is the line most generally used, but the cast cannot be so delicately made with it. for the beginner, however, the level line in size no. e is a good choice. for small-brook fishing, no. f is plenty large enough. in choosing the size of line, there is a common-sense rule among fly casters to select a line proportioned to the weight of the rod. for a light rod a light line is the rule, and for the heavier rod a stouter line is the logical choice. if the rod is of a too stiff action, use a comparatively heavy line, and it will limber up considerably; if the rod is extremely "whippy," use the lightest line that can be purchased, and used with safety. a fine leader marks the expert caster the leader for trout is preferably of single gut, and as fine as the angler's skill will allow. the fly caster's rule is to use a leader whose breaking strain is less than the line, then, when the tackle parts, it is simply a question of putting on a new leader and the more expensive line is saved. ready-made leaders may be purchased, or the angler can tie them up as desired. for length, a or - / -ft. leader is about right for average fishing. longer leaders are used, and while they sometimes are of advantage, the -ft. length is more useful. a longer leader is awkward to handle because the loop is apt to catch in the top of the rod when reeling in the line to bring the fish close to the landing net. leaders may be had with a loop at each end, or with loops tied in, for using a cast of two or three flies. for all average casting, the two-fly cast is the best, but the expert angler uses the single-fly very often. for lake fishing, the single large fly is generally preferred. for using two flies, the leader is provided with three loops, one at the top, another at the bottom, and an extra loop tied in about in. from the lower loop. in fly casting, the first, or upper, fly is known as the "dropper," and the lower one as the "tail" fly. for the single-fly cast but two loops are required. gut used for leaders should be carefully selected, and only those lengths which are of uniform diameter and well rounded chosen, the lengths which show flat and rough spots being discarded. dry gut that is very brittle should be handled very little, and previous to a day's fishing the leaders must be soaked in water over night to make them pliable, then coiled in between felt pads of the leader box to keep them in fishing shape. after use, put the frayed leaders aside and dry them out between the flannel leaves of the fly book. gut is the product of the silkworm, and the best quality is imported from spain. it comes in bundles, or hanks, of , strands, to in. long and in different thicknesses, or strengths. the heaviest are known as "royal" and "imperial," for salmon; "marana," for extra-heavy bass; "padron," for bass; "regular," for heavy trout; "fina," for light trout, and "refina," for extra-light trout. the grades "fina" and "refina" are well suited for all average fly fishing, while the heavier sizes are useful for heavy large fishing. to make the leaders, soak the strands of gut in warm water over night until they are soft and pliable. select the strands for each leader of the desired thickness and length so that the finished leader will have a slight taper to one end only. by using the "fina" gut for the upper length and tying in two lengths of "refina" gut, a nicely tapered leader of light weight is obtained. begin the leader by uniting the strands together to make it the correct length, three -in. strands being about right for average casting. the "single water knot" is the strongest and neatest to use. make it by taking the thick end of the strand and doubling it back enough to tie in a common knot just large enough for the line to pass through and drawing it up tightly. tie a single loose knot in the other end of the strand, about / in. in diameter and close to the end; take the next thickest strand of gut, thread the thicker end through the loose knot and tie a second square knot around the strand, as shown at a. by pulling on the two long ends the loops can be drawn up tightly, and the two knots will slide together and make a neat and very strong knot. repeat this operation until as many strands of gut are knotted together as required to make the leader of the desired length. for making the loop at the ends, a double-bighted knot, tied as shown at b, is used. if a dropper fly is desired, do not pull the water knot tightly, but first insert a short length of gut with a common knot at the end and a loop in the other, then draw the water knot up tightly, and a short snell will be made for attaching the fly as usually. [illustration: (a) the single water knot used in tying leaders; (b) a good knot for making the loop at the end of the leaders; (c) an angler's knot used for attaching the line to the leader, and (d) a jam knot for attaching eyed flies, or hooks, to the leader or snell] flies for trout fishing the standard selection of artificial flies numbers about , but the average fisherman will find about selected patterns to answer every need. for making up the most "killing" flies for the trout season, the following can be recommended: use red ibis, stone fly, cinnamon, red spinner, and parchmenee belle, for april; turkey brown, yellow dun, iron blue, spinner, montreal and red fox, for may; spider, black gnat, silver doctor, gray drake, orange dun, and green drake, for june; july dun, grizzly king, pale evening dun, red ant, and brown palmer, for july; seth green, coachman, shad, governor, august dun, and royal coachman, for august, and black palmer, willow, whirling dun, queen of the water, and blue bottle, for september. to attach a line to the leader the well-known "angler's knot" is mostly used. this knot is shown at c. the snelled fly is attached by passing the loop over the loop of the leader and inserting the fly through the leader loop. when eyed flies are used they are often attached direct to the leader, or a looped snell may be used as in the ordinary american-tied fly. to attach the eyed fly direct to the leader, the common "jam knot," shown at d, is mostly used, and when the slipknot is drawn up tightly and the extra end cut off it makes a small, neat knot, not apt to slip. catch to hold two joining doors open where two open doors meet, a catch to keep them open can be made of a piece of wire, shaped as shown. the hooks at the ends of the wire are slipped over the shanks of the knobs.--contributed by w. a. saul, lexington, mass. [illustration] * * * * * strips cut from wood dishes used by grocers for butter, thoroughly soaked in warm water, will make excellent repair pieces for market baskets. bicycle oil lamp changed to electric light the desire for an electric light for my bicycle caused me to change a fine oil lamp, too good to be thrown away, so that an electric globe could be used in it. the oil cup of the lamp was removed, and a wood push button fastened in its place with three screws. before fastening the push button, a porcelain socket was attached to its bottom, and connections were made between socket and push button, ends being left protruding for connection to the battery. a small flash-light battery was fastened to the lamp bracket. a small rubber washer was placed between the head of the push button on the switch and the cap, so that in screwing the cap up, a permanent connection was made. the lamp can be used as a lantern when removed from the bicycle.--contributed by lee baker, chicago. [illustration: a push button with socket and miniature globe used in an oil lamp for electric light] lifter for removing eggs from hot water an improvement over the customary way of removing eggs from hot water with a tablespoon, is to use an old-fashioned coffee strainer. this brings up the eggs without carrying hot water with them.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york, n. y. * * * * * genuine oxalic acid may be used for removing stains from all woods except mahogany. double top for a table the need of two tables in a kitchen where there was space for only one, was the cause of devising the arrangement shown in the illustration. an ordinary kitchen table was mounted on trunk casters or domes so that it could be moved easily, whereupon a zinc top was put on it with raised edges. the table was then placed against the wall where it was to be used, and an extra, plain top fitted to it and hinged to the wall. [illustration: an extra top covers the table when it is placed against the wall] when it was desired to wash dishes on the zinc top, the table was pulled out without disturbing the articles on the hinged top. after drying the dishes, they are removed from the zinc top to the hinged part, and the table is pushed back against the wall.--contributed by louis drummond, philadelphia, pa. [illustration: the table when drawn out uncovers the zinc tray, fastened on top] [illustration: as a general thing, the veteran fly fisherman prefers to wade with the current, and fishes the water in front of him by making diagonal casts across the stream] fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part iv--trout fishing with fly and bait how to cast the fly to be able to cast the artificial fly a distance of ft., or more, and let the feathered lure alight upon the desired bit of water as lightly as a falling leaf is no small accomplishment, for fly casting is an art, and to become an expert, much practice is necessary. the personal assistance of a skillful caster is not often available, but if the angler will follow the suggestions outlined, a beginner will soon grasp the knack of handling the fly rod, and the casting will steadily improve with practice. as the knack of handling a gun is best gained--not in the field, shooting live game, but through shooting at targets--so may the art of fly casting be more quickly acquired by intelligent practice conducted away from the stream, in the back yard, or any other place roomy enough to swing the rod and a moderately long line. by practicing in this way, the angler's attention is focused upon the cast and is not partly occupied with the excitement of fishing. to make a good beginning, let the reel contain about yd. of common, braided, linen line (size e is about right) and instead of a fly, or hook, affix a small split shot to the end of the line. it is well to begin with a cheap rod and save a good outfit, and if the angler learns how to make a fairly long and accurate cast with a common rod, he may feel assured that he can even do better with a first-rate outfit. [illustration: fig. --the proper way to take hold of the handle with the reel on the under side] the first point to observe in making the cast is to grip the rod correctly, and this is done by grasping the rod at the right point where it balances best. by shifting the hand about this point of balance is quickly found, for at no other point will the rod "hang" well in the hand. in casting, the reel is turned to the under side of the rod with the thumb extended along the top of the grip, as shown in fig. . taking up an easy casting position, with the left foot slightly advanced, pull from the reel about yd. of line and let this slack line fall in coils upon the ground in front; bring the rod up slightly above the horizontal, as shown in fig. , and with a quick snap of the wrist, avoiding shoulder or body movement, throw the tip upward, checking it sharply as soon as the tip is carried over the shoulder about ° beyond the vertical plane as in fig. . this snappy upstroke of the rod makes the "back cast," by projecting the line high in the air, and carries it well behind the angler. before the line has fully straightened out behind, and before it has an opportunity to fall much below the caster's shoulders, the rod is snapped forward with a quick wrist-and-forearm movement, which throws the line forward in front of the fisherman and in the direction he is facing, which finishes the cast with the rod in the position shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --begin the cast with the rod in a position just above the horizontal plane] long and accurate fly casting is much more a matter of skill than muscle, and while some fly fishermen cast directly from the shoulder and upper arm, and thus use a considerable amount of muscular force in making the cast, this cannot be regarded as the best method of casting. the great elasticity of the fly rod ought to be taken full advantage of by the caster, and if this is done, casting will be naturally accomplished by the wrist and forearm. to make strenuous efforts to hurl the fly through the air, using an arm or body movement, is extremely tiring after an hour or so of fishing, while if the cast is made from the wrist, aided by the forearm, the snap of the rod may be depended upon to project the fly to greater length of line and allow it to fall close to the desired spot, lightly and without splashing. timing the back cast is the most difficult detail of fly casting, because the line is behind the angler and the eye cannot aid the hand. the novice will soon acquire the knack of casting, however, if he will remember to keep the elbow close to the side, and to keep the line well up in the air when making the back cast, and to begin the forward movement before the line has fully straightened out behind him. after a little practice, the hand will feel the slight tension communicated to the rod as the line begins to straighten out, and this should be taken advantage of to correctly time the forward movement. counting "one" for the upstroke, "two and" for the interval required for the line to straighten out in the rear, and "three" for the forward movement, is also a good way to time the cast. at the beginning the caster should make no attempt to secure distance. accuracy and delicacy in placing the fly on the water is of much more importance than length of cast in trout fishing, and to attain this end, it is a good plan to place a newspaper about ft. distant and try to drop the end of the line on this mark. when the caster can drop the line on the target lightly and with reasonable accuracy, he may feel justified in lengthening his cast. other casts than the overhead cast just described are occasionally used, as the spey, switch, wind, and flip casts, but the overhead cast is mostly used, although it is much more difficult to master. to make the spey cast, the angler requires a rapid stream which will carry the line downstream until it is straight and taut, the tip of the rod being held as long as possible to accomplish this end. the rod is then raised high in the air with a quick wrist movement, which lifts the line from the water to the extreme end, then without pausing the rod is carried upstream with just sufficient force to let the fly fall just above the angler. the line is now on the reverse, or upper, side of the fisherman, when with a sweep of the rod the line is projected over the water's surface--not along the surface--in the manner used in making the overhead cast. [illustration: fig. --the rod is quickly checked when it is carried over the shoulder about degrees] the switch cast is sometimes useful when trees or rocks are immediately back of the fisherman, thus preventing the line from extending far enough backward to make the overhead cast. in making this cast the line is not lifted from the water, but merely to the surface by raising the tip of the rod. the line is dragged through the water by carrying the tip in the direction one is standing until it is as far in the rear as the obstructions will permit. by a quick downward sweep of the rod the line is projected with sufficient force to roll it forward in a large coil or loop, much as a wheel rolls on a track. the wind cast is a modification of the switch cast, but easier to make. the caster brings his line almost to his feet, and with a quick downward motion of the rod the line is thrown in a long loop against the wind. the underhand and the flip casts are so simple that it seems almost unnecessary to describe them. both are short casts and are only used when the angler is fishing in an overgrown stream. the underhand cast is really a side cast, inasmuch as the short line is lifted from the water in a loop and propelled in the desired direction by a side sweep of the rod. the flip cast is made by holding the fly between the thumb and finger and with a few coils of line in the right hand. bend the rod like a bow, release the fly suddenly, and the snap of the rod will project it in the desired direction and allow it to drop lightly like a fly. handling the flies in the water as a general thing the veteran fly fisherman prefers to wade with the current and fishes the water in front of him by making diagonal casts across the stream. a good fisherman will systematically cover every inch of good water and little will be left to chance. the novice is inclined to fish his flies in a contrary manner, he casts more or less at random, and is as likely to splash the flies recklessly about in the most impossible places as he is to drop them in a favorable riffle or pool. to be able to pick out fishable water, the angler should know something about the habits of the trout, their characteristics at the several seasons of the fishing year, and their habits, which differ greatly in different streams. a fishing knowledge of the stream to be visited is of much value, but if the angler knows how to make a fair cast and possesses average skill in handling flies on water, there should be no question but that he will creel a fair number of trout even though he casts in strange waters. [illustration: fig. --the cast is finished by throwing the line forward with a quick wrist-and-forearm movement] to imitate the action of the natural insect is the most successful manner of fishing the flies, and as the natural fly will struggle more or less when borne down with the current, the fisherman endeavors to duplicate this movement by making his artificial fly wriggle about. this motion must not be overdone, for if the flies are twitched and skipped about, or pulled against the current, the wary trout will refuse to fall for any such obvious deceit. a gentle motion of the wrist will cause the fly to move somewhat as the natural insect will struggle. in making the cast do not cast directly down or upstream, but across the current at an angle. let the flies fall upon the water as lightly as possible, so that the water will carry them downstream over the likely places where the trout are hiding. keep the line as taut as possible by drawing the slack in with the left hand. the flies should not be allowed to soak in the water, neither should they be retrieved in haste. the experienced fly caster will invariably fish with a wet line, that is to say, with a slightly submerged fly, and will let the flies drag over as much water as possible before making a second cast. owing to the fact that trout lie with their noses pointing upstream awaiting their food carried down by the current, the caster will naturally take pains to float his flies downstream with the leader fairly taut. to neglect this detail and allow the leader to float in a wide loop near or before the flies is slovenly fishing, and few trout will strike a fly presented in this amateurish fashion. early in the fishing season, and when the stream is flooded and discolored after a heavy rain, it is a good plan to fish the flies below the surface. fishing in this manner makes it more difficult to tell when to strike a fish, and some little practice is needed to determine the opportune moment by feeling the slight tension on the line. many fish will be pricked to be sure, but some trout will be creeled, and fishing with the submerged fly is sometimes the only way trout can be taken. on fair days and in smooth water, better luck may be expected when the fly is kept upon the surface, and this is easily managed by keeping the tip of the rod well in the air. often the fisherman can take advantage of a bit of floating foam, and if the fly is cast upon it and allowed to float with it downstream, the ruse will often prove effective. the trout is a hard striker and it is not unusual to have a trout rush ahead of the fly in his attempt to mouth it. in rapid water the savage rush of the fish is sufficient to hook it securely, but when casting in quiet pools, the hook is imbedded by a snap of the wrist. at what exact moment to strike, as well as the amount of force to use, depends upon circumstances. when fishing in small streams and brooks where the trout run small, much less force is necessary to hook the fish, but in quiet water and in larger streams where or -lb. trout are not uncommon, the fish may be struck with a smart upward jerk of the forearm and wrist. so far as my experience goes, the matter of striking is governed by the temperament as well as the judgment of the angler. the deliberate thinking man is likely to strike too late, while the nervous individual, striking too early, is apt to prick the trout and roll him over. the best time to fish for trout is when they are feeding on the surface; and in the early days of spring, when there are few flies about, the warmer part of the day, say, from in the morning to in the afternoon, will prove to be the most successful time. later on, when flies are numerous, good luck may be expected at an early hour in the morning, and in the hot summer months the cooler hours of the day may be chosen. of course, there are many exceptions, since there are many cool days in summer, as well as exceptionally warm days in spring, and these changes of weather should be considered. however, extremes are not likely to make good fishing, and the trout will not rise as freely on cold, windy days, nor will they fight as gamely. on hot days, too, not so much luck can be expected during the hours of the greatest heat-- to --but a good basket of trout may be creeled early in the morning or late in the afternoon of summer. a bright, clear day is usually the best for fly fishing, because the sun brings out more flies, but a warm rain, or even a fog, is also considered good fishing weather. among the live baits available for trout fishing are the minnow, white grub, cricket, grasshopper, and other insects, and last, but by no means least, the common angle or earthworm. the minnow is beyond a doubt the most enticing morsel that can be offered to a hungry trout, and a minnow may be reckoned to secure a rise when other baits fail. the inconvenience of transporting this bait is a great drawback, and as minnows are delicate fish, a minnow bucket is necessary for their preservation. this means a lot of trouble, as the water must be frequently changed or aerated, and this labor, together with the difficulty of carrying a bulky pail through the brush, makes this desirable bait almost impossible for stream and brook fishing. the salt-water minnow, known as a "shiner" or "mummychug," is a topnotch trout bait, and being much tougher than the fresh-water minnow, makes a bait often used by anglers residing near the seacoast. the white grub, or larvae of the so-called may beetle, is a good bait available for early-season fishing, and may be obtained in the early spring months by spading up grass land. the grub is about in. long, and of a creamy yellow color with a darker head. it may be kept a month, or more, by putting it in a box with a number of pieces of fresh turf. crickets, grasshoppers, and many other insects, make good baits, while the earthworm is a good all-around bait for trout. a supply dug some days before and kept by packing in fresh moss and slightly moistening with milk and water will prove more attractive in appearance and the worms will be tougher and cleaner to handle than when carried in earth. other good baits include the fin of a trout, and if this is used in combination with the eye of the same fish, it forms an attractive lure. in using this bait, do not puncture the eyeball, but hook through the thin flexible skin surrounding the eye. a fat piece of salt pork, cut into pieces in. long and / in. wide, makes a fairly good bait. spoons and other spinning baits are presumably attractive, but few sportsmen use them when angling for so fine a fish as trout. [illustration:] houses made of poles by lola a. pinchon [in this article descriptions are given of several shelters suitable for a resort, but the reader may select any one of them that answers his needs and build a camp house, or fit up a more substantial one to make living quarters for the whole year.--editor.] [illustration: houses made of poles] being forced to take the open-air treatment to regain health, a person adopted the plan of building a pole house in the woods, and the scheme was so successful that it was decided to make a resort grounds, to attract crowds during holidays, by which an income could be realized for living expenses. all the pavilions, stands, furniture, and amusement devices were constructed of straight poles cut from young growth of timber with the bark remaining on them. outside of boards for flooring and roofing material, the entire construction of the buildings and fences consisted of poles. [illustration: the frame construction of the house made entirely of rough poles, the verticals being set in the ground, plumbed, and sighted to make a perfect rectangle of the desired proportions] a level spot was selected and a house built having three rooms. the location was in a grove of young timbers, most of it being straight, and trees were easily found that would make posts ft. long, required for the sides, and two poles ft. long, for the center of the ends, so that they would reach to the ridge. the plot was laid out rectangular and marked for the poles, which were set in the ground for a depth of ft., at distances of ft. apart. this made the house ft. high at the eaves with a square pitch roof; that is, the ridge was ft. high in the center from the plate surfaces for this width of a house. the rule for finding this height is to take one-quarter of the width of the house for the height in the center from the plate. [illustration: the steps are supported on pairs of vertical poles set in the ground to make different levels] the corner poles were carefully located to make the size by ft., with a lean-to by ft., and then plumbed to get them straight vertically. the plates for the sides, consisting of five poles, were selected as straight as possible and their ends and centers hewn down to about one-half their thickness, as shown at a and b, and nailed to the tops of the vertical poles, the connection for center poles being as shown at c. the next step was to secure the vertical poles with crosspieces between them which were used later for supporting the siding. these poles were cut about ft. long, their ends being cut concave to fit the curve of the upright poles, as shown at d. these were spaced evenly, about ft. apart from center to center, on the sides and ends, as shown in the sketch, and toenailed in place. the doors and window openings were cut in the horizontal poles wherever wanted, and casements set in and nailed. the first row of horizontal poles was placed close to the ground and used both as support for the lower ends of the siding and to nail the ends of the flooring boards to, which were fastened in the center to poles laid on stones, or, better still, placed on top of short blocks, ft. long, set in the ground. these poles for the floor should be placed not over ft. apart to make the flooring solid. [illustration: gate openings were made in the fence where necessary, and gates of poles hung in the ordinary manner] a lean-to was built by setting three poles at a distance of ft. from one side, beginning at the center and extending to the end of the main building. these poles were about ft. long above the ground. the rafter poles for this part were about - / ft. long, notched at both ends for the plates, the ends of the house rafters being sawed off even with the outside of the plate along this edge. the rafter poles for the house were in all, ft. long, and were laid off and cut to fit a ridge made of a board. these poles were notched about in. from their lower ends to fit over the rounding edge of the plate pole, and were then placed directly over each vertical wall pole. they were nailed both to the plate and to the ridge, also further strengthened by a brace made of a piece of board or a small pole, placed under the ridge and nailed to both rafters. on top of the rafters boards were placed horizontally, spaced about ft. apart, but this is optional with the builder, as other roofing material can be used. in this instance metal roofing was used, and it only required fastening at intervals, and to prevent rusting out, it was well painted on the under side before laying it and coated on the outside when fastened in place. if a more substantial shelter is wanted, it is best to lay the roof solid with boards, then cover it with the regular prepared roofing material. some large trees were selected and felled, then cut into -ft. lengths and the bark removed, or if desired, the bark removed in -ft. lengths, and nailed on the outside of the poles, beginning at the bottom in the same manner as laying shingles, to form the siding of the house. if a more substantial house is wanted, boards can be nailed on the poles, then the bark fastened to the boards; also, the interior can be finished in wall board. the same general construction is used for the porch, with horizontal poles latticed, as shown, to form the railing. it is very easy to make ornamental parts, such as shown, on the eave of the porch, by splitting sticks and nailing them on closely together to make a frieze. floors are laid on the porch and in the house, and doors hung and window sash fitted in the same manner as in an ordinary house. [illustration: all furniture, together with the large lawn swings, took on the general appearance of the woodland, and as the pieces were made up of the same material as the houses, the cost was only the labor and a few nails] a band stand was constructed on sloping ground, and after setting the poles, the floor horizontals were placed about ft. above the ground, on the upper side, and ft. on the lower side. the poles used were about ft. long. instead of having the horizontals ft. apart, the first was placed ft. above the floor, the next at about one-half the distance from the lower one to the plate at the top, and the space between was ornamented with cross poles, as shown. a balcony or bay was constructed at one end, and a fancy roof was made of poles whose ends rested on a curved pole attached to the vertical pieces. steps were formed of several straight poles, hewn down on their ends to make a level place to rest on horizontal pieces attached to stakes at the ends. a pair of stakes were used at each end of a step, and these were fastened to a slanting piece at the top, their lower ends being set into the ground. the manner of bracing and crossing with horizontals makes a rigid form of construction, and if choice poles are selected for the step pieces, they will be comparatively level and of sufficient strength to hold up all the load put on them. the roof of this building was made for a sun shade only and consisted of boards nailed closely together on the rafters. [illustration: the entrance to the grounds was given an inviting appearance with large posts and swinging gates] an ice-cream parlor was built on the same plan, but without any board floor; the ground, being level, was used instead. there were five vertical poles used for each end with a space left between the two poles at the center, on both sides, for an entrance. this building was covered with prepared roofing, so that the things kept for sale could be protected in case of a shower. a peanut stand was also built without a floor, and to make it with nine sides, nine poles were set in the ground to form a perfect nonagon and joined at their tops with latticed horizontals. then a rafter was run from the top of each post to the center, and boards were fitted on each pair of rafters over the v-shaped openings. the boards were then covered with prepared roofing. a railing was formed of horizontals set in notches, cut in the posts, and then ornamented in the same manner as for the other buildings. fences were constructed about the grounds, made of pole posts with horizontals on top, hewn down and fitted as the plates for the house; and the lower pieces were set in the same as for making the house railing. gates were made of two vertical pieces, the height of the posts, and two horizontals, then braced with a piece running from the lower corner at the hinge side to the upper opposite corner, the other cross brace being joined to the sides of the former, whereupon two short horizontals were fitted in the center. a blacksmith formed some hinges of rods and strap iron, as shown, and these were fastened in holes bored in the post and the gate vertical. a latch was made by boring a hole through the gate vertical and into the end of the short piece. then a slot was cut in the side to receive a pin inserted in a shaft made to fit the horizontal hole. a keeper was made in the post by boring a hole to receive the end of the latch. large posts were constructed at the entrance to the grounds, and on these double swing gates, made up in the same manner as the small one, were attached. these large posts were built up of four slender poles and were considerably higher than the fence poles. the poles were set in a perfect square, having sides about in. long, and a square top put on by mitering the corners, whereupon four small rafters were fitted on top. the gates were swung on hinges made like those for the small gate. among the best and most enjoyed amusement devices on the grounds were the swings. several of these were built, with and without tables. four poles, about ft. long, were set in the ground at an angle, and each pair of side poles was joined with two horizontals, about ft. long, spreaders being fastened between the two horizontals to keep the tops of the poles evenly spaced. the distance apart of the poles will depend on the size of the swing and the number of persons to be seated. each pair of side poles are further strengthened with crossed poles, as shown. if no table is to be used in the swing, the poles may be set closer together, so that the top horizontals will be about ft. long. the platform for the swinging part consists of two poles, ft. long, which are swung on six vertical poles, about ft. long. these poles are attached to the top horizontals with long bolts, or rods, running through both, the bottom being attached in the same manner. poles are nailed across the platform horizontals at the bottom for a floor, and a table with seats at the ends is formed of poles. the construction is obvious. a short space between two trees can be made into a seat by fastening two horizontals, one on each tree, with the ends supported by braces. poles are nailed on the upper surface for a seat. other furniture for the house and grounds was made of poles in the manner illustrated. tables were built for picnickers by setting four or six poles in the ground and making a top of poles or boards. horizontals were placed across the legs with extending ends, on which seats were made for the tables. chairs and settees were built in the same manner, poles being used for the entire construction. an electric water heater procure the barrel and cap from a hand bicycle pump and prepare them as follows: make a tube of paper, about double the thickness of a postal card, to fit snugly in the pump barrel and oil it slightly before slipping it into place. procure some resistance wire of the proper length and size to heat quickly. the wire can be tested out by coiling it on some nonconducting material, such as an earthen jug or glazed tile, and connecting one end to the current supply and running the other wire of the supply over the coil until it heats properly. cut the resistance at this point and temporarily coil it to fit into the bottom of the pump barrel, allowing one end to extend up through the space in the center with sufficient length to make a connection to supply wires. mix some dental plaster to the consistency of thick cream and, while keeping the wire in the center of the pump barrel, pour in the mixture until it is filled to within - / in. of the top. allow the plaster to set for about a day, then remove it from the barrel and take off the paper roll. the coil of wire at the bottom is now straightened out and wound in a coil over the outside of the plaster core, allowing sufficient end for connecting to the supply wires. [illustration: an electric heating coil made of resistance wire placed in a bicycle-pump barrel for boiling water] cut two or three disks of mica to fit snugly in the bottom of the pump barrel, also cut a mica sheet to make a covering tube over the coil on the plaster core and insert the whole into the barrel. the two terminals are connected to the ends of a flexible cord which has a plug attached to the opposite end. be sure to insulate the ends of the wire where they connect to the flexible cord inside of the pump barrel under the cap. in winding the resistance wire on the core, be sure that one turn does not touch the other. the heater when connected to a current supply and placed in qt. of water will bring it to a boil quickly.--contributed by a. h. waychoff, lyons, colo [illustration] camps by f. s. charles a good site, pure water in abundance, and a convenient fuel supply, are the features of a temporary camp that should be given first consideration when starting out to enjoy a vacation in the woods. the site should be high and dry, level enough for the tent and camp fire, and with surrounding ground sloping enough to insure proper drainage. a sufficient fuel supply is an important factor, and a spot should be chosen where great effort is not required to collect it and get it into proper shape for the fire. [illustration: wall tent] [illustration: lean-to of boughs] [illustration: log cabin] when locating near streams of water be careful to select a spot above high water mark so the ground will not be overflowed by a sudden rise of the stream. do not select the site of an old camp, as the surroundings are usually stripped of all fuel, and the grounds are unclean. division of work clear the selected spot and lay out the lines for the tent, camp fire, etc. if the camping party consists of more than two persons, each one should do the part allotted to him, and the work will be speedily accomplished. remember that discipline brings efficiency, and do not be slack about a camp just because it is pleasure. one of the party should attend to the camp fire and prepare the meals while another secures the fuel and water. the tent can be unpacked and the ground cleared by the other members of the party, and when ready, all should assist in raising the tent, especially if it is a large one. tents an ordinary a or wedge tent is sufficient for one or two campers. where you do not wish to locate permanently, this tent can be set up and taken down quickly. it should have a ring fastened to the cloth in each peak through which to pass a rope or line to take the place of a ridge pole. such a tent can be pitched between two trees or saplings, and, after tying the rope to the trees, it can be tightened with a long forked stick, placed under one end of the rope. if two trees are not conveniently located, then two poles crossed and tied together will make supports for one or both ends, the ridge line running over them and staked to the ground. [illustration: fire between two logs] [illustration: fire built against a log] on a chilly night, the a tent is quite advantageous. the stakes can be pulled on one side and the cloth doubled to make a lean-to, open on the side away from the wind. a fire can be built in front and the deflected heat on the sleeper will keep him comfortable and warm. for larger parties, the wall tent with a fly is recommended. these tents can be purchased in various sizes. the fly is an extra covering stretched over the top to make an open air space between the two roofs. it keeps the interior of the tent delightfully cool in hot summer weather and provides a better protection from rain. the fly can be made extra long, to extend over the end of the tent, making a shady retreat which can be used for lounging or a dining place. protection from insects where mosquitoes and other insects are numerous, it is well to make a second tent of cheesecloth with binding tape along the top to tie it to the ridge pole of the regular tent. the sides should be made somewhat longer than the regular tent so that there will be plenty of cloth to weight it down at the bottom. this second tent should be made without any opening whatever. the occupant must crawl under the edge to enter. the cheesecloth tent is used inside of the ordinary tent, and when not in use it is pushed aside. [illustration: forked sticks supporting cooking utensils] two camps are illustrated showing the construction of a lean-to for a temporary one-season camp, and a log cabin which makes a permanent place from year to year. (a more elaborate and more expensive camp was described in the may issue of this magazine.) the construction of these camps are very simple. the first is made of poles cut in the woods. a ridge pole is placed between two trees or held in place with poles of sufficient length, set in the ground. poles are placed on this at an angle of about deg., forming a lean-to that will be entirely open in front when finished. the poles are covered, beginning at the bottom, with pine boughs, laid in layers so as to make a roof that will shed water. a large fire, built a short distance from the open front will make a warm place to sleep, the heat being reflected down the same as described for the a tent. a permanent camp a good permanent camp is a log cabin. this can be constructed of materials found in the woods. trees may be felled, cut to length, and notched to join the ends together at each corner so as to leave little or no space between the logs. the roof is constructed of long clapboards, split from blocks of wood. the builder can finish such a camp as elaborately as he chooses, and for this reason the site should be selected with great care. camp fires there is no better way to make a camp fire than to have a large log or two against which to start a fire with small boughs. larger sticks can be placed over the logs in such a way as to hold a pot of water or to set a frying pan. forked sticks can be laid on the log and weighted on the lower end with a stone, using the upper end to hang a cooking vessel over the flames. two logs placed parallel, with space enough between for the smaller sticks, make one of the best camp cooking arrangements. two forked sticks, one at each end of the logs, may be set in the ground and a pole placed in the forks lengthwise of the fire. this makes a convenient place for hanging the cooking utensils with bent wires. food supplies the conditions in various localities make a difference in the camper's appetite and in consequence no special list of food can be recommended, but the amount needed by the average person in a vacation camp for two weeks, is about as follows: bacon lb. ham " flour " corn meal " rice " baking powder / " sugar " beans " salt " lard " coffee " a number of small things must be added to this list, such as pepper, olive oil, sage, nutmeg and vinegar. if the weight is not to be considered, canned goods, preserves, jam and marmalade, also vegetables and dried fruits may be added. do not forget soap and matches. food can be kept cool in a box or a box-like arrangement made of straight sticks over which burlap is hung and kept wet. this is accomplished by setting a pan on top of the box and fixing wicks of cloth over the edges. the wicks will siphon the water out evenly and keep the burlap wet. a drinking tube when on a walking tour through the woods or country, it might be well to provide a way to procure water for drinking purposes. take with you several feet of small rubber tubing and a few inches of hollow cane of the size to fit the tube. in one end insert the cane for a mouthpiece, and allow the other end to reach into the water. exhaust the air from the tube and the water will rush up to your lips.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, augusta, ga. washing photographic prints the usual way of washing photographic prints is to place them in a shallow tray in which they will become stuck together in bunches, if they are not often separated. a french magazine suggests that a deep tank be used instead, and that each print be attached to a cork by means of a pin stuck through one corner, the cork thus becoming a float which keeps the print suspended vertically, and at the same time prevents contact with its nearest neighbor. camp furnishings by chelsea curtis fraser when on a camping trip nothing should be carried but the necessities, and the furnishings should be made up from materials found in the woods. a good spring bed can be made up in the following manner: cut two stringers from small, straight trees, about in. in diameter, and make them about ft. long. all branches are trimmed off smooth and a trench is dug in the ground for each piece, the trenches being in. apart. small saplings, about in. in diameter, and as straight as can be found, are cut and trimmed of all branches, and nailed across the stringers for the springs. knots, bulges, etc., should be turned downward as far as possible. the ends of each piece are flattened as shown at a, fig. , to give it a good seat on the stringers. a larger sapling is cut, flattened, and nailed at the head of the bed across the stringers, and to it a number of head-stay saplings, b, are nailed. these head-stay pieces are cut about in. long, sharpened on one end and driven a little way into the ground, after which they are nailed to the head crosspiece. [illustration: a camp bed made of saplings with several layers of boughs for the mattress (fig. )] in the absence of an empty mattress tick and pillow cover which can be filled with straw, boughs of fir may be used. these boughs should not be larger than a match and crooked stems should be turned down. begin at the head of the bed and lay a row of boughs with the stems pointing toward the foot. over this row, and half-lapping it, place another row so that the tops of the boughs lie on the line c and their stems on the line d. this process is continued until the crosspiece springs are entirely covered, and then another layer is laid in the same manner on top of these, and so on, until a depth of or in. is obtained. this will make a good substitute for a mattress. a pillow can be made by filling a meal bag with boughs or leaves. [illustration: a table made of packing-box material and a wash basin stand of three stakes (fig. , fig. )] a good and serviceable table can be constructed from a few fence boards, or boards taken from a packing box. the table and chairs are made in one piece, the construction being clearly shown in fig. . the height of the ends should be about in., and the seats about in. from the ground. the other dimensions will be governed by the material at hand and the number of campers. a wash-basin support can be made of three stakes, cut from saplings and driven in the ground, as shown in fig. . the basin is hung by its rim between the ends of the stakes. wherever a suitable tree is handy, a seat can be constructed as shown in fig. . bore two -in. holes, in. apart, in the trunk, in. above the ground, and drive two pins, about in. long, cut from a sapling into them. the extending ends are supported on legs of the same material. the seat is made of a slab with the rounding side down. a clothes hanger for the tent ridge pole can be made as shown in fig. . the hanger consists of a piece, in. long, cut from a -in. sapling, nails being driven into its sides for hooks. the upper end is fitted with a rope which is tied over the ridge pole of the tent. [illustration: a seat against the trunk of a tree, and a clothes hanger for the tent ridge pole (fig. , fig. )] a fruit stemmer in the berry season the stemmer shown in the sketch is a very handy article for the kitchen. it is made of spring steel and tempered, the length being about - / in. the end used for removing the stem is ground from the outside edge after tempering. a ring large enough to admit the second finger is soldered at a convenient distance from the end on one leg.--contributed by h. f. reams, nashville, tennessee. [illustration] a homemade fountain pen a very serviceable fountain pen can be made from two - rifle cartridges and a steel pen. clean out the cartridges, fit a plug tightly in the end of one shell, and cut it off smooth with the end of the metal. drill a / in. hole in the center of the wood plug and fit another plug into this hole with sufficient end projecting to be shaped for the length of the steel pen to be used. the shank of the pen and the plug must enter the hole together. one side of the projecting end of the plug should be shaped to fit the inside surface of the pen and then cut off at a point a little farther out than the eye in the pen. on the surface that is to lie against the pen a groove is cut in the plug extending from near the point to the back end where it is to enter the hole in the first plug. the under side of the plug is shaped about as shown. [illustration: one cartridge shell makes the fountain part of the pen, and the other the cap] the other cartridge is cut off at such a point that it will fit on the tapering end of the first one, and is used for a cap. the cartridge being filled with ink and the plug inserted, the ink will flow down the small groove in the feeder plug and supply the pen with ink. care must be taken that the surface of the smaller plug fits the pen snugly and that the groove is not cut through to the point end. this will keep the ink from flooding, and only that which is used for writing will be able to get through or leak out.--contributed by edwin n. harnish, ceylon, canada. destroying caterpillars on grapevines the grapes in my back yard were being destroyed by caterpillars which could be found under all the large leaves. the vine was almost dead when i began to cut off all the large leaves and those eaten by the caterpillars, which allowed the sun's rays to reach the grapes. this destroyed all the caterpillars and the light and heat ripened the grapes.--contributed by wm. singer, rahway, n. j. * * * * * it will require gal. of ordinary mixed calcimine to cover sq. ft. of plastered surface, sq. ft. of brickwork and sq. ft. of average woodwork. a camp provision box while on a camping-and canoeing trip recently, i used a device which added a touch of completeness to our outfit and made camp life really enjoyable. this useful device is none other than a provision or "grub" box. [illustration: the provision box ready for use in camp, the cover turned back on the brackets and the legs extended] from experience campers know that the first important factor in having a successful trip is compactness of outfit. when undertaking an outing of this kind it is most desirable to have as few bundles to carry as possible, especially if one is going to be on the move part of the time. this device eliminates an unnecessary amount of bundles, thus making the trip easier for the campers, and doubly so if they intend canoeing part of the time; and, apart from its usefulness as a provision container, it affords a general repository for the small articles which mean so much to the camper's welfare. the box proper may be made of any convenient size, so long as it is not too cumbersome for two people to handle. the dimensions given are for a box i used on a canoe trip of several hundred miles; and from experience i know it to be of a suitable size for canoeists. if the camper is going to have a fixed camp and have his luggage hauled, a larger box is much to be preferred. a glance at the figures will show the general proportions of the box. it may be possible, in some cases, to secure a strong packing box near the required dimensions, thus doing away with the trouble of constructing it. the distinguishing features of this box are the hinged cover, the folding legs, and the folding brackets. the brackets, upon which the top rests when open, fold in against the back of the box when not in use. the same may be said of the legs. they fold up alongside the box and are held there by spring-brass clips. [illustration: the brackets for the cover as well as each of the four legs fold against the sides of the box in such a manner as to be out of the way, making the box easy to carry and store away in a small space] on our trips we carry an alcohol stove on which we do all of our cooking. the inner side of the top is covered with a sheet of asbestos, this side being uppermost when the hinged top is opened and resting on the folding brackets. the stove rested on this asbestos, thus making everything safe. the cover is large enough to do all the cooking on, and the box is so high that the cooking can be attended to without stooping over, which is much more pleasant than squatting before a camp fire getting the eyes full of smoke. the legs are hinged to the box in such a manner that all of the weight of the box rests on the legs rather than on the hinges, and are kept from spreading apart by wire turnbuckles. these, being just bolts and wire, may be tucked inside the box when on the move. the top is fitted with unexposed hinges and with a lock to make it a safe place for storing valuables. [illustration: detail of the turnbuckle, button to hold the brackets, and the spring clip for holding the legs on the side of the box] in constructing the cover it is well to make it so that it covers the joints of the sides, thus making the box waterproof from the top, if rain should fall on it. a partition can be made in one end to hold odds and ends. a tray could be installed, like the tray in a trunk, to hold knives, forks, spoons, etc., while the perishable supplies are kept underneath the tray. give the box two coats of lead paint, and shellac the inside. the wire braces for the legs are made as follows. procure four machine bolts, about / in. in diameter and in. long--any thread will do--with wing nuts and washers to fit. saw or file off the heads and drill a small hole in one end of each bolt, large enough to receive a no. galvanized iron wire. two inches from the bottom of each leg drill a hole to take the bolt loosely. determine the exact distance between the outside edges of the legs when the box is resting on them. make the wire braces in. longer than this distance so that the bolts will protrude through the holes in the legs and allow for putting on the nuts and washers. screwing up on the nuts draws the wire taut, thus holding the legs firm. the size of the top determines the dimensions of the folding brackets which support it when open. these brackets may be solid blocks of wood, but a lighter and more serviceable bracket is constructed as follows. if the top is in. wide and in. long, make the brackets by in. constructing the brackets so that their combined length is in. shorter than the total length of the box, facilitates their folding against the back of the box when not in use. this point is clearly shown in the drawing. our brackets were made of / -in. oak, - / in. wide, and the joints halved together. they are hinged to the back of the box as shown; and when folded are held in place by a simple catch. the weight of the lid is sufficient to hold the brackets in place when open, but to make sure they will not creep when in use insert a / -in. dowel in the end of each so that it protrudes / in. drill two holes in the top to the depth of / in., so that when the top rests on the brackets, these holes engage with the dowels. in hinging the brackets to the back see that they are high enough to support the lid at right angles to the box. the box here shown is made of / in. white pine throughout. the legs are / by - / by in. they are fastened to the box with ordinary strap hinges. when folded up against the box they do not come quite to the top so that the box should be at least in. high for -in. legs. about in. from the bottom of the legs drive in a brad so it protrudes / in. as shown. this brad engages in a hole in the spring-brass clip when folded up as shown in the illustration. if in a fixed camp, it is a good idea to stand the legs in tomato cans partly full of water. this prevents ants from crawling up the legs into the box, but it necessitates placing the wire braces higher on the legs. our box cost us nothing but the hardware, as we knocked some old packing boxes to pieces and planed up enough boards to make the sides. of course, the builder need not adhere to these dimensions, for he can make the size to suit his requirements, while the finish is a matter of personal taste. * * * * * a blue writing ink is easily made of oz. prussian blue, - / oz. oxalic acid and pt. of soft water. shake and allow it to stand until dissolved. wall pockets in a tent when camping i find a few wall pockets sewed to the tent walls at the back end provide a convenient means to hold the soap, mirror, razor and other small articles liable to be lost. the pockets can be made of the same material as the tent and sewed on as a patch pocket.--contributed by a. m. barnes, atlanta, ga. camp stoves the camp stoves illustrated are different forms of the same idea. both can be taken apart and laid flat for packing. iron rods, / in. in diameter, are used for the legs. they are sharpened at the lower end so that they may be easily driven into the ground. the rods of the one shown in the first illustration are bent in the form of a hook at the upper end, and two pieces of light tire iron, with holes in either end, are hung on these hooks. across these supports are laid other pieces of the tire iron. in the other stove, the rods have a large head and are slipped through holes in the four corners of the piece of heavy sheet iron used for the top. a cotter is slipped through a hole in each rod just below the top, to hold the latter in place.--contributed by mrs. lelia munsell, herington, kansas. [illustration: camp-stove top, either solid or pieced, supported on rods at the corners] attractor for game fish a piece of light wood, shaped as shown and with four small screweyes attached, makes a practical attractor for game fish, such as bass, etc., by its action when drawn through the water or carried by the flow of a stream. hooks are attached to three of the screweyes and the fourth one, on the sloping surface, is used for the line.--contributed by arthur vogel, indianapolis, ind. [illustration: a device for attracting game fish which is used in place of bait] simple photographic-print washer the ordinary washbowl supplied with a faucet may be easily converted into a washing tray for photographic prints or film negatives. procure a medicine dropper from a druggist, and attach it to the faucet end with a short piece of rubber tubing. be sure to procure a dropper that has the point turned at right angles to the body. [illustration: the whirling motion set up by the forced stream at an angle thoroughly washes prints] when the water is turned on it is forced through the small opening in the dropper in such a manner that the water in the bowl is kept in a constant whirling motion. this will keep the prints on the move, which is necessary for a thorough washing. how to make an electric fishing signal a unique electric fishing signal, which may be rigged up on a wharf or pier, and the electric circuit so arranged as to operate an electric bell or buzzer, located in the fisherman's cottage, or any other convenient place, may be constructed as follows: obtain two pieces of / -in. spring brass, one in. long and / in. wide, and the other in. long and / in. wide. mount a -in. brass wood screw, a, in one end of the -in. piece as shown. [illustration: construction of the parts to make the contact points and the electric connections] place over the end of the -in. piece a thin sheet of insulating fiber, b, allowing it to extend down on each side about in. then bend a piece of / -in. brass, c, over the insulating fiber, allowing it to extend down on each side the same distance as the insulating fiber. drill a small hole through the lower ends of the u-shaped piece of brass, c, the insulation, b, and the -in. piece, while they are all in place. remove the insulation and the u-shaped brass piece, and tap the holes in the brass for a machine screw, d. enlarge the hole in the -in piece, and provide an insulating bushing for it with an opening of the same diameter as the brass machine screw. mount a small binding post, e, on one side of the u-shaped piece of brass, and the parts may then be put together and held in place by means of the brass screw. drill two holes in the other end of the -in piece, also two holes in one end of the -in piece, and rivet them together with two small rivets. the -in. piece should project beyond the end of the -in. piece. a piece of thin spring brass should be made into the form of a spiral, f, and fastened to the upper end of the -in. piece. provision should be made for attaching the fishline to the inside end of the brass spiral. a small binding post should be soldered to either the -in. or -in. piece, at the bottom. if the device is set up with the head of the brass adjusting screw in the top of the -in. piece, pointing in the direction the line to the fishing hook is to run, and if a fish pulls upon the line, the -in. piece is pulled over and touches the point of the adjusting screw. if a battery and bell, or buzzer, is connected as shown, the circuit will be completed when the -in. piece comes in contact with the adjusting screw, and the bell will ring. a chair swing a comfortable porch or lawn swing can be easily and quickly made with a chair as a seat, as follows. procure some rope of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the person, and fasten one end securely to one of the front legs of the chair and the other end to the same side of the back as shown in the illustration, allowing enough slack to form a right angle. another piece of rope, of the same length, is then attached to the other side of the chair. the supporting ropes are tied to these ropes and to the joist or holding piece overhead.--contributed by wm. a. robinson, waynesboro, pa. [illustration: the ropes are tied to the chair so that it will be held in a reclining position] another broom holder of the many homemade devices for holding a broom this is one of the simplest, and one that any handy boy can make. [illustration] it consists of a string, about ft. long, with a knot at one end and the other tied to a nail or staple driven into the wall. to hang up the broom simply turn the string around the handle as shown, and the broom will be held securely, because its weight will pull the string taut and the knot at the end will prevent the string from running off the handle.--contributed by jef de vries, antwerp, belgium. squaring wood stock the device shown in the sketch is a great help to the maker of mission furniture as a guide on short cuts. it consists of two pieces of wood, a and b, preferably of oak, fastened together at right angles by two large flat-head screws. the pieces should be placed exactly at right angles. [illustration: the saw teeth edge can be run through both pieces, the stock being in the corner] a cut is then made through both pieces. the cut on b should be exactly at right angles to the surface of piece a. this device can be either clamped on a board or merely held by hand, and will insure a true cut.--contributed by f. w. pumphrey, owensboro, ky. a wind vane a novelty in wind vanes is shown in the accompanying sketch. the vane can be made of sheet metal or carved from light wood. the wings are so set on the body as to cause the dragon to rise when the wind strikes them. the dragon is pivoted on a shaft running through its center of gravity, so it will readily turn with the wind. the tail part may also be made to revolve as the propeller of an aeroplane. [illustration] the length and size of the shaft will depend on the dimensions of the dragon, and similarly, the location of the weights on the chains will be determined by its size and weight. upon these circumstances and the varying velocities of the wind will depend how high the dragon will rise on its shaft, and the height reached by it will thus serve to indicate--in a relative manner only--the velocity of the wind, but it is also possible to arrange the weights at such distances apart that the dragon will rise to a in a -mile wind, to b in a -mile wind, to c in a -mile gale, and so on, with as many weights as desired. this can be done with the aid of an anemometer, if one can be borrowed for some time, or the device may be taken to the nearest weather bureau to be set.--contributed by h. j. holden, ontario, cal. * * * * * never rock a file--push it straight on filing work. how to make a flutter ring the flutter ring is for inclosing in an envelope and to surprise the person opening it by the revolving of the ring. the main part is made of a piece of wire, a, bent so that the depth will be about in. and the length in. procure or make a ring, in. in diameter. the ring should be open like a key ring. use two rubber bands, bb, in connecting the ring to the wire. [illustration: the shape of the wire and manner of attaching the rubber bands to the ring] to use it, turn the ring over repeatedly, until the rubber bands are twisted tightly, then lay it flat in a paper folded like a letter. hand it to someone in this shape or after first putting it into an envelope. when the paper is opened up, the ring will do the rest.--contributed by d. andrew mccomb, toledo, o. a kitchen utensil hanger every cook knows how troublesome it is to have several things hanging on one nail. when one of the articles is wanted it is usually at the back, and the others must be removed to secure it. a revolving rack for hanging a can opener, egg beater and cooking spoons, etc., takes up less space than several nails, and places every article within easy reach as well as providing individual hooks for all the pieces. [illustration: the hook support revolves so as to make each one readily accessible for hanging utensils] the rack is easily made of a block of wood, - / in. in diameter and in. thick; an arm, / in. wide, / in. thick and in. long, and a metal bracket. the arm is fastened to the bracket and the bracket to the wall. a screw is turned through a loose-fitting hole bored in the end of the arm and into the disk. screw hooks are placed around the edge of the disk as hangers.--contributed by a. r. moore, toronto, can. homemade hinges for boxes a very simple form of hinge can be made as shown in the sketch. it is merely a matter of cutting out two pieces of flat steel, a, punching holes in them for screws or nails, and fastening them to the box corners, one on each side. when the box is open, the lid swings back clear and is out of the way. a hinge of this kind is very strong. for a light box, the parts can be cut from tin.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, iowa. [illustration: hinge parts made of sheet metal and their use on a box cover] to remove odors from ice boxes an easy way to prevent odors in an ice box is to place a can of coke in the box. this will take up all gases and prevent milk from tasting of onions or vegetables which may be kept in the box. in factories where bad odors are apt to spoil the men's lunches put up in pails or baskets, a box can be constructed to hold these receptacles and a large pail of coke placed in it. anything placed in this box will remain free from odors, and fresh.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. preventing window sash from freezing to the sill when it is cold enough to cause the window sash to freeze fast in the bathroom and bedrooms not having double sash, much discomfort will be experienced and the health may even be menaced. i have discovered a simple method to overcome this difficulty. lay on the outside sill, close up against the window frame, a thin, narrow strip of wood, on which the window can rest when down. this gives a continual current of fresh air between the sashes at the center, but no unpleasant draft below, and no amount of dripping and freezing will fasten the window sash upon it.--contributed by mary murry, amherst, nova scotia. a hanger for the camp [illustration] a garment, or utensil, hanger can be easily made for the camp in the following manner: procure a long strap, about - / in. wide, and attach hooks made of wire to it. each hook should be about in. long and of about no. gauge wire. bend a ring on one end of the wire and stick the other end through a hole punched in the center of the belt. the ring will prevent the wire from passing through the leather, and it should be bent in such a manner that the hook end of the wire will hang downward when the width of the belt is vertical. these hooks are placed about in. apart for the length of the belt, allowing sufficient ends for a buckle and holes. the strap can be buckled around a tree or tent pole.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. * * * * * never stand in a direct line of a swiftly revolving object, such as an emery wheel. locking several drawers with one lock [illustration] a lock for a number of drawers in a bench or cabinet may be applied with a strip of wood hinged to the cabinet edge so that it will overlap the drawer fronts, as shown. a hasp and staple complete the arrangement for use with a padlock.--contributed by h. w. hahn, chicago. a lightning-calculation trick by means of a simple arrangement of numbers, a calculation can be made which will easily puzzle any unsuspecting person. if the two numbers , and be written out in multiplication form, very few will endeavor to write down the answer directly without first going through the regular work. by placing the in front of the and the back of the , the answer is obtained at once, thus: , Ã� = , , . a larger number which can be treated in the same way is the following: , , , , Ã� = , , , , . an adjustable nutcracker [illustration] the advantage of the nutcracker shown in the illustration is that it can be adjusted to various-sized nuts. the handles are similar to those usually found on nutcrackers except that they are slotted at the cracking end to receive a special bar. this bar is in. long, / in. wide, and / in. thick, with / -in. holes drilled in it at intervals to allow for adjustment. cotters are used in the holes as pins. substitute for a rubber stamp a large number of coupons had to be marked, and having no suitable rubber stamp at hand, i selected a cork with a smooth end and cut the initials in it. i found that it worked as well, not to say better, than a rubber stamp. an ordinary rubber-stamp pad was used for inking. angular letters will cut better than curved ones, as the cork quickly dulls the edge of any cutting tool.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: initials cut in a cork served the purpose in the absence of a rubber stamp] a furniture polish a good pastelike furniture polish, which is very cheap and keeps indefinitely, can be made as follows: mix oz. of white wax, oz. of pearlash, commonly known as potassium carbonate, and oz. of water. heat the mixture until it becomes dissolved, then add oz. of boiled linseed oil and oz. of turpentine. stir well and pour into cans to cool. apply with a cloth and rub to a polish. the paste is nonpoisonous. a hanging vase [illustration] a very neat and attractive hanging corner vase can be made of a colored bottle. the bottom is broken out or cut off as desired and a wire hanger attached as shown. the opening in the neck of the bottle is well corked. rectangular shaped bottles fitted with hangers can be used on walls.--contributed by a. d. tanaka, jujiya, kioto, japan. filing soft metals it is well known to mechanics that when lead, tin, soft solder or aluminum are filed, the file is soon filled with the metal and it will not cut. it cannot be cleaned like the wood rasp by dipping it into hot water or pouring boiling water over it, but if the file and the work are kept wet with water, there will be no trouble whatever. both file and work must be kept thoroughly wet at all times.--contributed by j. h. beebee, rochester, n. y. locking screws in door hinges when screws once work loose in hinges of doors they will never again hold firmly in the same hole. this trouble can be avoided if the screws are securely locked when they are first put on the door. the sketch shows a very successful way to lock the screws. the hole in the hinge for the screw is filed to produce a notch, as shown at a, deep enough to receive a small wire nail or brad, which is driven through the slot in the screw head at one side, as shown at b. [illustration: the screw is permanently locked with a small nail driven into the slot prepared for it] to remove grease from clothing equal parts of ether, ammonia and alcohol make a solution that will readily remove grease from clothing. the solution must be kept away from fire, and should be contained in corked bottles as it evaporates quickly, but can be used without danger. it removes grease spots from the finest fabrics and is harmless to the texture. * * * * * jeweler's rouge rubbed well into chamois skin is handy to polish gold and silver articles with. [illustration: stove made of an old oilcan with extending sides and weighted with sand for use on a fishing boat holds the cooking vessel safely in a sea] a canoe stove by f. v. williams limited space and the rocking motion of salmon-fishing boats in a heavy sea on the pacific coast brought about the construction of the canoe stove shown in the illustration. it is made of a discarded kerosene can whose form is square. a draft hole is cut in one side of the can, or in. from the bottom, and a layer of sand placed on the bottom. two holes are punched through opposite sides, parallel with the draft hole and about in. from the top edge. rods are run through these holes to provide a support for the cooking utensil. the smoke from the fire passes out at the corners around the vessel. [illustration] the main reason for making the stove in this manner is to hold the cooking vessel within the sides extending above the rods. no amount of rocking can cause the vessel to slide from the stove top, and as the stove is weighted with the sand, it cannot be easily moved from the place where it is set in the canoe. the use of such a stove in a canoe has the advantage that the stove can be cleaned quickly, as the ashes and fire can be dumped into the water and the stove used for a storage box. the whole thing may be tossed overboard and a new one made for another trip. to prevent washboard from slipping in tub the modern stationary washtubs are box-shaped, with one side set at an outward angle or slope. the washboard, when used in these tubs, will slide up and down against the sloping part of the tub while the clothes are rubbed against them. this annoying trouble can be avoided by tacking, on the top edge of the board, strips of rubber cut from a discarded bicycle tire, placing the rubber side out. the friction of the rubber prevents any motion of the board.--contributed by jas. a. hart, philadelphia, pa. * * * * * to print on celluloid, use a good gloss ink and old rollers. clips to hold magazine pages together [illustration] when a magazine is placed in a bookcase the outer pages are liable to turn back if it is inserted with the back on the outside. to overcome this difficulty i made clips for each magazine to hold the open pages together. each clip was made of wire, about in. long, shaped as shown. the width of the clip is made equal to the thickness of the magazine and the extending ends are slightly pressed together so that they will spring and grip the pages.--contributed by w. a. saul, e. lexington, massachusetts. slide-opening cover for a plate holder the length of time required for the slide of a plate holder to be removed on a reflecting camera spoiled many of my plates, because strong light would enter the unprotected slot when the camera was in certain positions. to protect this slot so that the slide could be left out indefinitely, i made a cover of a piece of sheet metal having three slots, to admit screws turned into the camera. a knob was attached at the center. the illustration shows the application of this cover. in fig. the plate holder is shown slipped in with the cover back, and fig. shows the slide drawn and the cover over the slot opening.--contributed by b. j. weeber, new york city. [illustration: the two positions occupied by the slide-opening cover as it is used on a camera (fig. , fig. )] magnetic-suspension pendulum when a pendulum is not periodically supplied with energy its amplitude grows smaller and finally the motion ceases, due to the resistance of the air and the friction at the point of suspension. usually the suspension is in the form of a knife edge bearing against plates of agate; sometimes the pendulum rod is simply attached to a very slender and flexible spring without any bearings. but the minimum of friction is obtained by means of magnetic suspension, as the following experiment will prove. if the rod of a pendulum about in. long, beating half seconds, is sharpened to a needle point and suspended from one of the poles of a magnet, it will be found that, if set into motion, it will continue to swing times as long as the ordinary knife-edge suspended pendulum, and it will not stop until after about hours, while one working on agate plates will stop in from to minutes. similarly a top, provided with a fine-pointed axis of iron, will spin much longer when suspended from a magnet. magnetic suspension is used in precision instruments; for example, the minute mirrors which are used in certain telegraph systems to register writing photographically at the receiving end. use for pencil stubs [illustration] in mechanical drawings cast iron is indicated by a series of straight lines across the parts made of this material. these lines can be quickly made with the usually discarded pencil stubs, if these are saved and sharpened in the following manner: the point is filed flat, as shown at a; then a slot is filed in the center of the lead with a knife file, as shown at b, and the points sharpened as in c. in this way two lines are drawn at one stroke neatly and in half the time.--contributed by j. kolar, maywood, ill. * * * * * to sharpen a carving knife draw the edge through and against the open edge of a pair of shears. [illustration] how to build a paddle-wheel boat by p. a. baumeister the paddle-wheel boat, illustrated herewith, was built in the spare time i had on rainy afternoons and saturdays, and the enjoyment i derived from it at my summer camp more than repaid me for the time spent in the building. the materials used in its construction were: side boards, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. side boards, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. outside keel board, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. inside keel board, ft. long. in. wide and / in. thick. sq. ft. of tongue-and-groove boards, / in. thick, for bottom and wheel boxes. piece, in. square and in. long. washers. iron cranks. screweyes. ft. of rope. nails. the dimensions given in the drawing will be found satisfactory, but these may be altered to suit the conditions. the first step will be to cut and make the sides. nail the two pieces forming each side together and then cut the end boards and nail them to the sides. lay this framework, bottom side up, on a level surface and proceed to nail on the bottom boards across the sides. the ends of these boards are sawed off flush with the outside surface of the sides after they are nailed in place. the material list calls for tongue-and-groove boards for the bottom, but plain boards can be used, although it is then difficult to make the joint water-tight. when the tongue-and-groove boards are used a piece of string, well soaked in white lead or paint and placed in the groove of each board, will be sufficient to make a tight joint. having finished the sides and bottom, the next step will be to fasten on the bottom keel. adjust the board to its position and nail it in the center part where it lies flat on the bottom boards, then work toward the ends, gradually drawing it down over the turn and nailing it down. if the keel board cannot be bent easily, it is best to soak it in hot water where the bend takes place and the wood can then be nailed down without the fibers breaking. the inside keel is put on in the same manner, but reversed. [illustration: the boat as it appears without the spring and running board and used as a pleasure craft or for carrying freight, the operator facing in the direction of the boat's travel] the next procedure is to make the paddle wheels. the hub for each wheel is made of a -in. square piece of timber, in. long. trim off the corners to make sides to the piece, then bore a / -in. hole through its center. the blades of each wheel, in all, are in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. one end of each blade is nailed to one side of the hub, then it is braced as shown to strengthen the wheel. [illustration: detail drawing of the boat and one of the paddle wheels. all the material required for the construction is such that can be cut and shaped with ordinary tools found in the home workshop] the cranks are made of round iron, / in. in diameter, and they are keyed to the wheels with large nails in the manner shown. i had a blacksmith shape the cranks for me, but if one has a forge, the work can be done at home without that expense. the bearings for the crankshafts consist of wood, although it is preferable to use for this purpose two large iron washers, having a hole slightly larger than the diameter of the shaft, and drill holes in their rims so that they can be screwed to the wheel-box upright as shown. the bearings thus made are lubricated with a little lard or grease. [illustration: detail of paddle-wheel fastening, the springboard construction and the fastening for the rudder control] the paddle-wheel boxes are built over the wheels with the dimensions given in the drawing, to prevent the splashing of water on the occupants of the boat. the trimmings for the boat consist of three seats, a running board and a springboard. the drawings show the location of the seats. the springboard is built up of boards, / in. thick, as shown, only nailing them together at the back end. this construction allows the boards to slide over each other when a person's weight is on the outer end. the action of the boards is the same as of a spring on a vehicle. it is necessary to have a good brace across the boat for the back end of the springboard to catch on--a by -in. timber being none too large. at the point where the springboard rests on the front seat there should be another good-sized crosspiece. the board can be held in place by a cleat and a few short pieces of rope, the cleat being placed across the board back of the brace. a little diving platform is attached on the outer end of the springboard and a strip of old carpet or gunny sack placed on it to prevent slivers from running into the flesh. in making the spring and running board, it is advisable to make them removable so that the boat can be used for other purposes. the boat is steered with a foot-operated lever, the construction of which is clearly shown. for the tiller-rope guides, large screweyes are used and also for the rudder hinges, the pin of the hinge being a large nail. the hull can be further strengthened by putting a few angle-iron braces either on the in or outside. to make the boat water-tight will require calking by filling the cracks with twine and white lead or thick paint. the necessary tools are a broad, dull chisel and a mallet. a couple of coats of good paint, well brushed into the cracks, will help to make it watertight as well as shipshape. the boat may leak a little when it is first put into the water, but after a few hours of soaking, the boards will swell and close the openings. this boat was used for carrying trunks, firewood, rocks, sand, and for fishing, and last, but not least, for swimming. the boat is capable of carrying a load of three-quarters of a ton. it draws very little water, thereby allowing its use in shallow water. it has the further advantage that the operator faces in the direction the boat is going, furnishing the power with his hands and steering with his feet. a camp loom [illustration: loom constructed of sticks for weaving grass or moss into a camp mattress] the camper who desires to "rough it" as much as possible and to carry only the necessities will find it quite a comfort to construct the bedding from grass or moss by weaving it in the manner of making a rag carpet, using heavy twine or small rope as the warp. two stakes are set the width of the bed or mattress to be made, and a cross stick is attached to their tops. several stakes are set parallel with the cross stick and at a distance to make the length of the mattress. the warp is tied between the tops of the stakes and the cross stick. an equal number of cords are then attached to the cross stick and to another loose cross stick which is used to move the cords up and down while the grass or moss is placed in for the woof. the ends of the warp are then tied to hold it together. when breaking up camp the cords can be removed and carried to the next camp.--contributed by w. p. shaw, bloor west, can. a milk-bottle carrier carrying a milk bottle by the rim is tiresome work for the fingers, so i constructed a handle, as shown in the sketch, from a piece of wire. the carrier can be easily placed in the pocket. [illustration: a carrier made of wire to quickly attach on a milk-bottle neck] the part fitting under the rim of the bottle neck is bent to form two semicircles, one hooking permanently at a, while the other is hooked at b after it is sprung around the neck of the bottle.--contributed by lawrence b. robbins, harwich, mass. how to make a war kite by park snyder the material required for the making of a war kite is three pine sticks, each in. long, one stick in. long, one stick in. long, all / in. square; yd. of cambric; a box of tacks; some linen thread, and ft. of stout twine. place two -in. sticks parallel with each other and in. apart, then lay the -in. piece across at right angles to them in. from the upper ends, as shown in fig. , and fasten the joints with brads. at a point in. below this crosspiece, attach the -in. crosspiece. [illustration: the line should be a very strong one, then banners can be flown on it] the extending ends of all the three long pieces are notched, fig. , and the line is stretched taut around them, as shown by the dotted lines. [illustration: the sticks are fastened solidly with brads, and the cloth sewed to the string around their ends (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] if the cambric is not of sufficient size to cover the frame, two pieces must be sewed together, then a piece cut out to the shape of the string, allowing in. to project all around for a lap. the cambric is sewn fast to the string with the linen thread. fasten the cloth to the frame part with the tacks, spacing them in. apart. the space in the center, between the sticks, is cut out. make two pieces of the remaining goods, one in. by in., and the other in. by in. the remaining -in. stick is fastened to these pieces of cambric, as shown in fig. , and the whole is fastened to the main frame so as to make a v-shaped projection. the bridle strings, for giving the proper distribution of pull on the line to the kite, are fastened, one to the upper end of the long stick in the v-shaped piece attached to the kite, and the other to the lower end, as shown in fig. . the inclination can be varied to suit the builder by changing the point of attachment of the kite line to the bridle. if it is desired to fly the kite directly overhead, attach the line above the regular point and for low flying make the connection below this point. the regular point is found by trial flights with the line fastened temporarily to the bridle, after which the fastening is made permanent. paper glider that loops the loop by c. a. thompson the usual paper glider shaped as shown in fig. can be made to loop the loop and make corkscrew flights if prepared according to sketches herewith. it should be carefully made in the first place so that in its regular form it flies perfectly straight. [illustration: ordinary paper glider and the manner of throwing it to make the different flights (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] to make the glider loop, the rear corners of the wings should be turned up at right angles, as in fig. , and the glider launched with a great deal of force with the nose pointed slightly upward. this will require some practice, but one soon learns the trick. after looping once, as shown in fig. , the glider descends in volplane. this form of glider will also right itself, if dropped from a height, nose downward, as shown in fig. . for a corkscrew flight the glider is prepared as in fig. ; one rear corner being bent up and the other down. in this form it flies horizontally, or downward, while rapidly rotating around its longitudinal axis, as shown in fig. . to make a spiral descent, the rear corners of the wings are bent up as in fig. , and, further, the rear corner of the keel is bent at right angles, fig. , whereupon it is thrown in the ordinary manner. it then takes the course shown in fig. . a water filter a cheap and very effective water filter can be made of a flower pot by plugging the hole in the bottom with a piece of sponge and fitting it as follows: place powdered charcoal on top of the sponge to a depth of in., then in. of clean silver sand, and lastly in. of small stones and gravel. it is hung with a bail at the top. a combination electrically operated door lock the illustration shows a very useful application of an ordinary electric door lock in the construction of a combination lock and alarm to be operated from the outside of the building. [illustration: the brass-tack heads holding the numerals in place constitute the combination points] the three numerals, , , and , or any other combination of numbers constituting the house number on a door, are made of some kind of insulating material and fastened in place on a base of insulating fiber, or wood, about / in. thick, by means of ordinary brass-headed tacks, as indicated by the black dots. the tacks will extend through the base a short distance so the electrical connections may be made by soldering wires to them, as shown by the diagram, alternate tacks being connected together with the exception of three; for instance, a, b, and c. the terminals of the leads that are connected to alternate tacks are in turn connected to the terminals of a circuit composed of an ordinary vibrating bell, d, and battery, e. if any two adjacent tack heads be connected together, except tacks a, b, and c, the bell circuit will be completed and the bell ring, which will serve as an indication that some one is tampering with the circuit. the person knowing the combination, connects the tack heads a and b, and at the same time connects the tack head c with f or g, or any other tack head that is connected to the plus side of the battery, whereby a circuit will be completed through the lock h and the door is opened. any metallic substance, such as a knife, key, or finger ring, may be used in making the above indicated connection, and there will be no need of carrying a key for this particular door so long as the combination is known. the base upon which the numbers are mounted and through which the points of the tacks protrude, should be mounted on a second base that has a recess cut in its surface to accommodate the wires and points of the tacks. the combination may be made more or less complicated, as desired, by connecting the tacks in different ways, and by using a separate battery for the bell and lock. the circuit leading to the door lock, if there is one already installed, may be used and then no extra circuit is needed. such a device has been used on a private-desk drawer with entire satisfaction. the battery was placed in the back end of the drawer, and if it happened to fail, a new one could be connected to the points b and j so that the drawer could be opened and a new battery put in. lock for a fancy hairpin [illustration: the bend in the pin will hold in the hair and prevent the loss of the pin] to avoid losing a fancy hairpin, bend one leg of the pin as shown in the illustration. the hair caught in the notch formed by the bend will prevent the pin from dropping out.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. * * * * * a metal surface polished with oil will keep clean longer than when polished dry. [illustration] an aeroplane kite by w. a. reich after building a number of kites from a recent description in amateur mechanics i branched out and constructed the aeroplane kite shown in the illustration, which has excited considerable comment in the neighborhood on account of its appearance and behavior in the air. [illustration] the main frame consists of a center-stick, a, in. long, and two cross-sticks, of which one, b, is in. long and the other, c, - / in. long. the location of the crosspieces on the centerpiece a is shown in the sketch, the front piece b being - / in. from the end, and the rear piece c, - / in. from the other end. the ends of the sticks have small notches cut to receive a string, d, which is run around the outside to make the outline of the frame and to brace the parts. two cross-strings are placed at e and f, in. from either end of the centerpiece a, other brace strings being crossed, as shown at g, and then tied to the cross-string f on both sides, as at h. [illustration: the kite being tailless rides the air waves like an aeroplane in a steady breeze] the long crosspiece b is curved upward to form a bow, the center of which should be - / in. above the string by which its ends are tied together. the shorter crosspiece is bent and tied in the same manner to make the curve - / in., and the centerpiece to curve - / in., both upward. the front and rear parts, between the end and the cross-strings e and f, are covered with yellow tissue paper, which is pasted to the crosspieces and strings. the small wings l are purple tissue paper, in. wide at m and tapering to a point at n. the bridle string is attached on the centerpiece a at the junction of the crosspieces b and c, and must be adjusted for the size and weight of the kite. the kite is tailless and requires a steady breeze to make it float in the air currents like an aeroplane. the bridle string and the bending of the sticks must be adjusted until the desired results are obtained. the bridle string should be tied so that it will about center under the cross-stick b for the best results, but a slight change from this location may be necessary to make the kite ride the air currents properly. the center of gravity will not be the same in the construction of each kite and the string can be located only by trial, after which it is permanently fastened. [illustration: general plan and outline of the kite, which may be built in any size, if the proportions are kept, and its appearance in the air on a steady breeze] distilling apparatus for water [illustration: homemade still for removing the impurities in water that is used in mixing chemicals] pure water, free from all foreign substances, is frequently wanted for making up photographic solutions and many other purposes. an apparatus for distilling water can be very easily made from galvanized pipe fittings. the outer cooling jacket a is a piece of -in. pipe, ft. long, threaded on both ends, and bored and tapped for / -in. pipe at b and c. a hole is bored and tapped for / -in. pipe in each of the two caps used on the ends of the pipe a, and a piece of / -in. pipe, d, ft. in. long, is run through the holes as shown. the joints are soldered to make them water-tight. two / -in. nipples, in. long, are screwed in at b and c. the retort, or boiler, e, in which the impure water is boiled may be made of any suitable vessel and heated with a bunsen or gas burner. a beaker, or other vessel, f, is placed below the lower end of the small pipe. the cold water from the faucet, which flows into the outer jacket at c and out at b, condenses the steam in the small pipe d, turning it into water which falls into the beaker in large drops. the water is often distilled a second time to remove any impurities which it might still contain.--contributed by o. e. tronnes, evanston, ill. telephone stand for a sloping desk having a sloping-top desk and being compelled to use the telephone quite frequently, i devised a support for the telephone so that it might stand level and not fall off. the sides of the stand were cut on the same slope as the desk top, and their under edges were provided with rubber strips to prevent slipping.--contributed by j. m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: stand with a level surface for a desk telephone to be used on a sloping desk top] [illustration] tandem monoplane glider by george f. mace the monoplane glider illustrated has better fore-and-aft stability than the biplane, is lighter in proportion to the supporting surface, simpler to build, and requires very little time to assemble or take apart. the material list is as follows: frame pieces of bamboo, ft. long, tapering from - / to in. pieces of spruce, / in. thick, in. wide, and ft. long. pieces of spruce, / in. thick, in. wide, and ft. long. wings main-wing bars, spruce, / in. thick, - / in. wide, and ft. long. wing crosspieces, spruce, / in. square, and ft. long. wing ribs, poplar or spruce, / in. thick, / in. wide, and in. long. the first thing to do is to make the main frame which is composed of the four bamboo poles. the poles take the corners of a -ft. square space and are supported with the pieces of spruce that are ft. and ft. long, the shorter lengths running horizontally and the longer upright, so that each upright piece extends ft. above the two upper poles. all joints should be fastened with / -in. stove bolts. the wire used to truss the glider is no. gauge piano wire. the trussing is done in all directions, crossing the wires between the frame parts, except in the center or space between the four poles. [illustration: the start of the glide should be made from the top of a hill, then a little run will carry the airman several hundred feet through the air] the framework of the main wings is put together by bolting one of the crosspieces at each end of two wing bars, then another ft. from each end, whereupon the wing bars are bolted to the main frame. the frame is then braced diagonally between these pieces. the ribs, spaced ft. apart, are fastened to this frame with -in. brads. the ribs are so bent that the highest part will be or in. above the horizontal. the bending must be uniform and is done when fastening them in place. the material used to cover the wings and rudders is strong muslin. the cloth is first tacked to the front wing bar, then to the ribs, and sewed to a wire which is fastened between the ends of the ribs. large brass-head tacks should be used through a strip of tape to fasten the cloth to the ribs. the rear wings are constructed in a similar manner. after the cloth is in place it is coated with starch or varnish. [illustration: details of tandem monoplane glider, showing the main frame and wing construction, and the manner of placing the crossed bracing wires between the parts and to the wing ends] [illustration] the two vertical rectangular spaces in the main frame, just under the rear wings, are covered with cloth to act as a rudder. the upper and lower bracing wires for the wings are attached with snaps and rings so that the glider can be easily taken apart. it is best not to use the glider in a wind greater than miles an hour. it is started from the top of a hill in the usual manner. glides can be made running from to several hundred feet. carrier for a suitcase where it is necessary to carry a well filled and heavy suitcase the light truck shown in the sketch will be a great assistance. the truck is constructed on the folding plan, similar to a go-cart, and can be carried on the side of the case. the wheels are those used on a go-cart, with rubber tires and about in. in diameter. these are fitted to standards carrying a hinged top piece, the upper ends of the standards being hinged in a like manner. the standards should be cut to the proper length for the person carrying the suitcase.--contributed by mrs. harriet m. s. kerbaugh, allentown, pa. [illustration: the small truck will greatly assist the carrying of a heavily loaded suitcase] light in a keyhole remove the lock and cut the mortise deep enough to admit a -volt battery lamp with a suitable socket attached. the lamp is then connected to wires which are concealed and run to a battery of three dry cells in the basement or other convenient place. a small push button is attached in the line and placed near the knob on the door. a small recess must be cut in the mortise so that the light from the lamp will shine directly on the inside of the plate over the keyhole.--contributed by armand f. lamarre, st. remi, can. [illustration] how to make a monoplane glider by william grotzinger a simple glider of the monoplane type can be easily constructed in a small workshop; the cost of materials is not great and the building does not require skilled workmen. select the material with care and see that the wood is straight-grained and free from knots. the following list of spruce pieces is required: main wing spars, / by - / in. by ft. rudder spars, / by in. by ft. wing crosspieces, / by / in. by ft. rudder crosspieces, / by / in. by ft. piece for main-frame crosspieces, / by in. by ft. arm pieces, - / by in. by - / ft. the following list of poplar pieces is required in making the supports for the cloth covering on the wings and rudders. main-wing ribs, / by / by in. rudder ribs, / by / by in. rudder ribs, / by / by in. the following list of oak pieces is needed: piece, / by - / in. by ft. piece, / by - / in. by ft. piece, / by / in. by - / ft. pieces, / by - / in. by ft. pieces, / by by in. in addition to the lists given, four pieces of bamboo, ft. long, tapering from or - / in. at the large end to / in. at the small end, are used for the main frame. [illustration: monoplane glider in flight] construction the first part to make is the main frame a which is constructed of the four bamboo poles. they are made into a rectangular frame with crossbars marked b cut to the right length from the -ft. piece of spruce, / in. by in. the bars c and d are of oak cut from the -ft. piece, / in. by - / in. all of these crossbars are fastened together in rectangular form by means of stove bolts. the bamboo poles are then bolted to the inner corners of the frames with / -in. bolts. place the bolts through the bamboo close to a joint to prevent splitting. the frame is then rigidly trussed by diagonal wires marked e crossing all rectangles. the wire used for trussing all the parts throughout the glider is piano wire, gauge. the arm pieces are bolted to the sides of the rectangular frames beneath the wings. [illustration: plan view] [illustration: side elevation] [illustration: front elevation] [illustration: wing bar] the framework of the main wings or planes should be put together by bolting the cross struts f at regular intervals on the under side of the main spars g. brace the frame diagonally with the piano wire. the ribs are nailed to the main spars by using -in. brads. the ribs are spaced ft. apart, and curved so that the highest part will be in. from the horizontal. each rib extends in. back of the rear spar. the rudder is made in the same manner. the vertical rudder is made to fold. a small pocket arrangement h is made from which the rigs of the vertical rudder diverge. the covering of the wings and rudders should be a good quality of muslin or some light aeronautical goods. the cloth should be tacked to the front spar, to the ribs, and then sewn to a wire which connects the ends of the ribs. construct the triangular arrangement marked j to which the wings are braced. the wing bar supports are shown in the illustration. the bottom wires are braced to the crossbar k shown in the front elevation. the bracing wires are all fastened to a snaphook which can be snapped into the rings at the places marked l. this method will allow one quickly to assemble or take apart the plane and store it in a small place. the vertical rudder should be braced from each rib to the front spar of the horizontal rudder and then braced by the wires m to hold the rudder from falling back. the rudder is then braced to the main frame and the main frame is braced by the wires n to the wings. this will hold the plane rigid. use snaphooks and eyebolts wherever possible so that the plane can be quickly assembled. assembling the triangular arrangement j is bolted to the wings and the top wires put in place. the wings are then put on the main frame and bolted to the bars marked c and d, after which the bottom wires are fixed in place. gliding take the glider to the top of a hill, step into the center of the main frame just a little back of the center of the wings. put your arms around the arm pieces, face the wind and run a few steps. you will be lifted off the ground and carried down the slope. the balancing is done by shifting the legs. the glides should be short at first, but by daily practice, and, as the operator gains skill, glides can be made up to a length of several hundred feet. do not attempt to fly in a wind having a velocity of more than miles an hour. exerciser for a chained dog the exerciser consists of a disk, ft. in diameter, pivoted in the ground near the kennel. the disk revolves on a / -in. pin set in a post made of a by -in. piece of timber. the disk is made of common lumber fastened together with battens on the under side. our dog seems to enjoy this kind of exercise.--contributed by hazel duncan, denver, colo. [illustration: revolving disk exerciser] a laboratory gas generator the sketch illustrates a gas generator designed for laboratories where gases are needed in large quantities and frequently. the shelf holding the large inverted bottle is of thick wood, and to reinforce the whole apparatus, a -in. copper strip is placed around the bottle tightly and fastened with screws turned into the woodwork. the shelf above is attached last, and upon it rests the bottle of commercial acid required in the gas generation. the pump shown is for use in starting the siphon. [illustration: gas generator of large capacity that will work automatically as the gas is removed] the large bottle used as a generator may be either a or -gal. size, and after it is placed in the position shown, a sufficient amount of the solid reagent needed in gas generating is placed in the mouth before the exit tube, leading away below, is fixed in position. if sulphureted hydrogen is required, ferrous sulphide is used; if hydrogen is required, zinc is placed within; and to make a carbon dioxide, marble, or its equivalent, is inserted. whatever gas is required, a sufficient quantity of the solid material is put in to last for some time in order not to disturb the fastenings. when all is ready, the pump is used gently to start the acid over the siphon and into the generator from below. the gas generated by the action of the acid on the solid soon fills the bottle. the screw clamp on the exit tube is loosened and the gas passes into the bottle of water and charges it, in the case when sulphureted hydrogen is required. in the other cases, when sufficient gas has been generated, the screw clamp is tightened, and the gas soon attains considerable pressure which forces the acid back out of the generator and into the acid bottle above. the whole apparatus now comes to an equilibrium, and the gas in the generator is ready for another use.--contributed by w. m. mills, bakersfield, cal. holding small armatures for winding procure a strip of sheet metal, in. long, in. wide, or as wide as the armature core is long, and / in. thick. bend this into a u-shape, as shown, and file each end similar to the barb on a fishhook. drill two holes for a bolt to pass through the sheet-metal ends. fasten a screw or bolt in the center of the bend, to be used for gripping in a chuck or polishing head. core segments can be quickly wound with this device.--contributed by geo. b. schulz, austin, illinois. [illustration: armature cores are easily revolved to fill the core openings with insulated wire] [illustration] footstool for cement floors a clerk finding the cement floor of the office uncomfortably cold to the feet, devised a footstool in the following manner: a shallow box was procured, and four small truck casters were fastened to the bottom. a piece of carpet was laid on the inside of the bottom and some old newspapers placed on top of it. when seated at the desk, he placed his feet inside the box on the papers. the casters elevated the box from the cement, just high enough to avoid dampness and cold, and permitted an easy change of position.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, gainesville, ga. homemade telegraph sounder the material required to construct a telegraph sounder, like the one shown in the sketch, consists of two binding posts, magnets, a piece of sheet metal, and a rubber band. these are arranged as shown, on a wood base or, better still, on a metal box. in using a metal-box base, be sure to insulate the connections at the magnet coils and binding posts. [illustration: an inexpensive and homemade sounder for use in learning the telegraph codes] this instrument will be found by those studying the telegraph codes to give good results, equal to any of the expensive outfits sold for this purpose.--contributed by chas. j. la prille, flushing, n. y. laboratory force filter the sketch represents a force filter which is well adapted for use in small laboratories. the water is turned on at the faucet and draws the air through the side tube by suction, which in turn draws the air in a steady stream through the wolff bottles. the tubes may be attached to a filter inserted in a filter bottle and filtering thus greatly facilitated. the connection to the faucet can be made, as shown in the detailed sketch, out of a long cork, by boring a hole large enough to fit the faucet through the cork and another slanting hole, joining the central hole, on the side for a pipe or tube. at the lower end of the cork a tube is also fitted, which may be drawn out to increase the suction. the inclined tube should be slightly bent at the lower end.--contributed by w. m. mills, bakersfield, cal. [illustration: a slight vacuum is formed by the water flowing through the cork, which forces the filter] beginner's helper for roller skating one of the most amusing as well as useful devices for a beginner on roller skates is shown in the sketch. the device is made of / -in. pipe and pipe fittings, with a strip of sheet metal in. wide fastened about half way down on the legs. on the bottom of each leg is fastened an ordinary furniture caster which allows the machine to roll easily on the floor. the rear is left open to allow the beginner to enter, then by grasping the top rail he is able to move about on the floor at ease, without fear of falling.--contributed by j. h. harris, berkeley, cal. [illustration: beginner cannot fall] atmospheric thermo-engine the device illustrated has for its object the production of power in small quantities with little attention and no expense. all that is needed to produce the power is common ordinary water, and the device will continue to operate until the amount of water placed in the receptacle has evaporated. [illustration: details of the engine] the device consists of a rectangular vessel provided with legs and a cover. each end of the vessel is provided with an opening, a, adapted to receive and hold in place plaster-of-paris cups, b. the part extending into the tank is provided with a wick, c, which reaches to the bottom of the vessel. a glass tube, d, is provided with a bulb on each end and partly filled with alcohol, the remaining space being exhausted of air. the glass tube is secured to a hanger which is pivoted to the bottom of the vessel. after a quantity of water has been poured into the vessel and the device allowed to stand undisturbed for a few minutes, the tube will begin to move with an oscillating motion. some of the water in the vessel has been conducted by means of the wicks c to the bent plaster cups, from the surface of which it evaporates, thus absorbing latent heat and producing a lower temperature in the cups than that of the surrounding atmosphere. the bulb in contact with the cup thus acquires a lower temperature than the one at the end d, which will result in condensation of the alcohol vapor within the former. the pressure of the vapor in the lower bulb will then force the alcohol up the inclined tube into the higher bulb, the evaporation in the lower bulb maintaining the pressure therein. when a sufficient quantity of alcohol has been forced into the upper bulb, it will descend, and thus elevate the other bulb into its cup. the phenomena just described will be repeated in this bulb and the oscillation will continue until the water in the vessel has been absorbed and evaporated.--contributed by e. w. davis, chicago. a mirror an aid in rowing a boat the young oarsman is apt to experience difficulty in keeping a straight course until he has had some practice. rowing a boat in a narrow channel calls for considerable skill to hold a course in mid-stream. a variation of force in pulling the oars almost instantly results in the rowboat making a landfall on one or the other of the banks. [illustration: the mirror attached to a boat] the skilled oarsman does not need an appliance that the beginner might welcome. with the aid of a mirror conveniently supported at a suitable angle and height before the oarsman's face, the water, the shores and approaching boats may be seen with distinctness. the mirror may be set directly in front or a little distance to one side as shown in the sketch.--contributed by thaleon blake, sidney, o. developing tray made of a tin can obtain a tomato or other can, or in. long and in. in diameter, which should be secured before it has been opened, says camera craft. cut both ends exactly half way around, keeping close to the edge, as shown in the first sketch, and slit it lengthwise to open the side. trim off the end pieces to within in. of the center and cut off the surplus tin of the sides of the can, leaving enough to bend over and form the ends of the tank as shown in the second sketch. [illustration: for developing roll films] the support, as shown in the last sketch, is made by screwing together three pieces of wood, the base piece being - / in. square and thick enough to make the tank solid and heavy. bend the sides of the can over the edges of the two uprights and tack them firmly to the sides, bending the tin so as to have a rounded surface that will not scratch the films. the ends of the can are bent over sharply to form the sides of the tank. procure a round wood stick, the length of the tank, place in position, and fasten with a screw through the tin at both ends. give the whole tank two coats of black asphaltum varnish to protect it from the action of the developer. white rubber on croquet arches [illustration] a white cloth is usually tied to croquet arches when the game is played late in the evening. a much better plan is to slip a piece of white rubber tubing about ft. long on the arch. this tubing can be purchased at any local drug store. this makes the top part of the arch conspicuous so that it may be plainly seen in the dark, and, when the tubing becomes soiled it can be cleaned off with a damp cloth.--contributed by john blake, franklyn, mass. illuminating an outside thermometer during the season of furnace fires the thermometer outside the north window becomes of added interest and usefulness in helping one to judge the proper draft adjustments of the furnace for the night. a pocket electric flashlamp is convenient for examining the thermometer after dark, but it is not always at hand, matches are dangerous when lace curtains are at the window, and besides, the reflection from the glass of both matches and flashlamp on the inside makes it very difficult to read the thermometer. [illustration] to avoid these difficulties i attached to my thermometer the device shown herewith, which consists of a miniature battery lamp placed at the back of the translucent-glass thermometer and operated by a battery within the house, the light being turned on by an ordinary push button placed conveniently inside of the window. a strip of brass, a, / in. wide by / in. thick, was riveted (soldering will do) to the lower support of the thermometer. the free end of this brass strip was bent around a disk of hardwood, b, and fastened to it by three or four small screws in such a manner that the disk made a circular platform just behind the thermometer scale. this disk was slightly larger than the mouth of a small, thin tumbler. on the upper surface of this disk was fastened with shellac and small nails close to the periphery, a disk of cork, / in. thick, this cork disk being a close fit for the mouth of the tumbler. a miniature porcelain electric-lamp socket was fastened with screws on the cork of the base. wires were then run from the lamp socket through the cork and wood disks and the whole painted with melted paraffin to close all apertures and keep out moisture. good rubber-covered electric-light wire will do nicely for the wiring outside the house, although, if it can be obtained, a piece of lead-covered paired wire is preferable. these wires must be only long enough to reach inside the house, where they may be joined to the ordinary sort of wire used in electric-bell work for connecting with push button and battery. a -volt lamp of about cp. will be sufficient to illuminate the thermometer and allow the scale and mercury column to be distinctly seen. it may be found necessary to make some adjustment by bending the brass strip in order to bring the lamp centrally behind the scale and at the proper height to give the best lighting on the range of from to deg. over the lamp is placed the tumbler for protection from the weather, and, if desired, half of the tumbler may be painted as a reflector on the inside with white enamel paint, although, in practice, i have not found this necessary. within the house the push button should be placed at the window where it can be most conveniently reached when viewing the thermometer, and connections may be made to the battery regularly used for ringing the house bells, or to a separate battery of, say, dry cells, placed in some location, as a closet, near the thermometer.--contributed by c. f. a. siedhof, winchester, mass. how to make an automobile robe when driving an automobile in cold weather, it is impossible to have a robe come down over the feet without being in the way so that it is inconvenient in working the pedals. procure a common heavy robe and cut two holes in it about in. from the bottom just large enough for the toe of the shoes to slip through and bind the edges with cloth or fur. the in. of robe below the holes should come back under the feet so that no wind can enter. make the holes far enough apart so that both outside pedals can be reached easily and you will have no trouble with your feet. this robe, with the use of overshoes, will insure comfort in driving a car.--contributed by earl r. hastings, corinth, vt. locating a droplight in the dark it is very hard to locate an electric-light globe in a dark room. anyone trying to find one by striking the air in its vicinity with one hand, usually finds that the globe is not there, although the hand may have passed within / in. of the globe. [illustration: covering a wide range] the best way to locate a globe is to approach the proximity of the drop with thumbs touching and fingers extended as shown in the sketch, in which manner the hands will cover a radius of about in. and offer a better chance of locating the light quickly than if one groped about with one hand extended.--contributed by victor labadie, dallas, tex. lighting a room for making photographs when it becomes too cold for the amateur photographer to take pictures outdoors, he generally lays aside his camera and thinks no more about it until the coming of another spring or summer. while some winter scenes would make up an interesting part of anyone's collection, it is not always pleasant to go out to take them. some derive pleasure from making groups and portraits, but this is very difficult, if the room is not well lighted. overhead light is the best for this work and few residences are constructed to furnish this kind of light. [illustration: light reflected on ceiling] i find a very good way to get a light overhead is to take a large mirror--one from an ordinary dresser will do--and place it in the window in such a position that the reflection will strike the ceiling just above the subject. the result will be a soft but very strong light, almost equal to a north skylight. splendid portraits can be made in this way.--contributed by chas. piper, kokomo, ind. detachable hinged cover for kettles a kettle cover equipped with the hinge shown in fig. will not fall off when in place, and can be raised or removed entirely when desired. [illustration: wire clasps on hinge (fig. , fig. )] one wing of an ordinary hinge is soldered or riveted to the cover and wire clasps soldered to the other wing. it is slipped on the kettle as shown in fig. . the cover is interchangeable and can be placed on almost any kettle. a use for discarded wafer razor blades a paper trimmer and mat cutter can be made from a wafer razor blade. as a paper trimmer, place the blade c over the part a of the razor, as shown, with only two of the holes engaging in one post and the center screw. then place the part b in position and clamp with the handle. this will allow about / in. of the blade to project at one end. if a part of the extending blade is cut or broken off, it will be more easily handled. the cutter is guided along the straightedge as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] if it is desired to make a more permanent form of instrument, or if no holder is at hand and only a castoff wafer blade, a handle, c, may be cut from a piece of wood and fitted with two or three binding-posts, a, taken from an old battery, to hold the blade b in place, as shown in fig. . [illustration: blade attached to handle (fig. )] armatures for small motors without the proper tools and material, the amateur electrician will find it quite difficult to construct a small armature for a battery motor that will run true, without vibration and have a neat appearance. ordinary cast-iron gears or pinions, as shown in fig. , make excellent cores for armatures on small motors. a gear of any number of teeth can be used for an armature with a smaller number of coils by cutting out a certain number of teeth. for example, a gear with teeth will take coils, but if every other tooth is cut out, it will take only coils, etc. the teeth can be easily chipped out with a cold chisel. [illustration: gear used as a core (fig. , fig. )] larger armatures can be made from gears with spokes, the spokes being cut out, if a ring armature is desired. the gear, when wound, can be mounted on a hub made of empty thread spools. the spool can be turned at one end to insert it in the armature, and if too long, one end will serve for the core of the commutator, as shown in fig. . this combination will make a neat, efficient little armature, which will run quite free from vibration. only simple tools, such as a hammer, cold chisel, file, jackknife and a vise, are required.--contributed by r. j. nault, hartford, conn. ice creeper for shoe heels many persons, young and old, have falls every winter on the ice or snow which can be avoided if their shoes are fitted with ice creepers. a very efficient device of this kind, which any boy can make at home in a short time, is shown in the sketch. these ice creepers need not be removed from the shoes or boots until the winter is past, for they may be worn indoors without injuring the finest floor. the two plates a may be made from either iron or steel--preferably the latter. an all-steel scraper, or a piece of a saw blade, makes good creepers. draw the temper by heating the steel to a cherry red and then letting it cool slowly. it may then be sawn with a hacksaw, cut with a cold chisel, or filed into plates of the proper shape, as shown. the teeth are filed to points. the two l-shaped slots are made by drilling / -in. holes through the plates, and then sawing, filing or chiseling out the metal between the holes. the projections at the ends are then bent out at right angles with heavy pliers or the claws of a hammer, and finally the plates bent to fit the curve of the heel. [illustration: creeper attached to heel] the creepers are attached by means of round-head wood screws turned into the leather. in this operation place the teeth of the plates just below the bottom of the heel and turn the screws into the ends of the upright slots until the heads just bind. the plate as set when indoors or else not needed is shown at b. to place the plate so it will grip the ice, slide it to the right, which will bring the screws into the horizontal slots, as shown at c.--contributed by chelsea c. fraser, saginaw, mich. opening screw-top fruit jars [illustration] screw-top fruit jars may be easily opened in the following manner: secure a strap with a buckle and place it around the top as if it were to be buckled, but instead draw the loose end back and hold it with the thumb as shown. turn cover and strap while held in this position and it will easily turn from the jar.--contributed by chas. a. bickert, clinton, iowa. lamp-chimney cleaner lamp chimneys of various makes are very difficult to clean quickly and thoroughly. the simple device shown in the sketch makes the cleaning process a simple matter. the cleaner is made of a round rubber ball with slits cut in it as shown and then fastened to the end of a stick. when a cloth is placed over the ball it presses evenly against the curved surfaces of the glass. there is no danger of breaking a chimney with this cleaner. [illustration: rubber ball on stick] a pop-corn popper [illustration] the accompanying sketch shows the construction of a pop-corn popper for thoroughly flavoring the corn with the hot butter or lard, and at the same time mixing it with the necessary amount of salt. procure a metal bucket that just fits the bottom of the frying pan. the stirring device is made of heavy wire bent as shown and provided with an empty spool for a handle. a brace is made of tin bent in the shape shown and riveted to the bottom of the bucket.--contributed by f. a. wirth, farwell, texas. a homemade floor polisher an efficient and cheap floor polisher may be readily constructed in the following manner: make a box about by by in., or the exact size may be determined by building it around the household flatirons as these are used to give weight and pressure. the handle, which is attached as shown, should be at least - / in wide at the hinged end and should be sandpapered where it is grasped by the hands. a half-strap hinge is preferable, with the strap part fastened to the handle. the bottom of the polisher is covered with a piece of brussels carpet. [illustration: flatirons in the box] in use, it is well to set the polisher on a soft piece of cotton or flannel cloth, which may be readily renewed when badly soiled. a more sightly polisher may be made by filling the box with pieces of old iron or lead, tightly packed with paper to prevent rattling, and attaching a cover over the top. the handle may be hinged directly to this cover by means of a full-strap hinge.--contributed by b. o. longyear, ft. collins, colo. simple way to mark poison bottles [illustration] a way to prevent any possible mistake of taking bottles containing poisons is to mark them as shown in the sketch. this method provides a way to designate a poison bottle in the dark. the marker is made of a circle of heavy cardboard with a hole in the center so as to fit tightly over the neck of the bottle. no matter how dark it may be or how much of a hurry a person may be in, one cannot fail to note the character of the contents of the bottle as soon as the hand touches the cardboard marker.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. removing varnish a good and easy way to remove varnish from old furniture is to wash the surface thoroughly with -per-cent alcohol. this dissolves the varnish and the wood can then be cleaned with a strong solution of soap, or weak lye. if lye is used, it should be washed off quickly and the wood dried with flannel cloth. when the wood is thoroughly dry it will take a fine finish.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. curling-iron heater the curling-iron holder shown in the sketch can be made of metal tubing having the size to fit both iron and gas jet. one-half of the tubing for a portion of its length is removed, as shown in fig. . the remaining part is bent as in fig. and set on the burner of the gas jet. [illustration: heater on gas jet (fig. , fig. )] the tube prevents the curling iron from becoming black with soot. the position on the jet may be changed. the tube can be placed on the jet and removed with the curling iron.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. * * * * * a whisk broom is the best cleaner for a gas stove. it will clean dirt from nickel parts as well as from the burner, grates, ovens and sheet-metal bottoms. preserving flowers in color and form one of the most distressing sides of botanical study is the short life of the colors in flowers. those who have found the usual method of preserving plants by pressure between paper unsatisfactory will be interested to learn of a treatment whereby many kinds of flowers may be dried so that they retain a great deal of their natural form and color. the flowers should be gathered as soon as the blossoms have fully opened. it is important that they should be quite dry, and in order to free them of drops of rain or dew, they may be suspended with heads downward for a few hours in a warm place. it is well to begin with some simple form of flower. [illustration: placing the flowers on the steel pins...] a large, strongly made wooden box--one of tin is better--will be necessary, together with a sufficient amount of sand to fill it. if possible, the sand should be of the kind known as "silver sand," which is very fine. the best that can be procured will be found far from clean, and it must, therefore, be thoroughly washed. the sand should be poured into a bowl of clean water. much of the dirt will float on the surface. this is skimmed off and thrown away, and clean water added. the sand should be washed in this manner at least a dozen times, or until nothing remains but pure white grains of sand. the clean sand is spread out to dry on a cloth in a thin layer. when thoroughly dry, it should be placed in a heavy earthenware vessel and further dried in a hot oven. allow it to remain in the oven for some time until it is completely warmed through so that one can scarcely hold the bare hands in it. [illustration: ...and pouring the dry sand around them] obtain a piece of heavy cardboard and cut it to fit easily in the bottom of the box. through the bottom of the cardboard insert a number of steel pins, one for each of the flowers to be preserved. take the dry blossoms and press the stalk of each on a steel pin so that it is held in an upright position. when the cardboard is thus filled, place it in the box. [illustration: the dried flowers] the warm sand is put in a bag or some other receptacle from which it can be easily poured. pour the sand into the box gently, allowing it to trickle slowly in so that it spreads evenly. keep on pouring sand until the heads of the flowers are reached, taking care that all of them stand in a vertical position. the utmost care must be taken, when the heads are reached, to see that all the petals are in their right order. remember that any crumpled flowers will be pressed into any position they may assume by the weight of the sand. when the box is filled it should be covered and set aside in a dry place. the box should be allowed to stand at least hours. after the first day, if only a small amount of sand has been used, the material may have cooled off to some extent, and the box must be set in a moderately heated oven for a short time, but no great amount of warmth is advisable. after hours the box may be uncovered and the sand carefully poured off. as the flowers are now in a very brittle condition, any rough handling will cause serious damage. when all the sand has been emptied, the cardboard should be removed from the box and each blossom taken from its pin. in the case of succulent specimens, the stems will have shrunk considerably, but the thinner petals will be in an almost natural condition. the colors will be bright and attractive. some tints will have kept better than others, but most of the results will be surprisingly good. whatever state the flowers are in when they are taken from the box, if the drying process has been thorough, they will keep almost indefinitely. flowers preserved in this manner are admirable for the decoration of homes. if they are exposed to light, care should be taken to see that the direct sunshine does not strike them, as it will fade the colors. sprigs with leaves attached may be dried in this way, but it has been found that much of the intensity of the green is lost in the process. reading pulse beats with the sun's rays the pulse beats may be counted by this unusual method. on a clear day, when the sun is shining brightly, darken a room and select one window toward the sunlight, which should be prepared as follows: draw the curtain part way down and cover the rest of the window with a heavy cardboard. cut a small hole in the cardboard to admit a beam of light. set a bowl of water on a table in the path of the beam so as to deflect it to the ceiling as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. [illustration: sun's rays deflected to the ceiling] it is now a simple matter to show the pulse beats. place the wrist against the edge of the bowl as shown, and the beam of light directed to the ceiling will record every beat of the pulse by short, abrupt movements. artistic wood turning some very odd and beautiful effects can be obtained in lathe work by making up the stock from several pieces of various kinds of wood glued together. the pieces can be arranged in many pleasing combinations, and if good joints are made and a good quality of glue used, the built-up stock is just as durable as a solid piece. candlesticks turned from built-up stock are especially attractive, parts of the various light and dark woods appearing here and there in all manner of odd shapes and proportions. if the stock is placed off center in the lathe, a still greater variety of effects will be produced. the application of a potassium-bichromate solution to the finished work turns each piece a different color. this solution can be made in any depth of color by varying the amounts of potassium salt and water. maple or birch treated with this solution are colored to a rich osage orange which cannot be surpassed in beauty. mahogany is turned a deep reddish brown, and walnut is darkened a great deal. the solution is applied as evenly as possible with a camel's-hair brush while the wood is turning in the lathe. the grain of the wood is somewhat roughened by this process, but it can be dressed down again with very fine sandpaper. [illustration: vase made of different woods] in polishing the work, only the best shellac should be used, and several thin coats applied rather than one or two heavy ones. each coat, with the exception of the last, should be sandpapered slightly. powdered pumice stone on a cloth held in the palm of the hand can be used to apply a beautiful luster. some suggestions as to the manner of combining various woods, and a simple candlestick of mahogany and maple are shown in the sketch.--contributed by olaf tronnes, wilmette, ill. a variable condenser a simple variable condenser for receiving in wireless, which will give good results, was made by a correspondent of modern electrics as follows: each clip on the switch was made of ribbon brass or copper in the shape shown at a, the first one from the joint of the knife switch being the longest and each succeeding one shorter. the handle was taken from a single-pole switch. the case was made of oak and varnished and the condenser was made of tinfoil and thin sheets of mica, by in. in size. after placing the condenser in the case, hot paraffin was poured around it. [illustration: lever and clips] adjustable baking-pan shoes at times bread, meat, or other food, placed in ordinary baking pans in the oven becomes burned on the bottom. if the detachable metal strips shown in the sketch are placed on the pan, this will not happen, as the pan does not come in direct contact with the oven floor. [illustration: shoe and how it is attached to the pan] the attachment can be placed on agate ware or sheet-iron pans of any length. the shoes are made from light v-shaped metal strips and in two parts, as shown, with the edges of one part lapped over so that the other strip will slide in it. [illustration: cars lined up ready for the start and the course patrolled by the boy scouts, all traffic being halted for the race and the roadway made clear for the entire half mile of track] a pushmobile race pending the time set for a -mile international automobile race that was scheduled to take place several weeks later, a number of boys in the sixth and seventh grades of a public school were enthusiastic over the idea of building for themselves, in the school shops, pushmobiles and having a race meet similar to the large one advertised. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: the cars winning the first, second and third prizes respectively, the "hoosier" being penalized yards at the starting tape for having larger and better-grade wheels] the pushmobiles were made and the race run as an opening feature of a field meet held in the city. the course was about a half mile long, and was chosen to give the contestants plenty of curves, a part of the run being over brick streets and the final quarter on the regular track where the field meet was held. interest was added to the event by petitioning the mayor of the city for a permit to run the race, and the boy scouts patrolled the route, while the city policemen cleared the streets, and during the race all traffic was halted. two of the requirements for entering the race were that the car had to be made in the school shops and that it must have a certain kind of a wheel, which in this case was one condemned by a local factory, thus making the wheels and wheel base of all cars alike. two boys to a car constituted a racing team, and during the race they could exchange positions at their pleasure. the necessity of "nursing" their cars down the steep grades and around difficult corners developed into an important factor. all cars were named and numbered. the car that finished first was disqualified for the reason that it took on a fresh pusher along the course. the cars were constructed under the supervision of the regular shop instructor, and a drawing was furnished each boy making a car. the design of the hood and the arrangement of the seat and steering gear was left for each boy to settle as he desired. the matter of expense was watched closely by each one. most of the hoods and seats were constructed of empty dry-goods boxes. [illustration: the entire chassis was made of cypress wood, all cars of the same length and width, the hoods and seats being the only parts optional in size and shape for the builder] with the aid of the sketch any boy can make a car as strong as the "peugeot" that won the race. the side rails of the main frame were made of cypress, in. long and in. square. the location of the crossbars a and b is very important, as they give rigidity to the frame and reinforce the two bolsters c and d. the size of the hood and the location of the seat determine where they should be set into the rail, after which they are fastened with large wood screws. the three bolsters c, d, and e are cut from regular by -in. stock. be careful to get a uniform distance between the rails when they are framed together. if desired, the dimensions can be increased, but do not reduce them, as this will narrow the tread too much. the bolt connecting the bolsters c and e is a common carriage bolt, in. long and / in. in diameter. a washer is placed between the pieces c and e, to make the turning easy. two pieces of / -in. soft-steel rod were used for the axles, a hole being drilled near each end for a cotter, to hold the wheels in place, and also holes through the diameter between the wheels, for - / -in. screws to fasten the axles to the bolsters. the steering wheel is constructed of a broom handle with a small wheel fastened to its upper end, and the lower end supported by a crossbar, f, and the back end of the hood. before fastening the crossbar f in place, adjust the steering wheel to the proper height for the seat; then it is fastened with nails driven through the sides of the hood. the construction of the steering device is very simple. the crossarm g is a piece of timber, in. long, in. wide and in. thick, rounded on the ends and provided with a large screw eye near each end on the under side to which are fastened the ends of two small-linked chains. the chains are then crossed and fastened to the bottom bolster in front and as near the wheels as practical. the connection is made with a screw eye similar to the one used in the crossarm. another type of steering device may be made by building on the rod a -in. drum which takes the place of the steering arm. it is a more positive appliance, but is somewhat harder to make and adjust. the making of the hood and the seat completes the car. decide upon the shape and size of the hood, but, in any case and irrespective of the size, it will require a front and back end. these are made first and then secured at the proper distance apart with two side rails. these two ends are nailed on the ends of the connecting rails. it is then well to fasten the hood skeleton to the car frame and cover it after the steering device is in place. the seat bottom is cut the shape desired, and fastened to the rear bolster and crosspiece, first placing a piece of the proper thickness under the front edge, to give it the desired slant backward. the back curved part can be formed of a piece of sheet metal and lined on the inside with wood pieces, or with cloth or leather, padded to resemble the regular cushion. pencil rack the simple pencil rack shown in the sketch can be easily made from any suitable strip of metal, preferably brass of about no. gauge. mark off a number of rectangles corresponding to the number of pencil holders desired. with a sharp chisel, cut through the metal on three sides of each rectangle, leaving one of the short sides untouched. the loose laps can then be bent to a shape suited to hold a pencil. the rack can be fastened in place with nails or screws through holes pierced at each end.--contributed by mark gluckman, jersey city, n. j. [illustration: a strip of sheet metal cut and clips formed to make a pencil rack] * * * * * indistinct but not entirely worn-off dates on coins may be read by heating slightly. reducing size of a hat sweatband very often a hat has been worn for some time and it becomes too loose on the head, then paper is used in the sweatband to reduce the size. a better, easier, and neater method, as well as one that will be cooler for the head, is to insert a flat lamp wick inside of the sweatband. wicks of all thicknesses and widths are easily obtained.--contributed by maurice bandier, new orleans, la. a catapult the catapult shown in the sketch is one i constructed some time ago and found to be amusing and very inexpensive. the catapult consists of a small piece of dowel or pine, whittled into the shape of a handle, a screweye, an elastic band and an arrow. it is surprising how a well-balanced arrow will fly into the sky until lost to sight when propelled through the eye of the screw with a medium-strong elastic. a number of forms of this simple gun were made, but the one shown is the simplest and most effective.--contributed by c. a. needham, new york, n. y. [illustration: the eye of the screw serves as a guide for the arrow] growing clean strawberries a very good method of growing individual strawberry plants that will produce large clean berries is to provide a covering constructed from a board in. square with a -in. hole bored in the center. this covering is placed over the plant, as shown in the sketch, to keep down weeds, retain moisture, and to make a base for the ripening berries. a shower cannot spatter dirt and sand on the growing fruit. the rays of the sun beating on the surface of the board will aid in the ripening. [illustration: growing strawberries on the surface of a board where they will ripen fast and keep clean] if a log can be obtained, the boards can be made better and more quickly. disks about in. thick are sawed from the log and holes in their centers either cut with a chisel or bored, as desired. the grain of the wood will be vertical and no warping will take place--contributed by johnny banholster, gresham, oregon a magic change card procure two cards, the " " of diamonds and the " " of spades, for example. bend each exactly in the center, with the face of the cards in, and then paste any card on the back, with its face against the two ends of the bent cards. the two opposite ends will then have their backs together, and these are also pasted. the illustration clearly shows this arrangement. [illustration: a card having two faces, either of which can be shown to the audience instantly] to perform the trick pick up this card, which is placed in the pack beforehand, and show to the audience both the front and back of the card, being sure to keep the center part flat against one end or the other, then pass the hand over the card, and in doing so catch the center part and turn it over. the card can be changed back again in the same manner.--contributed by r. bennett, pittsburgh, pa. cleaning pearl articles a good way to clean pearl articles or ornaments is to moisten them with alcohol and then dry in magnesia powder or french chalk. these last two articles may be purchased at any drug store and the process of cleaning is absolutely harmless. it also polishes the pearl and will not bleach delicate colors. bed for a camp a quickly made bed for a camp is shown in the illustration. the corner posts consist of four forked stakes driven in the earth so that the crotches are on a level and about ft. from the ground. poles are laid in the crotches, lengthwise of the bed, and canvas covering double-lapped over them. if desired, the canvas can be stitched along the inside of the poles.--contributed by thomas simpson, pawtucket, r. i. [illustration: canvas bed made on two poles laid in the crotches of forked stakes] sail for a boy's wagon every boy, who loves a boat and has only a wagon, can make a combination affair in which he can sail even though there is no water for miles around. one boy accomplished this as shown in the illustration, and the only assistance he had was in making the sails. [illustration: the sail wagon will travel at a good speed in a stiff breeze] the box of the wagon is removed and the boat deck bolted in its place. the deck is in. wide and ft. long. the mast consists of an old rake handle, ft. long; the boom and gaff are broomsticks, and the tiller is connected with wire to the front axle, which gives perfect control of the steering. the sails are made of drilling. on a brick pavement the sail wagon can draw two other wagons with two boys in each, making in all five boys. of course a good wind must be blowing. with two boys it has made a mile in five minutes on pavement.--contributed by arthur carruthers, oberlin, ohio. extracting a broken screw a screw will often break off in a piece of work in such a manner that it is quite impossible to remove it by using a pair of pliers or a wrench. in this case the following method is very efficient and expedient. drill a small hole in the screw as near the center as possible. roughen the edges on the tang of a file with a cold chisel, and drive the tang into the hole with a mallet. the roughened edges of the tang exert enough friction on the metal to remove the screw by turning the file in the proper direction. keeping out dampness a good way to keep a bed from becoming damp, if left for any length of time, is to place a blanket on the top after it is made up. take the blanket off before using and the bed covers will be quite dry, as the blanket absorbs the moisture.--contributed by g. nordyke, lexington, ore. a double-claw hammer for pulling nails straight a nail pulled with an ordinary claw hammer will be bent in the operation, and for this reason the double claw is used to draw the nail straight out of the wood. an ordinary claw hammer can be easily converted into a double-claw by filing out one of the claws as shown. the notch is filed only large enough to slip under the head of an average-size nail. after drawing the nail a short distance in the usual manner the small notch is set under the head of the nail which is then pulled out straight.--contributed by j. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: the small notch on the end of the claw makes it easy to pull a nail straight] [illustration] a cyclemobile by frank pfefferle the cyclemobile is of the three-wheeled type and can be easily constructed in the home workshop with ordinary tools. the main frame is built up of two sidepieces, aa, fig. , each in. thick, in. wide, and ft. long, joined together at the front end with a crosspiece, b, of the same material, in. long. the sides are placed slightly tapering so that the rear ends are in. apart at the point where they are joined together with the blocks and rear-wheel attachments. a crosspiece, c, in. long, is fastened in the center of the frame. [illustration: three-wheeled cyclemobile propelled like a bicycle and steered as an automobile] the place for the seat is cut out of each sidepiece, as shown by the notches at d, which are ft. from the rear ends. two strips of wood, e, / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long, are fastened with nails to the rear ends of the sides, as shown. the rear wheel is a bicycle wheel, which can be taken from an old bicycle, or a wheel may be purchased cheaply at a bicycle store. it is held in place with two pieces of strap iron, f, shaped similar to the rear forks on a bicycle, and each piece is bolted to a block of wood in. thick, in. wide, and in. long, which is fastened to the sidepiece with the same bolts that hold the strap iron in place. the blocks are located in. from the rear ends of the sidepieces. [illustration: detail of the parts for constructing an automobile-type foot-power car (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the pedal arrangement, fig. , consists of an ordinary bicycle hanger, with cranks and sprocket wheel set into the end of a piece of wood, in. thick, in. wide and in. long, at a point in. from one end. the pieces gg are nailed on across the frame at the front end of the car, to hold the hanger piece in the center between the sidepieces, as shown in fig. . a small pulley, h, is made to run loosely on a shaft fastened between the sidepieces. this is used as an idler to keep the upper part of the chain below the seat. [illustration: (fig. )] the front axle is in. long, pivoted as shown at j, fig. , in. from the front end of the main frame. two small brass plates, kk, are fastened with screws on the under edge of each sidepiece, as shown, to provide a bearing for the axle. the front wheels are taken from a discarded baby carriage and are about in. in diameter. [illustration: (fig. )] a good imitation radiator can be made by cutting a board to the dimensions given in fig. . a large-mesh screen is fastened to the rear side to imitate the water cells. [illustration: (fig. )] the steering gear l, fig. , is made of a broom handle, one end of which passes through the support m and fits into a hole bored into the lower part of the imitation radiator board. a steering wheel, n, is attached to the upper end of the broom handle. the center part of a rope, o, is given a few turns around the broom handle, and the ends are passed through the openings in screweyes, pp, turned into the inner surfaces of the sidepieces aa, and tied to the front axle. [illustration: (fig. )] the seat is constructed of / -in. lumber and is built in the notches cut in the main frame shown at d, fig. . the body frame is made of lath, or other thin strips of wood, that can be bent in the shape of the radiator and nailed to the sidepieces, as shown in fig. . these are braced at the top with a longitudinal strip. the frame is then covered with canvas and painted as desired. how to make a humidor the humidor is an ideal gift for any person who smokes. the wood for making one, as shown in the illustration, may be of spanish cedar, mahogany, or quartered oak, as the builder desires. the box and cover are made and glued together in one piece, then the cover is sawed off to insure a perfect fit. a strong corner connection is shown at a. a piece of a strawberry box or peach basket makes a good key to glue in the grooves. care must be taken to run the grain with the width and not with the length of the strip. [illustration: the amount of moisture within the box is shown on the dial in the cover] finish the outside of the box with two coats of the desired stain, then cover with a coat of wax, shellac, or varnish. the inside should be finished with one coat of white lead and two or three coats of white enamel, to make the wood impervious to moisture. in the center of the cover top is set a piece of glass and to the under side of the latter a hygrometer is attached with a little glue. this instrument tells the relative humidity, or the amount of moisture, in the air within. the moisture may be regulated by adding a few drops of water, as needed, to a piece of ordinary blotting paper placed on the inside.--contributed by james t. gaffney, chicago. telephoto attachment for a hand camera it is not necessary to purchase an expensive telephoto lens for a box or hand camera if the owner has a pair of opera or field glasses. first focus the glasses on the distant object to be photographed and then set the camera. one of the glasses is placed directly in line with and in front of the camera lens, as shown in the sketch. if the camera is of the focusing type, it is focused in the ordinary manner. box and other cameras are set as usual. [illustration: a field glass placed in front of a camera lens will increase the diameter of the photograph] the glasses should be well supported in front of the camera lens, as any slight move will be quite perceptible on the ground glass. as the light rays are largely reduced in passing through the field glass and camera lens, it is necessary to give a much longer exposure. this can only be determined by trying it out, as lenses have different speeds.--contributed by charles leonard, st. john, can. a turn feeding table for birds never in the past has the public at large taken so great an interest in protecting and furthering the well-being of birds as at present. in addition to protective legislation, clubs everywhere are organizing to promote bird life and many citizens, old and young, are making bird houses and feeding tables. one of the best forms of feeding tables which i have ever seen is shown in the sketch. it possesses a great advantage over the average table in being turned automatically, whirling about by the action of the winds and always keeping its open front on the lee or protected quarter. this is a good feature especially in the fall and winter, the very time when birds need and seek protection from storms and cold winds. to make such a feed table almost any kind of boards can be utilized. the shelter may be of any shape or size to suit the tastes of the maker, but one constructed to the dimensions given will be found to work well in most localities. along the center of the roof is attached a wing, a, which is an active aid in causing the wind to keep the open front turned away. the shelter turns upon a wood or iron rod which passes from the end of a post up through the central bottom and central roof of the structure. if wood is used for the rod, it should be about in. in diameter and of hard stock. an iron rod may be somewhat smaller. keep the holes well greased. [illustration: a feeding table for birds that will keep its open side protected from the storms] the house should be given a couple of coats of white, red, or green paint, and the post painted to correspond. feed and water are placed in shallow dishes on the floor and they should be blocked to keep them from sliding out.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. a sack holder an old granite kettle or tin pail with the bottom cut out and three -penny wire nails bent and fastened on with rivets, as shown at a, makes as good a sack holder as one could desire. a chain attached to the handle makes it conveniently adjustable to the proper height for the sack. [illustration: a granite kettle forms a holder that makes it easy to fill the sack] time indicator for medicine bottles [illustration] the time to give a patient the next dose of medicine can be set on the indicator, as shown in the sketch, and retained without fear of its being changed until the dose is again given. the indicator consists of a strip of paper which will reach around the bottle neck and is divided into equal parts representing hours and half hours. the paper is then pasted to the bottle neck. an ordinary pin is then pushed into the cork as shown. after a dose of medicine is given to the patient the cork is replaced so that the head of the pin will indicate the time for the next dose. by this method, an accidental shifting of the indicator is almost impossible. a washtub stand usually two old chairs or an old box makes the stand for the washtub, and these are not always the right height. a stand, like that shown in the illustration and having the proper height for the one who does the washing, can be easily made of by -in. material and a few boards. as it is shown, the wringer is fastened on top of the back and may remain there all the time, it being out of the way, always in its proper place, and held very firmly. [illustration: stand provides a place for the washing utensils and it is always the proper height] a light bracket, on which to set the clothes basket, can be made and fastened on the back of the stand, connected with two hinges and supported by a leg hinged to the bracket, the lower end of the leg resting on the floor back of the stand. a small drawer may also be provided in the front, in which to put away the soap and brushes, and the wash boiler can be set underneath. when one is through washing, the bracket at the back is let down, the washstand set up against the wall out of the way, and everything is then in its place, ready for the next wash day.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, ia. pipe used as a leather punch [illustration] the sketch shows how a very cheap and serviceable leather punch can be made of an old pipe nipple. pieces of pipe of almost any size can be found around a shop, and it is, therefore, usually possible to quickly make a punch of the required size. the cutter end can be ground very thin to prevent an over-cut, while a small slot cut a little above it will allow the removal of the leather slugs. for its purpose, this homemade tool is all that can be desired in cheapness and utility. to prevent oilcloth from cracking a good method to prevent oilcloth from cracking, when it is used on shop tables or counters, is to first cut a paper cover for the table on which to place the oilcloth and prepare it as follows: the paper should be well oiled with common machine oil and placed smoothly on the table to be covered. the oilcloth is then smoothed out on top of the paper and stretched tightly. the oiled paper tends to keep the under side of the cloth moist, which prevents cracking. the cloth wears much longer because the paper acts as a pad. [illustration] how to make a flymobile by edward sieja the boy owning a pushmobile, or even a power-driven auto car, is often very much disappointed because motion soon stops when the power is not applied. the car illustrated is of a little different type, being equipped with a flywheel that will propel the car and carry the rider a considerable distance after stopping the pedaling. the flywheel also aids the operator, as it will steady the motion and help him over a rough place or a bump in the road. [illustration: the flymobile is a miniature automobile in appearance and is propelled by foot power] the main frame of the flymobile is made up of a few pieces of by -in. timbers. the pieces a are ft. in. long, and the end crosspieces b, in. long. these are jointed, glued and screwed together, as shown in fig. . the frame that supports the driving parts consists of a piece, c, ft. in. long, and a piece d, ft. in. long. these are fitted in the main frame and securely fastened to the end crosspieces b. two other crosspieces, e and f, are used to strengthen the driving-parts frame. [illustration: plan and elevation of the flymobile, showing the location of the working parts, to which, with a few changes, a motorcycle engine can be attached to make it a cyclecar; also details of the brakes, belt tightener and coaster-brake hub (fig. )] the entire hanger g, with its bearings, cranks and pedals, can be procured from a discarded bicycle and fastened to the piece c; the barrel holding the bearings being snugly fitted into a hole bored in the piece with an expansive bit. the location will depend on the builder and should be marked as follows: place the hanger on top of the piece c, then put a box or board on the frame where the seat is to be and set the hanger where it will be in a comfortable position for pedaling. mark this location and bore the hole. [illustration: (fig. )] the transmission h consists of a bicycle coaster-brake hub, shown in detail in fig. . a split pulley, j, in. in diameter, is bored out to fit over the center of the hub between the spoke flanges. the halves of the pulley are then clamped on the hub with two bolts, run through the holes in opposite directions. their heads and nuts are let into countersunk holes so that no part will extend above the surface of the pulley. the supports for the hub axle consist of two pieces of bar iron, in. long, drilled to admit the axle ends, and screws for fastening them to the frame pieces c and d. this construction is clearly shown in fig. . the arrangement of the coaster-brake hub produces the same effect as a coaster brake on a bicycle. the one propelling the flymobile may stop the foot-power work without interfering with the travel of the machine, and, besides, a little back pressure on the pedals will apply the brake in the same manner. the flywheel k should be about in. in diameter with a -in. rim, or face. such a wheel can be purchased cheaply from any junk dealer. the flywheel is set on a shaft, turning between the pieces c and d and back of the coaster-brake wheel h. two pulleys, l, about in. in diameter, are fastened to turn with the flywheel on the shaft and are fitted with flanges to separate the belts. the ends of the shaft should run in good bearings, well oiled. [illustration: (fig. )] another pulley, m, in. in diameter, is made of wood and fastened to the rear axle. an idler wheel, shown in fig. , is constructed of a small pulley, or a large spool, attached to an l-shaped piece of metal, which in turn is fastened on the end of a shaft controlled by the lever n. the function of this idler is to tighten up the belt or release it, thus changing the speed in the same manner as on a motorcycle. the elevation of the flymobile is given in fig. , which shows the arrangement of the belting. the size of the pulleys on the flywheel shaft causes it to turn rapidly, and, for this reason, the weight of the wheel will run the car a considerable distance when the coaster hub is released. [illustration: (fig. )] the rear axle revolves in bearings, half of which is recessed in the under edges of the pieces a while the other half is fastened to a block, screwed on over the axle. a simple brake is made as shown in fig. . two metal pieces, o, preferably brass, are shaped to fit over the shaft with extending ends for fastening them to the pieces p and q, as shown. these pieces are hinged with strap iron, r, at one end, the other end of the piece p being fastened to the crosspiece f, fig. , of the main frame. the lower piece q is worked by the lever s and side bars, t. a small spring, u, keeps the ends of the pieces apart and allows the free turning of the axle until the brake lever is drawn. the lever s is connected by a long bar to the hand lever v. [illustration: (fig. )] the steering apparatus w, figs. and , is constructed of a piece of gas pipe, ft. in. long, with a wheel at one end and a cord, x, at the other. the center part of the cord is wound several times around the pipe and the ends are passed through screweyes in the main frame pieces a and attached to the front axle, which is pivoted in the center under the block y. the lower end of the pipe turns in a hole bored slanting in the block. a turn of the steering wheel causes one end of the cord to wind and the other to unwind, which turns the axle on the center pivot. the wheels are bicycle wheels, and the ends of the front axle are turned to receive the cones and nuts, instead of using the regular hub axles. the ends of the rear axle are turned to closely fit the hubs after the ball cups have been removed. a large washer and nut clamp each wheel to the axle so that it will turn with it. the body can be made up as desired, from sheet metal, wood, or cloth stretched over ribs of wood, and painted in the manner of an automobile. a tank and tires can be placed on the back to add to the appearance. fenders and a running board can be attached to the main frame. with the addition of some crosspieces in the main frame at the front and a motorcycle engine fastened to them so that the driving sprocket will be in line with the sprocket on the coaster hub, the builder will have a real cyclecar. the die-and-box trick the die-and-box trick, so often performed on the stage, is a very interesting and mystifying one. the apparatus, however, is simple, consisting of a box, die, a piece of tin in the form of three adjacent sides of the die, and a hat. the die and box are constructed entirely of wood, / in. thick, and the piece of tin can be cut from any large coffee can. the box is closed by four doors, as shown in fig. , two of which are - / in. square, and the others, - / in. by - / in. the first two are the front doors and are preferably hinged with cloth to the two uprights a and b. small pieces of tin are fastened on the doors at c and d, to provide a means to open them. the other doors are placed on top and are hinged to the back, as shown. [illustration: with the false die in place it appears as if the box were empty] the die is in. square on all sides, and is constructed of two pieces, in. square; two pieces, - / in. by in., and two pieces, - / in. square. these are fastened together with / -in. brads. the tin, forming the false die, is cut out as shown in fig. , and is then bent on the dotted lines and soldered together on the joint formed by the two edges e and f. all parts should be painted a dull black with white spots on the die and false die. [illustration: the box with doors on one side and the top, (fig. )] [illustration: ...and the false-die pattern (fig. )] the trick is performed as follows: procure a hat from some one in the audience and place in it the die with the tin false die covering three sides of the block, at the same time telling the audience that the block will be caused to pass from the hat into the box, the latter being placed some distance away. inform the audience that it would be more difficult for the die to pass from the box into the hat. remove the tin piece from the hat and leave the die, holding the surfaces of the false die toward the audience. this will give the impression that the die has been removed. set the hat on the table above the level of the eyes of the audience. with the back of the box toward the audience, open one top door and insert the tin piece in the right-hand compartment so that one side touches the back, another the side and the other the bottom of the box. close the door and open the two doors of the opposite compartment which, when shown, will appear to be empty. tilt the box to this side and open the doors of the side opposite to the one just opened, which, of course, will be empty. this should be done several times until some one asks that all doors be opened at the same time. after a few more reversals and openings as given, open all doors and show it empty, then take the die from the hat.--contributed by harold l. groesbeck, salt lake city, utah. homemade pantograph the pantograph consists of four pieces of wood, the dimensions depending somewhat on the size of the work to be drawn. a convenient size for ordinary drawing and enlarging is constructed of four pieces of hardwood, preferably maple, / in. thick and / in. wide, two of them - / in. in length and the other two, - / in. long. these are planed and sandpapered and the ends cut round. [illustration: a picture can be enlarged or reduced by setting the screweyes in the holes designated] all four pieces are laid flat on a level board or bench top with their edges together so that the edges of the two longer pieces make right angles with a line drawn tangent to their ends. one end of one short piece is placed flush with the lower ends of the two long pieces, and one end of the other short piece flush with the upper ends, as shown. they should be clamped down solidly to keep them from moving while laying off the divisions. light lines are drawn across their faces as designated by the dimensions. on these lines and exactly in the center of the pieces make small marks with a pencil point. through the pieces a and b holes are drilled to snugly receive the body of a small screweye. the other two pieces are drilled with a smaller drill so that the threads of the screweye will take hold in the wood. the end c of the piece a has a metal stand made of brass as shown at d. this is fastened to the end of the wood with a small bolt. the hole should be a snug fit over the body of the bolt. the lower ends of the brass are drilled to admit thumb tacks for holding it to the drawing board. the joint at e is made of a suitable binding post that can be procured at an electrical shop, the shank below the two joined pieces to be the same length as the height of the metal stand d. the end should be filed round and polished so that it will slip over the board or paper easily. the stylus or tracing point f is made of another binding post, in the same manner, but instead of a rounding end a slightly blunt, pointed end is filed on it. the end of the piece g is strengthened by gluing a small block of the same material on both upper and under side. a hole is then made through them to receive a pencil rather tightly. the holes, as will be seen, are numbered from to . at the crossing of each pair, h and j, the screweyes must be set in the holes numbered alike on both pieces of each pair. this will insure the proper working of the parts. the other numbers designate how much the instrument will enlarge a picture or reduce it. on the pair not numbered in the sketch the numbers run in the opposite direction. the end c is fastened to the left side of the drawing board, the picture to be enlarged is placed under the stylus or tracer point, and the paper under the pencil point g. move the tracing point over the general outline of the picture without making any line before starting, so as to make sure that the paper and picture are located right. it is then only necessary to take hold of the pencil and move it over the paper while watching the tracer point to keep it following the lines of the picture. to make a reduced picture, the original is placed under g, the tracer point changed to g and the pencil to f. trapping mosquitoes [illustration] mosquitoes that light on the ceiling may be easily destroyed with the instrument shown in the sketch. it consists of a cover, such as used on jelly glasses, nailed to the end of an old broom handle. a little kerosene oil is placed in the cover and the device is passed closely beneath the location of the mosquitoes. they will be overcome by the fumes and drop into the fluid as soon as it comes under them.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. pen rack on an ink bottle [illustration] a piece of wire, about ft. long, is bent into the shape shown and slipped over the neck of the ink bottle. the ends forming the loop around the neck should fit tightly. the upper part of the wire is shaped to hold the penholder.--contributed by w. a. saul, e. lexington, mass. substitute for a broken bench-vise nut [illustration: two pieces of strap iron shaped to fit the square thread make a good substitute nut] it is frequently the case that the nut on a bench-vise screw breaks from being subjected to a too violent strain. if one is working in a place where a new nut cannot be obtained, the broken part may be replaced by the substitute shown in the sketch. any piece of strap iron may be used, and with a round file and a drill the two pieces can soon be made and attached to the bench with screws or bolts. a slight twist of the shaped ends is necessary to make them fit the angle of the thread.--contributed by oscar m. waddell, lamedeer, mont. scissors sharpener [illustration: in attempting to cut the hardened steel pin the edge is drawn sharp] procure an ordinary wood clothespin and drill a / -in. hole through its blades, then insert a piece of hardened / -in. drill rod, which should be a driving fit. in using this device, take the scissors and attempt to cut the steel rod. do this three or four times and a good cutting edge will be obtained.--contributed by wm. j. tolson, lyons, iowa. * * * * * an imitation-gold color may be made with flake white, ground in varnish and tinted with a touch of vermilion. when striping or lettering is done with this, it will have the appearance of real gilding work. floor push button an ordinary electric push button can be used for a floor push button by placing it on a bracket or shelf attached to a joist, as shown, and using a nail for the extension push. a / -in. hole is bored through the floor, also through a small piece of wood fastened beneath the floor, at the right place to direct the nail so that it will strike directly upon the small black knob of the push button. the nail should be just long enough to rest lightly on the knob.--contributed by reginald r. insole, hamilton, can. [illustration: push button on joist] a wrist brace to strengthen a weak wrist, take a piece of leather, preferably white oak tanned, in. wide and in. long, and carefully shave it down with a sharp knife, until it is / in. thick. then cut it as shown in fig. , the wide part or body being in. long, and the narrow part or neck, in. long and in. wide. cut a semicircular hole, in. from the extreme end of the body, / in. wide and - / in. long, to allow the neck to slip through, then punch three holes in each end and lace with rawhide or shoestring, or, better still, if you happen to have a small buckle, sew it neatly to the body. it looks better and saves time in adjusting. when complete and on the wrist, it will appear as in fig. .--contributed by j. h. harris, berkeley, cal. [illustration: brace made of leather] protecting a kettle handle from heat [illustration] the wood handle of a kettle or cooking utensil when not in use usually comes in contact with the side of the vessel and it will absorb enough heat each time to finally char and crack the wood. the heat of the handle at times is so intense that it often results in a burned hand. the spiral metal handle provides a way for cooling by exposing a considerable surface to the air, yet the metal retains the heat so that many times it is too hot to handle. if a wood handle is provided with a coil of wire as shown in the accompanying sketch, the wood cannot come in contact with the side of the heated vessel and the air encircling the wood prevents it from getting too hot to handle. the spiral can be attached to a metal handle with solder. tin can used for watering chickens [illustration] an ordinary discarded tomato can makes a good watering vessel for young chickens. care must be taken in opening the can to cut the tin so the cover will hinge. cut the tin about - / in. from the bottom so that it will form a u-shaped piece as shown in the sketch and push the hanging portion in the can. fill the can up to the opening with water, close the cover and set it in the coop.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, augusta, ga. [illustration] how to make a hurdle the hurdle consists of two standards, a reach, and a swing. the swing is first made in the shape of a rectangle of four pieces of wood, about / in. thick and - / in. wide, of which two are in. and the others in. long. these pieces are nailed together in the manner shown. [illustration: the swing of the hurdle will turn when slightly touched and right itself again] each standard is made of three pieces of wood, / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. nail the pieces firmly together, as shown, and connect their bases with another piece of the same material, in. long. when this is finished, connect the swing to the standards with long nails, a, at the ends slightly off center. before inserting the nails, make the holes in each standard to receive them large enough to permit the nails to turn freely without allowing the heads to pass through. thus the frame will swing freely at the slightest touch of the jumper's foot, and right itself immediately.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. oil burner for a cook stove the parts of the burner consist of ordinary gas pipe and fittings. the pipe in which the kerosene oil is converted into gas is / in. in diameter and is connected to a supply tank of oil with / -in. pipe. the burner part is also constructed of / -in. pipe having three / -in. holes drilled in each end for the gas to escape where it burns. these burners are located just beneath the large pipe so that the flames will heat it and convert the oil into gas. a needle valve, a, is used to control the flow of oil. the burner is placed in the fire box of the stove, and the pipes connected through a hole drilled in the stove door, at b. [illustration: a very cheap grade of kerosene oil can be used in this burner with success] the tank may be rectangular or round and should be of sufficient strength to withstand or lb. of pressure. the top of the tank has a pet cock where a connecting hose from an air pump may be attached. the tank is filled about half full and just a little pressure of air is put on the oil. to start the burner, run a little oil in a pan or fire shovel and light it so that the flames will convert the oil into gas in the large pipe, then turn the valve a and regulate the flame.--contributed by robert hays, siloam springs, ark. a fish stringer the illustration shows a very simple and inexpensive device for the angler to string and carry fish. it is made of a pail handle through which is passed a piece of soft wire, having sufficient length for bends or loops at each end, and a piece of chain. a chain in. long is sufficient. one end of the chain is fastened in the loop at one end of the handle, and the other has a piece of wire attached for pushing through the gills of the fish. the other end of the wire through the handle is arranged in a hook to catch into the links of the chain.--contributed by g. o. reed, stratford, canada. [illustration: inexpensive stringer made of a pail handle and small chain] substitutes for drawing instruments three of the most used draftsman's instruments are the compass, ruler and square or triangle. when it is necessary to make a rough drawing and no instruments are at hand, common and easily obtainable things can be used as substitutes. [illustration: a compass, ruler and square made of ordinary things at hand] a sheet of heavy paper folded as shown at a will serve as a ruler, and the same sheet given another fold will make the square b. if given another fold diagonally, a -deg. triangle is formed. a substitute compass is readily made of a short pencil and a pocket knife, as shown at c.--contributed by jas. j. joyce, olongopo, philippine islands. how to make an aspirator a simple aspirator that may be used for a number of different purposes, such as accelerating the process of filtering, emptying water from tubs, producing a partial vacuum in vessels in which coils are being boiled in paraffin, etc., may be constructed as follows: obtain two pieces of brass tubing of the following dimensions: one in. long and / in. outside diameter, and the other, in. long and / in. outside diameter. drill a hole in one side of the large tube, about in. from one end, of such a diameter that the small brass tube will fit it very tightly. take an ordinary hacksaw and cut a slot in the side of the large piece, as shown at a. this slot is sawed diagonally across the tube and extends from one side to the center. obtain a piece of sheet brass that will fit into this slot tightly, and then solder it and the small tube into the large tube. the slot and hole for the small tube should be so located with respect to each other that the small tube will empty into the larger one directly against the piece of sheet brass soldered in the slot. [illustration: detail of the aspirator and its connections to a faucet, for increasing the speed of filtration] the upper end of the large tube should be threaded inside to fit over the threads on the faucet, or an attachment soldered to it similar to those on the end of an ordinary garden hose. a rubber hose should be attached to the small tube and connected, as shown, to a piece of glass tubing that is sealed in the cork in the top of the large bottle. the funnel holding the filter paper is also sealed into the cork. melted paraffin may be used in sealing the glass tube, funnel and cork in place, the object being to make them airtight. the filter paper should be folded so that it sticks tightly against the sides of the funnel when the liquid is poured in, thus preventing any air from entering the bottle between the paper and the funnel. turn on the faucet, and it will be found that the time required to filter any liquid will be greatly reduced. be careful, however, not to turn on too much water, as the suction may then be too strong and the filter paper become punctured. a key-holder hook [illustration] a good hook for hanging keys, toothbrushes and other small articles can be made from ordinary wire staples, as shown at a. one leg of the staple is cut away as shown at b and the other leg driven into the board as shown at c. these will answer the purpose as well as screwhooks.--contributed by w. c. heidt, chicago. a hand hoe a hand hoe, especially adapted for weeding or cultivating small truck, particularly onions, can be made of a piece of hard wood, / by - / in. by ft. long, and a piece of old bucksaw blade. a blade, in. long and in. wide, bent into a loop is attached with bolts to the handle.--contributed by geo. h. miller, iowa city, iowa. [illustration: bucksaw blade attached to a hardwood handle] seed receptacle for bird-cages a handy seed and water container for a bird-cage can be made of a common spice tin. the receptacle can be filled without removal by simply taking off the cover. thus the seed will not be scattered. [illustration: spice tin attached to the wires of a bird-cage for a water or seed receptacle] the tin is attached by cutting a hole in the back as shown, and bending the side edges to fit over the wires to hold it in place. the bottom strip is a support which rests on the floor of the cage and prevents the tin from slipping down on the wires. kitchen-utensil scraper a flexible utensil scraper is one of the most useful articles i have in my kitchen. it covers such a large surface in scraping pans, kettles, etc., that this most disagreeable part of the kitchen work is quickly and easily accomplished. [illustration: the blade is flexible so it can readily shape itself to the curves of a kettle] the flexible blade is attached to the tin handles with small rivets. the blade should be thin and narrow enough to allow it to bend. when the handles are pressed together, the blade curves to the shape of the utensil's surface.--contributed by mrs. della schempp, brodhead, wis. anchor posts for a lawn swing a very substantial and convenient base for a lawn swing can be made by using four anchor posts of cement, as shown in fig. . the posts are made with a recess, a, to receive the legs of the swing, and of any suitable size. they may be placed with the upper face on a level with the lawn, or higher if desired. [illustration: ar. anchor post of cement and a mold box for shaping four posts at a time (fig. , fig. )] a rough mold box, fig. , lined with paper, will do for making the posts. the box does not require any top or bottom; it is simply placed on a board and lifted away when the blocks are thoroughly dried. if the blocks are leveled when placed in the earth, the swing may be taken down and erected again without the usual leveling and bracing.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. automatic filter [illustration] this funnel-filling filter automatically prevents the solution from running over if the filtering is slow or the filter substance becomes clogged. the upper inverted bottle holds the solution to be filtered, the cork being fitted with a glass tube as shown, and when in use the cork is forced into the neck of the bottle so that no air can enter between it and the glass. the support for holding the bottles has two brackets, one to fit the neck of the upper bottle and the other used as a shelf for the receiving bottle. in operation, the solution runs from the upper bottle into the funnel, holding the filter paper, but it cannot fill the funnel completely, because the end of the glass tube is lower than the edge of the funnel, and as soon as the liquid in the funnel covers the end of the tube, all inflow of air into the upper bottle is stopped, and, thereby, further flow of the solution into the funnel prevented, until enough has filtered through to uncover the end of the tube and thus permit air to again enter the upper bottle.--contributed by g. simons, chicago. grinding scissors whether a pair of scissors be ground or filed, the marks or scratches left from the contact with the abrasive should all extend across the bevel in the direction of the line ed, fig. , and never in the direction of the line gf. if the cutting edge be examined under a magnifying glass, the tool marks or scratches left by the sharpening process will be very plainly seen, and where these scratches intersect with the face hi, fig. , of the blade, they will appear as teeth along the cutting edge ik. [illustration: the direction of the grinding tool should be slightly sloping toward the handles] as a pair of scissors close, the natural tendency is to thrust the material to be cut out of the angle abc, fig. , but if these small teeth formed on the cutting edge point in the direction of the line ed, this slipping action is prevented or retarded because the fibrous material adheres to the fine teeth on the cutting edge of the blades. wet paper, silks, mohair cloths, etc., can be sheared with perfect ease and dispatch, when scissors are sharpened in this manner. the same principle holds good for metal snips. the angle hij, fig. , varies according to the material to be cut, and the type of shear. a greater angle is required on metal shears than on shears for domestic uses.--contributed by a. clifton, chicago. to repair a leak in a canoe after striking some rocks with our canoe, it sprung three very bad leaks. these were effectively patched with pieces of cheesecloth, well soaked in liquid shellac, which were pasted on the outside of the leak. after allowing this to set for a few hours, it will be almost impossible to remove the patch. this is an inexpensive and almost invariably a sure remedy for leaks. when the cloth is dry, paint it over with the same color as the boat, and the repair can scarcely be seen.--contributed by william b. smith, new york city. holder for loose window glass [illustration] when the putty becomes loose and the glazing points work out on window glass, temporary repairs may be made by using a small piece of tin or sheet iron bent as shown in the sketch. the clip is inserted under the edge of the glass and hooked over the back of the sash parts. this will hold the glass firmly in place and also prevent rattling. a homemade bench vise a form of a bench vise that can be easily made and attached to a workbench is shown in the illustration. this vise requires no screw, and the parts can be made from scrap material. [illustration: the vise jaw as it is attached to the bench and the substitute screw arrangement] the substitute a for the screw is a rectangular piece of wood and is fastened with a tenon in a mortise cut in the vise jaw b. the clamping arrangement consists of a strap, c, attached to the piece a, then run over a pulley, d, and fastened to a foot pedal, e. the foot pedal is fulcrumed on a crosspiece of the bench and has a ratchet so as to hold it when the vise is set. the lower end of the vise is fitted with the usual form of device for parallel adjustment. a coil spring is located in the center for use in quickly opening the vise when the foot pedal is released.--contributed by a. c. westby, porter, minn. a cover strainer quite frequently the cook or housewife wishes to pour the hot water or liquid from boiling vegetables or other foods without removing the solids from the kettle. this is easily accomplished, if small holes are drilled in the cover as shown in the sketch. the saucepan or kettle can be tilted and the liquid drains through the holes. further, the steam from cooking food can readily escape through the holes, thus preventing the cover from vibrating, or the liquids from boiling over. [illustration: a sufficient number of holes are drilled in the edge of the cover to make a strainer] homemade corn sheller where there is but a small quantity of corn to be shelled a sheller can be made of a few scraps of wood usually found on a farm. a block of wood having a sloping notch cut from one end is mounted on three legs as shown. the notched part as well as the lever is thickly filled with spikes driven in so that their heads protrude about / in. [illustration: the projecting nail heads in the block and lever, as they pass, shell the corn] the ear of corn is placed in the notched part and the lever pressed down. two or three strokes of the lever will remove all the kernels from the cob. a box is provided and conveniently located on one leg to catch the shelled corn.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, ont. an ornamental metal flatiron holder this antique iron holder or stand can be easily constructed by the amateur bent-iron worker. a strip of iron is bent over at the ends to form the side legs, and the front leg is formed of another piece, welded in the center. [illustration: ornamental stand made of either strap iron or sheet metal to hold a flatiron] openings for the crosspieces are then cut, the legs bent into a scroll shape, and the crosspieces inserted and fastened by spreading or upsetting the ends. instead of using strap iron, the stand can be cut from good sheet metal. this would save the trouble of welding on the front leg. how to make a watch demagnetizer a watch demagnetizer that will give excellent satisfaction may be made as follows: [illustration: dimensioned parts for the construction of the core over which the insulated wire is wound] procure a sheet of / in. brass, - / in. by in. bend this piece of brass around a piece of hard wood having a rectangular cross section of - / in. by in. the joint between the two ends should be made on one side, and the edges should lack about / in. of touching. next obtain two pieces of / in. brass, - / in. by in., and cut an opening in each of these, - / in. by - / in., as shown in the sketch. bend one edge of each of these pieces over at right angles to the main portion of the piece. solder these two pieces on the ends of the rectangular tube of brass and cut a slot in each of them to correspond to the one in the rectangular tube. place the rectangular piece of wood back in the tube and you are ready for the winding. use no. gauge single cotton-covered copper wire and fill the winding space. several layers of paper should be placed on the brass tube and between the layers of wire, to serve as an insulation. holes may be drilled in the projecting portions on the ends and the coil can then be mounted on a wooden base. mount two binding posts on this base and connect the terminals of the winding to them. to use the demagnetizer, connect it to a -volt alternating-current circuit with a rheostat in circuit of such a form that the current will not exceed three amperes and that it may be reduced to practically zero in value by increasing the resistance of the rheostat. the magnetic field inside the coil is rapidly changing in direction and will tend to destroy any permanent magnetism that may be possessed by an object placed inside of it. the full current of three amperes should be allowed to pass through the winding for a few minutes after the object to be demagnetized is inserted, and then gradually reduced, and the object removed. remodeling a talking machine having a talking machine of an old model with a tapered horn i decided to change it into a more modern type, and this was accomplished as follows: an auxiliary base was constructed of / in. wood on which to set the part which revolves the disks. the inside of this base is so constructed as to form a horn or sounding box. the two sides and sloping bottom of the horn-part are made of / in. wood. the form of this box is shown in fig. . the dimensions should be determined according to the size of the talking machine. [illustration: the horn or sounding box is constructed in the auxiliary base... (fig. )] [illustration: ...and the part for connecting the sounding tube to the box consists of ordinary gas pipe fastened with a clip at the back (fig. )] the connecting parts to the original horn were turned downward, as shown at a, fig. , with the opening entering a piece of ordinary gas pipe of sufficient length to allow an elbow with a nipple to enter the auxiliary base. the pivot-holding device for connection a is shown at d. the parts are attached to the box with a clasp, e, and with three screws in the nipple c, the end view of which is shown at f. the talking machine is placed on the auxiliary base as shown in fig. . this construction produces a talking machine on the order of a cabinet machine without the tapering horn.--contributed by h. w. j. lomglatz, harrisburg, pa. [illustration: (fig. )] needle for sewing burlap a needle for sewing burlap can be easily made of the ordinary opener that comes with sardine cans. all that is necessary to convert this tool into a needle is to grind the blunt end to a sharp point, as shown in the sketch.--contributed by g. c. beven, sault ste. marie, ont. [illustration: the can opener is provided with an eye and to make a needle the end is sharpened] a mysterious revolving wheel the mystery of this wheel is that it seems to revolve automatically without any visible external power. it is at the same time an amusing trick and an instructive experiment. the apparatus required is very simple and can be made at home. [illustration: the wheel as it is mounted on a needle, and lamp and box containing magnet to make it turn] a glass bottle is half filled with sand and water, so that it will stand securely, and a cork placed in the neck. into this cork a needle should be inserted so that it projects perpendicularly, which is most easily done by heating one end of the needle to a red heat and then pushing it into the cork as deeply as possible. into a disk of cork of suitable thickness and at four points on its side, at equal distances apart, are inserted four pieces of copper wire of the same length, each bent at the outer end to form a hook--these copper wires thus forming the spokes of the wheel. the rim is made of a small iron wire bent in a circular shape and held in the hooks on the ends of the copper wires. the now completed wheel is balanced on the free point on the needle, so that it can turn easily. place an alcohol lamp in such a position that when it is lighted the tip of the flame will just reach the rim of the wheel. (any other flame that will not soot the rim may be used.) in the box a, placed with its bottom level with the wheel, put a horseshoe magnet so that the flame is opposite one of its poles. after the lamp has been lighted for a few seconds, the wheel will begin to revolve, seemingly without cause. why does it do so? because the magnet magnetizes or attracts the part of the ring nearest it while cold, but not when it is glowing. instead, it will attract the cooler part of the ring nearest behind the flame and so on, the wheel thus spinning round, faster in the same proportion as the magnet is stronger and the iron rim smaller. if this experiment is shown before spectators as a trick, the performer may say to the audience that he alone can make the wheel spin around without touching it. should some one accept his challenge, he may, in a careless way, move the box containing the magnet away or turn it around so that it will not influence the iron ring and then, of course, the wheel will remain immovable. how to make a rabbet plane a rabbet plane is very little used by mechanics, but when it is wanted for a piece of work, it is wanted badly. while doing an unusual piece of work i needed a rabbet plane, and having none, i made a plane as shown in the sketch in less time than it would have taken to go out and borrow one. [illustration: a plane made of a piece of by -in. pine, a chisel and a large wood screw] the body of the plane was made of a piece of by -in. pine, ft. long. a -in. chisel was used for the bit. a place was marked on one side of the wood to be cut out for the chisel, and a -in. hole bored through, the narrow way, so that one edge of the bit cut through the bottom, forming a slit for the edge of the chisel. after cutting a groove for the chisel blade and turning in a long wood screw as shown, to hold the chisel in place, i had as good a rabbet plane as could be purchased.--contributed by w. h. young, thompson, ga. eye shield for a microscope the difficulty and discomfort amateurs experience in learning to use a microscope with both eyes open, or in trying to keep one eye shut, can be easily overcome by attaching a piece of cardboard, similar in shape to the one shown in the sketch, to the barrel of the microscope. the hole a should be of sufficient diameter to allow the cardboard to slide freely up and down on the barrel to the proper adjustment. this simple arrangement will relieve a great deal of the eye strain and will be of assistance to the most experienced users of microscopes.--contributed by g. b. fenton, charleston, w. virginia. [illustration: shield to cover the eye that is not used when looking into a microscope] transferring magazine pictures select pictures from newly printed papers and magazines. rub wax from a paraffin candle over a sheet of clean white paper, covering a space as large as the picture to be copied. place the paper, waxed side down, on the picture and while holding it firmly with the fingers of one hand, rub the back thoroughly with some hard substance until all parts of the picture have been gone over. remove the paper and a perfect copy of the picture will be found upon the waxed side.--contributed by kenneth g. merlin, brooklyn, n. y. a homemade egg separator secure some small wire and a very large can. cut the wire into several pieces and bend them as shown at a, cut the can and bend the side down as shown and punch holes to receive the upper ends of the wires. make the holes so that the wires will be about / in. apart. [illustration: the contents of the egg is placed on the wires which will separate the yolk from the white] a glue-spreader holder [illustration] the spreader that is supplied with bottles of liquid glue should not be placed on any surface, as it will soon stick to it. a holder that will keep the spreader in a safe place can be made of a piece of wire which is twisted about the neck of the bottle, as shown in the sketch, and the ends bent up to receive the spreader. stop on a chair rocker for a baby for a baby, too small to rock without tipping the chair over, a small willow or other suitable rocking chair may be made safe in the following manner: [illustration: the strip on the rocker prevents the child tipping the chair too far either way] a strip, a, is fastened on the outside of the rocker with small screws so that it may be removed without injuring the chair. a rubber-covered tack driven in on the under side at each end of the strip modifies the shock and the baby can rock to its heart's content without danger of turning over.--contributed by mrs. g. w. coplin, bay city, mich. homemade countersink for wood a round or flat-head bolt can be made into a good rosebit or reamer for countersinking holes for screw heads. in the illustration, fig. shows a reamer made of a round-head bolt, and fig. , one made of a square-head bolt. the round-head makes the best reamer as more cutters can be filed in the surface and less work is required to file it into shape. [illustration: round and square heads of bolts shaped and notched to make countersinks (fig. , fig. )] to maintain a constant level of liquids in vessels it is frequently desirable in laboratory experiments, and in practical work as well, to maintain a constant level in a tank without allowing it to become full. in many cases an outlet pipe at a certain height in the side of the tank is not desirable, and in laboratory experiments with beakers or crocks is, of course, impossible. [illustration] the diagram shows a simple but effective constant-level device. the outer end of the inverted u-tube is curved upward so that it never empties. if desired, the upward curve may be omitted and the straight end immersed in a small vessel of water. all that is necessary now for the successful working of the device is that the inner or tank end, a, of the tube be lower than the outer end--in other words, below the level of the end b--and the inner end below the level of the fluid. of course, the u-tube must be first filled with liquid and will then act as an intermittent, never-breaking siphon. should the tank fill above the end b, the siphon drains the fluid down to that level and no lower, even if the inner leg of the tube reach the bottom. to maintain this level against loss by evaporation some slight inflow is necessary. it will be noted that if the inner end of the siphon were above the outer end, the siphon would break as soon as the liquid in the tank fell to the inner mouth.--contributed by harry n. holmes, richmond, ind. homemade electric bed warmer the heat developed by a carbon-filament lamp is sufficiently high to allow its use as a heating element of, for instance, a bed warmer. there are a number of other small heaters which can be easily made and for which lamps form very suitable heating elements, but the bed warmer is probably the best example. all that is required is a tin covering which can be made of an old can about - / in. in diameter. the top is cut out and the edge filed smooth. the lamp-socket end of the flexible cord is inserted in the can and the shade holder gripped over the opening. a small lamp of about five candlepower will do the heating. a flannel bag, large enough to slip over the tin can and provided with a neck that can be drawn together by means of a cord, gives the heater a more finished appearance, as well as making it more pleasant to the touch. [illustration] a flash-light telegraph on a kite line [illustration: the flash of the light on the string may be read as far as it can be seen] an ordinary pocket flash lamp is prepared in the following manner: a brass spring, as shown in the sketch, is bound tightly to the flash lamp with a cord, and two wires, one at each end, are twisted around the lamp's body, forming two loops at the top. the kite string is run through the loops and over the spring. the lamp is then placed near the kite. the ordinary pull on the kite string does not close the spring, but a sharp jerk will pull the string in contact with the push button and its slight pressure causes an instant flash of the light. by this method words may be spelled out in the telegraph code.--contributed by joe v. romig, allentown, pa. hangers for barn tools means should be provided to have a place for all the tools used in and about a barn. the forks and shovels are usually stood up in a corner, but they can be more conveniently taken care of by making a hanger for them. the illustration shows how a hanger can be easily made and screwed to the wall of a barn. the hanger is cut from a piece of board and has a hole bored into it the size of the handle on the fork or shovel, then a notch is sawn into the hole to pass the handle through. the board may contain one or as many notches as there are forks and shovels to be hung on it. the implements are hung with the fork or shovel end upward.--contributed by r. snyder, glidden, ia. [illustration: a notched board provides a way to hang all the tools used about a barn] guide ropes on a bobsled the sketch shows the front end of a bobsled or double runner made of a plank bolted upon two sleds. the front sled is so pivoted on the bolt a that it may be turned to steer the bob, and to accomplish this result the steersman ordinarily sits with his feet braced against the projecting ends of the crosspiece and passes the steering ropes outside of his feet, with the ropes crossed as shown. the crossing of the ropes is supposed to add leverage, but that is quite wrong. [illustration: the most efficient way of attaching ropes to the guiding runners of a bobsled] the rope, running from b to c, has a lever arm from a to e. if the ropes were not crossed, the rope would lie along the dotted line bd, whose lever arm is the distance af, which is always greater than ae, therefore the uncrossed ropes have more leverage. observe what takes place when the sled is steered to the left: the distance ae decreases much more rapidly than af, and when the crossed ropes have lost all their power, the uncrossed ropes are still useful. many a spill has been caused by turning the sled to a position from which the crossed ropes were unable to restore it to a central position, and most of such spills would have been avoided if the ropes had not been crossed.--contributed by r. r. raymond, wilmington, del. brush hanger for a dark room [illustration] necessity may be the mother of invention, but it is also the grandmother of application, and application is the practical side of invention. both the amateur and the professional photographer have been bothered by spotting and unequal development of negatives and prints in tray development, due to various causes, and sometimes by the presence of dirt particles or the unequal or incomplete flowing of the developer over the surface of the sensitive emulsion. most professionals and many amateurs are familiar with the use of the camel's-hair brush to avoid failures of this character, and many of them use a brush for local development in certain cases where it is necessary or desirable. usually the brush is kept in a small glass cup, somewhere close at hand, but it is often in the way when not wanted and misplaced when most needed. the brush can be kept within reach and handy for the operator by arranging a light counterweight and pulley with a string attached to the brush, so that, normally, the brush will hang from the ceiling directly over the developing tray and can be obtained for use when desired. the detail of this brush-string and counterweight combination was deliberately appropriated from the old plan of suspending the piece of chalk over a billiard table, so that the players could easily reach it, when needed, while, when released, it would be pulled out of the way by the counterweight. the developing brush thus suspended is always ready, never misplaced, nor in the way for other operations. this arrangement is particularly convenient where a bathroom is used as a dark room, and the shelf space is limited. this same manner of counterweighting chalk on the billiard table may be applied to a stove-lid lifter, to keep it within easy reach and always cool enough to handle. the simplest and most inexpensive way of making this apparatus is to cut off a small piece of lead pipe for a counterweight, and, in the absence of a suitable pulley, use an ordinary screweye fastened in the ceiling. the latter is really better than a pulley because the string cannot run off the screweye. the arrangement is better understood by referring to the sketch. lighting a basement light there was no switch at the basement door and it was difficult to find the droplight in the dark. instead of going to the expense of placing a switch, the contrivance illustrated and described was rigged up and proved equal to the requirements. a / -in. piece of wood was cut about in. long by in. wide and a recess made at one end for the socket, as shown. a / -in. hole was drilled in the center, about in. from one end, and another, large enough to receive the projection from a pull socket, about in. from the other end, or the end to be used as the bottom of the block. a clamp made of spring brass, as shown, was screwed securely to the board, to clamp the socket firmly. a wire was passed through the small hole and stretched across the room from the door at a height to bring the light about ft. from the floor. then the socket was clamped to the strip with the chain passed through the hole cut for it. the cord attached to the chain was run to the door casing, passed through a screweye and weighted with a nut or some light object, to keep it taut. to light the lamp or put it out only a pull on the string was necessary. [illustration: socket attachment to turn a basement light on or off from a distance] the light can be slid along on the wire from one end of the room to the other, or can be detached from the strip when desired by unhooking the cord from the chain and taking the socket from the clamp. if more desirable, the block can be fastened permanently to some object instead of being on the wire.--contributed by l. m. eifel, chicago. projecting protractor readings a simple and efficient means of projecting protractor readings to a larger size is shown in fig. . one point of the compass is placed at the center of the protractor and an elastic band is looped between the points. then the points are spread to the radius desired, and the protractor is read where the elastic band crosses its scale. a light band should be used, and looped as shown in fig. . in this way a circle of any size may be quickly divided, if a pencil mark is made each time the band comes over the proper figure.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the extension marks can be easily read on the protractor under the elastic band (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] removing grease from paint when removing grease from paint by using ordinary cleaners, the paint is liable to come off in the washing. a good and cheaply applied method is to rub the painted surface with a paste of ordinary whiting. this is allowed to dry and when it is rubbed off with a cloth the dirt and grease is taken away with it. the whiting is cheap and can be purchased at any drug store. a door stop [illustration] a very good door stop can be easily made of a piece of metal as shown in the sketch. the metal is bent and fastened with screws to the wall against which the door swings. the extending end fits under the door knob and prevents it from striking the wall.--contributed by c. r. poole, los angeles, california. stretching a curtain without a frame a good way to avoid using the ordinary four-pole curtain stretcher is to make use of the following method. take the lace curtain and fold it once lengthwise; then pin it up on a tightly stretched line with a large number of clothespins, and slip a clean pole between the two sides to keep it taut. this method not only stretches the curtain satisfactorily, but saves considerable time otherwise required in pinning the curtain to the four-sided frame.--contributed by h. wynning, chicago, ill. [illustration: a lace curtain hung double on a line with a pole inserted in the fold] welding small resistance-wire connections in making connections, especially in electrical heating devices subject to high temperatures, it is out of the question to use solder, since the temperature reached in the device would cause the solder to melt and run out. a convenient arrangement for welding the connections of flatirons, or any other fine wires, is shown in the illustration. the ends of the wires to be welded are twisted together, and the weld is completed by forming an arc, one electrode of which is the twisted connection and the other a piece of carbon. the resistance of the heating unit in the iron is sufficient to limit the amount of the current flow so that a short circuit does not result.--contributed by g. irving davis, albany, n. y. [illustration: an arc is formed with a piece of carbon, to weld the twisted ends of wire together] bench with folding seats to provide a bench with seats, or shelves, which cannot easily be taken away unless the table is brought along, hinged brackets are attached to stationary crosspieces, which are fastened on the extended end braces of the table. when in use, the brackets are turned down, thereby providing a rigid support for anything that may be put on them. if it is desirable to have the brackets out of the way, as when carrying the bench, it is only necessary to fold them up.--contributed by j. m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: bench, or table, with a seat on each side that can be folded for carrying purposes] rim of wire wastebasket wrapped with felt in offices where wire wastebaskets are used, the finish of the desks is often marred by the top rim of the baskets rubbing against them. this can be overcome by wrapping strips of felt around the rim to form a buffer.--contributed by miss f. d. schweiger, kansas city, mo. [illustration] a homemade roller coaster by j. h. sanford the popular roller coaster that furnishes untold amusement for the multitudes that patronize amusement parks during the summer can be easily duplicated in a smaller way on a vacant lot or back yard for the children of the home; or the boys of a neighborhood could contribute to a fund and construct quite an elaborate affair, on the same lines as described, for the combined use of the owners. the one described was built with a track, ft. long, ft. high at one end and ft. at the other, the track between being placed on the ground. in coasting from the high end to the low one, the coaster will run up on the incline, then drift back to within ft. of the starting end. the car was built to seat four children or two adults. the cost of all the materials for building this roller coaster did not exceed $ . [illustration: inexpensive back-yard roller coaster, suitable for the enjoyment of the young as well as the older persons] the track is of simple construction and requires but little description. it is necessary to have it straight and nailed firmly to the crossties on the ground and to the trestles where it is elevated. the ties and trestles are placed about ft. apart. the two trestles for the starting platform should be set so that there is a slant to the track of about in. for starting the car without pushing it. the car can be carried back for starting by adults, but for children a small rope can be used over the platform to draw it back on the track, or a small windlass may be arranged for the purpose. [illustration: detail of the car, wheels and the trestle, which is attached to a tie] the main frame of the car is ft. long and about in. wide, firmly fastened at the corners. the axles for the wheels are machine steel, in. long, turned up on the ends and threaded in the manner of a bicycle axle to fit parts of bicycle hubs, attached to the main frame as shown at a. the wheels are solid, in. in diameter and in. thick, and are set on the bicycle cone of the ball cup, after they are properly adjusted, and securely fastened between washers with a nut on the end of the axle. guide wheels, b, are placed on the sides in the manner shown. these wheels are ordinary truck casters, not the revolving kind, in. in diameter. about / -in. clearance should be provided between the guide wheels b and the guard rail c, on the track. when the car is made in this manner it runs close to the track and there is no place where a child can get a foot or hand injured under or at the sides of the car. the one described has been used by all the children, large and small, for a year without accident. door-bell alarm a simple door-bell alarm for informing one when the door of a shop or dwelling is opened is shown in the accompanying sketch. it consists of a piece of spring brass, a, bent into a circle in the center so that it may be clamped on the doorknob bar by means of a small bolt or screw. the two ends of this piece should be separated as shown and a second piece, b, mounted on the door so that its outwardly projecting end is between the ends of the piece a. one terminal of an ordinary vibrating bell circuit is then connected under the head of the clamp screw, and the other terminal under one of the screws holding the piece b in place on the door. it is now obvious that the bell circuit will be completed and the alarm sounded when the knob is turned. make sure that the piece a is bent so that the circuit is completed before the latch has moved a sufficient amount to allow the door to open. [illustration: wiring diagram and connections to an electric bell that rings when a door knob is turned] the circuit leading to and from the switch may be completed through the hinges of the door, but it would be better to use small coil springs as shown. there would then be no likelihood of the circuit being open at any time, which might occur if the hinges were used. * * * * * discolored coffee and teapots may be restored to their original brightness by boiling them a few minutes in a solution of borax water. [illustration] a playground ferris wheel the whole wheel is carried on two uprights, each by in., by ft. long. in the upper ends of these pieces, a, a half circle is cut out to receive the main shaft b. the end of the uprights are sunk ft. into the earth and about ft. apart, then braced as shown. they are further braced by wires attached to rings which are secured with staples near the top. the bearings should each have a cap to keep the shaft in place. these can be made of blocks of wood with a semicircle cut out, the blocks being nailed over the shaft, while it is in place, the nails entering the ends of the uprights. [illustration: detail of the uprights, axle and spokes, and the end and side elevations of the completed wheel, showing braces and cars attached] the main shaft c is made of a - / -in. square piece of good material, ft. long. the ends are made round to serve as bearings, and the square part is fitted with the spokes or car carriers. these consist of pieces, each in. thick, in. wide and ft. long. in the center of each piece cut a notch one-half the thickness so that when each pair of pieces is crossed they will fit together with the surfaces smooth, as shown at d. a square hole is cut through the pieces as shown to fit on the square part of the main axle. while it is not shown in the illustration, it is best to strengthen this joint with another piece of wood, cut to fit on the axle and securely attached to the spokes. the cars or carriers are made of two sugar barrels cut in half. the hoops are then securely nailed, both inside and outside; a block of wood, e, securely attached to the half barrel on the outside, and another block on the inside opposite the outside block. holes are bored - / ft. from the ends of the spokes and a bolt run through them and through the blocks on the edges of the half barrels. the extending ends of the spokes are used to propel the wheel. four children can ride in the wheel at one time.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. a merry-go-round pole an inexpensive merry-go-round can be made of a single pole set in the ground where there is sufficient vacant space for the turning of the ropes. the pole may be of gas pipe or wood, long enough to extend about ft. above the ground. an iron wheel is attached on the upper end so that it will revolve easily on an axle, which may be an iron pin driven into the post. a few iron washers placed on the pin under the wheel will reduce the friction. [illustration: the ropes being tied to the wheel rim will easily turn around the pole] ropes of varying lengths are tied to the rim of the wheel. the rider takes hold of a rope and runs around the pole to start the wheel in motion, then he swings clear of the ground. streamers of different colors and flowers for special occasions may be attached to make a pretty display.--contributed by j. bert mitchell, wichita, kans. a theatrical night scene with the appearance of fireflies use small shining christmas-tree balls, about the size of a hickory nut, strung on strong black linen threads. the thread is put loosely over a hook at the back of the stage among the evergreens that are used for the background. the ends of the threads are brought, like a pair of reins, to the front of the stage, diagonally, and there manipulated by some one in a wing near the front, standing high enough to prevent the threads from touching the heads of the actors. these bright little particles darting back and forth among the trees appear very lifelike, and with the addition of a crescent moon just peeping through the trees, the likeness to a summer night is quite striking. the moon effect is made by using a piece of dark cardboard, about ft. square, covered thickly with small green boughs, and by cutting a crescent-shaped opening in the center, covering it with yellow tissue paper. this cardboard is placed well back in the trees and a lantern hung behind it.--contributed by miss s. e. jocelyn, new haven, conn. hulling walnuts procure a barrel that is water-tight and mount it on a shaft so that it runs between standards like a barrel churn. fill the barrel about half full of walnuts, cover them with water and throw in a small quantity of gravel as grinding material. close the opening tightly and turn the barrel for about minutes. the walnuts will come out clean and smooth as glass.--contributed by arthur seufert, the dalles, oregon. stick for lowering top sash of a window to make it easy to raise and lower the upper sash of a bathroom window which is behind the bathtub i devised the following: procuring two screweyes i opened one sufficiently to slip it into the other as shown at a. then one was screwed into the top rail of the sash and the other into the end of a light stick a little longer than the length of upper sash. [illustration: the stick is fastened to the window sash with screweyes and is always ready for use] the device is left on the window permanently and affords a ready means of handling the sash without stepping into the bathtub, which would otherwise be necessary.--contributed by w. e. morey, chicago. an adjustable hacksaw frame the frame is constructed of cold-rolled steel, / in. in diameter and - / in. long, bent into the shape shown and then cut in two parts at a. starting at a point about / in. from the ends made by the cut, drill / -in. holes, then space three other holes in. between centers and drill them / in. in diameter. [illustration: the frame is shaped of cold-rolled steel and made adjustable with a piece of steel tubing] a piece of steel tubing, / in. in inside diameter and - / in. long, is notched on the ends to receive the pins b and c. slots are cut in the ends d and e, to admit the blade of a saw, and half-round notches filed on the outside surface for holding pins used in the hole of the saw blade. the spring of the steel will be sufficient to keep the saw blade in place. the / -in. holes in the frame will permit adjustment for different lengths of blades.--contributed by clarence b. hanson, fitchburg, mass. a bedroom cabinet the cabinet shown in the illustration can be made an ornament with a little care in workmanship and a choice selection of materials. the cabinet may be either fastened to the head or foot of the bed, facing in either of two directions. [illustration: the cabinet makes a handy place to keep necessary articles for a sick person] the size of the cabinet will depend on the choice of the maker, and if the bed is brass, the wood can be finished natural and fitted with brass bands for brackets and holding clips.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, o. a dull black for cameras such parts of a camera that are apt to reflect light must be covered with a dull black. a mixture for this purpose is made of lampblack, about a teaspoonful, and enough gold size to make a paste as thick as putty. add about twice the volume of turpentine and apply to the parts with a camel's-hair brush. as the turpentine fumes are detrimental to the sensitive plate, the camera should be left open until these fumes have entirely disappeared. a door fastener [illustration] sometimes it is necessary to fasten a door in a manner to prevent children from opening it, yet so that it is easily opened from either side. this can be done by putting a screw or curtain hook on the inside of the door frame and using a piece of cord long enough to loop over both hooks. a person coming in or out can remove the loop from either side.--contributed by john a. cohalan, philadelphia, pa. * * * * * a floor wax can be made by melting lb. of yellow beeswax in / pt. of hot, raw linseed oil; then adding pt. of turpentine. umbrella used as a flower trellis procure a discarded umbrella and remove the cloth, leaving only the steel frame. join the ends of the ribs by running a fine wire through the tip of each rib and giving it one turn around to hold them at equal distances apart. the handle is then inserted in the ground and some climbing vine planted beneath it. the plant will climb all over the steel frame and make a very attractive lawn piece.--contributed by john f. campbell, n. somerville, massachusetts. [illustration: frame supporting a vine] combined shade and awning an ordinary window shade makes a good awning as well as a shade, if it is attached to the outside of the window with the device shown in the illustration. the shade and spring roller are put into a box for protection from the weather and the box is fastened in the window casing at the top. a narrow slit on the under side of the box permits the shade to be drawn out. the stick at the end is removed and a u-shaped wire inserted in the hem in its stead. the wire is bent so the ends may be inserted in holes in the window casing. as the shade is drawn out, it is extended outward by the wire in the position of an awning.--contributed by arthur kesl, chicago, ill. [illustration: shade attachments] vaulting-pole attachments some means must be provided on vaulting-pole standards to allow for the free release of the pole should the vaulter strike it in going over. one of the simplest of the many devices that can be used for this purpose is shown in fig. . it is made of heavy wire, bent and slipped over the standard as shown in fig. . the projection on the inside of the link is used similar to the tongue of a buckle in adjusting the height of the pole on the standards. [illustration: pole adjuster on standard (fig. , fig. , fig. )] each standard has a series of holes on its front side. these holes may be numbered for convenience. the pole in place is shown in fig. .--contributed by john dunlap, craghead, tollcross, england. separating drinking glasses when two thin glasses are put one into the other they often become stuck and cannot be removed. to separate them with ease, set the lower glass in warm (not hot) water and pour cold water in the upper one. the expansion of the lower and the contraction of the upper will make release an easy matter.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. * * * * * bronze striping, when thoroughly dry, should be covered with a thin coat of white shellac to keep it from tarnishing. a magic string procure a few pieces of cotton string, each about - / ft. long, and fill them well with soap. prepare a brine by dissolving three tablespoonfuls of salt in a cup of water. place the strings in the brine and allow them to soak for two hours, or longer. it is necessary that they be thoroughly saturated with the brine. when taken out of the brine and thoroughly dried, suspend one of them from a nail on a ledge, and hang a finger ring on its lower end. apply a lighted match to the string and allow it to burn. the ring will not fall, but will hang by the ash.--contributed by c. frank carber, dorchester, mass. edging flower beds to improve the appearance of a flower bed, it must be edged evenly and quite often. as this became a tiresome task, i constructed an edger, as shown in the sketch. it consists of a wheel on a -ft. length of material, by in. in size, made tapering and having a cross handle, in. long, attached to its end. the wheel is in. in diameter, and the cutter is attached, as shown, across the center of the wheel axle, to make the edger turn easily on curves and corners. the cutter is in. long and turned under - / in. it is pushed along in the same manner as a garden cultivator.--contributed by a. s. thomas, amherstburg, can. [illustration: an edger, similar to a garden plow, for quickly trimming the sod around a flower bed] an electric stirring machine desiring a stirring machine for mixing photographic chemicals, i set about to design the one shown in the illustration. the base and upright are made of pine, in. thick, the former in. wide and in. long, the latter in. wide and in. long. a / in. slot, in. long, is cut in the center of the upright, and two pieces of sheet metal or tin, in. wide and in. long, bent at right angles along the center of their length, are placed at equal distances, on each side of the slot, and fastened with screws. the distance between these pieces depends on the motor used, as its base should fit snugly between them. [illustration: a self-contained electric stirring machine for use in mixing photographic chemicals] a small battery motor is purchased, and its shaft is removed and replaced with one measuring in. in length. to the end of the shaft is soldered a piece of wire, bent as shown in the sketch. a bolt is attached to the center of the motor base, so that its threaded end will pass through the slot in the upright, where it is held with a wing nut. the battery cells may be placed on the back of the upright and a small switch mounted at the top and in front.--contributed by ray f. yates, niagara falls, n. y. a clothes rack the rack is constructed of hard wood throughout, and as each piece is made, it should be sandpapered and varnished or otherwise finished. the plan view is shown in fig. ; the construction of an arm, in fig. ; and the pin, in fig. . [illustration: any number of arms up to its limit may be used at a time (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the base is / in. thick and of the dimensions shown in fig. . the projection on each side, measuring - / in. long and in. wide, is made separately and glued to the main part after dressing and beveling the edges. the shelf consists of material in. thick and made in a semicircular form on a radius of - / in. on this arc, lay off chords, as shown in fig. ; the first ones on each side being one-half the length of the others. carefully square up the edges for appearance. to lay off the post holes, scribe an arc of a circle on a - / -in. radius. start at the edge on this arc and lay off eight chords of equal lengths, and bore / -in. holes on the marks. the posts are turned up, as shown by the detail, fig. . this will require seven posts and two half posts. the half posts are secured to the base with small brads. the round part at the end is turned slightly tapering, so as to make a tight fit in the hole of the shelf. after stringing the posts on a piece of brass wire, / in. in diameter, and bending it in the proper shape, the posts are glued in the holes. a t-shaped slot with a long top and a short leg is cut out with a scroll saw in one end of each arm. make sure to have each slot exactly / in. from the upper side of each arm. all edges should be well rounded to prevent tearing of the clothes. make a semicircular platform for the arms to bear upon when extended. this may be either half of a turned disk or built up in the three segments, each fastened with screws to the base. if the brass wire is exactly in. from the shelf and the thickness of the wood between the t-slot and the upper edge of the arm / in., the thickness of the platform should be slightly under / in. to make the arms rest horizontally when they are extended. the shelf is fastened to the base with three or four -in. screws, and the ends of the brass wire are run through holes in the base and clinched on the back side. the rack may be fastened in place on the kitchen wall with two large wood screws, or, if the wall is brick, with expansion bolts. the fastening in either case must be secure to hold the heavy weight of wet clothes.--contributed by d. a. price, wilmington, del. how to make a pair of foot boats on ponds or small lakes not deep enough for a boat one can use the foot boats, as illustrated, for walking on the water. the boats are made of white wood, known as basswood, as this wood is easily bent when steamed, and the curved part should be shaped neatly. [illustration: foot boats for walking on shallow water where a boat cannot be used] two sides are cut out, as shown, and the boards are nailed or, better still, screwed to them. each straight part may consist of one piece, in which case there will be no joints to make waterproof, but if boards of sufficient size cannot be had, pieces can be used. in this instance the edges should be planed smooth, so that a good joint may be had, which can be made watertight with white lead. it is best to make the bottom of one piece if possible, at least for the length of the curve. the wood is thoroughly steamed, then fastened in place on the curved part. a strap of suitable length is fastened on the top for the toe, so that the boats can be controlled with the feet. to propel the boats along easily, a web or wing should be attached to the under side, so that it will catch the water on the back thrust while it will fold up when the boat is slid forward.--contributed by waldo saul, lexington, mass. a green-corn holder neat and attractive green-corn holders for table use can be made of small-sized glass drawer knobs, having a bolt in. in length. the bolt head is cut off with a hacksaw, and its body is filed to make four sides running to a taper, leaving enough threads to secure it in the knob. the threads are smeared with white lead, then it is screwed into the knob and sufficient time allowed for the lead to set before using it. [illustration: the glass knobs make a clean and sanitary holder for the ear of corn] a pair of knobs are required for each ear of corn served. the square bolt end will hold the ear securely while the kernels are eaten from the cob.--contributed by victor labadie, dallas, texas. inflating toy balloons the inflation of rubber balloons may be accomplished with manufactured gas by using the simple pipe arrangement shown in the sketch. the connection a is for the gas hose, which is similar to those used for a table lamp. the gas bag b is a football or punching bag connected to the pipe as shown. this receives the gas as it is let in by the valve a. the toy balloon c is connected to the pipe in the same manner and the valve d used to regulate the flow of gas. the gas is easily pressed out of the ball into the balloon. [illustration: pipe arrangement, punching bag and valves to admit gas to a toy rubber balloon] as hydrogen gas is much better than the manufactured gas, it is best to use and can be put in the balloon in the same manner. electric-light mystery a novel attraction for a window display can be made of a piece of plate glass neatly mounted on a wood base, and an electric light which is placed on the top edge and may be lighted apparently without any wire connections. [illustration: electric light mounted on top of a plate glass with hidden connections on the glass edge] the method of concealing the connections is to paint the edges of the glass green, then, before the paint is quite dry, lay on a thin strip of copper, making the connections at the base on both sides, and to the lamp in the same manner. another coat of paint is applied to cover the strip. the color should be an imitation of the greenish tint of glass edges. any desired lettering can be put on the glass.--contributed by o. simonson, brooklyn, n. y. an oar holder persons rowing boats, particularly beginners, find that the oars will slip out of the oarlocks, turn or fall into the water. this may be avoided by turning a screweye of sufficient size to prevent binding on the lock into the oar and placing it over the lock as shown at a, so that the pull will be against the metal. the oars will never slip or jump out, will always be in the right position, and it is not necessary to pull them into the boat to prevent loss when not rowing. the locks will not wear the oars, as the pull is on the metal eye. place the eye so it will have a horizontal position on the side of the oar when the blade is in its right position. [illustration: the screweye in position on the oar and over one prong of the oarlock] cooking food in paper a flat piece of paper is much more convenient to use than a paper sack in cooking, as it can be better fitted to the size of the article to be cooked. wrap the article as a grocer wraps sugar, folding and refolding the two edges together until the package is of the proper size, then fasten with clips and proceed to close the ends in the same way. this avoids all pasted seams and makes the package airtight.--contributed by j. j. a. parker, metamora, o. washing photograph prints photographic prints may be washed in a stationary washbowl with just as good results as if washed in a high-priced wash box, by cutting off the upper end of the rubber nipple on a bent glass medicine dropper and placing it on the faucet as shown in the illustration. this arrangement causes the water to whirl around in the bowl, which keeps the prints in constant motion, thus insuring a thorough washing.--contributed by l. o. d. sturgess, arlington, oregon. [illustration: a medicine dropper on a faucet produces a whirling motion of the water in the bowl] combination lock for a drawer the principal parts of the combination lock are the five disks shown in fig. . these are best made of sheet brass, about / in. thick and - / in. in diameter. the pins for turning the disks are each made a driving fit for a hole drilled through the metal at a point / in. from the center. notches are cut in the disks c, d and e, fig. , to receive the latch end, and the disk b is made like a cam, its use being to raise the latch into its keeper when the handle is turned backward. the disk a is without a notch and has only a pin for turning the other disks. [illustration: the parts as they are attached to a drawer front to make a combination lock (fig. )] the disks are mounted on the inside of the drawer front in a u-shaped piece of metal, f, fig. , which carries a / -in. pin, g, as their bearing. the disks are placed on this pin with rubber washers, h, j, k, l and m, between them. these serve the purpose of preventing the disks from turning too freely. the disk a is fastened tightly to the end of the rod n, which is / in. in diameter. the outer end of this rod is fitted with a handle or turning head as desired. that shown at o is made of two pieces of wood screwed together, with a pointer, p, placed between them. a washer, r, is placed between the drawer end and the handle to take up any looseness and to allow the free turning of the rod. [illustration: (fig. )] a dial, s, is made of paper and the division marks and numbers placed upon it. the latch t is fitted in a u-shaped piece of metal, u, which is fastened to the inside of the drawer end where its heel will rest on the edges of the disks. when the right combination is made by turning the handle first one way and then the other, the latch will drop into the notches of the disks as they will be all in one place. when the drawer is to be locked, turn the handle back from the last turn made for the combination and the latch will be driven upward into its keeper and the notches scattered so that the latch will not drop until the combination is again set. the numbers for the combination can be found after the disks are in place and by turning the handle until the notch comes up to the place for the heel of the latch. the number beneath the pointer is noted; then the next turned up in a like manner, all being done while the drawer is open and the disks in plain sight. the combination can be changed only by changing the location of the pins in the disks.--contributed by c. b. hanson, fitchburg, massachusetts. how to start small machine screws [illustration] small machine screws are sometimes very difficult to start, especially when used in parts of a machine that cannot be easily reached with the fingers. a good way to start them is by means of a piece of fine wire wound snugly around the screw under its head. they can be placed and started by means of the wire and when the first threads have caught the screw it can be held by the screwdriver while the wire is withdrawn.--contributed by f. w. bently, huron, s. d. an umbrella holder for display purposes [illustration] a holder that is especially adapted for use in hanging umbrellas for display in a store can be easily made of a piece of wire wound in a coil, as shown in the sketch, to fit over the end on the umbrella stick. the coil at one end of the spring is formed into a hook so that the umbrellas may be hung in screweyes or on a line, as the case may be. the end of the umbrella is stuck into the spring, as shown, which grips it tightly.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. holder for a milk card [illustration] it is the general practice of milkmen to furnish a monthly card on which the housewife marks the needs of the day and then hangs it outside of the door for the information of the driver. this card also serves as a record for checking the accounts of the milk delivered during the month, and therefore it is desirable to protect it from snow and sleet. in order to furnish this protection and at the same time make it unnecessary for any one to go outside of the door to hang up the card on stormy days, one of our readers has submitted the following plan which he has used for some time. on the outside of the kitchen door, where the milkman is to deliver his bottles, this man has fastened an ordinary picture frame with glass but no backing except the door. through the door and just below the upper edge of the glass is cut a thin slot inclining downward and outward so that the milk card can be easily pushed through the slot and thus be displayed behind the glass in the frame. by this protection it is kept free from mud, snow and ice. it is not necessary to step outside to place the card in the frame. frame for printing post cards from negatives as i desired to print only a portion of some of my by -in. plates on post cards and the part wanted was near the edge of the plate, i cut out the printing frame, as shown at a in the sketch, to accommodate that part of the card i reserved for a margin. this permitted the card to be placed in the frame without making a bend.--contributed by j. h. maysilles, rochelle, ill. [illustration: slots cut in the frame to receive the post cards without bending them] finger protection on laboratory vessels a simple way of protecting the fingers against being burned by laboratory vessels in which liquids are boiling or chemical reactions producing great heat are going on, is shown in the sketch. a rather thick cord or yarn is wrapped around the neck of the vessel in the manner shown, the upper end being drawn through the loop at the top and cut off, and the lower end then pulled out and a knot tied in it close to the windings of the yarn. [illustration: the ends of the cord are held tightly and the winding protects the hands] inlaying metals by electroplating very pretty and artistic effects of silver or nickel inlay on bronze, copper, etc., or copper on dark oxidized metals, may be obtained by means of etching and electroplating. the metal on which the inlay is to be used is first covered with a thin coating of wax and the design scratched through to the metal with a sharp, hard point of some kind. the design is then etched in slowly with well diluted nitric acid, allowing the etching to penetrate quite deeply. the metal is then taken out and after a thorough rinsing in water is hung in the plating bath. as the wax has been left on, the plating will fill the lines of the design only, and will not touch the covered surface. when the etched lines are filled, the object is taken out of the bath and the wax removed.--contributed by s. v. cooke, hamilton, can. a novel show-window attraction this moving show-window attraction can be simply and cheaply made. the things necessary are a small battery motor, a large horseshoe magnet and a large polished steel ball, perfectly true and round, such as used in bearings. the other materials usually can be found in any store. procure some thick cardboard and cut two disks, in. in diameter, and two disks, - / in. in diameter. glue these together to make the wheel a, the larger disks forming the flanges. make a smaller wheel, b, the size of which will be governed by the speed of the motor used. the wheel a is mounted in a box to run with its surface close to the under side of the cover, which should be of a thin, stiff cardboard. the wheel b is mounted on an axle that runs in metal bearings. the magnet d is placed on the wheel a. the steel ball e is put on the thin cover of the box, and the magnet causes it to roll around as the wheel turns. the box inclosing the mechanical parts should be placed out of sight when used in a window.--contributed by clarence guse, spokane, wash. [illustration: the steel ball is caused to roll around on the cover by the moving magnet] how to make a mop wringer a mop wringer may be made and attached to an ordinary pail in the following manner: two pieces of metal, a, are attached securely at opposite sides of the edge of the pail, holes being drilled in their upper ends to serve as bearings for the roller b. the piece of metal c, which is duplicated at the opposite side of the pail, is pivoted on a bolt. these pieces also carry a roller, e, at their upper ends, and have a crosspiece, f, at their lower ends. discarded wringer rollers can be used for b and e. a coil spring is attached as shown, to keep the rollers separate and in a position to receive the mop. when the mop is placed between the rollers they are brought together by a pressure of the foot on the crosspiece f.--contributed by j. dennis mckennon, new britain, conn. [illustration: the parts may be either attached to a metal or wood pail with bolts or screws] a vise used as a caliper gauge not infrequently it is desired to know the distance from one side to another of some part that cannot be directly measured with a rule, and when no calipers are at hand. but with a vise handy, the measurement can be made with ease and with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes if the vise is not too worn. this trick is particularly adapted for calipering threaded parts, as threads cannot be measured readily with ordinary calipers. how this may be done is shown in the sketch, which illustrates the method as applied to a screw. the work is gripped between the jaws of the vise and the opening then measured with a rule.--contributed by donald a. hampson, middletown, new york. [illustration: the jaws of a vise, if they are true, will make a caliper gauge giving a perfect measurement] homemade tack puller a very handy tack puller can be made of a round-head bolt. on one side of the head file a v-shaped notch and screw a wood handle on the threads. this makes a very powerful puller that will remove large tacks from hardwood easily. [illustration: the shape of the head permits a leverage action that lifts the tack easily] how to make a radium photograph the radium rays, like the x-rays, affect the photographic plate, as is well known, but it would naturally be supposed that the enormous cost of radium would prevent the making of such a photograph by the amateur. it is a fact, however, that a radium photograph can be made at home at practically no cost at all, provided the amateur has patience enough to gather the necessary material, which is nothing else but broken incandescent gas mantles. these (especially welsbach mantles) contain a salt of the rare metal thorium, which is slightly radioactive. the thing to do, then, is to collect a sufficient quantity of broken mantles to cover the bottom of a small cardboard box--a dryplate box, for instance--with a layer of powdered mantle substance. upon this layer and pressed tightly against it is placed a piece of cardboard; then some metal objects, a button, hairpin, a buckle, or the like, are laid on the cardboard and covered with a sensitized paper. this is again covered with a piece of cardboard and the box filled with crumpled paper to the top. the cover is then put on, the box tied up with a piece of string and set in some place where it is sure to be left undisturbed. the radium rays from the powdered mantles readily penetrate the cardboard and paper, but not the metal articles. being very weak, the rays must be given four weeks to accomplish their work. after that time, however, if the sensitive paper is taken out, pictures of the metal objects in white on a dark background will be found on it. these pictures will not be so sharp as ordinary photographs, because the rays are not focused, but they fairly represent the originals and the experiment is an interesting one. * * * * * a good imitation mahogany stain consists of part venetian red and parts yellow lead, mixed with thin glue size, and is laid on with a woolen cloth. fountain for an ordinary pen fill the hollow end of an ordinary penholder with cotton--not too tightly--and one dip of the pen will hold enough ink to write a full page. the cotton should be changed each day. a small piece of sponge will answer the same purpose. it is necessary to dip the pen deeply into the ink.--contributed by j. e. noble, london junction, ontario. pulling wire through curved electric fixtures to facilitate the running of electric wires through curved fixtures, nick a heavy shot, a, and fasten it on a cord, b, in the same manner as a fishline is weighted. the shot will roll through the fixture tube, carrying the cord with it. a cord strong enough to pull the wires through can be easily drawn through the opening in this manner. the shot should, of course, not be so large that it can possibly bind in the tube. [illustration: a shot that will pass through the fixture arm will carry a cord for pulling in the wires] an automatically closing drawer a very ingenious way to have a drawer close automatically is to attach a weight so that the rope or cord will pull on the rear end of the drawer. the sketch clearly shows the device which is an attachment similar to that used for closing gates. this can be applied to drawers that are frequently drawn out and in places where a person is liable to have the hands full. [illustration: the rope and weight attached to the back end of the drawer pulls it closed] a cork puller [illustration] the stopper of any ordinary bottle can be easily removed with a puller such as shown in the sketch. the puller is inserted between the stopper and the neck of the bottle until the hook end will pass under the bottom of the stopper, then given a quarter turn and pulled upward. the construction of the puller vents the cork as it enters and thus no vacuum is created. the cork is pulled more easily than with an ordinary corkscrew, and there is no danger of tearing the cork to pieces. uses for a bamboo pole select a good bamboo pole, about ft. long, and cut it into three lengths as follows: a piece from the top, - / ft. long; the next length, - / ft. long, and the remaining end of the pole, about ft. long. the - / -ft. length is equipped with a screw hook in the smaller end, as shown in fig. . this stick is useful in lowering window shades that have a ring or screw eye attached to the lower part of the shade. when the stick is not in use, it is hung on the edge of the window casing. [illustration: a bamboo pole cut in three pieces makes a window-shade stick, duster holder and clothesline pole (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the - / -ft. length makes the long handle for a duster. procure an old-style lamp-chimney cleaner, wind a cord around the wires a few inches below the point where they begin to spread to keep them from coming apart, then cut or file the wires off in. below the winding. this leaves a straight shank, over which a ferrule is slipped before it is inserted into the small end of the pole. fill the remaining space in the pole end with plaster of paris, and when it has set, slip the ferrule into place on the pole end. if a ferrule is not at hand, a fine wire can be wound around the end to prevent the pole from splitting. when using this pole to dust hardwood floors, tops of doors, window casings and picture frames, put a dusting cloth into the claws and slide the ring into place, as shown in fig. . the longer and larger end of the pole is used as a clothesline pole. one end of this pole is fitted with a yoke made of no. gauge galvanized wire, as shown in fig. . the wire for the yoke is in. long, and after bending it in shape, the two upper ends should be in. wide at the top and in. deep. insert the straight end of the wire into the smaller end of the pole and set it in firmly with plaster of paris. the end of the pole should be securely wound with wire to keep the bamboo from splitting.--contributed by gertrude m. bender, utica, n. y. making common lock less pickable the ordinary lock can be readily changed so that it will be quite impossible to pick it with a common key. the way to do this is to cut off the small hollow portion of the key that fits over the pin. this part is placed on the pin of the lock and soldered, or fastened by any other means, so it cannot come out of the lock. this will prevent any ordinary key from entering the keyhole.--contributed by a. j. hamilton, benton, ark. [illustration: the small end cut from the key is fastened on the pin of the lock] to color tan leather black an inexpensive and effective way to blacken tan leather is as follows: the leather is first rubbed with a -per-cent solution of tannic acid, which may be purchased at any drug store. this treatment should be applied and the leather well dried. it should be rubbed with a cloth hard enough to produce a polish, then apply a -per-cent solution of iron sulphate. a chemical reaction takes place as the last solution is rubbed into the leather, making it black. after this is dry, the leather can be polished in the usual way. to prevent corks sticking in bottle necks [illustration] corks will always adhere to the necks of bottles containing glue or other sticky liquids, with the result that it becomes necessary to cut or dig the cork into small pieces in order to remove the contents from the bottle. a simple and effective way to prevent a cork from sticking is to place a small piece of waxed paper on the bottle opening so that when the cork is pressed in, the paper will be between the cork and glass, as shown. to remove rust stains from clothing many times when working around machinery, the clothes will come in contact with iron and get rust stains. these may be removed by using a weak solution of oxalic acid which must be applied carefully as it is highly poisonous. sometimes the stain can be removed by washing the spot in buttermilk, in which case rubbing is necessary. * * * * * small bits of onion placed in a room will absorb the disagreeable odors of paint and turpentine. eraser holder any small piece of steel with a point, similar to that shown in the sketch, will make a good eraser holder. the saving of erasers is nothing compared to the convenience of having a small eraser with a chisel edge or point when delicate erasing is required. it is not clumsy as the usual chunk of rubber with a blunt point, for the person erasing can see what he is doing. i use a leg of an old pair of dividers and cut my erasers in four parts in shapes similar to that shown in the sketch by the dotted lines, and can use them easily until they are about the size of a pea. the friction between the rubber and steel, after the point has been inserted into the rubber, holds the two together nicely.--contributed by james f. burke, lakewood, o. [illustration: a very small eraser can be held on the point and used for delicate erasures] bleaching ivory a good method to bleach ivory ornaments is to rub on a solution made of a small quantity of unslaked lime, bran and water. the mixture should be wiped off after the ivory has become sufficiently bleached, and the surface then rubbed with sawdust or magnesia, which gives it a brilliant polish. a soap shake [illustration] to utilize scraps of soap, make a soap shake of a medium-size baking-powder can, as shown in the sketch. punch holes in the can with an ice pick or some other sharp-pointed instrument, and attach a large wire to the center, twisting the ends to form a handle.--contributed by elizabeth p. grant, winchester, virginia. ear repair on a bucket [illustration] a broken ear for a bail on a metal pail or bucket can be replaced with a window-shade fastener, such as shown at a in the sketch. the base of the fastener is turned down flat and attached with screw bolts or rivets, as shown at b.--contributed by harold robinson, suffern, n. y. cleaning dirt from tufts in upholstering [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] a handy device for cleaning furniture upholstering and vehicle-seat tuftings may be easily made as follows: take an ordinary round paintbrush and cut the handle off, leaving it about - / in. long, then saw a v-shaped notch in it, as shown in fig. . attach the brush to the ratchet screwdriver, fig. , by inserting the screwdriver blade in the notch of the brush handle, and secure it by wrapping a strong cord around the handle. place the brush in the tuft and work the screwdriver handle, as in turning a screw. a few quick turns of the brush will throw out the dirt which is impossible to remove with a straight brush. painting lead pipe the paint applied to lead pipes will chip and peel off, and to prevent this i first cover the lead surface with a thin coat of varnish, then apply the paint on the varnish. a lead pipe painted in this way will retain its coating.--contributed by f. schumacher, brooklyn, n. y. attaching a vise jaw to a bench procure a toothed metal rail or rack, a, such as is used for small ladder tracks, and mount it on the lower edge of the guide rail for the lower end of the vise jaw. provide a slot, b, in the leg of the bench, through which the rail can run with plenty of play room. a beveled plate, c, is attached to the face of the bench leg at the bottom of the slot, so that it will engage the teeth of the rack. [illustration: the rack on the lower guide rail provides a means to keep the vise jaws parallel] in use, when opening the vise by means of the screw, the rack will drag along the plate, and stop and engage a notch when the opening operation ceases. when it is desired to reduce the opening, it is only necessary to lift the rail by means of the string d. a button is tied to the upper end of the string on top of the bench, to keep it handy for changing the jaw.--contributed by harry f. lowe, washington, district of columbia. removing vegetable stains to remove stains of vegetables or fruits of any kind from cloth or wood, the following method is very good: the stained piece is first moistened with water and then placed in a jar or pail that can be covered. a lump of sulphur is ignited and dropped into the jar. place the sulphur on a fire shovel when lighting it to avoid burns. the burning sulphur should be placed in the receptacle on the side where the stain will be exposed to the fumes. the sulphur burns slowly so that the articles will not be harmed. after the sulphur has burned away, the jar should be kept closed for a few minutes and when the articles are removed, the stains will be gone. this is harmless to try, and the cloth will not be injured if it is in a dry condition. the articles should be washed and dried as soon as they are taken out of the jar. picture-frame corner joints very often the amateur craftsman comes across a picture which he would like to have framed, but the difficulty and insecurity of the ordinary miter joint for the corners discourage him from trying to make the frame. a very easy way to construct a rigid frame is shown in the illustration. the size of the frame must be determined by the picture to be framed. the width, a, of the pieces depends upon one's own taste. four pieces, the desired length and width and / in. thick, should be dressed out of the material intended for the frame. four other pieces, / in. thick and / in. narrower than the first four pieces, are next made ready and fastened with glue and flat-head screws to the back of the first pieces, as shown. this allows / in. for glass, picture and backing, and / in. to lap over the front of the picture on all edges. [illustration: square and mitered lap joints for making rigid picture frames in natural or stained woods (fig. , fig. )] by arranging the pieces as shown in fig. , a strong corner lap is secured. a miter lap joint which is not so strong is shown in fig. . the latter gives a mitered-joint effect. this method does away with the use of the rabbeting plane and miter box, both of which are difficult to use with accuracy. two screws should be used in each joint to reinforce the glue.--contributed by james gaffney, chicago, ill. hunting-knife handles very artistic handles for hunting knives and carving sets can be made by using disks of horn. procure some cowhorns from a slaughter house and split them with a saw, using only the large portion of the horn. the split horn is then heated by dry heat--an oven is best--then pressed between two cold plates to a flat piece. if well heated, it is surprising how easily this can be done. the piece is then cut into squares of suitable size which are marked and perforated in the center, the hole being a trifle smaller than the tang of the blade. the tang should be flat and a little longer than the desired handle, with the end made round and threaded for a nut. [illustration: the finished handle, if the work is well done, is easily mistaken for agate] a suitable washer is placed on the tang, which is then heated sufficiently to burn its way through the pieces of horn as they are put on the metal. when a sufficient number of disks are on the tang a washer should be slipped on and followed by a round nut. pressure is applied by turning the nut and repeated heatings of the disks will force them together to make perfect joints. only a moderate pressure should be applied at a time. the handle is now to be finished to the shape desired. if black and colored pieces of horn are interspersed, the finished handle will have the appearance of agate. the blade and handle can be lacquered and the ferrules nickelplated.--contributed by james h. beebee, rochester, n. y. holding wood in a sawbuck anyone who has used a sawbuck knows how inconvenient it is to have a stick roll or lift up as the saw blade is pulled back for the next cut. with the supplementary device, shown in the sketch, which can be easily attached to the sawbuck, these troubles will be eliminated. it consists of two crosspieces hinged to the back uprights of the sawbuck and a foot-pressure stirrup fastened to their front ends as shown. spikes are driven through the crosspieces so that their protruding ends will gouge into the stick of wood being sawed. the stirrup is easily thrown back for laying a piece of wood in the crotch. [illustration: the holding attachment easily adjusts itself to the stick of wood placed in the crotch] a new pail-cover handle the handle of the cover, instead of being attached to the center, is placed near the edge and bail of the pail. on the bail and just above the handle of the cover there is formed a loop large enough to accommodate the thumb. with this arrangement, the cover may be removed with the use of but one hand. [illustration: the bail loop and the handle make it easy to remove the cover with one hand] drip-pan alarm the trouble caused by overflowing of the drip pan for an ice box or refrigerator can be overcome by attaching a device that will sound an alarm when the water reaches a level safely below the overflow point. a device of this kind may be attached to the back of the refrigerator as shown in the sketch. a float, a, is attached to the lower end of a rod, b, which slides through staples cc. at the upper end of the rod, a v-shaped copper sheet, d, is soldered. this makes the contact points in the electric wiring. the battery e can be placed under or back of the refrigerator as desired. the method of wiring is clearly shown. [illustration: the float in the pan, and contacts for closing the circuit to ring the bell] a live-bait pail [illustration] every fisherman knows that live bait will soon die if they do not receive sufficient air. i have succeeded in keeping bait alive and healthy by using a pail of my own construction, which is provided with a compressed-air space to force air to the surface of the water. the air space a takes up one-fifth of the interior at the bottom of the pail, and an ordinary hand bicycle pump is used to fill it through a bicycle-tire valve, b. the pipe c from the air space extends up along the side of the pail and the upper end is bent so that it just touches the surface of the water. the pipe contains a valve to regulate the flow of air. after the pail has been standing for an hour or more, the bait will rise to the top. the valve is then opened for a few minutes, and the minnows will soon swim around in the water as when this was fresh.--contributed by t. whelan, paterson, n. j. a mouse trap [illustration] after using various means to catch the mice in my pantry, i finally decided i could not catch them in the ordinary manner. knowing that mice are not afraid of dishes but will run all over them, while they will stay away from other things, i took a dinner plate, a bowl that held about qt., a thimble, filled with toasted cheese, and arranged the articles as shown in the sketch, balancing the bowl on the thimble. when the mouse nibbled the cheese, the bowl came down on it, making it a prisoner. the whole was then dropped in a pail of water. scald the dish and bowl before using them again to remove all traces of the mouse. quickly made rheostat a short time ago i found it necessary to melt some silver, and in setting up an arc light to obtain the heat i made a rheostat by winding wire around a large earthenware jar. as the jar is a conductor and would not burn, it served the purpose perfectly. in winding the wire, be careful to keep the coils from touching each other.--contributed by p. d. merrill, chicago, ill. [illustration] sunlight flasher for the garden by claude l. woolley the following apparatus is likely to be novel, and certainly very striking when erected on country estates, particularly on high lands, hillsides, and along the seashore, where the flashes may be seen for many miles out at sea. it is not unusual in country gardens to see a large hollow glass globe silvered on the inside, mounted on a pedestal, brilliantly reflecting the sunlight. the apparatus described is an elaboration of the idea. the drawing shows in diagram the general construction, exact measurements not being given. however, a convenient height is - / to ft., and the circular frame, carrying the mirrors, may be to in. in diameter. [illustration: the flasher as it appears on the stand and the details of its construction] the supporting frame, of galvanized sheet iron or sheet copper, may be either circular or hexagonal in shape. mounted upon a vertical shaft is a skeleton circular frame, carrying a double row of small mirrors, or ordinary flat mirror glass, mounted in grooves provided for them; the upper row inclined slightly upward, and the lower row slightly downward. if a greater number of angles of reflection are desired, the mirrors may be smaller, and arranged in four circular rows instead of two, each row being inclined at a slightly different angle. the shaft is pointed at the lower end and rests in a bearing drilled with a v-shaped depression, the bearing being supported by soldering or riveting at each end to the inner sides of the pedestal shell. the upper portion of the shaft passes through a bearing which is also soldered or riveted at the ends, to the inner surfaces of the pedestal shell. the mirrors, mounted on the shaft, thus are free to revolve vertically with very little friction. upon the lower end of the shaft is fastened a light gear wheel of rather large diameter, and this in turn is geared to a smaller gear mounted on the end of the armature shaft of a small electric motor of the type that may be driven with a few dry cells; the relation of the sizes of the gears being such as will cause the mirrors to revolve slowly, when the motor is running at normal speed. connected to the motor are two or more dry, or other suitable batteries, a small door being provided on the side of the lower part of the pedestal to enable the batteries to be replaced, or turned off, and to give access to the motor. a circular shield is erected over the mirror carrier, surmounted by an ornamental ball, to protect from the weather and to provide a more finished appearance. a waterproof canvas cover may be slipped over the whole in rainy weather. as new mirror faces at varying angles are constantly being presented to the sun, vivid flashes are constantly occurring when viewed from almost any angle or position on the side where the sun is shining. the circular shield on top is supported in position by four metal strips secured by soldering to the shield and the supporting pedestal. such a device may be constructed without much expense, producing a most brilliant effect over miles of territory. the small driving motor may be replaced with a suitable spring or weight-driven clockwork; or four hollow hemispherical metal cups may be mounted on arms, or placed at right angles, and the arms in turn mounted upon a vertical shaft and arranged above the mirror carrier and geared in such manner that the mirrors will revolve slowly, while the cups are revolving with comparatively high speed by the force of the wind. the mounted revolving cups are similar in form to the apparatus used by the u. s. weather bureau for measuring the speed of the wind. they will respond to a good breeze from any point of the compass. an automatic blowpipe a fine-pointed flame can be used to advantage for certain work, and the alcohol flame and blowpipe have become a necessity, but these may be improved upon so as to make the apparatus automatic in action and more efficient in its work. a bottle or receptacle, a, having a large bottom to provide a sufficient heating surface, is supplied with a cork and a tube, b, bent at right angles. the receptacle, a, is supported on a stand so that it may be heated with a small lamp, c. the light d may be a candle, alcohol lamp, or any flame set at the right distance from the end of the tube b. [illustration] the receptacle a is partly filled with alcohol, and the heating lamp lit. the heat will turn the alcohol into gas and cause a pressure, driving it through the tube b, so that it is ignited by the flame from d. the flame will have a fine point with sufficient heat to melt glass.--contributed by w. r. sears, st. paul, minn. homemade steam-turbine engine select a tomato can, or any can in which vegetables or fruit is sold, and carefully unsolder the small cap on the end when removing the contents. when the can is empty, clean it well and solder the cap in place again. procure a strip of brass, bend it as shown at a and solder it to the can top in the center. cut a piece of about no. gauge wire, the length equal to the opening between the uprights of the u-shaped piece of brass, with about / in. added for a small pulley wheel. the uprights are punched or drilled at their upper ends to admit the wire which is then adjusted in place. [illustration: the boiler is made of a fruit or vegetable can and the turbine of thin metal strips] two strips of tin are cut to fit in between the standards and are notched in the center, as shown at b, and slightly bent to fit over the wire shaft. these are soldered to the wire between the uprights. a small hole is punched on one side in the top of the can so that it will center the paddle of the wheel. on the opposite side of the top another larger hole is punched and tightly fitted with a wood plug. this is the opening for filling the boiler with water. the can should be filled about two-thirds full and set on a stove. the steam, coming under pressure from the small hole, strikes the paddles of the wheel with considerable force and causes it to revolve rapidly. be careful not to set the boiler on too hot a fire. electric switch for exposing photographic printing papers the proper time to expose a printing paper under a negative should be determined and the negative marked for future printing. when this time has been found some means should be provided for making the exposure exactly the same, then the prints will be perfect and of a good tone at all times. for this purpose the instrument shown in the illustration was designed and used with entire satisfaction. [illustration: time switch for operating an electric light in printing photographic developing papers] the device consists of an ordinary cheap watch, a standard, or support, for an adjusting screw, a small coil, a movable armature, a knife switch, and a trip arrangement. a neat box or case, about in. square and in. high, is first constructed. a round recess, / in. deep, is cut in the center of the top, to admit the watch. the standard a is made of brass, / in. thick and / in. wide, bent as shown, and a / -in. hole is drilled in the end of the long arm where it will exactly center over the pivot holding the watch hands. a / -in. rod, b, is closely fitted in the hole and supplied with a knurled wheel, c, on the upper end, and an l-shaped arm, d, is fastened to the lower end. the end of this arm should be filed to a point, or a very thin piece of brass soldered to it, so that the end will just touch the minute hand of the watch. the tip end of the point should be bent slightly from the perpendicular toward the direction in which the watch hands are moving, so that, when it is set, the moving hand will easily break the contact. the magnetic arrangement consists of a -ohm coil, e, mounted, as shown, to one side of the case, where it operates the trip levers. the armature parts consist of an l-shaped piece of brass, f, pivoted at g, to which a square piece of soft iron, h, is attached. two small parts, k, are bent and attached as shown, to furnish a limit stop for the piece f and a support for a spiral spring which holds the armature h away from the coil. the knife switch l is fastened to the bottom of the case so that the handle will project through a slot in one side of the box. a trip piece, m, and a small eye for attaching a spiral spring, n, are soldered to the knife switch. these two attachments for the switch are insulated from the other parts. two binding posts are mounted on top, one being connected to one terminal of the coil e and the other to the watch case. the other terminal of the coil is connected to the standard a. the two binding posts are connected in series with one or two dry cells, and the switch l is connected in series with the lamp used for printing. the operation is as follows: the arm d, being set for a certain time, the lever of the switch l is set and the light remains lit until the minute hand strikes the point on the arm d, when the battery circuit is closed causing the coil to draw the armature h and allowing the spring n to open the switch l. the lamp is then extinguished.--contributed by james p. lewis, golden, colorado. how to make a wing nut [illustration] finding that i needed some wing nuts and not being able to purchase them in the size i wanted, i made them from the ordinary nuts. a hole was drilled through opposite corners of each nut and a staple made of wire riveted in the holes as shown in the sketch. the staple should be long enough to admit the end of the bolt.--contributed by clarence l. orcutt, buffalo, n. y. cork-covered clothes peg [illustration] when screws or nails are used to hang clothes or other articles on, run the nail or screw through a bottle cork as shown. the cork will prevent the nail or screw from tearing the article and also insure the cloth against rust marks, should the article be wet. shaping an old broom a broom, having the straws bent and out of shape, yet not worn out, can be fixed up like new in the following manner: slightly dampen the straw with water and wrap with heavy paper, then place a weight on it. after standing under pressure for several days the straw will be restored to the shape of a new broom. paint brushes can be treated in the same manner, but in that case linseed oil should be used instead of water. [illustration: method of straightening the straws] how to make a bolster [illustration] the sketch shows a simple bed bolster which i have made and which can be constructed at very little cost. three circular pieces of poplar or pine, - / in. in diameter, are required. these may be made in one cut by nailing the pieces together. then nail on ten / by -in. strips, in. long, or as long as the width of the bed, leaving about / in. space between the strips. these strips will thus go about two-thirds of the way around the circle, leaving room to insert the pillows when the bed is not in use. cover the bolster with building paper or any other suitable material, and it is ready for the pillow shams.--contributed by c. martin, jr., chicago. a fish-scaling knife a useful fish-scaling and skinning knife can be made of an old broken hacksaw blade. this must be at least in. long and will make a knife with a -in. blade. grind the blade to the shape shown and make a handle for it by using two strips of maple, / in. thick and in. long. these are riveted together with in. of the blade between them.--contributed by john l. waite, cambridge, mass. [illustration: scaling knife] to prevent moles from damaging growing seeds the food most liked by the ground mole is the sprouts of peas and corn. a way to protect these growing seeds is to dip them in kerosene just before planting. the mole will not touch the oil-covered seed, and the seeds are not injured in the least.--contributed by j. w. bauholster, gresham, o. [illustration: the heliograph as it is used by neighboring boys to send messages on a clear day by flashing the sun's rays from one to the other, which can be read as far as the eye can see the light] how to make a heliograph by r. b. huey the heliograph which is used in the army provides a good method of sending messages by the reflection of the sun's rays. in the mountains there are stations from which messages are sent by the heliograph for great distances, and guides carry them for use in case of trouble or accident. the wireless telegraph delivers messages by electricity through the air, but the heliograph sends them by flashes of light. the main part of the instrument is the mirror, which should be about in. square, set in a wood frame and swung on trunnions made of two square-head bolts, each / in. in diameter, and in. long, which are firmly held to the frame with brass strips, / in. wide, and in. long. the strips are drilled centrally to admit the bolts, and then drilled at each end for a screw to fasten them to the frame. this construction is clearly shown in fig. . [illustration: detail of the parts for making the mirror and sight rod which are placed on a base set on a tripod top, the whole being adjusted to reflect the sun's rays in any direction desired (fig. )] a hole is cut centrally through the backing of the frame and a small hole, not over / in. in diameter, is scratched through the silvering on the glass. if the trunnions are centered properly, the small hole should be exactly in line with them and in the center. [illustration: (fig. )] a u-shaped support is made of wood strips, / in. thick and in. wide, the length of the uprights being - / in. and the crosspiece connecting their lower ends a trifle longer than the width of the frame. these are put together, as shown in fig. , with small brackets at the corners. a slot, / in. deep and / in. wide, is cut into the upper end of each upright to receive the trunnions on the mirror frame. nuts are turned on the bolt ends tightly, to clamp the standard tops against the brass strips on the mirror frame. the cross strip at the bottom is clamped to the base by means of a bolt, - / in. long. the hole for this bolt should be exactly below the peephole in the mirror and run through one end of the baseboard, which is / in. thick, in. wide and in. long. [illustration: (fig. )] at the opposite end of the base, place a sighting rod, which is made as follows: the rod is / in. in diameter and in. long. the upper end is fitted with a piece of thick, white cardboard, cut / in. in diameter and having a projecting shank in. long, as shown in fig. . the rod is placed in a / -in. hole bored in the end of the baseboard, as shown in fig. . to keep the rod from slipping through the hole a setscrew is made of a small bolt with the nut set in the edge of the baseboard, as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: the parts in detail for making the tripods... (fig. , fig. )] the tripod head is formed of a wood disk, in. in diameter, with a hole in the center, and three small blocks of wood, in. square and in. long, nailed to the under side, as shown in fig. . the tripod legs are made of light strips of wood, / in. thick, in. wide and ft. long. two of these strips, nailed securely together to within in. of the top, constitute one leg. the upper unnailed ends are spread to slip over the blocks on the tripod top. these ends are bored to loosely fit over the headless nails driven part way into the block ends. one tripod leg is shown in fig. . [illustration: ...and the shutter for flashing the light,... (fig. , fig. )] the screen, or shutter, is mounted on a separate tripod and is shown in fig. . cut out two slats, / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long, from hard wood, and taper both edges of these slats down to / in. small nails are driven into the ends of the slats and the heads are filed off so that the projecting ends will form trunnions for the slats to turn on. make a frame of wood pieces, / in. thick and - / in. wide, the opening in the frame being in. square. before nailing the frame together bore holes in the side uprights for the trunnions of the slats to turn in. these holes are - / in. apart. the frame is then nailed together and also nailed to the tripod top. the shutter is operated with a key very similar to a telegraph key. the construction of this key is shown in fig. . a part of a spool is fastened to a stick that is pivoted on the opposite side of the frame. the key is connected to the slats in the frame with a bar and rod, to which a coil spring is attached, as shown in fig. . figure shows the positions of the tripods when the instrument is set to flash the sunlight through the shutter. the regular telegraph code is used in flashing the light. [illustration: ...and diagram showing the location of the tripods to direct the light through the shutter (fig. )] to set the instrument, first turn the cardboard disk down to uncover the point of the sight rod, then sight through the hole in the mirror and adjust the sight rod so that the tip end comes squarely in line with the receiving station. when the instrument is properly sighted, the shutter is set up directly in front of it and the cardboard disk is turned up to cover the end of the sight rod. the mirror is then turned so that it reflects a beam of light with a small shadow spot showing in the center made by the peephole in the mirror, which is directed to fall on the center of the cardboard sighting disk. it will be quite easy to direct this shadow spot to the disk by holding a sheet of paper or in. in front of the mirror and following the spot on the paper until it reaches the disk. the flashes are made by manipulating the key operating the shutter in the same manner as a telegraph key. twine cutter for use at a wrapping counter [illustration] a cutter for use at the wrapping counter in a drug or confectionery store may be easily made from a double-edged razor blade and a piece of thin board--a piece of cigar box will do. cut the wood in the shape shown, with a protecting piece over the edge of the razor. screws are turned through the holes in the blade and into a support on the paper holder or any other convenient place.--contributed by t. f. managhan, philadelphia, pa. frosting brass a very fine ornamental finish, resembling brushed work, may be applied to brass articles by boiling them in a caustic-potash solution, then rinsing in clear water, whereupon they are dipped into dilute nitric acid until the oxide is removed, then rinsed quickly and dried in sawdust. the surface should be lacquered while the metal is hot. a cupboard-door spice-box shelf to keep the spice boxes in a handy place where they would be together and not behind larger articles on the cupboard shelves, i made a special spice-box shelf, as shown, to hang on the inside of the cupboard door. the shelf swings out with the door as it opens, and is made of two bracket ends to which a bottom board and front crosspiece is nailed. the size of the shelf and its capacity are only limited by the space on the door.--contributed by austin miller, santa barbara, california. [illustration: the shelf will hold all the spice boxes and keep them handy] starting a siphon [illustration] it is often necessary in a laboratory to siphon acids and poisonous liquids. if a pump is used there is always danger of the liquid entering the pump and damaging it, and, besides, a pump is not handy for this purpose. to fill a siphon by suction from the mouth, great care must be taken to keep from drawing the liquid into the mouth. one of the best ways to fill a siphon is to procure a large dropper and having pressed all the air out of the bulb insert the end in the siphon. releasing the pressure on the bulb will cause it to draw the liquid into the siphon.--contributed by bedell m. neubert, newtown, conn. a window-seat sewing box the combined window seat and sewing box shown was made by using a shoe-packing box for the foundation. this was covered with matting and the edges and corners finished with wood strips, / in. thick and stained a dark red. three trays were provided on the inside at the top part of the box, each of the two upper ones occupying one-fourth of the box opening and sliding on a pair of guides fastened to the sides of the box while the lower tray is one-half the length of the box and slides on guides placed far enough below the upper trays to allow it to pass beneath these. the three trays were used for keeping sewing materials, such as buttons, hooks and eyes, etc. when the trays are all moved to one end it gives access to the lower part of the box where the work or mending is kept out of sight. [illustration: a window-seat workbox for sewing materials, made of an ordinary shoe-packing box] the inside of the cover is - / in. deep and shelves are arranged for thread and silk spools on either side, the center space being used for the shears, thimbles and scissors. the little shelves are made of two pieces each half as wide as the depth of the box cover. the first half of the shelf is fastened in place, then a row of cotters attached with wood screws whereupon the other half of the shelf is put in place. the edges of the cover are rounded on the outside to make an attractive seat. [illustration: the spindles for the spools are made of cotters fastened with screws in the shelves] while no dimensions are necessary, as the box can be of any size to suit the maker it may be mentioned that the one shown is in. long, in wide and in. deep.--contributed by r. b. thomas, lowell, mass. cutting a glass bottle [illustration] it is sometimes necessary to cut a heavy glass bottle or cylinder. four methods are in use. a carborundum disk having a thin edge, if kept wet and rotated at a high speed, will cut heavy glass, but the cylinder must be fed against the wheel very gently. a better way is to make a file mark--clean, but not very deep--around the cylinder and heat it with a long slender flame while slowly rotating the cylinder all the time. it is very important that the gas flame should not spread over the surface of the glass, for it is only the file mark that should be heated. a mere glancing touch is sufficient. usually the glass will crack off in a very clean cut. sometimes a fine platinum wire is wound around in the file mark and heated by an electric current. less common is the trick of wrapping a strand of yarn soaked in turpentine around the mark and burning it. the principle is the same in each case. the unequal heating of the glass causes it to break.--contributed by harry h. holmes, richmond, ind. to clean painted or frescoed walls use a paste made of vinegar and baking soda with a small amount of salt added. the ingredients should be mixed in a large dish and applied to the wall with a cloth. the grease and fly specks as well as the carbon deposits from kitchen smoke are quickly removed. the mixture is harmless. after the wall is thoroughly cleaned, it should be washed with warm water and soap, then dried with a cloth. the mixture works equally well on enameled baths and glass or white porcelain. securing papers in a mailing tube the illustrations show two methods of securing papers or photographs in a mailing tube. in fig. the mailing tube a is shown in cross section and the manner of running the string through the pasteboard walls illustrated. the ends of the string are drawn up and tied over or under the label. if the label is pasted over the string or string ends as they are tied, it makes a sealed package which is rated as first-class matter. [illustration: the string in either case prevents the papers from slipping out of the mailing tube (fig. )] the second way is to run the cords in a cross form through holes near the ends, as in fig. , then tie the knots as at bb. in each instance even if the papers fit the tube loosely, they will be held securely and can be easily extracted when the knots are untied. [illustration: (fig. )] cooling tube for a laboratory still a simple and very effective device to replace the cumbersome cooling or condensation coil of a still for the amateur's laboratory can be easily made as follows: procure an ordinary straight glass tube of fairly large diameter and heat it in the flame of an alcohol lamp with the use of a blowpipe or in a bunsen burner with a very reduced flame so that only a small spot of the tube is brought to a red heat at one time then, with a previously pointed and charred stick of wood--a penholder for instance--produce a small recess in the wall by pushing the charred end gently into the glowing part of the tube. this procedure is repeated until the whole tube is thus provided with small recesses. the indentations should be made in spiral lines around the tube, thus increasing the surface that is in contact with the cooling water. the operation of making the recesses is shown in fig. . the walls of the recesses should have a regular and uniform slant. [illustration: method of indenting the walls of the glass tube and its application as a still (fig. )] the tube thus produced can either be used as a rectifier (fig. ) above a vessel, for fractional distillation because it will allow the most volatile parts to pass out first, or as a condenser (fig. ), the arrangement of which needs no explanation. the amateur will find it much easier to make this tube than to coil a very long one. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] a comb cleaner [illustration] a good comb cleaner that does the work easily and quickly can be made from a worn-out varnish brush. the brush selected should not be over in. wide; it should be thoroughly cleaned with benzine and the bristles cut to a bevel, as shown in the sketch. in use, brush across the comb parallel with the teeth, and the dirt between them will be easily removed.--contributed by john v. loeffler, evansville, ind. scraping off surplus water on a grindstone when using a grindstone, an ample flow of water is desirable in order to insure good cutting, and the objectionable spattering may be overcome by fastening a piece of leather to the grindstone frame so that its edge will bear lightly upon the stone just below the point where the work is held. this will scrape off all surplus water from the grinding surface and prevent spattering.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. a paper drinking cup the cup is readily made of a piece of paper in. square. lay the paper on a flat surface, turn the point a over to meet the point b and crease on the dotted line cd, fig. , then turn the corner d up to meet the line bc, fig. , making sure that the new edge de is parallel with the lower edge and crease. turn the corner c in the same manner, that is, fold it over to the point e and crease. fold the two corners at b outward and down, and crease, and the cup is complete as shown in fig. .--contributed by w. douglas matthews, chappaqua, new york. [illustration: several cups can be nested together and carried in the pocket or hand bag (fig. , fig. , fig. )] homemade brush for cleaning upholstered furniture a durable brush for cleaning upholstered furniture can be made in the following manner: procure a piece of haircloth, which is made of horsehair woof and linen warp. strips of haircloth, cut lengthwise and - / in. wide, are laid out smooth on a table and a strip of wrapping paper, / in. wide, is firmly glued to one edge. when this has dried, take out the warp that is not covered by the paper. brush the fringe of horsehair until it is straight and even, and before commencing to wind, measure in. from one end and glue this portion to the side of a strip of soft wood, in. long, / in. wide and / in. thick. when dry, wind the glued length of haircloth and paper around the wood strip, applying glue to each separate turn of winding. the turns should be kept flush on the side that has been glued and the fringed part brushed and straight. [illustration: brush made of strip of upholsterers' haircloth with the warp removed and fastened to a handle] the part to be glued to the handle must be perfectly even in its windings and held firmly in place while the glue is hardening. the winding should be continued until the brush is - / in. thick. the handle is made of a piece of wood, in. long, - / in. wide and / in. thick. wood that takes a cherry or mahogany stain is preferable. shape it about as shown in the sketch and round off the edges. the part to which the brush is to be attached must be given a light coat of glue. when that has dried, glue the back of the brush to it, and after the glue has hardened, glue a piece of gimp around the brush part, then drive upholsterers' tacks into the gimp and wood, / in. apart. stain and varnish the handle. the back of the handle can be used as a beater, and the brush for removing the dust.--contributed by gertrude m. bender, utica, n. y. removing calcium deposits on glass a good way to clean glass vessels in which hard water is boiled is to use the following mixture to remove not only the calcium deposits, but also rust or sulphur stains that may be present. the solution is a mixture of ammonia water and a few ounces of salt. this should be placed in the glass vessel and boiled until the deposits disappear. the ammonia water may be made of any strength by diluting if necessary. a cold-chisel guide when making long cuts with a cold chisel, it is almost impossible to guide the chisel edge along a line made with a scriber or pencil and have a straight cut. i find that it is much easier to use a guide, as shown in the sketch. the guide is made of a piece of wood, about ft. long and - / in. wide. a slot is cut in the center, wide enough to receive the chisel edge snugly, and about in. long. the guide is clamped to the work, and the cold chisel slipped along in the slot as it is successively hit with a hammer.--contributed by g. h. holter, jasper, minn. [illustration: the guide makes it easy to follow along a straight line when cutting with a cold chisel] care of paintbrushes [illustration] when laying aside paintbrushes, the usual custom is to place them in water and then forget all about them until needed again, with the result that the water usually is found more or less evaporated and the brushes hardened. if a quantity of oil, a, is poured on the water b, it will prevent this evaporation and keep the brushes in good shape. filter in a pump spout [illustration] the sketch shows how to place an ordinary sponge in a pump spout, to filter out sand and dirt particles that may come up with the water as it is pumped. a wire is fastened in the sponge so that it can be easily taken out for washing. when washing the sponge give the pump handle a few strokes so that the dirt collected in the spout will be washed out. do not press the sponge too tightly into the spout, as this will stop the flow of water.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, iowa. brown stain for wood bichromate of potassium gives a lustrous, rich, light to dark brown stain on woods. the crystals are first dissolved into a saturated solution, which is then diluted with water. the stained surface needs no rubbing, as the stain leaves the wood perfectly clear for any desired finish. the satinlike appearance of wood treated by this stain cannot be produced with any of the pigment stains.--contributed by august meyer. an egg boiler in boiling eggs the usual method of dropping the eggs from a spoon into the boiling water often results in a burn, as well as in cracking of the eggs by the fall. in removing the eggs from the hot water and taking one out at a time, no two will be cooked alike. to overcome these difficulties i constructed an egg boiler as illustrated. [illustration: the eggs are prevented from becoming cracked and all are easily handled in one operation] a pan was procured--tin or aluminum as desired--about in. deep and - / in. in diameter, and holes were drilled in the bottom having dimensions as shown. a handle was attached to the center with washers and nuts. the small ends of the eggs are set in the - / -in. holes and the whole pan set in a vessel of boiling water. when the boiling is completed, the entire lot of eggs are removed at the same time. as the device with its load of cooked eggs is quite pleasing in appearance, it may be set on a plate and the eggs served from it on the table.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, o. removing black deposit an bathtubs a good way to remove the black deposit left on bathtubs by the water is to use a strong solution of sulphuric acid. the acid should be poured on the discolored enameled surface and washed around with a cloth. the acid should not touch the hands so it is best to use a stick to move the cloth. neither should it be allowed to touch the metal parts, but if this happens, no harm will result if it is quickly rubbed off with a cloth and water then applied. in using this acid never pour water into the acid, but always pour the acid into the water.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. a stocking-stretcher form a simple as well as inexpensive device for preventing the shrinking of stockings, more particularly those of children, after they have been washed, thus saving great wear and tear on the fabrics and increasing their length of life, is shown in the illustration. the stretcher can be made by anyone, a knowledge of woodcraft or art being unnecessary. if used, the device will prove to effect quite a saving in money, labor and worry in the course of a year. [illustration: the spring of the two parts tends to hold the yarn and keep it from shrinking] place a new and unused stocking, that properly fits the foot, flat on a heavy piece of cardboard or a wood board, if desired, and mark an outline of the stocking on the board with a pencil. cut out the design with a penknife or heavy pair of scissors and smooth the edges. a design having the same shape and size as the stocking results. duplicate boards can be easily made. place a spool, such as used to hold the finest silk thread, near the upper end of the first form and on top of this place the second. then drive a nail through the boards and spool and clinch it, or better still, use a small bolt. when the stockings are washed and the dampness wrung out as well as possible, stretch them over the boards and hang them up to dry. they will retain their shape and are easily ironed.--contributed by wm. p. kennedy, washington, d. c. stick holder for a chopping block having a lot of branch wood, from / in. to in. in diameter, to saw, and not wishing to bother with a sawbuck, i rigged up a chopping block, as shown in the sketch, by fastening a piece of board to one side of the block with small lag screws. the piece to be sawed was laid across the block in the notch. if the piece is held down on the block with one foot, the wood is very easily sawn.--contributed by wilfred b. sylvester, reading, mass. [illustration: the notched board fastened to the chopping block turns it into a sawbuck] cleaning gold and platinum a good way to clean gold or platinum jewelry is to first brush with soapsuds, then dust magnesia powder over the article and allow it to dry. a few rubs with a cloth makes the article shine with great luster. as magnesia powder is highly inflammable, it must be kept away from fire. a twine spool the pieces of twine used in tying parcels delivered to a residence are either thrown away or tied together and wound into a ball for future use. the method i use for keeping the pieces of twine is to wind them over a discarded photographic-film spool. the spool was slipped on a finishing nail driven into the wall. the crank for turning the spool was made of a piece of wire, bent as shown and slipped into the slot end of the spool. one end of the first piece of string was tied to the core and then wound around it, the next piece tied to the first and wound up, and so on, as the strings were taken from the packages from time to time. when a string is needed for any purpose i always know where to find it, and it is easier to take it from the spool than from a ball.--contributed by w. resseguie, susquehanna, pa. [illustration: the film spool as it is attached to a wall, and the crank for turning it] reinforcing chair bottoms embossed-leather-board chair bottoms can be made as serviceable as leather in the following manner: turn the chair upside down and fill the hollow beneath the seat with excelsior, soft rags or fine shavings, then nail a / -in. wood bottom over the filling with brads. make the wood bottom / or / in. larger than the opening. it will thus not be seen, and the seat will last as long as the chair.--contributed by j. h. sanford, pasadena, california. a novelty chain an inexpensive chain for hanging painted glass panels, transparencies or photographs can be made by joining paper clips together to form the links. a box of clips will make a chain about ft. long. such a chain can be made in a few minutes and a length of ft. will hold about lb. [illustration: the paper-clip links may be joined to make a chain of any desired length] if the chain is to be used for holding photographs, each inner loop end is bent out slightly. closet holders for linen a combination drawer and shelf for a linen closet is much better than a shelf or a drawer. it is constructed in the manner of a drawer with sides and a back, the front being open and the ends of the sides cut rounding. a clip is attached to the under side of the bottom, near the front edge, to provide a means for pulling out the holder. [illustration: the holder can be pulled out like a drawer and is as accessible as a shelf] sheets, towels, table cloths, napkins, etc., can be neatly piled on the holder and can be seen without digging down to the bottom. it has the advantage over the shelf that it can be pulled out without anything falling off, and the linen on the back part can be easily reached as well as that in front. the closet may contain as many holders as is necessary and should be provided with a door for keeping out dust.--contributed by h. a. sullwold, st. paul, minn. preserving dry batteries the life of dry batteries, which are to be used in wet or damp places, may be considerably lengthened by being treated in the following manner: the batteries are placed in glass jars a little wider and higher than themselves. a layer of dry sawdust is placed in the bottom, for the battery to rest on, and the sides are packed with sawdust to within / in. of the top. waterproof wires are connected to the binding posts and melted paraffin poured over the battery to the top of the jar. the carbon and zinc terminals should be marked to avoid trouble when connecting several cells together. batteries treated in this manner are waterproof and can be submerged in water if necessary.--contributed by olaf tronnes, evanston, ill. a cleaner for brass in some recent laboratory experiments the following solution was found to cleanse brass very quickly without harm to the hands or the metal. an ounce of alum was put into a pint of boiling water and the solution rubbed on the brass with a cloth. stains as well as tarnish were quickly removed. the solution is inexpensive and easily prepared.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. homemade graduate [illustration] if a certain quantity of liquid is to be frequently measured out, it is best to have a graduate marked for this amount without any other markings upon it. to make a graduate for this purpose, procure a pickle or olive bottle of the type shown in the drawing and file a vertical line, a, on each side. these lines should be at least / in. wide. place the bottle on a level surface and pour in the amount desired to be measured. mark on each vertical line with a lead pencil and connect this mark or marks with lines, filed as shown at bb.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. mending a break in felt a good way to mend partially broken felt or a felt hat is to hold a lighted match under the break and smooth out the crevice with the hand. the shellac in the felt is melted by the heat and runs together, mending the felt in such a way that the break is hardly noticeable. this method may also be used to mend felt articles in the laboratory. imitating ebony on oak the wood is immersed for hours in a warm solution of alum and sprinkled several times with the following mixture: one part of logwood of the best quality is boiled with parts of water, then it is filtered through linen and the liquid evaporated at a low temperature until its volume is reduced by one-half. to every quart of this bath are added to drops of a saturate of soluble indigo entirely neutral in reaction. smaller pieces may be steeped for a time in this solution, then the wood is rubbed with a saturated and filtered solution of verdigris in warm, concentrated acetic acid, and this operation continued until a black color of the desired intensity is obtained. the oak wood dyed in this manner is very similar to real ebony. tongue holder for a boy's wagon to prevent any mishap when coasting in a boy's play wagon fasten the tongue with a coil spring so that it will be kept in a vertical position. the tongue is always out of the way when it is not used for drawing the wagon. the spring is only strong enough to hold the tongue, so that when this is used for pulling there is little or no tendency of the spring to draw the tongue upward. the coil spring is fastened with one screweye in the tongue and one in the front axle.--contributed by wm. f. benson, brockton, massachusetts. [illustration: holder for the wagon tongue to keep it in a vertical position when not in use] gluing small mitered frames the mechanic who attempts to fasten a mitered frame in the home workshop usually comes to grief. this is due to lack of proper facilities for holding the frame straight and out of wind, and for clamping or drawing the miter joint together after the glue has been applied. the little device shown in the sketch, if properly made and used, does away with the usual difficulties and annoyances. it consists of a triangular block of wood with raised strips on the two edges that make the right angle, and the clamping piece with the wood screw through the center on the long side. the raised strips are made somewhat thinner than the frame to be fastened, as the clamping piece should bear on the frame and not on the strips; the function of the strips being to hold the frame square. the triangular block should be large enough to take the corner of the frame and leave room enough for the wood screw that holds it in place on the block. four of these blocks will be necessary and they should be used in conjunction with pinch dogs. these dogs come in different sizes and may be purchased at supply stores or made as shown. the outside of the legs should be straight and parallel and the inside tapered so as to draw the joint together. [illustration: clamp for holding the corner of a frame while gluing and fastening the mitered joint] when a joint is ready to be glued, a piece of paper is placed on the block under the joint to keep it from sticking. apply the glue and push the two sides into the corner formed by the raised strips, the dog is then driven in lightly and the clamping piece screwed down tightly, and if the miter has been properly cut, a nice close-jointed and square corner will be the result.--contributed by j. shelly, brooklyn, new york. handle attachment for a sickle for cutting around flower beds or bushes and in close places i find that an extension handle for a sickle is quite an assistance. the auxiliary handle is bound to the sickle handle with wire at the ends and is further fastened with a screw in the center. the arrows show the directions in which the hands should be moved in working the sickle.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, can. [illustration: the extension handle makes it much easier to control the sickle in cutting around obstacles] a clothesline for small goods handkerchiefs and small pieces included in the week's laundry are usually quite troublesome to hang with the larger pieces, and for this reason i constructed a special line for the small goods. a line was cut to fit between two porch posts and a hook made of galvanized wire tied to each end, staples being driven into the posts to receive them. three or four wire grips were formed and attached to the line. it was only necessary to draw the corner of a handkerchief into the grip as it was wrung out, placing several in each grip. the line with its load was then carried out and attached between the porch posts. this made it unnecessary to look through the clothes for the small articles. it also prevented chilling the fingers and no pins were needed.--contributed by r. d. livingston, hopkinton, iowa. [illustration: line and holders are always together and can be washed as the clothes] automatically controlled ice-box lights often the ice box is placed in a dark closet or some out-of-the-way place, and it is almost impossible to locate articles already in the box or put others away without considerable inconvenience on account of the lack of proper light. this difficulty can be easily overcome by mounting a small electric lamp in each of the different compartments of the box, which will be automatically lighted when the lid of the box is raised or the door opened. the circuit through the lamp is controlled by a special switch mounted in such a way that its contacts are open when the doors and lid of the box are closed. a diagram of the circuit is given in fig. , which shows three lamps, each controlled by a separate switch, connected in parallel to a battery of several dry cells. the lamps should be of low voltage and need not be very high in candlepower. the number of cells needed in the battery will depend upon the voltage of the lamps. the voltage of the battery and the rated voltage of the lamps should be approximately the same. [illustration: the lamps will be automatically lighted when the door of the ice box is opened (fig. )] a special switch that will serve the above purpose is shown in fig. . it consists of two pieces of spring brass, a and b, about / in. wide, bent into the forms shown. these pieces are mounted in a recess cut in the jamb of the door or lid in such a way that the free end of the piece a is held away from the piece b when the door or lid is closed. when the lid of the box or the door is open the two springs come in contact and the lamp lights; upon closing the lid or door the contact is broken and the lamp goes out. [illustration: (fig. )] a good quality of rubber-insulated copper wire should be used in making the connections, and all parts should be as well protected from moisture and the possibilities of mechanical abuse as possible. it would be best to tape the lamps in the sockets with a piece of friction tape so as to prevent moisture getting into the socket and, perhaps, shortening the lamp. a short piece of brass tubing can be mounted around the lamp to protect it mechanically. be sure to place the batteries where they will be kept dry. a bottle-cap lifter [illustration] to remove the crimped bottle cover so extensively used requires a special lifter, the corkscrew being of little use for this purpose. when a cap-cover remover is not at hand, prepare a pocketknife in the manner shown, and it makes an excellent substitute. it only requires a small notch filed in the heel of the blade, which does not interfere with the ordinary use of the knife in the least.--contributed by john v. loeffler, evansville, indiana. * * * * * ants may be effectively destroyed by placing a coop with a chicken in it over the hill. a mechanical bicycle horn the body of the horn a is made of metal, about in. in diameter, with a screw cover. the shaft b, to which is attached a driving pulley, c, and a ratchet wheel, d, is fitted in holes drilled through the diameter of the body. the diaphragm e is clamped, between the edge of the body and the cover, on a seat made of rubber rings, f, and carries a contact device, g, that is riveted to its center. the diaphragm should be set so that the contact will touch the ends of the ratchets. [illustration: the horn is sounded by making connections with the moving surface of the tire] a metal cone is fastened in an opening cut in the center of the cover, over the diaphragm. the back of the body is fitted with a bracket for attaching it to the front fork on a bicycle. the lever h carries an idler pulley which is forced against the bicycle tire and the pulley c by means of a cord, j. adjusting the diaphragm contact on the ratchet wheel will change the tone of the horn.--contributed by p. mertz, jamaica, l. i. retarder for plaster of paris when it is desired to lengthen the time of setting after preparing plaster of paris, dissolve oz. of citric acid in water used for mixing lb. of plaster, and it will retard the setting for about three hours. an inkwell stopper [illustration] a good way to keep an inkwell of the type shown in the sketch clean is to place a marble over the opening. the marble keeps out flies and dust, is easily rolled aside and is no obstacle to the pen entering the well.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pennsylvania. a grass rake this adaptation of an ordinary iron rake for use on a lawn was the outcome of not having a lawn rake at hand. two spools, each - / in. in diameter, were procured and one forced on each end tooth of the rake. the spools were forced on the teeth just far enough to allow the rake to slide on the ground and prevent the other teeth from digging out the grass. the end of the spools may be rounded and smoothed so that they will slide easily on the ground.--contributed by h. e. gray, montclair, n. j. [illustration: the spools prevent the teeth from injuring the grass roots as the rake passes over the ground] a staple puller [illustration] a very simple way to pull a staple is to use the claws of an ordinary carpenter's hammer and a nail, as shown in the sketch. the staple can be removed quickly without being bent, and no damage to the material into which it was driven will result. to remove acid stains from cloth apply pearlash directly to the stain, allowing it to set a minute or two, then boil the article in soap water for several minutes. the method is harmless and inexpensive, and can be used by anyone. repairing rocker on a chair [illustration] the tenons on the posts of a rocking chair being broken off so close to the rocker that it was impossible to make the ordinary repairs, four window-shade-roller brackets were used in the following manner: the metal was straightened so that it would lie flat and two brackets were used on the end of each post. this made a neat and strong repair.--contributed by chas. schmidt, baltimore, md. electric-lamp reflector for a target [illustration] an ordinary -lb. coffee can may be quickly fashioned into a most effective reflector for an electric bulb. the light is projected upon the target while the marksman's eyes are shielded. of course, this device can be used for other purposes. the can is shaped into a reflector by cutting it open along one side with a pair of snips, then following the circumference of the bottom halfway around on each side. bend the flaps outward as far as desired and cut a hole in the bottom just large enough to insert the bulb, as shown.--contributed by burke jenkins, port washington, l. i. * * * * * linoleum may be renewed by applying floor wax in liquid form. making small taps the owner of a private workshop has need for taps and occasionally wishes to make them, not because they are cheaper, but for the sake of experience or to get some special thread. in cutting the flutes, whether it be by hand or in a shaper, it is a good plan to give the flutes an angle, that is, to cut them, not parallel with the axis of the tap, but at an angle of to deg. with the center line. this makes the tap cut easier, giving it a wedge action instead of just simply pushing the metal off. the same method applies to counterbores and countersinks, which, when so made, take less power to drive. sink a substitute for a dishpan [illustration] on special occasions when company is entertained or in large families, it is almost impossible to wash all the dishes in an ordinary dishpan; in fact, the large platters will not go in at all, so i devised the following method as a substitute for a larger pan. a tin disk was cut from the top of a tomato can with a can opener so as to be as round as possible, then a piece of cheesecloth was folded into an even square, the disk placed in the center and all four corners of the cloth drawn over to the center of the disk. a nail was driven through the center of the disk, to make a hole, through which a string was drawn with the nail and tied to it to form a loop on the head. this is used to stop the sink drain. when this is put over the drain outlet the sink may be used as a dishpan. the same result could be obtained a little better with a piece of an old rubber boot or rubber coat, but usually this material is not at hand, and the cheesecloth will do almost as well.--contributed by hannah jennings, chicago. how to make small coil springs procure a nut, having a small thread that will admit the size of the wire to be used in making the spring. cut a small notch to the depth of the thread where the thread starts, and procure a smooth rod that will pass snugly through the threads of the nut. shape one end of the rod to fit a carpenter's brace, if there is no drill chuck at hand, and drill a hole in the other end to admit one end of the spring wire. [illustration: the threads in the nut will guide as well as coil the spring evenly] bend the wire at right angles and insert the end in the hole. place the end of the rod in the nut, which should be gripped in a vise, and turn the rod, at the same time seeing that the wire is guided into the notch cut at the start of the thread. the wire will follow the thread of the nut and make a perfect spring of an even opening throughout its length. closed or open coils can be made by using a nut having the proper number of threads.--contributed by a. spencer, kinston, n. c. a pruning-saw guard the double-edged pruning saw with coarse teeth on one side and fine on the other would be far more widely used, if it were not for the fact that the unused edge so often injures the bark of the trunk when the saw is being used. a very satisfactory guard may be quickly made of a brass curtain rod by prying it apart slightly at the seam and cutting a suitable length to fit over the edge, as shown in the sketch. this will cling to the saw blade by its own tension.--contributed by james h. brundage, katonah, n. y. [illustration: the teeth on the unused edge are covered with a piece of brass curtain rod] [illustration] home-made motion-picture camera and projector by charles frank in three parts--part i [illustration: (fig. )] motion pictures are made and reproduced by means of a camera and projector, each having a similar mechanism that would seem entirely too complicated for the average person to construct at home, yet a correspondent of the nickelodeon has devised a simple rotary cylinder shutter that can be substituted for the complicated parts. while this simple cylinder shutter is not claimed to be infringing on existing patents, yet, as it has no commercial value, there would be no objection on this score. the instruments described are nothing more than toys, and if the amateur photographer can secure a few dozen feet of animated photographs about the home that are dear to his heart, and reproduce them on a screen, it will have served its purpose. the camera and projector described uses standard film, - / in. wide, with perforations every / in. the camera the ordinary hand camera for making still pictures consists of a light-tight box with a lens at one end and a sensitized plate or film at the other. the motion-picture camera (fig. ) is nothing more than a hand camera with a mechanical device for stepping a long roll of film through a space in the focal plane of the lens at a speed of about pictures a second, and stopping the film long enough to make the requisite exposure on each division. the first thing to consider is the lens. a lens having ordinary speed for a hand camera, and one with about in. focal length will give satisfactory results. if one does not care to purchase a lens, a small - / in. or in. reading glass can be used, if it is stopped down, or a lens may be taken from a hand camera. the width of the camera from front to back (w, fig. ) must be determined by the focal length of the lens. the dimensions given in the drawing are only approximate, and they can be changed if the camera is to be used in making an extra long film negative. the roll of unexposed film (a, fig. ) is placed on a small shaft between u-shaped bearings, made of sheet metal and screwed to the top board of the camera. the lens b is set in the front board at a point in. below the top. if a large roll of film is to be used, this distance must be greater to allow room for the film roll in the top of the camera. the cylinder c, which acts as a shutter and intermittent movement, revolves directly behind and in the path of the light passing through the lens. partitions, dd, are set in grooves cut in the boards, forming the sides of the camera. these partitions are to keep the light, which may be diffused from the lens, from striking the film at either side of the shutter, and at the same time acting as guides for the film at the rear end of the camera. their edges at the back are covered with black velvet. the back of the box is a hinged door, rabbeted on all edges, and opening at the side to allow the insertion and removal of the film, and also acting as a guide for the film when closed. a strip of black velvet, e, a little wider than the film, is pasted to the inside surface of the door, so that it bears lightly against the back edges of the partitions dd. the film passes between the edges of the partitions and the velvet on the door with some friction, which keeps it from moving except when pulled through with the roller shutter. a wire-staple guide, f, is fastened in the lower partition, through which the end of the film is passed before closing the door. the film as it is run through drops in folds in the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. --details of camera] the rotary cylinder shutter is the heart of the machine and should be made well and strictly according to the dimensions. the detail of this part is shown in fig. . a rectangular opening is mortised through one of its diameters to admit light on the film when in certain positions. the cylinder is of wood with a / in. steel rod inserted in the center of each end for axles. a small grooved pulley (g, fig. ), about in. in diameter, is fastened to the outer end of one of these rods. the cylinder is revolved by a round belt from a drive wheel, h, or - / in. in diameter and turned by the aid of a crankpin. owing to the backward rotation of the cylinder, the belt must be crossed between the drive wheel h, and the pulley g. the projections or sprockets, fig. , must be accurately set at a distance of / in. from the deg. point, using the center of the mortised hole as a base. these projections can be pins or small staples, but they must not be over / in. in size. the base of the sprockets must fit the hole in the film snugly, but the points should be slightly rounding, so that they will easily enter the perforations. when the upper sprocket, which is approaching the film, engages a perforation, just below the upper partition, it will carry the film downward until the sprocket disengages from the perforation at the lower partition. the distance of travel must be exactly / in., as that is the height of each picture. the cylinder requires some adjustment to meet this condition; therefore the axles are made to revolve in holes bored in two strips of wood, jj, which can be moved forward or backward to obtain the proper distance from the film. to allow for this movement, the axles pass through slots cut in the sides of the camera box instead of round holes. the strips jj are fastened temporarily and when the correct position for the cylinder is found, they are permanently fastened to the box. grooves, k, are cut through the black velvet and into the back of the door to allow a space for the sprockets to pass through freely. the inside of the box should be painted a dead black, and black paper pasted on all corners and joints. black velvet is pasted in the rabbet of the door to insure a light-tight joint when the door is closed. the cylinder shutter is also painted a dead black inside and out. [illustration: fig. --details of shutter] the cylinder in revolving exposes the film immediately behind it through the mortised hole. the sprockets or cylinder does not touch the film while the exposure is being made, but as the hole turns toward a perpendicular position, the sprockets catch the perforations of the film and it moves down / in. just as soon as the sprockets disengage the film, the shutter exposes the next section of film, and so on as rapidly as the cylinder is turned, but the average should be about pictures per second. a view finder must be supplied so the field covered by the lens can be determined. such a finder is made of two pieces of metal, l and m, bent l-shaped and fastened to the top of the camera box. one of the pieces (l) has a rectangular opening in. wide and / in. high, and the other (m) is drilled with a / in. drill, the distance between the two pieces being the focal length of the lens. one eye applied to the / in. hole in the piece m will see through the rectangular hole in the piece l about the same field as covered by the lens. the pieces should be accurately placed and fastened on the box when the camera is set, so that the lens will throw the same portion of the picture on the space where the film passes as will be seen through the finder. a swimming raft swimming is learned only by experience and to get this experience one must not be afraid to trust himself in the water. this is sometimes accomplished by the use of a swimming raft or water wings. as the water wings need to be inflated frequently, i made a swimming raft instead, in the following manner: two logs, about or ft. long and about in. in diameter, were fastened together with large nails, as shown in the illustration, and a piece of burlap or other strong material was nailed across the center with slack enough for it to be partially submerged. [illustration: plan of raft] the middle of the band, its depth, etc., can be adjusted to suit the user. be sure to remove all the roughness of the logs and boards with a rasp and sandpaper.--contributed by w. p. johnston, sumner, ill. removing finger marks on books dampen a piece of wash leather and use it to rub pumice on the spot to be cleaned. brush off the pumice and rub again with a piece of dry wash leather. tightening a tennis net anyone who has ever played tennis will readily see the advantage of the net-tightening device shown, in preference to the old method of pulling the net tight by hand. all that is necessary to make the device is ft. of ordinary gas or water pipe, or in. of / -in. iron bar, and two twenty-penny nails. the posts generally used are by in. about in. from the top of the post bore a -in. hole, parallel with the direction the rope is to run. on the inside surface of the post bore four / -in. holes. [illustration: tightener on post] drill a / -in. hole in. from one end of the pipe, and a / -in. hole in. from the other end. put the iron bar in the / -in. hole, tie the rope around the pipe and bar at a and wind. with the leverage of the iron bar one can readily pull the net to any desired tightness. after the net is drawn in position, put one of the nails through the / -in. hole in the pipe and the other in one of the / -in. holes in the post.--contributed by wm. s. looper, gainesville, ga. holding fishing-rod joints together the addition of two or three screweyes properly placed in a jointed fishing rod of the ordinary type will prove decidedly worth while, as the joints will often pull out easily when they should not and stick tightly when they should pull apart. assemble the rod and bore small holes through the brass sockets into the joints as shown in fig. and place some screweyes into the holes. mark the joints so that the holes in the joints and holes in the brass sockets will always be in the same position. [illustration: screweye in joint (fig. , fig. )] the screweyes prevent the joints from pulling out when an effort is made to free the line from some object in which it has become entangled. they also act as guides for the line. should the joints fit too tightly, scrape the ends until they slip easily into the sockets, as the screweyes will hold them properly, even if they fit a little loose after the scraping. roller skate on a bicycle wheel [illustration] when the front tire on a bicycle will not hold and needs to be taken to a repair shop, strap or tie a roller skate to the rim of the wheel, as shown, and no trouble will be experienced in wheeling or riding the bicycle to the shop.--contributed by k. chase winslow, elizabeth, n. j. rope oarlocks having considerable trouble because of breaking of oarlocks, i devised a successful way by which the difficulty was overcome. the device is extremely simple and is nothing more than a piece of rope fastened to the gunwale as shown in the sketch.--contributed by arthur l. chetlain, rogers park, illinois. [illustration: piece of rope in place] home-made motion-picture camera and projector in three parts--part ii developing after having exposed the film in the camera, the next steps are to develop and make a positive film from the negative. the developing and exposing of the film for the positive are the same as in ordinary photography for making negatives and lantern slides, the only difference being in the apparatus for handling the long films. one of the simplest ways of developing a long film is to use a large tray in connection with a cross arm having upright pins around which the film is wrapped in a continuous spiral. a film ft. long would require a tray by in., with pins set in the cross arm about / in. apart. this method of developing is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --cross arms with pins] a long film can be developed in a small tray by using two flanged wheels or spools mounted on a frame (fig. ) that holds them directly above the liquid in the tray. the spools have a wood core or center with metal sides of sufficient diameter to take in the length of film to be developed. one end of the undeveloped film is attached to one spool and then wound upon it, then the other end is passed through the guides, gelatine side down, and fastened to the other spool. the film is first run slowly through a water bath until it is thoroughly saturated, then it is passed through the developing solution again and again until the proper density is secured. the trays can be easily removed and others substituted for fixing, washing, hardening and soaking, the film being passed through each solution in the same manner. before developing either negative or positive film, small test strips should be run through the solution so that the proper timing and treating of the full-length strip will correspond to the test strip. [illustration: fig. --developing long films] a reel should be prepared for drying the film. this can be made of small slats placed around two disks to form a drum (fig. ) about - / ft. in diameter and - / ft. long. after the film has been passed through the various solutions and is ready for drying, it is wound spirally around on the slats with the gelatine side out, and the whole hung up to dry. [illustration: fig. --drying reel] printing the printing to make the transparency is accomplished by a very simple arrangement. the negative and positive films must be drawn through a space admitting light while their gelatine surfaces are in close contact. a box may be constructed in several ways, but the one shown in fig. illustrates the necessary parts and their relative positions. [illustration: fig. --printing machine] the sprocket a is placed directly back of the opening b which may be regulated to admit the proper light. the sprocket can be purchased from a moving-picture stock house cheaply, but if the builder so desires, one can be made from wood turned up about in. in diameter, or so that the circumference will receive sprockets at points / in. apart. the sprockets are made of metal pins driven into the wood. two rows of them are placed around the wood cylinder about - / in. apart. the cylinder is provided with a small metal shaft at each end which turns in round holes or bearings in the sides of the box. one of the shafts should project through the side of the box and have a grooved wheel, c, attached. the sprocket cylinder is driven by a smaller grooved wheel or pulley, d, to which a crank is attached for turning. the relative sizes of these wheels are determined by the speed of the exposure and the kind of light used. a -in. or -in. wheel on the cylinder sprocket shaft, driven by a pulley about in. in diameter, will be suitable under ordinary circumstances. the opening b may be adjusted by two metal slides which fit tightly in metal grooves fastened to the wood front. the metal grooves and slides can be made of tin and painted a dead black. the films after passing over the sprocket, fall into the bottom of the box, or, if very long films are to be made, the instrument can be used in the dark room and the light admitted only to the opening b, then the ends can be dropped into a basket or other receptacle at the bottom and the unprinted portions carried on reels above the box. the speed of the exposure and the width of the opening b can be determined by making test strips. this can be done by setting the opening b to a certain width and turning the crank for or seconds and counting the number of revolutions. the proper exposure can be easily attained by this method. an emergency clamp [illustration] while making an extra large guitar i did not have clamps large enough to hold the top and bottom onto the sides while gluing, so i fastened three pieces of wood together, each piece being about by in., as shown in the sketch. then i bored holes in both top and bottom pieces and inserted a piece of soft wire in the form of a loop, which, when twisted, drew the ends of the clamp together.--contributed by geo. e. walsh, buffalo, n. y. * * * * * while camping, remember a hot stone wrapped up makes an excellent substitute for a hot-water bag. home-made motion-picture camera and projector in three parts--part iii the projector the film positives are projected on a screen with the same kind of a lantern as is used for lantern slides, with the addition of the device for stepping the film through, one picture at a time, and flashing light on each picture as it remains stationary for an instant. the projector (fig. ) is composed of a lamp house, a condensing lens to make the beam of light converge upon the film for illuminating it evenly, a film-stepping device, and a projecting lens for throwing the enlarged picture of the illuminated film upon a screen. [illustration: fig. --projector complete] the lamp house is made of ordinary stovepipe metal and the dimensions given in the sketch are for a size suitable to use an acetylene or gas burner. the metal is laid out as shown by the pattern (fig. ) and bent on the dotted lines to form the sides and ends of the house. the joint may be riveted, or, if taken to a tinshop, lock-seamed. the cover is cut out as shown, the sides and ends having bent holes which are covered on the inside with perforated sheet metal, a. in order to deflect the light, a small angular strip, b, is riveted on so that its upper portion will cover the holes and allow a space for the heat to pass out. the cover may be hinged or set on like a cover on a can. the lamp house is attached to a sliding wood base for adjusting its position on the baseboard. [illustration: fig. --details of the lamp house] the condensing lenses are fixed into a metal barrel having a tapering end. this can be made of the same material as used in the lamp house. the parts can be rolled and a lock joint made at a local tinshop, or the pieces shaped over a wood form and riveted. small l-shaped pieces are riveted to the inner surfaces to hold each lens in place. a rim is turned up on the back end of the metal tube for attaching the lens barrel to the lamp house. [illustration: fig. --details of the lamp, stepping device and base] an ordinary mantle or acetylene burner is attached to a gas pipe that has for its base a drop elbow fastened to a sliding board similar to the slide of the lamp house on the baseboard. a good reflector should be attached to a standard just back of the burner. the standard is also fastened to the sliding board. the proper distance of the light from the condensing lens can be easily set by this adjusting device. this arrangement is shown in fig. in the diagram entitled "lamp parts." the device for stepping the film is a duplicate of the one used in the camera as described in part i, with the exception of the lens. the lens should be about in. in diameter with such a focal length that will give a picture of the required size, or a lens of -in. focus enlarging a -in. film to about ft. at a distance of ft. a regular lens fitted in a metal tube can be purchased from a moving-picture stock house at a reasonable price. the box is made up similar to the camera box, but with a metal back instead of the wood. the intense heat from the light would quickly burn the wood and for this reason the light should be kept from the film while it is not in motion. the projecting lens barrel should be fitted snugly, yet loose enough for focusing. the baseboard is cut as shown and the film-stepping device is firmly attached to the small end. the sides extend over the baseboard and are fastened with screws and braced with metal brackets. the slot in the small end of the baseboard is for the film to pass through. the film should have a tension the same as in the camera with velvet placed on the edges of the partitions. it is well to have a guide below the roller shutter to keep the film from encircling the roller as it turns. homemade graining tools desiring to do some fancy graining and having no tools at hand, i hastily made two of them from pieces of garden hose, as shown in the sketch. two pieces were cut from the hose, each in. long, and the first one made as follows: a small hole, about / in. in diameter, was cut through the outside layer of rubber with a sharp knife at two points on opposite sides of the hose and exactly in the center for length. around these holes rings of the rubber were cut out, or rather peeled off from the canvas part, the rings being / in. wide, and the grooves, or parts removed, also / in. wide. the hose will then appear as shown in the upper left-hand corner of the sketch. [illustration: tools cut from pieces of garden hose for making grains of wood in painted surfaces] to use this grainer, first paint the ground color, using a buff tint for imitation light oak, and allow it to dry, then put on a light coat of raw sienna, and while wet, take the prepared hose and draw it slowly over the length of wood, at the same time revolving the grainer slowly. the other piece of hose, at the other corner, is made to take the place of a steel graining comb. the rubber is cut away lengthwise, leaving four segments, about in. wide, on four sides of the hose. these segments are then notched out, like threads on a tap, each segment having a different number to the inch. these are used in the same manner as steel combs.--contributed by a. h. waychoff, koenig, colo. needle for repairing screens in attaching patches to window or door screens, the work requires a continual shifting from one side to the other, or two persons, one on each side, must be present to pass the threaded needle back and forth. the operation can be easily simplified by using a bent needle, which has been heated and suitably shaped. the point of this needle can always be made to return to the side from which it entered, thereby avoiding the need of an assistant or the tiresome shifting back and forth.--contributed by g. jaques, chicago, ill. an emergency tourniquet [illustration] a valuable addition to any shop medicine cabinet is the tourniquet. a device that will answer the purpose of the tourniquet can be made from an ordinary clothespin and a piece of binding tape, about / in. wide and in. long. to stop the bleeding from a wound on a limb, pass the tape around the injured member between the wound and the blood supply. pass the tape through the slot in the pin, wind the ends around the pin two or three times to prevent slipping, then turn the pin to draw up the tape tightly until the flow of blood is stopped. mechanical aid to singers procure a large cigar box, of the square variety, and three ordinary drinking glasses with very thin walls and of different sizes, and place them in the box, as follows: space them evenly, and drive three brads close to the circumference of each glass bottom, so that the glasses will have to be forced in between them. to prevent the glasses from touching the wood place a one-cent piece under each one. a fourth glass is used, but from this the bottom must be removed. this can be done by saturating a string, or piece of yarn, in kerosene oil, wrapping it once around the glass near the bottom, then lighting it and allowing the string to burn out. the glass is then quickly dropped into cold water, which will remove the bottom. a hole is cut in the cover of the box to receive the bottomless glass from the upper side, so that its lower edge will be flush with the under surface. cut a slot, in. long and / in. wide, in the cover near the back side. to use, close the cover and at a distance of about / in. from the glass in the cover, or mouthpiece, sing into it. the glasses will impart to the voice a peculiar tone delightful to hear.--contributed by j. b. murphy, plainfield, new jersey. model boat with aerial propeller procure or make a small model boat, or in. long, and place in the hold one or two cells of dry battery. make a small platform in the stern and mount on it a small battery motor with the shaft parallel with the length of the boat and in the center. directly above and parallel with the motor shaft run a shaft--a hatpin will do--in bearings fastened to the deck. attach a drive pulley directly over the pulley on the motor and belt it up with a cord or rubber band. purchase or make a propeller blade and attach it to the rear end of the shaft. a switch can be located on the deck for controlling the motor.--contributed by geo. b. riker, ft. wayne, ind. [illustration: the aerial propeller is driven by a small battery motor placed in the boat] lantern-slide binding machine the machine shown in the illustration is very simple to make and when complete is one of the greatest time savers that a photographer can possess. the base is made of a piece of board, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. the uprights support a small bar upon which the roll of binding revolves. an old ink bottle filled with water and with some cotton stuffed in the neck serves as a moistener for the binding. the use of this machine insures a neat job in a very short space of time. the slide is always in the center of the binding. the end of the slide should run a little over the end of the base so that the binding may be fixed to the edge with the fingers, using a downward motion. the slide is then turned over on the other edge with a rolling motion and the operation repeated.--contributed by alvin g. steier, union hill, n. y. [illustration: a machine that will help to bind lantern slides quickly and neatly] adjustable film-developing machine the simple homemade developing machine, shown in the illustration, can be easily made with three film spools, some strong wire, and odd pieces of wood. it consists of an open frame, having two side pieces provided with slots down the center, sufficiently wide to allow an ordinary wood screw, of suitable size, to slide up or down freely. the two end-connecting pieces act as supports for the developing tray and should be made of sufficient length so the tray can pass freely between the sliding upright frame, made to fit in between the side pieces of the base. this frame can be adjusted to suit the length of film and is clamped in place at the desired position by wood screws, fitting in the long notches and screwed into the uprights. the two bottom rollers consist of film spools which are fastened in place by being slipped over a suitable wire, bent so the spool can enter the developing tray and the wire pass over the sides. another bend at the outer end provides for the adjustment of the spools and for securing the wire in place by staples. the top spool is secured to a wire fitted with a crank at the outer end, so that in turning the wire, the spool will also turn, thereby driving the film. when placing the film on the machine, the sensitive side should face outward so it will not rub against the spools. the ends of the film may be connected with pins or ordinary paper fasteners.--contributed by h. r. f. richardson, ottawa, ont. [illustration: developing a roll film in a tray with a machine that drives the film around rollers and through the developing liquid by turning a crank] preventing loss of fish from covered baskets in the cover of fish baskets an opening is frequently made permitting the fish to be put in without lifting the cover. in traveling over rough places, or when the basket is full, some of the fish are likely to be shaken out, or may wiggle out of the basket. to guard against this, a leather flap can be provided covering the hole on the inside. at one end of the flap, four holes should be punched. it can then be placed in position and securely laced to the cover. the flap acts as a valve, allowing fish to be put into the basket, but preventing their escape.--contributed by a. w. cook, kamela, ore. repair for a broken lock keeper [illustration] having broken the recess half of a common cupboard lock, or latch, which was used to fasten a hinged storm window, i used a round-head wood screw as shown. the screw was easily placed, and it serves the purpose as well as the regular keeper.--contributed by r. f. pohle, lynn, mass. * * * * * when using glue contained in screw-stoppered vessels it is advisable to smear a little vaseline on the thread to prevent the stopper from adhering to the container. [illustration: throwing a spot light with the lantern on individuals of a home play, which can be given brilliant effects by the use of the tinted celluloid in the openings of the revolving wheel] lantern for spot and colored lights the school play in pantomime is not complete unless the different parts of the play are illuminated in different colors, especially if the performers are clad in glittering garments. a spot light is also a feature not to be forgotten in singling out the star player or the one singing a song. the cost of a light for this purpose is entirely out of the reach of the average schoolboy, but if he has any ingenuity and a little time, a lantern for throwing those colored lights can be made at home, and the necessary parts will not cost much. [illustration: pattern for cutting the metal to form the entire lantern, or lamp house, also the pattern for the top and the metal bracket that makes a bearing for the revolving wheel, having openings covered with tinted celluloid] the metal necessary can be the ordinary stovepipe material, but if it is desired to have a fine-appearing lantern, procure what is called russian iron. this metal has a gloss, and if used, it should be gone over from time to time with a rag soaked in oil, then wiped dry, to keep it from rusting. the pattern for the body of the lantern, or lamp house, is shown with dimensions. if metal, long enough for the whole length, cannot be procured, then make it in two pieces, being sure to allow / -in. end also on the second part, as shown on the first, for a riveted joint. the metal is bent on the dotted lines and cut out on the full ones. the distance between the lines a to be bent is equal to the radius b. the part a forms the sloping side of the top, and the -in. part at the top of the side extends vertically on the upper or vertical part, it being / in. narrower to provide an outlet for the heat. an opening is cut in the rear end, as shown, also a hole, in. in diameter, in the front end. the size of the round hole is optional, as it should be cut to suit the condensing lens provided. if a lens / in. in diameter is used, then a -in. hole should be cut. this is enough difference in size to hold the lens from dropping through, while clips riveted on the inside of the lamp-house end will hold it in place. the lens is set in the hole with the curved side outward from the inside of the lamp house. the top, or covering, is cut out of the same material as used in making the lamp house, the length being in., and the sides are cut to extend / in. on each side of the ventilator. the edges, being turned down on the dotted lines, provide a covering to prevent any great amount of light from passing out through the / -in. ventilating opening mentioned in connection with the side construction of the lantern. the -in. parts of the cover ends are turned down and riveted to the ends of the lamp house. the little extensions on the ends provide a means of riveting the side, to make a solid joint. the arm c is made of a piece of / or / -in. metal, shaped as shown, to fit on the corner of the lamp house, where it is riveted. this provides a support and a place for an axis for the large revolving wheel holding the colored-celluloid disks. [illustration: the base of the lantern is provided with a sliding part carrying the light for adjustment] the metal forming the lamp house is fastened on a baseboard, cut to snugly fit on the inside. the base has two cleats, nailed lengthwise to form a runway, in. wide, into which another board is fitted to carry the burner. while the illustration shows an acetylene burner, any kind of light may be used so long as it is of a high candlepower. if manufactured gas is at hand, a gas burner with a mantle can be fitted, or a large tungsten electric light will give good results. [illustration: pattern for the revolving wheel in which six holes are cut and covered with tinted celluloid] the wheel, carrying the colored disks, is made of the same kind of metal as used for the lamp house. the edges should be trimmed smooth, or, better still, turned over and hammered down to prevent injury to the hands while turning it. a washer should be used between this wheel and the arm c on a bolt used for the shaft, to make the wheel turn freely. the colored disks of celluloid are fastened to the outside of the wheel over the openings. a yoke to support the lantern and provide a way for throwing the light in any direction, is made as shown. a line along which the lantern balances is determined by placing it on something round, as a broom stick, and the upper ends of the yoke are fastened on this line with loosely fitted bolts for pivots. [illustration: yoke for supporting the lantern] the lantern is set in front of the stage at the back of the room and the light is directed on the players, the colors being changed by turning the wheel. sometimes good effects can be obtained by using the lantern in the wings, or for a fire dance, by placing it under the stage, throwing the light upward through grating or a heavy plate glass. homemade palette knife a corset steel makes a good substitute for a palette knife because of its flexibility. it gives better satisfaction if cut in the shape shown than if left straight. should a handle be desired, one can be easily made by gluing two pieces of thin wood on the sides.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: a palette knife made of a corset steel and a wood handle attached] * * * * * to remove a white mark on wood having a wax surface, rub it lightly with a rag moistened in alcohol; then rub with a little raw linseed oil. self-closing gate this gate is suspended from a horizontal bar by chains, and swings freely about a -in. gas pipe, placed vertically in the center of the gate. the chains are of the same length, being fastened equidistant from the pipe, the upper ends farther out than the lower. the distance depends on the weight of the gate and the desired force with which it should close. any of the numerous styles of latches can be used, if desired.--contributed by kenneth osborn, loveland, colo. [illustration: the gate will swing in either direction and come to a rest where it closes the opening] a poultry shade if a poultry yard is in an open space where the sun's rays will strike it squarely, a shade can be put up as follows: a piece of old carpet, rug, or canvas, fastened to the wire mesh with clothespins, will produce a shade at any place desired.--contributed by walter l. kaufmann, santa ana, cal. reflector for viewing scenery from a car window construct a box of pasteboard or thin wood, about in. long, in. wide and in. thick, and fasten two pieces of mirror in the ends at an angle of deg., both sloping in the same direction with their reflecting surfaces toward each other. an opening as large as the mirror is cut, facing it, in the box at the end a, and a small hole bored through at the end b so that it will center the mirror. both of these apertures are covered with plain pieces of glass. [illustration: the reflecting device as it is used in a car window for viewing the scenery ahead] in use, the end a is placed outside of the car window and the user places an eye to the small hole b. it is impossible to be struck in the eye with a cinder or flying object.--contributed by mildred e. thomas, gordon, can. a muskrat trap it is difficult to catch muskrats in an ordinary steel trap, as a broken bone allows them to sever the flesh and escape. during the summer these rats build a shelter for the winter constructed of moss and sticks placed on the river or lake bed, the top extending above the water level and the entrance being through a hole in the bottom near one side, while the passage itself is under water. it, therefore, only remains for the trapper to make one of these houses over into a huge wire trap so that the animal may be caught alive. [illustration: a trap for catching muskrats alive in one of their mounds built of moss and sticks] the house a is prepared by removing the top and building the trap from heavy mesh wire which can be easily shaped, the joints being held together by binding the edges with wire. the passage is then fitted with a double trapdoor, the first, b, provided with sharp points on the swinging end, while the other is a falling cover. these two doors are placed in an entrance way, c, made of wire mesh and fastened over the passageway. the muskrat comes up through the passage, pushing a bunch of moss or sticks and does not notice passing the trapdoors. the upper door is to keep the animals caught from getting at the first door.--contributed by vance garrison, bemidji, minn. a casein glue casein glues are splendid in woodworking, making cardboard articles, and when the composition is varied somewhat, make excellent cements for china and metals. casein is made from the curd of soured milk after removal of the fat, and is put on the market in the form of a dry powder. to make the glue, soak the casein powder two hours in an equal weight of hot water. to this gummy mass add about one-seventh the weight of the casein in borax which has been dissolved in very little hot water. stir until all is dissolved after mixing borax and casein. this can be thinned with water to suit and is a good glue, but it can be made more adhesive by the addition of a little sodium arsenate. any alkali, such as soda or ammonia, could be substituted for the borax. to make a china cement, lime or water glass should be substituted for the borax. addition of burnt magnesia increases the speed of hardening. [illustration] the mile-o-view camera by t. b. lambert many have tried, but heretofore no one has succeeded in taking panoramic views from the side of fast-moving trains or street cars. motion pictures are easily obtained from the front or rear of moving trains, but none with the camera lens pointing at right angles, or nearly so, to the track. a complete apparatus for taking continuous and perfect panoramic pictures of any desired length as one travels through a country is too complicated to be described in detail within the limits of this article, but a simple arrangement, invented and constructed by the writer, will enable anyone to perform the experiment at practically no cost except for the film. [illustration: the board used instead of a tripod is placed across the backs of two car seats] some form of a roll-film camera is essential, and simply as a working basis, it will be assumed an ordinary camera is used, post-card camera in size, for which the following things will be required: a piece of thin black card, or hard rubber; a small board, and a piece of wire to be used as a crank. [illustration: these two articles constitute the only parts necessary to change a camera into a mile-o-view] prepare the paper, or hard rubber, by cutting it to a size that will exactly cover the rear camera opening when the back of the camera is removed, which, in the case of a post-card size, is in. long and - / in. wide; then cut a narrow slot, about / in. wide crosswise through the center of the material. this slot should extend to within about / in. of each edge, and the edges must be perfectly smooth and straight. if paper is used, glue it to the opening in the camera. if hard rubber is used, it can be made up as shown and set in the camera opening. this will bring the slot directly back of the lens center and at right angles to the direction in which the film moves when being rolled. [illustration: the two parts as they are applied to an ordinary roll-film camera] a board is prepared, about ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. this is to take the place of a tripod, and it must have a small hole and suitable wing nut to attach the camera near the center. this length of board will reach from the back of one seat to another when it is placed to support the camera during the exposure. a wire, about / in. in diameter, is bent, as shown, with a short hook on one end, and the other turned up at right angles, to serve as a handle. this wire, when hooked into the wing nut, will enable one to wind up the film at a fairly uniform speed. this completes all the necessary apparatus. to take pictures with this panoramic outfit, load the camera in the usual way, but do not wind it up to exposure no. ; stop at a point where the beginning of the film will be nearly opposite the narrow slot in the black paper, or rubber. this would be to stop the turning at about the time the hand pointer appears in the small back window. attach the camera firmly to the board and brace up the lens end so that it will not easily shake with the movement of the car. place the board across the backs of two adjacent seats, so that the camera will point out of the window at exactly right angles to the car. when ready to expose, open the shutter wide, turn the crank that is hooked into the wing nut, and slowly wind up the film while the train is running. this will give a panoramic picture, continuous in character, and if the speed of turning is well judged, some very splendid views can be made. the speed of turning the crank will be governed by the focal length of the lens and the speed of the train. for an average lens, the crank should be given one turn per second when the car is traveling about miles an hour, or the average speed of a street car, a train traveling miles an hour will require two turns of the crank per second. a good method of trying this out is to use one film as a test and turn the crank a few times and note its speed by the second, then stop and begin again at another speed for a few turns and so on, until the entire film is exposed, always noting the turns and time for each change, also the speed of the train. when the film is developed the one that shows best will give the proper number of turns per second. the following points must be considered: the track should not be rough, and the camera must be perfectly steady and not twisted out of position by turning the crank, otherwise the resulting picture will be wavy. if the slot in the back board is not smooth and true, the picture will be streaked. turning the film too fast will make the picture elongated, and too slowly, condensed. should the camera be pointed otherwise than at right angles the picture will be distorted. this arrangement cannot be used to take moving objects except under special conditions. a picture of a passing train of cars can be made if the camera is stationary, but the wheels and drive rods will appear twisted out of shape. it is best for the experimenter to confine himself to scenery at the beginning, avoiding architectural objects, because a variation in speed of turning the crank to wind the film naturally distorts the architecture, which variation is not so noticeable in a scenic view. [illustration] a photographic worktable for small quarters by k. v. reed flat dwellers have no space at their disposal for a person to work at photography, and the bathroom must take the place of a dark room. as this was very inconvenient in my case, i constructed a table, that from all appearances was nothing more than a large-size kitchen worktable, and such a table can be used in case the builder does not care to construct it. the table is turned upside down and the top removed by taking out the screws. the top is made of several pieces glued together and will remain in one piece. it is then hinged at one side to the top edge of the rail, so that it can be turned back like a trunk, or box, cover. boards are then nailed to the under edge of the rails. if a very neat job is required, these boards should be set inside on strips nailed to the inside surfaces of the rails, at the proper place to make the boards come flush with the under edges of the rails. at the back side and in the center of the new bottom, a hole is cut, or in. square, and a box fastened beneath it, to form a bottom several inches below the main bottom. in this space bottles filled with solutions are kept. the main bottom should be painted with an acid-proof varnish. [illustration: an ordinary kitchen worktable fitted up as a handy workshop for the amateur photographer who has a limited space in a flat, and where a table can be used to advantage in a room] the space in the table is then divided, and partitions set up, which can be arranged to suit the builder. another attachment, which comes in exceedingly handy, is the ruby light. this consists of a box, large enough to receive a printing frame at the bottom. two holes are cut in the table top, at the right places to make a window for the light and a slit for the printing frame. when the table top is raised, the box with the light is fastened over the openings with hooks, the arrangement of which will depend on the size and shape of the box. in closing, the lamp box is removed, and pieces of board are set in the holes. this can be easily arranged, if the holes and blocks are cut on a slight slope, so that the latter when set in will not fall through the openings. back thrust prevented on skis to overcome the difficulty of skis slipping back when walking uphill either of the two devices shown is good, if the attachments are fastened to the rear end of the skis. [illustration: two methods of making an attachment to prevent the backward thrust of a ski] the first represents a piece of horse-hide, about in. square, tacked on the ski and with the hair slanting backward. this will not interfere with going forward, but will retard any movement backward. the other consists of a hinged portion that will enter the snow on a back thrust. as the ski end is thin, a block of wood must be attached to it on the upper side, and the projecting piece hinged to the block. the bevel at the end allows it to dig into the snow when the ski starts back. in going forward, it will swing out of the way freely. crystallization shown on a screen the formation of chemical crystals can be shown in an interesting manner as follows: spread a saturated solution of salt on a glass slide, or projection-lantern glass, and allow it to evaporate in the lantern's light or beneath a magnifying glass. the best substances to use are solutions of alum or sodium, alum being preferable. ordinary table salt gives brilliant crystals which reflect the light to a marked degree. for regular formation, where the shape of the crystal is being studied, use a solution of hyposulphite of soda. many startling facts may be learned from the study of crystals in this manner, and watching them "grow" is great sport even to the chemist.--contributed by l. t. ward, des moines, iowa. furniture polish for fine woods boiled olive oil, to which a few drops of vinegar has been added, makes an excellent furniture polish for very fine woods. it will be found to work nicely on highly polished surfaces, and also for automobile bodies. it is applied in moderate quantities, and rubbed to a luster with a flannel cloth. [illustration] enlarging photographs by a. e. swoyer when the photographer wishes to make an enlarged print from a small negative, he arranges a suitable light and condensers back of the negative and by means of a lens projects the resultant image upon a sheet of sensitive paper. owing to the comparative weakness of the light, however, it is necessary either to use bromide paper or some of the faster brands of developing-out paper. if a more artistic medium is desired, a glass positive must first be made and enlarged to produce a negative from which the final prints will be made by contact. this process is somewhat clumsy and expensive, for if any retouching or doctoring is to be done, it must be upon a glass surface, either that of the two negatives or of the intermediate positive. as all of this work is done by transmitted light, there is the loss of fine detail common to all enlargements. the difficulties incident to this process may be done away with by the use of a modification of the popular post-card projector; the alteration consisting simply in the substitution of a better lens for the cheap plate glass with which such instruments are usually fitted. a contact print, preferably on glossy paper, ferrotyped, is made from the original negative by contact in the usual way; this is then placed in the modified projector and the image thrown upon a sensitive plate of the desired size. after a brief exposure, development will show an enlarged negative having every quality of the original. the advantages of this process are obvious. in the first place, the comparative cheapness of the apparatus is a factor; in the second, the intermediate glass positive is eliminated, the print which is substituted for it providing a much better medium for retouching, faking or printing in. transparent water colors in the less actinic shades may be used upon this print to control the final result, and if spoiled, it may be replaced at a negligible cost. [illustration: an ordinary post-card projector used back of a camera to illuminate a photograph which is enlarged on a plate to make a negative instead of a print (fig. , fig. )] at first glance, it would appear as if this method were simply a form of photographic copying; it is, in fact, the reverse. for in copying any object with a camera, the sensitive medium is behind the lens and the object to be copied is in front, and the size of the copy is therefore limited both by that of the camera and by its bellows draw. in the reflection process, the object to be copied is back of the lens and the sensitive medium is in front; as large a copy can be made with a small camera as with an eight by ten. it is really more convenient to work with a short-focus lens and a camera of limited bellows extension; the nearer the lens is to the back of the camera the larger will be the projected image. the diagram (fig. ) shows that the size of the object to be enlarged does not depend upon the focal length of the lens used, as in ordinary enlarging, but simply upon the size of the opening in the front of the projector. the dotted lines are drawn from the edges of the card to be projected through the lens. figure is a sketch of a projector with the lens tube removed, so that it may be used with a camera as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] homemade screen-door spring [illustration] a screen or storm-door spring can be easily made of spring-steel wire. the wire is bent to the shape shown in the sketch and two turns given to the coil as shown at a. the ends of the wire are fastened to the casing and door with staples. two or three of these springs can be attached to one door where it is necessary to have more strength.--contributed by wm. rosenberg, watertown, mass. a surprise water bottle the performer produces a bottle and gives it with a glass to anyone in the audience, asking the person selected to take a drink of a very delicious concoction. when the person attempts to pour out the solution it is found to be frozen. to perform this trick, the fluid must be previously made with a saturated solution of sulphate of soda and hot water. fill a clean white bottle with the solution, taking care to cork the bottle while the liquid is hot. the liquid remains in a fluid state as long as the bottle is corked. when the bottle is shown, it appears to contain a liquid, and in handing it to a person the performer must be careful to take out the cork in time to allow it to solidify. in order to gain the proper time, pretend to be looking for a glass, make some remark about a sudden chill or feel the hand holding the bottle and say it is very cold. in the meantime, the air acting upon the solution has caused it to become fixed and immovable, and when the person attempts to pour it out, he finds it is impossible. a graduate holder a simple and easily constructed graduate holder in the form of a bracket placed in the corner of a dark room is shown in the sketch. the bracket not only holds the graduates securely, but allows them to drain perfectly and prevents dust settling on the inside, as they are suspended by the base. holes of different size are cut in the board to accommodate large, medium and small graduates. [illustration: the graduate holder is permanently fastened in a corner of the dark room] homemade enlarging camera the ordinary hand camera of the focusing type can be used to enlarge pictures from negatives of its own make. the requirement is a device to hold the negative rigid in a position in front of the camera lens, and at such a distance that the rays of light passing through the negative and lens will enter a box of sufficient size for the desired enlargement and focus plainly on a sheet of sensitive paper attached to the end of the box. the first thing to do is to find the distance that is required from the camera lens to the paper enlargement to make the proper size, and the distance from the lens to the negative. a correspondent of camera craft gives the following rule for finding these dimensions: to find the distance between the lens and paper enlargement, add to the number of times the picture is to be enlarged and multiply the result by the focus of the lens in inches. the example given is for a -in. focus lens. an example: a by -in. negative enlarged to by in. is a two-time enlargement (four times in area); + = , and Ã� = , the distance in inches of the lens from the sensitive paper. to find the distance of the lens to the negative, divide the above result, in., by the number of times desired to enlarge, Ã� = , the distance in inches from the lens to the negative. with these figures as a working basis, the box can be made in any size to use any focusing camera. the dimensions given in the drawing are for a by -in. camera having a -in. focus lens, and to enlarge the pictures from a by -in. negative to by in. in the first place make a box - / in. wide, - / in. deep and in. long, inside measurement, using / -in. material, as shown in the sectional drawing a. one end is left open and in the center of the other a hole is cut in. square. [illustration: details of construction and camera complete] the back end of the camera is placed over this hole as shown at b and / -in. strips nailed to the box end around the camera back to exclude all light. the camera must be centrally located. the next to be made is the end board or easel, consisting of two pieces of / -in. material, one - / by - / in., which should fit easily into the end of the box, and a larger one, by in., the outside dimensions of the box, as shown at c. nail the smaller piece to the center of the large one, crossing the grain of wood in so doing. the end board is the easel upon which the sensitive paper is fastened with push pins, and should be covered with a sheet of white paper, pasting it on the - / by - / -in. board with a thin coat of glue. the slide d is a piece of wood / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long. this is fastened to the under side of the box with four screws, placing it exactly in the center and parallel with the sides of the box. be careful to have the slide parallel or the holder will not freely slide upon it. the negative holder e is made of a piece of / -in. board, in. wide and in. long. a hole - / by - / in. is cut in its center, leaving a margin of - / in. on all sides. this holder is set in a groove cut in a block of wood having a mortise cut / by - / in. to fit on the slide easily. a thumb screw is fitted in the center of the bottom of the block of wood. this is used for fastening the negative holder rigidly to the slide when the focus is secured. a -in. hole is bored in the upper corner of the box end, as shown, to serve as a peephole for seeing the image on the end board or easel. this is covered before putting the sensitive paper in the box. the end board is held in position with two flat brass hooks. the camera is held in place with two buttons placed on blocks of wood the height of the camera back, as shown at f. two pieces of clear glass, by in. in size, are held in place in the negative holder by means of buttons, the film negative being placed between them. all the joints in the box must be carefully puttied and the inside of the box blackened, which is done with a mixture of lampblack and alcohol, to which is added a small quantity of shellac to give it body. a darkroom is not essential, a bathroom with the window covered over with orange paper will do, or even a large room with the shades drawn and pinned close to the window casing. it is best to leave a space in one of the windows to be covered with orange paper, doing the developing about ft. from the source of light. to operate the camera place it on the enlarging box, hook the easel in place, put a negative in the holder with the film side toward the lens. take the outfit to a shady place outdoors, point the holder end at an unobstructed portion of the sky and look through the peephole. rack the lens in and out to focus the picture. the easel should have heavy black lines drawn upon it inclosing parallelograms from by in. to by in., so that one can readily see the size of the enlargement to be made. when the focus is obtained take the outfit into the darkroom, remove the easel and fasten the sensitive paper with push pins. replace the easel and take the outfit outdoors again, point it toward the clear sky and make the exposure, which should be at least seconds with a stop. it is best to make a trial exposure on a small strip of paper to find the proper time. directions for the use of bromide papers will be found in each package. an easy way to make a shelf procure an ordinary packing box and mark a line from corner to corner on both ends, as shown, from a to b in fig. . pull out all the nails from the corners that may cross the line. nail the top to the box and saw it on the lines marked and two shelves will be formed which may be used as shown in fig. . boxes dovetailed at the corners will make excellent shelves and look neat if painted. [illustration: two shelves made of one box (fig. , fig. )] [illustration] multiplying attachment for a camera by j. c. moore the hand camera suitable for this work is the kind commonly known as the reversible back, which is a detachable part that carries a ground glass for focusing and a place to insert the plate holders. when this part is removed, it will be seen that the back of the camera is mortised to prevent light from entering. construct a frame to take the place of the back, but make it about / in. larger all around, and make one surface to fit the mortise of the camera box. [illustration: the attachment as it is fitted to the camera and the reversible back in the frame] a back is now made and attached to the frame, to carry the ground-glass reversible back, so that it can be shifted over the center of focus for each small portion of the plate on which the picture is to be made. measure the outside of the plate holder and, doubling the dimensions both ways, lay out a diagram on a piece of paper. lay the plate holder on the paper and move it to the extreme left, then to the right, to see if the center of the plate will coincide with the center of the back. in the same manner locate the center in a vertical position. if the center lines do not coincide, increase the dimensions until this occurs. mark, in the exact center, an opening the size of the plate and cut out the wood. it is best to use a three-ply wood for making the back, but if this cannot be obtained, procure a dry piece of wood and mortise and glue strips to the ends to keep the wood from warping. glue the frame to this back, over the opening, and make attachments to hold it to the camera in the same manner as the reversible back was attached. [illustration: manner of laying out the pattern for the back and locating the exact center] if pictures of two or three different sizes are to be made, the opening in the new back should be fitted with as many new pieces as there are sizes of pictures, each to have an opening of corresponding size. for a by -in. plate, - / by - / -in. pictures is a good size, as there will be room for pictures on the plate with a small margin left for notes. the piece to fill the opening should be made of the same material as the back so that a smooth joint will result. as a board cannot be made smooth enough for a perfectly light-tight joint, the surface on the new back, over which the reversible back travels, must be covered with cloth--a piece of black velvet is suitable--to exclude all light as the plate holder is shifted over the back. a frame is now made to carry the reversible back of the camera, the size of which will depend on the size of the other parts, as well as on the size of the camera to be used. this frame consists of two horizontal strips joined at the ends with grooved pieces, fitting the edge of the new back, so that it may be slid up and down in the grooves. the crosspieces are also rabbeted to receive the reversible back and allow it to be moved back and forth horizontally. the rabbet in the horizontal strips should not be so deep as to permit the extending edge to overlap the ground-glass frame, thus preventing it from moving back as the plate holder is inserted. if the frame on the back and the reversible back fit tightly, they will remain in any position, but if they are loosely fitted, it will be necessary to provide some means to hold them. small springs with pins may be fitted to the vertically moving frame to hold it in the position for the horizontal rows of pictures. the ground glass should be marked for the size picture to be taken. the positions of the frame and plate carrier should also be marked so that the plate holder need not be taken out to find the location and focus for the next picture. connecting a pipe to sheet metal in the absence of a waste nut, an iron pipe can be easily fastened to sheet-metal work as shown in the sketch. the end of the pipe, fig. , is slotted with a hacksaw to form four projections, which are turned outward and their ends rounded as shown in fig. . the face of the projections are tinned and then riveted to the sheet-metal surface, as shown in fig. . after soldering the joint, it will be as good or better than if a waste nut had been used.--contributed by lorin a. brown, washington, d. c. [illustration: the end of the pipe as it is prepared to be riveted on the sheet metal (fig. , fig. , fig. )] an acid siphon when siphoning off acids or other disagreeable or poisonous liquids, it is very important that none of it touch the flesh or mouth. it is almost impossible to do this when starting the ordinary siphon. a siphon that does away with this inconvenience and danger can be made as follows: procure a good bunsen burner and two pieces of / in. glass tube, one ft. and the other in. long. heat the ft. length at a point in. from one end in the flame until it can be bent as shown at a. the other piece should be plugged at one end and then slowly and evenly heated at a point in. from one end. when the glass is soft, blow slowly and steadily into the open end, at the same time turning the tube around in the flame. this will form a bulb, b. the ends of the glass tube are heated and bent as shown, at c and d, and then fused onto the piece a, as shown at e. this can be accomplished by heating the piece a at a point in. from the unbent end. when the glass becomes soft, place one end of a short piece of tube in it and pull out into a thread. break this off as close to the tube as possible, to make a hole in the tube. heat the end of the tube d and also the glass around the hole, and when both become soft, they can be fused together. [illustration: when starting this siphon it is difficult for the liquid to touch the mouth or flesh] in use, close the end not in the liquid and, placing the mouth at f, exhaust the tube, thus filling it with the liquid. when the closed end is opened, the siphon will flow. the liquid collects in the bulb, and if a little care is used, none of it can reach the mouth.--contributed by o. f. tronnes, evanston, ill. bottle-opening trick a local junk dealer, who was also known as the "strongest man in town," used to mystify the folks by opening a bottle, apparently with a stroke of his index finger. his audience saw his index finger strike the stopper, but did not see the knuckle of his second finger strike the eccentric at the point a, as shown in the sketch, causing it to fly up while his index finger b assisted the stopper out of the bottle mouth. [illustration: in striking the bottle cork, the knuckle of the second finger loosens the wire lock] when trying the trick, it is best to select a bottle with a loose stopper, or else wear a glove, as the gentleman who demonstrated the trick had hands of the hard and horny type.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. setting colors in fabrics the colors of fabrics or other materials of any kind may be set by boiling the articles in the following solution: to gal. of soft water add oz. of ox gall. this solution should be boiling when the articles are dropped into it. a chemical reaction results and the colors are set or made nonfading. the process is harmless. colors in wood may be treated in the same manner. towel-roller brackets very serviceable brackets for a towel roller can be made by using ordinary wire clothes hooks, as shown in the illustration. the roller is made of wood and two nails with their heads cut off, one in each end, form bearings to turn in the ends of the hooks. when it is desired to remove the roller, the hooks are sprung apart enough to allow it to drop out.--contributed by hugh carmichael, west lorne, ont. [illustration: the roller brackets are easily adjusted in any location and serve the purpose admirably] a developing-tray rocker the tank method of photographic development is acknowledged as the best, yet there are many who, for various reasons, still use the old-style tray method. for those who use the tray, a splendid and simple method that combines the good qualities of both the tank and tray is the tray-rocking device shown in the illustration. [illustration: developing-tray rocker to keep the liquid in motion over the plate automatically] the rocker consists of a wood box, in. long, in. wide and - / in. deep, made of / -in. material, together with a similar box - / in. deep, that fits over the other as a light-proof cover. both are given a coat of black paint. at the center on the under side of the tray part, a right angle made of strap iron is fastened with screws. on the part projecting down, a hole is drilled to receive a sleeve made of a brass tube which is soldered in place. an ordinary shelf bracket is procured, one end of which is filed and fitted with a strip of metal having both ends turned up slightly. small-pointed pins are fastened in holes drilled near the turned-up part. the points of the pins serve as a knife-edge for the rocker. the extending end of the strap iron is fitted with a pendulum rod having a weight at the bottom. the rocker is attached to the wall in a convenient place in the dark room. the tray with the developer and plate is placed in the box, which is light-tight, and the pendulum is started swinging.--contributed by t. b. lambert, chicago. an adjustable bookholder a very satisfactory adjustable holder for books or letters can be constructed of ordinary materials. a board is used for the base, and two pieces, c, cut from the grooved edges of flooring boards, are fastened on top as shown. a permanent end, a, is fastened to one end of the base. a good-size holder is in. long, in. wide, made of material / in. thick. [illustration: the holder may be used for books or letters and papers as a file] the movable slide b has two pieces attached to its under side, which are cut from the tongued edges of flooring boards. the piece d answers the double purpose of a handle and brace. a lock, e, is made of a bolt, having a long thread and a square head. a hole is bored from the under side through the brace, and a portion of the wood is cut out to admit the nut. a square place is cut out to admit the square bolt head in the bottom pieces. to lock the slide, simply screw the nut upward so that it will push the bolt head against the base.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. an old-oak stain to make old oak of ash, elm, box alder, chestnut, maple, yew, and sycamore wood use a solution of copper acetate, or iron acetate. either of these can be made by allowing a strong acid to come in contact with copper or iron. acetic acid, or vinegar, will do for the acid. the chemical can be obtained from a local druggist if it is not desired to make the stain. by varying the strength of the solution, several shades may be obtained. a weak solution of iron acetate gives various brown hues. as the strength of the salt increases by concentration, the shades of brown darken. tablespoon end used as lemon squeezer in an emergency, the ordinary tablespoon can be used as a lemon squeezer by turning the lemon around the end of the spoon. this produces the same result as obtained with the regular squeezers, which act on the principle of extracting the juice by turning and crushing the lemon over a rough projection which approximately matches the shape of a half lemon.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york, n. y. [illustration: the shape of the spoon bowl produces the same effect as the lemon squeezer] a back stop for a workbench in planing small pieces on a bench, they usually have a tendency to tip up or slide around. this difficulty can be easily overcome by providing the bench with an extra back stop. for this purpose a discarded plane iron will do very well. its edge should be notched so that it will easily enter the wood. the edges of its central slot should be beveled off, if an ordinary wood screw is used to fasten it to the bench. a series of holes, several inches apart and in line with the regular back stop, should be bored in the bench so the screw and iron can be readily changed, to fit varying lengths.--contributed by c. s. rice, washington, d. c. [illustration: a plane bit fastened to the top of a bench to hold blocks while planing them] croquet mallets protected by metal rings [illustration] due to the severe service they are subjected to, croquet mallets very frequently split off at the ends, which spoils them for further use in accurate driving. to prevent this, metal bands may be placed around the ends of the mallets. thin sheet iron, or tin, can be used for this purpose. one end is bent up at right angles, the opposite end is provided with a loop to fit over the upright portion of the first end, and then the loop is closed up and hammered down to draw the metal tightly around the mallet. the ring is secured in place with several tacks, or short nails, driven through the seam.--contributed by h. e. stratmeyer, rockville, md. distance marker for printing photographs a convenient homemade printing device, or distance marker, for printing photographs by artificial light consists of a smooth board on which twelve -in. marks are drawn, as shown. a wall-base electric socket is attached on the first line and the others are numbered up to . a trial test of a negative marks the distance and time of exposure which should be recorded on the negative. such a device makes uniform prints possible and provides a means of recording time on negative-storage envelopes.--contributed by harold davis, altoona, pa. [illustration: the same distance with the same exposure will always produce uniform prints] mantel picture frames made in plaster procure a small oval or rectangular frame of a suitable size and use it as a pattern in making a mold. if it is not necessary to select an expensive frame, one that is straight without any floral designs is the best to use. ordinary molding made into a frame will do as well, or a pattern, whittled out of wood in oval shape, will produce good results. make a flask out of any small box, and fill it with clay instead of molding sand. make an impression of the frame in the clay, and the mold is ready for the plaster. procure four -oz. bottles, fill them with water, and tint the water in three of them red, green, and blue, with dyes. when purchasing the plaster of paris-- lb. will do--also get some brass filings from a machine shop, and mix it with the plaster while in a dry state; then divide the lot into four parts of / lb. each, or equal parts. use the tinted water to mix the plaster and pour it into the mold. this will give the combinations red, green, blue, and white. picture frames made in this manner will stand enough polishing to keep the brass filings on the surface bright and shining, which gives a pretty effect.--contributed by j. b. murphy, plainfield, n. j. a five-pointed star there are many ways of making a five-pointed star, but the one illustrated is new and easy to apply. a long strip of paper, which should be transparent, is tied into a knot. when the ends a and b are drawn tightly, the paper strip takes the position shown in c. the end a is folded forward, or in front of the knot; then the whole is turned over and it will take the position shown in d. hold the paper to a good light and a perfect five-pointed star will be seen.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. [illustration: holding the knot to the light a star will be seen, shown by the dotted lines] fastening portière pole in a doorway a pole can be fastened between two supports, posts, or in a door casing neatly and without fixtures in the following manner: the pole is cut / in. shorter than the space between the casings, and a / in. hole is drilled in each end, one to a depth of - / in. and the other / in. deep, a coil spring being placed in the deepest hole. screws are turned into the center of the location for the pole in the door jambs, allowing one screw head to project / in., and the other at least / inch. [illustration: no fixtures that will show are required with this fastening of a portière pole] to place the pole in position, put the end with the spring in the hole on the screw head projecting / in. and push the pole against the jamb, allowing the other end to pass over the other projecting screw head until it slips into the hole by pressure from the spring. the spring will keep the pole in position.--contributed by ernest f. dexter, hartford, conn. trick with knives and glasses an interesting trick may be performed with three tumblers and three table knives. place the tumblers in an equilateral triangle on a table so the knife ends, when the knives are laid between them, as shown in the plan sketch, are about in. away from the tumblers. the trick is to arrange the knives so that they are supported by the tops of the three tumblers and nothing else. most observers will say that it is impossible; some will try it and in most cases fail. it can be done, and the illustration shows how simply it may be accomplished.--contributed by r. neland, minneapolis, minn. [illustration: knives placed in such a manner as to be supported by the three glasses] a scraper handle in using the ordinary steel-plate scraper, much inconvenience and cramping of the hands is experienced unless some suitable handle is attached. if a piece of scrap wood is taken and cut to a convenient shape, with a groove tightly fitting the scraper steel, greater pressure can be exerted and more effective work produced, without cramping the hands or tiring out the operator as readily.--contributed by a. p. nevin, hancock, mich. [illustration: an ordinary piece of board shaped for a handle and notched for the scraper blade] photographic tray-rocking stand films develop better if the tray holding the solution is kept in motion or rocked. this is inconvenient and tiresome where a great many films are to be developed. the trouble may be overcome by the use of the rocking device shown in the sketch. it may be made of any light wood, the right size to suit the photographer's needs. [illustration: tray rocked automatically by a weight] the tray holder a is pivoted on the uprights c with pins ee. the uprights are fastened to a base, b. two braces, d, one on each side of the upright c, limits the tip of the tray holder a. the weight f works as a pendulum, which automatically rocks the tray when set in motion.--contributed by abner b. shaw, no. dartmouth, mass. kite-line traveler the amusement of kite flying can be broadened by adding the kite-line traveler shown in the sketch. the frame of the traveler is made of poplar, spruce or soft pine, / in. square. the horizontal piece is in. long and the piece to which the wings are fastened is in. long. this piece is cut so it will have a slight slant. the brace is a mitered piece, in. long. the frame is fastened together with small brads, giving it the appearance shown in fig. . [illustration: traveler details (fig. )] after the frame is finished, the traveler wheels are made and attached. they should be / in. thick, about - / in. in diameter, and have a groove cut / in. into their faces. the pattern for cutting the bearings is shown in fig. . these are bent at the places shown by the dotted lines and attached to the main frame stick as shown by bb in fig. . the end view of the bearing is shown in fig. . the metal is bent in as shown by aa, so that the wheel will rotate without much friction. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. , fig. , fig. )] in fig. is shown the method of attaching the wings to the slanting frame part. the wings are made of light cardboard and each fastened with tacks to a wood arm, cut as shown. the large end of each arm is made to hinge in a piece of tin with brads aa. [illustration: (fig. )] fasten a string to the ends of the arm pieces, as shown in fig. , and attach a wire loop to the middle of the string, as shown in fig. . the wire shown at l in fig. is bent and attached to the main frame so it will slide easily. the trip for dropping the wings, as shown in fig. , is a small block of wood about in. square and / in. thick with a / -in. hole in the center. slip the kite line through the hole before tying it to the kite. place the trip about ft. from the kite and wedge it to the string with a small piece of wood. the eyelets ss are necessary, as they make it impossible for the pulley to run off the string. the traveler is first put on the kite string with the end having the loop l (fig. ) up, then, after letting out ft. of string, the trip block is fastened in place and the kite tied to the end of the string. hook the wire loop on the string attached to the ends of the wings in place in the wire catch of l, and it is ready for the flight. when the traveler reaches the trip, the loop l is pushed back, thus causing the end of the wire to slip out of wire loop and the wings to fall back as shown in fig. , when the traveler descends ready to be set for another flight.--contributed by stanley c. funk, bellefontaine, ohio. a mouse trap [illustration] a simple mouse trap can be made of two lengths of steel wire. the spiral wire is / in. in diameter and the center wire is of larger size. the trap is set by pulling out the spring and catching the ends on the bends a and b. the bait is tied on at c. when the mouse puts his head through the coils and pulls the bait, the springs are released and his head is caught between the coils. how to make a small electric furnace the furnace consists of a large flower pot containing an ordinary clay crucible about in. in height, the space between the two being packed with fireclay. two / -in. holes are bored through the sides of the crucible about half way between the top and the bottom. holes corresponding to these holes are molded in the fireclay, which should extend several inches above the top of the flower pot. a smaller crucible is placed inside of the large one for use in melting such metals as copper, brass and aluminum. with metals that will melt at a low degree of heat, such as tin, lead or zinc, the large crucible can be used alone. each crucible should be provided with a cover to confine the heat and keep out the air. the electrodes are ordinary arc-light carbons. [illustration: electric connections to furnace] the furnace is run on an ordinary -volt lighting circuit and it is necessary to have a rheostat connected in series with it. a water rheostat as shown in the sketch will serve to regulate the current for this furnace. small quantities of brass or aluminum can be melted in about minutes in the furnace.--contributed by leonard stebbins, denver, colo. repairing a broken knife handle a piece was broken from the pearl handle of my knife and i repaired it in the following manner: after cleaning both the edges of the pearl and the brass beneath, i run in enough solder to fill the place of the piece of pearl broken out. the solder was then filed, sandpapered and polished. the broken part cannot be felt and it appears to be only an end decoration.--contributed by w. a. humphrey, columbus, o. [illustration: repairing with solder (fig. , fig. )] picture-frame and triangle clamp a picture frame or triangle is quite difficult to hold together when fitting the corners. it is still more difficult to hold them together while the glue dries. the clamp illustrated will be found quite satisfactory in solving this problem, and at the same time is very simple to construct and easy to manipulate. the material list for making the clamps and corner blocks is as follows: picture frame clamp: pieces, - / by - / by in. pieces, - / by - / by in. triangle clamp: pieces, - / by - / by in. piece, - / by - / by in. corner blocks: pieces, / by - / by - / in. pieces, / by by in. the pieces mentioned are of oak, s- -s. piece / -in. maple for dowels hardware: bolts, / by in. bolts, / by in. bolts, / by in. the picture-frame clamp consists of the four arms a, b, c and d, fig. . a / -in. hole is bored in one end of each piece, / in. from the end. a series of / -in. holes, in. apart, are bored along the center in each piece. the two short pieces, e and f, have two / -in. holes bored in their centers, / in. from each end. these pieces are bolted to the four arms with / -in. bolts as shown in the sketch. a / -in. hole is bored in the middle of each piece e and f for one of the -in. bolts k. [illustration: the corner blocks on both picture frame and triangle clamps are so constructed that they hold the molding together while fitting the corners and also hold them securely while the glue is hardening (fig. )] the four corner blocks g, h, i and j, fig. , have a / -in. hole bored in the center of each and a dowel glued into it with the end projecting - / in. on the under side and level with the surface on the upper side. each of the corner blocks is fitted with two pieces like x, fig. . each of these pieces has one end round or a semicircle, and in its center a / -in. hole is bored. the other end has a / -in. hole bored / in. from the end. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] after making the small pieces, take the four corner blocks g, h, i and j and draw a line on the upper side in the center, with the grain of the wood, and mark the angles as follows, so that one-half the angle will be on each side of the center line: on one end of the pieces g and h mark a -deg. angle, on the other end a -deg. angle, on the piece i mark a -deg. and -deg. angle and on j mark a -deg. and -deg. angle. mark the number of degrees of each between the sides of the angle. place two of the pieces marked x, fig. , on each of the corner blocks, one piece on each side between the different angle lines, so their round ends will be toward the center and toward each other with a space of / in. between them. clamp the pieces to the corner blocks and bore the / -in. holes through them to secure perfect alinement. put the bolts in and turn the pieces first to one angle and then the other, and while in the respective positions, bore the / -in. holes / in. deep in the corner blocks. glue a dowel in each / -in. hole of the small pieces, allowing it to project / in. on the under side so it will fit in the / -in. hole in the corner block. be sure to countersink the holes for the heads of the bolts. all bolts should be fitted with wing nuts. all that is necessary to change from one angle to another is to loosen the nuts and swing the small pieces around so the dowel pins will drop into the other holes, then tighten the nuts. the triangle clamp is made in the same manner as the picture-frame clamp, except that the arms l and m, figs. and , are half-lapped into the crosspiece p. the bolt o is / in. and the head is cut off. drill a / -in. hole in the bolt, / in. from the end, and bore a / -in. hole in the end of the arm n. insert the headless bolt o in this hole and drive a nail through the side of the arm n, so it will pass through the hole drilled in the bolt. this keys the bolt in the end of the arm n. to clamp a picture frame, set the corner blocks g, h, i and j to the -deg. angles and adjust them on the arms a, b, c and d to accommodate the size frame to be made, as shown in fig. . tighten the thumbnut on the bolt k, and this will draw all four corners together with the same pressure. the corners can then be examined to see if they fit properly. if they do not, saw in the joints with a backsaw until they do fit. the triangles are clamped in the same way. the corner blocks are set to take the proper angles. the ends of the bolts should be slightly burred over so that the thumbnuts cannot be turned off.--contributed by chas. a. pettit, baltimore, md. exterior sliding fly screen the method shown for fitting fly screens on the outside of the upper and lower sash permits the screen to be raised and held at different heights. screweyes are turned into the outer strips, as shown in fig. . the sides of the screen frame are grooved, fig. , to allow it to slide up and down on the screweyes. [illustration: the heads of the screweyes in the window-frame stop slide in a groove cut in the screen frame (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the screen can be raised and two of the screweyes turned from the normal vertical position, a, fig. , to a horizontal position, b, to hold the frame at that point. by the use of a greater number of screweyes more places can be provided to support the screen at different heights.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. bushing a stovepipe in a chimney hole when a stovepipe is too small for the hole in the chimney, a bushing can be made of the kind of metal tobacco boxes that are curved to fit in a pocket. remove the tops and bottoms of the boxes and shove them in around the pipe. if such tobacco boxes are not at hand, tin cans of any kind can be used by melting off the tops and bottoms and bending the remaining cylindrical shells into proper shape.--contributed by elmer mcconaughy, dayton, o. a screweye driver [illustration] an ordinary wire nail, in. long, bent as shown and with its head filed square, makes a good tool for turning in screweyes. the square head is readily held in the chuck on most braces. the screweye can be turned in with greater speed than by the ordinary method.--contributed by robert t. johnston, buffalo, new york. copying stand for photographic enlarging and reducing a camera stand or table, which can be put to many uses, is easily made and, when made, will be of particular service, says work, london, for enlarging, reducing, copying, and, with a slight modification, for making lantern slides by reduction. copying with a camera on a tripod is always a more or less complicated job, because of the ease with which a picture, being focused, may be thrown out of focus, and even out of the field of view, the camera not being attached to the same support as the picture. with the stand shown in the illustration, the picture is attached to the same support as the camera. this makes it possible to place the apparatus on a table, out in the open, or in any other suitable position, where the light may be best for the work. when used for enlarging with artificial light it will also be found convenient, as it may be placed in any position in a darkened room. [illustration: camera stand for use in copying and enlarging, as well as for making lantern slides (fig. )] the size of the stand will depend on the sizes of pictures to be made, but it is better to have it too large than too small, as a small camera can be used on a large stand while a small stand would be of only limited use. the general appearance of the stand is shown in fig. . the material list is as follows: sides, / in. by - / in. by ft., s- -s. crosspieces, / in. by in. by ft. in., s- -s. guides, / in. by - / in. by ft. in., s- -s. bottom pieces, in. by in. by ft. in., s- -s. easel, / in. by ft. in. by ft., s- -s. cleats, / in. by - / in. by ft. in., s- -s. straight-grained soft pine or poplar is the best material to use. the side pieces should be narrowed at one end or to a point about halfway of their length. the extent of this narrowing will depend somewhat on circumstances. the guide pieces are then attached with screws, the two upper pieces so that they have their upper edges flush with the edges of the side boards. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] the bottom piece, on which the camera is to be set, is made of the two pieces, cut as shown in fig. , and joined with cleats, as in fig. . the space left after part of one side of each board has been cut away, should be sufficient to make a slot which, when the boards are joined together, will admit the screw to hold the camera in place. a rod is run through holes bored in the sides, just below the two pairs of guides, and fitted with a wing nut for clamping the sliding bottom when a focus and the size of the picture is found. in copying, the camera is attached to the bottom board and the picture is tacked to the easel. the camera is then focused roughly by means of the rack and pinion, the final, fine focusing being done by moving the sliding bottom board. for enlarging, the lantern is placed on the sliding bottom and the bromide paper tacked to the easel. [illustration: (fig. )] for lantern-slide work, which is reducing, it is necessary to cut an aperture in the easel, after the manner shown in fig. . the edges of the opening have a rabbet to receive first a ground glass and then the negative, both being held in place with turn buttons. it is not necessary to have two easels, as this opening can be fitted with a piece to make a level surface when the apparatus is used for copying or enlarging. to make whitewash stick to surfaces coated in using whitewash much difficulty is experienced in making it stick to the substance covered. a good way to prevent the coating from cracking and peeling off is to add oz. of pure sodium chloride to every gal. of whitewash mixture. this is not expensive, but should be secured at a drug store because some salts of sodium are not pure and will darken the whitewash. the sodium chloride should be added after the whitewash solution is made up. when this mixture is used in buildings it will destroy all vermin which it touches. a mechanical camera [illustration] the young person who likes to draw will find the device illustrated of great assistance for outlining a portrait or a bit of scenery which can be filled in to make the picture. the camera consists of a box without a cover, about in. long, in. wide and in. deep. an oblong hole is cut in one end, a small hole bored in the other, and a piece cut out of the lower edge so that one eye can be placed close to the hole. the oblong hole, shown by the dotted lines, is covered with a fine perforated cardboard, the kind used for working in mottoes with yarn. supports are nailed in the corners of the box, their length being calculated to allow the operator to sit or stand, as desired. [illustration: outlining a portrait on the perforated paper placed over the oblong hole in the camera] the camera is used in the manner illustrated. if a portrait is to be drawn, then the one sitting for it must be quiet until the outlines are completed. the operator, looking through the hole, traces the lines on the cardboard between the perforations. when the outlines are drawn in this manner, the cardboard is removed and placed on the paper or cardboard used for the picture. the outline is then transferred by marking with a sharp-pointed pencil through the perforations on the outlines as drawn. after separating the two pieces, the markings can be connected with a continuous line and an exact outline will be obtained which can be filled in as desired. the outline picture is a sample of work done with the camera.--contributed by florence thomas, gordon, ont. gauge attachment for a pocket rule [illustration] the base of the gauge a is cut from a block of hard wood, about - / in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. a notch is cut in one side to admit the rule and the wedge b, which has a slot that slides on a pin in the base. a small metal clip keeps the wedge in place. the gauge can be readily set on the rule at any mark. plate hangers in hanging old china plates for decorative purposes use three large white dress hooks, placed at equal distances apart on the edge of the plate. the hanging wire or cord is run through them from the back side and drawn up tightly. these hooks are much better than the ordinary plate hanger, as they are small and will not show much on the plate. an electrically operated camera shutter [illustration: the electromagnet trips a spring plunger that forces a piston on the camera air bulb] it is often quite desirable to operate the shutter of a camera from a distance, especially in photographing birds and animals. the device shown in the accompanying sketch serves the above purpose very nicely, and its construction and operation are exceedingly simple. in brief, the operation is as follows: the switch a is mounted on the limb of a tree, in such a manner that it is not conspicuous, and connected in series with a magnet, b, and a battery by means of a piece of flexible conductor, such as lamp cord. the magnet b is energized when the switch is closed and attracts the iron armature c, which is mounted on an arm, pivoted at d. the lower end of this arm is in the form of a latch, which supports the rod e when it is raised to its upper position. the rod e when it is raised compresses the coiled spring f, which is held between the gauge g and the washer h mounted on the rod. a small coil spring holds the armature c away from the core of the magnet b. the lower end of the rod e is in the form of a piston operating in a wooden cylinder j. the rubber bulb at the end of the tube leading to the camera shutter is located in the lower end of the cylinder j. when the rod e is released by the latch k, it moves downward in the cylinder j, due to the action of the spring f, and compresses the bulb l, causing the shutter of the camera to be operated. a small handle, m, may be mounted on the rod to be used in raising it to the upper position. the component parts of this device may be mounted on a small wooden base by means of brass straps, and the terminals of the electric circuit connected to the binding posts n and o, as shown. the switch a may be dispensed with and a push button used in its place, as the operator may station himself several hundred feet away. it may be necessary to use a battery of more than one cell in such cases. electroplating without a tank electroplating without a plating tank is made possible with the following easily homemade apparatus described in a german scientific magazine. it consists of a rubber ball, a, fitted at one end with a glass tube, b, which carries at the opposite end a small sponge. a rod, d, passes through the rubber ball, which is tightly corked at both ends, into the glass tube b and carries at that end the anode e. a small glass tube, f, also connects the rubber ball with the larger tube b. the connections from the battery to the cathode, g, the object to be plated, and to the projecting end of the anode-carrying rod, d, are made as shown. the rubber ball is filled with the electrolyte, and is squeezed so as to force the fluid through the small tube f, into the larger tube, b, filling it and soaking the sponge c. the current is then turned on, and by moving the wet sponge over the cathode g, the latter will be plated. not only is this an interesting accessory for the amateur's laboratory, but it can be used in the industry where only parts of some object are to be plated, and where it is desired to remedy bad spots without putting the articles back into the bath. [illustration: a hand tool for applying a plate electrically to the surface of metal] a milk-bottle tray bottled milk is difficult to deliver without knocking the bottles together when carrying them or while in a wagon. there are several kinds of wire baskets for carrying the bottles, but they all have the disadvantage of allowing the bottles to strike one another. a carrier not having this fault can be made very cheaply as follows: procure a board in. thick, in. wide and ft. long, plane and make it smooth, and use ordinary tin fruit or vegetable cans for the bottle holders. cut each can off - / in. from the bottom and smooth off the jagged edges with a file. nail these in two rows on the board, starting in. from each end. attach a segment of a barrel hoop for a handle. the carrier can be painted as desired.--contributed by g. h. clemmons, storm lake, iowa. [illustration: parts of tin cans fastened to a board for holding milk bottles] a springboard select straight-grained hickory or ash for the springboards. these can be of any width to make up the board to in. wide. the frame part may be of any material of the dimensions given in the sketch. the butt ends of the springboard should be well fastened to the crosspiece with screws, or, better still, small carriage bolts with the nuts on the under side. [illustration: a springboard for use in connection with a vaulting pole or for turning acts] the crosspiece at the rear is cut on the angle of the springboard. the front crosspiece is mortised into the frame, and the one near the center is laid on top of the two side rails. the rear crosspiece is either fastened with large dowels or mortised into the sidepieces. this springboard will be of use in connection with a back-yard gymnasium for vaulting and doing turning acts. planing rough-grain boards the surface of a board having a grain that runs both ways is very hard to smooth with a plane. by sharpening the plane iron to a keen edge, then placing it in the plane with the cap reversed and set about / in. from the cutting edge, i find that with a light cut the plane will smooth regardless of the direction of the grain.--contributed by william rollins, wichita, kansas. braces for aeroplane frames in making model aeroplanes or gliders the brace shown will serve the purpose admirably. the size and strength of the metal used will depend on where it is to be used. the metal is bent into the shape shown with the use of a vise. the manner of attaching the braces is clearly shown.--contributed by francis chetlain, chicago. [illustration: the braces are cut from stake iron or sheet metal according to the size machine being built] a puzzle purse the puzzle purse is made of four pieces of chamois, two of the pieces being merely flaps, one on each side at the upper edge. one of the pieces forming one side of the purse extends upward for about twice the height of the purse part. the part above the purse has a number of slits cut in it to make the width of each strip / in. these slits should be accurately cut in order that the purse may be opened easily. the other half is only the size of the purse proper. the upper edge of the latter piece and the flap on that side are stitched together to the flap on the opposite side, the threads of the stitches running between the strips of the long piece. these stitches are made on the line ab and around the edge. [illustration: the strips of leather sliding through the stitches make the puzzle part of the purse] to open the purse, take hold of each side on the purse part and draw the pieces apart. in doing so, the strips are drawn through the stitches so that they may be separated and a coin taken from the purse. a pull on each end will close the purse.--contributed by chas. motton, toronto, ont. an emergency sandpapering machine while doing some work i had several small pieces to be finished with sandpaper. they were so small and of such a shape that it was impossible to do the work by hand. not having a sanding machine, i used a disk talking machine for the purpose. i placed a sheet of sandpaper over the disk and fastened it to the felt at the corners with pins. the machine was then set going at its highest rate of speed, and the articles were smoothed by holding them on the disk.--contributed by fred s. barnard, los angeles, cal. a developing machine the base of the developing machine consists of a wood tray with sloping ends and high sides, which is placed at the center and provides bearings for the wheel axle. the dimensions given in the sketch are for making a machine to develop a film about in. long. the disk, or wheel, is cut from a board, / in. thick, and the attached crosspieces are cut from / in. dowels to make them - / in. long. these are placed about in. apart on the circumference of the disk. an axle, fastened solidly in the wheel and adjusted in the bearings, is kept from slipping sideways by bushings made of a spool. a crank is attached to one end of the axle. hot paraffin is applied to the inside of the tank part, to make it liquid-tight. two pins or hooks are attached to one of the crosspieces to catch into the film end. if the wheel is the correct size, the same pins can be used for fastening the other end of the film. [illustration: the entire length of film is placed on the wheel where it is run through the developer] the film is first attached to the wheel; then, while turning slowly, the developer is poured into the tray. keep on turning the wheel until full development is obtained, then pour out the liquid and turn in fresh, clear water, and turn the wheel to wash out the developer. remove the film and place it in the hypo bath.--contributed by raymond m. bealer, baltimore, md. a stove-wood carrier a handy wood carrier, for bringing wood and kindling from the basement or yard to the wood box in the house, may be made from a grain sack, as shown in the sketch. use a complete sack and make rope handles at each end. when used, place only sufficient wood or kindling in it to permit the handles to come together over the top of the load. this will make a comfortable grip and it is no harder to carry than a medium-weight suitcase. when the wood is removed the carrier can be taken to the back yard and shaken out, thus doing away with the dirt that usually results from other methods of filling wood boxes.--contributed by walter nelson kidston, seattle, wash. [illustration: the ropes at the ends of the sack make a handle to carry it like a grip] a pencil sharpener a pencil sharpened with the device shown will have a better point and one that will not break easily while being sharpened. the lower arm a is made from a strip of sheet steel, / in. thick. an extension, / in. wide, is cut and bent in a circle to form the lower finger hold. the upper arm b forms the cutter, which is made from a piece of hacksaw blade. the teeth are ground off and the temper is drawn from the extension that forms the upper circle. a portion of the arm a is bent over, as shown at c, to form a support for the pencil point to rest upon. a hole, large enough for a pencil to turn in, is bored through a stick of hardwood, d, and tapered so that the center of the hole meets the inner edge of c. it is fastened to the lower arm with screws. a sharp cutting edge is ground on the blade which is then attached to the arm a with a rivet loosely enough to swing freely.--contributed by j. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: a pencil sharpener that will make a point without breaking the lead] cleaning an oilstone use kerosene oil and a sprinkling of emery flour and proceed to sharpen tools. it is not necessary to clean a stone thus treated before placing the tool on it, as the emery and kerosene will make a good surface on the stone as well as assisting in producing a sharp edge on the tool.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. landing for small boats not having a landing for my small boat, i made a series of sectional platforms, rising ft. above the bottom, which served the purpose well and were inexpensive. each section is about ft. long, ft. wide, and ft. high. the frame is made of material in. thick and in. wide, and on top is a floor made of boards, while the bottom consists of by -in. crosspieces, nailed on in. apart. stones are laid on these crosspieces to moor it down in place. the whole landing is simple to make and it lasts a long time, as the sections can be drawn out and stored during the winter.--contributed by henry briggs, lexington, massachusetts. [illustration: the series of platforms make a good small-boat landing on a slanting beach] bearings for model work for experimental work i use hangers or bearings made of sheet brass or copper, bent at right angles for strength and capped with a box. the main part of the bearing a is shaped as shown, and the box b consists of a small piece cut from a brass rod and drilled for the size of the shaft. the box is soldered to the top end of a and the base c to the bottom end. when a large metal base is used for a certain model, the part a is attached directly to that base and the part c need not be used. [illustration: sheet-copper support with a base and a shaft bearing soldered to the ends] the bearings can be made in different heights, each of which will demand a corresponding size and thickness of the parts. sheet brass or copper, / in. thick, is about right for a bearing in. high.--contributed by w. e. day, pittsfield, mass. holding the tongue of a shoe in place the tongue in a shoe will often slip down or over to one side or the other and expose the hose. to overcome this and have the tongue fit snugly in the right place, fasten a common lace clasp or hook near the top of the tongue, as shown in the illustration, so that in lacing the shoe the laces are passed under the hook to hold the tongue in place. [illustration: the hook on the tongue of the shoe and manner of lacing to hold the tongue] a photo vignetter procure a piece of heavy wire, one that is fairly stiff, says camera craft, and a pair of pliers and bend the wire with the pliers as shown in the illustration. after the loop is made to fit around the lens barrel the wire is bent at right angles at a point in. below the circle. at a distance of in. on the extending part of the wire it is bent as shown to form a clip for holding a sheet of cardboard. [illustration: the arm for holding the vignette cardboard is made of a heavy piece of wire] the cardboard should be about in. wide and of dark color, with one edge cut semicircular and notched. the size of the wire and the other measurements will depend upon the size and focal length of the lens. if a heavy vignetting card is required, it may be necessary to make the portion that encircles the lens double in length, bending it back upon itself to secure a firmer hold. this is a cheap and efficient vignetter that anyone can make in a few moments of spare time. pocket for the inside of a book cover students or anyone wishing to retain notes on a subject will find it quite handy to have a large envelope pasted in the back of each textbook. instead of having notes all through the book, they can be arranged in order and slipped into the envelope. if the book is accidentally dropped, the notes will not be lost.--contributed by harold mynning, chicago, ill. cleaning steel of grease and stains grease and stains can be easily removed from steel with a mixture of unslaked lime and chalk powder, by rubbing it on the steel with a dry cloth. the best proportion for the mixture, which is easily prepared, is part of lime to part of chalk powder. the powder should be used dry. it is kept in cans for future use and can be used over and over again.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. an electrically ignited flash light for making photographs the results obtained in a great many cases in trying to take pictures by flash-light are exceedingly unsatisfactory, as the expression on the faces of the people in the picture usually is strained or unnatural, due to the suspense in waiting for the flash. the following simple device avoids this difficulty because the flash is set off by means of electricity, so that the operator can control the flash from a distant point and thus be able to take the picture quite unawares to his subjects. the construction of the device is as follows: obtain a piece of rather heavy sheet iron, about in. wide and in. long. bend this piece of iron into the form shown in the sketch, and fasten a wooden handle to it with a wood screw. obtain a sheet of / -in. sheet asbestos, the same size as the piece of sheet iron, and glue it to the inside surface of the curved piece of iron. it is best to fasten the four corners down by means of some small rivets with rather large washers under the heads next to the asbestos. now mount two pieces of sheet copper, / in. wide and in. long, parallel with each other on the surface of the asbestos and - / in. apart, so that their ends are even with the end of the piece of asbestos. these pieces of copper should be insulated from the piece of sheet iron, and there should be a small screw in one end of each and a small binding post mounted on the other end. [illustration: the asbestos-lined tray and the wiring connections for attaching to the electric-light wires] procure a piece of lamp cord, or ft. in length. fasten an ordinary plug to one end of this cord and the other end to the two binding posts. open one of the conductors in the cord at some point and introduce a single-pole switch, as shown in the sketch. close the gap between the two pieces of copper by means of a piece of no. gauge copper wire. place the flash-light powder in position, but do not cover up the wire or have it in actual contact with the powder, and close the circuit. the operator may include himself in the picture by having a sufficiently long piece of lamp cord and the switch properly arranged. a simple twine-ball holder [illustration] in looking for a place to put a twine ball i happened to see a tin funnel and it gave me the idea which i put into practice. i punched three holes at equal distances apart in its upper edge and attached three strings which were run to an apex and tied to a screweye in the ceiling. the end of the twine from the center of the ball was run through the funnel stem and allowed to hang as in an ordinary ball holder.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. * * * * * a filler for birch, red gum and beech can be made of lb. of bleached shellac to each gallon of water. a toy popgun a toy popgun can be easily made of two blocks of hard wood, / in. thick; a joint of bamboo, about / in. in diameter and in. long; a small hinge, a piece of spring steel, / in. wide and in. long, and a piece of soft wood for the plunger. the plunger a is cut to fit snugly, yet so it will move easily in the piece of bamboo b. one of the blocks of hard wood, c, is bored to fit one end of the bamboo, the other block has a / -in. hole bored, to center the hole in the first block. the two blocks are hinged and the spring latch attached as shown in the sketch. the spring has a hole drilled so it can be fastened with a screw to the outer block, and a slot cut in the other end to slip over a staple driven into the block c. [illustration: detail of popgun, showing the parts assembled and position of the paper] a piece of paper, d, is placed in between the blocks while the plunger a is out at the end of the bamboo. a quick pressure on the plunger a will cause the paper d to break out through the small opening with a loud pop.--contributed by paul h. burkhart, blue island, ill. a non-rolling thread spool [illustration] a spool of thread may be kept from rolling by gluing squares of cardboard to the ends. the squares should be a little larger than the spool. this will save many a step and much bending over to pick up the spool. the spool, when it falls, will stop where it landed.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. shoe-shining stand to anyone who finds it tiresome to shine his shoes while putting the foot on the rim of a bathtub, on a cook-stove or chair with a newspaper on it, the stand here described will afford relief and at the same time he will always have the shining outfit ready for use. [illustration: dimensioned parts and completed stand which has a box to hold the shining outfit] the whole is of pine, the foot rest being made of a piece by in.; the legs, of by in., and the bottom of the box, of / by - / in. all other dimensions are given in the sketch. after the legs are attached and the bottom of the box in place, the sides are fitted and fastened with nails.--contributed by samuel hughs, berkeley, cal. cutter made of a wafer razor blade a useful instrument for seamstresses and makers of paper patterns and stencils can be made of a piece of steel or iron and a wafer razor blade. the end of the metal is flattened and two holes drilled to match the holes of the razor blade. small screw bolts are used to attach the blade to the handle. place a cork on one edge as a protection for the hand of the user.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. [illustration: the wafer blade attached to the handle, the top edge being protected with a cork] [illustration] to hold a negative in a printing frame when printing postal cards and working fast, it always bothered me to hold the negative in the printing frame while removing the card. to overcome this trouble i decided to contrive some arrangement to hold the negative in the frame when the back was removed. the device i made consists of a thin, flat spring, about / in. wide and as long as the width of the frame opening. two lugs are formed and soldered to the ends, as shown in fig. , for holding the plate, and a central lug is soldered on to provide a means of fastening the spring in position. a groove, about / in. deep, was cut in the opposite end of the frame to receive one end of the negative. [illustration: the spring with its clips and manner of holding a negative in a printing frame (fig. , fig. )] in use, slide the plate into the frame and into the lugs on the spring, and push the spring upward until the plate can be slipped into the slot at the opposite end of the frame. the pressure of the spring, as shown in fig. , will hold the plate securely. the frame can be handled quite roughly and as fast as desired without any danger of the plate falling out.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, montana. * * * * * a number of bright tin disks tied to the limbs of a fruit tree will prove an efficient means of driving away infesting birds. how to make an electrolytic interrupter [illustration] obtain a glass jar or wide-mouth bottle about one-quart size. an ordinary round bottle will serve very nicely by having the top cut off, thus forming a glass jar. make a top for the jar from a piece of / -in. pine similar to the one shown in the illustration. the lower portion extends down inside the jar and serves to hold the top in place. cut a slot in this top, / in. wide and in. long. this slot should be cut at right angles to a diameter of the top and extend in. on either side of the diameter. it should be about / in. from the center of the top. directly opposite the center of the slot drill a / -in hole, / in. from the center of the top. drill a / -in. hole in the center of the top to give ventilation to the jar. boil the completed top in paraffin for a few minutes. obtain a piece of / -in. sheet lead, in. wide and about / in. longer than the depth of the jar. mount a small binding post on one end of this piece of lead and then support it in the slot in the wooden top by means of two metal pins. the lower end of the piece of lead should be at least / in. from the bottom of the jar. next get a piece of / -in. glass tube and fuse a piece of platinum wire into one end. make sure the inside end of the platinum wire is not covered with the glass, and that the outside end protrudes a short distance beyond the end of the glass tube. now bend about / in. of the end of the glass tube which has the platinum in it over at right angles to the remainder of the tube. the tube should then be placed in the opening on the wooden top provided for it and a rubber band placed around it to prevent it dropping through the opening. the lower end of the tube should be a little higher than the lower end of the sheet of lead. a small quantity of mercury should be placed in the tube and a bare copper wire run down inside. the mercury affords a connection between the piece of platinum in the end of the tube and the copper wire. connect the outside end of the copper wire under a binding post and the interrupter is complete with the exception of the solution. the solution for the interrupter is dilute sulphuric acid made by mixing about four parts of water and one part of acid. in preparing this mixture, be sure to pour the acid into the water, not the water into the acid. the jar should be about two-thirds filled. at least volts will be required for the satisfactory operation of the interrupter. the distance between the platinum point and the lead sheet may be adjusted by simply turning the glass tube. no condenser will be required in operating an inductor coil with an interrupter of this kind. the make-and-break interrupter, if there is one in circuit, should of course be made inoperative by screwing up the contact point against the spring. a homemade hand drill press the little use i had for a drill press did not make it advisable to purchase one, so i constructed a device for drilling iron and brass which answered all purposes. a broken carpenter's brace furnished the chuck, which was fastened to a / -in. shaft having a detachable crank. the shaft turns in a brass tube which is fitted tightly in a hole bored in the upright. the sliding part or table is forced up against the drill with a / -in. machine bolt. the bolt turns in a square nut fastened in the opposite post. the end of the screw bears on a plate fastened on the under side of the table to prevent wear. a crank could be attached to this bolt so that it may be turned more easily. [illustration: a very inexpensive drill press frame which answers the purpose admirably] the sliding or table part is made of a post similar to the end posts, but with guides attached so as to keep it in place. the holes for the chuck shaft and bolt should be bored on a line and exactly in the center of the posts.--contributed by l. r. kelley, philadelphia, pa. a hose nozzle the nozzle shown in the accompanying sketch was made from an empty tobacco can having an oval shape. i cut the can in two near the center and punched small holes in the bottom. i then cut a piece of / -in. board to fit tightly in the end of the can and turned the edges of the tin down to hold it in place. a hole was bored in the center of the wood and a / -in. hose coupling fitted in it. the water will swell the wood enough to make an absolutely watertight joint, but by using a little care in fitting it, the joint will be watertight without the swelling. [illustration: the oval form of the box makes it possible to sprinkle close up to walks] the holes being punched in straight lines, the nozzle throws a rectangular section of fine streams, which makes it possible to sprinkle close up to walks without wetting them. the friction is much less than in the ordinary hose nozzle, and consequently this nozzle delivers more water and also materially reduces the strain on the hose.--contributed by j. b. downer, seattle, washington. an electric water heater a simple electric water heater may be made as follows: procure two sheets of copper, each by in., and place pieces of wood or other insulating material at the corners to keep them about / in. apart. bind them with cords, or, if the wood pieces are large enough, use screws so that there will be no contact between the plates. attach wires to the plates with solder as shown, and make connections to a plug. pour water in an earthenware jar, place the plates in it and turn the plug in a lamp socket. do not use a metal vessel.--contributed by g. henry jones, sylacauga, ala. [illustration: an inexpensive electric water heater made of two copper plates] frosting glass procure a piece of flat iron similar to an iron hoop, bend it, as shown in the sketch, to make a piece in. long and - / in. wide and file one edge smooth. sprinkle some fine lake sand over the glass, dampen the sand and rub the smooth edge of the iron band over the glass. it requires only a short time of rubbing to produce a beautiful frosted surface on the glass.--contributed by m. e. duggan, kenosha, wis. [illustration: the filed edge on the coiled metal retains the sand particles as it is rubbed over the glass surface] long handle for a dustpan [illustration] the dustpan is a rather unhandy utensil to use, especially for stout persons. one porter overcame this difficulty by attaching a long handle to the pan as shown in the illustration. the handle was taken from a discarded broom and a yoke of heavy wire was attached to it, the ends being bent to enter holes punched in the upturned edge of the pan. a stout cord, fastened to the handle and tied into the ring of the dustpan handle, keeps the pan from turning backward, and it is thus possible to push it or carry it with the long handle. to fasten chair legs chair legs often become loose when chairs are handled roughly, so that the glue is broken up. a small device made from a piece of pointed metal, a, which is securely fastened to the end of the chair leg by means of a screw, will hold the legs more firmly than wire or glue. when the leg is driven into the hole, the points are pushed into the wood b as the metal flattens. [illustration: the metal on the end of the leg fastens it solidly in place] disk-throwing pistol a pistol for throwing small disks of paper or metal balls, can be easily made at almost no expense as shown in the sketch. two pieces of board, one of which is shaped to the form of a pistol, are hinged together and a fairly strong spiral spring is fastened at the front end of the movable piece and the middle of the other. a slot is sawed in the movable piece to hold the disk, or a small round depression may be formed in it to receive a bean, pea, or shot. the movable arm is folded back and held in position by means of a stirrup of wire fastened on the other part. when the movable part is disengaged by pulling the stirrup away with the finger, the disk will be thrown with considerable force, depending on the strength of the spring. [illustration: disks of paper or metal as well as shot may be thrown with this pistol] displaying dye colors a certain druggist utilized old electric bulbs for displaying dye colors. water was colored with a dye and the end of a bulb dipped into the liquid. then the tip end was broken off, and the bulb being a vacuum, the colored water was drawn into it, and filled the globe. the point was then sealed with paraffin. [illustration: globes filled with colored water, representing the different colors of dyes carried in stock] a ring-shaped piece, in. in diameter and - / in. wide, was cut from a piece of board, and -in. holes bored, - / in. apart, in one-half of the ring, the globes holding the colored water were set in these holes and a light with a round shade placed in the center. it proved to be an attractive display and a good method of showing the colors.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. a homemade bench vise a serviceable and inexpensive bench vise can be made in the following manner: procure a piece of hard wood, in. thick, and shape it into an eccentric with an extending handle, as shown at a. the jaws b are made of material in. thick, and the drawbar c is a by -in. piece of hickory. the outer end of the bar is slotted to receive the eccentric handle, through which a bolt, d, passes to form a bearing. holes are bored into the opposite end of the bar, in. apart, into which a peg is inserted to come against the back side of the rear jaw. this provides an adjustment for a range of various thicknesses of material. another bar is located at the bottom of the jaws to provide a means of keeping the jaws parallel. this bar is made in a similar manner to the bar c. the rear jaw can be fastened to the side of a bench, post, or any support that may be handy.--contributed by wm. s. thompson, columbia, tenn. [illustration: a vise that can be quickly constructed where no bench vise is at hand] [illustration] timing photo printing having hundreds of postals of a single subject to print, i made a perfect timing apparatus for exposing the prints from an old metronome and an old gong magnet. a disk, b, in. in diameter, was made of heavy tin with two apertures, c c, each cut in. in diameter, on a line with the center of the disk, and in. from the edge. a large spool, f, was used to serve as a hub and also as a reel on which strong twine was wound, with a weight, e, attached to the free end. [illustration: details of timing apparatus] the disk was bolted to the partition p of the darkroom, the partition having a hole, g, to coincide with the holes in the disk as it revolved. four catch pins were fastened on the rim of the disk to engage a catch pin on the armature of the magnet. the gong and commutator were removed and the magnet placed in the position shown in the sketch. a strip of wood was fastened across the face of the metronome h, about in. above the pendulum shaft or axle. on the inside of the center of the strip a small piece of wood was projected, with copper wire on one side only, to form a contact with a piece of flexible copper on the pendulum. wiring was made as shown in the sketch and a switch used to stop the disk from revolving. an ordinary postal-card printing frame, d, with a hinged back was used and placed on the shelf a, as shown. a hinge was made from heavy elastic bands to allow for two dozen cards in the frame at one time. as each card was printed it was taken out and dropped into the developer. the reel and metronome should be wound up after printing two dozen cards. the stops can be varied for any length of time by regulating the weight on the metronome. the disk and all woodwork must be painted a dull black. the circuit is completed on the return stroke of the pendulum, causing the magnet to attract the armature, which releases the catch, allowing a quarter turn of the disk.--contributed by frank w. preston, paterson, n. j. pail hook for a pitcher pump [illustration] when pumping water from the ordinary pitcher pump, the bucket must either be held to the spout or placed on the ground. the accompanying sketch shows how i arranged a hook, fastened over the collar of the pump, to take the bail of the bucket. the hook is made of / -in. round iron.--contributed by laurence b. robbins, harwich, mass. shade roller attached to upper window sash free circulation of air cannot be obtained through a window when the shade is attached to the window casing, as it partly fills the opening caused by lowering the upper sash. if the shade roller is attached to the top of the upper sash, the shade can perform its function without obstructing the opening when the sash is lowered. it only requires a shorter roller and a narrower shade. the roller brackets are attached in the usual manner, but, in order to have the shade hang vertically, a block, as wide as the lower sash frame, must be fastened under each bracket. [illustration: when the upper sash is lowered the shade is out of the way of the opening] this arrangement also makes it much easier to put up a curtain, as the sash can be let down until the roller can be reached while standing on a chair.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. flashing hook [illustration] having occasion to do a large amount of counter-flashing in a new wall where the mortar was soft and the joint too large to use an ordinary nail or the regular flashing hook, i made hooks from no. gauge galvanized iron, having hooks of extra size and strength, as shown in the sketch. the size of the hook is - / by - / in. on each side edge, - / in. from one end, i cut teeth, a a, and clipped the corners of the opposite end at an angle. the end at b was turned down at right angles and the points a a bent in the opposite direction. i placed the counter-flashing in the usual manner, with the projection b hanging down and the pointed end of the hook in the joint, and drove or pushed it in tightly. the points a a will catch on the under side of the brick and hold solidly.--contributed by ralph m. chatham, orleans, indiana. a homemade dibble a dibble made of a round and sharp-pointed stick is the usual tool for making holes when setting tomato and other plants. i found by experience that a dibble made of a flat board would work much better and leave a cleaner hole if worked into the earth with a horizontal swinging motion. the hole produced is just right for the plant. the illustration shows its construction. [illustration: a dibble used for making holes in the soil to transplant tomato and other plants] liquid court-plaster a good liquid preparation for cuts and bruises that forms a covering like liquid court-plaster is made by mixing / oz. of flexible collodion with / oz. of ether. when this solution is applied to cuts it will not wash off. as the ether evaporates, add more to keep the mixture liquid. a substitute for candles one evening our electric light was cut off by a storm, and having no gas, candles, or oil lamps, a very good light was made in the following manner: a tablespoonful of lard was melted and poured in the top of a baking-powder can, and four strands of ordinary white wrapping twine were put into it, allowing one end to stand up for about / in. above the edge of the can. the end was lighted the same as a candle.--contributed by b. e. cole, eureka, california. a poultry coop [illustration] a barrel makes a good protection for a hen with a brood of chicks, if it is arranged as shown in the sketch. procure a good barrel with a bottom and cut off each alternate stave at both ends close up to the first hoop. the lower openings thus formed make entrances for the chickens and the upper ones admit air and light.--contributed by wm. r. konnan, neillsville, wis. preventing mildew on canvas to prevent mildew on canvas, soak it in bluestone water, or if the mildew is already present, coat the parts well with ordinary soap and rub on powdered chalk, or whiting. a solution of corrosive sublimate, well weakened with water, will also prevent mildew, but owing to its poisonous nature it is best to use the former method.--contributed by a. ashmund kelly, malvern, pa. * * * * * when the steel point of a compass is lost, a phonograph needle makes a good substitute. holder for books in a case very often it is found, after arranging the books in a case, that the rows are not complete and the books at the end are continually sliding down on the shelf. the sketch shows a very useful type of wire bracket to support the last book. [illustration: the shape of the wire makes it easily applicable to any open bookshelf] a brass wire, in. long and about / in. in diameter, is bent, with the use of a vise or pliers, to the shape and dimensions shown at a. when the wire is placed on the bookshelf, as shown at b, it prevents the end book from falling. its location can be changed as books are added to the shelf.--contributed by john y. dunlop, craighead, scotland. laying out a dovetail joint [illustration] with dividers and compass lay off the width of the board into twice as many parts as the dovetails wanted. draw a light line, ab, across the board as far from the end as half the thickness of the board. on this line step off the divisions with the dividers, beginning with a half space or division. with the bevel square, set to a bevel of in. in , draw lines through the division dots. this method will save much time and give accurate results.--contributed by joseph f. parks, wichita, kan. oiling bright parts of machinery it is my duty to go over the bright parts on the machinery in my father's shop and give them a coat of oil late in the afternoon to prevent any rust accumulating over night. as the work took considerable time from my playing i thought of a plan that not only reduced the amount of work but applied the grease much better than with a brush or rag. i procured a sprayer, as shown in the sketch, and sprayed the oil on the bright parts.--contributed by waller kaufman, santa ana, california. [illustration: a sprayer filled with oil makes a good device for coating the bright parts of machinery] window ventilator to prevent drafts the ventilator consists of a piece of wood, about in. wide, in. thick and as long as the window is wide. holes, - / in. in diameter, are bored at regular intervals into one edge and these are connected with openings from one side as shown. the piece is set under the lower sash with the long openings toward the outside. this will direct the incoming air currents upward into the room. [illustration: the ventilator prevents the air from entering a room in a straight line] a chisel rack turn two large screweyes into the under side of a shelf, as far apart as is necessary, and slip a rod into the eyes. the rod may be kept from slipping out by threading each end and turning on a nut after it is in place. hooks are made from heavy wire, in the shape of the letter "s," and placed on the rod. a screweye is turned into the end of each chisel handle and used for hanging the tool on an s-hook. as many hooks are provided as there are tools in use. this method of hanging tools is especially adapted for the wood turner.--contributed by wallace e. fisher, new york, n. y. [illustration: the chisels are kept close at hand and the right tool may be quickly found] homemade snap hooks [illustration] having had occasion to use several snap hooks of various sizes and being unable to find anything suitable for my purpose on the market, i procured several cotters of the desired sizes and by bending them over, as shown at a, and cutting them off, as at b, i had snap hooks which, besides answering my original purpose, have also found use as key rings and tool-chuck holders.--contributed by jos. j. kolar, maywood, ill. a dropper and cork for medicine bottles [illustration] a convenient way to accurately drop medicine and liquids without any other appliance than the cork is the following: simply burn or puncture a smooth hole in the cork as shown. pull the cork out slightly when the liquid is to be dropped, and when this is done, push the cork in and the bottle is sealed. repairing a broken oilstone a broken oilstone can be repaired and made as good as new in the following manner: warm the pieces by heating them on the top of a stove or gas heater, with a piece of heavy sheet metal placed on it so as to protect the stone from the direct heat of the flame. the heating should be done somewhat slowly or the stone will crack. when the stone is warm wipe off the oil which the heat has driven out and apply a couple of coats of shellac to the broken ends. when the shellac is thoroughly dry, warm the stone again to melt the shellac, and clamp the pieces together. after cooling, the pieces will be found firmly stuck together.--contributed by f. l. sylvester, reading, mass. homemade towel roller [illustration] the towel roller is made of a piece of broom handle, in. long, squared on both ends and a nail driven in the center of each end. procure two small pieces of tin--disks about in. in diameter will do--and drive a hole through the center of each with a wire nail. cut from one edge of the disk down to the hole taking out a narrow v-shaped section. fasten each disk to a block and nail these to any convenient wall at such a distance apart that the nail heads in the broomstick will slip down in the slots and rest in the holes in the centers of the disks, which form the bearings for the nail heads resting beyond the tin and next to the block. with a little care the tin can be made to bulge outwardly in the center making room for the nail heads.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, augusta, ga. clothesline reel the usual method of reeling up a clothesline and taking it in is quite a task and many times the lines are left out in the open from one wash day to another, due to neglect or forgetfulness. i made the arrangement shown in the sketch to take care of the line without any effort to the user. [illustration: reel in the basement] all that is necessary with this arrangement is to take the end of the line and run it over the hooks or sheaves on the posts and make it secure around an awning fastener. when loosed, the weight in the basement will wind up the line. a knot can be tied in the line near the reel to catch at a hole in the sill, which will prevent the strain on the reel. if the reel is made to wind up ft. of line to each revolution and the sash-cord shaft is / in. in diameter, about ft. of line can be taken up in a basement ft. high.--contributed by a. e. little, akron, o. * * * * * black-heart malleable iron derives its name from the fact that in annealing only the outer layers of carbon are oxidized, the carbon of the interior being simply changed to a black amorphous state. a candle-shade holder a holder for either round or square shades can be easily constructed from a piece of heavy copper wire to fit on a candlestick. one end of the wire is looped around the upper end of the candlestick, then bent so that the main part will be vertical. the top end is shaped into a circle in. in diameter or a square having sides in. long, as desired.--contributed by harry slosower, pittsburgh, pa. [illustration: two forms of shade holder made of copper wire for a candlestick] wire mesh used as a shelf in covering a window back of my lathe with wire mesh as a protection i also made a shelf for the tools between the window sill and the lathe bed of the same material. the mesh used was / -in. the shelf is always clean, as the shavings and dirt fall through, and the tools may be readily picked up.--contributed by j. h. sanford, pasadena, california. heel plates a good heel or toe plate can be made by driving ordinary thumb tacks into the leather of the shoe heel or sole. the shape can be varied by using tacks having different-sized heads.--contributed by james t. gaffney, chicago, ill. [illustration: the heads of the tacks form a wearing surface equal to an ordinary heel plate] a bright dip for metal articles of brass, copper and bronze may be given a bright luster by dipping them into a solution composed of oz. of nitric acid, oz. of sulphuric acid, liquid measure, and / oz. of soot and / oz. of salt, by weight. after the articles are dipped into the solution they are removed and thoroughly washed, then dried in sawdust to prevent streaks. an interesting vacuum experiment [illustration] a very interesting experiment may be performed with two drinking glasses, a small candle end and a piece of blotting paper, says the pathfinder. the glasses must be the same size and of the thin-glass kind. the candle end is lighted and set in one glass; the blotting paper is well dampened and placed on top of the glass, and the other glass inverted and its rim placed exactly over the lower one and pressed down tightly. the candle will burn up all the oxygen in the glass and go out. the air in the glass being heated will expand and some of it will be forced out from under the moist paper, and then, as the portion remaining cools, it will contract and draw the upper glass on the paper and make an air-tight joint. the upper glass can then be taken up and the lower one will cling to it. a sliver extractor if a clipper for the finger nails becomes dull do not throw it away, but keep it in the tool box in a handy place. it is very useful for extracting slivers from the flesh.--contributed by g. wokenfuss, mccook, neb. night croquet playing croquet playing became so interesting to us that we could not find time to do all our playing during the day. so at night we attach a candle to each of the wickets and also use one at each corner of the grounds. these light the grounds so that the game can be played nicely. the candles may be attached by wiring them to the wickets or by using small pasteboard boxes, similar to a pill box of sufficient size, and running a wire through the center or down the sides, which is hooked over the top to hold them upright on top of the ground. the latter way is the better as the candles may be pulled up in the day time and taken out of the way.--contributed by geo. goodbrod, union, ore. a nursing-bottle holder the ordinary nursing bottle with nipple necessitates holding the bottle in a certain position, and when the valve nipples are used, the bottle should be held far enough away to allow this valve free action. to accomplish this i constructed a very simple wire holder for the bottle as shown in the illustration. ordinary telephone wire will hold any bottle. the wire is bent to hook on the side of the crib, cradle or cab.--contributed by w. a. humphrey, columbus, o. [illustration: nursing bottle in holder] milk-ticket holder an ordinary spring mousetrap makes a good bread or milk-ticket holder. the wood part of the trap can be easily nailed or screwed to a door or window casing. the way the tickets are held is clearly shown in the sketch. [illustration: trap used as ticket holder] joint for cabinet work in making a cabinet containing drawers of various sizes, i used the method shown in the sketch for making the frame. the horizontal strips a should be all fastened together when sawing the notches to fit over the uprights. the uprights b should be sawn in the same manner. it is best to round the front of the rear uprights slightly and also any other places where the drawers might strike when pushing them into place. the length of the runners c should be - / in. less than the length of the drawer.--contributed by j. h. dickson, polk, pa. [illustration: details of joint construction] * * * * * do not expect accurate work unless you have accurate tools. starting a saw cut a fine piece of woodwork is often spoiled by the amateur craftsman when starting a cut with a saw. as the first stroke of the saw on the edge of the board is made, the teeth often break a splinter from the edge or the saw jumps to one side of the line, thereby making a rough and uneven cut. this can be avoided in a very simple way. [illustration: starting a saw on a knife cut will prevent roughing or splintering the edge] after marking the line, take a sharp knife and make a cut across the edge, as shown, and draw the knife down well over the corners of the board for about / in. place the saw on the cut and start it slowly. the saw blade will follow the cut of the knife blade. a substitute penholder one evening when my wife was using the only penholder in the house i desired to do some writing and being in a hurry, i hastily made a substitute holder of a pencil. two cuts were made in the butt end, as shown; the pen was then slipped in, the outside wound with a rubber band, and my penholder was complete.--contributed by h. a. sullwold, st. paul, minn. [illustration: the end of the pencil as it is prepared to receive the pen] protecting binding posts on wet batteries from corrosion when recharging the cells of a wet battery it is best to procure the best grade of sal ammoniac, the kind that is put up in boxes having a sufficient amount for one cell. then, before putting the solution into the cell, melt some paraffin used for preserving purposes and dip the upper end of the carbons, zinc, and the glass jar in it. this will apply a coat of insulating wax that will prevent any white deposit from working up on the parts and corroding the binding posts, or terminals. the cells are then filled in the ordinary manner, after which the carbons and zincs are raised just far enough to admit a layer of common machine oil, about / in. thick. the oil not only prevents evaporation but aids greatly to keep the uncovered parts from corrosion.--contributed by l. r. kelley, philadelphia, pa. a cork puller [illustration] a very simple and easy way to remove a stopper from a bottle, when a cork puller is not at hand, is to press two nails into the cork, as shown in the sketch, and, taking a firm hold on both nails, draw the cork out. brads may be used on smaller corks. large and tightly fitted corks may be drawn by gripping the nails with a pair of pliers.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. holder for a garden-hose nozzle [illustration] when sprinkling a lawn with an automatic spraying device on a hose nozzle it is necessary to have some kind of an arrangement to tilt the end at the proper angle. i find that a holder made of a heavy piece of galvanized wire bent in the shape shown can be used to set the nozzle at any angle. the wire is easily pushed into the earth and does no harm to the lawn.--contributed by t. j. ingram, jr., lynchburg, va. alarm to designate a filled storage battery when a storage battery is recharged, the completion of the recharging is marked by the development of gas in the cell. this fact is the basis of a simple electrical device which will ring a bell when the battery is fully charged. a glass tube bent as shown and having a small bulb near its upper end is inserted in the top of the cell, a small quantity of mercury being first introduced in the bend below the bulb. wires extend down the upper tubing to within a short distance of the mercury. these wires are connected with binding posts so mounted that they can rest on top of the tube, whereupon the bell circuit is completed as shown. small quantities of gas may develop during the charging of the cell, but if a small hole is pierced in the tube between the mercury and the cell, this gas will not exert pressure enough on the mercury to push it up and connect it with the wires, which will take place first when the development of gas becomes very active at the completion of the recharging. [illustration: the gas generated by a filled storage battery will make electric connections and sound an alarm] stretching poultry fencing the woven-wire poultry fencing is an unusually difficult thing to handle and fasten on posts so that it will be taut and evenly stretched. the best method i have ever seen for drawing this fencing and holding it for nailing to a post is the use of the device shown in the sketch. it consists of a board, as long as the fencing is wide, with screw hooks set far enough apart to catch into the meshes of the wire, and a crosspiece attached to the board by pieces of rope at the ends and provided with a pulling loop in the center.--contributed by joseph c. laackman, meadow brook, pa. [illustration: board fitted with screw hooks and a pulling device for stretching poultry fencing on posts] a centering gauge the centering gauge consists of a piece of celluloid on which several circles are drawn having different diameters, but all drawn from the same center. a small hole is made at the center to admit the point of a center punch. two sets of circles may be drawn on one piece as shown, but the lines should be spaced far enough apart to allow the metal to be clearly seen through the celluloid. the sheet is placed on the end of a shaft and adjusted so that a ring will match the circumference of the shaft, then the center punch is set in the center hole and struck with a hammer. the center punch for marking is shown in the sketch.--contributed by harry holst, san francisco, cal. [illustration: circles drawn on celluloid to adjust it on the end of a shaft in finding the center] homemade letters for marking bags [illustration] an initial marker for bags can be made of a beet or potato. cut off enough of the vegetable to provide a flat surface of sufficient size and then cut out the letter as shown in the sketch, and use shoe blacking as ink. in cutting, remember that most of the letters must be made reversed in order to print right. for example, in making a b, draw it out on paper and cut it out, then lay the face of the pattern on the flat surface of the vegetable and cut around it. to keep a crease in a soft hat the crease in a soft hat can be kept in proper shape with the aid of a paper clip. the clip is slipped over the fold inside of the hat which forms the bottom part of the crease.--contributed by jas. m. kane, doylestown, pennsylvania. [illustration: paper clip on the fold, holding it in the right shape for the outside crease] a shoe scraper [illustration] a good boot and shoe scraper for a step can be made of a worn-out and discarded broom. cut off the straws and strings as shown in the sketch, allowing one string to hold them together, and make the notch the width of the shoe. tie the extending ends together, and mount the whole on a suitable block, or, if desired, a hole can be bored in the step to receive the handle, and the scraper thus securely attached. this makes an effective scraper for the bottom as well as the sides of shoes of almost any size.--contributed by jno. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. a vegetable slicer [illustration] a tin bucket or can makes a good slicer for vegetables when no other slicer is at hand. a number of slots are cut across one side of the can, and the lower edge of each slot slightly turned out to form a cutting edge. the vegetable is placed against the top of the can and pushed down over the slots. each slot will cut off a slice which falls inside of the can. bench stop for planing thin boards [illustration] a bench stop for planing thin boards with a hand plane may be made in the following manner: procure a piece of strap iron about / in. thick, - / or in. wide, and about in. long. file or grind one edge sharp on top and drill a / -in. hole through the center. cut a slot in a board or in the workbench large enough to receive the stop a flat. place enough strips of rubber or fit two coil springs, b, to raise the sharp edge out of the slot. insert a screw in the hole of the stop and adjust it to the desired height by turning the screw up or down. * * * * * in a case of emergency, lemon juice may be used as soldering flux. a jardinière pedestal the pedestal may be made of any close-grained wood, such as basswood or maple, if the stain is to be walnut or mahogany, but it can also be constructed of quarter-sawed oak and finished in a waxed mission or varnished surface. the material required is as follows: top, by by / in., s- -s. caps, by by / in., s- -s. upright, by by in., s- -s. base, by by / in., s- -s. the top is centered and a circle, - / in. in diameter, is drawn upon it, and sawn out. the caps are also centered and circles drawn upon them, - / in. and - / in. in diameter. saw them out on the larger circles and center them in a wood lathe and turn out the wood in the smaller circles to a depth of / in. the upright is then centered in the lathe and turned to - / in. in diameter for its full length. [illustration: the pedestal can be made of a wood suitable for finishing to match other furniture] the base and foot pieces are cut out as shown, fitted together and fastened with screws from the under side. one of the caps is mounted in the center on the base and the other cap in the center on the under side of the top. the upright is then placed in the turned-out parts of the caps and either glued or fastened with screws. if light wood is used, the finish can be walnut or mahogany. a very pretty finish can be worked out in pyrography, if one is familiar with that work.--contributed by russell t. westbrook, dover, n. j. a lawn-tennis marker the liquid receptacle is a metal biscuit box, about in. square and mounted on a wheel with a handle, the whole being similar to a wheelbarrow. the wheel is in. in diameter and - / in. thick. the wheel and box are bolted between two pieces of strap iron in the manner shown, and the handle is attached back of the box. if the box is of very thin metal, boards should be placed within on the sides where it is fastened to the strap iron. a roller is pivoted in the box at the lower back corner and a canvas tape or band run over the roller and wheel in the manner of a belt. the tape should run through a slot cut in the front part of the box, about midway between the top and the bottom. the edges of the tin in the slot must be turned over and hammered down to make a smooth surface for the tape to run over.--contributed by george n. bertram, toronto, can. [illustration: a marker that will make a clear, white line on the ground for a tennis court] removing tannin stains from teacups a small portion of hyposulphite of soda mixed with vinegar will make a good cleaner for teacups having tannin stains. this process does not injure the finest china and is inexpensive. the same solution works quite well on clothes that are accidentally stained with tea. they should be washed out and dried quickly after its application in order to make this method most effective.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. [illustration: weaving the top of the stool by using a wet weaver of reed] woven-top stool the material necessary for this stool is as follows: legs, - / by - / by in. bottom rails, / by - / by in. top rails, / by by - / in. diagonal braces, / by - / by in. [illustration: construction of the frame and manner of laying the weavers for the top] the legs are mortised so the top rails come level. the upper rails are tenoned on the sides only and beveled at the ends. for the bottom rails, the mortises are made one above the other, the rails being tenoned on all sides. the braces are cut at on each end and glued into place. in weaving the top, proceed as follows: use a wet weaver and wrap one layer over the entire top, the strips being placed close together and tightly wound. start the second layer at right angles to the first by going under one strip, then over three strips, under three, and so on, by threes, until that strip is finished. start the second by going under two strips, then over three, under three, and so on, as before. the third strip should start by going under three, then over and under three, etc. start the fourth by going over one, then under three, and over three, as in the preceding; the fifth, start over two, then under and over three, repeatedly. the sixth, and last of the series, begin over three and then continue, by threes, as before. having finished one series, the remainder of the top should be completed in similar order. good white shellac makes the best finish for the seat; the stool itself may be finished to suit.--contributed by russel dodsworth, erie, pa. preserving shafting from rust and corrosion in a laboratory it was very difficult to keep the line shaft and countershafts bright and free from rust, owing to the fumes and gases issuing from the several fume closets within the same room. the following method was tried, and proved very satisfactory. the shafting was covered with two coats of flat white paint and allowed to dry, after which a coat of white enamel was applied, giving it a clean, glossy, and sanitary appearance. this eliminated all the trouble of cleaning it with emery cloth, and it also made it appear in harmony with the other furnishings of the laboratory.--contributed by geo. f. stark, norwich, n. y. [illustration: reed furniture by chas. m. miller] reed furniture by chas. m. miller a reed basket inasmuch as there is a great demand for reed furniture and since good weavers are comparatively few in number, it would be well to learn the process of reed weaving. the weaving operations can be learned much better through the construction of some small article, such as a basket or jardinière cover. the center is the most difficult part of the basket making, and it is best to begin with wood bottoms, as the whole basket can be kept in a much better form due to the stiffness furnished by such a bottom. it is also an approach to the reed furniture which is woven on framework. the objectionable feature of the wood bottoms is the unfinished appearance of the wood edge showing through, but this can be overcome by the use of the roll shown in the illustration. [illustration] while the wood bottoms have been used for this class of work for a number of years, the roll is new and is very popular with those who have seen and used it. the roll can be placed in many ways on different-shaped baskets, and other reed pieces, so that it is best to master this piece of work thoroughly before attempting the other, or larger, pieces that will be described later, in other articles. [illustration] the description is for a basket in. in diameter and in. high, as shown in the illustration. a disk of wood, / in. thick and in. in diameter, is required. basswood makes the best bottom, but pine, or cedar, will do. cut a board about in. square, and draw diagonal lines on it intersecting at the center, then draw a circle, in. in diameter, as shown in fig. ; also another circle, using the same center, - / in. in diameter. set compass points about / in. apart, and step off spaces on the inner circle to make points. this will have to be tried out more than once, to get the spaces to come out evenly and just have the right number of points. holes are bored with a / -in. bit, just inside of the inner circle, back of the places marked by the compass points, as shown in fig. . cut the board on the outside circle with a coping, or turn, saw, to make the circle, as in fig. . do not saw out the circle before boring the holes, as otherwise the disk might split out in places. [illustration: the bottom is cut from a piece of wood to give strength and to avoid the most difficult part of the weaving (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the reeds placed vertically are called spokes, and the horizontal ones are the weavers. for the spokes, what is called a no. reed is used. do not wet the spokes before putting them through the wood. allow the ends to project about - / in. below the bottom, as shown in fig. . place the bottom, with the spokes, in water, and soak them thoroughly, especially the part below the bottom. about minutes of soaking will be sufficient to make them pliable enough to bend over at right angles. it will not injure the wood bottom to soak it with the reeds. as shown at a, figs. and , each spoke below the wood bottom is bent, down and back of the two nearest spokes, b and c, then out between the third and fourth spokes, c and d, and so on. the last two spokes, y and z, fig. , are forced under the spokes a and b, respectively. in this illustration the spoke y is shown as it is being inserted under the spoke a. when this operation is completed, the bottom will have the appearance of a fireworks pinwheel. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: the reeds are attached to the bottom and their lower ends bent as shown (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] continue the bending of the spokes, in the same direction, up and across the thickness of the wood in front of three other spokes and behind the fourth, as shown in fig. . this would not cover the edge of the wood entirely, and, for this reason, other short spokes must be inserted in front of each of the first ones before it is brought up across the edge of the wood. these supplementary spokes should be about in. long. the manner of inserting these spokes before making the bend is shown at g and t, fig. . the double spokes must be pressed down flat, when brought up in place, without riding one on the other. if the ends are too long and interfere with the next pair, they can be cut off a little with a flat chisel, or knife, being careful not to make them too short, or the pieces will not stay in place. if there is still an open space, an extra, short spoke can be inserted to crowd the pieces together and fill up the space. [illustration: the lower ends of the spokes are turned to cover the edge of the bottom... (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] when the roll is completed, insert three weavers, of no. reed that has been soaked about minutes, placing them between the spokes a and b, b and c, and c and d, as shown in fig. . pass weaver l in front of the spokes b and c, then back of d and out between d and e. weaver m is passed in front of c and d, back of e and out in front of e and f. these operations are clearly shown in fig. . the weaver n is placed in front of d and e, back of f and then in front of g and h. at this point the weaver l is used again. the weaver farthest behind each time is brought in front of the two spokes nearest to it, then behind the third and out in front of the next two spokes. do not try to use weavers longer than ft., which is about half the length of a reed. when a weaver is used up, press it back to the side a little, push in a new reed about - / in., and continue the weaving. this is clearly shown in fig. . this weaving is known as the triple weave, which cinches down well and holds tightly. the first round should be carefully worked, so as to get the ends of the roll properly pressed down flat in place. each throw of the weaver should be well pressed down. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: ...then the reeds are woven into the upright spokes to the right height, where they are broken down and woven into a top border (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the break-down-tight border is used for the finish at the top. the first operation in making this border is shown in fig. . the spoke a is bent over back of spoke b and out between spokes b and c. the spoke b is bent over back of the spoke c and out between c and d, and so on, until the spoke e is turned down. then take the end of the spoke a, fig. , and lay it over b, c, d, and e, in front of f, back of g, and out between g and h. the end of spoke f is then brought down, also between g and h, but back of the end of a. the end of b takes a similar leap, passes behind h and out between h and j; then g is brought down behind the end of b, in the same manner as f was brought down back of a. the last four or five spokes are the most difficult to handle, as they must be forced through the first ones to correspond with those already in place. it is best not to pull the ends of a, b, c, and d down too tightly at first, keeping in mind that the last ones must be inserted under the first ones. the last standing spokes are represented by the full and shaded lines. if the roll illustrated in figs. and is too difficult, a simple break-down can be used, such as shown in fig. . to make this finish, spoke a is turned back of spoke b, in front of spoke c and back of spoke d, but not out again. spoke b is bent back of c, in front of d, and back of e. the others are turned down the same way. the manner in which the two last spokes are turned down and inserted is shown by the double dotted lines. [illustration: a simple break-down roll for the top... (fig. , fig. )] the remainder of the illustrations show the method of forming a roll between the first and second spokes, where only three spokes are turned down before the throwing-across process begins. the first three spokes turned down are shown in fig. , and the throwing over, in fig. . the second beginning is shown in fig. . the finishing of this top is shown in figs. and . the full, heavy lines represent the final insertions, and the reed must be in quite a sharp loop to make the end enter the right place. it is then drawn down and forced in front of the other reed that passes out between the same spokes. [illustration: ...also a method of forming a roll between the first and second spokes where only three spokes are turned down before the throwing-across process begins (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] when the basket is dry, the long ends can be cut off close up with a knife, being careful not to cut a weaver. if there are hairy fibers sticking out they can be singed off over a gas, or other, flame that will not smut. if it requires bleaching, brush some chloride of lime, mixed in a little water, over the reeds and set in the sunlight for a short time. it is better to leave the finish a little dark rather than use too much bleaching, as the latter will give an objectionable whitish appearance that looks like a poor job of painting. in working the reeds, do not leave them in the water longer than necessary, as this will turn them dark. a bleached reed will stand the water much longer than in the natural state. dampen the reed frequently while weaving it, as the weavers pack down much closer when wet. the dampening process is also required to remedy the drying out caused by whisking the reeds through the air in weaving operations. a great variety of baskets can be made from this form, viz., low, tall, tapering vase forms, bowl shapes, etc., in plain or dark weaves. wireless-lighted lamp deception window displays of puzzling nature usually draw crowds. a lighted globe lying on its side in full view, yet apparently not connected to any source of electricity, could easily be arranged as a window display, deceiving the closest observer. a mirror, or window glass, backed with some opaque material, should be used for the foundation of the device. for the display lamp, it is best to use a or -watt tungsten, as these will lie flatter on the glass than the larger sizes, and the deception will not be as easily discovered. the place where the brass cap of the lamp touches the glass should be marked and a small hole drilled through to the wire connecting the tungsten filament to the plug on the top of the lamp. at any suitable place, a hole should be drilled in the glass plate, no larger than is necessary, to permit two small cotton-covered magnet wires to pass through. one of the wires should be looped, passed through the hole in the cap and hooked onto the bare wire connecting with the plug on top of lamp. the other wire should be fastened to the brass cap, near the drilled hole, after which the lamp may be placed in position and the two wires connected to a source of electricity. if proper care has been taken and no crosses occur, the lamp will light, and if the display is placed in the proper surroundings, it will prove very deceiving. to protect against a fuse blow-out from a short circuit, it is advisable to run another lamp in series with the display lamp, as shown.--contributed by clyde w. epps, mineola, tex. [illustration: an electric globe lighted on a piece of glass makes a good window attraction] live bait used in fishing with the simple device illustrated, no fisherman need worry over running short of bait or even regarding the usual repeated baiting of the hook. a small clear-glass bottle should be procured, and several hooks wired to it about the neck, or at each end, as desired or found best after several trials. after filling the bottle with water a live minnow is placed in it, and the bottle is sealed with a cork, which is notched around the edge to permit water to enter or leave the bottle without losing the bait. if live grasshoppers, or similar bait, is desired the cork can be used unnotched to form a watertight stopper. as illuminated bait for night fishing, several fireflies can be put in the bottle.--contributed by l. wahrer, tiffin, ohio. [illustration: the bait is kept alive and unharmed in a bottle surrounded with hooks] bookrack the material necessary for the illustrated bookrack is as follows: end pieces, / by - / by in. shelf / by - / by in. the shelf is cut rectangular, - / in. wide by - / in. long. its two ends should then be provided with tenons / in. thick by - / in. wide, and extending out / inch. [illustration: a bookrack that can be made in any wood to match other furniture] the end pieces, after being cut to the given dimensions, are marked off and cut out for mortises to fit the shelf tenons. in assembling the parts, they are glued in place, and clamped with hand screws until the glue has set. any of the good mission stains, properly applied, will give a finished appearance to the bookrack. a paper gas pipe when one fits up an attic or a back room as a workshop, it is seldom that a gas connection is available on about the same level as the workbench so that a bunsen burner and soldering apparatus may be operated. to install the standard gas pipe, it would be necessary either to alter the chandelier connection or to tear up some of the plaster, the former plan resulting in a rather conspicuous display of pipe and the latter in considerable expense. the following method permits the rolling of a pipe, about the size of a lead pencil, from paper that becomes so stiff that it is almost impossible to crush it between the thumb and fingers. this small inconspicuous pipe may be run directly from the side of the valve on the chandelier to the wall, as shown in the sketch, thence down some corner formed by a door jamb or window frame, which protects it and renders it almost unnoticeable. [illustration: the tube is run out horizontally from the chandelier to the wall where the drop is connected] a good grade of tough manila paper should be procured and cut into strips, about in. long and wide enough to build up a tube at least / in. in diameter. this will require from to in., according to the thickness of the paper. a piece of / -in. round iron or hard wood, in. long, is procured and carefully oiled or greased. apply a coat of strong fish glue to one of these pieces of paper, omitting a strip along one edge, about in. wide. using the outspread fingers of each hand, begin with the unglued edge and roll the paper around the wood. as it is impossible to get the paper uniformly tight with the fingers, select a smooth place on the table and then roll the newly formed tube forward by means of a piece of board, as shown in the illustration. on the return stroke lift the board. in this way it is possible to get a tight, smooth tube. immediately withdraw the core, twisting it slightly in a reverse direction if it tends to stick. before using the core again, make sure it is free from glue and regrease it. when a sufficient number of tubes have been made and hardened, neatly trim the ends off squarely, and then form an equal number of short tubes, about in. long, by winding a strip of glued paper on a large wire nail until a diameter is reached that will fit snugly into the pipes already made. the joints may then be set up with strong glue and finally wrapped with two thicknesses of paper on the outside. the construction of these joints is shown in the cross section. the connection with the chandelier can be made by means of a metal tube soldered in at a point where the regular valve will cut off all connection with the paper piping when it is not in use. this metal tube should be coated with thick shellac, and the paper tube slipped over it for in. or more, after which the joint should be given several additional coats on the outside. a small regulating gas cock can be attached to the lower end of the piping, and if this is rigidly fastened to the wall, or casing, the connecting and disconnecting of the rubber tubing will not disturb the piping in any way.--contributed by john d. adams. rubbing slats for a washing board in an emergency, and to substitute something for a broken glass rubbing plate on an ordinary washing board, i fitted a series of / -in. dowels horizontally across the board, closely together. this proved to be better than glass or zinc, as fabrics adhered to the wood dowels and caused them to revolve, making a more desirable rubbing surface and accomplishing the work of loosening the dirt in the fabric with far less effort than that necessary on the metal or glass board.--contributed by h. m. spamer, vineland, n. j. catching bugs attracted by light [illustration] bugs, moths, and insects attracted by lights on summer evenings can be caught by means of sticky fly paper, suspended as shades around the lamps. cuts in the shade allow the greater portion of the light to pass through and attract the bugs, which will surely be caught as they travel about the light onto the sticky paper. it is advisable to make two shades at the same time from a double sheet of the sticky paper, pasted, as when bought, with the sticky faces together so that the shades may be cut and handled easier.--contributed by john j. kolar, maywood, illinois. * * * * * oilcans should be marked to indicate the kind of oil in them. needle box for talking machines an empty cigarette box can be easily changed to a useful container for talking-machine needles, as shown in the sketch. take a fairly heavy card, trim it to the same length as the box, then bend and crease it, as shown at a, and glue the short, upright side to the inside of the box. cut another card to the shape b, so that the depth c equals the inside depth of the box, and the side d is as long as its width. the side e should equal the inclined length of the card a, and is glued upon it when b is in position. the three compartments may be suitably labeled as indicated.--contributed by v. a. rettich, new york, n. y. [illustration: three compartments are provided with sloping bottoms in a neat box for the needles] trick of taking dollar bill from apple a rather pleasing, yet puzzling, deception is to pass a dollar bill into the interior of an examined lemon or apple. this can be accomplished in several ways, either mechanically or purely by sleight of hand. the mechanical method, of course, is the easier and really just as effective. in performing, a plate with three apples is first exhibited, and the audience is given choice of any one for use in the experiment. the selected one is tossed out for examination and then returned to the performer, who places it in full view of the spectators while he makes the dollar bill vanish. taking the knife he cuts the apple into two pieces, requesting the audience to select one of them. squeezing this piece he extracts the dollar bill therefrom. the entire secret is in the unsuspected article--the table knife. [illustration: the dollar bill is hidden in the knife handle that cuts the apple] the knife is prepared by boring out the wooden handle to make it hollow. enough space must be made to hold a dollar bill. the knife lies on the plate with the fruit, the open end facing the performer. after the bill has been made to vanish and the examined apple returned to the entertainer, he takes it and cuts it in half. one of the halves is chosen, the performer impaling it on the end of the knife blade and holding it out to view. while still holding the knife he turns the blade downward and grasps the half apple and crushes it with a slight pass toward the knife-handle end where the bill is grasped along with the apple, which makes a perfect illusion of taking the bill out of the apple. as to the disappearance of the dollar bill, there are many ways in which this may be accomplished. perhaps the method requiring the least practice is to place the bill in the trousers pocket, and then show the audience that the latter is empty. this can be done by rolling the bill to small compass, and pushing it into the extreme upper corner of the pocket where it will remain undetected while the pocket is pulled out for inspection. other combinations can be arranged with the use of the knife, which is simple to make and very inexpensive. guide for making buttonholes it is almost impossible to make a perfect buttonhole in the ordinary manner by hand without a guide. the illustration shows a very simple guide that can be easily made by anyone. procure two pieces of tin, or sheet brass, cut them as shown, and drill holes in them large enough for a needle, so that it will be easy to fasten them to the cloth with basting thread. cut the buttonhole slot, then punch a hole at the end with an ordinary belt punch. such a punch can be purchased from a local hardware dealer in any size. in making the buttonhole stitch, keep the needle close against the metal edge of the guide, as shown.--contributed by a. l. kerbaugh, allentown, pa. [illustration: the form of the buttonhole is cut in the edges of the two pieces of metal] * * * * * an easy way to put varnish in the grooves of a tennis racket is to use a medicine dropper. [illustration] a child's playhouse the child's playhouse is an expensive luxury, if it is purchased ready to set up, but by following the instructions given herewith a large and inexpensive one may be constructed. [illustration: the covered framework can be used in or outdoors, as desired, and when set up and the wings swung back, it presents the appearance of a house] procure about ft. of - / by - / -in. boards, and saw out pieces, as shown. with the use of iron brackets instead of nails, it will be found much easier to construct than if the corners are mortised and nailed or glued. the frame will also be much stronger. [illustration: the entire framework is held together with brackets, and is hinged at the joints, so that it can be folded up and put into a small space, the sections being covered with colored burlap to make them appear solid... (fig. )] when the frame is completed, burlap is tacked on to make the covering. the burlap can be purchased cheaply, and the best color to use is either green, red or brown. this material should be fastened on the different sections before they are hinged together. to prevent the burlap from unraveling, turn the edges under before tacking them down. a piece of wire screen is used for the door. an old piece will do, if it is well coated with black or dark-green paint. it is then tacked on the inside of the door. fasten the different parts together with the hinges. the hinges are fastened on the inside of the side wings, and on the outside of the two front pieces. with the hinges placed in this manner, the house can be folded into a small space. for the one built by the writer, green burlap was used, and by trimming the door and window frames along the edges with white paint a very pretty effect was produced. [illustration: ...on the right is shown the awning-frame construction (fig. , fig. )] a small awning was made over the window, which improved the appearance very much. roller shades on the door and window and an electric door bell completed a very neat and practical playhouse. removing basketball from closed-bottom receptacle the closed-bottom basket used in the game of basketball is so high that it is difficult to remove the ball after a goal is made. generally a long stick is used for this purpose, but i desired to have a better way, and the device shown in the illustration was the outcome. a light iron rod was hinged to the edge of the basket and bent to its inner shape, the lower end resting at about the center of the basket. a rope was attached to the lower end and run up and over a sheave pulley attached to the basket support, then down so it could be easily grasped. when a goal is made, it is only necessary to give a pull on the rope for throwing the ball out of the basket.--contributed by annie b. currine, san diego, cal. [illustration: the iron rod in the basket throws the ball out when the rope is pulled] testing dry batteries for testing dry batteries or any low-voltage current, take an ordinary thermometer and wind around the mercury bulb enough wire to make about ohms resistance. this will make a good tester. a dry cell of about volts attached to the ends of the wire should generate enough heat to expand the mercury about four degrees in one-half minute. this tester is not as fast as a voltmeter, nor has it as wide a range, but it is reasonably accurate, and by using a battery of known voltage, the winding can be increased or diminished to allow the mercury to expand as many degrees as desired per volt.--contributed by e. h. kimbrough, bartlett, kan. a wall-paper cleaner to qt. of flour add about oz. of -per-cent ammonia and enough lukewarm water to make a dough. wipe the paper with this preparation while turning and kneading it as in making dough. this will take up the dirt and a clean side is always presented to the paper.--contributed by f. c. myer, tacoma, wash. [illustration] a trunk mystery doubtless every person has seen the trunk mystery, the effect of which is as follows: a trunk, mounted upon four legs, is brought out on the stage and proven to be empty by turning it all the way around to show that there is nothing on the back, whereupon pieces of plate glass are placed along the back, sides, and front, the trunk is closed and given a swift turn and then opened, when to the amazement of all, a lady steps out appearing to come from nowhere. the secret of this trick is very simple, and the trunk can be made up very cheaply. [illustration: a shelf and panel set at right angles to form a place at the back for the assistant to conceal herself, no matter which way the trunk is turned to face the audience] in the back of the trunk there is a movable panel with a shelf exactly the same size as the panel attached to its bottom, forming a right angle, the corner of which is hinged to the bottom of the trunk. the back panel can be turned in until it rests on the bottom of the trunk and, when this is done, the shelf part rises and takes its place, making the back of the trunk appear solid. [illustration] when the trunk is brought out upon the stage, the assistant is crouching on the shelf. the trunk can then be shown empty. this is all very simple until the trunk is turned around when it takes skill not to give the trick away. as soon as the performer starts to turn the trunk around, the assistant shifts her weight on the panel, thus causing it to fall inward and bring the shelf up to make the back appear solid. the assistant is now in the trunk, and the back can be shown clear of any apparatus. when the trunk is turned to the front again, the lady repeats the previous operation in the opposite direction, thus bringing her body to the back of the trunk again. to make the trick appear more difficult, glass plates are made to insert in the ends, front and back of the trunk. in making the trunk, have the back the same size as the bottom. fit the piece of glass for the back into a light frame, similar to a window frame. this frame is hinged to the bottom of the trunk and is / in. smaller all around than the back of the trunk, so that the two pieces of glass can be put in the ends and also allow the back frame and glass to fall flush in the bottom of the trunk. a few rubber bumpers are fastened in the bottom of the trunk to catch the glass without noise as it falls. the best way to work this is for the performer to let the frame down with his right hand while he is closing up the front with his left. as soon as the trunk is closed, the assistant again shifts her weight to cause the panel to fall in and then the trunk can be turned to show the back, or whirled around and turned to the front again, then opened up, whereupon the assistant steps out, bows to the audience, and leaves the stage. how to make a candy-floss machine every person is familiar with candy floss, made at stands on fair grounds, or carnivals, in an expensive whirling machine. it is not necessary to wait for a fair or a carnival to have a bunch of candy floss, as it can be made at home much quicker than making taffy candy. [illustration] the device for making the candy floss consists of ordinary things that can be had in any home, and usually a boy has a battery motor of some kind that will furnish the power. [illustration: the disk is driven by a small battery motor and melted sugar is spun out into floss] procure a tin pan, the shape of an ordinary dish pan and of medium size; cut a hole about one-half the diameter of the pan in the bottom and solder in a conical-shaped piece similar to a cake pan, allowing it to extend up inside about half the height of the pan. fasten supports to the pan so that a bunsen burner can be set under it where the flame will pass through the conical center opening. mount a small battery motor with its shaft vertical, pulley end up, and centering the conical hole, on a base, which supports the pan. procure a can cover, similar to that used on coffee cans, and fasten it with solder to the pulley on the motor shaft, being careful to locate it centrally so that it will run smoothly. close to the bottom and in the rim of the can cover, make a number of small holes with a prickpunch, or other sharp-pointed tool. wire the motor to the battery, and the candy-floss machine is ready for use. light the burner, start the motor, and pour a little granulated sugar in the revolving can cover. as the sugar is melted, it will be spun out in floss form through the small holes into the pan receiver.--contributed by herbert hahn, chicago, ill. enlarging pictures a very simple and sufficiently accurate way of enlarging pictures by means of a pencil holder and elastic is shown in the illustration. the picture to be enlarged is fastened to a table top or drawing board, and the paper on which it is to be drawn is placed directly below it. a small brad or tack is driven into the board at a, the location depending on the desired size of the enlarged picture, and the elastic is attached to it. the pencil holder b is fastened to the other end of the elastic over the drawing paper. a pointer, or a knot, is placed in the elastic at c. the pencil holder consists of a stick of wood turned into a handle with a hole bored centrally for a pencil. [illustration: the size of the enlarged picture depends on the length of the elastic and the spacing of pencil and pointer] in use, the pencil is moved over the drawing paper while the knot or pointer is watched, to keep it following the lines of the original drawing. the stretch of the elastic is sufficient to enlarge the parts equally, as well vertically as horizontally.--contributed by wm. weitzsacker, buffalo, n. y. distance chart for wireless stations the amateur wireless telegrapher may be troubled more or less regarding distances from other stations. the difficulty can be overcome by following a plan similar to that of a parcel-post map. a map should be selected covering the desired territory. with the home station as center, circles should be drawn to diameters corresponding in length to the scale used on the map. by measuring the distance other stations may be from any of these circles, their cross-country distance from the home station can be determined at a glance.--contributed by e. l. hartlett, wausau, wis. [illustration: circles on a map the same as for parcel post to designate wireless distances] a carrier for fishhooks hooks that are attached to gut or short strings are difficult to carry and to keep in good shape for use on a line. i made a carrier that overcame this trouble, from a block of wood. the block is / in. in thickness with brads driven into one end, for engaging the loops on the gut or string, while the hook is caught on the opposite end, the block being just long enough for the short line. the hooks will be held securely, and the block can be carried in the pocket.--contributed by victor e. carpenter, south bend, ind. [illustration: the string is drawn taut over the block, and the hooks are caught in the block end] a substitute for a pen recently i was hard pressed for a pen, and as none could be found and the hour was late it was necessary to find a substitute. i fashioned a pen from a piece of boxwood, and was agreeably surprised at the excellent results obtained with it. the wood was sharpened like a lead pencil at one end, and a groove was cut out of the tapered part to hold the ink.--contributed by richard f. pohle, lynn, massachusetts. [illustration: a notch cut in the tapered part of a wood stick forms a substitute pen] * * * * * a very convenient method of keeping shipping tags at hand is to slip them on a desk spindle. a bucket-ball game this is a new indoor game which follows out in principle the regular baseball play. it is an exciting and interesting pastime, and while a certain amount of skill is required to score runs, a person who cannot play the regular game can score as many runs, and as often, as the best players in the national leagues. [illustration: the frame is made up without a back, to hold the buckets at an angle that makes it difficult to toss the ball so that it will stay in any one of them (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] anyone that is just a little handy with tools can make the necessary parts for this game. the tools required are a hammer and a saw, and the materials consist of some finishing nails; three strips of wood, ft. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two strips, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; four strips, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two strips, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two blocks, in. square, and in. thick, and four wood buckets. a frame is built up as shown, ft. long, in. wide, and in. high, without a back. one of the long pieces is fastened to the bottoms of the buckets as shown, spacing the latter equally on the length of the piece. this piece is then set in notches cut in the blocks of wood at an angle of . these blocks are fastened to the upper crosspieces at the ends of the frame. the upper part of the buckets rest on the upper front piece of the frame. [illustration: the player must throw the ball so that it will enter and stay in one of the buckets, which designates the base hits by the number in its bottom] the rules for playing the game are as follows: three baseballs are used. the players stand about ft. distant and in front of the buckets. each player, or side, is only permitted to throw three balls an inning, irrespective of the number of runs scored. any kind of delivery is permitted, but an underhand throw will be found most successful. the buckets are numbered from to , and represent, respectively, one, two, and three-base hits, and home runs. the one in which the ball stays designates the run. plays are figured as in a regular ball game. for instance, if a ball should stay in bucket no. and the next in bucket no. , the first man would be forced home, counting one run, and leaving one man on third base. if the next ball stays in bucket no. , the man on third base is forced home, as well as the one who scored the home run, making three runs for that inning. the runs should be scored as made, to guard against confusion and argument.--contributed by walter talley, pottsville, pa. a staple puller [illustration] with nothing but ordinary tools the removing of staples is tedious and difficult work. if a suitable-sized wire nail is bent like a fishhook and the hook part driven under the staple, the latter can be easily pulled out by grasping and pulling the nail with a hammer in the usual way.--contributed by r. neland, minneapolis, minn. a dissolving coin trick this is a very simple and effective trick. the articles required to perform the trick are, a glass of water, a silver dollar, a handkerchief and a watch crystal, or round piece of glass, the size of a silver dollar. conceal the crystal in the palm of the hand and show the audience the dollar. hold the handkerchief in one hand and place the hand holding the silver dollar and crystal under it so that the crystal can be grasped by the hand holding the handkerchief. remove the dollar by holding it in the palm of the hand and slip it, unobserved, into a pocket. ask some one in the audience to hold the handkerchief with the inclosed crystal and ask him to let it drop into the glass of water as the handkerchief covers both. the falling glass can be heard, but upon removing the handkerchief nothing can be seen of the dollar or watch crystal. the circular glass disk cannot be seen in the water.--contributed by albert biery, spokane, wash. a fruit-jar opener the accompanying sketch shows a handy device for turning up and unscrewing the covers on glass fruit jars. the loop is slipped over the cover and the handle turned in the direction of the arrow. to unscrew the cover, the tool is turned over and the handle turned in the opposite direction. [illustration: the loop in the leather grips the cap tightly when the handle is turned as the arrow indicates] the loop should be just large enough to slip over the cover easily. it is made of leather and fastened to the wood handle with screws.--contributed by j. b. downer, seattle, wash. anti-tangle safety pin a small disk of rubber or leather, placed on a safety pin as shown in fig. , will prevent the fabric which is fastened by the pin from becoming tangled in the spring loop. the manner of using the pin is shown in fig. . [illustration: the small disk on the pin prevents the goods from becoming tangled in the coil] how to nickel or silverplate iron by friction the following methods of plating iron with nickel and silver appeared in a recent issue of a german paper. in nickelplating iron, a thin coating of copper is first produced on it by rubbing on a solution of parts sulphate of copper, parts sulphuric acid and parts of water. after the copper plate has been formed rub over it, with a rag, a solution of parts tin, parts nickel and part iron in parts of hydrochloric acid and parts of sulphuric acid. if finally the object is rubbed with a rag that has been dipped in finely pulverized zinc, a nickel deposit will be formed on the copper. the thickness of the deposit of nickel can be increased by repeating the two last operations. according to a recent patent, a silver coating can be produced by dissolving freshly precipitated chloride of silver in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, . parts to parts of water, and adding to this solution parts spirits of sal ammoniac and then stirring in parts of finely washed chalk. this mixture is applied and rubbed until it dries on the object being silvered, and the result is a brilliant deposit of pure silver. * * * * * a good filling for cracks in old furniture is made of shellac, either melted by heat or dissolved in alcohol to make a thick paste. a homemade cradle the cradle shown in the sketch can be made quickly and easily at home and will be found far more serviceable than, and possessing several advantages over, the ones purchased. it is made of a clothes basket, an iron rod and two ordinary chairs. it can be taken down and the parts used for other purposes. the upper portion of the rod prevents the chairs from slipping. a light cloth can be placed over the rod, in tent fashion, to keep flies out, while at the same time permitting air for ventilation.--contributed by bert verne, san diego, cal. [illustration: a clothes basket supported with a rod between two chairs makes a good cradle] a removable post [illustration] it is often desirable to have football and baseball grounds in public parks roped in during the game, but after the game the ropes and stakes must be removed. to drive in iron stakes and then remove them is hard work and requires considerable time. the sketch shows a much better way. a piece of -in. pipe, about in. long, is sunk level with the ground in the right location for a post. the post is made of - / -in. pipe of the length desired. this will just fit inside of the -in. pipe. a wood plug is fitted in the upper end of the pipe in the ground to keep out dirt when the post is removed.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. string-and-ball trick [illustration] the stopping of a ball on a string at any desired point is understood by almost every person, but to make one that can be worked only when the operator so desires is a mysterious trick. procure a wooden ball, about in. in diameter, and cut it into two equal parts. insert a small peg in the flat surface of one half, a little to one side of the center, as shown, and allow the end to project about / in. the flat surface of the other half is cut out concave, as shown, to make it / in. deep. the two halves are then glued together, and a hole is drilled centrally on the division line for a string to pass through. to do the trick, hold an end of the string in each hand tightly and draw it taut with the ball at the top, then slacken the string enough to allow the ball to slide down the string. to stop the ball at any point, pull the string taut. before handing the ball and string out for inspection, push the string from each side of the ball and turn it slightly to throw it off the peg. this will allow the string to pass freely through the ball, and it cannot be stopped at will. to replace the string reverse the operation.--contributed by wm. o. swett, chicago. wall-paper cleaner the following mixture i have used with the best results for years. thoroughly mix together pt. of wheat flour and pt. of powdered whiting, then add sufficient water to make a dough. to clean a dirty papered wall, take a piece of the dough that can be easily grasped in the hand, press it against the surface and make a long stroke downward. during the process of cleaning, keep kneading the dirt into the dough. the preparation can be mixed in any amount desired by using the proportions named.--contributed by c. w. bause, jr., e. troy, wis. revolving shaft without power the device illustrated seems paradoxical for it apparently works without any power being applied to it, making from two to three revolutions per hour, which, though slow, is nevertheless motion, requiring energy. [illustration: the expansion and contraction of the ropes keep the disk up and to one side of the center] the shaft a is supported on the edges, in the bearings b and c, of a tank, d. a disk, e, having a central hole larger in diameter than the shaft, is located at the middle of the latter. the disk is supported by or more cotton ropes, f. the tank is filled to the level g with water. the lower ropes, being immersed in the water, shrink and lift the disk slightly above the center in the position of an eccentric, as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. the center of gravity of the disk in this position, being higher and slightly to one side of the shaft, the disk has a tendency to turn around. the motion drives the next rope into the water where it becomes soaked and shrinkage takes place again, lifting the disk to a higher position, while the rope coming out of the water dries out. the ropes emerging from the water but not yet thoroughly dry cause the upper part of the disk to be in an eccentric position laterally with reference to the center of the shaft, thus causing the center of gravity to be not only above but also slightly to one side.--contributed by charles roberts, brooklyn, n. y. a paper-bag holder [illustration] a holder, to accommodate the different-sized bags used in a store, can be easily made of a board, in. wide and in. long. one edge of the board is cut with notches similar to the teeth of a ripsaw and their back-sloping edges are drilled to admit a nail point. a sufficient quantity of bags is placed in a pile and a nail is driven through the edge near their upper ends, and the projecting point of the nail is stuck into one of the holes. proceed in the same manner with bags of other sizes. to remove a bag, take hold of the lower end of the outermost one and tear it from the nail. be sure to drive the nails through the bags close to the top.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. covering for chalk trays the chalk trays fitted at the lower edge of blackboards soon collect considerable chalk dust and the chalk sticks dropped into it are, therefore, disagreeable to handle. a simple way of keeping the sticks clean is to cover the trays with wire mesh which is shaped like a tray but not so deep as the chalk tray. thus the chalk dust will fall through this screen and be out of the way of the sticks. a curtain hanger a close-coiled spring, about / in. in diameter, makes a much better hanger for a short curtain than a small rod. the spring should be about in. shorter than the width of the window and fastened with screwhooks. the spring is preferable not only because it is less apt to tear the fabric, as it will give some if the curtain is pulled, but also for the reason that it is much easier to put it through the hem than the rod.--contributed by walter ramm, new york city. [illustration] joints for model aeroplane in constructing model or toy aeroplanes the strips used are so slender that it is difficult to join them at the ends with brads without splitting them. if glue is used, there is danger of breaking two or more ribs, should it be necessary to remove a broken or defective rib. [illustration: cartridge shells used for joints (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] an empty -gauge long cartridge can be formed into an elbow that will connect the framework accurately, give more strength than glue or brads, and allow a broken section to be removed without spoiling the other part of the framework. file off the end a, fig. , so that the shell will form a straight tube, and file as shown in fig. with a three-cornered file. then bend the two sections into the form shown in fig. and solder the adjacent edges. file off the rough spots and drill small holes, as shown, for the insertion of pins to hold the wood strips. much time in the building of model aeroplanes can be saved by keeping a supply of these elbows on hand. * * * * * a deep rust on tools may be removed by soaking them in a strong, hot bath of potash and water for a half hour, then dipping them into a solution of part muriatic acid in parts cold water. an indoor baseball game an indoor game of baseball may be played on a board ft. long and ft. wide. a diamond is laid off at one end of the board and pins representing the hits are attached to the board so they will project above the surface. the locations of the players are designated by holes bored part way in the wood with an expansive bit. these holes should be large enough to receive the rings easily. the rings may be gaskets or they may be made of rope, and should have an inside diameter of about in. [illustration: baseball diamond on a board] only two persons can play at this game. the distance from the board to the thrower may be from to ft., according to the size of the room. this distance should be marked and each thrower stand at the same place. if the ring is thrown over one of the "base-hit" or "two-bagger" pegs, it shows the number of bases secured. throwing a ring over one of the "home-run" pegs means a score, of course. the "infield hit" secures a base. if the ring slips into a hole, that counts one out. a player must throw until he has three outs. the score is kept for the runs made.--contributed by francis p. hobart, willoughby, o. a lantern for the camp [illustration] a very desirable lantern for camp use is one that utilizes a candle instead of a lamp. such a lantern can be made of an ordinary oil-lantern globe, a block of wood, some galvanized wire, a few nails, a metal collar, and a hood of zinc or tin. the block of wood is cut octagonally and the metal collar is fastened to it as shown. four headless nails are driven into the center of the block, spaced so as to hold an ordinary candle securely. the wire is formed into a u-shape and the ends fastened into the block of wood outside of the candle socket, and within the globe circle. a conical piece of tin or zinc is formed to fit over the top of the globe as shown. as the candle does not require much draft there is no opening provided.--contributed by addison w. baird, m. d., new york city. electric lights controlled from two or more switches many times it is quite an advantage to have a lamp or group of lamps so connected that the current may be turned on or off by any one of a number of different switches. for example, the lights in a long hall or passage-way can be lighted or extinguished by operating a switch at either end of the hall; the lights in the upper and lower halls of a residence, turned on or off by operating a switch upstairs or downstairs as the case might demand; the lights in the garage, controlled by switches at both the inside and outside door, etc. [illustration: lamps controlled from two switches (fig. )] the method of connecting a number of lamps to a circuit so that they can be controlled from either of two switches is shown in fig. . the switches, as illustrated in this drawing, are in such a position that the lamps will burn. if either of the switches be thrown to its other position (there are two positions for each switch), the circuit will be opened. the operation then of either switch will again close the circuit. [illustration: lamps controlled by any number of switches (fig. )] the method of connecting a number of lamps to a circuit so that they can be controlled by any number of switches is shown in fig. . the switches are all in such a position that the lamps will burn. if any one of the switches be turned to its second position (all the switches have two positions), the circuit will be open. the dotted lines at switch c show the connections through switch c after it has been operated. operating switch d then will again close the circuit, by using the dotted lines in switches c and d. the wiring for the control of lamps, as just indicated, must comply with the underwriters' requirements, and also city requirements, if the work be done in a place having city regulations for electric wiring. * * * * * wire netting may be cut by laying it on the side edge of a spade and striking it with a hammer. [illustration] electric score board for indoor games a very satisfactory electric score board, for use in scoring basketball and other games played indoors, is shown in the illustration. it is constructed entirely of wood, but should be lined with asbestos board or sheathing. the dimensions are a matter of choice, but one ft. long, ft. wide and in. deep is a good size. the back of the box is provided with two cleats, each - / ft. long, fastened at each end. this allows a projection of in. at the top and bottom, for fastening the score board to the wall. the manner of construction is shown in fig. , and a cross section of the box, in fig. . [illustration: electric indoor score board, showing its construction and manner of cutting out the letters and numbers (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] the front of the box should be fastened with screws so as to make its removal easy in case of repairs. this part of the box carries the frame for inserting the numbers and the words "home team" and "visitors," as shown in fig. . as the words are a permanent fixture, the cards carrying them are fastened to the front. at the end of these words a frame is constructed as shown in fig. , in which the cards having the numbers are inserted in slides. numerals and letters can be cut out of heavy cardboard or tin. the design of a letter having sharp angles and straight edges, as shown in fig. , is very easily cut out with a chisel. the method of cutting is shown in fig. . as portions of the letters and numerals, such as the center in an o, would fall out if cut entirely around, some way must be provided to hold the parts in place. the way to prepare stencils is to leave a portion uncut, which is known as a tie, and the letter will appear as shown in fig. . the best method for making these letters and figures is to cut out the letter entirely, then to paste thin paper over the back and replace the parts removed by the cutting in their original position.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. a mission frame for an alarm clock the old nickelplated alarm clock which usually adorns the kitchen mantel is, to say the least, not ornamental, and i improved the appearance of mine without lessening its usefulness by making a small case in mission style for it. [illustration: an alarm clock with a wood covering ornamented and finished in mission style] the sketch shows a design which is neat and easily made. accurate dimensions cannot be given as these will vary with the size of the clock. quarter-sawed oak, / in. thick, is the best material to use. the front and back can be cut on a jigsaw, the opening for the clock face being cut slightly smaller than the metal of the clock so that only the face shows. an opening in the back piece should be cut a little smaller than the one in front, to provide a free opening for winding the clock. fasten the parts together with small round-head brass brads or screws and finish to match the furniture. a small desk clock can be made in a similar manner, using a cheap watch instead of the alarm clock.--contributed by c. e. hamann, somerville, mass. mixing sulphuric acid one of the first lessons given a student in chemistry is how to mix sulphuric acid with water. this would naturally be supposed to be very easy, yet, if it is not done right, it will surely result in injury to the person doing the mixing. the specific gravity of sulphuric acid is . and, on account of its chemical attraction to water, great heat is set up or generated when the two are being mixed. if the acid is put into a jar and the water poured onto it, they will be temporarily separated, as the heavy acid will remain at the bottom, the chemical reaction taking place on the dividing line only. this soon generates heat which rapidly increases until steam is formed. then the water boils over and finally becomes a bubbling volcano which readily ejects the contents of the jar. as the mixture at this moment is very hot, bad burns will be the result, which are aggravated by the biting of the acid; and clothing or anything that it comes in contact with will be ruined or badly damaged. always remember this caution: add the acid to the water. the following is the proper way to proceed in mixing sulphuric acid as well as other acids of lighter weight. place the water in a jar and pour the acid in, a little at a time, stirring the mixture with a wooden stick. the mixing process will always heat the solution, which in many instances, must be allowed to cool before using. a chinese pagoda fold the end of a long and narrow strip of paper over several times as shown in fig. and roll the entire length over a stick, then remove the roll and crease, or make it flat, as shown in fig. . make two cuts with a sharp knife centrally so that they reach to the several folds first made on the inner end of the paper, then cut the fold in the paper between the cuts as shown in fig. , and bend the ends over to form the shape in fig. . insert the knife blade under the first fold and draw it out until the paper takes the form in fig. . [illustration: stages in making the strip of paper into the finished pagoda (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] these pagodas can be made large or small, as desired, and also varied in several ways. large ones can be formed and used as small tree ornaments. all that is necessary to make them high is to roll up one strip of paper on another in the rolling process. in rolling up several strips, one on top of the other successively, various colored papers may be used and the appearance is greatly enhanced.--contributed by chas. c. bradley, w. toledo, o. a cuspidor carrier [illustration] the task of handling cuspidors under all conditions is anything but pleasant, but the carrier shown in the sketch makes quite an improvement over ordinary methods. the carrier consists of an iron rod, / in. in diameter and ft. long. one end is bent to fit around the neck of the cuspidor and the other is shaped into a handle. guide for grinding a plane iron when a plane iron has been sharpened a number of times, it often becomes so out of square that the edge cannot be made parallel with the bottom of the plane block, even by using the lateral adjustment. where this happens, the plane iron must be reground. if an emery wheel mounted in a polishing head or lathe is at hand, this can be easily accomplished. loosen the plane-iron cap and screw it down at right angles to the plane iron, also reverse the tool rest as shown in the sketch. in this way the work can be done better and more quickly than by the usual method.--contributed by l. s. uphoff, schenectady, n. y. [illustration: the plane-iron cap turned at right angles, provides a guide to grind the edge straight] to prevent torch lights from smoking in the shop or factory oil torches are sometimes used and much trouble is experienced by the excessive smoking of the flame. this occurs because too much carbon remains unburned, and can be remedied by first soaking the wick in a weak solution of acetic acid. a -per-cent solution can be purchased for a few cents at any drug store and will soak a great number of wicks. the acid is not poisonous unless taken internally. a lard and fruit presser a very simple but handy device for pressing out lard, juices for jelly, or fruit for marmalade, is made from two boards, each in. long, in. wide and / in. thick, formed into the shape of paddles and hinged together. the hinge is made by running a wire through holes bored in one end of the paddles and twisting the ends together as shown. this presser will save the hands from stains and other effects of the juices.--contributed by julia a. white, glenburg, pa. [illustration: two paddles hinged together with a piece of wire make a presser for lard and fruits] an electric-light bulb as barometer to use a discarded electric bulb as a fairly reliable barometer the point is broken off with a pair of pliers while holding the bulb under water. as the bulb is a vacuum, it completely fills with water. if the bulb is now suspended from a wire or thread fastened at the socket end, the water will not run out of it in fair weather when the atmospheric pressure is normal or high, but if the pressure falls, as happens when bad weather is approaching, the water will begin to bulge out of the small opening and sometimes a small drop may even fall off. when, with returning fair weather, the atmospheric pressure increases, the water can no longer bulge or drop out of the bulb. a swinging-pendulum trick to swing a pendulum, picked out from a number of them at random, without touching it is a very puzzling trick. the articles necessary are a medium-sized table and a number of pendulums, some of which are suspended from a rod with their lower weighted ends inside of water and wine glasses placed on the table, and others attached to corks so that they will hang inside of bottles. the spectators gather around the table which can be in full light. the performer sits at one side of the table with his hands flat on the top. a person may pick out any pendulum and ask him to swing it, which he will proceed to do without touching it, also making it strike the glass while it swings. another pendulum may be pointed out and he will start that one apparently by looking at it, while the other one stops. [illustration: any one pendulum can be made to swing at will by moving the table slightly] this may seem to be impossible, yet it is very easy. it will be seen that no two pendulums have the same length. a pendulum makes a certain number of swings in a given time, depending on its length. a long pendulum requires more time to complete its swing and will, therefore, make a less number of swings than a short one in the same time. it is only necessary to move the table slightly and watch the pendulum picked out until it begins to swing independently of the others, which soon happens. to make the longer pendulums swing, longer movements of the table top must be made. with a little practice anyone can become a skilled medium in pendulum swinging.--contributed by james a. hart, philadelphia, pa. applying a strap hinge an ordinary strap hinge can be applied to a door or box cover in such a way that only one wing will show. ordinarily the hinge opens as at a, and, on reversing it, the hinge will open to the limit as shown at b. if one wing is bent toward the other, as shown at c, the hinge may be applied, as shown at d. as this process reverses the hinge, the screw holes must be countersunk on the opposite side. [illustration: reversing a strap hinge so that when it is applied only one wing will show] tricks performed with thumbs tied together to have one's thumbs securely tied together by any person in an audience and examined by the spectators, then have some one throw a hoop or bicycle rim on one of the performer's arms as if the thumbs were not tied, seems impossible, yet this trick can be done, and its simplicity is its own protection, even though performed close to a committee selected from the audience. a stick can be held perpendicularly by anyone with one hand at each end and the performer can thrust his arms at the stick which passes between them with the thumbs apparently tied tightly together. the same effect is produced on the arm of any person, while the hands are tightly clasped, and before and after each movement the tied thumbs are examined by the committee. the two cords used for the trick are made as follows: the first should be about in. long, / in. in diameter at its center and tapering to points at the ends. the other cord is about in. long, / in. in diameter in the center and also tapering at the ends. they are constructed of chinese or japanese paper, which is a soft, but very tough, fibrous texture. cut the paper into strips, in. wide, taking care that the grain, or rather the fiber, runs lengthwise. beginning at one end, twist the paper on itself at an angle as in rolling the old-fashioned paper lamp lighter. each turn should lap over the former about half of its width. when within in. of the end of the first strip apply another by moistening the joining ends and continue the twisting. when the length given is reached, break off the strip and start back over the first in the opposite direction. lay on enough layers to secure the diameter given. when finished, the cords should be strong enough to resist the pressure applied by the hands. [illustration: manner of crossing the thumbs to receive the double tie of the cord] with all fingers pressed together spread both thumbs away from the hands, as shown at a. lay the right thumb across the left, as at b, the large knuckle bone of one lying directly over that of the other. the largest cord is laid over the crossing and both ends brought down, crossed under the thumbs, then up again, and tied in two knots on top of the right thumb, as at c. the trick in the tying is at this point. just as the tie is being made pull the left thumb until the smallest-diameter joints reach the cord and pull down with the left hand. push the right thumb so that the fleshy part enters as far as possible into the cords. insist on the tie being made tightly. [illustration: the cords as they are placed around the thumbs and tied in a double knot] the second and smaller cord is laid below the right thumb as shown at d, and on top of the left against the first cord, crossed, brought back and tied twice. when this is being done reverse the pushing and pulling as described, pushing the left thumb and pulling out on the right. secure all the slack on the left thumb, the right being pushed into the cords at its smallest diameter and the second cord being tied high up and as near the right thumb as possible, with knots tightly drawn. if this second knot is not tight it will give trouble in performing the trick. the release is made by bringing the tips of the fingers together and placing the thumbs into the palms. if the ties have been carefully made there will be no trouble to withdraw the left thumb as it is masked by the hands. the peculiar nature of the paper cord causes the loop from which the thumb was removed to remain open and rigid as a wire loop, and if the last tie was tightly drawn, the second cord will not slip down to close the loop. in approaching the hoop, stick, or arm, touch the thing to be passed with the finger tips and withdraw them, swaying backward a few times and, in the last swing before making the pass, remove the thumb from the loop. after passing, replace the thumb in the loop. in passing the object, open the finger tips, then close them and open the palms, and push the left thumb back into the loop, close the palms and apply a strain on both thumbs, then show the tie. be careful to press both thumbs closely into the palms in passing so that they will not strike the object. always exhibit the tie from the back of the hands with the palms spread out. if there is any difficulty in drawing out or replacing the thumb in the loop, it is because the ties have not been properly made or tied when the thumbs were in the right place. it requires some practice to do the trick quickly.--fayette. a way to keep home accounts an easy way to keep track of all the home expenses is by the popular card system. the index cards can be had at any stationery-supply house. place the cards in a box on end and have a good supply of blanks back of them ready for use. under, or back of, each letter place as many blanks as is necessary, and almost instantly any item of expense in the home may be found, such as the cost of coal for the year, drugs, meat, the cost of clothing for a child, and the account of the head of the family. the boy's account might read as follows under the letter j: johnnie jan. shoes $ . jan. book . jan. hair cut . feb. stockings . and so on through the year. the mother can see at a glance just when the last shoes were bought, and how much it cost for books and paper. everything pertaining to the home keeping can be so recorded and each year compared. once given a trial no other bookkeeping will be required in the home where time counts. children can be taught to keep account of their expenses in this way, and thus thrift and good business methods are encouraged.--contributed by harriette i. lockwood, philadelphia, pa. how to make a blowgun either a -in. length of a small curtain-rod tubing or a straight piece of small bamboo pole, cut off between the joints, can be used for the gun part of this simple device. if bamboo is used, see that it is cleaned out smoothly on the inside. the dart used in the gun is shown at a in the illustration. it is made by threading the eye of a darning needle full of yarn, clipping all the strands off to a uniform length of about / in., and then picking out the fibers into a brushlike mass above the needle's eye. another needle or pin can be used for fuzzing the threads. the point to observe is that the brush is of somewhat larger diameter than the bore of the gun, so that when the needle is pushed into the mouth end the brush will be compressed and make an air-tight plug. [illustration: the blowgun is made of a piece of tubing, and the dart of a darning needle] after thus inserting the dart, hold it as shown and give a quick, sharp blast of the breath into the gun. the dart will travel with great speed and accuracy for ft. or more, and stick wherever it strikes. the point being so small, it can be used in the house for shooting at a paper target pinned to the wall without injury to the plaster or woodwork.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. a brush for applying soldering acid a good brush for applying acid to articles for soldering can be made of a piece of small copper pipe for the handle, and fine copper wire for the brush. to make the brush part, take a piece of cardboard, about - / in. wide, and wind several turns of no. gauge copper wire around it, then remove the coil, insert about / in. of it in the pipe, and flatten the latter to hold the wire. clip the ends of the wire, and a brush will be had that ordinary acids will not affect. if only a short piece of pipe is available, it can be used as a ferrule and a handle made of wire or wood.--contributed by a. r. cunning, w. new brighton, n. y. inkwell and penholder [illustration] an empty paste pot with a water well in the center makes an excellent inkwell and penholder. fill the exterior well a with cement or plaster of paris, push the number of penholders to be held into the cement before it sets, moving them about occasionally to prevent the cement from sticking to them and to make the hole a little larger than the holder. the part b is for the ink.--contributed by r. f. pinkney, lazareto del mariel, cuba. a homemade loose-leaf pocket memorandum the little memorandum illustrated herewith is very handy to carry in the coat or vest pocket for taking notes, etc. loose leaves may be supplied with very little trouble. it consists of a fold of paper, cut as shown and pasted at the ends. the pocket thus formed will easily hold doz. sheets and the slits cut on the outside will admit sheets.--contributed by c. b. hanson, fitchburg, mass. [illustration: the holder is made of heavy manila paper and will stand considerable wear] * * * * * an ideal cleaner for kid gloves is carbon tetrachloride. rubber-band-change trick the trick of changing a rubber band from the first and second fingers to the third and fourth, if done quickly, can be performed without detection by any one. the band on the first two fingers is shown to the spectator as in fig. , with the back of the hand up. the hand is then turned over and the band drawn out quickly, as shown in fig. , in a manner as to give the impression that the band is whole and on the two fingers. while doing this, quickly fold all the fingers so that their ends enter the band, and turn the hand over and let go the band, then show the back with the fingers doubled up. in reality the fingers will be in the band, as in fig. , and the back will still show the band on the first two fingers. quickly straighten out all the fingers, and the band will snap over the last two fingers, as shown in fig. .--contributed by e. k. marshall, oak park, ill. [illustration: transferring rubber band from the first two fingers to the last pair, like magic (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] a swinging electric-light bracket the light bracket shown is both ornamental and useful and can be swung from one side of the room to the other in an instant, a feature that is of great value in a dimly lighted kitchen. it can be made of either brass or soft iron, but, for the sake of convenience, the description will be for one made of brass. procure four pieces of brass, in wide, / in. thick and in. long, and bend them to the shape shown at a. these are to form the ceiling bracket. a / -in. hole is drilled in the end of each piece to be against the ceiling. the other end is bent slightly concave and soldered to a brass collar, b, which is threaded on the inside. this collar must be of such a size that it will screw on the end of a brass pipe, c, in. in outside diameter. the length of this pipe should be or inches. the base d of the bracket is made of a brass bar, / in. thick, / in. wide and in. long, a scroll being turned on in. of its length at the globe end, and in. of the other end turned up at right angles and soldered to a ring made of / -in. brass that acts as a bearing around the pipe. [illustration: a bracket forming a pendant and swinging arm to change the location of the electric light] the upper brace e is made of / -in. brass, the same width as the base piece and about in. in length. each end is turned into a scroll and then riveted or soldered to the base d and to the upper brass ring. the space between the base d, the brace e, and the pipe c is filled with any style of scroll or other brace that may suit the taste of the maker, but the base d must be at right angles to the pipe c before the scroll is fastened in place. a cap, f, is screwed to the lower end of the pipe, to keep the bracket in place. ordinary flexible light cord is used to connect to the light which is swung to the scroll end of the base.--contributed by f. l. matter, portland, oregon. match safe to deliver one match at a time a match safe that will deliver only one match at a time is constructed of two parts, the box or holder and the base, with slider. the box is diamond-shaped and of the size shown by the dimensions. the base, with slider, consists of two pieces, the baseboard and a standard which runs through the box diagonally on the longest dimension in a vertical position. a thumbtack is inserted in the standard near the top to prevent the box from being lifted entirely from the base. [illustration: the box delivers only one match when it is raised and lowered on the standard] the matches are filled into the box on both sides of the standard. when a match is wanted, lift the box up and let it down again, and one match will be caught in the notch and raised out of the box. to prevent the box from tipping sideways when it is raised up, small pieces can be glued to the box ends on the inside and on both sides of the standard.--contributed by a. s. barrows, new britain, conn. cartridge shells used for electrical contacts in making small switchboards, rheostats, and other electrical devices, i found a good use for old center-fire cartridge shells as shown in the sketch. a hole a little smaller than the diameter of the shell is made in the board and the shell is forced in. the proper wires are then soldered to the metal on the inside, or the wire may be placed inside of the shell and held in contact by driving a wood plug in as indicated.--contributed by w. o. nettleton, washington, d. c. [illustration: the heads of the cartridge shells make good contacts for a switch lever] a dowel-turning tool the owner of a wood or metal lathe can easily construct a tool that will turn dowels of any size quickly. this tool, as described by a correspondent of work, london, consists of a block of wood, shaped as shown at a, and a plane bit, b, attached with a wood screw. the hole in the collet c must be of such size that it will admit the rough stock freely but also prevent it from wabbling as the stick turns. the stock is chucked in the ordinary manner and the tool is run on the outer end. [illustration: the tool is very similar to a plane and is used with a lathe for turning dowels] to tie a hammock [illustration] a method not generally known to quickly and securely hitch up a hammock between two trees, in camp or elsewhere, is shown in the sketch. each end rope is given one or more turns around a tree trunk and then tucked under, as shown. the pull on the rope will draw it tightly against the rough bark on the tree. the harder the pull, the tighter the rope binds against the tree trunk. in this manner a hammock can be put up in a few moments and it is as readily taken down.--contributed by bert morehouse, des moines, iowa. an inexpensive file envelopes make a very inexpensive as well as a neat file for papers and letters if they are arranged and fastened together so that they can be kept in one packet. in making such a file procure as many envelopes as there will be headings in the file, also a number of strips of gummed tape, about - / in. long. there must be twice as many of these strips as there are envelopes. [illustration: the file is built up of envelopes joined together with small strips of tape] bind the backs of two envelopes, a and b, together leaving a space of / in. between the envelopes. bind a third envelope, c, to b, and so on. the strips of tape from a to b and from b to c are on opposite sides of the envelope b. continue binding until the required number of envelopes have been joined together. assign a heading to each of the envelopes, and the file is ready for use. when completed it should appear as shown in d.--contributed by alfred rice, syracuse, n. y. window-shade guides the annoyance of a shade that will not run true on the roller and flops in the wind coming through an open window can be overcome by using guide wires as follows: [illustration: two parallel guide wires hold the stick of the shade in its proper place] the stick in the hem on the lower edge of the shade is supplied with a screweye, a, at each end. a wire is run through the screweye and fastened in a vertical position on the casing with screweyes as shown by b, b. a second wire is similarly attached on the other side of the shade, taking care to have both wires parallel and true with the ends of the roller.--contributed by george lue, san francisco, california. watering plants at the roots an effective way to water rose bushes, shrubs or plants is to place an old cowhorn in the earth so that the small end will be near the roots of the plant and the large end level with the surface of the ground, and fill the horn with water. the small end of the horn should be cut off at such a point that the hole will be about the size of a lead pencil.--contributed by chas. l. richards, philadelphia, pa. how to clean jewelry to cleanse articles of silver, gold, bronze and brass use a saturated solution of cyanide of potassium. to clean small articles, dip each one into the solution and rinse immediately in hot water; then dry and polish with a linen cloth. larger articles are cleaned by rubbing the surface with a small tuft of cotton saturated in the solution. as cyanide of potassium is a deadly poison, care must be taken not to have it touch any sore spot on the flesh.--contributed by g. a. koerbis, u. s. s. "vermont." runner for a go-cart as the wheels of a go-cart do not push through the snow very easily and the cart, therefore, does not run in a straight direction, and as i did not care to purchase a sled, i instead fitted the go-cart wheels with runners as shown in the sketch. i purchased a piece of machine steel of a diameter to fit the grooves in the wheels after the rubber tires were removed. this i cut and bent to the shape shown at a, making two runners, and applied one to each pair of wheels, front and rear, as shown at b. the runners kept the wheels immovable and caused the cart to glide over the snow as a sleigh. this runner will not interfere with the folding of a collapsible cart.--contributed by roy b. hanaford, detroit, mich. [illustration: the runners are easily applied to the wheels of a go-cart and hold them solidly] a ring-throwing game the board for this game is made of a cover from an old candy or lard pail, washed and painted black. when the paint is dry, place pegs on the surface as shown and number them with white paint or by fastening numbers cut from paper below them. the numbering of the pegs is not consecutive, but low and high numbers distributed with the object in view of making it difficult to secure a high score. each player has a set of five rings, which are nothing else but rubber fruit-jar rings. these can be purchased at a grocery store. the board is hung on a wall or post, and the player stands about or ft. away and throws the rings, one at a time, trying to ring pegs having the highest numbers. the sum of the numbers corresponding to the pegs ringed counts toward the final score. turns are taken by each player, and each time five rings are thrown. the score can be set at any amount, being about right.--contributed by francis p. hobart, willoughby, o. [illustration: the candy-pail cover with pegs numbered and a set of rings for each player] a pen and brush holder a sheet of corrugated paper is a handy thing to have on the writing desk, for the purpose of placing wet pens or brushes in its grooves. the paper absorbs the liquid, and the corrugations hold the pens or brushes in handy positions. a sheet of this paper is almost as useful a desk accessory as a blotter.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: the depressions in the paper hold the pens or brushes and also absorb the excess fluid] supporter for a double clothesline [illustration] a double clothesline of any length should have a supporter in the center to keep the line from sagging when the clothes are hung on the lower one. the supporter shown in the sketch saves the wear from the strain on the lines. it also keeps the clothes in a higher current of air so that they dry quicker. the supporter is made of two nickelplated rings measuring in. in diameter. they are bound together as shown. the rings being nickelplated, the supporter will not rust the clothes. the clothes should be arranged on the lower line so that the supporter will rest in the center.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, new york. pincushion for the arm those that have trouble in keeping the pincushion within reach while sewing, can remedy the trouble by making one to fit the wrist or arm. an ordinary pincushion is attached to a piece of cardboard and an elastic sewed to the cardboard edges so that it will fit on the arm. the pincushion is not in the way and is readily worn so that the pins are easier to reach than if pinned to the dress.--contributed by frank sterrett, portland, o. electric test for fixtures a very useful device for testing out fixtures before they are connected up can be easily made as follows: two wires are run from a plug, a, one to a socket, b, and the other to terminate at c. the line from the other side of the socket b terminates at d. in testing a fixture, the plug a is turned into a socket of some source of current, and a lamp is turned into the socket b. the terminal c is held to the metal covering of the fixture, while the end d is held to one of the wires. if there is a leak of current, the lamp at b and those of the fixture will light up.--contributed by fred schumacher, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: one line of the two connecting wires is broken and the ends used as terminals on the fixture] opening for steam in a utensil cover when cooking certain foods the ordinary cover on a vessel confines too much steam, while if no cover at all is used, too much will escape, hence a cover which is provided with a vent is very desirable. the cover attachment shown in the illustration is evidently well adapted for service on such occasions and can be easily made as follows: [illustration: the small triangular surface provided with holes for releasing surplus steam is covered with a cap] lay out a small triangle on some level part of the cover and punch several holes inside of the lines. cut a cap, a, from a piece of tin to cover the holes. a small projection on the edge of the cap serves to swing it one way or the other, as needed, and it is fastened loosely to the cover with a soft-copper rivet, so that it may be easily opened. drying seeds a good way to dry tomato, cantaloupe, and other seeds is to put them on blotters. they will quickly dry in this manner and will not become moldy, as the blotter soaks up the moisture.--contributed by theodore becker, kansas city, mo. cleaning clothes by boiling them when cleaning clothes by boiling them in a boiler over a fire, fit in a false bottom to keep the clothes from touching the bottom. the false bottom should be perforated with holes, / -in. in diameter and in. apart, over the entire piece. fasten four legs, each about in. long, to the under side to make a space between the bottoms. in washing, all that is necessary is to place the clothes in the boiler and boil them. the dirt will come loose and settle through the holes and on the boiler bottom. an emergency tack puller one day i had to pull some tacks but had no tack puller at hand. an idea came to me to use the kitchen spoon, and i found that it worked even better than a regular tack puller. the ordinary kitchen spoon usually has an edge sharp enough to get under any tack.--contributed by h. d. harkins, st. louis, mo. [illustration: the point of a spoon will easily pull a tack from soft wood] a puzzle with figures this puzzle is to arrange all the figures or digits, from to inclusively, in two rows, each containing all the digits, so that the sum in addition as well as the remainder in subtraction will have nine figures, in which all the digits are represented. there are several solutions to the puzzle, and the following is one of them: the sum of the foregoing numbers and the remainder, when the lower row is subtracted from the upper, will both have nine figures and include all the digits from to .--contributed by walter bennett, detroit, mich. to fasten loose table legs when legs of an ordinary table become loose and unsteady they may be easily repaired as shown in the sketch. nails do not hold well in such places and glue will not stand much washing. [illustration: a piece of wire bent around the leg of a table will make it rigid] the method of making the repair is to drill / -in. holes through the rails on each side of the leg and insert pieces of galvanized wire of a size to fit the holes. after the wire is inserted, the ends are bent over. the illustration clearly shows the repair.--contributed by edwin c. wright, newport, ky. washbasin holder [illustration] a piece of wire formed into the shape shown in the sketch makes a handy hook to hold a washbasin when it is not in use. this keeps it out of the way and out of the dirty water which might be thrown into the kitchen sink.--contributed by f. c. althen, anamosa, iowa. a cleaner for canvas shoes one of the most economical cleansers for canvas shoes is oxide of zinc. mix a small quantity of the powder with water, to the consistency of thin paste, and apply it to the canvas with an old toothbrush, rubbing it in thoroughly. then set the shoes aside to dry before wearing them.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. * * * * * a good substitute currycomb can be made of corncobs tied together tightly. ruling blank books a special ruling for a blank book can be drawn by using a thin piece of sheet metal or cardboard, cut as shown in fig. , for a template. the pencil is drawn along one edge of the cutout so that it will make lines as shown in fig. . [illustration: a template having slots cut for drawing special vertical and horizontal lines on pages (fig. , fig. )] if horizontal lines are required, cut notches on the edge for the location of each line as shown. when the vertical lines are drawn, these notches will mark the places for the horizontal lines. how to demagnetize a watch quite often the attendants or a visitor to an electric-light plant discovers after a few days that his watch is losing a half hour or more a day by having become magnetized by the dynamos. in stations where the old types of machines are still in use there is a great deal more danger from what is called "stray" magnetic fields than in those where modern machines are installed. the jeweler demagnetizes a watch in the following way: he has a piece of soft iron with an opening cut in its center of such shape and size as to receive the watch, and with a fine wire wound about it. after the watch has been placed in position, an alternating current, that is, one whose direction is changing at regular intervals, is sent through the winding, and thus a magnetic field is produced that also changes in direction as the current reverses. the current is gradually reduced in value and the magnetism originally possessed by the watch is removed. when an alternating current is not available, a direct current may be used, its direction being rapidly reversed by what is known as a "polarity changer." anyone can demagnetize his own watch, however, with very little trouble and no expense by a much simpler method. procure a piece of heavy linen thread about ft. long, attach one end of it to the ring of the watch, hold the other end and turn the watch around until the thread is twisted at least one hundred times. now allow the thread to unwind, and as the watch revolves, pass it back and forth near a powerful electromagnet. the field magnet of a good-sized generator or motor will answer. the machine should be in operation, or at least there should be a current in the windings about the fields, when you attempt to demagnetize the watch. while the thread is unwinding, and the watch moved in the magnetic field, gradually withdraw from the magnet so that when the watch ceases to revolve, it is just outside of the field. always be sure to keep the watch revolving while it is in the magnetic field, otherwise the results will be very unsatisfactory, and more harm than good may result. a pencil holder procure a piece of paper, in. long and in. wide, and roll it one time around a lead pencil, then coat the remaining surface of the paper with glue. roll this around the pencil and a tube is formed, which will hold a pencil or even pieces of pencil down to / in. in length.--contributed by w. d. brooks, paterson, n. j. [illustration: a stub of a pencil can be easily held in the tube for writing] a poultry-food chopper the illustration shows a handy device for cutting roots for food, and for chopping and mixing stale bread, potatoes, peelings, refuse fruit, etc., for poultry. any blacksmith can make the chopper at little cost. for the cutting blades use two pieces of steel a little heavier than oil-barrel hoops, each - / in. wide and in. long. procure a / -in. iron rod, about ft. long, bend one end in the shape of a spade handle and split the other end for a distance of about - / in. [illustration: the chopper consists of a rod handle to which blades are attached by riveting or welding] sharpen one edge of each blade and curve the metal slightly. lay the two blades together with the convex sides touching in the center and insert them in the slit in the handle end. they are riveted or welded in place. heat and bend the blades at right angles. many of the materials mentioned for poultry foods may be chopped in an ordinary pail having a strong bottom, but it is best to make a box, about - / ft. square and with a plank bottom, for use with the chopper. a small spring hinge box covers or small doors that are seldom used can be supplied with a small spring hinge as shown in the illustration. the hinge is made of a piece of spring wire which is formed similar to a staple with a coil or complete turn given to the wire in the center. it is attached by driving the points, one into the door and the other into the casing. [illustration: the shape of the hinge, and the manner of attaching it to a cover or door] shoestring end when the tips slip from shoelaces, new ones may be readily made of fine wire. the wire is run through the end of the lace, fig. , and the two ends are twisted tightly together as shown in fig. . this covers the end of the lace and makes, a tip that is easily passed through the eyelets. [illustration: the wire prevents the lace from raveling and makes a tip for easily entering the eyelets (fig. , fig. )] threads on wood shafts in model making it is quite necessary at times to have threads on a wood shaft. these can be made quite satisfactorily by coiling a wire around the shaft where the threads are wanted, and driving the ends into the wood. [illustration: the wire forms a thread that in many instances is quite serviceable for model making] a glass breaker after cutting glass, and especially where a small strip is to be removed, the part must be broken away in small pieces. the accompanying sketch shows a very useful tool for this purpose. the tool is made of a piece of metal having a bolt fastened to it at one end whose nut can be adjusted to the thickness of the glass. [illustration: the nut is set to the thickness of the glass and used to break pieces away] * * * * * old discarded blueprints can be made white and used for sketching by dipping them in a solution of soda and water, in the proportions of oz. of soda to each gallon of water. wood postal cards the card consists of three pieces, or three-ply, veneer. the grain of the outside veneer runs lengthwise, while that of the inside piece runs crosswise. this makes the card straight and keeps it from breaking. for the inner section, walnut, which may be had as thin as / in., or any thin straight-grained veneer may be used. two pieces of veneer, about - / in. wide and in. long; one piece, in. wide and - / in. long,--the length being with the grain of the wood--and two blocks of wood, known as cauls, of the same size or a little larger, and about / in. thick, are required. the veneer is laid flat on a board and cut with a sharp knife or fine saw along the edge of a ruler. the three pieces are glued together in the following manner. use ordinary hot glue, not too thin, but thin enough to run freely from the brush. the glue is applied evenly on both sides of the inner piece only, and this is then stood on edge until the glue chills. then the cauls are heated. this is best done on a stove, or on stove lids over a gas fire. while the blocks are being heated, put one veneer on either side of the middle piece, and a piece of thin paper on each side to keep the glue from the cauls. a hand screw or vise should be opened to almost the distance required. one of the cauls is now laid flat, the veneers upon it and the other caul on top. this should be done quickly. then clamp the whole firmly together. while the full pressure is only needed for about two hours, the pieces should be allowed to dry between the cauls for, say, a day or two, so that they will keep straight. the size of the finished card is - / in. by - / in. it is cut and planed to size while lying flat on a board, the plane being pushed along on its side on the bench top. to dress or clean, clamp one side to the bench. while a scraper blade may be used to advantage, it is not essential, as a block of wood and sandpaper will do. the thinner it is dressed the better. the sharp edges should be removed with sandpaper. the writing on a wood card is not done in the ordinary manner, as the ink would run. the surface must be prepared, which also gives a finish to the wood. melt some wax or paraffin in a suitable vessel and cover the surface of the wood, using a brush or rag. the lines for the address on one side are then drawn, and the writing is done with a hard lead pencil. when through writing on one side, cover it with some strong aniline stain. (aniline, dissolved in hot water, commonly known as water stain and used especially to stain mahogany, is the right kind.) do not remove the wax that was raised by the pencil point. brush the stain over until the whole side is covered. when dry, repeat on the other side. in about an hour the wax may be scraped off with a dull scraper or some other dull instrument. after every particle of wax has been removed, the card is given a good rubbing with a clean, soft rag. it is well to protect the hands as well as the table during the process.--contributed by chas. schapmeier, baltimore, md. fastening screws in tile and brick walls a simple way to fasten screws in tile or brick walls is to drill holes, not too large, for the screws, then tear up some paper, wet it and make a pulp. pack this pulp tightly in the hole and turn in the screws. the screws will stand a great deal of strain.--contributed by john thomas, brantford, ont. shoe pull made of an eyelet the pulling-on strap at the back of a shoe often comes loose, or pulls out, and even if it does not, the trousers will sometimes catch on it if the strap is not tucked inside of the shoe. a very simple way to overcome these troubles is to remove the straps and substitute eyelets. a buttonhook will then serve admirably in pulling the shoe onto the foot. holder for a set of sadirons a very attractive holder for a set of sadirons and their handle can be made as shown in the illustration, although the design may be changed if desired. the holder consists of a shield-shaped back, which is fastened to the wall in a convenient place and has a shelf with openings for the irons attached to it. the shelf is made in two pieces, the bottom part being covered with a heavy piece of tin while the upper is cut out to receive the irons. the irons are placed on the upper piece in such positions that they will be attractively displayed and evenly located, and then a lead-pencil mark is drawn around their base. openings are cut in the wood on these marks and the board fastened on top of the tin-covered shelf. an ordinary brass bracket is used in the center beneath the shelf, to keep it from sagging. [illustration: an ornamented bracket shelf for holding a complete set of sadirons and their handle] the shield is fastened to the wall with two screws, over which two brushed-brass, diamond-shaped pieces are fastened with large brass tacks, to cover the screw heads. the corners of the shield may be ornamented with brushed-brass designs, and the wood finished as desired. the irons can be set in the holder while hot without fear of burning any part, and they will present a very neat appearance.--contributed by g. e. martin, hastings, nebraska. a garden roller a garden roller for digging the earth and crushing clods is easily made of the following material: one round piece of wood, in. in diameter and in. long; two pieces of wood, each in. long, - / in. wide and - / in. thick; one piece, in. long, in. wide and in. thick; two / -in. lag screws, in. long, and a quantity of -penny nails. [illustration: a roller for crushing clods and digging the earth in garden making] the short piece of wood is fitted between the two long pieces with tenon-and-mortise joints to serve as a handle at one end and the roller is fastened between the side pieces at the opposite end to revolve on the lag screws. the nails are driven into the roller so that they project about in. a substitute for glaziers' points ordinary small staples make good substitutes for glaziers' tacks. the points of the staples should be drawn apart slightly, as shown at a, to give them a greater holding area and at the same time make them easier to drive. these points seem to hold the glass better than the regular glaziers' points, consequently the putty will not crack and loosen, and renewing is avoided.--contributed by edward sieja, chicago. [illustration: double-pointed tacks, or staples, with the points spread, used as substitutes for glaziers' points] water-heating coil in a furnace pipe [illustration] the accompanying sketch shows a plan i adopted for conserving the waste heat from my furnace. i found that i was able to put a coil into the smoke pipe, which was about in. in diameter, and thus heat water for domestic purposes. it will be seen that the coil is spiral in shape rather than cylindrical, as the latter would leave a free passage up the center and therefore would not bring enough gases into contact with the coil. in addition to this coil i have a gas heater near the tank which is used only in case the demand for hot water exceeds the capacity of the coil, which is naturally not as efficient per unit of length as one directly within the firepot would be. it has the advantage of not absorbing heat which should go to make steam, but only that which would otherwise be wasted. the heating surface of the coil is much greater than would be possible within the firepot, which in a measure compensates for its lower efficiency.--contributed by w. e. morey, chicago. a homemade marking gauge [illustration] a / -in. bushing is turned into the side outlet of a / -in. tee. the bushing is then tapped to receive a / -in. wing bolt. a tight-fitting wood plug is driven into the throughway of the tee and the ends ground off flush on the emery wheel. a slot, / -in. square, is then cut through the wood plug just under the bushing. two pieces of flat steel, each / in. wide by / in. thick and / in. longer than the tee, are fitted in the slot cut in the plug as shown in the sketch. the outer end of each piece is bent at right angles and sharpened. after the points have been drawn out to the right distance, the wing bolt is turned to hold them in that position.--contributed by c. molloy, philadelphia, pa. protecting brush handles from paint a very efficient method to prevent paint from running down on a paintbrush handle and on the hand is to cut a hollow rubber ball in half, fig. , make a hole in the center to fit the brush handle and attach it as shown in fig. . one ball will fit up two brushes. the cup shape catches the paint and prevents it from getting on the handle.--contributed by o. h. meyer, churdon, iowa. [illustration: the shape of the ball forms a cup to catch the paint from the brush (fig. , fig. )] a tie-pin holder [illustration] having lost several tie pins by theft or by their falling out i made a little device to securely hold the pin in the tie. this device makes it almost impossible to pull the pin out and it cannot be lost accidentally. the device is made of a small safety pin, bent as shown, with one arm, a, longer than the other, b. the arm a is put on the pin first or upward, and attached as shown at c. when pulling on the tie pin the arms of the holder tend to draw together and clamp it on the pin.--contributed by robert c. knox, colorado springs, colo. hulling walnuts when gathering my winter supply of walnuts, i found that they could not be hulled readily by hand. not knowing of any machine designed for the purpose, i tried running them through a corn sheller and found it to do the work nicely. the sheller not only hulled them, but separated the nuts from the hulls, the nuts being carried out through the cob opening and the hulls dropping through the grain spout.--contributed by irl r. hicks, hallsville, mo. how to make a small vise screw procure an ordinary lag screw, as shown in fig. , cut off the pointed end and file the threads into the shape shown in fig. . a hole is drilled through the head and a handle put in, as shown in fig. . this makes a good substitute screw when the original screw for a small vise is broken.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown. pa. [illustration: a vise screw formed of an ordinary lag screw, the threads being made square and a handle attached (fig. , fig. , fig. )] a medicine-spoon holder when a dropper is not at hand it is difficult to drop medicine in a spoon while holding it, and the shape of the spoon will not permit its being set down. a shoe horn used as shown in the sketch will hold the spoon right side up and in a position to hold the liquid.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. [illustration: a shoe horn is the right shape to hold the spoon right side up and level] knife holder on a frying pan instead of laying a knife on the stove or carrying it to a table or elsewhere while frying anything in a pan, make a clip to fit the edge of the pan for holding the knife when it is not in use. the clip is easily made of brass wire and when attached to a frying pan it will save many steps.--contributed by john c. harlacker, jr., cumberland, b. c. [illustration: the shape of the clip and manner of attaching it to a frying pan] a broom for sweeping out corners in steps [illustration] sweeping the corners of steps is one of the greatest difficulties of the housewife, or others who have a number of stairs to sweep. i have made this task easy in a very simple manner. i secured a used broom, the longer and newer the better, and cut the straws off diagonally across the sweeping edge. the pointed part will easily clean out the corners in steps or in a room.--contributed by w. a. stamaman, berlin, ontario. removing a cork from a bottle a cork that has been pushed into a bottle accidentally or otherwise can be easily removed in the following manner: tie several knots in one end of a string to form a large cluster and drop it into the bottle, holding on to the other end of the string. turn the bottle over so that the cork will fall to the opening in the neck, then pull on the string. the cluster formed by the knots at the end of the string will easily draw out the cork.--contributed by frank hart, chicago, ill. filing flat surfaces anyone who has used a file knows what skill is required to produce flat surfaces. a fixture which is nothing more than a mirror properly placed enables the operator to sight along the file and see at all times just how the file is running.--contributed by a. f. stearns, madison, wis. [illustration: the file can be seen in the mirror and its direction controlled for filing flat surfaces] tacking a screen on a frame [illustration] screen wire is very difficult material to fasten on a frame so that it becomes taut. to make it taut and even drive the tacks as follows: first tack the screen on one side of the frame, taking care to leave no slack between the tacks, which should be about ft. apart. fasten the opposite side by stretching the screen with one hand and with the other place the tack through the meshes and push the point as far as possible toward the outer edge of the screen frame as shown in the sketch. drive the tack so that it will enter the wood straight, which will draw the screen taut. after having thus fastened the screen to two opposite sides of the frame with tacks ft. apart, other tacks are driven in midway between the first ones, stretching the screen and driving the tacks as before described, until a sufficient number of tacks are driven into either side. then both ends are attached in the same manner.--contributed by bertram s. barnes, santa barbara, cal. safety tips on chair rockers some rocking chairs are so constructed that when the person occupying it gives a hard tilt backward, the chair tips over or dangerously near it. a rubber-tipped screw turned into the under side of each rocker, near the rear end, will prevent the chair from tipping too far back. portable and folding bookcase or closet two packing boxes hinged as shown and fitted with casters make a very convenient portable closet. it can be folded flat against a wall or fitted into a corner. if furnished with shelves, it can be used as a bookcase or tool closet, and when fully opened, it makes a handy workbench. two projecting strips are fitted on the inside of one box so as to fit tightly against the inner top and bottom surfaces of the other box, to increase the rigidity of the box when closed. the addition of casters makes the opening, closing and pushing about very easy. an ornamental hasp or lock can be fitted if desired. [illustration: the two boxes are joined on one edge with hinges and with a hasp, if desired, on the other] a curtain stop a small screweye turned into the bottom part or wood strip inclosed in the lower end of the curtain will prevent this end from winding over the top roller when the curtain is quickly released and rolls to the top.--contributed by d. o. c. kersten, detroit, michigan. an alarm for a sleepwalker a little girl in our family would walk in her sleep and it caused us no little worry lest she might leave the house without our knowing it. i therefore rigged up an alarm device to ring a bell should she leave the room. the device consisted of a bell and battery in a circuit, and a switch which was attached to one door casing. a string was stretched across the doorway and attached to the switch lever in such a manner as to pull it closed when the string was pushed through the doorway opening.--contributed by j. woodburn, toronto, canada. a kraut and root grinder the grinder is intended mainly for chopping cabbage when making sauerkraut, but it is also of much service in grinding vegetables and roots to be cooked for poultry. [illustration: the grinder will easily reduce cabbage heads to bits suitable for sauerkraut] the base a is made of a plank, at least ft. wide and ft. long, with a - / by - / -in. hole cut in the center. the grinding part, or cylinder, is made of wood, in. in diameter and in. long, with -penny nails, spaced / in. apart, driven partly into it and then cut off so as to leave / in. projecting. the cylinder is turned by means of a crank attached to the end of the shaft. a hopper, b, is constructed, by - / in. inside measurement at the bottom, and as large as necessary at the top. a space is provided at the bottom as shown to receive the concave c, which consists of a -in. board, to in. wide and in. long, with nails driven in and cut off as described for the cylinder. the hopper is securely fastened on top of the baseboard and over the cylinder. the concave is slipped into place and held with wedges or by driving two nails in just far enough to fasten it temporarily. the concave can be adjusted for grinding the different vegetable products, or replaced at any time with a new one. the ends of the base are supported on boxes, or legs may be provided if desired. when grinding cabbage, cut the heads into quarters and remove the hearts. press the cabbage on the cylinder and turn the crank. fine bits of cabbage, suitable for sauerkraut, will be the result.--contributed by j. g. allshouse, avonmore, pa. opening for air at the top of a shade procure an extra long shade and cut two openings in the end to be used at the top. the openings may be cut square or ornamental as desired, leaving a strip at each side and one in the center. these strips are reinforced by gluing on some of the same material as the shade or pieces of tape. [illustration: when the shade is pulled down the openings coincide with the opening over the upper sash] a shade made in this manner permits the air to enter the room unhindered when the top sash is lowered and at the same time obstructs the view of passers-by.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, o. hose attachment for watering window plants the window garden of the house has its watering difficulties which one owner overcame in a neat and handy manner. a hose on a weighted reel was attached to the joists in the basement under the floor near the window flower pots. the weight on the reel kept the hose wound on it and the nozzle end which projects through the floor is large enough to hold it from passing through the hole bored for the hose. a long stem valve was provided with the wheel attached above the floor for turning the water on and off. [illustration: the hose is automatically run on a reel by a weight beneath the floor] when the plants need a shower all that is necessary is to draw the hose nozzle up and turn on the water. the hole for the hose and the valve wheel can be located close to the wall under the flower tray where they will scarcely be seen. removing paint from glass paint may be easily cleaned from glass by using a -per-cent solution of acetic acid. the acid should be heated and applied with a cloth. the hot acid will not hurt the hands or fabrics, nor the glass, but should be kept from children who might drink of it. the solution is made of commercial acetic acid and heated by adding hot water. the acid is inexpensive and can be purchased at any local drug store. to prevent baking ovens from scorching a good method to prevent baking ovens from scorching or burning pastry is to sprinkle a mixture of sand and salt on the bottom where the pans are placed. this affords a way of radiating the heat evenly. the mixture also absorbs fruit juices, which may be spilled in the course of cooking. the covering is easily changed, which keeps the oven clean. the best proportion is half salt and half sand. horn candle sconce the person who cares for things unusual will find the candle sconce made of a cowhorn a suitable fixture for the den. a well shaped and not too large cowhorn is selected, and prepared by first partly filling it with paper, packed in tightly, then filling it to the top with plaster of paris, in which a candle socket is formed. the bracket is made of strips of metal, formed as shown and riveted together where they touch each other, the back piece being fastened with screws to a wall board. the metal may be brass or copper and finished in nickel, antique, bronze, or given a brush finish. the wooden wall piece can be finished in any style desired. [illustration: the cowhorn with bracket and wall board, making an unusual candle sconce for the den] * * * * * white spots on furniture can be removed by rubbing the wood with ammonia. how to make a copper stencil for marking laundry a stencil suitable for marking laundry may be easily made as follows: first procure a small sheet of "stencil sheet copper," about in. wide and in. long. dip this sheet of copper in a vessel containing some melted beeswax, so that both sides will be evenly covered with a thin coat of the wax when it cools. the design--name, monogram or figure--that is wanted in the stencil should now be drawn upon a piece of thin white paper, the reverse side of the paper blackened with graphite, and then laid on the stencil plate with the design in the center of the plate, whereupon the design is lightly traced with a blunt point on the thin wax coating. after the paper is removed, trace the design on the wax surface with a pointed instrument, but not completely, the lines being broken at more or less regular intervals, to form "holders" so that, after etching, the design cannot fall out. next lay the stencil in a small shallow dish and pour a small quantity of fresh nitric acid over it. keep the air bubbles removed from the surface by means of a piece of soft feather. the design will be eaten away in a very short time, where the wax has been removed, and this may be readily observed by holding the stencil plate up to the light. the acid should then be rinsed off with water, and the wax removed by heating and wiping it off with a cloth. the stencil may be given a final cleaning in a dish of benzine or gasoline, which will remove any remaining wax. a brass pin tray a novelty pin tray can be easily made of a piece of no. gauge sheet brass or copper, in. in diameter. the metal is annealed and polished with fine emery cloth, which is given a circular motion to produce a frosted effect. the necessary tools are a -in. hardwood board with a - / -in. hole bored in it, and a round piece of hard wood, - / or in. in diameter, with the ends sawn off square. [illustration: the former and method of using it to produce a wrinkled edge on the tray] place the sheet metal centrally over the hole in the board and set one end of the round stick in the center of the metal. drive the stick with a hammer until a recess about in. deep is made in the center. the edge of the metal will wrinkle up as shown in the sketch. it is scarcely possible to make two trays alike, as the edge almost invariably will buckle in a different manner.--contributed by f. van eps, plainfield, n. j. a homemade exerciser a weight machine for exercising the muscles of the arms is easily constructed by using two screw hooks, in. long, and two small pulleys, - / in. in diameter. an awning pulley can be used for this purpose. the hole at the top of the hanger will allow the pulley to freely turn at almost any angle. a paving brick or a piece of metal can be used as a weight for each rope.--contributed by sterling r. speirs, st. louis, mo. [illustration: the yoke of the pulley is so arranged as to make it move in all positions on the hook] a book covering new books can be quickly and neatly covered to keep them clean by cutting a paper large enough to cover the back and sides when the book is closed, allowing in. extra at each end to be turned over the front and back edges, then pasting on corners cut from used envelopes. the paper jacket can be slipped on or off easily when the book is opened, and it will keep a new cover clean while the book is being handled.--contributed by dr. john a. cohalan, philadelphia. [illustration: paper covering kept in place with corners cut from old envelopes and pasted on the paper] a tilting inkstand an ink-bottle stand, that can be tilted or adjusted so that the pen will always be filled with a sufficient quantity of ink even when little of it remains in the bottle, as shown in the sketch, can be easily made by the amateur. the base may consist of a square piece of sheet brass, which has soldered or riveted to its center two pieces of spring brass, placed crosswise and bent upward so as to form clips to hold the bottle firmly. the legs are made of two lengths of wire, of sufficient stiffness, and are shaped to form holders for lead pencils and penholders. one pair of the legs may be soldered to the brass plate and the opposite side of the latter rolled over the other pair so as to allow them either to stand upright or be depressed in order to tilt the stand, when the ink supply in the bottle gets low. [illustration: tilting stand for an ordinary ink bottle to give access for a small supply of ink] a ring trick the trick to be described is one of the simplest and at the same time one of the most effective, and but little "make-ready" is required to perform it. the magician, while sitting in a chair, allows his hands to be tied together behind the back of the chair. a ring is placed between his lips which he claims to be able to slip on his finger without untying his hands. this, to the audience, seems practically impossible, but it is easily accomplished. a screen is placed in front of the performer before the trick is started, so that the audience will not see how it is done. as soon as he is hidden from view, he tilts his head forward and drops the ring in his lap. he then allows the ring to drop to the seat of the chair between his legs. the chair is tilted backward slightly, and he raises himself to allow the ring to slip to the back part of the chair seat, where he catches it in his hands and slips it on the finger. any one finger may be mentioned, as he can slip the ring as readily on one as on another. use a leather-bottom chair, if possible, as the least noise will then be made when the ring is dropped.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, massachusetts. removing old putty a very effective way to remove old putty from window panes or other articles is to apply a red-hot iron, as follows: the iron should be made of a broken file or cold chisel and the point heated quite hot. this is run over the surface of the putty, which will crack and fall off. be careful not to let the hot iron touch the glass, as the heat may cause the latter to break. [illustration] how to make a water wheel the materials used in the construction of this water wheel are such as the average amateur mechanic may pick up or secure from a junk pile. the drawings in fig. clearly show the way the wheel is built. the nozzle, fig. , is made of pipe and fittings and is adjustable to concentrate the stream so as to get the full efficiency of the weight and velocity of the water. the cap on the end of the nipple is drilled to receive the pin point filed on the end of the / -in. rod. the parts of this nozzle are a / -in. tee, connected to the source of water supply; a plug, drilled to snugly fit the / -in. rod, and fitted into one end of the straight part of the tee; and a / -in. nipple of sufficient length to make the dimension shown in the sketch. the nipple has a long thread to receive two / -in. locknuts, which clamp the nozzle to the sheet-metal covering, as shown in fig. . [illustration: details of the water wheel (fig. )] the buckets, fig. , are formed of some easily melted, but not too soft metal alloy which can be cast in plaster molds. they are attached with rivets to the circumference of / -in. thick sheet-metal disk of the diameter given in fig. . this disk is fastened to a / -in. shaft, in. long, with two collars, one on each side of the disk, both being riveted to the disk and pinned to the shaft. the bearings aa are made of / -in. pipe, each - / in. long. long threads are cut on these to turn through the two / -in. waste nuts bb, which provides a way to adjust the buckets centrally with the stream of water, and to take up any side motion. the pipe is babbitted and drilled for oil holes. the runner or wheel must be well balanced, as the speed will be from , to , revolutions per minute with ordinary city pressure. in balancing the wheel, instead of adding an extra weight, a part of the disk is filed out on one edge. the inclosing sides are made of wood--cypress preferred--having the dimensions given, and two / by - / -in. pieces are attached to the bottom outside surfaces for mounting the wheel. the curved part is covered with galvanized sheet metal. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] the drawing shows a wheel of small diameter, but having considerable power. greater power may be obtained by increasing the size of the jet and the diameter of the wheel, but the use of too many buckets results in decrease of power. one bucket should be just entering the stream of water, when the working bucket is at a point at right angles to the stream. the water should divide equally exactly on the center of the bucket and get out of the way as soon as possible. any stagnant water in the case, or dead water in the bucket, is detrimental to the power. a free exit for the water is made at the bottom of the case, as shown. [illustration: metal casing instead of wood (fig. )] the construction of the case may be varied and, instead of wood, metal sides and frame may be used. where the builder cares to make a more substantial wheel and has access to a foundry, the metal parts can be made as shown in fig. . the parts are in this instance fastened together with machine screws. patterns are made and taken to a foundry for the castings, which are then machined to have close fitting joints.--contributed by r. h. franklin, unnatosa, wis. an interesting experiment take an ordinary board, or ft. long, such as a bread board, and place it on the table so that about one-third of its length will project over the edge. unfold a newspaper and lay it on the table over the board as shown in the sketch. anyone not familiar with the experiment would suppose the board could be knocked off by hitting it on the outer end. it would appear to be easy to do, but try it. unless you are prepared to break the board you will probably not be able to knock the board off. [illustration: striking the board] the reason is that when the board is struck it forces the other end up and the newspaper along with it. this causes a momentary vacuum to be formed under the paper, and the pressure of the air above, which is about lb. to the square inch, prevents the board from coming up. this is an entertaining trick to play at an evening party, and also makes a simple and interesting school experiment. ironing-board holder an ironing board that had been used on two chairs was cut off square on one end and a piece of heavy sheet metal cut and bent into the shape shown in fig. . the square end of the board was fitted into the socket formed by the sheet metal. after attaching the socket to the wall with screws the board was easily put in place as shown in fig. . the brace is hinged to the under side of the board.--contributed by l. g. swett, rochester, n. y. [illustration: socket and manner of holding board (fig. , fig. )] how to make a water motor by edward silja after making several different styles of water motors i found the one illustrated to be the most powerful as well as the simplest and most inexpensive to make. it can be constructed in the following manner: a disk, as shown in fig. , cut from sheet iron or brass, / in. thick and - / in. in diameter, constitutes the main part of the wheel. the circumference is divided into equal parts, and a depth line marked which is - / in. in diameter. notches are cut to the depth line, similar to the teeth of a rip saw, one edge being on a line with the center of the wheel and the other running from the top of one tooth to the base of the preceding tooth. [illustration: metal disk with a saw-tooth circumference that constitutes the main body of the wheel (fig. )] a / -in. hole is drilled in the center of the disk and the metal strengthened with a flange, placed on each side of the disk and fastened with screws or rivets. a / -in. steel rod is used for the shaft. the cups, or buckets, are shaped in a die which can be cast or built up of two pieces, as desired. both of these dies are shown in fig. . the one at a is made of two pieces riveted together. [illustration: two ways of making the dies to shape the sheet-metal water cups (fig. )] if a foundry is near, a pattern can be made for a casting, as shown at b. the die is used in the manner shown in fig. . a strip of galvanized metal is placed over the depressions in the die and a ball-peen hammer used to drive the metal into the die. cups, or buckets, are thus formed which are soldered to the edge of the teeth on a line with the center of the disk, as shown in fig. . as there are notches in the disk, cups will be necessary to fill them. [illustration: the sheet metal is placed on the die and then hammered into shape (fig. )] the cups are made in pairs or in two sections, which is a better construction than the single cup. the water from the nozzle first strikes the center between the cups, then divides and produces a double force. [illustration: the water cups are fastened to the teeth on the metal disk with solder (fig. )] when this part of the work is finished it is well to balance the wheel, which can be done by filing off some of the metal on the heavy side or adding a little solder to the light side. this will be necessary to provide an easy-running wheel that will not cause any unnecessary wear on the bearings. the housing for the wheel consists of two wood pieces, about / -in. thick and cut to the shape shown in fig. . grooves are cut in one surface of each piece, to receive the edges of a strip of galvanized metal, as shown at a. the grooves are cut with a specially constructed saw, shown in fig. . it consists of a piece of wood, in. long, - / in. wide and / in. thick, the end being cut on an arc of a circle whose diameter is in. a piece of a broken hacksaw blade is fastened with screws to the curved end. a nail is used as a center pivot, forming a -in. and a - / -in. radius to swing the saw on in cutting the groove. after inserting the strip of galvanized metal, a, fig. , the sides are clamped together with bolts about - / in. long. [illustration: the housing for the wheel with a connection to attach the motor on an ordinary faucet (fig. )] [illustration: construction of the saw for making the groove to receive the metal strip in the sides (fig. )] a piece of pipe, b, fig. , having an opening / -in. in diameter, is soldered onto the metal strip a. an ordinary garden-hose coupling, c, is soldered to the end of the pipe. a bearing, d, shaped as shown, is fastened to one of the wood sides with screws, the wheel shaft is run into it, and the parts assembled. a wheel, either grooved or flat, - / or in. in diameter, is placed on the shaft. the hose coupling makes it easy to connect the motor directly to the water faucet. an application for small wounds pure wintergreen oil makes a good local application for all small wounds, bites, scratches, abrasions, etc. there is no germ or microbe, animal or vegetable, dead or living, that can withstand this oil, and at the same time it is not injurious to living tissues. a few drops gently rubbed in where there is apt to be any infection is sufficient. an infection always follows the wound of a bullet or the scratch of a brass pin, with irritation extending up the limb or part threatening tetanus or lockjaw. these symptoms are manifested by spasmodic pains which shoot upward, but are quickly subdued, if the oil is applied along the track of the pain or infection. this oil is equally effective when locally applied to tendons or ligaments which have been unduly strained. an ounce of the pure oil does not cost much, and it should be kept in every shop and household. if or per cent of olive oil is added to it, the oil will have more body and will last longer.--contributed by dr. e. r. ellis, detroit, mich. cores for use in babbitt metal it is often necessary in making things of babbitt metal to core out some of the parts. a very good core is made of common salt and glue. mix just enough of the glue into the salt to make a stiff paste, which is then formed into the desired shape or molded in a core box and allowed to harden. this kind of a core can be removed from the casting by soaking it in warm water, which will dissolve the salt and leave the desired hole.--contributed by h. f. hopkins, n. girard, pa. how to build a wind vane with an electric indicator quite often it is practically impossible to ascertain the direction of the wind by observing an ordinary wind vane on account of the necessity of locating the vane at such a height that it may give a true indication. by means of the device shown in fig. , the position of the vane may be determined without actually looking at the vane itself and the indicating device may be located almost anywhere and independently of the position of the wind vane. [illustration: fig. --the diagram of a wheatstone bridge which shows the points of contact so placed that a balance is obtained] the principle upon which the device operates is that of the wheatstone bridge. the position of the moving contact a, fig. , is controlled by the wind vane. this contact is made to move over a specially constructed resistance r, fig. . a second movable contact, b, is controlled by the observer and moves over a second resistance, identical with that over which the contact a moves. these two resistances are connected so as to form the two main branches of a wheatstone bridge; the points a and b are connected to the current-detecting device, which may be a galvanometer or telephone receiver, and current is supplied by a number of dry cells. [illustration: fig. --the weather vane with resistance coil, and diagram of indicator which is identical with that of the vane] in order to obtain a balance--that is, no current through the receiver--the points a and b must occupy corresponding positions on their respective resistances. if the two resistances over which the points a and b move are mounted in the same position with respect to the cardinal points of the compass, then the points themselves will always be in the same position with respect to the cardinal points when a balance is obtained. the arrow head on the wind vane and the point a are made to occupy corresponding positions, and hence the position of the point b, when no current passes through the receiver, is an indication of the direction in which the wind vane is pointing. the principal parts in the construction of the device are shown in the illustration, and the following description of their construction may be of interest to those who contemplate building the indicator. procure two pieces of / -in. hard rubber, - / in. wide by in. long. clamp these, side by side, between two boards and smooth down their edges and ends, and then file small slots in the edges with the edge of a three-cornered file. these slots should all be equally spaced about / in. apart. have the pieces clamped together while filing the slots and mark one edge top and one end right so that the pieces may be mounted alike. now procure a small quantity of no. gauge bare manganin wire. fasten one end of this wire to one end of the pieces of rubber by winding it in and out through three or four small holes and then wind it around the piece, placing the various turns in the small slots that were filed in the edges. after completing the winding, fasten the end just as the starting end was attached. wind the second piece of rubber in a similar manner and make sure to have the length of the free ends in each case the same. obtain a cylinder of some kind, about in. in diameter, warm the pieces of rubber by dipping them in hot water, bend them around the cylinder and allow them to cool. a containing case, similar to that shown in cross section in the upper portion of fig. should now be constructed from a good quality of tin or copper. the inside diameter of this case should be about in. more than the outside diameter of the resistance ring r, and it should be about in. deep. the top c may be made curved as shown in the illustration, and should be fastened to the case proper by a number of small machine screws. the base of this case may be made so that the whole device can be mounted on the top of a pole. mount a piece of / -in. steel rod, about / in. long, with a conical hole in one end, in the center of the bottom of the case as shown by m. a number of supports, similar to the one shown, should be made from some / -in. hard rubber and fastened to the sides of the case, to support the resistance ring. the dimensions of these supports should be such that the ends of the piece of rubber, forming the ring, are against each other when it is in place. the upper edge of the ring should be about in. above the bottom of the case. next, mount a piece of brass tube, d, in the exact center of the top and perpendicular to it. a washer, e, may also be soldered to the top so as to aid in holding the tube. procure a piece of steel rod, f, that will fit in the tube d and turn freely. sharpen one end of this rod and mount a brass wind vane on the other end. a small metal cup, g, may be soldered to a washer, h, and the whole mounted on the steel rod f in an inverted position as shown, which will prevent water from getting down inside the case along the rod. the cup g may be soldered directly to the rod. make a small arm, j, of brass, and fasten a piece of light spring, k, to one side of it, near the outer end, then mount the arm on the steel rod so that it is parallel to the vane and its outer end points in the same direction as the arrow on the vane. the free end of the light spring on the arm j should be broad enough to bridge the gap between adjacent turns of wire on the resistance ring. four bindings should then be mounted on the inside of the case and all insulated from it with the exception of number . numbers and are connected to the ends of the winding and number is connected to number . a second outfit should now be constructed, identical with the one just described except that it should have a flat top with a circular scale mounted on it, and the arm l should be controlled by a small handle in the center of the scale. the position of the contact b may be indicated on the scale by a slender pointer, attached to the handle controlling the arm l. four leads of equal resistance should be used in connecting the two devices and the connections made as shown. an ordinary buzzer placed in the battery circuit will produce an interrupted current through the bridge circuit and a balance will be obtained by adjusting the contact point b until a minimum hum is heard in the telephone receiver. [illustration] planting seeds in egg shells when growing flower plants from seeds, start them in halves of shells from hard-boiled eggs. when the time comes to transplant them, they can be easily removed by allowing the dirt in the shell to become hard and then breaking off the shell, whereupon the plant is placed in the ground. a pasteboard box provided with holes large enough to support the egg shells can be used to hold them, unless egg crates are at hand. two large seeds such as nasturtiums and sweet peas can be planted in one shell, and four seeds of the smaller varieties.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. locating drip pan under a refrigerator in replacing the drip pan of an ice box or refrigerator it is often necessary to bend over in locating it under the drip pipe. this trouble may be done away with by fastening two strips of wood in a v-shape to the floor beneath the refrigerator. when the pan is shoved under, it will strike one strip and slide along until it strikes the other. then the pan is sure to be under the drip pipe.--contributed by lloyd a. phelan, beachmont, mass. [illustration: strips on floor under refrigerator] windmill for light power the windmill shown in the sketch is one that will always face the wind, and it never requires adjustment. it consists of a vertical shaft, a, provided with a number of arms, b, on which are hinged square sails, c. these sails are preferably made of wood frames covered with canvas. they are provided with hinges, d, attached to the ends of the arms in such a way that they offer resistance to the wind on one side of the wheel, while they move edgewise against the wind on the other side, as shown. the shaft of the mill can either be run in bearings set on an upright post, the lower end of the shaft turning on a conical bearing, or collars may be used on the bearings to keep it in position. the power can be transmitted with gears or by a flat belt over a pulley. [illustration: frames hinged to the arms] a wheel of this kind is not adapted for high speed, but direct-connected to a pump or other slow-working machinery will prove very efficient.--contributed by edward hanson, kane, pennsylvania. a small bunsen burner [illustration] an excellent bunsen burner for small work can be made as follows: draw a glass tube to the shape shown, to produce a fine hollow point. mark carefully with a file and break at a and then at b. bore or burn a hole in a cork to fit the tube. cut a v-shaped notch in the side of the cork extending to the hole. bend the lower tube at right angles and insert it in a wood block, previously slotted with a saw to make a snug fit. a little glue will hold the glass tubes, cork and base together. the air mixture can be adjusted by sliding the upper tube before the glue sets. the burner is especially adapted to continuous work, such as sealing packages, etc. the flame will not discolor the wax.--contributed by e. p. fert, spokane, wash. the hindoo sand trick this is one of the many tricks for which the hindoos are famous, and was long kept a secret by them. it consists of placing ordinary sand in a basin full of water, stirring the water and taking out the sand in handfuls perfectly dry. it need scarcely be said that without previous preparation, it is impossible to do so. take lb. of fine silver sand, place it in a frying pan and heat well over a clear fire. when the sand is thoroughly heated, place a small piece of grease or wax--the composition of a paraffin candle preferred--in the sand, stirring it well to get it thoroughly mixed, then allow the sand to cool. when this sand is placed in a basin of water, it will be apparently dry when taken out. it is very important that only a small portion of the adherent be used so that it cannot be detected when the sand is examined by the audience. the explanation is that the grease or wax coating on each sand particle repels the water.--contributed by mighty oaks, oshkosh, wis. a kite-line cutaway for toy parachutes the cutaway is made of a small piece of board, a cigar-box lid, an old yardstick or a piece of lath, which should be about in. long. common carpet wire staples are used to hold it on the string. the under side has a wire bent into such a shape as to form a loop at the forward end over the kite string, then running back through the two staples at the one side and through two staples at the other side. [illustration: wires attached to the traveler] the parachute should have a small wire ring fastened at the weight end so as to fasten in the carrier, and should be put between the two staples that are closest together on the under side of the carrier. a small nail or button--anything larger than the loop in the wire--should be attached to the kite string a few feet from the kite. when the parachute is carried up the kite string, the knob on the string will strike the loop of the wire on the carrier, which releases the parachute and allows it to drop. the carrier will return of its own weight to the lower end of the string.--contributed by i. o. lansing, lincoln, neb. a cherry pitter procure an ordinary quill feather and cut the tip off to form a small hole. do not remove so much of the end that the cherry stone can stick in it. the hole must be slightly smaller than the cherry stone. push the quill through the center of the cherry and the stone will come out easily.--contributed by harold wynning, chicago, ill. to hold a fish while removing the scales insert a screwdriver or ice pick in a fish as shown, and the scales can be removed much better and quicker than in any other way. the handle of the screwdriver affords an efficient grip so that the fish can be held firmly on the board and every scale can be removed. [illustration: holding fish for scaling] carrying stone jars the handholds on stone jars are usually not large enough to carry the jars safely when they are full. if the handles of an old galvanized tub are riveted to a leather strap long enough to reach under the bottom and almost to the top on each side, the jar can be handled without danger of being dropped. the fingers are placed in the handles to carry the weight, while the thumbs are used to keep the jar from tipping. by placing a buckle near one end, the strap may be used for carrying a jar of any size.--contributed by c. h. floyd, elwood, ind. vibrator for a spark coil if you do not have the time to make a vibrator or electrolytic interrupter for a spark coil, a common electric door-bell makes a good substitute. connect one of the primary wires to the binding-post of the bell that is not insulated from the frame, and the other primary wire to the adjusting screw on the make-and-break contact of the bell, as shown in the sketch. the connections are made from the batteries to the bell in the usual manner.--contributed by ralph tarshis, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: bell used as vibrator] head rest for a chair while seated in a chair a person very often desires to lay the head back in resting. a support for the head is lacking in the low-back rockers and ordinary chairs. a detachable, padded support can be easily made at home for placing on any low-back chair and used as a head rest. [illustration: rest on chair back] the support standards can be made of wood or metal as desired. if metal is used, the rest will have some springiness, which combined with the pad will insure much greater comfort than the hard rigid back. a cloth or paper is placed over the back of the chair to prevent marring of the varnish or wood. lighting a lawn mower for use at night [illustration] those who desire to do so, or must, for lack of time during the day, may use their lawn mower at night and light the front of their machine with an ordinary bicycle lamp. the arm to hold the lamp can be attached with screws to the handle as shown in the sketch. it is easily made from a piece of hoop or bar iron.--contributed by samuel f. reid, minneapolis, minn. tying a rosette in a couch-cover corner in the accompanying illustration is shown a very simple method of tying a rosette in the corner of a couch cover. the use of the average couch cover as a throw-over leaves a large corner which drags upon the floor. to dispose of this extra length and at the same time make an artistic corner, the upholsterer suggests the following method: [illustration: different stages in tying the rosette (fig. , fig. )] spread the couch cover on the couch so that the surplus is evenly divided between the sides and ends, and pass a pin through the cover to show each corner as in fig. . measure the distance from each corner of the couch to the floor, fig. , and measuring from the point of the corner, mark the same distance by the insertion of another pin, repeating in all four corners. the distance between the two pins at each corner now defines the amount of surplus that is to be taken up. chalk a circle to include the portion between these two pins, as shown in fig. , and with a circular needle and stout stitching twine run a shirring thread around the circle, and when this is drawn tightly and tied, the surplus is formed into a rosette, while the corner may be draped into an artistic cascade, as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] driving screws [illustration] a wood screw having the threads hammered flat on two sides can be easily driven in with the flattened sides parallel to the grain of the wood. when the screw is turned a quarter turn the remaining threads cross the grain and hold as well as if they had been turned in all the way. this is an especial advantage where something is wanted which is easily inserted and will hold better than a nail.--contributed by p. d. merrill, chicago. [illustration] a power windmill the windmill shown is somewhat different from the ordinary kind. it is not a toy, nor does it approach in size the ordinary farm windmill, but is a compromise between the two, and in a good strong wind, will supply power enough to run a washing machine, a small dynamo, an emery wheel, or any other device used in the home workshop. the wheel is about ft. in diameter, with eight blades. the over-all length is about feet. the windmill is easily made and the cost is within the means of the average boy. there is not a part used in its construction that cannot be found about an ordinary manual-training shop. the most difficult parts of the construction will be described in detail. symmetry and smoothness of design should be preserved and the parts made as light as possible consistent with strength and durability. [illustration: the hub consists of two parts, each having four arms for holding the blades (fig. )] the wheel as shown in the drawings, the wheel has eight blades. ordinarily the use of eight blades makes it difficult to construct a hub of sufficient strength to carry them. where so many blades radiate from a common center it is almost impossible to provide an anchorage for each blade. to provide a maximum of strength coupled with simplicity of design, the plan of using two hubs of four arms each was adopted in the construction of this mill. the ordinary hub of four arms is simple to make and quite strong. four pieces of straight-grained oak, each in. long and - / in. square, are used in constructing the hubs. the manner of notching each pair of pieces together is shown in fig. . the slope for the blades is made to run in opposite directions on the ends of each crosspiece. the slope is formed by cutting out a triangular piece, as shown. [illustration: (fig. )] the two hubs, thus formed, are mounted on the shaft, one behind the other, in such positions that the arms will be evenly divided for space in the wheel circle. these details are shown in fig. . the blades, fig. , are made of thin basswood or hard maple, and each is fastened in its place by means of two / -in. bolts, in addition to which a few brads are driven in to prevent the thin blades from warping. [illustration: (fig. )] the gears this windmill was designed to transmit power by means of shafts and gear wheels, rather than with cranks and reciprocating pump rods, such as are used on ordinary farm mills. to obtain this result, an old sewing machine head was used. such a part can be obtained from a junk dealer or a sewing-machine agent. the head is stripped of its base plate with the shuttle gearing; likewise the needle rod, presser foot, etc., are taken from the front end of the head along with the faceplate. the horizontal shaft and gear wheel are taken out and the bearings reamed out for a / -in. shaft, which is substituted. the shaft should be ft. in length, and or in. of its outer end threaded for the clamping nuts which hold the two hubs in place, as shown at a and b, fig. . the gear wheel is also bored out and remounted on the new shaft. [illustration: the supporting standard holds the machine head with the wheel and the vane on an axis (fig. )] the supporting standard is constructed of oak, with mortise-and-tenon joints, as shown in fig. . the width of the pieces will depend on the kind of sewing-machine head used. it may be necessary also to slightly change the dimensions. the machine head is fastened on the support with bolts. a sleeve and thrust spring are mounted on the shaft, as shown. the sleeve is made of brass tubing, of a size to fit snugly on the shaft. a cotter will keep it in place. the sleeve serves as a collar for the thrust spring, which is placed between the sleeve and the standard. this arrangement acts as a buffer to take up the end thrust on the shaft caused by the varying pressure of the wind on the wheel. [illustration: (fig. )] the vane to keep the wheel facing the wind at all times, a vane must be provided. it is made of basswood or hard maple, as shown in fig. . it is not built up solid, air spaces being left between the slats to reduce the wind resistance. unless built in this manner, the vane is liable to twist off in a gale. the horizontal slats are / in. thick, and the upright and cross braces / in. thick, while the long arm connecting the vane to the supporting standard is / in. thick. the supporting standard, carrying the wheel and the vane, must revolve about a vertical axis with the changes in the wind, and this vertical axis is supplied in the form of a piece of gas pipe which runs through the supporting standard at the points marked c and d, fig. . ordinary pipe fittings, called flanges, are bolted to the frame at these points. the coupling in the gas pipe beneath the supporting standard serves as a stationary collar to support the weight of the whole mill. the vane should be placed correctly to balance the weight of the wheel. the shaft passes through the framework of the mill on the inside of the pipe, as shown at e. a / -in. soft-steel or wrought-iron rod is satisfactory for the shaft, as no weight is supported by it and only a twisting force is transmitted. the use of a larger rod makes the mill cumbersome and unwieldy. the upper end of the shaft is fastened to the shaft that projects from the under side of the machine head by means of a sleeve made of a piece of / -in. pipe. two cotters hold the shafts and sleeve together. [illustration: the lower end of the shaft has a horizontal shaft geared to it for the drive pulleys (fig. )] at the lower end of the shaft, inside the workshop, the device shown in fig. is installed. the purpose of this appliance is to provide a horizontal shaft upon which pulleys or driving gears may be mounted. the device is constructed of another sewing-machine head similar to the one already described. the head is cut in two and the separate parts mounted on suitable supports. the gap between the sawed portions permits a pulley to be fastened on the shaft to serve as the main drive. the wheel propelled by the treadle of the sewing machine will make a good drive wheel. the small handwheel, originally mounted on the machine-head shaft, is left intact. this arrangement gives two sizes of drive wheels. heavy sewing-machine belts will serve to transmit the power. the tower the tower can be built up in any manner to suit the conditions. ordinarily sticks, in. square, are suitable. these are well braced with wire and fastened securely to the roof of the shop. the arrangement of the tower with the mill is shown in fig. . [illustration: the manner of building the tower on which the supporting standard revolves (fig. )] telegraph code on typewriter keys a very simple and practical method of transcribing wireless time and other messages on the typewriter without having such perfect knowledge of the morse system as to be able to immediately translate it into the common alphabet is the following: the characters of the morse system are inscribed on small slips of paper--thus, three dots (...), for the letter s; two dashes (--), for the letter m, etc.--and these slips are pasted on the corresponding keys of the typewriter. the operator puts on his receiver, and the proper key is struck as he hears the corresponding morse letter. as there are no capitals, spacing between words, or even punctuation, the manipulation of the typewriter is much simplified, and it is easily learned to record the signals as fast as they are heard. an aid in sketching profiles the means usually employed by most beginners to obtain the correct outline of an object, such as tracing or a pantograph, make them dependent on mechanical help rather than train the eye to form and proportion a drawing correctly. the device shown not only greatly assists the beginner, but actually trains him toward a point where he can dispense with any such device and correctly sketch by free hand. it also has the effect of encouraging the beginner, because his first efforts will not be complete failures, as is usually the case. [illustration: the fine wire is bent as near as possible to the outline of the object] the device consists of a rather fine wire bent in the shape of a human profile and supported on a stand or base. the stand may be dispensed with, however, and the wire held in the hand. in use, it is placed near the model or person whose profile is to be drawn; then, after closing one eye, it is set at a position where it will correspond to the features of the model. this enables one to note the variations between the wire and the model's features. for instance, the forehead may recede from the wire at the top, or the nose may have a different slant or shape. the paper on which the drawing is to be made should have a faint outline drawn by laying the wire upon it and marking around it with a soft pencil. having noted the variations between the wire and the features, proceed to draw the profile, observing the same variations, and when the sketch is completed, erase the faint outlines. then compare the drawing with the model without using the wire, and make final corrections. the dotted line indicates the outline to be erased. the drawing may be made larger or smaller than the bent wire, but the outline on the paper must be kept in exactly the same proportion. it is not necessary that the wire be bent so that it represents perfect features. with the use of this device one forms a habit of comparing and proportioning, which applies to the correct sketching of all objects.--contributed by will l. burner, columbus, ohio. a small hydroelectric-power plant wherever a water pressure of over lb. is available a small hydroelectric-power plant will produce sufficient electric current for any light work, such as charging storage batteries, operating sewing and washing machines, toys, etc. the design is for a -in. hydraulic motor of the pelton type, which will operate well on almost all city-water pressures, and at lb. will drive a -watt generator to its full output. the castings may be procured from any foundry cheaply, so that these parts need not trouble the builder. the patterns can be constructed easily and are not so complicated that they will tear the molds when being removed. they are made from well seasoned white pine, / in. thick. fill in all sharp corners with small fillets. all the patterns should taper slightly from the parting line. [illustration: layout for the casing, cover and wheel for the construction of a hydraulic motor that will drive a small dynamo, to produce current for experimental purposes, to charge storage cells or to run electric toys (fig. )] the motor casing is shown in fig. . it is made with a wide flange so that the cover plate can be bolted to it. the lug a is to give additional strength and thickness to the side so that it may be drilled and tapped for the nozzle. the legs b and c are for bolting the case to a base or support. the outlet pipe is of lead, - / in. outside diameter, and the hole for it in the case can be either drilled or cored. solder the pipe flush with the inside of the casing. drill and tap the holes around the flange for , bolts. the shaft hole must be drilled very carefully. drill / -in. holes in the feet. the oil holes are / in. in diameter. file the surface of the flange smooth and also the inside shoulder of the bearing lug. drill and tap the nozzle hole for a / -in. pipe thread. [illustration: (fig. )] the cover plate is shown in fig. , this is bolted to the casing with , brass bolts, / in. long. the holes for them are drilled / in. in diameter. a shallow hole, for the end of the shaft to fit in, is drilled in the lug, as shown. it does not pass all the way through the plate. file the inside face of the lug smooth and also the edge of the plate where it joins the casing. [illustration: (fig. )] the wheel, with brackets attached, is shown in fig. . this style of wheel need not be followed out closely. bore the hub centrally for a / -in. shaft and fit in two setscrews. drill and tap the rim for the buckets with a / -in. standard tap. the buckets must be evenly spaced and bolted on to make the wheel balance. [illustration: the best shape of the buckets to take up the force of the water (fig. )] the buckets are shown in fig. . they may be cast from iron or babbitt. the sharp ridge in the center provides for a deviation of the water jet as it flows on the bucket. the ridge divides the bucket into two equal lobes which turn each division of the jet through almost deg., using all the kinetic energy in the jet. this is shown at d. the dividing ridge must lie in the plane of the revolution, so that each bucket will enter the center of the jet. the buckets being evenly spaced on the periphery of the wheel, only one at a time receives the force of the jet, the one in front and the one behind clearing the jet. [illustration: (fig. )] the nozzle is shown in fig. . it can be made of iron or brass. the inside gradually tapers from / to / in. it has a / -in. pipe thread and is screwed into the hole in the case from the inside and is secured with a lock nut. enough additional threaded portion is left protruding to allow the supply pipe to be connected. when assembling the motor, fasten the wheel to the shaft with the two setscrews, and place a metal washer, e, on each side of the wheel. place the wheel in the casing and screw the cover plate in place. a thin rubber gasket should be placed between the cover and the casing to provide a water-tight joint. [illustration: the motor as it is coupled to drive the dynamo, and the water connections (fig. )] the general arrangement of the plant is shown in fig. . the motor and dynamo are mounted on a heavy wood base, which in turn is firmly bolted to a concrete foundation. level up the two machines by the use of thin washers on the bolts between the base and machine. a heavy sleeve and setscrews are used to connect the two shafts. the connection to the water supply is made with / -in. pipe, with a globe valve in it to regulate the flow of water. any dynamo of about -watt output can be used. paper shades for electric-light globes the appearance of an electric-light globe can be very prettily improved by making a shade of crêpe paper of any desired color for each one. canary-colored crêpe produces a soft, mellow effect. pale blue, yellow, red and, in fact, all the colors can be used, making a very pleasing variety. [illustration: two pieces of crêpe paper stitched together and ruffled, to make a fancy electric-light shade] the body of the shade is made of a piece of paper about - / in. wide and - / ft. long. the width will vary with the length of the globe to be covered, and it is best to have it full, as the edge can be trimmed even with the lower end of the globe afterward. another piece of the same color is cut - / in. wide and of the same length. this piece makes the ruffle. the smaller piece is placed on the larger centrally, and both are stitched together with a running stitch, using a needle and cotton thread. a plain running stitch is also made / in. from one edge of the larger strip. the material is gathered along both threads. this operation makes the material shrink in length. wrap it around the globe, pulling the threads taut so that the ends of the paper will just meet. tie the threads and clip off the extending ends. if the paper extends beyond the end of the globe, trim it off with the shears. ruffle the two edges of the narrow strip and the lower edge of the larger one. this operation is simply stretching the edge of the crêpe to cause it to stand out.--contributed by jas. a. hart, philadelphia, pa. renewing the markings on graduates graduates that have been in use a long time, especially for measuring alkalies, become unreadable. the graduations are easily restored in the following manner: moisten a small piece of absorbent cotton with a solution of white shellac, cut in alcohol. rub this well into all the etched parts and allow to dry for about two minutes, then rub in a fine whiting or litharge with an old toothbrush. if red is desired, use rouge; if black is preferred, use lampblack or powdered graphite. when dry, wipe off the excess pigment with a cloth moistened in alcohol.--contributed by a. c. norris, rockford, ill. repairing a broken ball-clasp purse [illustration] having occasion to repair a purse of the ordinary ball-clasp kind where one of the stems was broken off and lost, i first had some trouble in finding a way to repair it. i started to take off the remaining stem in an attempt to replace the locking device with another kind, and in bending it down toward the opposite side, i happened to close the purse and found that it locked just as well as if there had been two balls on it. i have since repaired two other purses in the same manner and found that they worked well. the idea is to bend the remaining clasp over until it is low enough to come in contact with and to spring over the other side, thus giving the same snap and holding qualities as before.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. automatic valve for a funnel [illustration] where liquid is run through a funnel into an opaque bottle or earthen jug, the filling cannot be watched, and if not watched constantly, the vessel will overflow. this can be obviated by applying the automatic valve to the funnel stem, as shown. a washer support is soldered or otherwise fastened in the upper end of the stem, or at the base of the sloping part, and a crossbar is fastened to its upper surface across the hole. the crossbar is centrally drilled to receive a small rod or wire, to which is attached a valve that will cover the hole in the washer. a cork is stuck on the lower end of the rod. the location of the cork on the rod should be at a point a little below the level to which the bottle or vessel is to be filled.--contributed by h. w. hilton, hopington, b. c. chisel holder for whetting to obtain the proper slope and apply a fine cutting edge, the plane iron or chisel must be held at the proper slope while grinding, and especially so when whetting. the illustration shows a holder to keep the iron or chisel at the proper slope. it consists of a block of wood with a sloping cut at the right angle to make two pieces. one of these pieces is permanently fastened to the strip at the back, while the other is held with a bolt passing through a notch in the strip for adjusting or clamping. the rear end of the back piece is fitted with a large screw hook or l-hook to provide a slide to keep the rear end of the holder at the right height. the iron or chisel is inserted between the sloping edges of the blocks and clamped in place, then the l-screw is adjusted for height to secure the proper angle on the stone. it is then only necessary to move the block and tool back and forth over the stone. [illustration: the tool edge is kept at the proper angle while it is run over the stone] a large hole in a small piece of paper it would seem impossible to cut a hole in a piece of paper, in. wide and in. long, large enough to allow a person's body to pass through it, but if carefully cut as shown by the lines in the sketch, one will find with surprise that the paper can be extended so that the feat is easily accomplished. make the cuts about / in. apart and these will allow the paper to expand several times its size.--contributed by h. martine warner, e. orange, n. j. [illustration: the slits cut in the paper allow it to expand several times the size of the original] homemade bunsen burner the amateur craftsman, at some time or other, needs a hot flame for certain kinds of work, and a bunsen or alcohol flame is brought into service. the gasoline and alcohol flames have their drawbacks, one of which is the starting of the burner and the waiting for the heat. they are also unhandy in directing the flame on parts of the work. as i desired a burner for quick work and one whose flame i could direct at any angle, for repoussé and chasing on copper and silversmith's work, i made the one shown in the sketch to attach to a hose and connected it with the gas pipe of the illuminating system in the house. it consists of a hose connection into which a piece of pipe, in. long, is fitted. the hose connection is also fitted with a small nozzle, a, for the gas, and the pipe has an opening through it at the end of the nozzle.--contributed by john koestner, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: bunsen-burner attachment for use with illuminating gas taken from the house mains] cane-seat cleaner a rapid and practical method of removing stains and discolorations from the cane seats of chairs, wickerwork, etc., is to use oxalic acid and powdered pumice. dissolve oxalic-acid crystals in hot water and saturate a small stiff brush in it, then dip the brush in the powdered pumice and rub the discolored cane briskly with the brush.--contributed by w. f. jaquythe, richmond, california. shade-roller and curtain-pole bracket the main advantage of this shade bracket is that a person can lower it for adjusting the shade or in changing curtains while standing on the floor, thus eliminating the use of a step ladder and the danger possibly attending such use. [illustration: the brackets as they are attached to a window casing for lowering the curtain pole (fig. , fig. )] the front elevation of a window with bracket attachment in position is shown in fig. , and a cross section in fig. . the position of the curtain pole when the brackets are lowered is shown by the dotted lines. a detail sketch of the support end is given in fig. and one bracket is shown in fig. . [illustration: the attachments, supports and brackets for holding both curtain pole and shade roller (fig. , fig. )] the curtain pole a is fastened to the brackets b with / -in. dowel pins, c. these pins and the pole keep the brackets from spreading at the top, so that a shade roller, d, may have its attachments fastened to the inner sides of the brackets. a small pulley, e, is attached to the window casing above the right bracket and a double pulley is located above the left, cords being passed through them, down along the casing to a point within easy reach, and fastened in any manner desired. all that is necessary to change the curtains or fix a shade is to loosen the cord and allow the brackets to drop down until they may be easily reached.--contributed by james f. napier, montreal, can. planing arrow sticks while making some bows one day i discovered i had no suitable dowel sticks for the arrows, so i started to make them out of / -in. square stock. i found it rather difficult to plane these pieces until i hit upon the scheme shown in the sketch. i procured a piece of ordinary tongue-and-groove flooring and clamped it in the bench vise, then drove a nail in the groove to act as a stop, and in no time i had the sticks planed into arrows.--contributed by j. f. culverwell, washington, district of columbia. [illustration: planing the corners from square stock by placing them in the groove of a flooring board] to clean shellac from a brush put the brush in a strong, warm solution of borax and water, and then wash in clean, warm water. if the bristles have become hard, allow the brush to remain in the solution until soft, keeping the solution warm in the meantime; then wash it out in warm water.--contributed by n. j. shattuck, woburn, mass. lathe dogs in the absence of a full equipment of lathe dogs the amateur can make them cheaply from pieces of iron pipe. one of these is shown in the sketch. a section of pipe, - / in. to in. long, is partly cut away, as shown, leaving a projection of metal in. wide. one or more setscrews are fitted in the round part, and the dog is complete. [illustration: two forms of lathe dogs that are quickly and cheaply constructed] a dog, or driver, may also be made of two u-clamps and two bolts as shown. this is especially useful for large work, where the cost of a dog would be prohibitive. after these two clamps are bolted on the work to be turned a bolt is attached in the faceplate that bears against the clamp, thus turning the work. to remove a splinter from the flesh quite frequently small particles of steel, splinters, or thorns are run into the flesh and cannot be removed with the fingers. these can be readily removed in the following manner: press the eye of an ordinary needle over the protruding end, then turn the needle until the edges bind or clinch. while in this position, raise the needle and out comes the splinter. [illustration: the eye of a needle slipped over a thorn for removing it from the flesh] * * * * * a fine luster can be given to zinc by rubbing it with kerosene or a weak solution of sulphuric acid. holders for displaying magazines [illustration] papers and magazines often are sold in drug stores where the display space usually is limited, especially in the window. the method used by one druggist gave space for the magazines in the window without interfering with the other goods. the back of the window was arranged with rows of hooks, three hooks for each magazine, two at the top edges and one in the center at the bottom. the magazine is easily slipped into these holders, and the whole presents a tidy appearance. the hooks are the ordinary screwhooks that can be obtained from a hardware or furniture store.--contributed by t. f. monaghan, philadelphia, pa. waste-paper basket [illustration] the covering of a broken demijohn was used in the manner shown as a waste-paper basket. the glass was broken out and the covering soaked in water, after which the splints were turned down and tied with a cord. this i found to make a first-class waste-paper basket.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, canada. lettering photographs amateur photographers often write, or print, the names of the subjects on the mounts, or in the albums, with white ink or scratch it on the negative so that it will print in the picture. a very good method is to take ordinary black ink and do the lettering on the sensitive paper before it is printed under the negative, being careful not to scratch the paper. after printing the paper to the proper shade the toning and fixing baths will wash away the ink and leave the lettering in white. the lettering is easily accomplished and a post card can be sent with any message desired on any negative, the inscription being printed on the paper so that the negative is unharmed for other printing.--contributed by henry j. marion, pontiac, mich. a stamp moistener [illustration] a handy stamp moistener and envelope sealer can be made by procuring a small medicine bottle or glass vial and inserting a piece of felt or other wicking material in the place of the stopper, and filling it with water. this moistener will be found handy for a small office where the mail is quite heavy, but not big enough to warrant the purchasing of a sealing machine. this moistener is sanitary and replaces the wet sponge.--contributed by theo. j. becker, kansas city, mo. a window lock [illustration] a very neat window lock can be made of sheet steel, / in. wide. one piece, shaped like a saw tooth, is fastened to the sash, and the other, which is bent to form a catch over the tooth projection and ends in a curved top for a finger hold, is attached to the window casing. the illustration clearly shows how the lock is attached.--contributed by lee b. green, cleveland, o. * * * * * georgia pine should be filled with white shellac. varnished candles burn longer the heated tallow or wax of a candle runs down the sides and this results in a considerable waste. this waste can be stopped by coating the new candles with white varnish and laying them aside for a few days to harden. the varnish will keep the melted tallow or wax from running away and it is used in the wick. guides for a mill file having a large number of wires to file true on the end i devised a way to do this with the use of some old worn-out and discarded files that had good cutting edges. a piece of sheet copper, about the same length as the files, was bent to fit over one edge and both sides of the file, allowing both edges to project about / in. this made a guide that prevented the edge of the file from slipping off the end of the wire. the guide was held in place on the file by cutting a slit in the projecting edges, about / in. from the end, and turning these separated parts back on the file. [illustration: guide for using the edge of worn-out files on small round or square stock] if such a guide is fitted tightly on a file, the edges of worn-out files can be used for such work, and the file cannot slip off and mar the sides of the work.--contributed by a. r. drury, hampton, ill. a simple motion-picture machine the drum a is a piece of wood, - / in. long and - / in. in diameter, supported on the end of a round stick, b, which can be made in one piece with the drum, if a wood lathe is at hand, but a piece cut from a curtain pole and a lead pencil inserted in a hole bored in the end will answer the purpose. be sure to have the diameter of the drum - / inches. [illustration: the parts for making the revolving drum for holding the strip of pictures] provide a base piece, c, / in. thick and in. square, and fasten a piece of cardboard having a slit e, as shown. the cardboard should be in. wide and - / in. high, the slit being cut / in. in width, / in. from the top and / in. from the bottom. a hole is bored in the center of the block to admit the standard b easily. the next step is to provide the picture and attach it to the drum. a picture of a boy pounding cobblestones is shown in the sketch, at f, which should be made on a strip of paper - / in. long. this is glued or attached with rubber bands to the drum. the drawing can be enlarged in pen and ink, or can be reproduced as it is, if a hand camera is at hand, and a print used on the drum. [illustration: the different positions of the picture will appear in action when turning with the drum] it is only necessary to put the parts together, grasp the base in one hand and turn the support b with the other, when, looking through the slot e, the boy is seen pounding the stones. various pictures can be made and the strips changed.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. substitute for cleats on boards the necessity for using more than one cleat for fastening two boards together may be done away with by using the device shown in the sketch. the center cleat prevents the boards from buckling while the sides are tightly held by these simple flat fasteners. the fasteners are made of tin cut as indicated, slipped between the edges of the boards and the parts bent over and tacked. where the strain is not too great the holders may be used without a cleat, making an effective flat fastening.--contributed by w. o. nettleton, washington, d. c. [illustration: the metal clips hold the edges of the boards together closely and quite rigidly] attaching door knobs to locks when putting a lock on a door it is often difficult to press the two knobs together tightly enough to prevent them from rattling and still be able to insert the screw into the shank. by using a piece of board, in. thick, in. wide and ft. or more in length, with a v-shaped piece cut out of one side, the knobs can be easily forced and held together while the screw is inserted.--contributed by h. musgrave, sidney, british columbia. [illustration: the sloping edges in the notch forces the knobs together and holds them while inserting the screws] a finger-nail buffer the flywheel on a sewing machine is usually turned with a semicircular face and this makes a good base on which to apply a piece of chamois skin for use in buffing nails. a strip of the chamois is cut the length of the wheel's circumference and small holes pierced in its edges, through which strings are run to hold it to the rim of the wheel. the chamois can then be removed or left on the wheel as desired. run the machine and hold the nail on the buffer. when there is a free wheel on the machine this makes an excellent buffing device. [illustration: a strip of chamois skin attached to the flywheel of a sewing machine for a buffer] grinding chisel edges [illustration] a cold chisel ground with a rounding edge, as shown, will last twice as long and do better work than one that is ground straight, because it will not wedge, and the cutting edge, having a better support, will not chip off.--contributed by f. g. marbach, cleveland, o. reducing amperage of a fuse wire it is sometimes necessary to use an electrical fuse of smaller amperage than those at hand, and for experimental work this is often the case. a smaller amperage may be readily made from a larger-size wire by making a nick in it with the cutting edge of pliers, or with a knife. the illustration shows how to reduce the size of a -ampere fuse to make it five amperes.--contributed by louis litsky, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: the amperes of a fuse reduced by making a nick in the lead wire] dip-plating process the various ways of doing dip plating are practically the same method, the coating fluid consisting of essentially the same materials. the tank or crucible, as it may be called, consists of a piece of -in. gas pipe, in. long, threaded at both ends, one end being fitted with a screw cap and the other with a pipe flange. this part is shown in fig. . a piece of sheet metal is cut in the shape shown in fig. and bent to form a cone, so that the smaller end will fit snugly around the pipe and the base be in. in diameter. the joined edges are riveted together. the assembled parts will appear as shown in fig. . the metal used for plating consists of bismuth, oz.; antimony, oz., and pure block tin, lb. place the antimony in the crucible and melt it, then add the tin and bismuth. a flame from an ordinary gasoline burner will be sufficient to heat the crucible. clean the article to be coated by rinsing it in strong caustic potash, which will remove all grime and grease, then dip it in a strong solution of sal ammoniac and water. dry it and then dip it in the melted metal, allowing it to remain there about minute, then remove and plunge it in a bath made of lb. of sal ammoniac and gal. of water. the article is then dried in sawdust. [illustration: the parts to make the crucible consist of pipe and fittings and a piece of sheet metal (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the coating put on in this manner is a nice, shiny plate that will stand a lot of wear. no polishing or grinding is necessary.--contributed by a. h. waychoff, lyons, colo. a model steam-turbine boat a piece of thin board, or shingle, is cut to the shape of a boat and two standards are fastened to it. the standards have notches cut in them to hold an ordinary baking-powder can which is used for the boiler. the lid of the can is soldered on, and a small hole punched in one side with an awl. two candles are used to heat the water. [illustration: model turbine boat using a baking-powder can for a boiler with candles as fuel] the turbine is constructed on an axle made of a hatpin which runs through the top of the standards for bearings. the paddles are made of cardboard, or better still, pieces of thin sheet tin, cut and bent as shown at a, and three of these are attached to a three-cornered block of wood fastened to the shaft, as shown at b. the manner of attaching the shaft for the propeller is shown at c. the propeller consists of a piece of tin, slightly twisted and attached to the shaft with solder. the pulleys are located as shown and connected with a string band. the hole made in the can should be pointed to one side of the turbine shaft so that the escaping steam will strike one side of the paddles on the turbine.--contributed by mckinley wood, ava, n. y. plant shelf for a window an ingenious and simple method of putting up window shelves for winter plants so that the window casing and facing are not marred is shown in the sketch. the materials required are one shelf, about in. wide, - / yd. of picture wire, two screweyes, two fence staples, and two strips of wood, to raise the shelf slightly from the window sill. the board for the shelf is cut to fit the window frame and casing. the picture wire, screweyes and staples are attached as shown. when cleaning the window the shelf can be drawn out of the way.--contributed by h. c. dixon, johnstown, pa. [illustration: the shelf is hung on wires attached to screweyes placed in the facing edge] a camera support a device which, in many instances, will take the place of a tripod, can be made of a brass wood screw and can be carried in the pocket as easily as a pencil. the screw should be or in. long and / in. in diameter. cut off the head and thread the end about / in. to fit the socket in the camera. drill a / -in. hole through the metal just below the threaded part and insert a short piece of / -in. wire. slip a washer over the end, down to the wire, and fasten it with solder. [illustration: substitute for a camera tripod that can be carried in the pocket like a pencil] the device can be turned into a tree, post or a stick thrust into the ground, and the camera screwed onto it and adjusted to any angle.--contributed by o. d. turner, seattle, wash. combination tool for amateur draftsmen a common -in. mill file can be converted into a very useful tool for an amateur draftsman. grind the end of the file as shown in the sketch and use it for prying out thumbtacks that are driven in too tightly. grind the base of the tang into a knife blade for sharpening pencils, shaving chalk, opening envelopes, etc. shape, by careful grinding, the part a for cutting and trimming sheets. grind one edge of the file round and polish it for smoothing and burnishing purposes. grind a sharp point on the tang for perforating sheets. a piece of rubber stuck on the tang end answers the double purpose of a protector and eraser. the file part is used for finishing points on pencils. [illustration: a tool made of a file combining several tools which are used by a draftsman] varnishing bases for electric apparatus it is quite difficult to keep from making finger marks on freshly varnished boards used as bases on electric devices. it is easily avoided, however, by procuring a large spool and fastening it to the bottom of the base with a wood screw. the spool will serve as a handle while the varnish is applied, and also makes a stand for the board while the varnish dries.--contributed by jacob laudan, louisville, ky. waterproof shoe dressing melt some tallow and, while it is hot, put in some scraps of rubber from old rubber shoes or boots. be careful to select rubber that is free from cloth. put in as much of the rubber as the tallow will absorb. stir freely while it is melting, and keep it away from any flames. allow it to cool and set away for future use. take enough for immediate use and warm it sufficiently so that it may be applied with a brush.--contributed by f. s. cummings, detroit, mich. an adjustable bench stop a simple adjustable bench stop for light work may be made from a piece of -in. broom handle and a piece of piano wire. plane a flat surface on the broom stick and drill two / -in. holes, about / in. deep, / in. from each end. bend the ends of the wire to enter the holes and have the wire of such length as to give it a slight curve between the ends when it is in place on the stick. [illustration: the spring wire will hold the stop at any desired position for height] bore a -in. hole through the bench top where it is desired to use the stop and cut several grooves, as shown, in the walls of the hole with a compass saw. the spring wire will slide into a groove and hold the stick wherever it is set. the position of the face can be changed by inserting the stick so that the wire will enter the right groove.--contributed by alan h. andrews, fall river, mass. a crochet hook in making some kinds of lace work different-sized hooks must be used as the work proceeds. considerable time will be lost in changing from one hook to another, if they are separate. the best way is to mount all the hooks necessary on one handle, as shown in the sketch. the handle part is made of a large wire or small rod, bent to the shape shown and with holes drilled through the ends for a small rivet. the ends of the hooks are drilled or bent to fit on the rivet. a small tin ferrule is made to slip over the handle and the hooks not in use. all hooks but the one in use are turned back into the handle and the ferrule slipped into place.--contributed by miss nita s. ingle, w. toledo, o. [illustration: a crochet-hook handle for holding several hooks that are required for some lace work] writing board for children a writing desk for a child can be easily made as shown in the sketch. the materials necessary are a board of suitable size, two screwhooks, four screweyes and a pair of rods for braces. the hooks are screwed into the back of a chair and the screweyes into the board, as shown. this desk is instantly attached or taken down when desired. if the chair is light and apt to tip over, make the rods long-enough to reach to the floor.--contributed by john v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: the writing board is easily attached to, or detached from, an ordinary chair back] geometric principle in line division when sketching a plan, if any one of the first few lines drawn is found to be the proper length, then this line can be made into a scale by the geometric rule for dividing a given line into equal parts. [illustration: a scale can be made for use on any sized sketch or drawing] suppose, for example, the line ab, which is to represent ft., is found to be ft. long. draw a line, ac, at any angle from the point a and step off on it equal parts, beginning at a. the last point, or the one at c, is connected to the end b, then eleven other lines are drawn parallel with cb. thus ab will make a scale of in. to each ft.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. repairing a broken whip procure a piece of thin tin--the metal taken from a discarded fruit can will do--and cut it about - / in. long and wide enough to encircle the break. notch the ends like saw teeth and remove any sharp edges with a file. place the tin on the break and tie temporarily. wind the whole from end to end with a waxed linen thread, such as used by harness makers. the threads lying alternately on the whip and on metal at the notched ends eliminate any possibility of the parts working loose. a break near the small and flexible end of a whip is repaired in the same manner, using a quill instead of the tin. in either case, do not let the edges of the splicing material meet, and it will clamp tightly on the whip.--contributed by w. s. kingsley, w. gouldsboro, me. [illustration: the repair on a whip made with a notched ferrule and a waxed thread] repairing a worn thimble silver thimbles are easily worn through at the end, and they can be quickly repaired by soldering from the inside. a very neat repair can be made with an alcohol lamp and a blowpipe by using a little silver solder. borax or resin is used as a flux. a small torch a small torch, that will give a very fine and hot smokeless flame, can be made from a piece of glass tube, about in. long, and ft. of rubber tubing. the glass tube is heated in the center until it is red, then the ends drawn apart so that the tube will have a small diameter. after the glass has cooled, make a small scratch with a file on the thin part and break it. one of the pointed ends is connected to a straight piece of glass tube with a short piece of the rubber tube, as shown in the sketch. a small hole is cut in the side of the piece of rubber to admit air to the gas. the torch is connected to an ordinary gas jet.--contributed by e. k. marshall, oak park, ill. [illustration: a torch made of glass and rubber tubing, to be used on an ordinary gas jet] fountain attachment for an ordinary pen a quite efficient fountain pen may be quickly made by bending an ordinary pen, as shown at a, and inserting it in the holder opposite to the regular pen, as shown at b. for best results, the point of the auxiliary pen should just touch the regular pen.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the space between the pens forms the fountain, which is sufficient for considerable writing] * * * * * a little water added to oil paint will make a flat or lusterless finish and will do no harm to the paint, as the water evaporates in time. [illustration] homemade cut press the person who has a little ability in making wood cuts with a knife will find it very interesting to make the press shown in the sketch. a fair job of printing can be done with the press, using printer's ink spread on a piece of glass with a hand ink roller, such as can be purchased cheaply of any dealer in printing supplies. [illustration: a hand press for printing from cuts made of wood, using ordinary printer's ink] the press may have a base, a, of any size to suit, but one - / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long will be found to serve best for most purposes. it must be smooth and level. hard wood, such as maple, beech, or birch, is best for all parts. the post b is - / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. before setting it, slot the upper end for the end of the lever. this is done by making a saw cut, - / in. deep, / in. from either side and cutting out the core to make a slot / in. wide. a / -in. hole is then bored through the prongs to receive a stove bolt that connects them with the lever. the post is fastened with screws and glue in a notch cut in the center of the base end. the lever c is made of a piece of wood / in. square and in. long. at the forward end the sides are pared away to form a tongue, or tenon, that will pass between the prongs of the upright, and a hole is bored through it to match those in the prongs. the entire upper surface of the lever is rounded and the under surface is rounded, beginning in. from the tenon end. glue to the under side of the lever a block, d, at the end of the under, flat surface. the block should be about - / in. square by - / in. long. if the under side of the base is crowning, either level it with a plane or nail cleats across the ends for feet. a washer is used with the stove bolt in connecting the lever and post. the cuts are made of small blocks of wood, about / in. thick and of a size to take the characters desired. these blocks must be level and the printing side made smooth with very fine sandpaper, or a scraper, before the characters are laid out. boxwood is best for cuts, but pearwood, applewood, birch, or maple will do very well. mark out the characters backward, using the pencil very lightly. then, with the small blade of a knife, made as sharp as possible, cut around the outlines, holding the knife slanting, and remove the adjacent wood by cutting in at a reverse angle to meet the boundary cut. gradually deepen the cuts around the characters until they stand in relief about / in., then score v-shaped grooves, checkerboard fashion, across the remaining high surface that is not a part of the design, and chip out the resulting small blocks to bring the entire secondary surface of the block to a uniform level with the portions adjoining the characters. a touch of glue to the back of the cut will set it securely enough to the bottom of the block d for printing, and allow its removal without injury when desired. to get a uniform impression in printing, place paper on the base, as at e, to the thickness required. for controlling the printing position on the stock paper, pins or tacks can be stuck into the base and each sheet to be printed laid against these guides.--contributed by chelsea curtis frazier, saginaw, mich. an electrical testing instrument for experimenters the amateur having an ordinary flash light can make an instrument that will serve for a variety of purposes. it is only necessary to solder a piece of lamp cord to the spring of the battery which comes in contact with the lamp, and pass the end through a hole drilled in the top of the case. the end can be fitted with a cord tip. [illustration: an instrument made of an electrical pocket flash light for testing circuits and instruments] to test batteries, take the flash light in the right hand and press the button, lighting the lamp, then place the bottom of the flash light on one binding post and the cord on the other. if the light burns brilliantly, the battery is dead, but if it burns dimly or goes out the battery is good. it may happen that the experimenter's telegraph line is out of order and the trouble cannot be found. the sounder may be tested out by disconnecting the wires from the instrument and placing the bottom of the flash light on one binding post and the cord on the other. if the light goes out, the trouble does not lie in the sounder, but in some other part of the line. the line may be tested in a similar manner if one end is short-circuited and the flash light connected to the other. a tester of this kind cannot be used on long lines, or on instruments of much resistance, as their resistance will overcome that of the light. keep in mind the fact that the lamp will always burn on an open circuit and go out on a closed circuit. softening the tone of a talking machine [illustration] an effective mute, for use on any disk talking machine, can be made by clamping an ordinary wood clothespin on the head of the setscrew that holds the needle. thus the tone will be softened a great deal more than by the use of a wood needle. the record of a stringed instrument, such as a violin, will be almost exactly reproduced. it will also eliminate almost all the scratching sound caused by a steel needle.--contributed by c. m. reeves, los angeles, cal. * * * * * an antenna should be made of wire larger than no. gauge. [illustration] a musical doorbell by h. marcelle in the construction of this doorbell it is best to purchase a small instrument known as the "tubaphone." it consists of a rack with several pieces of brass tubing cut to different lengths to give the proper tones as they are struck. such an instrument with eight tubes will play almost any tune, and can be purchased from cents up, depending on the size. brass tubes can be purchased, cut, and toned, but the time taken in doing this is worth more than the price of the instrument, and no changes are necessary in it to make the doorbell. [illustration: detail of the parts for the construction of a musical doorbell that will play the music on brass tubes with one touch of a push button] several strips of pine, in. wide and / in. thick, are procured for the framework. the tubes are placed on a table top, in. apart and with their lower ends on a line at right angles to their length. allow a space of in. outside the first and last tube, and cut a piece of the wood to this length, allowing sufficient additional material to fasten on the ends of two uprights, which are cut long enough to admit the longest tube and allow sufficient room for a large roller and space at the top to swing the tubes. a base is cut from a board, / in. thick and of sufficient size to admit the roller and tube rack, together with a small battery motor. the tube rack is fastened to the back of this base by making a tenon on the lower end of each upright, and a mortise in the baseboard to receive it. a roller is turned from a piece of soft pine, large enough to provide room on its surface for a number of horizontal lines equal to the number of notes in the composition to be played. these lines should not be too close together. supposing the music it is desired to play has notes in its composition, then horizontal lines must be spaced evenly on the surface of the roller. the length of the roller should be a free-working fit between the uprights. a / -in. steel rod is run through its center for a shaft, allowing sufficient ends for the bearings, and, in addition, at one end sufficient length for a pulley. the motor is lined up on the base, so that its pulley wheel will run a belt on the large wheel of the roller. the current is turned on after making belt and wiring connections, a lead pencil is held directly centering the place where each tube hangs, and a line is drawn on the circumference of the roller. a / -in. hole is drilled through each tube, near one end, and a piece of catgut string run into it to make a hanger. a piece of board, long enough to fit between the uprights when placed on the slope formed by the upper ends of the tubes after their lower ends are set straight on a line at right angles to their length, and wide enough to swing the tubes clear of the frame, is fastened in place, as shown. small screw eyes are turned into the under side of this board, at even spacings of in., and used to swing the tubes by the catgut strings. another piece of board, the same width as the former, is placed, perfectly horizontal, between the uprights a short distance above the lower ends of the hanging tubes. evenly spaced holes are bored in this crosspiece to admit the ends of the tubes. the holes should be of such size that when they are lined with a piece of felt, the tubes will have a little play without touching the sides at any point. the hammers are each made of a strip of sheet brass, having a length that will extend from the base to a short distance above the lower ends of the tubes. a hole is drilled in each end of the strip, the lower one being of a size to fasten it to the base crosspiece with a round-head wood screw. the hole in the upper end is used to fasten a small block of wood with a screw, for the hammer head. a small strip of felt is glued to the striking side of the block. another piece of brass, used for a trip, is fastened to the center part of each long piece with rivets, so that its upper end will be near the center of the roller for height, and strike the end of a small peg driven into the roller. the length of these pieces, in fact, of all pieces, will depend on the length of the tubes in the tubaphone and the size roller required for the music. the setting of the pegs in the roller requires some patience in order to get the tune correct, but one mistake will be of more value than an hour's description. the pegs can be procured from a shoemaker. if the roller is of pine, they can be driven into the wood of the roller with a hammer. [illustration: the appearance of the doorbell is that of a mission clock on a mantel] with ordinary connections to the push button and motor, the mechanism will only run while the push button is being pressed. a device that will cause the piece of music to be played through to the finish after the push button is pushed for a short time, consists of a turned piece of wood fastened to the outside surface of the driving wheel on the roller. this piece of wood should be carefully set, so that its outside surface will be true as it revolves. three brushes, made of copper strips, are fastened to the base. the length of these brushes will depend on the size of the roller and height of the block of wood. they should be evenly spaced and fastened, so that they will be insulated from each other. one strip of brass, or copper, is fastened around the turned piece of wood. this strip must be as wide as two brushes, except for a short distance to make a break in the electrical circuit. the notch in the strip, to make this break, should be on the outside edge where it will disconnect the center brush, and its location on the turned piece of wood should be on a line with the end and the beginning of the pegs for the music. another short strip is fastened to the turned piece of wood, where it will make a contact with the first brush when the second or middle brush is in the notch, or disconnected, and is connected to the other notched strip with a piece of wire run beneath the wood. the wiring shown will make it possible to start the motor with the push button which will turn the roll far enough to connect the center brush; then the roller will turn until the music is played, at which point it will stop and remain in rest until the push button again makes the contact. the entire mechanism can be made to set on the mantel or shelf, incased like a mission clock, and the wires running to it may be concealed. replacing buckle tongues [illustration] having several buckles without tongues i tried to repair them with pieces of wire, but could not get them to bend short enough to fasten around the buckle frame. some cotters were at hand and seeing them gave me the idea of using one leg, with the eye part, as a tongue. by using the proper-sized cotter, a substantial and quickly made repair will be the result.--contributed by everett hoar, bowmanville, ont. * * * * * bread crumbs thoroughly rubbed over a pencil drawing will remove most of the dirt and without disturbing the pencil lines. drying towels in photographer's dark room in doing a large amount of photographic work the towel becomes wet, and to dry the hands on it is impossible. to obviate this annoyance, i made a galvanized-iron pipe, about ft. long and in. in diameter, with a disk, or circular piece, of metal about in. in diameter soldered on each end to form flanges. one flange was fastened to the wall of the dark room in a convenient place to support the device. on the inside of the spool, or towel support, an ordinary incandescent electric globe was placed. the heat of the lamp would easily dry in. of the towel, and when the dry part was pulled down for use another wet portion was brought into position for drying. [illustration: an electric globe makes heat in the spool for drying a portion of the towel] those who have tried to handle gelatin dry plates with moist hands will readily appreciate the value of this simple contrivance. the lamp in the spool is connected on the switch with the ruby light, so that it is not forgotten, when leaving the room, to turn it out.--contributed by t. b. lambert, chicago. an electric chime clock by john e. mahlmeister [illustration: the alarm clock in its case and the location of the contact pins and contact lever (fig. )] in the construction of this clock one perfectly good and accurate alarm clock and the works of an old or discarded one are used. the clock for the accurate time is set into a frame, or casing, made of thin boards which have a circular opening cut in them to fit snugly on the outside casing of the clock. the back of the clock and casing are shown in fig. . a circular line is drawn on the casing, about in. larger in diameter than the clock, and brass machine screws with two nuts clamping on the wood back, as shown at a, are set at intervals so as to be opposite, or just back of, the hour marks , , , , , , , and . a contact spring, b, is shaped as shown and soldered to the knurled knob on the back of the clock used for setting the hands in a position where it will travel or be parallel with the minute hand. the end of the contact spring should be shaped so that it will slide over the points of the screws easily, but in good contact. the ends of the screws should be filed to a slightly rounding point. the wiring diagram for this part of the apparatus is clearly shown, and the terminals are connected to binding posts c and d. the binding post e is connected to the metal part of the clock. [illustration: location of the clock works, magnets, binding posts, gongs and strikers on the baseboard (fig. )] the chime part is made entirely separate and can be located at any reasonable distance from the clock. it is propelled by the works from an old clock, as shown at f, fig. . the old clock is prepared for use by removing the hands, balance wheel and escapement so that the wheels will turn freely. to prevent the works from running too fast, a piece of sheet brass, g, is soldered to the shaft running at the highest speed. the brass should be as large as the space will admit. it forms a fan to catch the air and retard the speed, and also provides a means of stopping the works by the electric mechanism. the parts for the gongs and electrical apparatus are supported on a baseboard, / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. the automatic switch is located at one end of the base, and consists of two sets of magnets, h and j, with an armature, k, to which is attached a stiff contact wire, l. this wire is to make contact with the spring m when the armature is drawn by the magnets j, and with n when drawn by the magnets h. the springs m and n are made of thin sheet brass, bent as shown, and mounted on the base. a piece of wood, o, on which to mount the works of the old clock is mortised into the base. another standard, p, of the same height as o, is also mortised into the base to provide a bearing for the end of the shaft which carries the wood disk q, the opposite end of the shaft being connected by means of a ferrule and soldered to the end of the minute-hand shaft. the shaft should be well lined up, so that it will turn freely. the wood disk is / in. thick and about in. in diameter. [illustration: the pins are accurately set in four circular lines and on radial lines (fig. )] mark four circles on the face of the disk, near the outside edge and / in. apart. step off the outside circle into parts and draw a radial line from each mark across the four circular lines with the straight edge on the center of the disk. an arc of the disk is shown in fig. , where trip pins are driven in for making the electric contacts. this part of the arc shows the method of locating the pins for the hour from to o'clock, with the intermediate pins for the quarter, half, and three-quarter-hour contacts. the intermediate pins are arranged in the same manner for all hours, but the hour pins, on the second circle, run from pin to pins consecutively. ordinary pins, with the heads cut off, are used and should be driven in accurately on the division lines to secure proper results. the arrangement of the springs is shown in fig. . these springs, when pressed together, will close the circuit for ringing the gongs. they are made of thin sheet brass, bent as shown at r, and fastened to a piece, or block, of hard wood with screws, as shown at s. the springs numbered , , , and are the ones made as shown at r for sliding over the pins in the disk q, and their ends should clear the face of the disk about / in. the springs , , , , and are about / in. shorter and have their ends bent up at right angles so that they will almost touch the long ones. the spring should be a little shorter than . when fastening the springs to the block of wood, be sure that no two springs touch and that each one is separated from the other to form no contact until the pins in the wheel force them together. the block is then fastened to the base under and parallel with the shaft carrying the disk q, as shown. the starting and stopping of the clockwork f is accomplished by means of a set of bell magnets, arranged, as shown at t, fig. , with the wire attached to the armature bent to touch the brass wing of the fan g. the armature must not vibrate, but stay against the magnet cores while the current is flowing through them, thus allowing the clock wheels to turn, and as soon as the current is cut off, the armature will spring back and stop the wheels. [illustration: the parts constructing the chime are placed in the clock frame below the works] arrange four gongs, u, v, w, and x, as shown in fig. , and also three bell magnets with clappers , and . these gongs should be selected for tone as in a chime clock. the connections to the bell magnets , , and should be direct to the binding posts so that the armature will not vibrate, but give one stroke. for instance, bell magnet should produce one stroke on the gong u when the current is on, and one stroke on the gong v when the current breaks. the magnets should cause the clapper to strike once on the gong v when the current is on, and to make one stroke on the gong w when the current is broken. the magnets produce only one stroke on the gong x at a time, which is used to sound the hours. [illustration: the contact springs are operated by the pins on the disk wheel (fig. )] the parts are connected up electrically as shown in fig. . the lines between the clock, fig. , and the bell-ringing part, fig. , are connected from c to c, d to d, and e, fig. , to the zinc of a battery and from the carbon to e, fig. . two dry cells will be sufficient for the current. [illustration: the wiring diagram for the location of the wires on the under side of the base (fig. )] the working of the mechanism is as follows: suppose the time is minutes of o'clock and the contact spring on the back is near the pin. as soon as it touches the pin, the armature k of the switch will be drawn in contact with the spring n, then when the contact spring touches the pin, the current will flow into the magnets t and release the wheels of the clockwork f, which turns the disk q, and the three pins in the second row will pass over the spring and press it in contact with the spring three times, causing the gong x to toll out o'clock. as the contact spring b will be on the contact pin for about minute, the wheels of the clockwork f would continue to turn and the bells ring, if it were not for the stop pin located on the outside, or first, circle of the disk q, which pin is set in line with the last pin in the set of pins for the hour, or, in this instance, in line with the third pin. when the stop pin has passed the spring, the connection through the magnets t is broken and the clockwork f stops instantly. when the spring b strikes the o'clock pin, or minutes after o'clock, the armature k is drawn over to n, and at the pin, or minutes after o'clock, the bells u, v, and w will ring and then the stop pin will break the current, and so on, at every minutes of the hours. hinges used to substitute night bolt one of the safest devices for bolting, or locking, a door against intruders is to use two sets of hinges. the extra set is fastened to the door and frame in the same way but directly opposite the regular hinges. it may be necessary to file the extra hinges and pins in order to separate and bring the parts together easily. the usual door lock need not be used with this arrangement, as the hinges are exposed only on the inside of the room and cannot be tampered with from without. propellers for a hand sled desiring to propel my hand sled with power transmitted by cranks and wheels, i set about to procure the necessary materials. two medium-sized buggy wheels were found in the back yard of a blacksmith shop, which were procured for a nominal price. the fellies of these wheels were removed, the tenons cut from the spokes and nails substituted, which were driven in their ends so that about / in. of the body with the head projected. the heads were then removed and the nail ends sharpened. the hubs were plugged with pieces of wood, whittled to tightly fit the holes. a hole was then bored exactly central through each plug for a / -in. rod. this size rod was procured and bent to form a crank, the bearing end being threaded for a distance equal to the length of the hub. [illustration: sled propelled by revolving wheels turned by cranks, the pointed nails doing the pushing] two pieces or blocks of wood, in. square and in. long, were used as bearings. these were bored centrally through the long way, to receive the / -in. rod just loose enough to make a good bearing. these bearings were supported by a pair of braces made of strap iron, about / in. thick and / in. wide. the length of the iron will depend on the size of the wheels and the height of the sled runner. the braces were shaped as shown. the center of the bearing hole must be as high from the surface of the ground as the distance the spoke ends are from the center of the hub hole. the crank is then run through the bearing hole and a nut run on the threads and a washer placed against the nut. the wheel is then slipped on the axle, and another washer and nut run on tightly. both wheels, bearings, cranks, and brackets are made alike. the brackets are fastened with small bolts to the sled top.--contributed by justin stewart, wallingford, conn. a self-feeding match box with the addition of the simple device here illustrated, any match box can be converted into one of the self-feeding type. a piece of tin, or cardboard, is cut, as shown at a, the exact size depending on the match box used. the piece cut out is folded on the dotted lines, the cover on the match box is removed, and the part b pushed into the end of the box beneath the matches. the part b is twice as long as the depth of the box, therefore it enters the box as far as the line c. the flaps d rest against the outside of the box, and are held in place by the box cover. the matches feed into the box formed of the tin or cardboard as fast as used, while the burnt ones can be placed in the upper part e. [illustration: the attachment consists of a receptacle fitting into the end of a match box] corks-in-a-box trick procure a pill box and a clean cork. cut two disks from the cork to fit in the box, and fasten one of the pieces centrally to the inside bottom of the pill box with glue. to perform the trick, put the loose disk in with the one that is fast, and then open the box to show both corks. close the box and in doing so turn it over, then open and only one cork will be seen. be careful not to show the inside of the other part of the box with the cork that is fastened.--contributed by fred b. spoolstra, yonkers, n. y. a disk-armature motor one of the simplest motors to make is the disk motor, its construction requiring a wood base, a brass disk, a -in. horseshoe magnet, and some mercury. [illustration] the base is made of hard wood, in the proportions shown in the sketch. the leading-in wires are connected to the binding posts a and b, and from these connections are made, on the bottom of the base, from a to the groove c cut in the upper surface of the base for the mercury, and from b to one screw, d, of one bearing. the end of the former wire must be clean and project into the end of the groove, where it will be surrounded with mercury. [illustration: parts of the disk motor shown in detail, also the location of the horseshoe magnet on the base, ends of the poles being directly under the center of the shaft] the bearings consist of thin sheet brass, cut to the dimensions shown, the bearing part being made with a well-pointed center punch, as at e. the disk wheel is made of sheet brass, in. in diameter, and a needle, with the eye broken off and pointed, is used for the shaft. the needle shaft can be placed in position by springing the bearings apart at the top. when the current is applied, the disk will revolve in a direction relative to the position of the poles on the magnet. the reverse can be made by turning the magnet over.--contributed by joseph h. redshaw, homestead, pa. repairing marble with a little practice any mechanic can repair holes, cracks or chipped places on marble slabs, so that the patched place cannot be detected from the natural marble. use the following mixture as a base for the filler: water glass, parts; calcined magnesite, parts, and powdered marble, parts. these should be mixed thoroughly to a semifluid paste. fill the crack or hole and smooth off level, then with a camel's-hair brush and colors, made of aniline in alcohol, work out the veins, body colors, etc., as near to the natural marble as possible. it will depend on the application of the colors whether the repair can be seen or not. artificial-marble slabs can be formed from this mixture.--contributed by a. e. soderlund, new york city. the construction of a simple wireless telephone set by a. e. andrews in two parts--part i among the various methods for the transmission of speech electrically, without wire, from one point to another, the so-called "inductivity" system, which utilizes the principles of electromagnetic induction, is perhaps the simplest, because it requires no special apparatus. since this system is so simple in construction, and its operation can be easily understood by one whose knowledge of electricity is limited, a description will be given of how to construct and connect the necessary apparatus required at a station for both transmitting and receiving a message. [illustration: fig. --wire connected to galvanometer] before taking up the actual construction and proper connection of the various pieces of apparatus, it will be well to explain the electrical operation of the system. if a conductor be moved in a magnetic field in any direction other than parallel to the field, there will be an electrical pressure induced in the conductor, and this induced electrical pressure will produce a current in an electrical circuit of which the conductor is a part, provided the circuit be complete, or closed, just as the electrical pressure produced in the battery due to the chemical action in the battery will produce a current in a circuit connected to the terminals of the battery. a simple experiment to illustrate the fact that there is an induced electrical pressure set up in a conductor when it is moved in a magnetic field may be performed as follows: take a wire, ab, as shown in fig. , and connect its terminals to a galvanometer, g, as shown. if no galvanometer can be obtained, a simple one can be made by supporting a small compass needle inside a coil composed of about turns of small wire. the terminals of the winding on the coil of the galvanometer should be connected to the terminals of the conductor ab, as shown in fig. . if now the conductor ab be moved up and down past the end of the magnet n, there will be an electrical pressure induced in the conductor, and this electrical pressure will produce a current in the winding of the galvanometer g, which will cause the magnetic needle suspended in the center of the coil to be acted upon by a magnetic force tending to move it from its initial position, or position of rest. it will be found that this induced electrical pressure will exist only as long as the conductor ab is moving with respect to the magnetic field of the magnet n, as there will be no deflection of the galvanometer needle when the motion of the conductor ceases, indicating there is no current in the galvanometer winding, and hence no induced electrical pressure. it will also be found that the direction in which the magnetic needle of the galvanometer is deflected changes as the direction of motion of the conductor changes with respect to the magnet, indicating that there is a change in the direction of the current in the winding of the galvanometer, and since the direction of this current is dependent upon the direction in which the induced electrical pressure acts, there must have been a change in the direction of this pressure due to a change in the direction of motion of the conductor. the same results can be obtained by moving the magnet, allowing the conductor ab to remain stationary, the only requirement being a relative movement of the conductor and the magnetic field created by the magnet. [illustration: fig. --compass needle test] it is not necessary that the magnetic field be created by a permanent magnet. it can be produced by a current in a conductor. the fact that there is a magnetic field surrounding a conductor in which there is a current can be shown by a simple experiment, as illustrated in fig. . if a wire be placed above a compass needle and parallel to the direction of the compass needle and a current be sent through the wire in the direction indicated by the arrow i, there will be a force acting on the compass needle tending to turn the needle at right angles to the wire. the amount the needle is turned will depend upon the value of the current in the wire. there is a definite relation between the direction of the current in the wire and the direction of the magnetic field surrounding the wire, because a reversal of current in the conductor will result in a reversal in the direction in which the compass needle is deflected. remembering that the direction of a magnetic field can be determined by placing a magnetic needle in the field and noting the direction in which the n-pole of the needle points, this being taken as the positive direction, if one looks along a conductor in which there is a current and the current be from the observer, the direction of the magnetic field about the conductor will be clockwise. imagine a conductor carrying a current and that you are looking at a cross-section of this conductor (see fig. ), and the direction of the current in the conductor is from you (this being indicated in the figure by the cross inside the circle), then the lines of force of the magnetic field will be concentric circles about the conductor, they being nearer together near the conductor, indicating the strength of the field is greatest near the conductor. a compass needle placed above the conductor would place itself in such a position that the n-pole would point toward the right and the s-pole toward the left. if the needle be placed below the conductor, the n-pole would point to the left and the s-pole to the right, indicating that the direction of the magnetic field above the conductor is just the reverse of what it is below the conductor. [illustration: fig. --lines of force] [illustration: fig. --reversed lines of force] the strength of the magnetic field produced by a current in a conductor can be greatly increased by forming the conductor into a coil. figure shows the cross-section of a coil composed of a single turn of wire. the current in the upper cross-section is just the reverse of what it is in the lower cross-section, as indicated by the cross and dash inside the two circles. as a result of the direction of current in the two cross-sections being different, the direction of the magnetic field about these two cross-sections will be different, one being clockwise, and the other counter-clockwise. it will be observed, however, that all the lines of force pass through the center of the coil in the same direction, or the magnetic field inside the coil is due to the combined action of the various parts of the conductor forming the complete turn. this magnetic field can be increased in value, without increasing the current in the conductor, by adding more turns to the coil. [illustration: fig. --magnetic lines passing through center] a cross-section through a coil composed of eight turns placed side by side is shown in fig. . the greater part of the magnetic lines created by each turn pass through the remaining turns as shown in the figure, instead of passing around the conductor in which the current exists that creates them. this results in the total number of lines passing through the coil per unit of cross-sectional area being greater than it was for a single turn, although the value of the current in the conductor has remained constant, the only change being an increase in the number of turns forming the coil. if a conductor be moved by the end of a coil similar to that shown in fig. , when there is a current in the winding of the coil, there will be an electrical pressure induced in the conductor, just the same as though it were moved by the end of a permanent magnet. the polarity of the coil is marked in fig. . the magnetic lines pass from the s-pole to the n-pole through the coil and from the n-pole to the s-pole outside the coil, just as they do in a permanent magnet. how to lock a tenoned joint a tenon placed in a blind mortise can be permanently fastened, when putting the joints together, by two wedges driven in the end grain of the wood. in some cases, where the wood to be used is very dry and brittle, it is advisable to dip the tenon in warm water before applying the glue. the glue must be applied immediately after the tenon is removed from the water, and then inserted in the mortise. the sketch shows the application of the wedges. the bottom of the mortise drives the wedges as the tenon is forced in place. [illustration: wedges in tenon] fitting a large cork in a small bottle when necessary, a large cork may be made to fit a small bottle, if treated as shown in the sketch. two wedge-shaped sections are cut from the cork, at right angles to each other, as shown in fig. . the points are then squeezed together (fig. ) and the end inserted in the bottle (fig. ). wet the cork slightly and the operation will be easier.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: reducing size of cork (fig. , fig. , fig. )] a homemade wet battery [illustration] procure a large water bottle and have a glass cutter cut the top off so that the lower portion will form a jar about - / in. high. next obtain two pieces of carbon, about in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. melt up some old scrap zinc and mold a piece having the same dimensions as the pieces of carbon. the mold for casting the zinc may be made by nailing some / -in. strips of wood on a piece of dry board, forming a shallow box, in. wide and in. long. remove all the impurities from the surface of the zinc when it is melted, with a metal spoon or piece of tin. before filling the mold with the metal, place a piece of no. gauge bare copper wire through a small hole in one of the end pieces forming the mold, and allow it to project several inches inside, and make sure the mold is perfectly level. the zinc will run around the end of the wire, which is to afford a means of connecting the zinc plate to one of the binding posts forming the terminals of the cell. cut from some hard wood four pieces a little longer than the outside diameter of the glass jar, two of them / by / in., and two, / by / in. drill a / -in. hole in each end of all four pieces, the holes being perpendicular to the / -in. dimension in each case, and about / in. from the end. boil all the pieces for several minutes in paraffin and stand them up on end to drain. procure two / -in. brass bolts, - / in. long, which are to be used in clamping the elements of the cell together. the two smaller pieces of wood should be placed on each side of one end of the zinc, then the carbon pieces and the larger pieces of wood outside the carbon pieces. the carbon plates should be connected together and then connected to a binding post which forms the positive terminal of the cell. if unable to obtain pieces of carbon of the required dimensions, a number of ordinary electric-light carbons may be used. get about ten / -in. carbons, without the copper coating, if possible; if not, file all the copper off. cut these carbons off, forming -in. lengths. file the top ends of the carbons flat and so that they all become equal in thickness, and clamp them in place by means of the brass bolts. if rods are used, they should all be connected together by means of a piece of copper wire and then to a binding post. the plates may now be hung in the jar, the wooden pieces resting on the top of the jar and acting as a support. the solution for this cell is made by dissolving / lb. of potassium bichromate in / gal. of water, and then adding very slowly / lb. of strong sulphuric acid. more or less solution may be made by using the proper proportion of each ingredient. this cell will have a voltage of two volts, a rather low internal resistance, and will be capable of delivering a large current. if it should begin to show signs of exhaustion, a little more acid may be added. a chemical action goes on in this cell regardless of whether it supplies current to an external circuit or not, and for this reason the elements should be removed from the solution and hung directly over the jar when the cell is not in use. a simple device for this purpose may be constructed as shown. a cord may be passed through the opening in the crossbar at the top and its lower end attached to the elements. when the elements are drawn out of the solution, the upper end of the cord may be fastened in some manner. this frame can, of course, be made longer, so it will accommodate a number of cells. the construction of a simple wireless telephone set by a. e. andrews in two parts--part ii if two coils of wire be placed parallel to each other as shown in fig. , and a current be passed through the winding of one of them, say a, a part of the magnetic lines of force created by this current will pass through the other coil b. these lines of magnetic force must cut across the turns of wire of the coil in which there is no current as the magnetic field is being created, and as a result there will be an electrical pressure produced in the winding of the coil carrying no current. when the current in coil a is discontinued, the magnetic field created by this current is destroyed or it contracts to zero, and the magnetic lines again cut the various turns composing the winding of coil b. the direction in which the magnetic lines of force and the winding of coil b move with respect to each other is just the reverse, when the current in the winding of coil a is increasing, to what it is when the current in the winding of the coil a is decreasing. any change in the value of the current in the winding of coil a will result in a change in the number of magnetic lines of force linked with the winding of the coil b, and as a result of this change in the number of lines linked with the winding of coil b there will be an induced electrical pressure set up in coil b. the direction of this induced electrical pressure will depend upon whether the current in the winding of coil a is increasing or decreasing in value. when the current in the winding of coil a is increasing in value, the electrical pressure induced in the winding of coil b will be in such a direction that the current produced by this induced electrical pressure will pass around the winding of coil b in the opposite direction to that in which the current passes around the winding of coil a. or the current produced by the induced electrical pressure tends to produce a magnetic field opposite in direction to the one created by the current in the winding of coil a. when the current in the winding of a is decreasing in value, the induced pressure in the winding of the coil b is just the reverse of what it was in the previous case and the current produced by this induced pressure passes around the winding of the coil b in the same direction as the current passes around the winding of coil a. the current produced by the induced electrical pressure aids the current in the winding of coil a in producing a magnetic field. in general the current resulting from the induced pressure always passes around the circuit in such a direction as to produce a magnetic effect which will oppose a change in the value of the magnetic field causing the induced electrical pressure. [illustration: fig. ] there will be an induced pressure in the winding of coil b, due to a change in the value of the current in the winding of coil a, as long as the coil b remains in the magnetic field of the coil a and its plane is not parallel to magnetic lines; or, in other words, coil b must always be in such a position that some of the magnetic lines created by the current in coil a will pass through the winding of coil b. if a telephone transmitter and a battery be connected in series with the winding of coil a, a fluctuating or varying current can be made to pass through the winding by causing the diaphragm of the transmitter to vibrate by speaking into the mouthpiece of the transmitter. this varying current will set up a varying magnetic field and there will be an induced electrical pressure set up in coil b, if it be properly placed with respect to coil a. a receiver connected in series with the winding of coil b will be subjected to the action of a varying current due to the induced electrical pressure in the winding of coil b and as a result, the diaphragm of the receiver will vibrate in unison with that of the transmitter, and speech can thus be transmitted. the connection just described should be somewhat modified and a little more equipment used in order to give the best results. [illustration: fig. --sending and receiving equipment] figure shows the complete sending and receiving equipment, a complete outfit of this kind being required for each station. the transmitter t and the receiver r may be an ordinary local battery transmitter and receiver, although a high-resistance receiver will give better results. the induction coil with the windings, marked p and s, may be any commercial type of induction coil as used in a magneto telephone instrument, but a coil with a high-wound secondary will give better results. the push button k is to be used in closing the transmitter circuit when the set is being used for transmitting, the key being depressed, and for shorting out the high resistance secondary winding when the set is used in receiving, the key being in the normal position. ten dry cells should be connected in series and used to supply current to the transmitter circuit, as shown by b in the figure. the receiver r, secondary winding of the induction coil s, and the winding of coil a used in transmitting and receiving the magnetic effects, are all connected in series. the winding of the coil a consists of two parts, d and e, as shown in the figure, with two of their ends connected together by means of a condenser, c, having a capacity of about micro-farads. each of these parts should consist of about turns of no. gauge silk-covered copper wire, wound on an ordinary bicycle rim. the inside end of one winding should be connected to the outside of the other by means of the condenser, the two coils being wound in the same direction. the condenser c can be procured at a small cost from almost any telephone company. to talk, two of the instruments are placed or ft. apart, and they may be placed in different rooms as walls and other ordinary obstructions that do not interfere with the production of the magnetic field about the transmitting coil, have no effect upon the operation. pressing the button k at the transmitting station, closes the transmitter circuit and removes the shunt from about the secondary winding of the induction. any vibration of the transmitter will cause a varying current to pass through the primary winding p, which in turn induces an electrical pressure in the secondary winding s, and this pressure causes a varying current to pass through the coil a. the varying current in the winding of the coil a produces a varying magnetic field which acts upon the receiving coil, inducing an electrical pressure in it and producing a current through the receiver at the receiving station. a filing coherer, adapted to close a local relay circuit and ring an ordinary bell, may be used with the sets just described for signaling between stations. [illustration] an electric incubator where electric current is available, it can be used to heat an incubator much better and cleanlier than the kerosene lamp. the materials are inexpensive and the cost should be no more than for the ordinary kind of heater. first of all the box part must be made of very dry wood, / in. thick. the material should be matched, as the cost of the operation depends upon the construction of the box. the proper size for an -egg incubator is ft. square and ft. high. if a larger one is desired, the dimensions may be varied to suit, but it is not necessary to make it any higher for a larger one. if it is desired to have a window in the door, care must be taken to make it a good fit. the top, as shown in the sketch, is made without hinges so that it can be readily set on and removed. this makes it handy in case of repairing the heater and cleaning the box. the inside of the box, with the exception of the bottom, should be covered with asbestos paper. [illustration: fig. --box details] after the box is finished, fit it with a tray, - / ft. by ft. - / in. a tray having these dimensions will slide easily in the box. this is an essential feature of the hatching. the frame of the tray d, fig. , consists of wood, / by / in., with a bottom made of wire mesh. the mesh should be firmly attached, so that it will not give away when full of eggs. runners for the tray are placed - / in. from the bottom of the box. when the tray is put in place, it will not touch the back. this small space is left for the chicks to fall into the nursery below. about in. below the tray four holes are bored, aa, / in. in diameter, one on each side of the box. these holes admit fresh air to the eggs. [illustration: fig. --heater details] the electric heater is just large enough to allow a space about / in. on all edges. this makes it in. square. a piece of / -in. asbestos of the above size should be secured, on which to place the heating wire. the amount of wire depends on the size and kind. as it is not necessary to heat the wire very hot, iron or steel wire may be used. the length of wire may be determined by the following method: wind the wire on a long stick, making sure that no one coil touches its neighbor. connect one wire of the current supply at one end of the coil and run the other end of the current supply along the coils, starting at the extreme opposite end and drawing toward the center until the iron wire gets too hot to hold with the bare hand. this will be the right length of wire to use. the length being known, a number of tacks are placed in the asbestos board to hold the wire, as shown in fig. . cover the wire with a sheet of asbestos and attach binding-posts, e and f, at each end. the asbestos inclosing the heating wires is covered with a thin piece of sheet iron, which is made to fit tightly over the bottom and sides. this will spread the heat evenly. be careful to have the binding-posts insulated from the sheet metal. in the cross section of the heater, fig. , a represents the / -in. asbestos board; b, the heater wire; c, the asbestos paper, and d the sheet-metal covering. the most important part of the incubator is the thermostat which regulates the current to maintain a steady heat. it is not advisable to make this instrument, as a good one can be purchased for less than $ . place the thermostat in the end of the box at b, fig. . a small door, e, is made in the box for easy adjustment of the thumbscrews. suspend the heater from the cover of the box with bolts - / in. long, as shown in fig. . a base receptacle, g, and a snap switch, h, are fastened on top of the cover and connected up to the thermostat b, the condenser c, the heater f, and lamp i, as shown. another snap switch, j, is used on the light only. the condenser c is to prevent sparking, thus saving the platinum points on the screws. do not use more than a -cp. lamp for lighting purposes, as a brighter light blinds the young chicks. the incubator should be run for a day or two so that the current may be well regulated before placing the eggs in the tray. the incubator is operated the same as with lamp heat.--contributed by m. miller, lansing, mich. a cover for magazines as soon as popular mechanics, or any other magazine of similar size, arrives and before any member of the family looks through it, strip off the front cover and carefully remove the narrow strip on the back as shown in fig. . strengthen the back with a piece of bookbinding tissue, a, fig. , and then paste a piece of heavy manila paper, b, over the covers and back. over this paste a piece of dark blue cambric, fig. , carefully turning the edges even with the book. the picture from the cover and the date added to the left corner of the picture are neatly pasted on, fig. , and the narrow strip is glued to the back. [illustration: removing the cover, and binding with heavy paper (fig. , fig. )] the book is put under a heavy weight for several hours. thus a neat, strong cover, which looks well in a bookcase, is secured at very little expense. the eager handling by every member of the family cannot soil or deface the cover.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. [illustration: cloth cover and paper cover attached (fig. , fig. )] an optical illusion a very deceiving illusion can be contrived with a bit of wire, a rubber band and a toothpick. an ordinary straight hairpin will serve instead of the wire. the hairpin or wire is bent as shown in the illustration, and the rubber band then placed on the inverted u-shaped part. a toothpick is inserted through the rubber band and a few turns taken by slipping the toothpick back and forth so it will pass the wire. [illustration: toothpick in rubber band (fig. , fig. )] hold the wire straight in front of the eyes, and, using the forefinger of the right hand, turn the end of the toothpick a, fig. , down until it almost reaches the opposite point a, fig. , and let the finger slip off. it will appear as if the toothpick passed through the wire.--contributed by h. h. windsor, jr. temperature alarm the falling temperature of a room during the night may result in a very bad cold for the occupant. this may be prevented by the use of an alarm to awaken the sleeper and warn him to close the window. an alarm can be made as follows: take a glass tube about in. long and / in. in diameter and close one end, used for the bottom, with sealing wax, in which the bare end of a no. gauge magnet wire is inserted. the tube is almost filled with mercury. on the mercury a float of wax is placed in which a bare piece of the same magnet wire is inserted and bent as shown in the sketch. the tube of mercury is fastened to a base with two clips of metal. at the upper end of this base the adjustable lever a is attached. the electric connections are made as shown in the sketch. [illustration: the alarm and wiring diagram] should the temperature fall during the night, the mercury will contract, the float descend and the circuit close, so that the bell will ring. the adjustable lever allows setting the alarm for various differences of temperature.--contributed by klyce fuzzelle, rogers, ark. paper smoother and penwiper [illustration] a convenient paper smoother and penwiper can be easily made as follows: procure a common celluloid harness ring, a, about - / in. in diameter and fasten a penwiper, b, to it. the wiper is made of arts-crafts leather, doubled and filled with pieces of chamois. they are held in place with a ribbon or cord tied as shown. the roughened paper caused by erasing can be easily smoothed with the ring.--contributed by g. h. holter, jasper, minn. stereoscopic pictures with an ordinary camera make a small table as wide as the camera is long and in. longer than the camera is wide. sink a screw nut in the center of the under side to engage the regular tripod screw. fasten a double or two-way spirit level on the front left-hand corner. nail strips on both ends and on the rear side, to form a shallow box with three sides. the illustration shows the construction quite plainly. this device was used by a correspondent of camera craft as follows: the table was fastened to the tripod and carefully leveled. the camera is placed at one side, bringing the back snugly into the corner on that side. make the exposure, change the film, slide the camera over to the other side and make another exposure. the table being in. longer than the camera is wide, the lens will be moved exactly in. when the camera is moved over to the other side. three inches is the separation of the lenses in stereoscopic cameras and the negatives made as above will be the same. [illustration: table on tripod for camera] as the negatives must be sized, it is necessary to use films. a camera using films - / by - / in. will make negatives that can be trimmed / in. on each side to make prints by - / in. each two negatives making a pair are fastened together, properly transposed, by folding a narrow strip of black paper like a long, v-shaped trough, pasting it, and putting one on the bottom of the two negatives, as they lie side by side, and one at the top; saddle fashion. this can be done still easier by using strips of passe-partout binding, or strips used for binding lantern slides. if so desired, the use of black paper can be carried farther by cutting the top strip of binding paper in such a way that it gives the round corners to the top of the prints. a narrow strip through the center and a binding of black paper along the two end edges make a mask unnecessary in printing. how to make a paper drinking cup every person should understand the simple method of making a paper drinking cup. it may be necessary at times to make quick use of medicine and with no cup or spoon convenient, the pyramid-shaped cup shown in the sketch is a useful emergency utensil. [illustration: folds in the paper (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] the paper cup is made as follows: cut the paper into a square and crease it on the dotted lines, a g, f b, and c d e, as shown in fig. . fold the paper in half through the line c d e to form a rectangle, fig. . fold points c and e inward until they meet inside the triangle to form the shape shown in fig. . this makes four distinct corners, f, g, a and b. fold the paper over on the dotted line and bring the points a and b together as in fig. . the extreme edges meet in the central line indicated. reverse the paper and fold the points g and f in like manner. turn the points a b and f g inward and fold on the dotted line, and you will have a perfect pyramid-shaped cup as shown in fig. .--contributed by miss margaret s. humphreville, mt. pleasant, o. a hand corn sheller a very handy device for shelling corn, and especially popcorn, can be made of a -in. board on which is fastened a piece of metal lath. the edges of the metal lath are bound with a strip of wood nailed to the board.--contributed by ulysses flacy, long beach, california. [illustration: metal lath on a board] a shaft coupling in connecting a small / -hp. motor to a small air pump where both shafts were / in. in diameter, i quickly made a coupling that would save the wear on the machines, as follows. the coupling was made of a piece of / -in. brass rod with a / -in. hole drilled through its center. one end of the hole was enlarged to - in. for about / in. the end of the coupling having the small hole was slipped on the pump shaft and fastened with two setscrews. the other end was drilled to take a pin loosely, the pin fitting tightly in a hole drilled in the motor shaft. the pin was bent at one end so as to keep it from falling out and the other end fitted with two nuts. the motor shaft being a little loose in the coupling, gave it a chance to work free without binding.--contributed by leo j. werner, new york city. [illustration: coupling on the shafts] reading the date of a worn coin the date and denomination of a coin worn smooth can be determined in the following manner: take an ordinary coal shovel, or a piece of sheet metal, and place it in a hot fire. allow it to become red hot, then remove, and place the coin on the hot surface of the metal. any figures or letters can be readily seen when heated in this manner. this test seldom fails even when the inscriptions have been worn so smooth that they are invisible to the naked eye. making a knife an easy opener the large blade of my knife being so hard to open placed me in constant risk of breaking my thumbnail. to overcome this difficulty, i ground a notch in the handle as shown in the sketch. after smoothing it up with a round file and fine sandpaper, i had just as good a job as if the knife had been made that way, and it is very easy to open it, as it can be done with the thumb and forefinger. anyone can improve his knife in this way, but be careful not to cut the notch back of the point of the small blade.--contributed by c. m. mahood, warren, pa. [illustration: notch in the handle] construction of a small bell-ringing transformer by a. e. andrews part i--fundamental principles the transformer in its simplest form consists of two separate and electrically independent coils of wire, usually wound upon an iron core. [illustration: fig. --two coils on an iron ring] figure shows two coils, p and s, placed upon an iron ring, r. one of these coils is connected to some source of energy, such as an alternating-current generator, or an alternating-current lighting circuit, receiving its energy therefrom. the other coil is connected to a load to which it delivers alternating current. the coil of the transformer that is connected to the source of energy is called the primary coil, and the one that is connected to the load, the secondary coil. the electrical pressure (voltage) at which current is supplied by the secondary bears a definite relation to the electrical pressure at which current is supplied to the primary. this relation, as will be explained later, is practically the same as the relation between the number of turns in the secondary and primary coils. if there are a smaller number of turns in the secondary coil than there are in the primary, the secondary voltage is less than the primary, and the transformer is called a step-down transformer. if, on the other hand, there are a larger number of secondary turns than of primary, the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage, and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. the transfer of electrical energy from the primary coil to the secondary coil of a transformer is based upon the fundamental principles of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction, and it will be necessary to investigate these principles before we can understand the operation of the transformer. a magnet is a body, which, when freely suspended, assumes approximately a north and south position. the end of the magnet that points north is called the north pole, while the end that points south is called the south pole. the region surrounding a magnet is called a magnetic field. in this field the magnetism is supposed to flow along a large number of imaginary lines, called lines of force, and these lines are all supposed to emanate from the north pole of the magnet, pass through the medium surrounding the magnet and enter the south pole. the magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet is shown in fig. . the strength of any magnetic field depends upon the number of these lines of force per unit area (square centimeter), the area being taken perpendicular to the direction of the lines. [illustration: fig. --magnetic field] in , oersted discovered that a compass needle, which is nothing but a permanent magnet freely suspended or supported, when placed near a conductor in which there was a direct current, was acted upon by a force that tended to bring the needle into a position at right angles to the conductor. this simple experiment proved to oersted that there was a magnetic field produced by the current in the conductor. he also found that there was a definite relation between the direction of the current in the conductor, and the direction in which the north pole of the compass needle pointed. if the compass needle is allowed to come to rest in the earth's magnetic field, and a conductor is placed above it, the conductor being parallel to the needle, and a current then sent through the conductor, the needle will be deflected from its position of rest. reversing the current in the conductor, reverses the direction in which the needle is deflected. if the needle be allowed to come to rest while there is a current in the conductor, and this current is then increased, it will be found that the deflection of the needle will be increased, but not in direct proportion to the increase in the current. hence the strength of this magnetic field surrounding the conductor depends upon the value of the current in the conductor, and the direction of the field depends upon the direction of the current. [illustration: fig. --magnetic field around conductor] if a conductor be passed through a piece of cardboard, as shown in fig. , and a current sent through it in the direction indicated by the arrow a, a compass needle, moved about the conductor in the path indicated by the dotted line, will always assume such a position that the north pole points around the conductor in a clockwise direction as you look down on the cardboard. if the current be reversed, the direction assumed by the compass needle will be reversed. looking along a conductor in the direction of the current, the magnetic field will consist of magnetic lines encircling the conductor. these lines will be concentric circles, as a general rule, except when they are distorted by the presence of other magnets or magnetic materials, and their direction will be clockwise. [illustration: fig. --magnetic field surrounding a conductor] [illustration: fig. --magnetic field about a coil] [illustration: fig. --a coil about a magnetic circuit through iron and air] the strength of the magnetic field at any point near this conductor will depend upon the value of the current in the conductor, and the distance the point is from the conductor. the magnetic field surrounding a conductor is shown in fig. . the plus sign indicates that the direction of the current is from you. the strength of a magnetic field due to a current in a conductor can be greatly increased by forming a coil of the conductor. each turn of the coil then produces a certain number of lines, and the greater part of these lines pass through the center of the coil, as shown in fig. . the field strength inside such a coil is dependent upon the number of turns in the coil, and the value of the current in these turns. increasing the number of turns in the coil increases the number of magnetic lines passing through the center of the coil, as shown in fig. . if the current be decreased in value, the field strength is decreased, and if the current be reversed in direction, the magnetic field is reversed in direction. the number of magnetic lines passing through the solenoid depends also upon the kind of material composing the core of the solenoid, in addition to the number of turns and the value of the current in these turns. the number of lines per unit area inside a solenoid with an air core can be multiplied several times by introducing a soft-iron core. if this core be extended as shown in fig. , the magnetic circuit (the path through which the magnetic lines pass) may be completed through it. the larger part of the total number of lines will pass through the iron, as it is a much better conductor of magnetism than air. [illustration: fig. --a coil about a magnetic circuit through iron] in , michael faraday discovered that there was an electrical pressure induced in an electrical conductor when it was moved in a magnetic field so that it cut some of the lines forming the field. if this conductor be made to form part of a closed electrical circuit, there will be a current produced in the circuit as a result of the induceds electrical pressure. the value of this induced electrical pressure depends upon the number of magnetic lines of force that the conductor cuts in one second. if , , lines are cut in one second, an electrical pressure of one volt is produced. the direction of the induced pressure depends upon the direction of the movement of the conductor and the direction of the lines of force in the magnetic field; reversing either the direction of the magnetic field or the motion of the conductor, reverses the direction of the induced pressure. if both the direction of the magnetic field, and the direction of the motion of the conductor be reversed, there is no change in the direction of the induced pressure, for there is then no change in the relative directions of the two. the same results can be obtained by moving the magnetic field with respect to the conductor in such a way that the lines of force of the field cut the conductor. [illustration: fig. --two coils about a magnetic circuit through iron] if a permanent magnet be thrust into a coil of wire, there will be an electrical pressure set up in the coil so long as the turns of wire forming the coil are cutting the lines of force that are produced by the magnet. when the magnet is withdrawn, the induced electrical pressure will be reversed in direction, since the direction of cutting is reversed. a magnetic field may be produced through a coil of wire by winding it on the magnetic circuit shown in fig. . now any change of current in the coil p will cause a change in the number of magnetic lines passing through s and hence there will be an induced electrical pressure set up in s so long as the number of lines passing through it is changing. the pressure induced in each of the turns comprising the coil s depends upon the change in the number of magnetic lines through it. let us now consider a condition of operation when there is no current in the secondary coil and the primary coil is connected to some source of electrical energy. when this is the case the current in the primary coil is not determined by ohm's law, which states that the current is equal to the electrical pressure divided by the resistance, but is considerably less in value, for the following reason. the magnetic lines of force produced by the current in the primary induces an electrical pressure in the primary winding itself, the direction of which is always opposite to the impressed pressure, or the one producing the current. as a result of this induced pressure being set up in the primary, the effective pressure acting in the circuit is decreased. at the same time there is an electrical pressure induced in the secondary winding in the same direction as that induced in the primary. if the secondary circuit be connected to a load, there will be a current in the secondary winding, which will pass around the magnetic circuit in the opposite direction to the primary current, and as a result will decrease the number of lines passing through the primary coil. this will in turn decrease the electrical pressure induced in the primary coil, and a larger current will exist in the primary winding than there was before any current was taken from the secondary coil. the decrease in induced pressure is small, but it is always ample to allow the required increase in primary current. there is, at the same time, a small decrease in the secondary pressure. when the transformer is operating on no load, with no current in the secondary coil, the induced pressure in the primary coil is practically equal to the impressed pressure and hence a very small current will be taken from the source of energy. it is apparent now that if the primary and secondary coils have the same number of turns, the induced electrical pressure in each of these coils will be the same, assuming, of course, that all the magnetic lines that pass through the primary also pass through the secondary coil, and vice versa, or the secondary pressure is practically the same as the pressure impressed on the primary. if the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater or less than the number of turns in the primary, the magnetic lines will be cut a greater or less number of times by the secondary coil, and hence the induced pressure will be greater or less, depending upon the relation of the number of turns in the two coils. spirit photographs print some photographs in the usual way on printing-out paper, then fix them in a solution of oz. hyposulphite of soda and oz. of water, and wash them thoroughly. while the prints are still wet, immerse them in a saturated solution of bichloride of mercury. be very careful to wash the hands and trays after using the mercury solution, as it is poisonous. when the print is placed in the mercury solution, the picture vanishes completely. leave the prints in this bath just long enough for the image to disappear, and then wash and dry them thoroughly. soak some clean blotting paper in the hyposulphite-of-soda solution and allow it to dry. you are now ready to perform the magic-photograph trick. to cause the spirit photograph to appear, cut a piece of blotting paper the same size as the prepared print and moisten it, then hold the apparently blank piece of paper in contact with it. the picture will come out clear and plain, and if thoroughly washed out it will remain permanently. * * * * * saturate a small piece of cotton batting in glue and wrap it around a nail, then place it in a hole previously made in a plaster wall. when the glue dries, the nail will remain permanently. construction of a small bell-ringing transformer by a. e. andrews part ii--construction transformers may be divided into two main groups, the classification being made according to the relation between the magnetic circuit of the transformer and the primary and secondary windings. when the two windings surround the magnetic circuit of a transformer, as indicated in fig. , the transformer is said to be of core type. if the magnetic circuit surrounds the windings, as indicated in fig. , the transformer is said to be of the shell type. the following instructions are for a shell-type transformer. [illustration: fig. --core-type transformer] any mass of magnetic material, such as a piece of soft iron, when placed in a magnetic field that is produced by an alternating current, will be rapidly magnetized and demagnetized, the rapidity of the change depending upon the frequency of the current producing the field. when a piece of iron is magnetized and demagnetized, as just stated, there will be a certain amount of heat generated in it and this heat represents energy that must come from the electrical circuit producing the magnetic field in which the iron is placed. [illustration: fig. --shell-type transformer] the heat that is generated in the iron is due to two causes: first, the hysteresis loss which is due to a property of the iron that causes the magnetism in the iron to lag behind the magnetizing influence, or the changes that are constantly taking place in the field strength due to the alternating current. this loss cannot be entirely eliminated, but it may be reduced to a very low value by using a soft grade of iron, or one having what is called a low hysteretic constant. second, the eddy-current loss which is due to the circulation of currents through the mass of metal. these currents are due to unequal electromotive forces set up in the different parts of the piece of metal when there is a change in the strength of the field in which the metal is placed. this loss cannot be entirely eliminated, but it can be greatly reduced by breaking the mass of metal up into parts and insulating these parts from each other, which results in the paths in which the eddy currents originally circulated being destroyed to a certain extent. the breaking up of the metal is usually made in such a way that the joints between the various parts are parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. when the joints are made in this way, they offer less opposition to the magnetizing force. this is one of the principal reasons why induction-coil cores are made up of a bundle of wires instead of a solid piece. these wires are annealed or softened to reduce the hysteresis loss that would occur. the combined hysteresis and eddy-current losses, which are spoken of as the iron losses, will of course be very small in the transformer you are going to construct, but the above discussion is given to show why the magnetic circuits of transformers are built up from sheets of soft iron, called laminations. the core is said to be laminated. the dimensions of the complete magnetic circuit, of the transformer you are going to construct, are given in fig. . the primary and secondary windings are both to be placed about the center portion c, and it is apparent that the winding of these coils would be very tedious if the wire had to be passed back and forth through the openings a and b. this procedure in winding can be prevented by first forming the part of the magnetic circuit upon which the windings are placed; then wind on the coils and, after they are completed, finish building up the magnetic circuit with pieces cut to the proper size and shape. [illustration: fig. --complete magnetic circuit] procure a small quantity of soft, thin sheet iron and cut out a sufficient number of rectangular pieces, in. by - / in., to make a pile / in. in height when firmly pressed together. now cut a rectangular notch in each of these pieces, in. wide and - / in. long. the sides of this notch can be cut with a pair of tinner's shears, and the end can be cut with a sharp cold-chisel. be careful not to bend either piece any more than you can help. the outside piece, or the one in which the notch is cut, should have dimensions corresponding to those given in fig. . when all of these pieces have been cut, as indicated above, the rectangular pieces, in. by - / in., that were cut out to form the notch in the larger pieces, should have two of their corners cut away, so as to form pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. . these last pieces are to form the core and part of the end of the transformer. now make sure that all the edges of the pieces are perfectly smooth and that they are all of the same size; then give each one a coat of very thin shellac. [illustration: fig. --outer portion of the magnetic circuit] [illustration: fig. --inner portion of the magnetic circuit] now cut from a piece of insulating fiber, that is about / in. thick, two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. . when these pieces are completed, the core of the transformer can be assembled as follows: place the t-shaped pieces, whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. , through the openings in the pieces of insulation, alternate pieces being put through the openings from opposite sides. the distance from outside to outside of the pieces of insulation should be exactly the same as the length of the vertical portion of the t-shaped pieces forming the core, or in. [illustration: fig. --insulating washer] cut from some soft wood four pieces having cross sections whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. , and of such a length that they will just slip down between the two pieces of insulation. these pieces should now be placed on the four sides of the iron core and covered with several layers of heavy insulating cloth. each layer of the cloth should be shellacked as it is put on, which will increase the insulation and at the same time help in holding the wooden pieces in place. you are now ready to start winding the transformer. [illustration: fig. --wood filler] the secondary, which is the low-voltage side in this case, as you are using the transformer to reduce or step down the voltage, will have the smaller number of turns, and larger wire should be used in winding it than in the primary, as it will carry a larger current. on account of the secondary being of larger wire, it will be placed on the core first. for this winding you will need a small quantity of no. b. & s. gauge, single cotton-covered wire. drill a small hole through one of the insulating washers, down close to the cloth covering the core, being careful at the same time to keep the hole as far from the metal part of the core as possible. pass the end of a short piece of no. or b. & s. gauge, double cotton-covered wire through this opening and solder it to the end of the no. wire. insulate the joint with a piece of paraffin paper or cloth, and bind the piece of heavy wire to the core of the transformer with a piece of linen thread. now wind the no. wire on the core as evenly as possible, to within about / in. of the end of the spool. place over the first layer two layers of paraffin paper and wind on a second layer of wire. three layers should give you the required number of turns in the secondary winding and a resistance of approximately - / ohms. the end of the secondary winding should be terminated in the same way as the winding was started. outside of the completed secondary winding place at least six layers of paraffin paper, or several layers of insulating cloth. the paraffin paper used should be approximately five mills in thickness. you can make your own paraffin paper by taking a good quality of writing paper about two mills thick and dipping it into some hot paraffin, then hanging it up by one edge to drain. the primary winding is to be made from no. b. & s. gauge, single silk-covered copper wire. the inside end of this winding should be started in the same way as the secondary, but at the end opposite to the one where the secondary terminated. wind about turns on each layer and place one layer of paraffin paper between each layer of wire. the primary winding should have at least layers, and the outside end should be terminated as the inside end. outside of the completed windings, place several layers of insulating cloth to serve as an insulation, and at the same time provide a mechanical protection for the windings. [illustration: fig. .--upper clamping pieces] the outside part of the magnetic circuit can now be put in place. when the u-shaped pieces are all in place, the magnetic circuit will have the form and dimensions shown in fig. . a clamp should now be made for each end of the transformer, to hold the pieces forming the magnetic circuit together, and at the same time give an easy means of mounting the transformer. cut from a piece of sheet iron, about / in. in thickness, two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. , and two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. . drill the holes in these pieces as indicated, and bend the larger ones into the form shown in fig. . these pieces can now be clamped across the ends of the transformer with small bolts, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --lower clamping pieces and mounting supports] a box should now be made from sheet iron to hold the transformer. the box should be of such dimensions that it will be at least / in. from the transformer at all points. this box should be provided with a cover that can be easily removed. [illustration: fig. --shape of support] now mount the transformer in the box by means of small bolts, that pass through the holes in the supports and holes in the bottom of the box. two binding-posts can now be mounted on one end of the box, and insulated from it, to serve as terminals for the secondary winding. two pieces of stranded no. b. & s. gauge, rubber-covered copper wire should now be soldered to the terminals of the primary circuit and passed out through insulating bushings mounted in holes cut in the end of the box opposite to the one upon which the binding-posts were mounted. these heavy wires should be firmly fastened to the iron part of the transformer inside the box, so that any outside strain placed upon them will not, in time, break them loose from the smaller wires. be sure to insulate all joints and wires well inside the box. [illustration: fig. --method of clamping transformer together] a circuit can now be run from a -volt lighting or power circuit, observing the same rules as though you were wiring for lights, and connected to the heavy wires, or primary circuit. the binding-posts, or secondary winding should be connected to the bell circuit and the transformer is complete and ready to operate. you may have to change the adjustment of the bells, but after a little adjustment they will operate quite satisfactorily. mirror hinged to window casing [illustration] a shaving mirror is usually placed on a window sash to avoid shadows as much as possible. this is very inconvenient and many times the mirror is broken by a fall. a good way to avoid shadows and have the mirror handy is to hinge it to the window casing. this can be done with screweyes, a, and screwhooks, b. the screweyes are turned into the frame of the mirror and the screwhooks into the window casing. two screwhooks can also be turned into the casing on the opposite side of the window, if desired, so that the mirror can be used on either side.--contributed by james d. mckenna, new britain, conn. a cleaning bath for silverware a good way to clean silverware of all coloring by eggs or other substances is to place the silver articles in a kettle of boiling water containing a few pieces of zinc. an electrolytic action is produced by the zinc, water and silver which decomposes the sulphides on the silver and leaves it well cleaned. no silver is taken away by this method.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. to prevent poultry water from freezing the method shown in the sketch is used by me in cold weather to keep the drinking water for the poultry from freezing. the device consists of a part of a barrel inverted and set over the fountain, and a tubular lantern. a small opening is cut in one side of the barrel through which the fowl can reach the water.--contributed by p. c. fish, kansas city, mo. [illustration: lantern and fountain in half barrel] how to make a letter scale [illustration] a reliable letter scale that can be easily made is shown in the sketch. it consists of a wide-neck bottle filled with water into which the weighing device is inserted. this latter part is made of a light piece of wood weighted on the lower end, to keep it in a stable, upright position, and a piece of cardboard is tacked to the other. the wood is placed in the water, and known weights are used on the cardboard while calibrating. the first line is marked at the water level when there is no weight on the cardboard, and then a known weight placed on the top and another mark made at the water level, and so on, until a sufficient number of / -oz. and ounce-divisions have been marked. the wood should be well coated with shellac varnish before it is placed in the water.--contributed by francis chetlain, chicago. summer dish washing a labor-saving method in dish washing for a summer day is as follows: construct a substantial wood frame and cover it with galvanized wire mesh. attach legs and put it in a convenient place on the back porch. wash the dishes on one end, and wipe the silverware dry. at the outer end spread a towel over the wire and place the dishes turned down upon it to dry, and cover them with another towel.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, tifton, ga. nozzle angle for lawn sprinkling [illustration] where there is no prop or water sprinkler at hand for tilting the nozzle of a hose, start to tie a knot in the hose, as shown in the sketch, but do not draw it up tightly. the hose nozzle can be tilted to any angle in this manner.--contributed by s. j. eddy, portland, oregon. simple methods of connecting call bells [illustration: wiring diagrams for a single bell (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the following diagrams will indicate a few of the various methods that may be employed in connecting up electric bells for different purposes, a, b and c representing the push buttons; d, the bells; e, the batteries, and g, the ground. the simplest possible connection is shown in fig. , the bell d, battery e, and push button a, are all connected in series. the operation of the bell is independent of the order in which the bell, battery, and push button are placed, so long as there is a complete circuit when the push button is pressed. one of the wires in this circuit may be done away with by completing the circuit through the ground, as shown in fig. . connecting a bell as shown in this diagram often results in quite a saving of wire. the proper connections for operating one bell from either of two push buttons, a or b, is shown in fig. . two bells, d, operated from a single push button, c, are connected as shown in fig. . the two bells, d, are shown connected in parallel, which requires more wire than if they were connected in series. if they be connected in series, one or the other should have its make-and-break contact closed. the bell whose circuit remains unchanged will intercept the current for the other bell in series with it. the operating of the bells is more satisfactory, however, when they are in parallel, and each taking current from the battery independent of the other. [illustration: wiring diagram for two or more bells (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the diagram, fig. , shows the proper connections for operating two bells from two independent push buttons, each push button operating a particular bell. any number of bells operated from any number of push buttons, all of the bells being rung from any one of the push buttons, are connected as shown in fig. . such a circuit can be used as a fire alarm or time call in a factory, the operation of the circuit being controlled from any one of a number of different points. [illustration: wiring diagrams for return-call bells (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the proper connections for what is called a return-call circuit is shown in fig. . the circuit is so arranged that the bell at one end is controlled by the push button at the other end. such a circuit can be used in transmitting signals in either direction. a ground return-call circuit is shown in fig. . in the circuits shown in figs. and , only one battery is needed. the connections of a two-wire metallic return-call circuit are shown in fig. . a special push button must be used in this circuit, and in this case two batteries are used instead of one, as in figs. and . this circuit may be changed to a ground return-call circuit by using the earth as a conductor instead of either wire. there are, of course, numerous other methods that may be used in connecting call bells, but the connections shown in the diagrams are perhaps the most common. refrigerator for dry and warm climates set a bowl containing butter, cream or fruit in a saucer and cover the bowl with a moistened napkin, allowing the edges to hang in a larger saucer filled with water, and place the whole in the air out of the sun's rays. the article to be kept cool may also be placed in a pan with an earthenware crock turned over it and covered with a small towel or cloth, the edges of which extend into another outer pan partly filled with water. the method can be applied on a larger scale by using a shallow galvanized pan which will contain many articles and more water. this manner of cooling is especially adapted to camping parties and will prevent sloppy butter, sour milk and spoiling fruit. the articles are also kept free from ants and flies.--contributed by c. b. hosford, swansea, ariz. pencil-sharpening guide [illustration] the sketch shows how a guide for making a true point on a lead pencil may be made of a block of wood. the hole, which should be large enough to allow the pencil to be turned easily, is bored at the proper angle to form the desired point on the pencil. the long side of the block serves as a guide for the knife blade, while the projection at the bottom acts as a stop. the guide insures an even point and is easily manipulated. it is held in the palm of the left hand and the pencil is turned with the thumb and forefinger, while the knife is held against the face of the block, cutting edge downward, and worked up and down with the right hand. homemade hinges [illustration] when making a chicken house recently i had forgotten to procure hinges. when searching the "junk" box i found some little metal brackets such as used for holding spring roller shades. attaching these as shown, i made a good substitute hinge. a pair of the brackets having no slots were selected. a - / -in. wire nail with a washer was placed in the hole and driven into the top of the door, in, from its back edge. the other bracket was placed on the bottom of the door in a similar manner. the door was placed in an open position and the prongs of the brackets were nailed to the door post. the bottom bracket may also be nailed to the floor and the top one to the lintel.--contributed by robert smith, e. burnaby, b. c. skimmer for bottled milk the cream that rises on the milk in an ordinary milk bottle cannot be removed easily. where a small family desires to use the cream for coffee, the skimmer shown in the sketch is very handy. [illustration] the cone is made of metal--tin, brass or copper--which can be nickelplated, the seam being soldered. the cone is in. deep with a diameter at the top of - / in. a handle can be made of a discarded sugar or teaspoon, which is soldered to the cone. insert the cone in the bottle far enough for the cream to flow into it and then withdraw. cream will gather about in. deep on rich milk. the milk can be used for cooking. a piece of wire can be used for a handle instead of the spoon.--contributed by victor labadie, dallas, texas. how to preserve putty having some putty left over after a job of glazing and wishing to keep it without its becoming dried up, i tried wrapping it in paraffin paper such as used to wrap butter. i found this method to be a decided success, the oil being prevented from drying out.--contributed by levi r. markwood, fairview, pa. [illustration] how to build a simple electric motor by a. g. mcclure an exceedingly simple and inexpensive motor that may be used in operating small toys can be constructed as follows: first procure a good permanent magnet, about in. long and about - / in. between the inside edges at the open end. this magnet should be at least / in. thick, and if it cannot be had in one piece, two or more may be placed side by side, like poles being placed together. the writer was unable to procure ready-made magnets, so one was formed and magnetized. obtain a piece of tungsten or some other good-grade steel, / in. by / in., and about in. long. bend this piece into the form of a u, with the inner edges - / in. apart. square off both ends and drill two small holes in the outside surface of each end, at aa, about / in. from the end. tap these holes for small machine screws. drill the hole b with a small drill, about / in., in the center of the lower portion of the u and ream it out. the piece should now be clamped with a good pair of blacksmith's tongs,--a block of iron being placed between the ends to keep the pressure of the tongs from drawing them together--heated to a cherry red and then plunged into a bath of oil. it can then be magnetized by placing it in contact with a permanent magnet. [illustration: detail of armature laminations, and completed parts assembled, but without armature windings] next obtain a piece of / -in. brass, about / in. wide and - / in. long. drill two holes in each end of the piece to match those drilled in the ends of the magnet, also one in the center, and tap it for a / -in. machine screw. now bend this piece into the form shown. provide a machine screw, s, for the hole c and drill a small tapered hole in the end of the screw. obtain a small quantity of soft sheet iron and cut a sufficient number of pieces similar to that shown at d to make a pile / in high. cut two pieces of the same size from some thin sheet brass. now place all of these pieces in a pile, the brass pieces being on the outside, and clamp them securely, then drill the two small holes, e and f. place two small copper rivets in these holes and rivet the heads down before removing the clamp. drill a / -in. hole, g, through this piece, the armature, for the shaft to pass through. procure a piece of / -in. steel rod, about in. long. sharpen one end so that it will enter the hole b, then cut the other end off and sharpen it so that it will enter the opening made in the end of the screw s. the armature may now be soldered to this shaft, its left-hand surface being flush with the ends of the magnet. a small commutator, h, should now be made as follows: obtain a piece of thin brass tubing about / in. in diameter. turn down a piece of hard rubber so that the tube will fit tightly on it. drill a hole in this piece of rubber of such a size that it will have to be forced on the steel shaft. saw two longitudinal slots in the brass tube diametrically opposite each other and then bind these two pieces in place on the piece of rubber with some heavy linen thread wrapped around each end. the armature is now ready to wind. get a small quantity of no. gauge cotton-covered wire, solder one end to one of the segments of the commutator, then wind one end of the armature full and cross over and wind the other end full, soldering the end of the wire to the second commutator segment. make sure to wind both ends of the armature in the same direction so the current in both parts of the winding produces magnetizing effects in the same direction. insulate the winding from the core and the different layers from each other with a good quality of thin writing paper. two small brushes should now be made from some thin spring brass and mounted on the brass piece as shown. these brushes should be insulated from the piece of brass and two small binding posts should be provided for making connections to them. the position of the commutator and brushes should be such that the brushes move from one segment to the other when the ends of the armature are directly in line with the ends of the permanent magnet. a small pulley should be mounted upon the shaft to be used in transmitting the power. the whole device may be mounted in a horizontal position on a wooden base as shown, and the motor is complete. how to make a humidity indicator a simple weather indicator that may be used in determining the condition of the atmosphere may be made as follows: dress a small figure, in the form of a doll, with a piece of cloth, previously dipped in the following solution: chloride of cobalt, parts by weight; sodium chloride, parts; gum arabic, - / parts; calcium chloride, - / parts, and water, parts. this cloth will change color as the amount of moisture in the atmosphere changes, the change being due to the cobalt salt, which, in dry air, is lavender blue. as the moisture in the atmosphere increases, the color changes first to bluish red, then light red and finally pink, according to the amount of moisture. with a decrease in moisture, the colors change in the reverse order to that given above, and the blue color returns when the air becomes dry. the "q" trick lay out the form of the capital letter q with coins on a table and ask someone in the audience to select a number and then ask that person to count up from one until the number is reached, beginning at a and stopping on the circle, for instance at b, then counting back again beginning with one, but, instead of counting on the tail, pass it and go around the circle, say, to c. the performer gives these instructions to the person doing the counting. the one selecting the number must not tell the performer what the number is, and the latter is to leave the room while the counting proceeds. the performer, before leaving the room, is to tell which coin will be the last one counted. [illustration] take, for example, the number . counting from a to b there are just coins and counting back the last number or will be at c. try for the number and the last one counted will also be c. the number of coins in the tail represents the number of coins in the circle from the intersection of the tail and circle to the last number counted. for instance, the sketch shows coins in the tail, therefore the last coin counted in the circle will be at c or the fourth coin from the intersection of the tail and circle. by slipping another coin in the tail the location of the last coin counted is changed, thereby eliminating any chance of exposing the trick by locating the same coin in the circle every time. this can be done secretly without being noticed. to keep ants away from food suspend a shelf, breadbox or rack with wire around which is tied a piece of cotton cloth, saturated with a mineral oil. the ants will not cross the oil-soaked cloth. some strong wire hooks attached to the rack or shelf answer well to hang small articles on, such as bacon, bags of sugar, syrup cans, etc.--contributed by c. b. hosford, swansea, ariz. vaulting-pole holder an adjusting device for a vaulting pole that can be easily fixed at any point on a round pole by using a wedge and ring, is shown in the sketch. the wedge carries a pin on which to place the cross pole. the manner of using this device as well as its construction is clearly indicated.--contributed by sterling r. speirs, st. louis, mo. [illustration: the ring on the upright, held in position by the wedge, which in turn carries the pole on the pin] flying model aeroplane for a display a novelty for a window display is made of a model aeroplane flying by its own power. to control the direction and make the model fly in a circle it is fastened to a long stick or beam which is pivoted in the center. the one shown was pivoted to a roller-skate wheel which in turn was fastened to a metal standard. the beam was attached to the skate wheel with two small bolts which were insulated and carried two brushes as commutator contacts. [illustration: detail of parts showing wire connections and model in flight around the central axis] the commutator rings were made of heavy brass strips, fastened to a round piece of wood which was attached to the metal standard. the wires from the current supply were connected to the commutator rings. from the brushes connecting wires were carried along the beam to the aeroplane motor which was a small battery motor with propeller. the opposite end of the beam was weighted to balance it. the first sketch shows the parts and the manner of making the connections. the aeroplane is driven in a circular path by its own power in a realistic manner. an electric time light although the modern alarm clock is a wonderfully effective piece of mechanism, it is, to say the least, very abrupt in its manner. it seldom confines its efforts to the chamber of its owner, but spreads its disturbance all over the building. it is very easy for a person to arise early in the summer and no greater difficulty should be experienced in winter, if the bedroom is brightly lighted at the proper hour. to do this simply and automatically became the problem. [illustration] the first thought was to obtain one of those clock-actuated electric-light switches, such as the stores use, but this would not do, because it meant some unsightly wiring around the room. it was then remembered how, in the course of some experiments, an ordinary incandescent light was operated through a piece of no. gauge wire without any sign of heating. if, then, a wire only / in. in diameter were of ample carrying capacity, surely a dollar watch would be sufficient to make the connection. such being the case, the whole mechanism could readily be attached to the drop cord of a lamp directly above the socket, thus obviating any additional wiring. this all proved to be true, and the whole was made and attached in the course of a couple of hours. while one might feel enthusiastic about this small and easily contrived affair, it is scarcely to be presumed that it would operate so effectively on one who had spent the larger part of the night tripping the "light fantastic," or in undue conviviality. an ordinary -cp. globe has thus far operated perfectly, and a -watt tungsten lamp would, if not too far away, surely awaken the hardest sleeper of sober habits. the base of the mechanism is a small piece of / -in. hard wood, upon which is fastened a small brass bracket, a, bent so as to hold the watch from slipping down. a small clip, b, was then arranged so as to grip the neck of the watch after its lower edge had been placed against a, and a small brad at either side prevented lateral movement. in this way the watch was held firmly, yet in a manner that would permit its being taken out instantly when necessary. the glass and minute hand were removed. the brass bolt from an exhausted dry cell was placed at c, so as to clamp a small copper washer to which was soldered a narrow strip of copper, d, about / in. wide and cut from a leaf of an old dynamo brush. this strip is arranged so as to wipe the hour hand as it travels past, but being so thin, it has no appreciable effect on the time keeping. as illustrated, the device is set for six o'clock, but by loosening the nut c an hour's adjustment either way may be had. it is a very simple matter, however, to arrange the device so it will operate at any hour. in connecting up, one end of the drop cord is removed from the socket and attached to a, which throws the current through the watch, thence along the hand and down d to c, from where it is carried by a short piece of wire to the socket again. as there are so many circuits through the watch, the small current required for one light does not affect it in any way. thus far, no trouble has been experienced in making this delicate connection with volts, but if any should develop, the contacts may be tipped with the small pieces of platinum taken from a burned-out globe. * * * * * the meat of a white english walnut may be easily removed by heating the nut in an oven or on top of a stove, then using a knife to pry the shell open. [illustration] a small shocking machine [illustration: the shocking coil as it is used for amusement, or in the manner a current is given a patient] an amusing as well as instructive shocking machine, usually called a medical coil, can be easily constructed from a discarded buzzer or electric bell, four binding posts, some pieces of insulated wire, two carbon rods, and a rheostat. [illustration: the base upon which the buzzer and rheostat are fastened, and the electrical connections (fig. , fig. )] [illustration: the rheostat that is used to regulate the flow of current in the carbon hand pieces (fig. )] a base for attaching the parts is made of a piece of poplar, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick, which can be finished as desired, but a good method is to shape the edge like molding and give it a mahogany stain, and when dry apply a coat of white shellac, which should be allowed to dry a day, whereupon the surface is rubbed with prepared wax. when the base is ready, mount the buzzer at one end. this can be easily done by making an l-shaped piece of metal, a, which is fastened to the base with a screw, and to the yoke of the magnet coil with a small bolt. if the armature and its connections are also used from the buzzer, the height of the coils must be taken in consideration. these parts are fastened in position as shown, using an l-shaped piece of metal, b, for the spring end. the screw holding the armature spring to the base, as well as the vibrator screw, should be of such a length that it will enter the base far enough to permit a connection for a wire in a countersunk hole bored in the base from the under side. binding posts are placed in the corners of the base in holes countersunk from the under side for the screw heads. the rheostat is of the miniature-battery type, which has a round base and a coil of resistance wire with a lever passing over the coil. such a rheostat can be purchased from an electrical store, but if the person constructing the shocking machine desires to make one, it is not difficult if a lathe is at hand. to make the rheostat, turn up a disk, about in. in diameter, from a piece of hard wood, such as oak, maple, or walnut, and form a circular groove in the upper surface, about / in. inside of the circumference. the groove is to admit a circular coil of resistance wire, and in making it, be sure to have it the proper size to take the coil snugly. the coil can be of any size, and to make it, resistance wire is wound around a piece of wire used as a mandrel. if the coil is / in., or a trifle smaller, in diameter, it will make a good size. be sure that the depth of the groove is such that it will allow a part of the coils of the resistance wire to project above the surface of the wood disk. the coil of wire should be just long enough to fit in the groove and allow a -in. space between the ends, one of which is anchored to the base, at c, the other being attached to the binding post d. drill a hole through the center of the disk and fasten a lever, taken from a switch, or one made of a piece of sheet brass, that will extend from the center to the outside of the disk, or over the resistance-wire coil. a small handle is attached to the outer end. a connection is made from the center support of the lever to the binding post e. the connections for the buzzer and rheostat are made on the under side of the base, where grooves are cut to run the wires in, so that they will be below the surface of the wood. in the diagram, the binding post f is connected to the binding post d of the rheostat, which in turn is connected to the screw of the make-and-break point g. the other binding post h is connected to the bracket b supporting the armature spring. the binding post e of the rheostat is connected to the base binding post j. the magnet coils are connected, as shown, from k to l, and from m to b. the two pieces of carbon, which are used for the hand pieces, are connected with silk-insulated wire. these connections are made to the binding posts f and h. the other two binding posts, j and l, are connected to a battery. the carbons used may be purchased, or taken from an old battery. two or more dry cells are used for the current. the rheostat controls the amount of current passing through the hand pieces.--contributed by gilbert crossley, erie, pa. secret compartment in ordinary table drawer it is frequently desired to have some handy place for storing valuables where there is but little chance of discovering them. secret drawers in tables usually require special and expensive changes, but with only a few simple changes on a regular drawer of any ordinary table, a secret compartment can be made which is as secure as can ordinarily be figured on, outside of a steel safe. having chosen the desired table, a partition should be placed across the entire back part of the drawer, allowing for necessary space in the secret compartment. this partition should resemble the real back of the drawer as closely as it is possible to make it. the compartment must not be too wide, for the resulting small width of the front part of the drawer might then arouse suspicion. on the lower side of the secret compartment a strip of wood, a, should be attached with a screw, as shown in fig. , allowing sufficient looseness so the strip may be turned end for end when necessary. with the strip set as shown, it will strike the front side b of the table when the drawer is pulled out, leaving the secret compartment still hidden. in order to expose this, it will be necessary to turn the strip, as shown in fig. , when the drawer can be pulled out to its full length. [illustration: two positions of the strip for holding, or giving access to, the secret part, and a hinged strip (fig. , fig. , fig. )] it being necessary that the strip a be as long as the secret compartment is wide, to fully expose this, there may be cases where the drawer is not wide enough to allow the strip a to turn around. in that case the strip can be hinged to the back of the drawer as shown in fig. . when it is hanging down, as shown by the dotted outline, the drawer may be pulled out to its full extent. when it is desired to lock the secret compartment, the hinged strip must be swung up in position, and fastened. an ordinary thumbscrew or eye can be used which, by a turn or two, will either release it or fasten it in place.--contributed by paul durst, detroit, mich. inflating handballs when handballs become "dead," or no longer bounce freely, they may frequently be restored by inflating them with air. this can be done by means of a bulb attached to a hypodermic needle. the needle must be inserted through the soft plug which every inflated ball has, and which can be discovered by pressure. after the ball is inflated and the needle extracted, the soft rubber closes around the fine hole, preventing the escape of the air. if a leak is found, which allows the air to escape too rapidly, a repair can be made with a single-tube tire outfit.--contributed by a. b. wegener, camden. n. j. a garden-bed scarecrow a very neat and successful scarecrow for garden beds can be made as follows: a number of corks are procured, and a feather is stuck in each end of them, as shown. these are tied to a string, spacing them from to ft. apart, and the string is hung over the beds. the slightest breeze will keep them fluttering, and no bird will come to rest on the beds.--contributed by m. t. canary, chicago. [illustration: the fluttering feathers attached to the string with corks scare the birds away] measuring the length of wire wound on a spool when winding magnet spools on a lathe, the exact amount of wire used can be easily determined by means of the device shown in the illustration. the large reel from which the wire is obtained is conveniently placed on a loose mandrel, or rod, near the lathe, and in line with the spool which is to be wound. a grooved idler wheel, the exact diameter of which is known, is supported between the spool and wire reel so it may freely revolve; the number of its revolutions should be obtained, automatically, by a revolution counter. when using the device, the wire from the reel is placed once around the idler to insure the necessary grip to prevent it from sliding; then it is led to the spool. the exact diameter of the idler being known and the number of revolutions indicated, the true length of the wire wound on the spools can be easily determined by the following formula: length of wire on spool in feet equals circumference of idler in feet times number of revolutions of idler.--contributed by c. swayne, st. louis, mo. [illustration: measuring the length of wire on a spool with the use of an idler and counter] homemade lawn sprinkler with a short length of old hose, a serviceable lawn sprinkler can be quickly and easily made. one end is provided with a regular coupling for connecting it to the line of good hose. the other end is turned up for several inches, and securely wired to the main part, thereby shutting off any flow through it. several cuts are made into it, about halfway across and in. apart. if the water is forced in, the only means of escape will be through the slots, which will produce fine sprays, giving as good service as a manufactured sprinkler.--contributed by a. b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. [illustration: the slots cut in the hose will produce a very fine spray of water] homemade toy bank the little bank illustrated is not exactly burglar-proof, but once put together it cannot be opened except by the destruction of one of the units of which it is composed. it requires but little skill to make, and would be a good problem for manual training, as it offers an excellent opportunity for teaching certain rudiments of woodworking by the application method. [illustration: six pieces of wood as they are put together to form a toy bank] in its construction, six pieces of hard wood, of the dimensions shown in the sketch, are required. white wood will do if there is no hard wood at hand. the coin slot is / in. wide by - / in. long, and is cut in only one piece. no difficulty will be experienced in putting the first five pieces together, but the sixth, or top, piece, shown in the sketch, will not go in, because the bottom edge of the raised side will strike the inside of the piece to the right. by beveling this edge with a chisel from top to bottom between the dadoes, or grooves, it can be forced down quite a distance and sprung in place by placing a block of wood on the high side and striking it a sharp blow with a heavy hammer.--contributed by j. a. shelly, brooklyn, new york. an electric anemometer by wm. h. dettman the construction of this instrument is so simple that any amateur can make one and if accurate calibrations are desired, these can be marked by comparison with a standard anemometer, while both are placed in the wind. the indicator the case of the indicator is built of thin wood--the material of an old cigar box will do-- in. long, in. wide and - / in. deep. if cigar-box material is used, it must first be soaked in warm water to remove the paper. if a cover is to be used on the box, a slot, on an arc of a circle, must be cut through it to show the scale beneath. the arc is determined by the length of the needle from a center over the axis on which the needle swings. when the box is completed, smooth up the outside surface with fine sandpaper and give it a coat of stain. the core of the magnet is made by winding several layers of bond paper around a pencil of sufficient size to make an inside diameter of slightly over / in., and a tube in. long. each layer of the paper is glued to the preceding layer. two flanges or disks are attached to the tube to form a spool for the wire. the disks are cut from thin wood, - / in. square, and a hole bored through their centers so that each will fit on the tube tightly. one of them is glued to one end of the tube and the other fastened at a point / in. from the opposite end. the space between the disks is filled with seven layers of no. gauge insulated magnet wire, allowing sufficient ends of the wire to project for connections. the finished coil is located in the box, as shown at a, fig. . [illustration: the indicator box with coil, needle and scale, as it is used in connection with the anemometer (fig. )] the core for the coil is cut from a piece of / -in. iron rod, - / in. long, and a slot is cut in each end, / in. deep, into which brass strips are inserted and soldered, or otherwise fastened. the strips of brass are / in. wide, one - / in. long and the other / in. two / in. holes are drilled in the end of the long piece, and one / in. hole in the end of the short piece. the complete core with the brass ends is shown in fig. . [illustration: the metal core for the coil... (fig. )] [illustration: ...and the bearing block for the axis of the needle (fig. )] the needle b, fig. , is made of a copper or brass wire, about in. long, and is mounted on an axis at c. the detail of the bearing for the axis is shown in fig. . the axis d is a piece of wood fitted in the u-shaped piece of brass and made to turn on brads as bearings, the center being pierced to receive the end of the needle. after locating the bearing for the axis c, fig. , it is fastened in place so that the upper end or pointer of the needle will travel over the scale. the needle is then attached to the bearing after having been passed through the inner hole of the longer brass strip of the core, and the coil is fitted with the core in the manner shown at d. a light brass coil spring is attached to each end of the core, as shown at e and f, the latter being held with a string, g, whose end is tied to a brad on the outside of the box, for adjustment. a better device could be substituted by attaching the end of the spring f to a nut and using a knurled-head bolt passed through the box side. one of the wires from the coil is attached to a push button, h, to be used when a reading of the instrument is made. the connections for the instrument consist of one binding post and a push button. [illustration: the anemometer as it is mounted on a standard similar to a small windmill weather vane (fig. )] the anemometer the anemometer resembles a miniature windmill and is mounted on top of a building or support where it is fully exposed to the air currents. it differs from the windmill in that the revolving wheel is replaced by a cupped disk, a, fig. , fitted with a sliding metal shaft, b, which is supported on crosspieces, cc, between the main frame pieces dd. the latter pieces carry a vane at the opposite end. the frame pieces are / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long, and the crosspieces have the same width and thickness and are in. long. [illustration: (fig. )] a variable-resistance coil, e, is made as follows and fastened in the main frame. the core of this coil is a piece of wood, in. square and in. long, and wound with no. gauge single-wound cotton-covered german-silver wire. the winding should begin / in. from one end of the core and finish / in. from the other, making the length of the coil - / in. the ends of the wire are secured by winding them around the heads of brads driven into the core. a small portion of the insulation is removed from the wire on one side of the coil. this may be done with a piece of emery cloth or sandpaper. a sliding spring contact, f, is attached to the sliding shaft b, the end of which is pressed firmly on the bared portion of the wire coil. one end of a coil spring, which is slipped on the shaft between the pieces cc, is attached to the end crosspiece, and the other end is fastened to the sliding shaft so as to keep the shaft and disk out, and the flange h against the second crosspiece, when there is no air current applied to the disk a. the insulation of the standard upon which the anemometer turns is shown in fig. . the standard j is made of a piece of / -in. pipe, suitably and rigidly attached to the building or support, and the upper end, around which the anemometer revolves to keep in the direction of the air currents, is fitted with a plug of wood to insulate the / -in. brass rod k. a bearing and electric-wire connection plate, l, is made of brass, / in. thick, in. wide and in. long. the bearing and connection plate m are made in a similar manner. the surface of the holes in these plates, bearing against the pipe j and the brass rod k, make the two connections for the wires from the variable-resistance coil e, fig. , located on the main frame, to the wire connections between the two instruments. these wires should be weather-proof, insulated, attached as shown, and running to and connecting the indicator with the anemometer at nn, fig. . two or more dry cells must be connected in the line, and when a reading is desired, the button h, fig. , is pushed, which causes the current to flow through the lines and draw the magnet core d in the coil, in proportion to the magnetic force induced by the amount of current passing through the resistance in the coils on e, fig. , from the contact into which the spring f is brought by the wind pressure on the disk a. how to make stick shellac it is often desired to use shellac in solid or stick form, and to get it into this shape by melting and molding requires considerable time. a much quicker method is to place the shellac in a shallow box, spread it out in a thin layer and play the flame from a bunsen burner upon it until the mass is melted and run together. allow it to stand a few seconds, then, with moistened fingers, fold it over and over and shape it with the fingers. it is possible to make a stick or in. long and / in. in diameter in about minutes.--contributed by j. h. beeber, rochester, n. y. substitute for a hose reel not having the room to spare for the ordinary hose reel, i used as a substitute a piece of wire bent into the shape of a letter s and with its aid coiled the hose in a manner to expel the water and leave it in shape for storing. [illustration: a hook for coiling a hose instead of turning it on a reel] the hook a is sprung around the hose about ft. from the connection joint and remains there permanently. the end of the hose with the connection c is then brought around in a circle and forced into the hook b. this forms the start for the coil and the hose is easily rolled up to the nozzle, the water being expelled during the operation.--contributed by f. h. aldrich, toledo, ohio. addressing a roll of papers when addressing rolled-up papers it is difficult to write on the curved surface. the papers also have a tendency to roll away. by placing the roll in the hollow on the front edge of a large book, as shown in the sketch, it will be found easy to write on the wrapper.--contributed by w. p. shaw, toronto, canada. [illustration: the roll of paper is placed in the curved edge of a book for addressing] repairing the bruised sides of a motorboat when the sides of a boat become scored or bruised scrape the parts clean and fill the depressions with wood cement. the wood cement or stick cement, as it is called, can be procured from a paint store. heat the cement with a blowtorch and apply it to the bruised parts. use a heated putty knife to smooth the cement and make the surface level. after sandpapering the fills and applying a coat of paint the boat sides will look as good as new. the cement will not chip or fall out.--contributed by henry beck, bronx, new york. how to make an electric lamp flasher procure two pieces of metal, one of brass and the other of sheet iron, in. long, / in. wide, and / in., or just a little more, in thickness. bend the brass strip into the form shown in fig. , then place the brass piece on top of the iron and drill the holes a and b indicated in fig. . after the brass piece has been bent, as shown in fig. , it will of course be shorter than the iron strip and the iron strip must be cut off, or a brass strip a little longer than in. can be secured and cut the same length as the iron strip after it is bent. the holes a and b should be / in. in diameter. the next thing to do will be to wind a heating coil about the brass strip. wrap a very thin layer of sheet asbestos about the brass strip, and wind on the strip ft. of no. gauge bare superior resistance wire. use a thread about . in. in diameter to separate the various turns. this thread can be removed after the winding is completed and the ends have been fastened. rivet the iron and brass pieces together with a small brass rivet in the hole a, fig. . after the two pieces are riveted together bend them into the form shown in fig. and then drill the two / -in. holes c and d, as shown in fig. . tap the hole b, fig. , to take a small machine screw. [illustration: dimensions of the brass strip and mounting base, showing the location of the holes and the shape of the brass strip to receive the coil of wire (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the base is constructed as follows: procure a piece of slate, - / in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. in thickness. drill the holes indicated in fig. . the four corner holes are for mounting the flasher in its containing case, and should be about / in. in diameter. the holes e, f, g, and h should be / in. in diameter and countersunk with a / -in. square-ended drill, on the under side, to a depth of / or / in. cut from some / -in. sheet brass a piece - / in. long, and / in. wide. drill two / -in. holes in this piece, / in. apart and equally spaced from the ends. procure four / -in. brass bolts, two / in. in length, and two in. in length. secure four small washers and two additional nuts. mount the combined iron and brass strip on the slate base, using a long and short bolt as shown in fig. . one terminal of the winding should be placed under the head of the bolt j. place a washer, k, between the head of the bolt and the wire. the brass strip l can now be mounted in a similar manner, as shown in fig. . place the other end of the winding under the head of the bolt m. [illustration: the assembled parts showing the complete flasher and electric connections with adjusting screw (fig. )] obtain a small screw, n, fig. , of such a length that its point will reach the brass strip l when the screw is placed in the hole b, fig. . a lock nut, o, should be provided for this screw so that it will remain in adjustment. the point of the screw and the point on the brass plate where the screw touches should be of platinum, as the brass will not withstand the high temperature of the arc formed when the circuit is broken. a metal box should now be provided to serve as a containing case and the flasher is complete. this box should be of such design and construction that it will comply with the requirements of the electrical inspection department having jurisdiction over the locality where the flasher is to be used. the flasher should be connected in series with the lamp, the wires being fastened under the nuts on the bolts p and r, fig. , and the screw n adjusted so that it lacks a small fraction of an inch of making contact with the brass plate when there is no current in the winding. when the switch is turned on there will be a current through the lamp and winding in series. the brass strip will be heated more than the iron and it will expand more, thus forcing the point of the screw n down upon the brass plate, which will result in the winding about the brass strip being shorted and the full voltage will be impressed upon the lamp, and it will burn at normal candlepower. when the coil is shorted there will of course be no current in its winding and the brass strip will cool down, the screw n will finally be drawn away from contact with the brass plate, and the winding again connected in series with the lamp. the lamp will apparently go out when the winding is in series with it, as the total resistance of the lamp and winding combined will not permit sufficient current to pass through the lamp to make its filament glow. the time the lamp is on and off may be varied to a certain extent by adjusting the screw n. timing photograph prints an amateur photographer insists that a timing clock in the darkroom is a needless luxury. in order to time printing exposures, which he does with a pendant tungsten light under a reflecting shade, he simply fastens the electric-light cord so that the lamp and shade will act like a pendulum bob which beats the seconds. of course he makes no effort to be exact, but if the distance between the lamp and the point of suspension of the cord be about or in., the beats will be very nearly seconds. when the light is turned on, it is started swinging, and the operator can thus easily count seconds with sufficient accuracy, and, besides, it readily furnishes a guide for duplicating printing results. the same principle can be applied to camera exposures, if so desired, by the following plan. select some suitable place on the under side of the tripod plate, as, for instance, the screw head, and fasten a small string, having a weight attached to it about in. from the point of support. like the swinging lamp, this device too, will beat seconds. for convenience, one of the tripod legs may be marked to indicate the length of string needed, so that the operator at any time can quickly fasten a string, measure off the right length on the tripod leg, attach a bunch of keys, a knife, or any other convenient weight, even a small stone, and have a second-beating pendulum for time exposures.--contributed by f. b. lambert, chicago. supports for camp-fire utensils the sketch shows how to make a standard or support to hold cooking utensils over a camp fire. the main part or stake is made of a piece of gas pipe, on one end of which is turned an ordinary coupling, fig. . this is used to furnish a strong head when the stake is driven into the ground. the rings and supports for the utensils are made of heavy wire bent into the shape required to hold the respective vessels. the sketch, fig. , shows the manner of shaping the wires. [illustration: a piece of gas pipe constitutes the standard with wires attached for holding the utensils (fig. , fig. )] a rotary tuning coil the rotary tuner shown in the sketch was designed by a correspondent of modern electrics. the circle is cut from / -in. stock, in. wide and well covered with insulating material. it is then wound with no. single cotton-covered copper wire so that the coils will lie flat. all the arms are of / -in. square brass. the supports are smaller in section. sliders are mounted on the ends of the long arms and are kept in place by setscrews. [illustration: tuning coil... (fig. )] [illustration: ...and wiring diagram (fig. )] the insulation on the wire is removed with a small piece of sandpaper pasted on a block of wood. this should be temporarily fastened to the revolving lever at the point where the contact is wanted, then the lever is turned until the insulation is removed. the wiring diagram shows the location of the tuning coil in the line. preparing sheet music for turning each page on sheet music having three or more pages should be cut / in. shorter than the preceding page, as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. this will enable the player to quickly turn the pages one at a time.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, ia. [illustration: leaves cut for turning] toy parachute cut-away for kite lines an interesting pastime while flying kites is to attach large toy parachutes to the lines and have some device to drop them when they are at a great height. in fig. is shown how the parachute is dropped by the burning of a piece of punk. another method is shown in fig. . it is only necessary to send a piece of paper or cardboard along the line and when it strikes the wire coil a (fig. ) the part b slides out of the loops c, the end d will then fall and disengage the loop g on the end of the parachute string. the wires e and f are twisted around the kite string.--contributed by thos. de loof, grand rapids, michigan. [illustration: two parachute drops (fig. , fig. )] how to make an electric furnace [illustration: the furnace consists of a flowerpot in which a crucible is set, and on either side the carbon holders are fastened to the base (fig. )] a small electric furnace that will be very serviceable in a laboratory may be made as follows: first procure a small clay flowerpot, about in. in diameter at the bottom, and also a small clay crucible, about in. in diameter at the bottom and at least in. less in height than the flowerpot, and having as nearly as possible the same slope to its sides as the pot. now obtain a small quantity of asbestos compound and pack it around the small crucible inside the flowerpot. make sure the crucible is in the exact center of the flowerpot and that their tops are even with each other. assuming that ordinary electric-light carbons are to be used, which are about / in. in diameter, drill two / -in. holes, exactly opposite each other, through the walls of the flowerpot and asbestos compound so that they enter the crucible about / in. above its bottom on the inside. a suitable lid for the furnace may be made from / -in. sheet asbestos and should be large enough to cover the top of the flowerpot. [illustration: details of the base, rod and handle for each carbon feed, which is attached to the large base on one side of the furnace (fig. , fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the feeds and supports for the carbon electrodes are constructed as follows: procure two pieces of / -in. brass, in. wide and in. long. cut a / -in. groove lengthwise in the center of these pieces to within - / in. of each end, as shown in fig. . drill four / -in. holes, aa, in each piece, a / -in. hole, b, in one end and a / -in. hole, c, in the other end. now bend the ends up at right angles to the remainder of the piece along the dotted lines shown at d and e. next obtain two / -in. rods, - / in. long. turn one end of each down to a / -in. diameter for a distance of / in. from that point thread the same end of the rods for a distance of in. drill a / -in. hole in each end of the rods a little less than / in. from the ends. the dimensions of the rods are given in fig. . two small rubber or wooden handles, similar to the one shown in fig. , should now be made and fastened to the large ends of the rods by means of / -in. steel pins. obtain two pieces of brass of approximately the following dimensions: in. by in. by in. drill four holes in each of these pieces as shown in fig. . the hole h should be just large enough to allow the carbon to enter, or about / in. in diameter. the hole g should be tapped to take a / -in. machine screw, the hole f should be threaded so that the threaded rods will enter, and a small binding post should be mounted on a lug fastened in the hole j. cut away one end of this piece as shown in fig. until it is a little less than / in. in thickness, or so it will enter the grooves cut in the brass strips. [illustration: (fig. )] the parts of the furnace are now ready to assemble, which may be done as follows: procure a piece of well seasoned board, hard wood if possible, about in. thick, in. wide and perhaps in. long. cover one side of this board and the edges with some / -in. sheet asbestos. now place the flowerpot in the exact center and then mount the grooved brass strips one on either side of it with the longest dimension parallel to the longest dimension of the board and the inside end about in. from the side of the pot. the end with the / -in. holes should be next to the pot. assemble the parts of the carbon feeds and then cut out some circular disks of asbestos to place under the flowerpot so as to raise it to such a position that the holes in its sides will be on a line with the carbon rods. three long screws should now be placed in the board, forming the base, in such a position as to hold the flowerpot always in place. this completes the furnace proper, which is shown in fig. . the furnace can now be put into operation provided there is a suitable current rheostat to connect in series with the carbon arc to prevent an excessive current being taken from the line. if such a rheostat is not available, a serviceable one may be made as follows: obtain two pieces of / -in. sheet iron, by in., that are to form the end plates. cut off the corners of one piece so as to form an octagon and drill a number of / -in. and / -in. holes in it, as shown in fig. . bend the corners of the other piece down along the dotted lines marked l, fig. , and then make a second bend in each corner along the dotted lines k, so that the outermost portion of the corner is parallel to the main portion of the piece. drill a number of / -in. holes in this piece as indicated. a -in. opening should be cut in the center of this piece to give access to the interior of the completed rheostat. now obtain eight / -in. iron rods, in. long. drill and tap each end of these rods to accommodate a / -in. machine screw. wrap several layers of thin sheet asbestos around each rod and tie it in place with some thread. these rods should now be fastened between the end plates by means of a number of iron machine screws. mount four back-connected binding posts on the plate shown in fig. , making sure they are insulated from the plate by means of suitable bushings and washers. [illustration: detail of the upper and lower end plates that are used in making a rheostat (fig. , fig. )] procure a small quantity of no. gauge iron wire. fasten one end of the wire under the head of the screw holding one of the binding posts in place and then wind it around the rods about times, making the distance between the turns equal to the diameter of the wire. after winding on the turns, attach a short piece of wire to the main wire and fasten the free end of the short piece to one of the other binding posts. wind on more turns, and make another connection to the third binding post, then complete the winding and attach the end to the remaining binding post. different amounts of this resistance can now be connected in series with the arc by changing the connections from one binding post to another. the rheostat may be located on a bracket fastened to the wall, but care must be taken not to place it in such a position that it will come into contact with inflammable material. as an extra precaution, the circuit should be properly fused. cleaning brass articles embossed or undercut brass work may be easily cleaned by boiling the pieces in a strong solution of caustic soda or lye, and then immersing them in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, parts; water, parts, and nitric acid, part, until they become covered with a dark deposit. take them from the solution and remove the black substance with a fine scratch brush. after cleaned in this manner, rinse in hot water and dry in hot sawdust. a fine orange-yellow tinge may be given to the brass by substituting an equivalent weight of powdered alum for the nitric acid in the solution.--contributed by mrs. richard f. pohle, e. lynn, mass. a whetting block a handy tool gauge for sharpening the various tools about the household is made of a block of wood with the sides of one end cut sloping in different degrees so that each will serve to secure the proper slant of the cutting edge on a certain tool. the block of wood with the corners cut is shown in fig. , and the manner of whetting a chisel is shown in fig. .--contributed by will parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the sloping edges on the block of wood and the manner of whetting a chisel (fig. , fig. )] * * * * * a cardboard cut the same size as a page and fastened with paper clips in the center of a magazine will prevent the pages from folding over when the magazine is placed in a bookcase. submarine photographs a photographer at a seashore resort, wishing to increase his sales of souvenir postal cards, rigged up a device for producing negatives to make "submarine" pictures. the device consisted of an aquarium, about in. long, in. high and in. wide. the aquarium was designed to stand on edge or the narrow way, and was equipped with rocks, living sea moss, kelp, and some fish, and the bottom was covered with sand and shells. [illustration: the camera set in front of the aquarium ready to make a submarine picture] a canvas was hung back of the aquarium and the camera set in front at such a distance as to make a negative of only the water and the prepared sea bottom. very fine views that will give the appearance of being made at the bottom of the sea can be produced. mending paper-pulp utensils pails, washtubs, and other receptacles made of paper pulp, when cut and worn, may be easily mended with adhesive tape. after this is applied to the place to be mended, give the mended part a coating of paint, and when the paint has dried, the surface is given another coat to match the color of the article mended. leaks may be entirely stopped in this way at a very reasonable cost.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. a homemade mailing tube a photograph or manuscript may be sent through the mail unmounted without the danger of being broken by placing it in a tube made as follows: for an by -in. photograph procure a piece of cardboard by in., plain mounting board preferred, and cut halfway through the card in three places as shown by the dotted lines in fig. . then fold it in a triangular shape as shown in fig. . it is easy to make such a tube to fit any photograph or manuscript to be mailed.--contributed by a. h. schaefer, buffalo, n. y. [illustration: the bends in the cardboard are made on lines equal distances apart to form a triangle (fig. , fig. )] cutter for lace leather [illustration] lace leather may be easily cut with an ordinary pocket knife having a u-shaped block fitted on the edge of the blade. the width of the opening should be exactly the same as the thickness of the leather and the width of the lace is determined by the distance between the blade and the depth of the notch. several places can be provided for the blade to cut different widths of lacing.--contributed by a. k. runkle, kinsman, o. refinishing chairs when refinishing chairs, a good way to get at the bottom part is to turn the chair upside down and place its seat on the seat of another chair. the legs and rungs can thus be easily cleaned and varnished.--contributed by a. mandeville, ware, mass. an electric gas lighter a very simple and inexpensive electric gas-lighting device is shown in the accompanying illustration. the gas is ignited by means of an electric spark which is produced between the two parts a and b of an electric circuit. this circuit is composed of a source of electrical energy, such as a number of dry cells, a kick coil, the connecting leads, and a special operating switch for opening and closing the circuit to produce the spark. the circuit is normally open, but as the lever controlling the gas valve is moved from one position to the other, by pulling the chains, the lever c is caused to move through a certain arc. now, as this lever c moves, its upper end passes the projecting point b, which is attached to the upper portion of the burner, and the electric circuit will be completed and broken. just as the point a leaves contact with the point b an arc will be produced. this arc is greatly intensified by the kick coil, which acts as a sort of reservoir in which energy is stored while the circuit is closed, and upon opening the circuit this stored energy is given out by the kick coil and increases the size of the arc. [illustration: the igniting points as they are attached to a gas burner to work automatically] the points a and b should both be made of platinum, as other metals will not withstand the extremely high temperature of the arc. pieces of platinum that will serve very nicely for the purpose may be obtained from an old incandescent lamp. the piece b is mounted on a brass collar, d, by means of a small screw, e. the brass collar d is held in place by the screw f, which draws the two ends together. this collar must be insulated from the stem or fixture by some thin sheets of mica. the upper end of the piece of platinum b should be just high enough to come within the lower edge of the gas flame. now mount an arm, c, on the valve stem so that it stands in a vertical position when the lever to which the chains are attached is in a horizontal position. bend this arm into the form shown in the figure and cut its upper end off so that it is about / in. below the outwardly projecting end of the piece of platinum b. drill a small hole in the upper end of c, and insert a piece of platinum and run some solder around it. then the complete burner and valve are mounted on the gas fixture, and from the collar d an insulated wire is run to the point where the battery and kick coil are to be located. the gas fixture itself is to form one side of the electric circuit, and one terminal of the battery should be connected to the gas pipe as shown in the figure. a kick coil may be made as follows: procure a small quantity of rather small soft-iron wire and cut a sufficient number of -in. lengths to make a bundle about / in. in diameter. from some good writing paper make a tube, in. long and / in. in outside diameter. use at least six layers of paper and glue the various layers together in forming this paper tube. after the tube has dried thoroughly, fill it with the pieces of iron wire until it is perfectly hard. cut from some / -in. hard wood, two pieces, in. square, and drill a / -in. hole in the center of each of these to a depth of / in. now glue these pieces to the completed core and the winding can begin as soon as the glue is dry. wind on this spool six layers of double cotton-covered no. gauge wire, insulating the various layers from each other with several thicknesses of good writing paper. this coil is then mounted on a wooden base and suitable terminals provided. at least four dry cells will be required to give satisfactory results. bear in mind that the gas must be escaping from the burner when the arc is formed. the adjustment of the arm a, as given above, may result in the gas valve being closed when the arc is formed, and the device will then fail to operate. if this is the case, the arm c should be loosened and moved back so that the circuit is broken at a later time while the valve is being moved from the "off" to "on" position. the circuit should be closed for some little time before it is opened so that some energy may be stored in the kick coil. if the wire a is made long enough to project a short distance above b, it will result in the circuit being closed for a longer time than it would if they just touched. stretching tight-fitting shoes a tight-fitting shoe can be stretched by filling it tightly with oats dampened in water and packing some old paper in the top. the grain will quickly swell and, as the leather will get softened by the dampness, the shoe will be rapidly stretched. allow time for the oats to dry out before removing them.--contributed by fred l. king, islip, new york. pad for a percolator [illustration] to prevent heating the bowl of a percolator and burning the handle, as often happens when it is placed on a stove, use an ordinary asbestos pad with a hole cut in the center as shown, just large enough to admit the foot of the percolator.--contributed by mrs. g. w. coplin, bay city, mich. * * * * * if a motorcycle engine is raced while on the stand, the cylinder will heat, often with the result that it is ruined. compass time chart a very instructive little instrument can be easily made for telling the time of any location on the globe. its construction is extremely simple. draw a circle, about - / in. in diameter, on a piece of paper and then draw a larger circle, about in. in diameter, around the first one. divide the circles into equal parts and draw lines from one circle to the other like the spokes in a wheel. these divisions will be deg., or minutes of time, apart. they should be numbered around the outside, commencing at a point marked and marking the numbers by tens each way until they meet at deg. [illustration: a time chart for telling the hour of the day at any place on the globe] using a map of the eastern and western hemispheres, write the names of the different cities on the globe in their respective degrees of longitude. the center, or inside, of the smaller circle is divided into divisions representing the hours of the day and night, and these are marked from to , the left side being forenoon, and the right, afternoon. the noon mark must be set on the line nearest to the location in which the instrument is to be used. for instance, if the instrument is to be used in chicago, it is set as shown in the sketch. the disk is mounted on a thin piece of board and a pin is driven through the center from the back side so as to make a projecting point on the upper side on which to place the magnetized needle of a compass. the needle may be taken from any cheap compass. all that is necessary to do, to tell what time it is in any other city or country, is to turn the instrument so that the name of that place points toward the sun, when the north end of the compass needle will point on the disk to the time it is in that city or locality.--contributed by henry j. marion, pontiac, mich. reversing switch for small motors a reversing switch made as follows will be found very serviceable in reversing the direction of the rotation of small motors, changing the polarity of electromagnets, etc. [illustration: diagram of the wiring to a small motor and the details of the switch] a diagram of the connections to the switch and on the switch base is given in the sketch, and in this particular case the switch is shown connected to a small toy motor. the field of the motor is represented by a, the armature by b; and c, d, e, and f are four binding posts mounted on the base of the switch; g, h, and i are three contacts; j and k are terminals of the switch blades, and l a single-pole switch. the two blades of the reversing switch have their lower ends fastened to the terminals j and k, and their upper ends, which are indicated by arrow heads, may be moved over the contacts g, h, and i. for the position of the reversing switch shown by the full lines, j is connected to g and k to h. when the switch is thrown to the right-hand position, as shown by the dotted lines, j is connected to h and k to i. it is obvious that the direction of the current through the armature b will be reversed when the reversing switch is thrown from one position to the other. the direction in which the armature rotates will change, due to the reversal in direction of the current through it. the same results could be obtained by reversing the current in the field winding a. but it must always be borne in mind that in order to reverse the direction of rotation, the current must be reversed in the armature only or in the field only, not in both. the above switch may be constructed as follows: first, procure a piece of well-seasoned hard wood, say maple, / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long. round off the corners and the edges of this piece on one side and drill the holes indicated in the sketch. the four corner holes should be of such a size as to accommodate the screws used in mounting four small back-connected binding posts. the remaining holes should be / in. all these holes should be countersunk with a / -in. bit to a depth of / in. on the under side. cut from some / -in. sheet brass two pieces, - / in. long, / in. wide at one end and / in. at the other, and round their ends. drill a / -in. hole through the larger end of each of these pieces, / in. from the end, and also a hole through each, - / in. from the narrow end. the last two holes should be threaded for / -in. machine screws. obtain five / -in. brass bolts, / in. long. file the heads of three of these bolts down to a thickness of approximately / in. and mount them in the holes g, h and i. before mounting anything on the base the grooves indicated by the heavy dotted lines should be cut in the under side so that the various points may be properly connected by conductors placed in the grooves. now mount the two pieces of sheet brass upon the base by means of the remaining two bolts, which should pass through the holes j and k. a / -in. washer should be placed between the pieces of brass and the wooden base. procure a piece of / -in. fiber, - / in. long and / in. broad. drill two / -in. holes in this piece, one in each end, so that they are in. apart. drill a third / -in. hole in the center and fasten a small handle to the piece of fiber. now mount this piece upon the two pieces of brass that form the blades of the switch by means of two small / -in. brass machine screws. two small brads should be driven into the wooden base so as to prevent the possibility of the switch blades moving beyond their proper position. two pieces of / -in. fiber should be placed between the heads of the screws g and h, and h and i, to prevent the ends of the switch blades from dropping down on the wooden base. adjustable rod for potted plants procure a brass sash-curtain rod of the telescoping kind and stick the solid part into the soil close to the plant and tie it to the rod. as the plant grows move the tubular part of the rod upward to correspond with the height of the plant. this makes a good support and is not so unsightly as a stick.--contributed by gertrude m. bender, utica, n. y. wrench for different-size nuts a very handy wrench can be made from a piece of square bar, shaped as shown and fitted with a handle. the joint at a may be halved and riveted or a weld made as desired. the size of the bar and the space between the parts will depend on the size of nuts to be turned. [illustration: the sloping notch in the wrench permits its use on nuts of various size] a simple sextant a sextant for measuring the latitude of any place can be easily constructed as follows: while a board, in. thick, in. wide, and in. long is about right for the instrument, any dimensions can be used, providing the line ab is at perfect right angles to the level of the sights c and d. the sights are better to use, although the upper edge of the board, if it is perfectly straight, will do as well. if it is desired to use sights, a slight groove is cut in the upper edge; a v-shaped piece, cut from tin, is fastened at one end, and a small pointed nail is driven in at the other. in doing this, be sure to level the bottom of the v-notch and nail point so that in drawing the line ab it will be at perfect right angles to a line between the sights. a tack is driven into the side of the board at the upper edge, a line fastened to it and a weight tied to the lower end which should swing below the lower edge of the board. [illustration: the main part of the instrument consists of a board with a plumb attached] the instrument is placed in such a manner that the north star is sighted, as shown, and the point on the lower edge of the board is marked where the line e comes to rest. a line is then drawn from a to the point marked and the angle f is measured with a protractor. the number of degrees in this angle will be approximately equal to the number of degrees in the latitude of that place. [illustration: the two stars at the end of the great dipper are pointers to the north star] the north star is easily located by reason of its position relative to the great dipper, as shown by the diagram.--contributed by carlos harrison, anderson, ind. how to make a taper ferrule having occasion to make a taper ferrule of irregular form, a pattern from which to cut the material was made as follows: a mandrel of the desired shape was made, a piece of writing paper, soaked in water, wrapped around the mandrel, and a piece of twine wound over it, coil after coil like the thread on a spool. this was allowed to dry thoroughly, using a little heat. the string was then removed and a longitudinal cut made in the paper while on the mandrel. when opened this paper formed the pattern. a piece of metal was cut from the pattern and the edges were brought together and brazed with spelter. the point of the mandrel was driven through a piece of block tin, about / in. thick. the mandrel was then removed, the ferrule was placed on it, and both then started in the hole made in the tin and driven through it. as the mandrel with the ferrule passed through the tin, the metal was shaped exactly to the mandrel. it is best to oil the hole in the tin slightly. tin is preferable as it is harder.--contributed by james h. beebee, rochester, n. y. how to make a continuously ringing bell the bell shown in the accompanying diagram is known as the continuously ringing type, and has quite a field of usefulness in connection with burglar alarms, door-bell signals, telephone signals, etc. the operation of the bell proper is identical with that of the ordinary vibrating bell and, in addition, there is a circuit controlled by the armature of the bell, which is normally open, but becomes closed as soon as the armature is drawn over. the closing of this circuit by the operation of the armature amounts to keeping the push button in the bell circuit depressed, and the bell will continue to ring until the latch a is restored by pulling the cord b. [illustration: an ordinary vibrating bell used as a continuously ringing bell, and the wiring diagram] any ordinary vibrating bell may be converted into a continuously ringing bell as follows: in the armature, c, mount a short metal pin, d, and round off its under side slightly. a latch, a, should now be constructed similar to the one shown in the sketch and mounted in such a position that its left end will rest on the outer end of the pin d when the armature, c, of the bell is in its extreme outer position. the length of the latch should be such that its left end will drop off the end of the pin d, due to the action of the spring e, when the armature c is drawn over by the electromagnets f, thus allowing it to come into contact with a spring g, which is electrically connected to the terminal of the bell marked h. the latch a is connected to one side of the line, as shown in the sketch, so as to include the bell winding and battery in a local circuit that is formed by the latch coming in contact with the spring g. the end of the latch should not interfere with the free operation of the armature when it is resting on the spring g. a cord, b, attached to the outer end of the latch, is used in restoring it, and at the same time stopping the bell from ringing. the tension in the spring e should be so adjusted that the operation of the latch is sure and firm, yet not too stiff. a mission-style inkstand having a couple of good-sized ink bottles of the ordinary type lying around, i fashioned a mission-style stand for them out of a piece of yellow pine, in. wide and in. long, set on another piece of pine large enough to project all around on all four sides of the block, for a base. the wells were cut out with a wood chisel, and the parts fastened together with screws. the supports were four brass-head or upholsterer's tacks. the finish was flat black.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: two pieces of pine shaped to receive the inkwells and finished in mission style] raising dents in wood the imprint of a hammer on finely finished wood caused by a glancing blow, or otherwise, may be removed in the following manner: pour enough wood alcohol on the dented spot to cover it, then light the alcohol and allow it to burn out. the heat will expand the wood and raise it enough so that the spot can be planed and smoothed in the usual manner.--contributed by w. f. elwell, waltham, massachusetts. carrying two pails in one hand when it is necessary to carry two small filled pails in one hand and a package in the other it will be found a very difficult job, if the contents are liquid. procure a stick of sufficient size to carry the weight of the pails and cut a small notch in each end to admit the bail. place a pail on each end of the stick and take hold in the center, or, if the pails are not equally filled, a little to one side of the center. [illustration: two filled pails can be readily carried by placing the bails on the ends of a stick] preserving paint in open cans to keep paint from drying out in an open can it is necessary to exclude the air from the oil. this can be done by procuring an air-tight paper sack, which is tested by blowing into it. set the can into the sack and tie it tightly with a cord. mixed paint will be kept in a working state in this manner. jelly-straining stand [illustration] procure a board, / in. thick and in. square, and cut a hole, about ft. diameter, in the center. fasten posts, ft. long, to each corner. screw hooks are located around the edge of the hole to catch into the cloth used for holding the fruit. the stand is high enough to be convenient and admit a vessel beneath to catch the juice. renewing dry batteries it is a well-known fact that dry cells commence to deteriorate from the time they are manufactured, and it is a matter of considerable uncertainty in purchasing cells to know whether they will continue to be efficient for their supposed natural life under the existing conditions of service, or for only a small part of this period. when the voltage of a dry cell falls below a certain value it is usually discarded and replaced by a new one, which often means quite an expense. the following simple suggestion will enable one to renew the prematurely exhausted cell with very little trouble and slight expense, so that its period of usefulness will be extended for a length of time, at least equal to that for which it could be used if put into service immediately after its manufacture. [illustration] the procedure in renewing the cell is as follows: a casing is placed outside of the zinc-containing case, having inside dimensions a little greater than the zinc cup. the space between the zinc cup and case is filled with a dry electrolyte, which, upon the addition of moisture, sets up a chemical action with the exterior surface of the zinc, and the latter having been perforated, causes electrical action to be again produced. the casing, or cup, to be used outside the zinc cup should be made of a waterproof material. the electrolyte instead of being placed between this cup and the zinc in a powdered form, as might be expected, should be held by several layers of blotting paper, formed into a cylinder of the proper diameter to fit snugly on the outside of the zinc cup. this porous cup should be impregnated with a solution containing the following materials in the approximate amounts given: muriate of ammonia, parts; bichromate of potash, parts, and chloride of sodium, parts. after the porous cup has thoroughly soaked in the above solution it should be dried by passing a roller over its external surface when it is mounted on a wooden cylinder of proper diameter. the moisture-proof cup may be formed outside the porous cup by covering the latter with several coats of waterproofing paste and winding on several thicknesses of common manila paper, each layer of paper being treated with the paste. a disk of cardboard, properly treated, should be placed in the end of the cylinder to form the bottom, and the edge of the manila paper folded in over it and pasted in place. the pasteboard covering surrounding the zinc cup of the cell should be removed and the surface of the zinc thoroughly cleaned. the coal tar in the top of the zinc cup should be removed by tapping around the edge with a hammer, and a large number of small holes should be made in the walls of the cup with a sharp instrument. then put the cell within the porous cup and fill the top with clear water, preferably rain water. a chemical reaction will immediately take place between the outer surface of the zinc and the chemicals contained in the material forming the porous cup, and the terminal voltage of the cell will be practically the same as it was when the cell was new. the water, of course, must be replenished from time to time on account of evaporation, and the useful life of the cell can be prolonged for a considerable time. a part cross section of a cell treated as described above is shown in the accompanying sketch. workbench equipment for a table top the average home mechanic with a few tools seldom has a place to work and is usually without a workbench. as this was my case, i constructed a bench equipment that i could easily clamp to the kitchen or other table and thus have the necessary tools at hand for work. a plank, in. thick, in. wide and in. long, was planed and smoothed up on all sides, and a vise and a bench pin were fastened on one edge. [illustration: the bench top can be quickly attached to any table top without harming it] to the under side of the same edge two blocks were securely fastened, as shown, and to these blocks two other pieces were fastened with hinges. with a bolt, running through from the top, and a thumb nut used underneath, these pieces are used as clamps for holding the bench to the table top. the top can be removed and set away in a closet when not in use.--contributed by wm. h. hathaway, nutley, n. j. a nonsticking drawer guide [illustration] the guide shown is nonbinding and has been found thoroughly practical after several years' use on furniture. the guide a consists of a piece of wood, about - / in. square, with a concave cut in its upper edge, the width being about / in. and the depth such as not to cut through the extending end projecting over the crossbar b. the drawer sides have a half-round edge on the bottom edge to run in the groove in the guide. the difference in width between the groove in the guide and the rounding edge on the drawer side causes the drawer always to ride snugly without binding as the wood expands or contracts with changes in the weather.--contributed by herman hermann, portland, ind. a milk stool the stool is made of three pieces of board and a piece of round, or stake, iron. the appearance and manner of construction are clearly shown in the illustration. the seat board is sawed out to fit the circumference of the bucket to be used, and the iron is also bent to this curve and fastened to the board as shown. the little shelf on the front support holds the bucket at the right height, and keeps it clean and out of the way of the cow's foot while milking. [illustration: a milk stool having a place to keep the bucket clean and at the right height] sounder for wireless-telegraph messages the owner of an amateur wireless outfit often has reason to regret that he cannot let some of his friends listen to a message at the same time as he himself. the magnifier described in the following permits all those present in the room to hear the message, provided, of course, they are able to interpret the morse alphabet by sound. [illustration: the phonograph horn as it is connected to a detector for transmitting the messages] a very simple means, making the message audible at a distance of about ft., is to attach a phonograph horn, or a horn of cardboard or metal, to the telephone receiver, but a much better arrangement can be made as shown in the diagram, in which a represents the antenna or aerial; b, the detector, and c, the receiver. procure a small microphone, d, placing its mouthpiece closely against the receiver--for the sake of clearness the two are separated in the diagram--and connect the former with a battery, f, of two or three dry cells, in series with the microphone of an ordinary telephone transmitter provided with a large horn. the effect obtained by this simple means will be surprising. joint for mission furniture the mortise for this joint is made in the usual manner, the only requirements being that the mortise is run through the piece, and the tenon is cut / in. shorter than the depth of the mortise or the width of the piece it is entering. the end of the tenon and the mortise is then covered with a piece of metal, fastened with screws as shown. the metal can be of any desired material and beveled on the edges. this makes a very good knock-down joint for mission furniture.--contributed by h. r. allen, cheyenne, wyoming. [illustration: metal covering and holder for a tenon and mortise joint on mission furniture] a towel roller a substantial, convenient and nonrusting towel roller can be made from or of the familiar wood handles on bundle carriers and a length of brass curtain rod. the bracket ends can be shaped from any piece of wood of suitable dimensions. the rollers and ends can be finished as desired.--contributed by f. e. s., e. lynn, mass. an electric shaving mug the general use of electricity in the home has opened up a new field in the way of heating and cooking utensils. while these utensils are sold by electric-supply houses, some of them can be easily made at home and answer the purpose just as nicely. one of these is the electric shaving mug. [illustration: detail of the parts for the construction of an electric shaving mug. the heating of sufficient water for a shave can be accomplished at a nominal cost (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] a mug that will stand heat is the first thing required, and an aluminum cup of standard shape and design, which can be bought in almost every town, will do perfectly well. these cups are spun from a flat sheet and have no seams to open and leak, and it is necessary that no holes be drilled in the cup as it is impossible to make such a hole watertight. the heating element must be fastened to the mug with a clamp. the clamp will also allow the heating coil to be removed for repairs without injury to the mug. the bottoms of these mugs have a flange which makes a recessed part and in this the heating element is placed. the legs of the mug are made of sheet brass as shown in fig. , one of the three having an enlargement near its center with a hole for an insulating button (fig. ), of "transite" or some other material, to hold the supply cord in place. the clamp for holding the heating coil in place is shown in fig. . this clamp has a screw in the center to tighten it in place. the legs and clamp may be nickelplated if desired. the heating coil is shown in fig. which is a coil of flat "nichrome" wire, or ribbon as it is called, ft. long, / in. wide and / in. thick. this is equal in cross section to a no. gauge wire. to wind this coil, procure a block of wood, / in. thick and about in. square, with a / -in. hole in the center for an axis or pivot. clamp a / -in. rod in a vise so that the block can be rotated about it. begin at the center and fasten one end of the ribbon to the block, leaving about in. projecting for a connection, then proceed to wind the ribbon in a spiral coil, separating each turn from the preceding one with a strand of asbestos cord. a small section of the coil is shown in fig. , in which a, or the light part, represents the asbestos insulation, and b, or the black lines, the heating element. the insulation may be obtained by untwisting some / -in. round asbestos packing and using one of the strands. this cord insulates each turn of the ribbon from the other and the current must travel through the whole coil without jumping across from one turn to the other. the whole coil must be closely wound to get it into the limited space at the bottom of the mug. before taking the coil from the block, rub into its surface a little asbestos retort cement, or a cement composed of a mixture of silicate of soda and silica, or glass sand. this mixture, when dry, will tend to hold the coil together and the current may be passed through the coil to test it as well as to bake it in its coiled shape. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] the support for the heating coil is made of a piece of / -in. asbestos wood or transite. cut it to fit into the recessed bottom of the mug, then with a chisel remove the material in the top to form a depression / in. deep to receive the coil with its top flush. the leads of the coil are run through the disk. the surface of the coil is then plastered evenly with retort cement. the legs are fastened to a second piece of insulating material with round-head brass machine screws, / in. long, with nuts. the heads of these screws are shown in fig. , the nuts being above the brass and between the two insulating pieces. the ends of the heating ribbon are brought through the lower insulating disk and attached to binding posts as shown. the leads may be covered with tape to prevent any short circuit. the mug uses - / amperes at volts, either direct or alternating current, and it will cost about cents an hour to operate it. care should be taken to use a separable attachment for connecting, as an ordinary lamp socket may be burned out by turning off the current, it being adapted only to a small capacity. in assembling the parts, several pieces of mica should be placed between the coil and the metal of the mug to insulate the coil from the mug. a handbag lock [illustration] the pickpocket finds it easy to unsnap a handbag and remove some of the contents, especially in crowded places. to make it less easy for the pickpocket, i fixed my mother's handbag as shown in the sketch. i used a chain which had served its day holding a small coin purse--any small chain will do--by passing it through the links that hold the handle and winding it once or twice around the snap fasteners to hold them securely closed. the chain may be either shortened enough to make it convenient to hold with the handle of the handbag, or may be left long and used over the shoulder under the coat, thus making it possible to have both hands free for shopping while the handbag hangs by the side. this leaves a person free from the worry of taking care that the bag is not laid down somewhere and lost. the bag may be easily opened by unwinding the chain after loosening it by raising the bag slightly.--contributed by wm. waterhouse, aurora, ill. an emery-cloth holder emery cloth in sheets is very easily spoiled around a workbench. oil or other fluids used on work are apt to drop on it and when wet for a short time the abrasive is useless. the illustration shows a tin holder, a, that can be placed on the under side of the bench where space is not required for drawer room. [illustration: a receptacle for emery cloth made of sheet metal or tin and fastened to a bench] the portion cut out of the bottom of the holder b is to enable the workman to easily grasp the sheets of emery cloth. as the holder is on the under side of the bench, there is little danger of any liquid or other substance spoiling the sheets. the sheets are also within easy reach.--contributed by f. w. bently, huron, s. d. the operation of the compass after trying to tell a few small boys what a compass is, they wanted a practical illustration--something they could see. not having a compass or knowing where to locate one handily, i used a piece of cork with needles and a needle for a pivot and found it very satisfactory. the method used is shown in the sketch. it is best not to magnetize both needles unless care is exercised in maintaining pole relationship, or they will oppose each other and not point to the north. the extreme ends or the heads of the needles must be opposites, the head of one negative and the head of the other positive. [illustration: two large needles in a cork balanced on a central needle to make them revolve easily] if a good compass is brought carelessly in contact with a magnet, the poles may become reversed and the north end will no longer point to the north but to the south until the current has been reversed again by bringing the opposite pole of the magnet in contact with the compass.--contributed by w. h. albright, bellevue, o. thawing out frozen pipes when the water pipes connecting a range boiler become frozen, get a plumber and avoid an explosion of the water back. if, however, the frozen pipe is a cold-water pipe in no way connected with the hot-water boiler, it can be thawed out as follows: [illustration: the faucet is turned upwards and opened and alcohol poured in on the ice] procure some grain alcohol--not denatured or wood alcohol--and after turning the spigot upward or upside down, as shown, open it and pour in the alcohol. when the water begins to flow turn it to its proper position.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. a wire clothespin [illustration] the pin is made of galvanized wire, a, or in. long, wound spirally, b, on a round surface, such as a broom handle, to make the holding part. the ends are fastened together as shown. the space between the spiral turns makes the cloth-holding part.--contributed by wesley h. freeman, palestine, tex. vent for pouring heavy liquids a tube placed in a jug or bottle as shown in the sketch will assist greatly in removing molasses or heavy liquids. the tube can be placed in the receptacle without getting the liquid inside by holding a finger over the outer end. the air can easily enter without disturbing the flow of the liquid.--contributed by homer payear, owensboro, ky. [illustration: the vacuum caused by the flow of heavy liquids is easily overcome by the air tube] a hat hanger [illustration] procure a piece of / -in. wire, about ft. long, bend it into the shape shown in the sketch, and sharpen the projecting end. drive this into the wall above a coat hanger. this provides a better hat hanger than the ordinary hook.--contributed by john d. watt, roxbury, mass. repairing a broken tenon on a chair post [illustration] instead of cutting off the four posts to make new tenons where one tenon was broken i used a metal piece made from a short length of bicycle tubing, as shown. the tube was slotted two ways to make four parts which were turned out and flattened. the remaining end of the tube was slipped over the broken post and the four parts were fastened with screws to the under side of the chair seat.--contributed by chas. h. roberts, calumet, mich. substitute for an iron-holder knob [illustration] the wood knob on the holder for my irons became charred from the heat and finally broke away from the pin. the pin would get so hot in continued use that it could not be moved without burning my fingers. i remedied the difficulty by attaching a short string to the handle and the pin. a pull on the string with the forefinger readily released the iron. i have found this better than the knob, as it is handier to use.--contributed by mrs. h. c. dixon, johnstown, pa. an egg-frying pan the frying of eggs in an ordinary frying pan is accompanied with some difficulty in removing them when they are cooked without breaking the yolk. then, sometimes, the pan is too hot and the egg sticks to the pan and the top remains uncooked. a much better way is to shape a piece of sheet metal or tin as shown in the sketch to place the egg in and use it in the ordinary pan. it will not burn the egg, and the egg can be lifted out of the pan and easily slipped on a plate or toast when it is cooked.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, san diego, cal. [illustration: a metal plate for use in an ordinary frying pan to cook eggs without scorching them] a sander mandrel for the lathe a cylindrical sander for use in the lathe can be easily made of two pieces of wood, turned to a diameter that will take the stock size of sandpaper, and clamped together with pinch dogs at the ends. one edge of the sandpaper is clamped between the pieces and then it is wrapped around the wood, the opposite edge being glued to the starting edge, as shown at a. the dimensions given are for a by -in. sheet of sandpaper. the sander is easily placed in the lathe centers when needed, and the sandpaper may be replaced at any time.--contributed by james t. gaffney, chicago. [illustration: a wood mandrel for attaching regular sheets of sandpaper to make a lathe sander] how to construct a simple galvanometer a galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of an electrical current in a circuit or to measure the value of the current in amperes. the operation of practically all galvanometers is based upon the same principle, and they differ chiefly in mechanical construction and the relative arrangement of their different parts. a very simple galvanometer, that will give quite satisfactory results, under favorable conditions, may be constructed as follows: turn from a piece of hard wood a ring having dimensions corresponding to those given in the cross section, fig. . fill the groove in this ring to within / in. of the top with no. gauge double-cotton-covered copper wire, insulating the different layers from each other by means of a layer of good bond paper. the winding may be started by drilling a small hole through the side of the groove, as close to the bottom as possible, and allowing about in. of the wire to protrude through it. the outside end may be terminated in a similar manner, and the two ends should be on the same side of the ring, or as near each other as possible. a protecting covering of bookbinder's paper is placed over the winding and the completed ring given a coat of shellac. the electric current to be detected or measured is to pass around the winding of this coil and produce an effect upon a compass needle mounted in its center. in order that the current may produce a maximum effect upon the needle, the coil should be mounted in a vertical position. [illustration: the wood ring for the coil and its holding stirrup (fig. , fig. )] the base upon which the ring is to be mounted may be cut from some / -in. hard wood. it should be circular in form and about in. in diameter, and have its upper edge rounded off and shellacked to improve its appearance. the ring is mounted in a vertical position on this base, which may be done as follows: cut a flat surface on each of the flanges of the ring so that it will stand in a vertical position and the terminals of the winding will be as near as possible to the surface upon which the ring rests. then form a stirrup from some thin sheet brass, similar to that shown in fig. , so that it will fit tightly over the ring and its outwardly projecting ends will rest upon the base of the instrument. small wood screws are used in fastening the stirrup to the base. the fastening may be made more secure by cutting a groove across the inside of the ring for the stirrup to fit in, fig. , thus preventing the possibility of the ring moving through the stirrup. two holes should be drilled in the base for the terminals of the winding to pass through, and it would be best to cut two grooves in the side of the ring for these wires so as to prevent their coming into contact with the metal stirrup. two back-connected binding posts, a and b, fig. , are mounted on the base and the ends of the winding attached to them. the wires should be placed in grooves cut in the under side of the base, and the screws used in fastening the binding posts should be countersunk. [illustration: galvanometer as it is used to detect the presence of an electrical current (fig. )] a short compass needle is then mounted on a suitable supporting pivot in the center of the coil. this compass needle will always come to rest in an approximate north and south position when it is acted upon by the earth's magnetic field alone. if now the plane of the coil be placed in such a position that it is parallel to the direction of the compass needle (no current in the coil), the magnetic field that will be produced when a current is sent through the winding will be perpendicular to the magnetic field of the earth and there will be a force, due to this particular current, tending to turn the compass needle around perpendicularly to its original position. there will be a deflection of the needle for all values of current in the coil, and this deflection will vary in value as the current in the coil varies. the mere fact that the compass needle is deflected due to a current in the coil gives a means of detecting a current in any circuit of which the coil is a part, and the degree of this deflection affords a means of measuring the current, the value of the different deflections in terms of the current in the coil having been experimentally determined by sending a known current through the coil and noting the positions of the compass needle for each value of current used. in order to determine the deflection of the needle, a scale, c, fig. , must be mounted directly under the compass needle and a pointer, d, attached to the compass needle so that any movement of the needle results in an equal angular displacement of the pointer. the compass needle, e, should be short and quite heavy, say, / in. in length, / in. in thickness and / in. in width at its center, and tapering to a point at its ends. it should be made of a good grade of steel, tempered and then magnetized by means of a powerful electromagnet. the reason for making the compass needle short is that it will then operate in practically a uniform magnetic field, which exists only at the center of the coil. on account of the needle being so short and in view of the fact that it comes to rest parallel to the coil for its zero position, it is best to use a pointer attached to the needle to determine its deflection, as this pointer can be made much longer than the needle, and any movement of the needle may be more easily detected, as the end of the pointer moves through a much larger distance than the end of the needle, and since it may be attached to the needle, at right angles to the needle's axis, the end of the pointer will be off to one side of the coil and its movement may be easily observed. the pointer should be made of some nonmagnetic material, such as aluminum or brass, and it should be as long as it may be conveniently made. a suitable box with a glass cover may be provided in which the needle, pointer and scale may be housed. the construction of this box will be left entirely to the ingenuity of the one making the instrument. [illustration: the electric circuit, showing connections for finding the value of a current in calibrating (fig. )] in order to use this instrument as an ammeter, it will be necessary to calibrate it, which consists in determining the position of the pointer for various values of current through the coil. it will be necessary to obtain the use of a direct-current ammeter for this purpose. the winding of the galvanometer, ammeter, battery and a variable resistance of some kind should all be connected in series as shown in the diagram, fig. . allow the compass needle to come to rest under the influence of the earth's magnetic field and then turn the coil into such a position that it is as nearly parallel with the needle as possible. this corresponds to the zero position, and the instrument must always be in this position when it is used. the position of the ends of the pointer is now marked on the scale for different values of current, first with the current in one direction and then in the opposite direction. the deflection of the needle will, of course, reverse when the current is reversed. the effect produced by any current upon the compass needle can be changed by changing the number of turns in the coil. in measuring a large current, a few turns of large wire would be required, and in measuring a small current, a large number of turns of small wire could be used. in other words, the size of the wire will depend upon the current it is to carry and the number of turns in the coil will depend upon the magnetic effect the current is to produce, which is proportional to the product of the number of turns and the current, called the ampere-turns. experiments with camphor place a few scrapings from gum camphor in a tumbler of water and watch the phenomenon. the scrapings will go through all kinds of rapid motions as if they were alive. a drop of turpentine, or any oil, will stop their maneuvers. this experiment will show how quickly oil spreads over the surface of water. boiling cracked eggs eggs with the shells cracked can be boiled in the ordinary manner without danger of the white boiling out, if they are first wrapped in tissue paper. as soon as the paper becomes wet it will cling so tightly to the shell that the cracks are effectively closed. a trousers hanger a very serviceable hanger can be easily made of two clothespins of the clip type and about ft. of large wire. [illustration: clothesline clips joined together with a wire and used as a trousers hanger] the wire should be bent into the shape shown at a with a loop about in. in diameter as a hanger. the ends of the wire are slipped under the hooks on the sides of the clothespins, which are fastened to the trousers as shown in b.--contributed by olaf tronnes, evanston, ill. removing tight-fitting can covers [illustration] tight-fitting covers on lard and similar pails can be readily removed by tying a stout cord loosely below the cover, then placing an ordinary nail under the cord and twisting it. this will tighten the cord around the can evenly, which will loosen the cover. a skimming spoon a handy skimming spoon can be made very quickly of an ordinary spoon of any size desired. slits are sawn across the bowl in the manner shown, using a hacksaw. the illustration is self-explanatory.--contributed by g. h. holter, jasper, minn. [illustration: the straight cuts sawn across the bottom of the bowl provide openings to drain out the liquid] how to make falling blocks procure a thin board large enough to cut six blocks, in. wide and in. long; also yd. of cotton tape, / in. wide, and some very small tacks. cut the board into pieces of the size mentioned, and number two of them on both surfaces, , , , and . cut off three pieces of tape, - / in. long, and on the side of block tack one piece of tape in the center at one end, and the other two pieces at each edge on the opposite end, all being on one side of the block as shown. take the other block and lay the side numbered up, then draw the two strips of tape on the edges of block under it and back to the end of the surface on block , and tack them on this surface at the edges as shown. the center tape is passed under block and turned over the opposite end and tacked. this is clearly shown in the sketch. thus the second block will hang from either end of block by simply folding them together and separating the ends. [illustration: set of blocks joined with tape so that they appear to fall from the top] mark the sides of the third block and , and place it with the two others so that the sides numbered , , and will be up. cut off three more pieces of tape, - / in. long, and tack them on as shown, being careful not to tack through any of the first three pieces. put on the fourth block in the same manner as the third block was attached to the second, and so on, until all the blocks are attached. take hold of the first block on the edges and tip it as shown by the arrow. the second block will then fall as shown by the second arrow, and the third block falls away in the same manner, and so on, down to the end.--contributed by wayne nutting, minneapolis, minn. writing name reversed on paper placed on forehead the following is an entertaining experiment in a party of young people. one of those present is asked if he can write his name, and will, of course, answer "yes." he is then subjected to the following test: he is asked to sit down in a chair, a paper, folded several times, is placed on his forehead, a lead pencil is handed him and he is asked to write his name on the paper. as little time as possible to reflect should be left him; if he hesitates, he should be told to just go ahead, and in most cases it will be found that he starts writing his name at the left temple and, to the amusement of the others present, writes it in the way of many left-handed persons, that is, so that it is legible only when held in front of a mirror, unless one is practiced in reading reversed writing. use for an old table an old table of the extension type, that may have a post broken, can be used against the wall in a kitchen as a work table. if there is a damaged part, that side is removed by sawing the crosspieces of the table in two and attaching it to the wall against the leaf which is turned in a reverse position.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, can. [illustration: one half of the table is removed and the remaining part fastened to the wall] how to make a small rheostat in operating small motors there is as a rule no means provided for regulating their speed, and this often is quite a disadvantage, especially in the case of toy motors such as used on miniature electric locomotives. the speed, of course, can be regulated by changing the number of cells of battery by means of a special switch, but then all the cells are not used the same amount and some of them may be completely exhausted before the others show any appreciable depreciation. if a small transformer is used with a number of taps taken off the secondary winding, the voltage impressed upon the motor, and consequently the speed, can be changed by varying the amount of the secondary winding across which the motor is connected. [illustration: diagram showing the connections for a small motor where a rheostat is in the line (fig. )] but in both these cases there is no means of varying the speed gradually. this can, however, be accomplished by means of a small rheostat placed in series with the motor. the rheostat acts in an electrical circuit in just the same way a valve does in a hydraulic circuit. it consists of a resistance, which can be easily varied in value, placed in the circuit connecting the motor with the source of electrical energy. a diagram of the rheostat is shown in fig. , in which a represents the armature of the motor; b, the field; c, the rheostat, and d, the source of electrical energy. when the handle e is in such a position that the maximum amount of resistance is in circuit there will be a minimum current through the field and armature of the motor, and its speed will be a minimum. as the resistance of the rheostat is decreased, the current increases and the motor speeds up, reaching a maximum value when the resistance of the rheostat has been reduced to zero value. such a rheostat may be used in combination with a special switch f., as shown in. fig. . the switch gives a means of varying the voltage and the rheostat takes care of the desired changes in speed occurring between those produced by the variations in voltage. [illustration: diagram of a small motor where a rheostat and switch are in the line (fig. )] a very simple and inexpensive rheostat may be constructed as follows: procure a piece of thin fiber, about / in. thick, / in. wide and approximately in. long. wind on this piece of fiber, after the edges have all been smoothed down, a piece of no. gauge cotton-covered resistance wire, starting about / in. from one end and winding the various turns fairly close together to within / in. of the other end. the ends of the wire may be secured by passing them through several small holes drilled in the piece of fiber, and should protrude or in. for connecting to binding posts that will be mounted upon the base of the rheostat. now form this piece of fiber into a complete ring by bending it around some round object, the flat side being toward the object. determine as accurately as possible the diameter of the ring thus formed and also its thickness. obtain a piece of well seasoned hard wood, / in. thick and - / in. square. round off the corners and upper edges of this block and mark out on it two circles whose diameters correspond to the inside and outside diameters of the fiber ring. the centers of these circles should be in the center of the block. carefully saw out the two circles so that the space between the inside and outside portions will just accommodate the fiber ring. obtain a second piece of hard wood, / in. thick and - / in. square, round off its corners and upper edges and mount the other pieces upon it by means of several small wood screws, which should pass up from the under side and be well countersunk. place the fiber ring in the groove, but, before doing so, drill a hole in the base proper for one end of the wire to pass through. two small back-connected binding posts should be mounted in the corners. one of these should be connected to the end of the winding and the other to a small bolt in the center of the base that serves to hold the handle or movable arm of the rheostat in place. these connecting leads should all be placed in grooves cut in the under side of the base. [illustration: a cross section of the rheostat, showing the connections through the resistance (fig. )] the movable arm of the rheostat may be made from a piece of / -in. sheet brass, and should have the following approximate dimensions: length, in.; breadth / in. at one end, and / in. at the other. obtain a / -in. brass bolt, about in. long, also several washers. drill a hole in the larger end of the piece of brass to accommodate the bolt and also in the center of the wooden base. countersink the hole in the base on the under side with a / -in. bit to a depth of / in. on the under side of the piece of brass, and near its narrow end, solder a piece of thin spring brass so that its free end will rest upon the upper edge of the fiber ring. a small handle may be mounted upon the upper side of the movable arm. now mount the arm on the base by means of the bolt, placing several washers between it and the upper surface of the base, so that its outer end will be raised above the edge of the fiber ring. solder a short piece of thin brass to the nut that is to be placed on the lower end of the bolt, and cut a recess in the countersunk portion of the hole in the base to accommodate it. when the bolt has been screwed down sufficiently tight a locknut may be put on, or the first nut soldered to the end of the bolt. if possible, it would be best to use a spring washer, or two, between the arm and base. the insulation should now be removed from the wire on the upper edge of the fiber ring with a piece of fine sandpaper, so that the spring on the under side of the movable arm may make contact with the winding. the rheostat is now complete with the exception of a coat of shellac. a cross-sectional view of the completed rheostat is shown in fig. . folding arms for clothesline posts the inconvenience of using a number of clothesline posts and the limited space available resulted in the making of a clothesline post as shown in the sketch. the entire line is supported on two posts, which should be about in. square and are set in concrete. the upper ends of the posts are equipped with two arms, hinged to the sides of the posts in such a manner that the inside ends of the arms will meet on top of the post when they are in a horizontal position. each arm is provided with three wood pins, equally spaced for the line. the arms are supported in a horizontal position by two bars of metal at the center, as shown. holes are bored into the sides of the posts to receive the pins when the arms are at rest. [illustration: a post that provides a way to hold six lines taut without the use of props] a small box is fastened to one post, to provide a place for the clothesline and the clothespins. the line, when put up, gives space for an entire washing without the use of a prop, as the line can be drawn taut enough to hold the garments.--contributed by olaf tronnes, evanston, ill. a folding bookrack having need of a bookrack which i could pack away in my trunk and still have room for my clothes, i made one as follows: i procured a piece of pine, / in. thick, in. wide and in. long, and laid out the plan on one side. holes were drilled in the edges, / in. from the ends, to receive - / -in. round-head brass screws. the design for the ends was sawn out with a scroll saw and the edges smoothed up with fine sandpaper, whereupon the surfaces were stained and given a coat of wax. the screws were put in place to make the ends turn on them as on a bearing. in use the ends were turned up.--contributed by spencer hall, baltimore, maryland. [illustration: the ends of the rack turn down, making a straight board] a simple balance having use for a balance in a laboratory and being unable to procure any scales at the time, i hastily rigged up a device that served the purpose as well, as the work did not require very great precision. an elastic band and a short piece of string was procured and the band cut open. the string was then fastened around the beaker as shown, and the whole suspended from a shelf. [illustration: a graduate scale used in connection with an elastic band to make a simple balance] into the beaker was then poured cubic centimeters of water and the stretch of the elastic band noted by the displacement of a knot in the string in respect to the scale on a graduate, placed beside the beaker. the length of the elastic was then changed until the knot was exactly opposite the -division mark on the graduate scale. then, since the elongation of the elastic band follows hook's law, the extension of the band to the amount of one scale division means an added weight of one gram in the beaker.--contributed by l. horle, newark, new jersey. an ink eraser a good knife eraser for ink can be made from a discarded or broken ruling pen. one of the parts, or nibs, is cut off close to the handle and the remaining one sharpened on both edges at the point. this instrument is better than a knife or the regular scratcher, because the cutting edge will shave the surface of the paper or tracing cloth and not roughen or cut it. erasing done with this knife will readily take ink without further preparation of the surface.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, o. [illustration: one of the nibs on the ruling pen sharpened and used as an eraser] gate fasteners [illustration] buttons on gates or small doors are apt to become loose and then drop down, thereby allowing the gate or door to become unfastened. the ordinary button is shown at a where it is loose and turned by its own weight. if the button is cut as shown at b, it will remain fastened, even if it is loose on the screw or nail.--contributed by a. s. thomas, amherstburg, ont. a compensating siphon the homemade siphon shown in the sketch consists of two rubber corks and a glass tube with a rubber hose connected to it. the cork a is used as a bearing and support on the edge of the tank. the position of the cork b on the tube determines the distance that the mouth of the tube will be under the surface of the liquid, also to some extent the sensitiveness of the apparatus. however, the principle of the device is the buoyant effect of the water and the lever action of the rubber tube which is attached. [illustration: the end of the pipe is kept just under the surface of the liquid at all times] the one that i made had a tube in. long, and the cork b was - / in. in diameter, in. thick, and weighed about / of a pound. the practical application of this siphon will be found in sieve tests where it is necessary to collect the residue on the bottom of the tank while drawing off the liquid at the surface, also in oil-storage tanks where it is not wished to disturb the dirt or other residue which collects on the bottom of the tank.--contributed by james hemphill, jr., duquesne, pennsylvania. a polarity indicator lines in a cable or the ends of connections at a distance from the battery must be tested to determine the polarity. where a large amount of this work is to be done, as in automobile and motorboat repairing, it is necessary to have an indicator to save time. a cheap indicator for this purpose can be made of a -in. test tube having its ends sealed and inclosing a saturated solution of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) and water. the sealed ends are made by inserting a piece of wire through a cork and, after forcing this tightly into the end of the test tube, covering it with sealing wax. [illustration: a simple pocket indicator for finding the negative wire in battery cable lines] to use, connect the terminals to the battery lines, and the end of the wire in the solution giving off bubbles is the negative wire.--contributed by h. s. parker, brooklyn, n. y. small steam-engine cylinders made from seamless brass tubing in making a small steam engine it was desired to use seamless brass tubing for the cylinders. to have them exactly alike a piece of tubing of the right size and of sufficient length for both cylinders was fitted on a wood mandrel, a, and the ends trued up in a lathe. as these cylinders were to fit into holes bored in a steel bedplate, it was necessary to have a flange at one end. a groove was turned in the tubing b in the center, and as a final operation a parting tool was used on the line cd. this resulted in a pair of cylinders flanged to fit the bedplate.--contributed by harry f. lowe, washington, d. c. [illustration: a wood mandrel used to face the ends and turn flanges on tubing for cylinders] a pocket direct-current voltmeter the assembled drawings of a very simple voltmeter are shown in fig. , and its operation is as follows: the moving portion consists of a pointer, or needle, a; a small permanent magnet, or armature, b, and a counterweight, c, mounted upon a small steel shaft, d. the ends of this steel shaft are pointed and rest in bearings provided in the u-shaped piece of brass e, which is rigidly fastened to the fiber base f, by means of two screws. the permanent magnet b, carried on the shaft d, is at all times under the magnetic influence of the permanent horseshoe magnet, g, which is fastened, by means of thin brass straps, h h, and small screws, to the base f, so that the ends of the armature b are directly above the poles of the horseshoe magnet. the armature b will assume the position shown in the sketch when it is acted upon by the permanent magnet g alone and the moving system is perfectly balanced. a solenoid, j, is mounted in the position shown. when there is a current in its winding its soft-iron core will become magnetized and the magnetic pole produced at the lower end will produce a magnetic force upon the armature b, with the result that the armature will be rotated either in a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction, depending upon its polarity and the polarity of the end of the core adjacent to it. thus, if the left end of the armature has north polarity, the right end south polarity, and the lower end of the core is magnetized to a south polarity the armature will be rotated clockwise, for the left end, or north pole, will be attracted by the lower end of the iron core, which is a south pole, and the right end will be repelled. this is in accordance with one of the fundamental laws of magnetism which states that magnetic poles of unlike polarity attract each other and those of like polarity repel each other. the amount the armature b is rotated will depend upon the relative effects of the pole of the solenoid and the permanent magnet g. the strength of the pole of the solenoid will depend upon the current in its winding and the number of times the current passes around the core, or the number of turns in the winding. in other words, the strength of the pole of the solenoid varies as the product of the current and the number of turns, which is called the ampere-turns. the same magnetic effect can be produced by a large current passing through a few turns or a small current passing through a relatively large number of turns. this simple relation of current and turns gives a means of adjusting the current capacity of the instrument so that a full-scale deflection of the needle will correspond to any desired maximum current. the instrument may be used as either a voltmeter or as an ammeter, and its operation will be identical in each case. the resistance of the voltmeter, however, will be many times the resistance of the ammeter, as it will be connected directly across the line, while the ammeter will always be in series in the circuit in which it is desired to measure the current. the following description and suggestion as to how to proceed in the construction of this instrument may be useful to those who undertake to build one. all the minor details and some of the dimensions will be omitted in the description, but these can be easily supplied. [illustration: the parts as they are assembled to make a pocket voltmeter for direct currents (fig. )] procure a piece of hard rubber or fiber, about / in. in thickness and of sufficient size to cut from it a disk, - / in. in diameter. make a small horseshoe magnet from a piece of the very best steel obtainable, and magnetize it to as high a strength as possible. this magnet is made of a piece of steel, / in. thick, about / in. in breadth, and of such length that the overall lengthwise dimension of the completed magnet will be about - / in. and the distance between the inside edges of the ends a little greater than / in. fasten the completed magnet to the base f by means of two or three straps, made from some thin brass, and small machine or wood screws. then cut from some / -in. sheet brass a piece having the general appearance and dimensions shown at a, fig. . bend the ends of this piece over at right angles to the center portion along the dotted lines. drill the hole at the upper end and thread it for a / -in. machine screw. by means of a pointed drill, make a small recess at the lower end directly opposite the first hole. this small recess is to form the lower bearing for the shaft supporting the moving system, while a small recess cut centrally in the end of a screw, mounted in the upper hole, will form the upper bearing. the screw placed in the upper hole need be only about / in. long. the holes in the two wings are for mounting this piece upon the fiber base, as shown in fig. . the shaft for supporting the moving system is made of a piece of a hatpin. it is about / in. long and its ends are pointed so that they will turn freely in the bearings provided for them. the armature is cut from a piece of / -in. sheet steel. it is made about / in. long, / in. wide at the center, tapering to / in. at the ends. a hole is drilled in its center so that it may be forced onto the shaft. it is mounted so that its lower surface comes about / in. from the lower end of the shaft. then cut from some very thin brass a piece, that is to form the needle, / in. wide at one end and tapered to a point at the other, the total length being about in. drill a hole in the large end of this piece, the same size as the shaft and / in. from the end. this piece is not fastened to the shaft until some of the other parts are completed. [illustration: details of the supports for the coil and for the needle, or pointer, shaft (fig. )] the spool upon which the winding is to be placed is made as follows: procure a piece of very soft wrought iron, - / in. long and / in. in diameter, to form the core. the ends of the spool are made of thin brass and are dimensioned as shown in fig. , at b and c. the piece shown at b is to form the lower end of the spool, and is bent at right angles along the dotted line. the two holes at the lower edge are for attaching the end of the spool to the fiber base. the piece shown at c forms the upper end of the spool and at the same time a back upon which the scale of the instrument is mounted. the holes in the lower edge are threaded for small machine screws, as it will be necessary to fasten this piece to the base by means of screws that pass through the base from the under side, as shown in fig. . bend the upper and lower portion of the piece over at right angles to the center portion along the dotted lines. make sure that the large hole in the center of each end piece is of such size that it will fit very tight on the end of the wrought-iron core. force the end pieces onto the ends of the core a short distance, say, / in., and hammer down the edges of the core so that the end pieces cannot be easily removed. in fastening the ends to the core be sure that the parts that are to rest upon the base are parallel with each other and extend in opposite directions; also that the ends are at right angles to the core. then insulate the inner portions of the completed spool with several thicknesses of onion-skin paper, or any good-quality, thin writing paper, and shellac. the winding will be described later. mount the spool and support for the bearings upon the base so that they occupy the positions, relative to each other, indicated in fig. . a paper scale is then mounted upon the brass base provided for it by means of some thin shellac. the upper and lower lines for the scale can now be drawn upon the paper, using the center of the screw at the lower end of the needle as a center. these lines are best placed about / in. apart and not nearer the edge of the base than / inches. the needle is bent over at right angles / in. from the center of the shaft. another right-angle bend in the needle is then made so that the pointed end will be about / in. above the surface of the scale when the large end of the needle is fastened to the shaft / in. from the upper end of the latter. turn the needle on the shaft so that the pointer is at the left end of the scale when the moving system is at rest. the shaft must be exactly vertical when this adjustment is made. cut the end of the needle down until its end is midway between the two scale lines. solder the needle to the shaft, and then place a sufficient quantity of solder on the broad end to balance the system perfectly and allow it to come to rest in any position when the armature b is not influenced by any magnetic field. a containing case for the instrument may be made as follows: make a cylinder from some thin sheet brass, having exactly the same inside diameter as the base, and a height a little greater than the vertical distance from the lower surface of the base to the upper surface of the needle. also a disk from some thin sheet brass, having a diameter / in. greater than the outside diameter of the cylinder. round off the edges of this disk and cut a curved slot in it directly over the scale, about / in. wide and of the same length and form as the scale. solder the disk to one end of the cylinder, placing the solder all on the inside. to prevent moisture from entering the case, fasten a piece of thin glass on the under side of the slot in the disk by means of some shellac and several pieces of brass soldered to the disk and bent down onto the glass. the case can now be fastened to the base by means of several screws, passing through its lower end into the edge of the base. two small binding posts are mounted on the outside of the case, about deg. apart and well insulated from each other and from the case, to serve as terminals for the instrument. the instrument is now complete with the exception of the winding. since this is to be a voltmeter and it is always desirable that a voltmeter take as small a current as possible, the winding must consist of a relatively large number of turns of small wire, each turn carrying a small current. the difference in the construction of different instruments necessitates that their winding contain a different number of turns in order that a given voltage may produce a full-scale deflection. a little experimenting with different windings is the easiest means of determining the proper size of wire and number of turns to meet individual requirements. after adjusting the winding so that the maximum voltage it is desired to measure produces a full-scale deflection, the scale is calibrated by marking the positions of the needle in accordance with those of the needle of a standard instrument connected in parallel with it. in marking the scale of an ammeter, connect the instruments in series. remember that if the instrument is to be used as an ammeter, it must have as low a resistance as possible and that to prevent undue heating, the wire must have ample cross section. if difficulty is experienced due to the continuous vibration of the needle, although the current be practically constant, this trouble can be greatly reduced by mounting a paper wind vane on the moving system, which will tend to dampen its movement. falling leaves in a nature scene use an ordinary pasteboard box, a shoe box or larger, and cut out one end. fasten the box to the ceiling by means of pasteboard strips. one end of these strips is pasted on the bottom of the box and the other ends tacked to the ceiling. fit a piece of board, / in. thick, into the open end of the box so that it will slide easily back and forth on the inside. place this slide in the back of the box, attach a string to it and run this through double tacks placed in the ceiling and to the side wings. [illustration: the box as it is prepared to fasten on the ceiling for dropping the leaves] have the box almost full of autumn leaves, and when the slide is pulled slowly by the operator, they will be pushed, one or two at a time, out of the open end, and will drift down to the stage as naturally as if falling from trees, making quite a realistic scene.--contributed by miss s. e. jocelyn, new haven, conn. home or traveling utility bed pocket the pocket is made of cretonne with wire hooks attached on the upper edge. the compartments are arranged as needs may require. it can be hooked on the head, foot or side rail of the bed or used, as shown, in a sleeping car. it provides a place to keep the slippers, gown and other necessities, and can be rolled up and put in a bag.--contributed by harriette i. lockwood, philadelphia, pa. [illustration: various pockets for the change garments for use at home or in traveling] a paper perforator in an emergency an ordinary hacksaw blade may be made to serve very acceptably as a paper perforator. the toothed edge is applied to the paper and the reverse edge tapped with a mallet or hammer. a considerable number of sheets may be perforated at one time, depending of course on the thickness and softness of the paper. turning brass rings [illustration] occasionally an amateur has need of brass rings of round cross section, and if their construction is not understood, the task is a difficult one. if a piece of brass tubing, an old bushing or a cored piece is at hand, a part of the work is already done. if not, a piece of stock with large enough outside diameter should be chucked in the lathe and drilled out with the right size of drill. a tin or pasteboard template should be prepared the size of the ring section--a half circle is best, and it is easiest made by drilling a hole in the tin and cutting it in two. an inside boring tool and a turning tool are necessary. it is preferable to shape the inside first, cutting it out roughly and checking up with the template. the amount of inside cutting is shown in the drawing. a hard scraper and emery cloth may be used for smoothing and polishing. turn and polish the outside and finally turn as far down on the inner quarter as can be done without cutting off the finish, then polish and cut it off. it only requires a little filing to smooth up the rim of rough metal left. [illustration: the electric globes, as they light beneath the spray, illuminate the top, and the light follows the streams of water so that they appear like streams of light] an electric fountain by walter p. butler to make the grounds as attractive as possible for a lawn party given one night, i constructed an electric fountain which at first appeared to be an expensive proposition, but when completed the desired effect was produced without any expense whatever, as i had the things used in its construction on hand. [illustration: details of the different parts to construct the electric fountain (fig. )] a light frame, in. square, was made, of / -in. material, as shown in fig. , and a grooved pulley was attached exactly in the center on the under side of the crosspiece. a turned stick, a, in. in diameter and - / in. long, was fastened to the face of the pulley so that it turned true as the pulley and frame revolved. a hole was then bored centrally through the three parts, the frame crosspiece, the pulley, and the turned stick, of a size to fit a spindle about / in. in diameter. a box was procured, large enough for the frame to turn in freely, and a block of wood was fastened centrally in its bottom, which had a / -in. pin set in a hole bored in the center. the pin may be of hard wood, but it is better to use metal. a bolt, or piece of rod, will answer the purpose of a pin very well. a small battery motor--i had one on hand and did not need to purchase one--was fastened to one side of the box so that its pulley was in line with the pulley on the lower surface of the frame. the batteries to run the motor were placed in the corner of the box, where the revolving frame would not touch them. the motor may be of larger current capacity, however, and run direct on the current used for the lamps. [illustration: (fig. )] about / in. from the lower end of the turned piece a, a brass strip was fastened around it. this work should be neatly done, and the joint soldered and smoothed, so that the outer surface will not catch on the brush used to make the contact. this ring can be better made by cutting the width from a piece of brass tubing of a size to fit on the turned stick a. about - / in. from the lower end four segments of a circle were fastened so as to make a space of about / in. between their ends. this construction is clearly shown in fig. . a cross section, showing the wire connections from the brass ring and segments to the lamps and where they lead out on top, is shown at b. the contact brushes consist of brass strips fastened with bolts to an upright, c, made of wood and attached to one edge of the block in the bottom of the box. two nuts are used on each bolt, between which are fastened the lead wires from a source of current. [illustration: (fig. )] the wiring diagram is shown in fig. . the wire d from the ring is run to the brass base of each lamp, of which there are four. the wires e, from each segment, are connected with solder to each screw ferrule of the lamps, and the ends are left bare and open, as shown, between the lamps. [illustration: (fig. )] a lamp is fastened to each corner of the frame on top, as shown in fig. , with a piece of wire wrapped once around the screw ferrule and the extending ends held with staples. the wire used should be heavily insulated or, if it is of iron, a rubber tube slipped over it. a piece of tin, or bright metal, is placed beneath each globe for a reflector. [illustration: (fig. )] a glass plate was used to cover the box, and a lawn spray of the fountain type was placed on the glass. the globes, as they light beneath the spray, illuminate the top and the light follows the streams of water so that they appear like streams of light. each light is turned on in succession as the frame revolves within the box, and by using globes of different colors, an exceedingly beautiful effect is obtained. if the bared ends of the wires are twisted together between the globes, these will all glow at once. a mystery coin box the effect of this trick is as follows: a small metal box, just large enough to hold a half dollar and about / in. high, with a cover that fits snugly over the top, is passed out to be examined, and when handed back to the performer he places it on the finger ends of his left hand, and a half dollar is dropped into it and the cover put on. the box is then shaken to prove that the coin is still there. the performer then taps the box with his fingers and picks it up with the other hand and the coin will appear to have fallen through the bottom. both the coin and box are then handed out for examination. this seemingly impossible effect is made when the performer places the cover on the box. the box is resting on the fingers of the left hand and the cover is held between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, but just before placing the cover on, the box is turned over with the right thumb, and the cover is placed on the bottom instead of the top. the trick can be done within a foot of the spectators without their seeing the deception. it is a good plan to hide the box with the right hand when placing the cover, although this is not necessary. how to make a small series motor the motor here described has been constructed and found to give very good results. it is simple to build and the materials required can be easily obtained. the armature core and field, or frame, are made of laminated iron, instead of being cast as is often done by the manufacturers, which is a decided advantage, as certain losses are thereby reduced, and its operation will be improved by this type of construction especially if used on an alternating-current circuit. the machine will be divided into three main parts, the construction of each of which will be taken up in turn and the method of procedure discussed in detail. these parts are the completed armature, the field and bearings, and the brushes together with suitable terminals and connections. the armature core is constructed from a number of pieces, having dimensions that correspond to those given in a, fig. . these pieces are cut from thin annealed sheet iron, in sufficient number to make a pile, / in. high, when placed on top of each other and firmly clamped. it would, no doubt, be best to first lay out one of these pieces very carefully and then cut it out and mark out the other pieces with the first one as a pattern, being careful to file off all the rough edges on each piece. [illustration: details of the armature laminations and the commutator segments, and the method of mounting armature core and commutator (fig. )] now obtain a piece of / -in. iron or brass rod, - / in. long, that is to serve as a shaft upon which to mount the armature and commutator. this rod is threaded for a distance of / in. on one end and - / in. on the other. procure five brass nuts, / in. thickness, to fit the threads on the rod. if possible have the ends of the rod centered before the threads are cut, for reasons to be given later. place one of the nuts on that end of the shaft that is threaded for / in., and in such a position that its inner surface is / in. from the end of the rod. solder this nut to the rod when it is in the proper place and remove all extra solder. drill a / -in. hole in each of the armature stampings and place them on the shaft, clamping them together with three small clamps, one on each extension or pole. then place a second nut on the shaft and draw it up tight against the last stamping placed in position, and solder it to the shaft. next wind two or three layers of good strong tape around each of the rectangular portions of the armature and then remove the clamps. make sure that all the edges of the different laminations are perfectly even before applying the tape. the shaft is then placed between two centers to determine whether the core is approximately balanced and runs true. if the armature core is unbalanced or not true, the trouble should be corrected before proceeding with the remainder of the armature construction. the armature winding is not to be put on the core until the commutator has been constructed and mounted on the shaft. the commutator consists of three pieces of thin sheet brass similar to that shown at b, fig. , mounted on the surface of a cylinder of insulating material, / in. long and / in. in diameter. a / -in. hole is drilled lengthwise through the cylinder of insulating material. bend the pieces of brass around the outside of the cylinder, and turn all the lugs, except the center one, marked c, over at right angles and put a small nail or screw through the holes in the ends of the lugs into the cylinder. these pieces of brass are equally spaced around the cylinder so that all the lugs, not turned down, project in the same direction. now place a nut on the end of the shaft that extends the greatest distance through the armature, so that its outside surface is / in. from the surface of the end of the armature core next to it, and solder the nut to the shaft. place the commutator on the shaft so that the projections on the pieces of brass are toward the armature core and the spaces between the ends of the pieces occupy the position relative to the cores, shown at a, fig. . another nut is then placed on the shaft and drawn up tight against the cylinder. the proper spacing of the various parts on the shaft of the machine is shown at d, fig. . another small nut is placed on the end of the shaft, away from the commutator, so that its outside surface is / in. from the surface of the end of the armature core. [illustration: diagram of the winding on the armature and detail of the field laminations (fig. )] the threads on that part of the shaft extending beyond the last nut on each end are now filed off, which can be easily done by placing the shaft between the centers of a lathe and revolving it quite rapidly, the file being applied to the parts that are to be cut down. obtain a small quantity of no. gauge single-cotton-covered copper wire and wind four layers on each of the three legs, or poles, of the armature core, insulating the layers from each other and the entire winding from the core by means of paper and shellac. the three coils are wound in the same direction about their respective cores and each winding is started at the center of the armature with or in. of wire extending out toward the commutator. the outside end of each winding will terminate at the end of the coil toward the center of the armature, if an even number of layers is wound on, and is securely fastened by means of two or three turns of heavy thread. the inside end of one coil is then connected to the outside end of the next one, and so on. these connections can be easily made, and at the same time the proper connections made to the commutator, by cutting the inside end of one coil and the outside end of the next so that they will reach the lug on the nearest segment of the commutator, with about / in. to spare, then removing the insulation from each for about / in. and soldering them both to the same lug. the arrangement of the winding is shown at a, fig. . connect all of the coils and segments in this manner, and the armature of the motor is complete. the field or frame of the machine is made from a number of laminations whose dimensions correspond to those given in b, fig. . as many laminations are used in the construction of the frame as the number of pieces in the armature, if iron of the same thickness is used. four of the laminations have extensions at their lower corners to correspond to the parts shown by the dotted lines in b, fig. . place all of these laminations in a pile and clamp them rigidly together, then drill the four holes, indicated by the letters c, d, e and f, with a / -in. drill. two of the pieces with the extensions on them are placed in the bottom of the pile and the other two on top. place a / -in. bolt through each of the lower holes and draw up the nuts on them tight. procure two pieces of / -in. rod, - / in. long, and thread each end for a distance of / in. get nuts for these rods, about / in. thick and / in. across the face, if possible. both sides of these nuts are filed down flat. put the threaded rods through the two upper holes in the field frame and place a nut on each end and draw them tight, leaving an equal length of rod protruding from each side. obtain two pieces of / -in. brass, / in. wide, one - / in. long and the other - / in. long. bend these pieces into the forms shown at a, fig. . drill a / -in. hole in each end of both pieces so that they may be mounted upon the ends of the rods protruding from the field frame. the exact center of the space the armature is to occupy is then marked on each of these pieces, and a hole is drilled in each, having the same diameter as the ends of the armature shaft. [illustration: detail of the armature supports and the brushes, and the manner of mounting the brushes (fig. )] the extensions on the outside laminations are bent over at right angles to the main portion of the frame, thus forming a base upon which the motor may rest. holes may be drilled in the extensions after they are bent over to be used in mounting the frame upon a wooden base. procure about / lb. of no. gauge single-cotton-covered copper wire and wind it on the lower center portion of the frame until the depth of the winding is about / in. be careful to insulate the winding well and, to insure mechanical protection, place a layer of adhesive tape outside. about or in. of wire is allowed at each end for making connections. it is best to have these ends terminate on the commutator side of the frame. the brushes for the machine are made from some thin sheet copper or brass, and are shaped and dimensioned approximately as shown at b, fig. . two pieces of hard rubber, or fiber, / in. square and / in. long, serve as mountings for the brushes. these pieces of insulation are mounted in the corners of the armature support, at the commutator end, by means of two small screws in each. mount the brushes on these pieces so that their free ends bear on the commutator exactly opposite each other. one brush is mounted on the upper end of its support and the other brush on the lower end of its support. this is shown at c, fig. . two small binding posts are mounted at the same time as the brushes, and are electrically connected to the brushes, thus affording an easy means of making a connection to the armature. the brushes are so mounted as to bear firmly upon the commutator. to operate the motor, connect the armature and field windings in series, and the combination to a source of electromotive force of several volts. if it is desired to reverse the direction of rotation, reverse the connections of either the armature or field windings, but not both. the motor may be mounted on a neat wooden base and the connections all brought down to a reversing switch, which may also be mounted on the same base as the motor. the speed can be varied by changing the impressed voltage, or by connecting a variable resistance in the armature circuit, such as a wire rheostat. a small pulley may be made and attached to the armature shaft so that the motor may be used in driving various kinds of toys. cooler for milk and butter [illustration] an earthen jar or crock, with a cover, set in a box containing moist sand will keep butter and milk in hot weather better than a refrigerator. the sand must be kept moist at all times.--edwin j. bachman, jr., fullerton, pa. rubber bumper on a water faucet sometimes a dish is broken by striking it on the faucet. this is easily remedied by cutting a rubber washer from a rubber-boot heel with a sharp chisel and a hammer. the washer is pushed into place on the end of the faucet, and the dishes may strike the rubber without being broken.--contributed by harriette i. lockwood, philadelphia, pa. boring a clean-edged hole [illustration] when boring a hole in wood, withdraw the bit as soon as the worm shows, then start the worm in the hole on the opposite side and finish boring the hole. it will then have clean edges on both sides of the wood. often the bit pushes splinters of wood ahead of it, when passing through, but by using the method described this is avoided. drilling thin metal [illustration] in drilling very thin stock the drill, if not properly ground, will tear the metal and leave a ragged edge. to cut a hole through neatly the drill should be ground as illustrated. the center a should extend about / in. beyond the points b. the point a locates the center and the sharp points b cut out the disk of metal. holes have been neatly and quickly made with this drill grinding in metal measuring . in. thickness.--contributed by joseph j. kolar, maywood, ill. * * * * * a pencil may be kept from falling out of the pocket by wrapping a couple of turns of tape around it or by wrapping it with a small rubber band. flexible-cord adjuster for an electrical flatiron [illustration] when using an electrical flatiron the flexible cord frequently gets under the iron, causing much trouble for the user, and mussing up the clothing. the cord can be kept out of the way by fastening a pulley to the ironing board and attaching a coil spring to the electric cord between the pulley and the electric-fixture socket. a coil spring that will draw out about ft. should be used.--contributed by herbert blandford, elmira, n. y. a wood clothes peg [illustration] if clothes that are slightly damp are hung on a nail or metal peg, a rust stain that is almost impossible to remove will be the result. to prevent this, drive a nail with the head removed into the wall or cleat, and place a wood peg over it. the peg may be turned up or whittled out with a pocket knife and the hole bored with a hand drill.--contributed by wm. a. robinson, waynesboro, pa. to make scratch pads of old labels [illustration] labels and blank paper of uniform size, that would otherwise be cast aside, can be turned into handy scratch pads by placing them between blocks of wood, secured by a wood clamp, and applying paste on two edges, then pressing a strip of paper on the pasted portions. the edges to be pasted should project a trifle beyond the edges of the blocks. how to make an electric heater the electric heater described in this article is very simple to construct, its operation exceedingly satisfactory, and the necessary material easily procured at a small cost at most electrical-supply stores. the few tools needed are usually found about every home, and the heater may be constructed by any ingenious person. procure porcelain tubes, in. long and approximately / in. in diameter. on each of these tubes wind ft. of bare no. gauge "climax" resistance wire. the various turns should be uniformly distributed along the tubes and not allowed to come into contact with each other, which can be prevented by placing a thin, narrow coat of plaster of paris along the side of each of the tubes immediately after the winding has been put on. several inches of free wire should be allowed at each end, for making connections, and the first and last turns on each tube should be securely fastened to the tube by several turns of binding wire. it would be best not to extend the winding nearer the ends of the tubes than / in. cut from some heavy tin, or other thin sheet metal, two disks, in. in diameter, and punch six / -in. holes in each of the disks at equal distances and within / in. of the outer edge. punch two / -in. holes in one of these disks, to be used in mounting a porcelain socket, and also one / -in. hole through which the wires may be led to the socket, as shown in fig. . in the other disk punch four / -in. holes, for mounting two porcelain single-pole snap switches, and two / -in. holes, for leading the wires through to the switches, as shown in fig. . [illustration: detail of the two ends on the heater giving dimensions and the location of parts (fig. , fig. )] cut off six lengths of / -in. iron rod, in. long, and thread both ends of each piece for a length of - / in. fasten the porcelain tubes between the metal disks, by placing one of the rods through each of the tubes and allowing the ends to extend through the / -in. holes in the outer edge of the disks. a nut should be placed on each end of all the rods and drawn up so that the length of rod protruding at each end is the same. obtain two single-pole snap switches and a porcelain socket, and mount them on the ends by means of some small stove bolts. the windings on the porcelain tubes should be connected as follows: let the windings be designated by the letters a, b, c, d, e, and f, and their position be that indicated in figs. and . the primes indicate the ends of the windings at the socket end, and the letters without the primes indicate the ends of the windings at the switch end of the heater. the ends a and d should be connected directly together. the ends b and c to the clips of the right-band snap switch, and e and f, to the clips of the left-hand snap switch. the ends f, a, and b should be connected to one terminal of the socket, and c, d, and e to the other terminal of the socket. electrical connection is made to the winding by means of a plug and piece of lamp cord. it is obvious that the windings a and d will be connected as soon as the plug is screwed into the socket, if the circuit is closed at all other points, and the windings b and c, and e and f are controlled by the right and left-hand snap switches, respectively. make sure all the connections are properly insulated, and that there is little chance of a short circuit occurring. after the socket and snap switches have been connected to the windings, two more thin disks, the same diameter as the first, may be fitted over the ends and held in place by two units on the end of each rod, a nut being placed on each side of the disks. a better way of mounting these disks would be by small machine screws that enter threaded holes in the ends of the rods. these last disks are not absolutely necessary, but they will add some to the appearance of the completed heater. four small ears, about / in. square, should be cut on the outer edge of the outside or inside disks and bent over at right angles to the main portion, to be used in mounting the outside case of the heater. cut from a sheet of / -in. asbestos a piece just long enough to fit between the inside disks and wide enough to cover the three lower windings c, d, and e. the object of this piece of asbestos is to protect the surface upon which the heater will stand from excessive heat, since it is to rest in a horizontal position. obtain a piece of perforated, thin sheet metal, - / in. wide and long enough to reach from one outside disk to the other. bend this into a cylinder and fasten it to the lugs on the disks by means of small screws or bolts. [illustration: (fig. )] the legs may be made of / -in. strap iron, / in. wide, bent into the form shown in fig. . these pieces may be attached to the perforated cylinder, before it is mounted on the heater proper, by means of several small bolts. the piece of asbestos should be wired to the cylinder after the heater is all assembled, so that it will always remain in the lower part of the cylinder and serve the purpose for which it is intended. the heater, as described above, is constructed for a -volt circuit, which is the voltage commonly used in electric lighting. the total consumption of the heater will be approximately watts, each part consuming about / of the total, or watts. if it is desired to wind the heater for a -volt circuit, ft. of no. gauge "climax" resistance wire should be used on each tube. a molding-sawing block used on a bench having occasion to saw some short pieces of molding, i experienced considerable trouble in holding them without a vise until i made a block, as shown in the sketch. this answered the purpose as well as a vise. the block is not fastened in any manner, but is simply pushed against the edge of the bench or table and held with the hand. it should be about in. wide and ft. long, with strips in. thick at each edge.--contributed by w. f. brodnax, jr., bethlehem, pa. [illustration: a block for holding molding, or strips of wood, while sawing small pieces from them] pipe caps used as castings for engine pistons desiring to make a small piston for a model engine and not caring to make a pattern and send it away to have a casting made, i thought of using ordinary pipe caps, these being both inexpensive and of a quality adapted to machining. the cylinder bore was - / in. in diameter, so i secured a standard pipe cap for - / -in. pipe which gave an outside diameter of about - / in. the cap, not having sufficient depth for holding in a chuck, was screwed on a short piece of pipe and then trued in the lathe chuck. the outside surface was turned to a diameter of - / in., then removed from the pipe, reversed and chucked again, and the threads bored out to reduce the walls to / in. this made an excellent piston for a single-acting engine.--contributed by harry f. lowe, washington, d. c. an electric horn a simple electric horn for use on a bicycle, automobile, or for other purposes, can be constructed as shown in fig. . the size will of course depend somewhat on the use for which it is intended, but one with the diaphragm - / in. in diameter and the horn in. long and in. in diameter, at the large end, will be sufficient for most purposes. this will make the instrument - / or in. in over-all length. [illustration: an electric horn operated in a manner similar to an electric bell on a battery circuit (fig. )] the horn proper, a, fig. , is constructed first. this can be formed from sheet brass. to lay out the metal to the desired size draw a cross section, as abcd, fig. , then project the lines ac and bd until they meet at e. strike two arcs of circles on the brass sheet, using ec as radius for the inner one and ea for the outer. measure off fg and hj equal to - / times dc and ab, respectively, and cut out fgjh. roll and lap / in. at the edges and solder the joint neatly. [illustration: (fig. )] after smoothing the edges on the ends, solder a very thin disk of ferrotype metal, b, fig. , to the small end of the horn. this is used for the diaphragm. cut out a ring, c, from / -in. hard fiber and bevel it on the inside edge to fit the horn. also make a disk of fiber, d, having the same outside diameter as the ring c. these parts form the ends for a brass cylinder e, which is made in two parts or halves joined on the lines shown in fig. . fasten one of the halves, f, fig. , to the fiber ring c and disk d, fig. , with small screws, the other half to be put in place after the instrument is completed and adjusted. [illustration: (fig. )] a small support, g, is cut from fiber and fastened in as shown. a pair of magnets of about ohms are mounted on this support. the parts from an old bell or buzzer may be used, which consist of a soft-iron armature, h, fig. , having a strap of spring brass, j, attached by soldering and pivoted at k, with an adjusting screw, l, to set the tension. another u-shaped spring-brass strip, m, constitutes the current breaker, which has an adjusting screw, n. the points of contact on the current breaker should be tipped with platinum. a piece of brass wire, o, is soldered to the diaphragm disk b and the soft-iron armature h, to connect them solidly. the tone of the horn can be adjusted with the screws l and n. the faster the armature vibrates, the higher the tone, and vice versa. the connections are the same as for an electric bell.--contributed by james p. lewis, golden, colo. combination meat saw and knife a very handy combination knife and meat saw can be made of an old discarded saw blade. the blade is cut on a line parallel with the toothed edge, allowing enough material to make a good-sized blade, then the straight part is ground to a knife edge and a wood handle attached at one end. the handle is made in halves, placed one on each side of the blade, and riveted together, then the projecting metal is ground off to the shape of the handle.--contributed by a. c. westby, porter, minn. [illustration: the blade of the knife is cut from the toothed side of a discarded saw blade] clamp used as a vise a carpenter's wood clamp fastened to the edge of a bench, as shown in the sketch, makes a good substitute for a vise for many kinds of light work. if the clamp is located over or in front of the bench post, holes must be bored in the latter to admit the ends of the clamp screws. a hole is bored through the shoulder screw and a handle attached as shown.--contributed by h. w. j. langletz, harrisburg, pa. [illustration: the clamp attached to a bench top will serve the purpose of a vise in many instances] wire expansion meter when there is a current of electricity in an electrical conductor a certain amount of heat is generated due to the opposition or resistance of the conductor to the free passage of the electricity through it. the heat thus generated causes a change in the temperature of the conductor and as a result there will be a change in its length, it contracting with a decrease in temperature and expanding with an increase in temperature. the temperature of the conductor will change when the current in it changes, and hence its length will change, and it will reach a constant temperature or a constant length when the current in it is constant in value and the rate at which it is giving off heat is exactly equal to the rate at which heat is being generated in it. the fact that there is an actual change in the length of the conductor due to a change in current in it constitutes the fundamental principle of the following simple instrument. [illustration: meter for measuring the expansion of metal wires which are heated by electricity] the parts needed in its construction are as follows: an old safety-razor blade; one -in. hatpin; two medium-size nails; a short piece of german-silver wire; a small piece of sealing wax; a / -in. board for the base, approximately - / in. by in., and a small piece of thin sheet brass. remove the head from the hatpin and fasten the blunt end in the center of the safety-razor blade a with a piece of sealing wax so that the pin b is perpendicular to the blade as shown. now drive the two nails into the board c, so that they are about / in. from the edges and - / in. from the end. fasten the piece of german-silver wire d to these nails as shown. the size of this wire will depend upon the value of the current to be measured. make a small hook, e, from a short piece of rather stiff wire and fasten it to the hatpin about in. from the razor blade. the length of this hook should be such that the pointed end of the hatpin will be at the top of the scale f when there is no current in the wire, d. the scale f is made by bending the piece of sheet brass so as to form a right angle and fastening it to the base. a piece of thin cardboard can be mounted upon the surface of the vertical portion of the piece of brass and a suitable scale inked upon it. the instrument is now complete with the exception of two binding posts, not shown in the sketch, that may be mounted at convenient points on the base and connected to the ends of the german-silver wire, thus serving as terminals for the instrument. the completed instrument can be calibrated by connecting it in series with another instrument whose calibration is known and marking the position of the pointer on the scale for different values of current. how to make a fire and burglar alarm a very serviceable fire and burglar alarm may be installed by anyone who can work with carpenters' tools and who has an elementary knowledge of electricity. fire and burglar alarms are divided into two general types, called "open circuit" and "closed circuit," respectively. in the open-circuit type of alarm all the windows, doors, and places to be protected are equipped with electrical alarm springs which are in circuit with an ordinary vibrating bell and battery, and these alarm springs are all normally open. when a window or door is disturbed or moved more than a predetermined amount, the bell circuit is closed and the alarm sounded. the arrangement of such an alarm is shown in fig. . a switch, a, is placed in circuit so that the alarm may be disconnected during the day and the opening and closing of doors and windows will not operate the bell. it is best not to place a switch in the fire-alarm circuit as this circuit should be in an operating condition at all times. [illustration: connections and wiring diagram showing an open-circuit fire and burglar alarm (fig. )] the alarm switch controlled by the window consists of a narrow metal plate, b, and a spring, c, mounted in a recess cut in the side of the window frame. the spring c is bent into such a form that its upper end is forced into contact with the plate b, when the window is raised past the outwardly projecting part of the spring c, and the bell circuit is thus closed. the position of the alarm switch can be adjusted so that the window may be opened a sufficient distance to permit the necessary ventilation but not allow a burglar to enter. the alarm switch controlled by the door is arranged in a different manner. in this case the free end of the spring d is held away from contact with the spring e by the edge of the door, which forces the spring d back into the recess cut in the door jamb. when the door is opened the spring e is permitted to move out and come into contact with the spring or plate e, and the alarm circuit is thus closed. the form of the spring d can be so adjusted that the door may be opened some distance, but not enough to allow a person to enter, before the alarm is sounded. an alarm switch, identical with that just described for the door, should be mounted in the upper part of the window frame to take care of the upper sash. this alarm switch may be located low enough to permit the window to be lowered for the purpose of ventilation without sounding the alarm. the wires for these various alarm switches should be run as near completely concealed as possible to prevent them being tampered with by curious parties, who may unintentionally break one of the conductors and thus make some part of the system inoperative. it might be best to test the system occasionally, to make sure all switches are in operating condition. the fire-alarm switch consists of two springs that are held from contact with each other by means of a thin cord. this switch is placed in the location to be protected, or wherever a fire is most likely to break out, such as over the furnace, in the coal bin, etc. when the cord is destroyed the springs make contact and the alarm is sounded. a metal having a very low melting temperature may be used instead of the cord, and the alarm will be sounded when the temperature exceeds a certain amount and the actual occurrence of a fire thus prevented. in some cases, the fire-alarm switch may be completely destroyed and the alarm circuit will then be opened and the bell will cease ringing. to prevent this trouble a small electric drop may be placed in the circuit, the arrangement being similar to that shown in fig. . when the shutter of the drop falls, due to the closing of the alarm circuit, there is a second circuit closed, and this second circuit remains closed until the shutter is restored to its vertical or normal position, or the switch, a, is thrown to the open point. the addition of the drop in the burglar-alarm circuit may prove to be an advantage, as a burglar cannot stop the alarm, after he has once closed any of the alarm switches and operated the drop, by simply restoring the window or door to its original position. [illustration: circuit equipped with drop to ring the bell in case the switch is destroyed (fig. )] in the closed-circuit type, the alarm switches are all normally closed and the alarm is sounded by opening the circuit at some point. the arrangement of such an alarm is shown in fig. . the alarm switches are all connected in series in this case and in circuit with a closed-circuit battery and relay or drop. the drop or relay controls a local circuit composed of an open-circuit battery and an ordinary vibrating bell. [illustration: wiring diagram showing connections for a closed-circuit burglar and fire alarm (fig. )] the operation of a drop on a closed circuit is a little different from its operation on a normally open circuit. the drop for the closed circuit must be so constructed that its latch holds the shutter in a vertical position when there is a current in the drop winding, but allows it to fall as soon as the drop circuit is opened. an ordinary telegraph relay may be used in connection with the closed-circuit alarm. the connections to the relay are such that the bell circuit is normally open and remains so until the armature of the relay is released, which does not occur until the circuit of which its winding is a part is opened at one of the alarm springs. a special switch, a, and resistance, b, are shown connected in circuit in fig. , the object of which is as follows: when it is desired to disconnect the alarm springs or make them inoperative they must be replaced by another circuit which will permit a sufficient current to pass through the relay winding at all times, to prevent its armature from being released and sounding the alarm. the switch a is so constructed that either the alarm switches or the resistance b is in series with the battery and relay winding at all times, there being no open-circuit position for the switch. the fire-alarm switch for this type of signal may be made from a narrow piece of tin foil, or some metal having a low melting temperature, mounted between two insulated clips that are connected in the alarm circuit. strips of gold or silver foil may be placed on windows and connected in the alarm circuit, which will give a protection from theft by breaking the glass. two or three gravity cells will serve very nicely for the closed-circuit battery, while several dry cells will do for the open-circuit or bell battery. all types of alarm switches can be purchased at any up-to-date electrical supply house, but their construction and operation is so simple that they may be easily made by almost anyone. a detailed description of the construction of the various parts of the above circuits will not be given here, but such details can be safely left to the ingenuity of the person installing the system. it is easily seen from the above description that a burglar who might discover that a house was wired for alarm would be greatly perplexed to know what to do, for the very thing that would prevent one kind of alarm from ringing would cause the other to ring. removing a rear bicycle sprocket if a bicycle rider desires to remove the rear sprocket for changing the gear, or for any other reason, and there is no large pipe wrench at hand, a piece of tube or pipe, as shown in the sketch, can be used as a lever. fasten one end of the chain in one end of the pipe with a wedge and place the other end of the pipe on a sprocket. the chain is then placed over the sprockets and a leverage equal to any pipe wrench is secured.--contributed by jno. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: the piece of pipe gives a leverage equal to that of a large pipe wrench] hand propeller-wheel attachment for a rowboat the rear fork of an old bicycle frame, with the crank hanger attached, and the rear hub constitute the main parts of the propelling device. one of the cranks is cut from the hanger and a bracket attached to the frame, as shown, for making it fast to the stern of the boat. two propeller blades are bolted to the rear hub. a rudder is fastened to the rear tube of the frame with hooks and eyes so that it can be turned with a handle at the top, or with ropes run to a wheel. the illustration shows the connection of the device to a boat.--contributed by berge lion, fresno, cal. [illustration: the rear fork of a bicycle with its parts constitutes the main propeller attachment] an attached back for a photographic printing frame in using the ordinary photographic printing frame with a spring-pressure back, the back must be entirely removed from the frame to put in the paper, and as this operation is carried on in a dim light, the back is often mislaid, causing no little inconvenience and delay. to do away with this annoyance, i placed at one end of the frame, as shown in the sketch, a second hinge made of cloth or any pliable material. when the pressure springs are released, the back swings down on this auxiliary hinge, and after changing the papers, it is instantly closed by a slight movement of the hand, making it very rapid and easy to use.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the back, being hinged to the frame, prevents it from being mislaid] repairing a worn stop cock the plug of a worn stop cock, or one that has been reground, of the type shown in the illustration will project beyond the bottom so that the ring, or washer, and screw will not draw it tightly into place. [illustration: removing a portion of the plug and shortening the screw allows the parts to be drawn tightly together] to remedy this trouble, file off a portion of the plug on the line aa and also file off a sufficient amount of the screw on the line bb. when the plug is replaced and the washer and screw drawn up, the stop cock will be as good as a new one.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. tool holders made of brass clips hangers to grip tool handles can be easily formed of sheet metal in any desired material. the clips are shaped as shown at a in the sketch. any number of the clips may be fastened with screws to a wood crosspiece or a wall in such a manner as to make openings into which the handles of the tools are pressed. before fastening the clips they should be spaced for the widths of the handles.--contributed by f. h. tillotson, sycamore, ill. [illustration: the clips can be set so that they will grip any size tool handle] removing perspiration stains from delicate cloth lay the stain in the cloth over some blotting paper, and sponge the cloth with a grain-alcohol and ether solution, which should be made by mixing equal portions of each. the sponging should be quite vigorous and kept up until the cloth is dry, then the spot should be touched lightly with ammonia water, which can be purchased at any drug store. this will leave a slight blur, which can be removed by rubbing with french chalk on the wrong side. the chalk is cheap and can be procured with the ammonia water. do not forget the blotting paper, as it keeps the solution from forming a ring around the spot. buttonhole cutter if the buttonhole scissors are mislaid or there are none at hand, the holes may be cut in the manner shown in the sketch. place a piece of wood, having a width equal to the length of the buttonhole, on the table and lay the cloth over it in the line where the holes are required, then draw a sharp knife across the cloth on the wood where the holes are marked. this will cut the cloth neatly and accurately.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, can. [illustration: sharp knife drawn across the cloth laid over a piece of wood cuts the holes] filing small rods in a lathe reducing the diameter of a small rod by filing while it is turning in a lathe is a difficult thing to do, as the pressure of the file on one side bends the rod. the filing may be easily accomplished by using two files, as shown in the sketch. in this manner almost any amount of pressure can be applied by squeezing the files together without danger of bending the rod.--contributed by j.f. tholl, detroit, mich. [illustration: the pressure of one file against the other prevents the rod from bending] * * * * * young sleepwalkers may be cured if watched and given a good switching until they are wide awake. a d'arsonval galvanometer a galvanometer in which the moving part of the instrument is a permanent magnet controlled by the action of the earth's magnetic field and the magnetic effect of a current in a coil of wire, that usually surrounds the magnet, has the great disadvantage of having its indications changed, although the current itself may remain constant, due to a change in the strength of the magnetic field in which the instrument operates. the operation of instruments of the above type is satisfactory only in localities where there is a practically constant magnetic field for them to operate in, which it is almost impossible to have, due to the presence of permanent and electric magnets and magnetic materials such as iron and steel. an instrument constructed as follows will not have the above disadvantage and its operation will be a great deal more satisfactory, as its indications will be practically independent of outside disturbances. in this instrument, the moving part is the coil carrying the current, and it moves in a permanent magnetic field so strong that other disturbing magnetic effects can be neglected. the coil is hung by means of a fine wire and the twist in this wire is the only force acting to bring the coil back to its zero position, after it has been deflected, and maintain it there. [illustration: the permanent magnet and its brass support, and their position on the base (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the construction of the magnet and containing case for the instrument will be taken up first. obtain a piece of norway iron, / in. square and about in. long. bend this piece into the form shown in fig. , and file off the inner edges until they are parallel and about / in. apart. drill four / -in. holes in the ends of this piece, two in each end, as indicated. this piece of iron is first tempered and then magnetized by placing it in contact with a powerful electromagnet. cut a second piece from some soft iron with dimensions corresponding to those given in fig. . drill two / -in. holes, a and b, in this piece as shown in the sketch. this second piece is mounted between the poles of the magnet, as follows: cut from some / -in. sheet brass a piece similar to the one shown in fig. . drill the holes indicated and thread those designated by a, b, c, d, e, and f to take a / -in. machine screw. bend the upper end of the piece over at the point indicated by the dotted line until it is perpendicular to the lower part. the center of the hole in the projecting part k, when it is bent over, should be about / in. from the outer surface of the main part of the piece. the small piece of iron is then fastened to the piece of brass with two round-headed screws that pass through the two holes in it and into the holes a and b in the brass piece. the magnet is mounted, also with small brass screws, so that the main part of the magnet and the piece of brass extend in opposite directions, as shown in fig. . the assembled parts are then mounted on a wooden board, whose dimensions are given in fig. , with three brass screws that pass through the holes g, h, and j, as shown. [illustration: upper and lower connections to the coil and supports, and the supports for suspension (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] the moving coil of the galvanometer is constructed as follows: cut from some / -in. pine a piece - / in. long and / in. wide. cut two other pieces whose dimensions, except their thickness, are / in. larger than the first piece. then fasten these two pieces to the sides of the first, with three or four small screws through each of them, thus forming a small spool. saw about slots with a very fine saw in the edges of the projecting pieces and a short way into the edge of the center piece. wind on this spool about turns of no. gauge silk-covered copper wire. start with the terminal of the wire in the center of one end of the spool, with a few inches of free wire for making connections, and end up with the terminal in the center of the opposite end of the spool. a small thread is then passed through the slots under the coil and tied, thus serving to hold the various turns of wire together when the coil is removed from the form. the coil should be given a coat of shellac as soon as it is removed from the form. two pieces must now be attached to the top and bottom of the coil to be used in making electrical connections and suspending the coil. cut from some very thin sheet brass two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in figs. and . drill a small hole in the center of each of these pieces. bend the lower part of each piece over at the dotted lines l until it is perpendicular to the main portion of the piece. the bent-over portions of these two pieces are then fastened to the ends of the coil with some fine thread, making sure that they are in the center of the ends before they are fastened. the terminals of the coil are now soldered to these pieces. it would be best to place a sheet or two of thin paper between the brass pieces and the coil, to prevent any part of the coil, except the ends, from coming into contact with the brass pieces. obtain a small piece of thin mirror and mount it with some glue, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. . the upper support for the suspension is shown in fig. and consists of a / -in. threaded screw, a, that passes through the hole in the part k, fig. , and is provided with two lock nuts, b. the lower end of this screw should be slotted a short distance, and a small screw put through it, perpendicular to the slot, so that a wire can be easily clamped in the slot by turning up the screw. next, take a piece of / -in. brass, as shown in fig. , and bend it at the dotted line a until it forms a right angle. the hole b should be threaded to take a / -in. screw. the holes c and d are for mounting the piece on the back of the instrument. slot the end of a / -in. screw, about / in. long, and put a screw through the end as for the upper support for the suspension. this piece is mounted below the position the coil is to occupy, as shown by m, fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] a case should be made for the galvanometer whose inside dimensions correspond to those of the piece n, fig. , and whose depth is about / in. more than the thickness of that piece. four pieces of wood can be fastened in the corners that will allow the case to slip just far enough on the piece n to make the edge of the case and the back surface of the piece n flush. cut an opening in the front of this case, about in. long and in. wide, in such a place that the center of the opening is about level with the ends of the magnet. fasten, back of this opening, a piece of thin glass with four small screws whose heads rest upon the edge of the glass. the interior of this case and all the parts should be given a coat of lampblack mixed with a little vinegar. two small binding posts, o and p, are mounted on the upper end of the piece n and connected to the upper and lower supports for the suspension of the coil. this galvanometer will work best, of course, when it is in an exactly vertical position and the following simple device, when attached to it, will allow it to assume this position independent of the level of the surface its base may rest upon. cut from some - / -in. brass two pieces, / in. wide and - / in. long. drill a / -in. hole in the center of each end of them, / in. from the end, and a / -in. hole through the center of each. bend these pieces to a / -in. radius. cut from some / -in. hard wood a block, - / in. square. fasten the two pieces of brass to the wooden block with / -in. screws, as shown in fig. . one of these pieces is fastened to the upper end of the piece n, fig. , so that the galvanometer will hang vertically. the other piece is fastened to a bracket from which the galvanometer is suspended. a suitable bracket for this purpose can be easily made. when the galvanometer is hung in this way, two binding posts are mounted on the bracket, and connected to the two on the galvanometer. in this way the galvanometer will not be disturbed when making connections. the suspension is made as follows: take a piece of small copper wire and roll it out flat. solder one end of a piece of this wire in the hole in the piece of brass, with the mirror mounted on it. fasten a piece of the same wire to the lower brass piece, attached to the coil. the upper piece of wire is then clamped in the end of the screw a, fig. , so that the coil hangs perfectly free about the iron core. the lower piece of wire is bent around a small rod several times and its end fastened in the slot in the lower screw. the deflection of the instrument is read by causing a beam of light from a lamp or candle to be reflected from the mirror to a scale located in front of the instrument. if the light from the lamp is allowed to shine through a small slit in a piece of dark paper, there will be a streak of light reflected upon the scale, instead of a spot. to use this instrument in measuring larger currents than it will safely carry, connect it in parallel with another resistance which will carry the larger part of the total current. the galvanometer can be calibrated with this resistance, which is known as a shunt. how to make advertising lantern slides procure some old discarded photographic films and remove the gelatin coating by soaking them in hot water. when dry, write the desired words on the thin celluloid and place it between two pieces of glass, lantern-slide size, and bind them as in making a lantern slide. with the use of a carbon paper a very nice slide can be made by writing the words on a typewriter, and it will serve the purpose of an expensive announcement slide.--contributed by f. p. dickover, atkinson, neb. utilizing old brush handles [illustration] the handle cut from an old dusting brush, fitted with the brass end of a shotgun shell, makes a first-class tool handle. the handle is cut off at a and the wood cut down to fit tightly into the brass shell.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. * * * * * tincture-of-iodine stains may be removed from clothing or the skin by using strong ammonia water. preserving paints and pastes white lead, thick shellac, and pastes that are used occasionally may be preserved by laying a piece of leather over the exposed surface. when these materials are kept in cans, cut a piece of leather from the upper of a heavy boot of such a size that it will drop freely into the container. form a handle on the leather disk by driving a nail through its center from the under side. press the disk down smoothly over the surface of the contents and a thin film of oil will soon form over the disk, effectually excluding the air. a loose cover is placed over the container, to keep out dust.--contributed by luther mcknight, colorado city, col. a burner for soldering small work [illustration] as it was necessary for me to solder the joints of fine wires on electrical instruments, and other small work, i found myself in need of a blowpipe that gave a small but very hot and easily directed flame, was automatic in its operation and required no blast. i tried an ordinary acetylene burner on coal or city gas, and found it gave an intensely hot, nonluminous flame, due to the forced draft of air through the small holes. this flame will melt silver, copper and, also, silver solder. its great advantage lies in the fact that it may be used for sweating together small articles rapidly and with great neatness. i always keep this blowpipe burning, as the gas it consumes is very small, and the burner is kept within easy reach by using a hanger, as shown in the illustration. a single jet of flame is obtained by stopping up one of the tips, which is very useful in many ways. this flame may contain a small luminous spot on some city gas, but it does not interfere with the heat.--contributed by arthur worischek, new york city. a safety-match-box holder a holder, as well as a tray, for safety matches can be made from any ordinary tobacco can. the metal on one side is cut as shown and the pieces bent up to form standards for holding the match box in an upright position. the openings left where the metal was raised are used for dropping the burned matches into the box. the hinged cover is used for emptying the tray.--contributed by david b. lutz, e. st. louis, ill. [illustration: the match box is held upright between standards formed from the tin of the tobacco box] removing ink stains from book leaves when the leaves of a book are accidentally stained with ink it can be removed quite readily by the following process: after removing as much of the ink as possible with a camel's-hair brush dipped in water, soak the stained parts in a solution of oxalate of potash, or better still, oxalic acid. this will remove all the ink. treat again with water, as before, so that when it dries out no salt will appear on the paper. this process does not affect printer's ink.--contributed by s. g. thompson, owensboro, ky. a needle-spray nozzle [illustration] to make a needle-spray nozzle, either insert a -caliber cartridge in a small tube, or place a -caliber shell over the end of the tube and solder it in place. the end is perforated to make one or more small holes, as desired. [illustration] how to make an electrotype stamp the method described in the following produces a very good metal stamp for any name, initial, drawing, etc. procure a smooth and perfectly level sheet of brass about / in. thick and about by in. in size. nickelplate the brass so that the copper deposit will not stick to it. if a small plating outfit is not at hand the piece may be plated at a local plating works for a nominal price. dip the plate in melted paraffin until the coating is about / in. thick and see that no metal is exposed. drill a hole in one corner and attach a wire. draw the letters or sketch desired, using a metal stylus having a sharp point, taking care to make the lines scratched in the wax clean and open to the surface of the metal (fig. ). [illustration: making the copper shell (fig. )] a large open-mouthed bottle or glass tank will be required for the plating solution, which is made by dissolving copper sulphate in water until the solution is saturated with the sulphate and then adding a few drops of sulphuric acid. immerse the plate in the solution as shown in fig. and connect with the zinc pole of the battery. put a piece of pure copper in on the opposite side of the jar and connect with the carbon pole of the battery, using care in each case to keep the connection of the wire and the upper part of the plate above the surface. one or two dry cells will be sufficient. if the current is right, the deposit on the waxed plate will be a flesh pink; if too strong, it will be a dirty brick color and the plate will have to be washed and the current reduced. when the desired thickness of metal is deposited, remove the plate and pour boiling water on the back. this will remove the thin copper shell and the nickeled plate may be laid away for future use. [illustration: (fig. )] procure a flat pan and after placing the shell in it, face down, sprinkle a little resin or soldering flux on the back. lay three or four sheets of the lead from tea packages on the back of the shell and heat it over a spirit lamp or on the stove until the lead melts and runs into the crevices on the back of the copper, thus making it solid and suitable for mounting. mount as shown in fig. with small brass screws and after polishing the surface to remove dirt, etc., the stamp is ready for use. [illustration: (fig. )] an ordinary stamp pad will do for inking, but the best ink to use is printer's slightly thinned, as the ordinary rubber stamp ink is not suitable for a metal stamp.--contributed by s. v. cooke, hamilton, ont. a cover for a bottle if a glass medicine bottle is to be carried constantly in the pocket, it is best to cover it with leather or rubber. the sketch shows how to cut the pattern so that it will fit a square bottle. the bottle is placed on the leather, or a piece of paper as a pattern, and the outlines marked upon it. the leather or paper is then folded over four times and cut out as shown. this cover will prevent the glass from being scattered in the pocket should the bottle be accidentally broken. it always provides a means of distinguishing it from other bottles of the same type and size.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: pattern for making a bottle cover of leather or rubber for bottles carried in the pocket] boring a long hole [illustration] the usual method of boring a hole through a piece of wood longer than the bit is to bore from each end. to make the hole straight by this method, split the wood or saw it in halves, then make a knife kerf in both pieces on a center line of the hole and glue the pieces together. the spur of the bit will follow the kerf from either end, and the result will be a meeting of the holes, almost perfectly in the center.--contributed by ernest j. dickert, niagara falls, n. y. covering for a gas-stove top while frying or cooking on a gas stove the grease will spatter over the top and make the cleaning rather difficult, especially where there are many crevices. a simple method of avoiding this trouble is to place a paper over the top of the stove, with round holes cut out for each burner a little larger than the pots and pans used in the cooking. this will keep the stove very clean with a minimum of bother. a paper cut to fit the under pan will keep that part clean.--contributed by s. f. warner, east orange, n. j. homemade skis not having a bent board suitable for a pair of skis, i proceeded to make the skis in the following manner: a cheese box was procured and two pieces cut out of the side, each in. long and in. wide. these were used for the upturned ends and two boards, ft. long and in. wide, served as the runners. a notch, in. long and / in. deep, was cut in one end of each board to receive one end of the thin curved pieces cut from the cheese box, which were fastened with screws. the upper end of each thin piece was cut to a point. [illustration: the curved part of the runner is made from pieces cut out of a round cheese box] a piece for the foot, in. long and in. wide, with a notch in. wide and / in. deep, was fastened in the center of the runner. a strap is run through the notch for holding the ski to the foot--contributed by henry meuse, reading, mass. * * * * * to remove iron rust or ink stains from cloth, use a warm solution of oxalic acid with a few crystals of citric acid added. repeat the washings until the stain is removed. how to make a dry cell the containing vessel for the cell should be made from sheet zinc. it should be cylindrical in form, approximately - / in. in diameter and in. long. this vessel is to form the negative terminal of the cell and a suitable connecting device, similar to the one shown in the sketch, should be provided and securely fastened to the upper edge of the vessel. the vessel should be lined with some heavy blotting paper, both sides and bottom. [illustration: cross section through the cell, showing the construction and location of the parts] place into a glass jar a small quantity of chloride-of-zinc crystals, and pour over them / pt. of distilled water. allow the crystals to dissolve at least one-half hour. if the crystals all dissolve, add more until some remain in the bottom of the jar, or until the liquid is saturated. pour off the solution and dilute it by adding an equal part of distilled water. add to this solution sal ammoniac, in the proportion of lb. of sal ammoniac to every qt. of liquid. fill the dry-cell vessel with this solution and allow it to remain until the blotting paper is completely saturated. obtain a good size electric-light carbon, about / in. in diameter, and file one end down as shown. drill a hole through the carbon and mount a terminal. make a mixture of equal parts of finely powdered carbon and manganese dioxide of sufficient amount to almost fill the vessel. add to this mixture some of the solution and thoroughly mix them. continue adding solution until a thick paste is formed. pour the solution out of the vessel and allow the latter to drain for a few minutes in an inverted position. place the carbon rod in the center of the vessel and pack the paste down around it, being careful not to move the carbon rod from its central position. the vessel should be filled with the paste to within about / in. of the top. the lower end of the carbon rod should not be nearer the bottom of the vessel than / in. over the top of the paste place a mixture of equal parts sand and fine sawdust and then, over this, a layer of pitch, which acts as a seal for the cell. a layer of blotting paper should be placed between the sand-sawdust mixture and the carbon-manganese mixture. the side lining of the vessel should be turned in before the sand-sawdust mixture is placed in the top of the cell. the outside of the cell should be covered with some heavy pasteboard, which will serve to insulate the negative terminal from the surface upon which the cell rests. a hose-nozzle handle a handle for a garden-hose nozzle is easily made of a piece of wire and the wooden part of a package carrier. the wire is bent to receive the hose at a, and, after the handle is slipped on, the other end is formed to fit tightly over the brass nozzle at b. the hose nozzle can be easily carried with the handle, which will keep the hand dry.--contributed by f. g. marbach, cleveland, o. [illustration: the handle is made of a piece of wire and a package grip] guide for cutting mortises [illustration] after spending considerable time in cutting one mortise in a piece to make the settee described in a recent issue of popular mechanics magazine, i devised the plan shown in the sketch which enabled me to cut all the mortises required in the time that i cut one in the ordinary manner. two metal plates, one of which is shown in the sketch, having a perfectly straight edge, are clamped on the piece with the straight edge on the line of the mortise. a hacksaw is applied through holes bored at the ends and a cut sawed along against the metal edges.--contributed by george gluck, pittsburgh, pennsylvania. insect-proof poultry roost [illustration] to protect the poultry from mites and other insects while roosting, i constructed a roost hanger, as shown, with oil cups made of empty shoe-polish cans. the cover of the box was nailed to the roost and the bottom, for holding the oil, on top of the roost support. a large nail was driven through the support from the under side and through the center of the can bottom, so that about - / in. projected above the latter. the can cover was perforated in the center and a hole, about / in. deep, was drilled in the roost so that the end of the nail would easily slip into it. the bottom of the can was filled with a mixture of kerosene, vaseline and carbolic acid and the roost set in place. both ends of each roost are fixed in the same way. this makes it impossible for any insects to get on the roost.--contributed by rudolph netzeband, st. louis, mo. to prevent shade rollers from unwinding obtain a stick for the hem on the lower end of the shade that is in. longer than the shade is wide. place two small wood screws in the window casing below the shade roller in such a position that they will catch the ends of the stick when the shade is raised to the top.--contributed by harry e. kay, ossining, n. y. a screen and storm-door cushion [illustration] a good cushion that will prevent a spring door from slamming can be made out of material cut from an old rubber boot or, better still, from an old hollow rubber ball. three strips of heavy rubber, - / in. long and / in. wide, are cut and each fastened with two tacks so that the center will make a hump, as shown in the sketch. one cushion is fastened near the top, one near the bottom, and one in the center, in the rabbet of the door frame.--contributed by d. andrew mccomb, toledo, o. repairing a coaster brake [illustration] anyone having a bicycle coaster brake that is apparently useless because it will not brake, can easily repair it in the following manner: remove the inner hub by unscrewing the cones and insert a piece of clock spring, about the same width as the brake shell and almost as long as its inside periphery. replace the parts and the repair will render the brake quite as efficient as a new one. the spring serves as a braking surface for the expanding steel shoes of the brake.--contributed by heber h. clewett, pomona, cal. flypaper holder the ordinary method of using sticky flypaper is quite annoying, as it cannot be easily removed from anything that may come in contact with its sticky surface. the best way to avoid this trouble is to make a holder for the paper, and one can be constructed of a piece of wire and a metal cover taken from a jelly glass. the wire is threaded at one end on which the cover is clamped between two nuts. the upper end of the wire is shaped into a hook for hanging it wherever desired. the paper is rolled with the sticky side out and tied with strings, then slipped over the wire and set into the inverted cover. the cover prevents any of the sticky substance from dripping onto the floor and the wire holds it from being blown about the room.--contributed by percy de romtra, cape may point, n. j. [illustration: the paper, held in an upright position, will catch more flies than if placed flat] a fish rake the fish rake can be made in any size, for minnows or salmon, but it is especially adapted for fish that run in schools, like smelt, herring and minnows. procure a piece of wood, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick, and make a handle ft. long on one end. dress the other end to an edge, rip off a -in. strip and drill holes to receive nails or pieces of wire from the back, through the edge, and projecting about in. the strip is then replaced and fastened with screws. the handle can be cut from the blade and jointed by using tubing. this makes it handy to take apart and pack.--contributed by l. w. pedrose, seattle, wash. [illustration: the rake is so constructed that it can be taken apart for packing] to harden small blocks of wood small blocks of wood can be hardened so that they will not split so easily when small screws are inserted by boiling them in olive oil for about minutes. the olive oil can be kept for future use. if it is desired to waterproof the blocks after hardening them, they should be placed in melted paraffin and allowed to cool in the solution. this gives the block of wood a good appearance and makes it nonabrasive and waterproof. homemade clothesline reel [illustration] it is much better to make a small reel, like the one shown, for a clothesline than to wind the line on the arm, the usual method of getting it into shape for putting away. the reel consists of two strips of wood, in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. these are joined together with two pieces of broom handle, allowing a space of in. between the sides and an extending handle of in. on opposite sides, as shown.--contributed by bert longabaugh, davenport, iowa. gear-cutting machine perhaps the last thing that would be thought within range of the amateur who lacks a full equipment of machinery is the cutting of gear wheels. the device shown in the sketch is very practical, and, with the most ordinary assortment of iron-working tools, will serve to turn out an accurate gear. [illustration: details of gear-cutting machine (fig. )] no system of supports is shown, as they are easily supplied. a flat, square board, b, as large as can be obtained-- ft. on a side being the safest minimum--is used for a dial. a sheet of paper is pasted over the entire board and a large circle drawn on it. this circle is divided into as many parts as there are to be teeth in the gear. a depression is made with a prick punch at each division. a shaft, c, is run through the center, to which an arm, a, is firmly attached. a nail, n, is placed at the end of the arm so that the point can enter each of the punch marks on the periphery or circumference of the circle. a blank wheel, w, is attached to the shaft c, in the position shown, and resting on the iron plate or strap f. a cutting tool, d, works up and down in a slot in f. this cutter is held away from the blank wheel by the spring s, and moved up to it by the screw g, acting through the sliding member h. a stove bolt may be used for g, with the nut firmly fastened to the strap f. the cutter is actuated with a handle e, whose motion is limited by the pegs as shown. in fig. is shown a top view of the strap e, with a cross section of the cutter and the slot in which it works. [illustration: (fig. )] the operation of the mechanism is as follows: with the blank wheel in place set the nail n in one of the punch marks and move the handle e downward. this will make a slight cut on the wheel. then give the screw g a turn or two, which will make the cutter take a deeper bite, and push the handle down again. this operation is repeated, screwing g constantly deeper, until it is stopped by the locknut j, which regulates the depth of the cut. move the nail n to the next punch mark and repeat. the operations are very quickly performed and the circle will be closed almost before you know it. there are several points to be observed. the accuracy depends upon three things. first, the slot through which the cutter passes must be tight-fitting, even at the expense of working hard. second, the shaft c must fit tightly in the holes made for it through b and f, also the arm a must be firmly attached, the shaft being filed flat at the point of attachment. the blank wheel should be keyed on the shaft or securely fastened with a setscrew. third, the nail n must enter the punch marks accurately. as the grinding circle is so much larger than the blank, any error here is greatly reduced in the finished wheel. once in a punch mark the nail must not be allowed to slip until the tooth has been cut. in practice, it will be found better, after each stroke of the handle, to give a quarter turn outward to the screw g, thus avoiding the scraping of the tool on the up stroke. the cutter can be made of any suitable steel with the cutting point ground to give whatever shape is desired for the tooth. the best shape for any particular purpose can be found by reference to a book on gears. this cutter is adapted, of course, only to the softer metals. for experimental purposes a blank cast in type metal is excellent and will last as long probably as required. the mechanism here described will cut brass perfectly well and a gear made of this more durable metal will answer for a finished construction. type-metal blanks commend themselves because they are so easily cast, any flame which will melt solder being sufficient, and the molds, of wood, plaster of paris or any easily worked material, being quickly constructed.--contributed by c. w. nieman, new york city. a potato peeler the guard is made of a piece of wire about in. shorter than the blade of an ordinary table knife. the ends of the wire are turned into a coil to resemble a coil spring with coils close together. allow enough wire to project on one end to be flattened and pointed for an eye extractor. [illustration: guard made of wire] when this device is placed on the knife, the contrivance works on the same principle as a spokeshave. the first setting peels the potato without any appreciable waste, the other setting may be as desired for cutting slices.--contributed by h. w. ravens, seattle, washington. an easy way to develop roll film this is simply a different motion to the tiresome seesaw one usually employs when films are being developed. in wetting them down previous to immersion in the developer, do not keep them in the water long enough to become limp, but remove them after a few quick dips, says camera craft, they will then retain some of their curling tendency, so that by taking one end in one hand and gradually lowering the film into the dish of developer and then raising it out of the dish, it will be found that the film will roll and unroll quite readily, much as one would let out or wind in a reel. this method will result in quicker development, because the roll is nearly always immersed in developer. the method necessitates using only one hand, making it possible to develop a second strip at the same time with the other. the illustration shows quite clearly just how the film will behave. [illustration: developing film] a shoe hanger an inexpensive shoe hanger can be made of a strip of tin, about / in. wide and as long as the space will permit. cut notches along one edge and bend the tin and tack or screw it on a strip of board or to the inside of the closet door. the shoes are hung up by the heels with the toes down.--contributed by c. r. poole, los angeles, cal. [illustration: notched metal hanger] how to make a small vertical drill [illustration] a small hand drill with a three-jaw chuck that will take the smallest drill can be purchased very reasonably. for ordinary work these drills do very well, but for comparatively deep holes, or when using long, slender drills, some sort of a stand should be made, if for no other reason, to avoid breaking the drills, which is almost invariably due to the side motion of the hand. there are other reasons, however, for making such a stand, and these lie in the fact that it is impossible to drill by hand at right angles with the surface of the metal, or to hold such a drill sufficiently steady to avoid widening the hole around the top. as each make of hand drill will require a somewhat different form of stand, no detailed description need be given of the one illustrated. the principal point is to have the base and standard securely set at right angles to each other, and then provide a smoothly sliding piece to which the hand drill may be clamped. the edges on this slide and the corresponding guides should be planed off to an angle of deg. one of the guides should be adjustable, which may be arranged by elongating the screw holes and placing small washers under the heads of the screws that hold this guide to the main standard. a neat little hand drill, arranged in this manner and firmly secured to the bench, may also be used for finishing the ends of small shafts, either flat or pointed, for polishing screw heads, etc., to all of which it gives that workmanlike appearance that can only be had when things are polished with a true rotary motion.--contributed by john d. adams, phoenix, ariz. decorating candles candles can be easily decorated by the following method: the designs can be selected from paper prints which are tightly wrapped around the candle with the design in contact with the wax. strike a match and play the flame over the back of the paper. allow time enough for the melted wax to harden and then remove the paper. the print will be transferred to the wax. select designs that are not larger than the circumference of the candle. a good impression of ink on thin paper works best.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. homemade hacksaw frame a home workshop not having a complete set of tools may be supplied in many ways with tools made by the owner. the hacksaw frame illustrated is one of these. the frame is made of hard wood. the saw end is inserted in a slot sawed in the handle end, and a screw or small bolt holds it in place. the other end is equipped with a bolt having a sheet-metal head, as shown at a. the blade is kept from turning by a projection of the sheet metal which fits in a saw cut made in the frame.--contributed by w. a. henry, galesburg, ill. [illustration: hacksaw frame, cut from hard wood, with fittings attached to draw the blade taut] [illustration] drill press on an ordinary brace as the greater part of the energy required for drilling metal by hand is used for feeding the drill, i made what i term a drill box in which the brace is held perfectly true and pressure is applied by a weight. the feed can be changed for the different metals and sizes of drills, also for drilling the hard outside of castings and relieving the drill for the softer body. the constant feed will cause the drill to turn out a long chip, and a number of holes may be drilled to a uniform depth by using the same feed and counting the turns of the brace handle. [illustration: the weights apply a constant pressure to the drill, which can be easily turned (fig. )] to build the box, first find the dimensions of the brace, as shown in fig. : the diameter of the head a, the clearance b from the top of the head to / in. above the top of the handle c, and the over-all length d when the longest drill is in the brace. make a box having an inside length equal to the dimension d, plus whatever additional height may be necessary for the work. make the inside width twice the distance c, plus in. for clearance; and the inside depth the length c, plus one-half of the dimension a, plus in. use material / in. thick and nail the parts together to form a rectangular frame. cut a piece of broomstick as long as the dimension b, and two pieces of wood as long as the inside width of the box and as wide as the dimension b. cut two pieces / in. longer than the dimension a and as wide as the length b. nail these latter pieces together as shown in fig. , leaving a square space in the center. this frame is to be nailed inside of the top of the box flush with the front, but before doing so lay it on top of the box to determine where the center of the square space will come, and bore a hole, large enough for the round stick cut from the broom handle to slip through easily, then nail the frame on the under side of the top piece. [illustration: (fig. )] procure a tough piece of wood, - / in. square and long enough to project in. over the right and in. over the left side of the box top, and when in this position, locate the hole bored for the round stick and bore a hole in the square stick, / in. deep, to coincide with it. place the head of the brace in the guide and push it up until it touches the top of the box and block it up in this position, then drop the round stick through the hole and rest it on the head of the brace. place the socket in the lever over the top of the round stick. make a loop, in. long, of heavy wire and hang it over the right end of the lever and mark the box at the lower end of the loop. turn in a large screw / in. below this mark allowing it to project enough to hook the loop under it. remove the round stick and put a screw at the point the bottom of the loop reaches when the lever is flat on the top of the box. another screw turned in between these two will be sufficient to hold the lever in position. different-sized weights, of from to lb., are used on the lever, but for small drills the weight of the brace alone is sufficient.--contributed by maurice coleman, w. roxbury, mass. homemade picture-frame miter box any person wishing to make a picture frame, or to cut down an old one, requires a miter box for that purpose, so that the molding may be properly held while sawing it, and also for nailing the corners together. i made a miter box, as shown, and found it to be just the thing for this purpose. it is built on a base similar to an overturned box, the saw guides being held on the ends of a piece, constructed as shown at a. holes are cut in the top, as shown at b, for one of the guides and for the two wedges. two pieces, c, are fastened with their outer edges at perfectly right angles on the top. [illustration: homemade miter box for sawing frame molding and to hold the parts for fastening together] the frame parts are clamped against the pieces on top with the wedges driven in between the frame parts and the brackets dd. after cutting the frame parts they are tightly held in place while fastening them, in any manner desired.--contributed by a. s. thomas, amherstburg, can. tank-development methods used in tray development if there are a number of plates to be developed, place a rubber band, about / in. wide, around the ends of each plate and put them together in a tray. the bands keep the plates apart. the developer is made up as for a tank and poured over the plates, then another tray, or dark covering, is placed over the top. allow this to stand, rocking the tray from time to time, the same length of time as is required for tank development.--contributed by earl r. hastings, corinth, vermont. a pushmobile racer for ice the pushmobile shown in the illustration takes the place of the one with rollers that is now so popular with the boys. the materials required, usually found about any home, consist of a foot board, in. thick, - / in. wide and ft. long; two pieces of wood, each / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long; one steering post, in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long; one handle, in. long; one small hinge; one carriage bolt, / in. in diameter and - / in. long; two / -in. washers; a few screws, and a pair of discarded ice skates. [illustration: homemade pushmobile, constructed the same as the wheeled kind, with runners for snow and ice] one of the / -in. thick pieces is fastened solidly to one end of the foot board with the ends flush. the other piece is swiveled with the bolt at the opposite or front end of the foot board so that at least one-half of the piece projects beyond the end. the steering post is hinged to the projecting end. the skates are fastened to the / -in. pieces for runners. the manner of propelling the racer is the same as for the pushmobile.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, o. homemade ellipsograph by chelsea curtis fraser an efficient ellipsograph is the only device that will make true ellipses of various sizes quickly, and such a machine is in demand on some classes of work in a drafting room. its cost, however, is prohibitive where only few ellipses are to be drawn, but a person handy with tools can make an apparatus that will do the work as well as the most expensive instrument. [illustration: practically any size or proportion of ellipse, from - / to in. maximum diameter, can be drawn with an instrument of this size, and larger instruments will work equally well (fig. )] the completed ellipsograph, herein described, will appear as shown in fig. . it consists of two main parts, the base and the arm. the former is a hardwood piece, a, fig. , to the side center of which is attached another hardwood piece, b. this latter piece may be dovetailed into a, but an ordinary butt joint will suffice, as a one-piece base, c, also of hard wood, is glued to the bottom surfaces of the pieces a and b, thus securely holding them together. before gluing, however, care must be taken to see that the piece b is exactly at right angles with the piece a. this can be done with a try-square. dimensions are given in fig. . the same letters are used throughout for the same parts. [illustration: (fig. )] a / -in. groove, h, is cut out at the juncture of a and b, to admit the flange of the minor-axis swivel head. another groove, j, is made along the longitudinal center of the piece b, to receive the spine of the major-axis swivel head. sheet brass plates, d and e, are cut from / -in. stock and attached to the top of the piece a with screws. the plates f and g are of the same material and fastened in a like manner to the upper surface of the piece b. all plates project slightly where they touch the groove borders, as shown. this is to provide a bearing for the projections on the sliding parts against metal instead of wood. a piece of thin celluloid or brass plate, k, is inserted in the bottom side of the base c so that the point will be exactly in line with the center groove j, and extend outward / in. this point indicates the center of all ellipses to be drawn. in the bottom of the base c, at each end, drive an ordinary pin and cut it off so that a part of it will project beyond the surface of the wood. these extending ends are pointed with a file, and serve to keep the instrument from slipping when in use. [illustration: (fig. )] the arm l is shown in fig. . it is made of either maple or birch. follow the dimensions given, cutting a slot through it longitudinally, as shown at m, narrower on the upper side than on the lower, the upper being / in. wide. an octagon-shaped piece of wood, n, / in. thick, is glued to the end, to give a good seating for the sleeve o, which is a piece of / -in. solid-brass rod, in. long, drilled to receive closely the pencil sheath. the latter, p, can be made from a section of brass tubing such as is used in a bicycle-pump valve. the upper end is notched to receive a rubber band, and an ordinary pencil can be cut down to fit closely into the other end. the piece o fits tightly in a hole bored through n and l. [illustration: (fig. )] the detail of the minor-axis swivel head is shown in fig. . this swivel head consists of two pieces of brass, one, marked q, being / in. square by / in. long and the other, r, / in. square by / in. long, with a notch cut out as shown. these parts, as well as the somewhat similar ones for the major-axis swivel head, can be cast cheaply, or block brass may be cut with a hacksaw and filed to the right shape. a shortened dry-cell screw, s, with washer, to fit a tapped hole drilled in the piece q, serves to bind the head where desired on the arm. the flange t is a piece of / -in. brass driven into a slot cut in the piece r. the piece r is pivoted to the piece q, as shown, by means of a piece of wire nail which engages q, by friction, the lower end being fitted with a washer and riveted loosely so that the parts will turn freely. [illustration: fig. ] the major-axis swivel-head detail is shown in fig. . the piece u is the same size as q, fig. , with its screw set a little farther forward to make room for the pivot v, which loosely joins u and w together. the pivot is made of a wire nail, riveted on both ends. the piece w is of brass, / in. thick, / in. wide and / in. long. the spine x is made just thick enough to pass freely in the groove j, fig. . a screw taken from a discarded dry-battery cell is used to bind the head to the arm. to operate the ellipsograph, draw a line, y, fig. , on the paper, which is to mark the major axis of the ellipse. about midway of its length make a point to represent the center. on the latter set the point k, fig. , and adjust the bottom forward edge of the base c parallel with the line y. set the minor-axis swivel head at such a point on the arm l that, when the latter is directly on top of the piece b, the pencil will touch the paper at a distance from the center, marked by k, equal to half the minor axis of the proposed ellipse. to secure the major axis swing the arm until it is parallel with the piece a, leaving the major-axis swivel head unset, and set it when the pencil point has been adjusted to the proper major radius. grasp the arm with the right hand between the swivel heads and bearing down, swing the pencil end from right to left. the rubber band will keep it constantly on the paper with even pressure. when half of the ellipse is completed detach the rubber band and reverse the instrument to the opposite side of the longitudinal line y and draw the other half in the same manner. protector cap for a chisel handle [illustration] the ordinary chisel handle will soon split and break under the continuous blows of a mallet. a very good and inexpensive method of preventing this is to procure an ordinary patent bottle cap and place it on the end of the handle. it is advisable to shape the end of the handle like a bottle top in order to firmly hold the cap in place.--contributed by bert verne, san diego, cal. sweeping compound a good sweeping compound may be made as follows: mix / pt. of warm paraffin oil with oz. of melted paraffin wax and add oz. of artificial oil of sassafras. then pour the mixture into lb. of sawdust and work the whole thoroughly together. add to this mixture lb. of clean sand and / lb. of coarse salt. each article mentioned is comparatively cheap, and the compound can be kept in an open container.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. [illustration] freezing a basin to a chair fill a basin or pot half full of snow, and secretly put a handful of table salt in it and place the vessel on a chair or table, wetting the space where it is to be set. after holding the basin in place for about two minutes, continually stirring the contents, it will freeze to the chair so solidly that when the basin is lifted the chair will come along with it. this experiment is quite interesting to an audience and can be performed at any assemblage with success. if the instructions are carried out closely, the trick will always succeed and the audience will consider it magic. even if performed in a warm room, the combination of snow and salt will reduce the temperature below the freezing point where the bottom of the vessel comes in contact with the chair seat.--contributed by harry slosower, pittsburgh, pa. an envelope and stamp moistener [illustration] a moistener for postage stamps or envelopes can be easily made from a screw-top jar. a strip of felt cut as wide as the jar is deep and made into a roll large enough to fit the neck of the jar serves as a wick. the metal top is perforated, and, after filling the jar with water, it is screwed into place. this makes a very inexpensive moistener for the library desk. a homemade drill press an ordinary breast drill is used in the construction of this drill press, it being rigidly secured to a piece of oak, a, in. square and in. long, which is a sliding member on the pipe b. in attaching the breast drill to the wood, a bolt, having a hook on the head end, was used at the top, at c, and a stud at the bottom d. pipe clips, ee, were attached on one side of the block to fit loosely over the pipe b. the vertical part of the pipe is supported by two horizontal pieces, ff, which are fastened to a post. a feed lever, g, is pivoted at the top of the vertical piece of oak a and fulcrumed on the post with a bolt through a slot, the extending end carrying a weight as a counterbalance. the illustration clearly shows the construction of this very useful drill press.--contributed by w. a. ready, boston, mass. [illustration: the breast drill as it is attached to an upright, to make a drill press] * * * * * a pair of bicycle trousers guards makes excellent sleeve bands when the cuffs are turned back and rolled above the elbows. arts-crafts leather work by mary c. scovel part i leather work is one of the most interesting of the crafts, first, because the material is so pliable that anyone can work it, and secondly, because any ordinary article can be made by simply following the directions carefully, although each of the various kinds of leather demands a different process. the equipment necessary is simple, consisting of two special tools costing cents each, one with a narrow edge for lining patterns, and one with broad ends for tooling; and a piece of tin, plate glass, or very smooth hard wood, which should not be smaller than by in. a soft sponge, a triangle, a rule, tracing paper and a hard pencil are also needed. the first attempt should be made on a piece of russian calfskin. this may be purchased at any leather store or craft shop and costs about cents a square foot, if cut to measure. whole skins contain from to sq. ft. and cost about cents a square foot. calfskin may be had in almost any color. [illustration: coin purse--back] [illustration: coin purse--front] the coin purse will be the first article described. the size, pattern and design must first be determined. it consists of three parts, the front, back and flap, as shown in the sketch. this purse will require a piece of leather by in., in order to allow an extra / in. outside of the pattern to pin the leather on the board while transferring the design. the upper flap c folds over the front of the purse d. the design must be divided, the part belonging to c placed on the flap, and the part belonging to the front d, on the lower part of the front. [illustration: pattern for purse] take a piece of paper and fold it in accordance with the desired proportions of the purse, taking care that the design for the front d is on the same side of the paper as that of the flap c. the space f under the flap is without any design. the design for the front d is on the lower part of the upper division of the pattern. fold the part f behind h, and then the part c behind h and f. turn the pattern over for the proper position of the purse. draw the entire design on tracing or tough tissue paper. wet the leather on the wrong or unfinished side with a soft sponge. pat the leather and endeavor to moisten, but not soak it, with water. on some leather the water, if it comes through, leaves a stain. when the leather is too wet it is very hard to tool, as the tool sticks and makes an uneven background. pin the design firmly down against the leather and fasten the leather with thumb tacks on the outer margin. with a hard pencil go over every line of the design with a firm, even pressure. if the leather is properly moistened, this will leave a clear outline of the design when the tracing paper is removed. then with a lining tool--the tool with the narrow edge--go over the lines on the leather with a strong, firm stroke. should a line design only be desired, this operation finishes the decoration. [illustration: stamp-case pattern] two other methods may be used: tooling or stamping. the design shown does not go to the edge of the pattern. a margin of at least / in. between the edge of the pattern and design must be left for tooling and stamping. for tooling, after lining the pattern, use the broad end of the tool and make even, long strokes to press down the background. if the background is not easily pressed down, the leather is too dry. take it off the board and moisten the back again, move the tool back and forth and around until the background is comparatively smooth. keep the edges very sharp between parts pressed down and those that remain raised. the depth of pressing down the background is a matter of taste, but it should be tooled down enough to make the design stand out plainly. fold the parts together and line with silk to match the leather and then stitch up the front and back parts of the purse close to the edge. this can be done on any sewing machine, or by a shoemaker. the circle m in the pattern is the catch or button which can be furnished and put on by a shoemaker, or at a trunk store. any ordinary article of leather can be stitched on a sewing machine in the home. to do this successfully the stitch must be long and the needle of a large rather than a small size. try the stitch on a scrap of leather before sewing the article. if the foot or feed of the machine mars the leather, place tissue paper or a plain piece of paper over the leather and stitch through both. after making the stitch the paper can be pulled away. use as heavy a silk as the needle will take. the card case, coin purse, stamp case and bags can all be stitched on an ordinary machine, if the above directions are followed. in stitching any soft leather, such as ooze cow or ooze calf, if paper is not put between the leather and the machine, the stitching will stretch the leather. in making bags, instead of stitching on a machine one can punch holes close together with a small punch, and then with strips of leather sew the sides together over and over, or in any manner desired. if no machine is at hand, nor a shoemaker's shop nearby, a large pin or awl may be used to prick holes in the leather, and then the parts sewed together with needle and silk. use a running or over-and-over stitch. an over-and-over stitch from one end of the seam to the other and back to the beginning of the seam, makes an x-shaped stitch which gives a very good finish. the second method after tooling is stamping. line the pattern as described. purchase a common carpenter's nail set, with the head not too large. the smaller sets fit the patterns better and make smaller circles. moisten the leather as described. use a wooden mallet to strike the tool in stamping the background. this may be done either along circular lines or in a more irregular manner, but avoid striking the tool too hard, as too much pressure cuts through the leather. other stamping tools of good patterns may be purchased at hardware stores or crafts shops. a needle book or stamp case is another handy article to make in leather. the sketch shows the design. a piece of russian calf, - / by - / in., is necessary. this allows / in. on each side and end for pinning down the pattern. fold a piece of paper into three parts as a, b and c, the front being a; the back, b, which is folded underneath the part a. the flap c folds up with b and then over a toward the front. when the pattern is open, the design for all parts must be on the same side of the paper. the design for the back b is put on the leather upside down. when the pattern is folded this makes the design upright. the parts a, b and c are equal in length and width. the part c may be cut in any shape desired, but keep the tongue d long and narrow. make two horizontal cuts in the front a about / in. apart. these cuts must be at the same distance from the bottom of the front as the narrowest part of the tongue is from the end. the tongue will then fit the cuts. make the horizontal cuts a little wider than the tongue. the design is put on the leather in the same manner. it can be worked out in line, tooling or stamping. the parts a and b are sewed together. [illustration: a mat] the mat illustrated is another useful article and easy to make. any size may be used, and the method of lining or tooling the design, or both, gives a very beautiful effect. how to make a wood lathe a strong, substantial lathe in which wood and light metal articles may be turned can be made by carefully following the description below and the detailed drawings of the parts. [illustration: detail of wood lathe (fig. )] the bed is made of two pieces of straight-grained, smooth, by -in. hard wood, ft. long. they are held apart at each end by blocks of wood in. wide. the bed can, of course, be made longer or shorter if desired, but the above dimensions are very satisfactory. the frame of the headstock, figs. and , is made of hard wood. the two end pieces have the dimensions and shape shown. these are fastened with screws to the base. [illustration: (fig. )] the base has a slider, a strip of wood in. thick and in. long, wide enough to slide smoothly between the bed pieces, nailed to its bottom, in. from the rear end. two / -in. holes are bored through the baseboard and slide. two / -in. bolts are run through these holes and through another slide and board which runs on the under side of the bed. when the nuts on these bolts are tightened, the headstock is firmly clamped to the bed. a half-round, wedge-shaped piece is fastened with screws in the frame against the front end, to serve as a brace against any strain, and will also add to its appearance. the spindle is of tool steel or steel tubing, / in. in diameter and in. long. threads are cut on one end. a hardened steel collar, / by - / in., is riveted on the spindle so it may turn against another collar of the same size on the headstock. another collar is fastened with screws to the rear end piece, and a collar with a removable pin is fixed on the spindle. these should be fitted so as to revolve easily against each other and yet have no end play. the bearings are of brass tubing drilled for a spindle. these are inserted and wedged in the headstock, in. from the bed. care should be taken to see that they are in line. small holes are drilled from the top for oil. the pulleys are in. wide with the diameters given in the drawing. they are fastened to the spindle with a removable pin. [illustration: (fig. )] a good chuck for this lathe is made, as shown in fig. , of a piece of shafting - / in. in diameter and - / in. long. a / -in. hole is drilled through its center and one end reamed out and threaded to fit the threads on the end of the spindle. a setscrew is fitted over the / -in. hole. a center for turning wood is also shown. many centers, drills, etc., can be made of / -in. tool steel. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the tailstock, figs. and , is built up of three pieces of hard wood, in. thick, and one piece, in. thick, shaped as shown. these are held together with four bolts, - / in. long. it has sliders and is clamped to the bed in the same manner as the headstock, but only one bolt is used. a handle is welded to the nut. this will make the clamping easy. [illustration: section through fig. (fig. )] a piece of tubing, in. long, is drilled for a / -in. dead center and inserted for - / in. between the two upper pieces, as shown in fig. . a hole for a / -in. bolt is bored through the sections so as to allow the bolt to slide freely in the tubing. the top section is taken off and a place chiseled out just back of the tube for a / -in. nut. a bolt, in. long and threaded for in. of its length, is turned into the nut and tubing. a handle or wheel is riveted on the end of the bolt. the center is made of tool steel, / in. in diameter, with a tapering point. other centers can be made of / -in, tool steel. [illustration: (fig. )] the tool rest, figs. , and , has a slide, / by by in., with a slot / by in. the base of the rest is bolted on this slide so it can be adjusted. the rest is fastened on this base with screws. the height of the rest can be varied. it can be raised or lowered by inserting wedges between the slide and the rest base. the tool rest is clamped to the base the same as the tailstock. [illustration: (fig. )] the power for this lathe can be supplied by means of a countershaft, although a foot-power arrangement may be attached.--contributed by e. e. hulgan, marion, ind. [illustration: (fig. )] to reduce the gasoline consumption of an automobile quite recently i tried out a method of reducing the consumption of gasoline in my automobile, and, as a result, have higher efficiency without resorting to any of the numerous and exceedingly costly devices on the market. i procured a piece of wire screen, cut it in the shape of the gasket between the carburetor and the intake manifold, but leaving it blind, that is, with the screen across the inlet. i put this between two gaskets and fastened the whole back in place. the result was an increase of miles per gallon of fuel.--contributed by w. j. weber, new york city. cutting a tin ball from a child's finger a three-year-old child found a globe of tin with a hole cut through the center, and--it is hardly necessary to state--immediately thrust his finger into the hole. but he could not get it out again, and the mother, accompanied by several other small children, brought the screaming child to my office. i found the hole had been punched, which caused three harpoon-like fragments to be carried into the center of the globe. the mother in her attempt to remove it had caused the sharp points to enter the flesh of the finger in two or three places. any attempt to pull the ball off, drove the points of the harpoons deeper into the finger, and it was therefore a question of cutting the tin or the finger. but what kind of an instrument could i use on this tin globe? i had nothing in my case that would cut it. my years of medical experience gave me no help. the tin was as hard and smooth as a glass marble. yet, it would have been ridiculous to be thus conquered by a tin whistle, so after some meditation i called to mind that i had a pair of heavy tinner's snips in the basement. by using the utmost care i succeeded in cutting a small incision in the round ball, and then with the points of the shears i cut the metal away from the finger. such an accident may come under the observation of any parent, and if so, he can use the same method to relieve the child where medical assistance is not near at hand.--contributed by r. w. battles, m. d., erie, pa. child's seat for theaters as children must hold tickets for theaters the same as adults, but the ordinary chair is too low to permit a child to see the performance, an auxiliary seat such as shown in the sketch would sometimes be desirable as it elevates the child so its head will be on a level with those of other spectators. the seat is made of a strip of canvas with eyelets for wire hooks that fit over the arms of the ordinary theater chair. it is necessary to have extra eyelets at one end of the canvas to adjust it to varying widths of seats.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. [illustration: seat in a theater chair] holding spoon on a hot dish after repeatedly burning my fingers in the attempt to prevent the spoon from sliding into the hot dish, i decided to do a little inventing on my own hook. taking a clean, straight hairpin i bent it to the shape shown in fig. , and after hooking it over the edge of the dish, i placed the spoon in it as shown in fig. , and my troubles were at an end.--contributed by miss genevieve warner, kalamazoo, mich. [illustration: spoon holder on a dish (fig. , fig. )] locating gas and electric fixtures in the dark a gas or electric fixture in the center of a room is quite hard to locate in the dark; more so if it is a single-light pendant. the location may be easily found if the fixture is marked as follows: coat small pieces of cardboard on both sides with phosphorus and suspend them from the fixtures with small wires. no matter how dark the room may be, the phosphorus on the cardboard can be readily seen. the phosphorus is the same as used on matches and can be obtained from any druggist. the phosphorus, being poisonous, should be handled as little as possible, and, after using, should be returned to the water-filled jar in which it was received when bought. if left in the open, it may cause fire.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. a pea-shooting gun the gun consists of only two parts. the barrel may be either a piece of bamboo fishing pole or a section of sweet alder. the spring is a piece of corset steel, such as can be usually found about the home. [illustration: a pea-shooting gun made of a piece of alder and a corset string] sweet alder can be found in the summer growing along the fences in the country almost anywhere. find a stalk, about in. in diameter, which is good and straight, and cut it off to a length of or in. make a ram rod of wood and use it to punch out the pith of the alder, rendering the bore as smooth as possible. an old bamboo pole of like dimensions may be used instead. cut out a section of the wood, - / in. long, beginning - / in. from one end of the tube. the depth of this cut should be almost halfway through the piece. the corset steel is then inserted into the short end of the tube and bent over so that its other end will touch the bottom of the open part of the bore. a nick is made with a knife across the bottom of the bore at this point, to let the spring catch a little. the ammunition is placed before the caught end of the spring, as shown, and discharged by hooking the forefinger over the spring at the point a and pulling backward as when pulling the trigger of a gun. it is necessary to keep the muzzle elevated a little after the ammunition is placed in position, otherwise the pea will roll out before the spring has a chance to strike it. coloring electric-light globes often it is desired to produce certain effects in lighting which demand a different-colored light than that given by the modern tungsten lamp. as an example, a soft, mellow light is sometimes desired similar to that given by the old carbon-filament lamp. in such cases it is a great mistake to install the carbon lamps on account of their exceedingly poor efficiency. the ordinary tungsten lamp has an average efficiency of about . watts per candlepower, while the carbon-filament lamp requires about watts per candlepower. therefore, it is much more economical to color the globe of the tungsten lamp so as to produce the required color than to use the carbon lamp. of course, both lamps must be colored when any color other than a soft, yellow light is desired. a cheap coloring solution may be made as follows: soak a small amount of gelatin in cold water for several hours, then boil it and strain it through a piece of fine cloth. while the solution is still hot, add a small quantity of aniline dye of the desired color that has been previously mixed in a small quantity of cold water. the lamps are dipped in the solution and then allowed to cool in a vertical position so that the coating will be more uniform. a more satisfactory coloring solution may be made from celluloid. obtain quite a number of old photographic films and remove all the gelatin by washing them in hot water. then dissolve them in a solution of equal parts of ether and alcohol. add the coloring solution and dip the lamps. the coating produced by this method is impervious to water. support for an open book [illustration] when a book is laid on a table for reading the pages at the beginning or end, it will not stay open flat on account of the difference in the thickness of the open parts. one person, doing a great deal of reading, uses a small card, with the corner cut out, which is placed under the side of the book having the smallest number of leaves, as shown. [illustration: some conventional designs for cardcases] arts-crafts leather work by mary c. scovel part ii when laying out designs for leather work, avoid making them too small and intricate. bold, simple designs are the best. the relation between the shapes of the background and of the design should be well balanced. the design should not be so small that the large background shapes overbalance it. one good way is to let the design partly follow or repeat the contour of the object. if the article be rectangular in shape, let some of the lines of the design follow rectangular lines; and if circular, follow the curves of the circle. [illustration: pattern for a cardcase] the first piece of leather work considered, will be an artistic cardcase. the foundation of a cardcase is a rectangle. take a piece of paper by - / in. and fold it in the middle, making each side in., then fold in in. on each outside edge toward the center. this last fold makes the pocket of the case. if a deeper pocket is desired, a longer piece of paper must be used, and the fold more than in. cut out the leather according to the paper pattern and allow at least / in. for the margin. this gives enough extra material for fastening the leather on a board outside of the pattern. moisten the leather on the rough or unfinished side. remember that, as previously stated, russian calfskin is the best for tooling. place the folded paper on the right side of the leather, then with a ruler, triangle and lining tool draw the vertical lines where the paper is folded. if the leather is moistened enough, the tool will make a deep line. make these lines where the leather is to be folded in the center, and for each pocket. line all around the pattern on four sides to indicate the outside border of the pattern. note that there are four vertical panels or rectangles, two wide ones and two narrow ones, as the leather lies flat on the board. select either of the wider rectangles for the front of the cardcase. transfer the design onto this side. place the paper on the moistened leather and go over all the lines of the design with a hard pencil. when this is done, take the paper away and deepen the lines of the design with the lining tool. if tooling is desired, use the broad-end tool and press down the background with firm even strokes. keep the background and edges of the design sharp. if stamping is desired, make rows of small circles, regular or irregular, by using the nail set and a wood mallet. the inside or lining is made of skiver leather or silk. the two center rectangles are the only parts lined. cut out the piece of silk or leather about / in. less at the top and bottom of the rectangles and / in. wider on each side. if leather is used, apply library paste on its back, then place carefully on the inside, smooth it down firmly and put it under a heavy weight to dry. if silk is used, apply the paste around the edges for a width of about / in., and put it under the weight. the case is then folded and sewed at top and bottom. cut off the surplus leather about / in. from the stitches. [illustration: cover designs for cardcases] [illustration: back of magazine cover ] [illustration: silk lining of magazine cover] the next article is the useful magazine cover, which anyone should delight in making. it requires a piece of leather by in. allow enough margin to fasten it to the board. fold the narrow edges together. the design can be placed on either side. a border design bounded by rectangular lines is very suitable. the margin allowed around the design shown in the illustration is in. from the front edge, - / in. from the top edge, and - / in. from the bottom edge. the design is - / in. wide. it is placed on the moistened leather and lined, tooled or stamped as described for the cardcase. the inside of this cover is lined with heavy silk. allow a / -in. margin to turn in on all four sides. two strips made of the lining material, - / in. wide and in. long, are placed - / in. from each side, over the lining on the inside. the lining, strips and the leather are stitched together about / in. from the edge on all four sides. the strips are to hold the magazine in place as the cover of the book is slipped between the cover and the strip. [illustration: stampcase] other kinds of leather, such as ooze cow and ooze calf, may be used, but these only allow the method of cutting out the design, as shown in the bag and stampcase. the design is traced on the wrong or smooth side of the leather. do not moisten the ooze leather. fasten the leather firmly on the board and cut out the design with a sharp knife. a soft silk is best for the lining. apply the paste on the leather near the edge of the design and after laying the silk in place, put it under a weight to dry. [illustration: handbags] the stampcase and handbags are laid out, and the designs made in the same manner as for the cardcase and magazine cover, but instead of stitching the edges on the handbags, they are joined with thongs run through holes cut in the edges of the leather. the stampcase edges are sewed together. bear in mind that russian calf is used for tooling and stamping, and ooze cow or calf for perforated designs. furnace electrodes of lead pencils furnace electrodes frequently consist of carbon rods, and if there is a short gap between them, forming a break in the circuit, the current jumps across that gap, forming an "arc." the intense heat of the arc is used in fusing and melting metals. as large electrodes are necessary for use in furnaces where great masses of metal are melted, so small electrodes are adapted to finer or more delicate work, says popular electricity. [illustration: pencil electrodes which furnish intense heat] as the lead or graphite in a lead pencil is a form of carbon, it will make an excellent electrode for small work. two ordinary lead pencils, costing only one cent each, may be used. they are first sharpened as if they were to be used for the usual purpose of writing. then a small notch is cut in one side of each pencil, laying the lead bare at a point about in. from the sharpened end. a small copper wire is wound around the pencil and into this notch, thereby making contact with the exposed lead or graphite. by means of these small wires the pencils are connected to larger wires, which in turn are connected to a switchboard or source of electric-current supply. at some place in the circuit there should be a resistance to prevent short-circuiting and also to control the strength of the current. as the wood sheath on the pencils offers sufficient insulation, they may be picked up, one in either hand, and no electrical effect will be felt by the person so doing. if the pointed tips are touched together, a fine little arc, not much larger than the tips of the pencils, will be formed. the temperature of this arc, however, is such that fine wires or small quantities of metal may be melted readily. these little lead-pencil arcs may be used to fuse very small gold or silver wires, or platinum thermometers, or wires for tungsten or tantalum lamps. the bead or globule of molten metal formed on the end of a fine wire need be no longer than a small-sized grain of sand. coat and trousers hangers the hanger is simple in construction and can be easily made by following the dimensions given in the drawing, and the directions given below. [illustration: details of hangers] the back is first marked off on a soft-pine board and cut out. the curved edge should be rounded off so as to prevent injury to the coat. the two end pieces are then made, and fastened to the back with screws as shown. the wedge is ripped diagonally from stock and the smaller edge made slightly round. the wedge slides in between the two end pieces, and after the trousers have been put in place, is pushed down until it holds them securely. the hanger is a screw hook turned into the wood, or it may be made of a piece of heavy wire run through a hole in the back and bent over on the bottom edge. the wood may be stained any desired color and then given two coats of shellac.--contributed by olaf tronnes, wilmette, illinois. mending broken fountain-pen barrels broken fountain-pen barrels may be mended by the use of melted shellac. this can be done by heating some dry shellac and applying it to the fracture. do not scrape off the surplus shellac, but shape it with a heated iron. a pen with such a repair has been in use for two years.--contributed by g. d. whitney, pittsburg, pa. jig-saw blades the ordinary form of jig-saw blade has a tendency to pull the fiber of the wood in one direction, thereby producing a jagged cut. to overcome this i made several blades with teeth as shown in the sketch. after the downstroke is completed, the teeth a will cut on the upstroke, the teeth b cutting on the downstroke, etc. the upstroke teeth should be a trifle longer than the others and from to in number.--contributed by phillip caflish, buffalo, n. y. [illustration: teeth cut in opposite direction] leaded-glass panels for furniture certain kinds of furniture may be greatly improved in appearance by the use of simple glazed panels in the door frames. it would be inappropriate to have anything elaborate in a small cabinet for the reception of china as it distracts the attention from the contents, but a simple leaded diapering or pattern of small design, such as shown in figs. and , would be quite in place and have a good effect. for other purposes more elaborate effects can be worked out in deep shades, says work, london. [illustration: simple leaded diapering of small design for a small china closet or cabinet (fig. , fig. )] a hanging cabinet with leaded panels is shown in fig. . these panels for the doors are in the design shown in fig. . panels of this design can be used either for furniture or for small windows. the process of making these panels is not difficult and the ordinary workman can form them, the only difficult part being the soldering of the joints. [illustration: a small hanging cabinet with doors having the leaded-glass design shown in fig. (fig. )] the beginner should confine himself to plain glazing, the design being formed by piecing together glass of different shades. the method of procedure is to first make a small sketch in color to a scale of about in. to the foot, carefully arranging the parts and colors. a full-sized panel can be drawn from this sketch. the effect of plain glazing depends entirely on the arrangement of the lead lines and the art glass. in the full-sized drawing the shapes are arranged so that they may be easily cut, all long forms being either avoided in the design, or divided by a cross-lead to guard against breakage in the cutting. [illustration: only a part of the top of each window is highly decorated so that the maximum light may gain access (fig. , fig. , fig. )] two simple forms of glazing are shown in figs. and . the one shown in fig. is somewhat different, the top of the panel being decorated with simple curves. this general design is considerably elaborated in figs. , and . it is desirable to decorate only a part of a window so that the maximum of light may gain access. [illustration: two windows placed together may have their tops leaded to produce a combined effect (fig. )] two simple treatments of a sailing craft are shown in figs. and . the effect of the introduction of this design in one of the panels of a small cabinet is shown in fig. . [illustration: two designs for the tops of windows, showing treatments of sailing craft (fig. , fig. )] an example of plain glazing is shown in fig. . this is a piece of simple leading and yet very effective, involving no difficulty of construction. [illustration: example of plain glazing with cross section of glass and lead strip, also showing joint (fig. )] for this lead glazing a quantity of strip lead, the section of which is shown in fig. , will be required. this can be purchased from dealers in art-glass supplies. the lead is sold on spools and it must be straightened before it can be worked. this is most easily done by fastening one end and pulling on the other. the glass for this work must be reasonably thin as no advantage is gained by the use of thick material, and it is difficult to cut. a piece of art glass has a right and a wrong side, the side on which the spots and streaks appear is the right side, and it is cut on this side. the tools required are a glass cutter, a heavy knife and soldering appliances. [illustration: (fig. )] sketch out the lines of the design full size on paper, drawing in only one side of a symmetrical pattern and tracing the other. after the design has been prepared, the next step is to make a cutting pattern. to do this, take a piece of tracing cloth and lay it on the drawing. trace the lines and go over them with a brush dipped in black, making the lines exactly the same thickness as the core of the lead, or the thickness of the distance the glasses are separated from one another, as shown in fig. . each division is marked for the color it is to be and the paper is then cut into sections on each side of the broad line. these pieces form the patterns for cutting similar shapes from heavy cardboard which serve as templates for cutting the glass. proceed to cut the glass by laying a pattern on the right side and scoring around with the cutter guided by the pattern. little difficulty will be experienced in this work if the general design does not have very irregular shapes. [illustration: (fig. )] when the various pieces of glass have been successfully cut and are ready for leading up, arrange them in position on the preliminary sketch, and then measure the outside leads and cut one piece for each side, the lead being cut to fit against the core of the other at the joint, as shown in figs. and . proceed to cut the lead for the long curves obtaining the length by bending the strips along the lines of the design. as each is cut it will be found convenient to tack it in position on the working table by means of small brads, so as to simplify the measuring and cutting of the other parts. continue until the panel is complete, when, after truing up, it is ready for soldering. this is done in the usual way but requires extraordinary care to avoid the possibility of melting the lead. the overlapping parts of the leads are pressed well against the glass in each division to keep it from rattling. [illustration: the lead frame is first made, the long lines are put in and then the short, horizontal ones (fig. )] in making up the squares and rectangles such as appear in figs. , , , and , lead the long lines first, adding the shorter, horizontal pieces last. the sketch, fig. , will clearly illustrate this part of the work. the sketch shows the starting of the panel, fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] raising cucumbers on a trellis a novelty in cucumber culture, tried recently with great success, is as follows: as soon as the vines are about in. long, stretch wire mesh in. wide on poles alongside the row of plants and train the vines on the wire. the cucumbers will grow larger and the plants will require less care than when they are on the ground. a barrel boat a boat that any handy boy can easily make is constructed of a barrel which is kept with the opening cut in one side up by two by -in. timbers and two tie pieces, by in. the lengths of these pieces will depend on the size of the barrel. a good watertight barrel should be selected and an opening cut in the center between the hoops, of such a size as to allow the body of the occupant room for handling an oar. the timbers are attached to the barrel with iron straps--pieces of old hoops will do. the two tie pieces are put across the timbers at the ends of the barrel and spiked in place. [illustration: boat made of a barrel which is kept from capsizing by timbers attached] the boat is to be propelled with a single, double-end paddle. there is no danger of the boat capsizing or the water splashing into the barrel. homemade wing nuts a handle taken from a worn-out faucet, drilled out and threaded for a bolt, makes a good wing nut. a discarded gas-bracket key, cut off on the line aa and with the part within the dotted lines filed out, then drilled and threaded, also makes a good wing nut. [illustration: wing nuts made of discarded parts taken from a faucet or a gas bracket] a spool-and-ball puzzle procure an empty basting-thread spool and make a hole in its side, at a, just large enough to receive a / -in. steel ball. a piece of celluloid, b, is wrapped around the flanges, as shown, and fastened with small brads. an old negative film, well cleaned, is suitable for the celluloid. be sure to put the steel ball in before fastening the celluloid in place. the difficulty of the puzzle is to get the ball into the hole.--contributed by r. c. knox, waycross, ga. [illustration: the steel ball is not so easily run into the hole as it appears] to start the ink flowing from a drawing pen in order to keep the ink flowing readily from a drawing pen it must be kept clean and not allowed to stand with the ink in the nibs. a good plan is to have a small piece of velvet fastened to the drawing board or upon a small block, conveniently located where the pen may be drawn across it as in making a line. the tuft of the velvet will clean out the partly dried ink between the nibs.--contributed by h. l. woodward, washington, d. c. a pencil-sharpener stick do not discard the sandpaper stick or pencil sharpener used by a draftsman just because all the abrasive sheets have been removed. make use of it indefinitely by fitting a wedge in one edge, as shown in the illustration, to hold fresh sheets of sand or emery paper. the wedge should fit tightly so that the ends of the abrasive sheet, when wound around the block, will be held tightly. worn sheets can thus be removed and new ones applied when necessary.--contributed by chas. j. la prelle, flushing, l. i. [illustration: a wedge attachment for a pencil-sharpener stick for changing the sheets of abrasive] splice for round belts sash cords or round belts are easily spliced with a coil spring, and for belts this joint will run smooth and noiseless. the coil should be a close fit on the belt, and after turning one end halfway into the spring, the belt itself is twisted in the reverse direction as many times as there are coils remaining in the spring, before the other end is turned into it to meet the first.--contributed by f. s. cummings, detroit, michigan. [illustration: a coil spring used for splicing sash cords or small round belts] * * * * * when painting wireless instruments use black asphaltum, as it has high insulating qualities. [illustration: the main ambition of a boy mechanic is to own a lathe] amateur mechanic's combination lathe by joe v. romig the thing most desired by a young mechanic is a lathe, but the cost of these machines is usually too high to be considered by the average boy, and consequently he is hampered in executing more difficult work. the combination lathe shown in the illustration comes as near filling the wants of most boy mechanics as could be wished, the attachments making it more than a lathe so that various kinds of work other than turning may be accomplished. the materials necessary are few, and, outside of a few parts, it can be constructed by the average boy at home with ordinary tools. the material used for the construction of the frame consists of either well seasoned oak or maple, - / in. wide and - / in. thick. these timbers can be purchased surfaced on all sides, and they must be straight and true to size. the lengths to cut the pieces are given on the general drawing. the end standard at the headstock is cut to the full length so that the upper end is used as a bearing for the headstock spindle. a vise jaw, about - / ft. long and of the same kind and dimension material as the frame, is attached with screws made of bolts on the standard, at the tailstock end of the lathe. the feet are made of two boards for each standard, and are of the same material as the frame and / in. thick. after cutting the pieces to the right length, making sure that the ends are square, and boring the holes to receive the bolts snugly, they are put together, the horizontal pieces for the ways and feet at perfect right angles to the uprights. this will insure the parts running freely in the finished machine. all bolts should be supplied with a washer under both head and nut, and the nuts drawn up tightly. the headstock extends in. above the upper surface of the ways, thus making a swing of in. one of the standards of the headstock is the extension of the lathe standard, as previously mentioned; the other standard being cut - / in. long and attached with bolts between the ways in the same manner as the lathe standards are fastened. a block, in. long, is fastened between these standards to aid in holding them rigid. the bearings for the spindle, which is a piece of steel, / in. in diameter and about in. long, are made in the upper ends of the standards in the following manner: a - / in. square is laid out on the upper end of each standard, with its center exactly over the center for the shaft, and the wood is cut out to make a square hole, which should be slightly tapering one way or the other toward the center of the standard, to hold the babbitt metal used for the bearing. a / -in. hole is bored, vertically down from the upper end of each standard and in the center, to meet the square hole. this is used as a gate for pouring the melted metal in and later to make an oil hole. prepare pieces of cardboard to hold the melted metal in the square holes while it cools, by cutting them about in. square and making a hole in the center of each, / in. in diameter. two of these pieces are held between the two standards while the shaft is run through them and the square holes. paint the parts of the shaft used in the bearing with thick white lead, or wrap it with one thickness of writing paper, then line it up perfectly parallel with the ways in both directions and tack the cardboard pieces to the standards. place the remaining two cardboard disks on the ends of the shaft and tack them to the standards also. place putty over all the edges and pour melted babbitt metal into the hole at the top. when the metal is cool, remove the cardboard disks and turn the shaft, first in one direction and then in the other, until it can be taken from the bearings. a / -in. hole is then drilled through the metal in the top for an oil hole. the ends of the shaft should be threaded by a machinist, and nuts fitted to it and faced up true. the threads should be cut just long enough to allow the back of each nut to turn freely against a washer placed on the shaft against the standard. a split or solid pulley may be used, as desired, on the shaft between the standards. if a solid pulley is used, it must be slipped on the shaft as the latter is run into the bearings. [illustration: detail of the plain lathe, showing the construction of the clamp devices for the tailstock and rest slide, and the manner of attaching a vise jaw on the end of the lathe bed] the pulley is fastened to the shaft with a pin run through a hole drilled in them. if a small flywheel is attached to the outer end of the spindle it will aid in keeping a steady motion. the same procedure is carried out in the construction of the tailstock bearings. the standards for this part are about in. long and are bolted at right angles to and between two pieces that rest on top of the ways. the shaft is threaded full length, which should be done in a lathe by a machinist to get a true thread, and the melted metal run on it to make an internal thread in the bearing. a nut is run on the threads of the shaft between the standards, and provided with a small handle for use in locking the shaft when it is set on work between centers. a small handwheel is attached to the back end of the shaft, into the rim of which a handle is set to make the turning easy. the faceplate consists of a disk of metal, in. in diameter and / in. thick, attached with / -in. machine screws to a / -in. nut. the disk is drilled in various places to receive ordinary wood screws. the faceplate should be made by a machinist so that the surface of the face can be turned true. the spur center is made of a / -in. nut, drilled in opposite corners for / -in. pins, - / in. long. [illustration: detail of the various attachments for use in connection with the lathe for sawing, planing and sanding, and the shape of the tools used in turning, together with the faceplate and spur construction] the drive wheel for this lathe was taken from an old discarded washing machine. such a wheel is a very common part of various kinds of machinery and usually one that will answer the purpose can be found in a junk pile. one from to in. in diameter will be about right. a / -in. bolt is used for the shaft, which is run through the standard at the headstock end of the lathe from the outside, the threads being previously cut long enough to introduce a nut between the wheel and the standard for clamping the bolt in place. the extending threaded end of the bolt is then supplied with two nuts, one on each side of the wheel hub, and a short piece of pipe is slipped on, to make a bearing over the threads. one of the spokes is drilled and a pin inserted and fastened to receive the upper end of the pitman from the treadle. the wheel is adjusted on the shaft with the nuts on each side of the hub so that its face runs true with the pulley on the headstock. the wheels are connected with a -in. leather belt. the treadle consists of a frame built up of boards and swung in the centers at both ends on / -in. steel rods, for bearing pins, the bearings being made of wood standards with / -in. holes bored in them to receive the pins. the pitman is made of wood, its length being determined by measurement of the distance between the crank pin and the treadle-arm end when both are at their lowest point. the slide for the rest consists of a -in. square steel bar, about in. long, having a hole drilled in one end and threads cut with a / -in. tap. the rest used in this hole is made of a / -in. rod, threaded on one end and bent at right angles on the other. the clamping device for the slide is made of two bars, in. by / in., fastened to the square bar and extending down between the ways with sufficient ends beneath to attach a wooden clamp block and cam with a handle. this construction is clearly shown in the drawing. if only a lathe is required, the machine would be complete as now described, but the other attachments illustrated will greatly add to its usefulness and the owner will be well repaid by making them. attachments one table is used for the circular saw, planer head, sander, and jig saw, and it is attached on top of the headstock and tailstock standards with bolts, run through the back edge of the board and the ends of two brackets which are screwed to the back edge of the inner standards. thumb nuts are used on the bolts to aid in making the change quickly. more than one hole is provided in the back edge of the board, so that the tailstock bracket can occupy the right position for the sander or planer head, as the case may be. the holes in the bracket ends should be somewhat larger than the bolt, to allow tilting of the table. an adjusting screw is substituted for the rest, so that the table can be raised or lowered to suit the work in hand. the circular saw is in. in diameter and should have fine teeth. it is placed on the spindle threads against the nut, and held there with another nut and washer on the end of the spindle. the table is attached over the saw, and the spindle is driven at a high speed. the planer head is made of a wood block, in. long and - / in. square. a / -in. hole is bored through one way near each end, as shown in the drawing, and two steel knives, with / -in. holes coinciding with the / -in. holes in the wood, are made and attached with their edges opposite or projecting diagonally from the corners. the holes in the knives being larger than the bolts, makes the knives adjustable for setting the cutting edges. these knives may be made from an old saw blade, ground to size and one edge beveled and sharpened. a brass plate, with holes to fit the spur center, is fastened in the center of the block, on one end, and the other is centered for the cup of the tailstock screw. the adjusting screw for the table is used to regulate the cut. the sander is constructed of a wood piece, in. long and - / in. in diameter. a groove is cut in one side of the rounding surface to admit the ends of the abrasive which may be fastened there with tacks. an emery wheel can be used on the spindle in the same manner as the circular saw. procure a wheel, in. in diameter with a / -in. face and having a lead center. the hole should be bored out and tapped to fit the threads on the lathe spindle, and to have the grinding surface run true, this work should be done in a lathe by a machinist. the drawings show the construction of the jig-saw attachment. the standard on which the arms are pivoted is made of a / -in. bolt, threaded for its entire length and with a groove cut in the head and nut to receive the arm pivots. a locknut is used beneath the notched nut to hold the adjustment. two nuts and washers are used near the center of the bolt for clamping the attachment to the table. the pivots are made of sheet metal, bent and drilled as shown. the small projection at each end of the edge is raised slightly by hammering the corner of the metal. these projections prevent the arms from sliding sideways. the clamps for holding the ends of the saw blades are easily made of thin sheet steel, or brass, with a / -in. bolt and washer at the end for the clamp. the tension of the blade is secured by a piece of wire, an eyebolt and a thumb nut, connecting the rear ends of the arms as shown. the frame is driven by the spur center. the pins are removed from the center and a / -in. pin is inserted in one of the holes so that it will project / in. the pin runs in a slot cut in a brass plate that is attached to the lower arm. very serviceable tools can be made of discarded files by grinding them to shape on the emery wheel. always use a fine whetstone to finish the edge on a woodworking tool. hanging a clothesline taut the line is equipped with rings, one at each end, used for convenience in quickly hanging the line, which is then drawn taut with a lever. a screwhook is fastened in one end post and at the other end a screwhook is attached to a lever which is pivoted to the post. the lever should be about ft. long, in. thick, in. wide at one end, and - / in. wide at the other, or handle, end. a large wood screw is used to attach it to the post. a pin is placed in the post to hold the lever when the line is drawn taut.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, ohio. [illustration: a lever attached on one end post makes it easy to draw the line taut] a double latch for a door [illustration] this latch is suitable for outbuildings, small shops and sheds, as it can be opened from both sides of the door and is easily applied. it consists of a rod of suitable size which is bent in the shape shown in the sketch after the rod is inserted through a hole bored near the edge of the door. the spring of the metal will hold the catch in place. maulstick used as a ruler procure a cork having the same diameter as the knob on the maulstick and make a hole in the center so that it will slide on the stick. this is very handy for using the stick as a ruler, as it forms a sliding rest. [illustration: the sliding cork and knob raises the stick so that it may be used as a ruler] hinge with a wide swing in constructing a box i needed a hinge that would carry the cover farther away from the top than the ordinary double-leaf hinge. i found that two pieces of / by / -in. wrought iron, attached in the manner shown, answered the purpose. by using round-head screws it was unnecessary to countersink the metal.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: the two bars provide a way to carry the cover away from the box] a detachable clamp for stairway handrails the sketch shows a handrail clamp, or holding device, which is detachable, for use on stone stairways in the winter when there is ice or snow on the steps. the clamps are made of / -in strap iron, of any desired width, conforming to the shape of the balustrade and provided with a hook at either end. to the inside end of the band an upright is riveted and to this upright is riveted an ordinary handrail holder to take the handrail. a heavy thumb screw allows the clamp to be fastened firmly to the balustrade at the outside. this is a simple and inexpensive device which affords protection against falls.--contributed by john de la mater, chicago, ill. [illustration: a detachable handrail for use on stone or concrete stairways during winter] a homemade leather punch an empty bottle-neck rifle cartridge can be easily made into a leather punch by grinding the edge of the opening sharp and cutting a hole near the top in one side. the hole is for removing the leather slugs and should be just a little larger in diameter than the inside diameter of the shell. the cartridges can be had in various sizes and almost any size of punch can be made.--contributed by merhyle f. spotts, shelby, ohio. a wood-scraper handle in using a plain scraper on the surface of wood the task grew exceedingly tiresome and i lightened the tedious work to some extent by making a handle for the scraper. the handle consisted of a piece of wood, in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. a cut was made in the edge of the wood the width of the scraper blade and about in. deep, and a bolt run through a hole bored centrally in the side, about - / in. from the lower edge. the blade was clamped in place with the bolt.--contributed by j. d. keiley, yonkers, new york. [illustration: a handle attached to a plain scraper blade makes the work much easier] polishing gunstocks the fine polish applied to gunstocks and wood parts of tools will not wear well, and if one cares for a fine finish, a much better and more durable polish can be applied as follows: soak the wood in linseed oil for a week and then rub the surface with an oil-soaked cloth for a short time every day, for a couple of weeks. a prick-punch center gauge a simple instrument for finding and marking the center of shafting, etc., can be easily made of three pieces of sheet brass and a small prick punch. [illustration: the point of the punch is quickly adjusted to the center of the work] take two pieces of stiff sheet brass, - / by in. in size, and cut two corners, / in. square, out at one end of each piece as shown in the sketch. bend the metal on the dotted line a, until it stands at an angle of deg. the part b should be bent up in the same direction, but at right angles to the plate, while the part c should be bent out only slightly. a hole should be drilled near each corner for rivets. be sure that the two plates are bent in opposite directions, then rivet them firmly together. roll one end of a strip of sheet brass, / in. wide and - / in. long, into a tube large enough to firmly hold a small steel prick punch. place the opposite end of the brass strip in between the two ends c. these ends should spring together slightly in order to hold the punch d at any height it may be placed. if accurately made, the point of the punch will be exactly in the center of the v-shaped trough. in use, to find and mark the center of a round bar, it is placed in the trough with the end just touching the point of the punch. the brass holding the punch is raised between the parts c until the point of the punch is brought as near to the center of the shaft as can be judged. press the point of the punch against the end of the shaft and turn the latter in the trough. if the punch marks a circle the center has not been found. this is corrected by slowly moving the punch up or down until the point ceases to make a circle, then the punch is tapped with a hammer to mark the exact center. a whirligig clapper a good noise maker for halloween or any other occasion, can be made by carefully following the directions here given. the box is the first thing to make. it is constructed of wood pieces, / in. thick, and consists of two ends and two sides. the ends are each - / in. square and the sides - / in. wide and in. long. these parts are nailed together with the ends lapping the sides. the ratchet wheel a is a disk of hard wood, - / in. in diameter. its rim is divided into eight equal parts, and notched with a knife as shown. it is placed in the forward end of the box on a wood axle of / -in. diameter to which it is glued. one end of this axle is squared and projects in. beyond the side of the box. the squared end passes through a square hole in the end of the crank c, which is a piece of wood / in. thick, in. wide and in. long, and is fastened with brads and glue. at the other end of the crank, a similar hole connects with a handle whittled to the shape shown at b. [illustration: detail of the parts and how they are assembled to make the clapper] a flat piece of steel spring, / in. wide and long enough to reach from the rear end of the box to the teeth of the ratchet wheel, is shaped as shown at d. the spring may be made from a stiff piece of corset steel or bicycle trousers guard. the spring is fastened with a nail through the end and box sides and a second nail passes through the sides over the spring, about in. forward from the first nail. this is to give the spring tension on the teeth. to operate the clapper, it is allowed to hang straight down, while the right hand grasps the handle and whirls the box in a circle around to the left.--contributed by c. c. fraser. box partitions as i needed a box with a number of narrow partitions and it was impossible to cut grooves for the sections without removing the bottom, i spaced off the places for the partitions with pieces of thin wood and fastened these in place with small nails clinched on the outside of the box. this method was much more rapid and satisfactory than sawing the grooves and cutting them out with a wood chisel.--contributed by james m. kane. [illustration: grooves for the partitions made with the use of small, thin strips of wood] safety catch for a flour bin a flour bin, counterbalanced to swing closed at all times, is liable to catch the arm of the one taking out flour. to make it safe, i applied the device shown in the sketch. the bin, at rest, is shown in fig. . the safety catch consists of a stick of wood, a, notched at one end, and is pivoted at b on a small bolt. two stops, c and d, are located on the side of the box to prevent the catch from being thrown out of position when the bin is quickly pulled out. these stops are nails driven into the box side. when the bin is pulled out the catch takes the position shown in fig. . the catch stick should be a little shorter than the distance the bin is pulled out, so that it may be raised to release the bin for its return.--contributed by o. f. fouche, erie, pa. [illustration: automatically operated catch to hold a flour bin out while taking flour from it (fig. , fig. )] a homemade whistle procure two empty no. gauge brass cartridge shells. cut one shell / in. shorter than the other, then flatten and bend them as shown in the sketch. the mouthpiece should be at an angle of deg. file a slot, / in. in width, about / in. from the end. file off the flange on the shorter shell so that it will fit snugly against the side of the other and solder them together. a ring may be soldered on the end of the long shell to fasten it on a chain or string. to give the whistle a shrill sound place a large shot in each shell before flattening them.--contributed by peter veneman, paterson, new jersey. [illustration: the tapering end of a cartridge shell is flattened and bent to make a whistle] how to emboss stationery a person's monogram or any special lettering embossed on stationery is quite expensive. the engraving of the dies by experts commanding high salaries, and the subsequent presswork necessary to give relief to the design upon the paper cause an expense which the economical person hesitates to accept, much as the refinement and individuality of the embossed work may be admired. but there is a way by which almost anyone may emboss stationery at home with one's own design at no expense whatever. the work is easy and the results pleasing, and monograms or lettering thus done will compare very favorably with the printer's work, especially if there is a good design to follow and the work is done with care. a little artistic ability will, of course, aid one in preparing a design, but is not essential, for the letters required may be cut from printed matter and used as a guide for tracing. there is no limit to the varieties of work possible by this process. single letters, monograms, words or designs are suitable for reproduction in raised characters. all the materials required for embossing the stationery are the envelope or paper on which the design is to appear, a stylus and a blotter. the paper should be of fair quality. if it is too thin the stylus point is likely to push through it. the linen-finished papers of medium weight and tough texture give excellent results, although almost any grade of good writing paper can be used successfully. as embossing by this process can be done well only through one thickness of paper, in working on envelopes it is best to put the design on the central portion of the flap, or turn it up and make the design in the left-hand corner of the envelope. the stylus may be any kind of a pencil-like instrument, easy to grip between the fingers, with a hard, smooth point, rounded slightly so that it will not cut the paper. the ordinary bone stiletto, used in embroidering, makes an ideal tool for this purpose. if this is not to be had, a substitute is easily whittled from a piece of hard wood. even a wire nail, with its point smoothed with a file, may be used, the upper portion being wound with string to afford a better grip. the blotter should be white, perfectly clean, and of good weight. a thin, hard blotter will not produce a good raised letter as a softer one will. when the surface of a blotter has become covered with creases from repeated use, it should be discarded and a new one substituted. [illustration: manner of holding the stylus when tracing the design on the back side of the paper] as it is best to adopt a distinctive form of monogram or design for stationery and to use it without deviation, it should be selected or worked up with care until something is outlined that will suit. with the design settled upon and drawn on a piece of paper, go over it with a soft pencil to deposit sufficient graphite for an impression. lay the pattern, face down, upon the back of the paper to be embossed, and directly opposite the spot on the other side where the raised characters are to appear. with the handle of a knife or scissors rub over the back of the pattern till the graphite has left the tracing of the design reversed on the writing paper. the pattern is now laid aside until required for transferring the design to another sheet of writing paper. lay the blotter on some smooth, hard surface, such as a desk leaf or table top and lay the writing paper on the blotter, reversed design uppermost. hold the stylus firmly at an angle as shown in the illustration and keep the blotter and paper from moving with the other hand. carefully trace the design, using considerable pressure to insure a good relief upon the opposite side of the paper. a soft eraser should be used to remove the guide marks on the back of the sheet when the relief is finished. after a little practice with a certain design, if it is not too intricate, the operator will find that it can be reproduced quite faithfully freehand, without the use of the pattern, but, of course, the use of the pattern will be the only guarantee of exact duplicates. a homemade hydrometer [illustration] the hydrometer is an instrument used in determining the specific gravity of a liquid, such as acids, etc. the specific gravity of any material is the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of the material and water. thus if a pint of acid weighs . times a pint of water, its specific gravity is said to be . . a very simple and inexpensive hydrometer, similar to the one shown in the sketch, may be easily constructed, and will give quite satisfactory results, if the scale on the instrument is carefully marked when it is calibrated. purchase from the local druggist or doctor two test tubes, one large enough to contain the other, as shown. the smaller tube is to form the hydrometer proper, while the larger one is to serve as a containing vessel in which the liquid to be tested is placed. the large tube should be mounted in a vertical position, by placing it in a hole bored in a small block of wood, or a suitable metal or wooden frame may be made that will accommodate one or more tubes. the small tube is loaded at the lower end with a quantity of shot, or other heavy metal, in such a way that it will stand in a vertical position when it is placed in a vessel of water. the amount of the loading will depend upon whether the hydrometer is to be used in determining the specific gravity of liquids heavier or lighter than water. if the liquids are heavier than water, the loading should be such that the tube is almost entirely immersed when placed in water; if lighter, only sufficient loading should be used to make the tube stand upright in water. after the amount of loading has been determined it should be fastened in place by means of a small quantity of calcined plaster. a small cork should now be placed in the open end of the tube, and the tube sealed by coating the end with shellac, or melting a small quantity of resin or sealing wax over the top of the cork with a hot soldering iron. now place in the large tube a quantity of as pure water as can be obtained--fresh rain water will answer very well and distilled water still better. immerse the small tube in the water in the large tube and allow it to come to rest. make a small mark on the small tube with a file, level with the surface of the water in the large tube. if the hydrometer is placed in a liquid lighter than water and allowed to float, the mark made on the tube will always be below the surface of the liquid in which the instrument is placed, and the mark will be above the surface of the liquid when the liquid is heavier than water. the hydrometer may be calibrated by making use of a hydrometer borrowed from the druggist or doctor. the two hydrometers should be immersed in the same liquid and the tube of the newly made instrument marked to correspond with the markings on the borrowed instrument. if the liquid is heavier than water to start with, its specific gravity can be reduced by adding water, and as the water is added the hydrometers will both rise. a stirring stick the stirring, or mixing, stick shown in the sketch deserves its name, as it will stir evenly all the way around. it consists of two flat sticks, one two-thirds the width of the other, which are nailed together as shown. the narrow one is only long enough to enter the depth of the liquid.--contributed by frank j. rempe, oakland, california. [illustration: a flat surface strikes the liquid no matter which way the stick is moved] [illustration] a telescoping support for a hinged shelf [illustration: when the shelf is lowered the support telescopes and is out of the way] the supporting arm of the hinged shelf is constructed of a piece of gas pipe and a length of iron rod which slides snugly into the pipe. a spring catch is set in the pipe at the proper height to engage the end of the iron rod when the shelf is up. this spring must be of good size, as it holds the entire weight of the shelf. a large clock spring is suitable. one end of the spring is bent outward and upward to form a releasing handle. the other end is drilled for the two machine screws which hold it to the pipe. the spring works in a rectangular slot, cut lengthwise of the pipe. the pipe must extend or in. beyond the spring. the ends of the rod and of the pipe are pivoted with screws or rivets on angle pieces screwed to the shelf and wall.--contributed by donald a. price, wilmington, del. a bug powder to secure a nonpoisonous roach and bug powder mix dry lb. plaster of paris with lb. of sugar, then add oz. of pulverized aniseed. the addition of a little corn meal will help to draw the pests.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. how the capacity of an incubator may be doubled about days after setting the incubator one may easily start another hatch by placing more eggs on top of the incubator in the following manner: make a pad about in. thick of any cotton material and place it on top of the incubator. cut four pieces of boards, by in., and fit them around the top of the incubator. nail them together as in making the sides and ends of a box. pad the inside of this frame about in. thick and tack it on top of the incubator, being careful that none of the material comes too close to the lamp. place the eggs inside of this tray and cover them with a pad about in. thick. turn the eggs the same as those on the inside. when the first hatch comes out, place the eggs kept on top in the incubator after having cleaned it with a solution of carbolic acid.--contributed by hattie j. day. homemade rivet set desiring to rivet some pieces of leather together and having no rivet set, i hastily made one from a strip of heavy sheet tin, / in. wide. this was rolled at one end, as shown in the sketch, and the other end notched to fit over the rivet end. the rolled end formed the part for setting the washer and the slotted end held the washer down while the first blows of the hammer were struck. [illustration: a strip of tin shaped to take the place of a rivet set] wash bottle for laboratory use [illustration] a large-mouth bottle neck is provided with a stopper, having three brass or glass tubes as shown, the tube a being fitted with a thick piece of rubber tubing, b, stoppered at its lower end. a slit is cut at c, and allows the air blown in through the tube a to pass into the bottle, but will close automatically and hold the pressure within the bottle. if the relief tube d is closed with the thumb the water is forced out in a steady stream through the nozzle e. the water will continue to run for some time after the lips are removed from the air tube, but the removal of the thumb from the tube d will stop the flow of water instantly.--contributed by w. schilling, san francisco, cal. typewriting on card stock anyone having tried to typewrite on cards or heavy stock has doubtless experienced much trouble in getting the card to feed properly. if at all heavy, it will resist the curving so strongly that it will not be carried around the platen, and the edge of the card is very apt to catch on the pressure rolls and cause the platen to slip. the remedy is very simple and consists in running a sheet of paper through ahead of the card until an edge of about / in. remains, then inserting the edge of the card inside of the projecting edge of the paper and turning the platen. the paper overlapping the card prevents the edge of the latter from catching on the pressure rolls and keeps it in close contact with the platen so that it will pass through without trouble.--contributed by thos. l. parker, st. paul, minn. a furniture polish a homemade furniture polish that will compare with any known polish, is composed of the following chemicals and oils. mix oz. of turpentine very gradually with oz. of linseed oil, then add oz. of grain alcohol, oz. of -per-cent acetic acid, and / oz. of butter of antimony. apply with a cloth and use a good friction. as the substance might prove harmful to children if taken internally, see that it is kept out of their reach.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. pointed end on a hoe [illustration] the rounding end on the ordinary hoe is useless in many instances for getting under growing plants, to cut out the weeds and to loosen up the earth. i find that shaping the hoe ends as shown in the sketch is very effective in getting up close to a plant and under spreading vines.--contributed by r. f. pohle, e lynn, mass. starting a siphon [illustration] roll up a soft rubber hose tightly so that it will be flattened to force out all the air and drop one end into the liquid, then let the coil unwind as it falls down on the outside. the uncoiling causes a slight vacuum in the hose and the liquid follows it up and starts the flow instantly.--contributed by l. j. monahan, oshkosh, wis. * * * * * paint spots on window glass can be readily removed with a penny. a homemade blowtorch [illustration] the torch shown in the sketch requires no air pump. instead of forcing a small stream of gasoline into a heated burner it converts the gasoline into gas in the chamber and blows a small jet of it through a very small hole into the combustion chamber. a medium-sized and strong oilcan is used for the reservoir, the spout being cut off close to the screw part and a steel or brass tube, about / in. in diameter, soldered to the stub end. the tube is bent as shown. a piece of wicking is drawn into the tube so that the upper end is within / in. of the tube end. the end of the tube is then fitted with a piece of brass rod with a very small hole in the center. the hole is made in the following manner: before the piece is cut from the rod, it is held in a vise and the sharp end of a scriber is carefully driven into the center. a little oil placed on the scriber point will keep it from sticking in the metal. measure the depth of the hole and cut the rod off just above the point. file the end of the piece cut off with a fine file until the point of the hole is reached. this hole must be so small that light can be barely seen through it. the combustion chamber is made of a piece of brass tubing driven over the end of the smaller tube on the spout. about / in. from the back end of the larger tube four or more holes are drilled to admit air to the gas. fill the can about three-fourths full of gasoline and allow time for the wick to become saturated to the upper end. hold a lighted match to the rear of the burner, and the heat will convert the gasoline into gas which will then burn with a nice white flame about in. long. the success of the torch depends altogether on the fineness of the hole in the end of the tube and the tight soldering of all the joints. a rule gauge the method of using the thumb as a gauge on a rule in scribing long boards is not always satisfactory, especially if the board has a rough edge. it is always best to have a regular gauge, but in the absence of one, an attachment for an ordinary carpenter's rule can be quickly made from a piece of tin, although one made of sheet brass is better, in appearance as well as for service. cut out the metal, as shown by the dimensions, and roll the two sides up, stopping at the dotted lines. the ends a and b are turned out slightly so that they will slide easily along the edge of the board. the gauge will snap on a rule easily and will stay where it is placed.--contributed by h. j. blacklidge, san rafael, cal. [illustration: gauge made of sheet metal which will easily snap on a carpenter's rule] a match holder [illustration] the holder consists of a small box, the same size as a match box, with a sloping spring bottom and spring wires covering the lower part of the front side. one end of the match box is removed and the contents dumped into the holder. the matches fall to the lower sloping edge, where one match at a time can be easily removed.--contributed by bert verne, san diego, cal. trick bottles and glasses by george w. catlin [illustration: under each cover used is a bottle and glass, and by pinching the cover the bottle is made to rise with it, thus leaving the glass in view] the performer presents to his audience two pasteboard covers, one bottle and one glass. saying that he wishes to secure the safety of the bottle and glass, he places covers over them, cautioning the audience to note carefully which cover incloses the glass and which the bottle. then he says that, to prevent any misunderstanding as to their positions, it is desired the audience designate which cover holds the glass. the response will be unanimous, "the left" or "the right" as the case may be, but on raising that cover the bottle is exposed. covering the bottle again, and asking the audience if they were quite sure that their eyes did not deceive them, he states that the glass is really under the cover just lifted and returned to its place. to prove it, the cover is lifted again, to show the glass this time. the changing can be done as often as desired, or will amuse the crowd. the secret of the trick consists in the use of two covers, two bottles and two glasses, and the manner of performing it is as follows: the bottles are bottomless and of such size as to admit the glass without sticking. a round hole is cut in one side of each bottle, about - / in. above the bottom. this can be accomplished in a drill press by using a round copper tube, with fine emery applied to its end, as a drill. the hole should be so placed that a finger will strike the top of the glass when both bottle and glass are set on the same surface. if dark-colored bottles are used, a false bottom can be made and fitted in each bottle above the upper edge of the glass. this bottom can be cemented in place and made liquid-tight, so that some wine may be placed in the bottle and poured into the opposite glass to show that it holds liquid. in doing this part of the trick, make no more changes with the wine in one glass. under each cover is a bottle and tumbler, and by pinching the cover, the bottle is made to rise with it, thus leaving the tumbler in view. when it is necessary to show the bottle, just raise the cover, and the bottle covers the glass. when the bottle is lifted from the table, the thumb is inserted in the hole to press the tumbler against the opposite side, where it is held and raised with the bottle. be sure to keep the side of the bottles with the hole back and away from the audience. it will be seen that it matters not which cover is mentioned; the performer can show just the article he desires. contents accounts, home, way to keep, acid siphon, acid stains, removing from cloth, addressing a roll of papers, advertising lantern slides, how to make, aerial propeller, model boat with, aeroplane, flying model, for display, aeroplane frames, braces for, aeroplane kite, aeroplane, model, joints for, air pencil to make embossed letters, air pressure, relieving, when closing record boxes, alarm clock, mission frame for, alarm, doorbell, drip-pan, fire and burglar, how to make, for sleepwalker, temperature, to designate filled storage battery, amateur mechanic's combination lathe, amperage of fuse wire, reducing, anchor posts for lawn swing, anemometer, electric, angling, , , , anti-tangle safety pin, ants, to keep away from food, application for small wounds, arbor, grape, built of poles, arm, pincushion for, armatures for small motors, armatures, small, holding for winding, 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cover, pocket for inside of, book covering, book leaves, removing ink stains from, book, support for open, bookcase or closet, portable and folding, bookholder, adjustable, bookrack, folding, books in case, holder for, books, removing finger marks from, boring a clean-edged hole, boring a long hole, bottle, cover for, glass, cutting, removing cork from, bottle-cap lifter, bottle-opening trick, bottle necks, to prevent corks sticking in bottles and glasses, trick, bottles, medicine, time indicator for, poison, simple way to mark, box, camp provision, box partitions, boxes, homemade hinges for, boy surveyor: camera surveying, plane-table surveying, plotting a camera survey, brace, drill press on ordinary, wrist, braces for aeroplane frames, bracket, shade-roller and curtain-pole, bracket, swinging electric-light, brackets, towel-roller, brake, prony, for testing small motors, brass, cleaner for, frosting, brass articles, cleaning, brass clips, tool holders made of, brass rings, turning, brass tubing, seamless, small steam-engine cylinders made from, bread, baking in hot sand, bread, toasting over an open fire, breaker, glass, broom for sweeping out corners in steps, broom holder, another, broom, old, shaping, brown stain for wood, brush for applying soldering acid, brush handles, protecting, from paint, utilizing old, brush hanger for dark room, brush, homemade, for cleaning upholstered furniture, to clean shellac from, buckle tongues, replacing, bucket, ear repair on, bucket-ball game, buffer, finger-nail, bug powder, bugs attracted by light, catching, bumper, rubber, on water faucet, bunsen burner, homemade, small, burglar alarm, fire and, how to make, burlap, needle for sewing, burner for soldering small work, homemade bunsen, small bunsen, bushing a stovepipe in a chimney hole, buttonhole cutter, buttonholes, guide for making, cabinet, bedroom, cabinet doors, homemade ball catch for, cabinet, shaving, mounted on adjustable pedestal, cabinet work, joint for, calcium deposits on glass, removing, calculation trick, lightning, caliper gauge, vise used as, camera, hand, telephoto attachment for, homemade, enlarging, mechanical, mile-o-view, multiplying, attachment for, ordinary, stereoscopic pictures with camera shutter, electrically operated, camera support, camera survey, plotting a, camera surveying, cameras, dull black for, homemade direct-view finder for camp, bed for, hanger for, lantern for, camp furnishings, camp loom, camp provision box, camp stoves, camp-fire utensils, supports for, camphor, experiments with, camps, cams, small, how to make, can covers, tight-fitting, removing, candle sconce, horn, candle-shade holder, candle, to automatically extinguish, candles, decorating, motor made of, substitute for, varnished, burn longer, candy-floss machine, how to make, cane-seat cleaner, canned foods, heated, relieving pressure for opening, canoe stove, canoe, to repair leak in, canvas, preventing mildew on, canvas shoes, cleaner for, carbon paper, renewing, card, changing pip on, magic change, card stock, typewriting on, card-and-coin trick, cards, mind-reading effect with, carrier, for fishhooks, for suitcase, milk-bottle, stove-wood, carrying stone jars, carrying two pails in one hand, cartridge belt, how to make, cartridge shells used for electrical contacts case, holder for books in, casein glue, casting rod, one-piece, castings for engine pistons, pipe caps used as, catamaran, ice boat and, catapult, catch, ball, for cabinet doors, safety, for flour bin, to hold two joining doors open, caterpillars on grapevines, destroying, cellar-door holder, cement floors, footstool for, cement, shellac, center gauge, prick-punch, centering gauge, chain, novelty, chair, bottoms, reinforcing, freezing basin to, head rest for, legs, to fasten, post, repairing broken tenon on, repairing rocker on, rocker, stop on, for baby, rockers, safety tips on, chair swing, chairs, refinishing, chalk trays, covering for, chart, compass time, cherry pitter, chickens, tin can used for watering, child's finger, cutting tin ball from, child's playhouse, child's seat for theaters, chime clock, electric, chinese pagoda, chisel edges, grinding, chisel handle, protector cap for, chisel holder for whetting, chisel rack, chopper, poultry-food, chopping block, stick holder for, clamp, detachable, for stairway handrails emergency, picture-frame and triangle, used as vise, clapper, whirligig, cleaner, cane-seat, for brass, for canvas shoes, lamp-chimney, wall-paper, , cleaning an oilstone, jewelry, how to, brass articles, clothes by boiling them, dirt from tufts in upholstering, gold and platinum, painted or frescoed walls, pearl articles, steel of grease and stains, cleaning bath for silverware, cleats on boards, substitute for, clips to hold magazine pages together, clock, electric chime, repairing worn escapement wheel of closet, bookcase or, portable and folding, closet holders for linen, cloth, delicate, removing, perspiration stains from, removing acid stains from, clothes, cleaning by boiling, clothes peg, cork-covered, wood, clothes rack, clothesline, double, supporter for, for small goods, hanging taut, clothesline posts, folding arms for, clothesline reel, clothesline reel, homemade, clothespin bag, clothespin, wire, clothing, to remove grease from, to remove rust stains from, coaster brake, repairing, coaster, homemade roller, coasting bobsled, four-passenger, coat and trousers hangers, coil springs, small, how to make, coil, water-heating, in furnace pipe, coils, induction, testing out, coin box, mystery, coin, worn, reading date of, coins, display holder for, cold-chisel guide, collar fasteners, collar holder, combination tie rack and, coloring electric-light globes, colors, setting, in fabrics, comb cleaner, compass, operation of, pencil, emergency, compass time chart, condenser, variable, connecting call bells, simple methods of, construction of simple wireless telephone set: part i, part ii, construction of small bell-ringing transformer: part i--fundamental principles, part ii--construction, cooking food in paper, cooler for milk and butter, cooling tube for laboratory still, coop, poultry, copying stand for photographic enlarging and reducing, cord, flexible, adjuster for electric flatiron, cores for use in babbitt metal, cork, large, fitting in small bottle, removing, from bottle, cork puller, , cork-covered clothes peg, corks-in-a-box trick, corks, to prevent sticking in bottle necks, corn sheller, hand, homemade, corner cleaner attached to scrubbing brush corner joints, picture-frame, corners in steps, broom for sweeping out, corrosion, protecting binding posts on wet batteries from, costumer, how to make, couch-cover corner, tying rosette in, countersink for wood, homemade, coupling, shaft, court-plaster, liquid, cover, detachable hinged, for kettles, for bottle, for magazines, slide-opening, for plate holder, cover strainer, covering for chalk trays, covering for gas-stove top, cradle, combination settee rocker and, homemade, crease in soft hat, to keep, crochet hook, croquet arches, white rubber on, croquet mallets protected by metal rings, croquet playing, night, crystallization shown on screen, cucumbers, raising on trellis, cup, paper drinking, paper drinking, how to make, curling-iron heater, curtain hanger, curtain stop, curtain, stretching, without frame, cushion, screen and storm-door, cuspidor carrier, cut press, homemade, cut, starting saw, cutter, buttonhole, cutter for lace leather, cutter made of wafer razor blade, cyclemobile, cylinders, small steam-engine, made from seamless brass tubing, dampness, keeping out, dark, locating droplight in, dark room, brush hanger for, photographer's, drying towels in, d'arsonval galvanometer, date of worn coin, reading, decorating candles, decoration, forcing fruit blossoms for, decorative wood panels, demagnetize a watch, how to, demagnetizer, watch, how to make, dents in wood, raising, desk, sloping, telephone stand for, develop roll film, easy way to, developing machine, developing tray made of tin can, developing-tray rocker, dibble, homemade, die-and-box trick, dip, bright, for metal, dip-plating process, dish or floor mop, endless, dish washing, summer, dishpan, sink a substitute for, disk-armature motor, disk-throwing pistol, display, flying model aeroplane for, display holder for coins, displaying dye colors, displaying magazines, holders for, dissolving coin trick, distance chart for wireless stations, distance marker for printing photographs, distilling apparatus for water, dog, chained, exerciser for, dogs, lathe, door, double latch for, door fastener, door hinges, locking screws in, door knobs, attaching to locks, door stop, doorbell alarm, doorbell, musical, doors, two joining, catch to hold open, doorway, fastening portière pole in, dory rudder, holder for, dovetail joint, laying out, dowel-turning tool, drafts, window ventilator to prevent, draftsmen, amateur, combination tool for, drawer, automatically closing, combination lock for, ordinary table; secret compartment in, drawer guide, nonsticking, drawers, several, locking with one lock, drawing instruments, substitutes for, drawing pen, to start ink flowing from, dressing, shoe, waterproof, drill press, homemade, homemade hand, on ordinary brace, drill, small vertical, how to make, to prevent from catching as it passes through metal, drilling thin metal, drinking cup, paper, paper, how to make, drinking glasses, separating, drinking tube, drip-pan alarm, drip pan, locating under refrigerator, driver, screweye, driving screws, droplight, locating in dark, dropper and cork for medicine bottles, dry and warm climates, refrigerator for, dry batteries, preserving, renewing, testing, dry cell, how to make, drying seeds, drying small laundered articles, drying towels in photographer's dark room, dustpan, long handle for, dye colors, displaying, ear repair on a bucket, ebony, imitating on oak, edging flower beds, egg boiler, egg-frying pan, egg separator, homemade, eggs, cracked, boiling, lifter for removing from hot water electric anemometer, electric apparatus, varnishing bases for, electric bed warmer, homemade, electric chime clock, electric display for show window, electric fishing signal, how to make, electric fixtures, curved, pulling wire through, electric flatiron, flexible-cord adjuster for, electric fountain, electric furnace, how to make, small, how to make, electric gas lighter, electric heater, how to make, electric horn, electric incubator, electric indicator, wind vane with, how to build, electric lamp flasher, how to make, electric lamp reflector for target, electric light, bicycle oil lamp changed to electric light bracket, swinging, electric light bulb as barometer, electric light globes, coloring, electric light globes, paper shades for, electric light mystery, electric lights controlled from two or more switches, electric motor, simple, how to build, electric score board for indoor games, electric shaving mug, electric stirring-machine, electric switch for exposing photographic printing-papers, electric test for fixtures, electric time light, electric water heater, , electrical apparatus-- alarm to designate filled storage battery, armatures for small motors, bed warmer, homemade, bell, continuously ringing, how to make, bell-ringing transformer, construction of small, , disk-armature motor, doorbell alarm, door lock, combination electrically operated, dry cell, how to make a, electric display for show window, electric fishing signal, electric stirring machine, electric water heater, electrotype stamp, how to make an, galvanometer, d'arsonval, galvanometer, simple, how to construct a, fire and burglar alarm, how to make a, holding small armatures for winding, musical doorbell, pocket direct-current voltmeter, quickly made rheostat, reversing switch for small motors, rheostat, how to make a small, rotary tuning coil, series motor, how to make a small, simple methods of connecting call bells, small shocking machine, telegraph sounder, homemade, temperature alarm, variable condenser, vibrator for spark coil, wet battery, homemade, wire expansion meter, wireless telephone set, construction of simple, , electrical contacts, cartridge shells used for, electrical testing instrument for experimenters, electrically ignited flash light for making photographs, electrically operated camera shutter, electrically operated door lock, combination, electrodes, furnace, of lead pencils, electrolytic interrupter, how to make, electroplating, inlaying-metals by, electroplating without a tank, electrotype stamp, how to make, ellipsograph, homemade, emboss stationery, how to, embossed letters, air pencil to make, emery-cloth holder, engine, homemade steam-turbine, engine pistons, pipe caps used as castings for, engine, thermo, atmospheric, enlarging camera, homemade, enlarging photographs, enlarging pictures, envelope and stamp moistener, envelope, special, to make, eraser holder, eraser, ink, escapement wheel of clock, repairing worn exerciser for a chained dog, exerciser, homemade, expansion meter, wire, experiment, interesting, interesting vacuum, experimenters, electrical testing instrument for, experiments with camphor, exterior sliding fly screen, extracting a broken screw, extractor, sliver, eye shield for microscope, fabrics, setting colors in, falling-blocks, how to make, fastener, door, bed-cover, collar, fastening loose table legs, fastening screws in tile and brick walls, faucet, water, rubber bumper on, feeding-table, turn, for birds, felt, mending break in, fencing, poultry, stretching, ferris wheel, playground, ferrule, taper, how to make, figures, puzzle with, file, inexpensive, filing flat surfaces, filing soft metals, film-developing machine, adjustable, film, roll, easy way to develop, filter, automatic, force, laboratory, in a pump spout, water, finder for cameras, homemade direct-view, finger marks, removing from books, finger nail buffer, finger protection on laboratory vessels, finger-ring trick, fire and burglar alarm, how to make, fireflies, theatrical night scene with appearance of, fish, game, attractor for, preventing loss of, from covered baskets, to hold while removing scales, fish rake, fish-scaling knife, fish stringer, fishhooks, carrier for, carrying in, cane pole, fishing, live bait used in, fishing-rod joints, holding together, fishing-rod making and angling: part i--a one-piece casting rod, part ii--various two and three-piece rods, part iii--trout fishing with fly and bait part iv--trout fishing with fly and bait fishing signal, electric, how to make, fishing, trout, with fly and bait, , fitting large cork in small bottle, five-pointed star, fixtures, electric test for, gas and electric, locating in dark flash light, electrically ignited, for making photographs, flash light telegraph on kite line, flasher, electric lamp, how to make, sunlight, for garden, flashing hook, flat surfaces, filing, flatiron, electric, flexible-cord adjuster for, flatiron holder, ornamental metal, floor or dish mop, endless, floor polisher, homemade, floor push button, flour bin, safety catch for, flower beds, edging, flower trellis, umbrella used as, flowers, preserving, in color and form, flutter ring, how to make, flying model aeroplane for display, flymobile, how to make, flypaper holder, folding arms for clothesline posts, folding bookrack, food, cooking, in paper, food, to keep ants away from, foot boats, how to make, footstool for cement floors, form, stocking-stretcher, fortune teller, mystic, fountain attachment for ordinary pen, fountain, electric, fountain for ordinary pen, fountain-pen barrels, mending broken, fountain pen, homemade, frame for printing post cards from negatives, frames, small mitered, gluing, freezing basin to chair, freezing, to prevent poultry water from, frosting brass, frosting glass, fruit blossoms for decoration, forcing, fruit-jar opener, fruit jars, screw-top, opening, fruit presser, fruit stemmer, funnel, automatic valve for, furnace, electric, how to make, furnace electrodes of lead pencils, furnace pipe, water-heating coil in, furnace, small electric, how to make, furnishings, camp, furniture-- bedroom cabinet, bookrack, chair swing, combination settee rocker and cradle, costumer, how to make, double top for table, folding bookrack, footstool for cement floors, jardinière pedestal, leaded-glass panels for, mission, joint for, reed--a reed basket, shaving cabinet, woven-top stool, furniture polish, , for fine woods, fuse wire, reducing amperage of, galvanometer, d'arsonval, simple, how to construct, game, bucket-ball, indoor baseball, played on ice, ring-throwing, indoor, electric score board for, garden-bed scarecrow, garden roller, garden, sunlight flasher for, gas and electric fixtures, locating in dark, gas generator, laboratory, gas lighter, electric, gas pipe, paper, gas stove top, covering for, gasoline consumption of automobile, to reduce, gate, double-swing, with common hinge, gate fasteners, gate, self-closing, gauge, attachment for pocket rule, centering, homemade marking, prick-punch center, rule, gear-cutting machine, generator, gas, laboratory, geometric principle in line division, glass bottle, cutting, glass breaker, glass, frosting, removing calcium deposits on, removing paint from, glasses, drinking, separating, trick bottles and, glaziers' points, substitute for, glider, ice, monoplane, how to make, paper, that loops the loop, tandem monoplane, glue, casein, glue-spreader holder, gluing small mitered frames, go-cart, runner for, gold and platinum, cleaning, graduate holder, graduate, homemade, graduates, renewing markings on, graining tools, homemade, grape arbor built of poles, grapevines, destroying caterpillars on, grass rake, grease, removing from paint, to remove from clothing, green-corn holder, grinder, kraut and root, grinding a plane iron, guide for, grinding chisel edges, grinding scissors, grindstone, scraping surplus water off on, guard, pruning-saw, guide, cold-chisel, for grinding a plane iron, for making buttonholes, for mill file, guide ropes on bobsled, guides, window-shade, gun, pea-shooting, gunstocks, polishing, hacksaw frame, adjustable, homemade, hairpin, fancy, lock for, hammer, double-claw, for pulling nails straight, hammock, to tie, hand drill press, homemade, hand hoe, handbag lock, handballs, inflating, handle, attachment for sickle, long, for dustpan, new pail-cover, scraper, hunting-knife, handrails, stairway, detachable clamp for, hanger, curtain, for the camp, kitchen utensil, hangers, coat and trousers, for barn tools, hanging vase, hat hanger, hat sweatband, reducing size of, head rest for chair, heater, curling iron, electric, how to make, electric water, heel plates, heliograph, how to make, hindoo sand trick, hinge, small spring, strap, applying, with wide swing, hinges, door, locking screws in, for boxes, homemade, homemade, used to substitute night bolt, hoe, hand, pointed end on, holder, broom, another, candle-shade, cellar-door, for books in a case, for garden-hose nozzle, for loose window glass, for milk card, for set of sadirons, for skates while sharpening, green-corn, milk-ticket, nursing-bottle, paper-bag, pen and brush, pencil, umbrella, for display purposes, washbasin, holders for displaying magazines, hole, boring-clean-edged, long, boring, home accounts, way to keep, hook, crochet, flashing, key-holder, hooks, homemade snap, horn candle sconce, horn, electric, mechanical bicycle, hose attachment for watering window plants, hose nozzle, hose-nozzle handle, hose reel, substitute for, hot dish, holding spoon on, houses made of poles, hulling walnuts, , humidity indicator, how to make, humidor, how to make, hunting-knife handles, hurdle, how to make, hydroelectric-power plant, small, hydrometer, homemade, ice boat and catamaran, ice-box lights, automatically controlled, ice boxes, to remove odors from, ice, creeper for shoe heels, game played on, glider, pushmobile racer for, illuminating-an outside thermometer, illusion, optical, imitating ebony on oak, incubator, electric, to double capacity of, indicator, humidity, how to make, polarity, indoor games, baseball game, bucket-ball game, electric score board for, ring-throwing game, induction coils, testing out, inexpensive file, inflating handballs, inflating toy balloons, ink bottle, pen rack on, ink eraser, ink stains, removing from book leaves, ink, to start flowing from drawing-pen, inkstand, mission style, tilting, inkwell and penholder, inkwell stopper, inlaying metals by electroplating, insect-proof poultry roost, iodine stains, removing, iron holder knob, substitute for, iron, how to nickel or silverplate by friction, ironing-board holder, ivory, bleaching, jardinière pedestal, jelly-straining stand, jewelry, how to clean, jig-saw blades, joints, for cabinet work, for mission furniture, for model aeroplane, tenoned, how to lock, kettle-handle support, kettle handle, to protect from heat, kettles, detachable hinged cover for, key-holder hook, keyhole, light in, kitchen utensil-- baking-pan shoes, adjustable, bottle-cap lifter, broom holder, cherry pitter, cork puller, , cover for a bottle, cover strainer, egg boiler egg-frying pan, egg separator, homemade fish-scaling knife, fruit jar opener, fruit stemmer, grinder, kraut and root hanger for, kettle handle, protecting from heat, kettle-handle support, kettles, detachable hinged cover for, knife holder on frying pan, lamp-chimney cleaner, lard and fruit presser, lifter for removing eggs from hot water, nutcracker, adjustable, opening screw-top fruit jars, pail-cover handle, new, potato peeler, scraper for, scrubbing brush, corner cleaner attached to, skimmer for bottled milk, skimming-spoon, soap shake, steam, opening for, in utensil cover, strainer for milk pail, tablespoon end used as lemon squeezer, vegetable slicer, kite, aeroplane, kite line, cutaway for toy parachutes, flash-light telegraph on, traveler, toy parachute cut-away for, kite, war, how to make, knife, fish-scaling, knife handle, broken, repairing, knife holder on a frying pan, knife, homemade palette, knife, to make open easily, knives and glasses, trick with, kraut and root grinder, labels, old, to make scratch pads of, laboratory force filter, laboratory gas generator, laboratory still, cooling tube for, laboratory vessels, finger protection on, laboratory, wash bottle for use in, lamp, bicycle oil, changed to electric light lamp chimney cleaner, lamp deception, wireless-lighted, lamp flasher, electric, how to make, landing for small boats, lantern for camp, lantern for spot and colored lights, lantern slide binding machine, lantern slides, advertising, how to make, lard and fruit presser, large hole in small piece of paper, latch, double, for door, lathe, amateur mechanics' combination, bench, dogs, filing small rods in, sander mandrel for, wood, how to make, laundered articles, drying small, laundry, how to make copper stencil for marking, lawn mower, lighting, for use at night, lawn sprinkler, homemade, lawn sprinkling, nozzle angle for, lawn swing, anchor posts for, lawn-tennis marker, laying out a dovetail joint, lead pencils, furnace electrodes of, lead pipe, painting, leaded-glass panels for furniture, leak in a canoe, to repair, leather, lace, cutter for, leather punch, homemade, leather punch, pipe used as, leather, tan, to color black, leather work, arts-crafts, , leaves, falling, in nature scene, lemon squeezer, tablespoon end used as, letter scale, how to make, lettering photographs, letters, embossed, air pencil to make, letters for marking bags, homemade, level of liquids, in vessels, to maintain constant, lifter for removing eggs from hot water, light, bathroom, to operate automatically catching bugs attracted by, electric time, in a keyhole, ice-box, automatically controlled, spot and colored, lantern for, lighting a basement light, lighting a lawn mower for use at night, lighting a room for making photographs, line division, geometric principle in, linen, closet holders for, liquid court-plaster, liquids, heavy, vent for pouring, liquids in vessels, to maintain constant level of, lock, common, making less pickable, door, combination electrically operated, for a drawer, combination, for fancy hairpin, handbag, window, lock keeper, broken, repair for, locking extension table, window catch used for, locking screws in door hinges, locking several drawers with one lock, locks, attaching door knobs to, loom, camp, loose-leaf pocket memorandum, homemade, loss of fish from covered baskets, preventing, machine for sketching pictures, machine screws, small, how to start, machinery, oiling bright parts of, magazine pages, clips for holding together, magazines, binding, cover for, holders for displaying, magic change card, magic string, magnetic-suspension pendulum, mailing tube, homemade, securing papers in, mandrel, sander, for lathe, mantel picture frames made in plaster, marble, repairing, marker, lawn-tennis, marking bags, homemade letters for, marking gauge, homemade, markings on graduates, renewing, marks from basting threads on wool, preventing, match-box holder, safety, match box, self-feeding, match holder, match safe to deliver one match at a time, maulstick used as ruler, measuring length of wire wound on spool, meat saw and knife, combination, mechanical aid to singers, mechanical bicycle horn, mechanical camera, medicine bottles, dropper and cork for, time indicator for, medicine-spoon holder, mending a break in felt, merry-go-round pole, merry-go-round, skating, metal, bright dip for, metal polish, metal rings, croquet mallets protected by, metal, thin, drilling, metals, inlaying, by electroplating, metals, soft, filing, meter, water, homemade, meter, wire expansion, microscope, eye shield for, mildew on canvas, preventing, mile-o-view camera, milk and butter, cooler for, milk-bottle carrier, milk-bottle tray, milk, bottled, skimmer for, milk card, holder for, milk pail, strainer for, milk stool, milk-ticket holder, mill file, guides for, mind-reading effect with cards, mirror an aid in rowing a boat, mirror hinged to window casing, mission frame for an alarm clock, mission furniture, joint for, mission-style inkstand, miter box, picture-frame, homemade, mixing sulphuric acid, model aeroplane, flying, for display, joints for, model boat, with aerial propeller, steam-turbine model work, bearings for, moistener, envelope and stamp, stamp, molding-sawing block used on bench, moles, to prevent from damaging growing seeds, monorail sled, how to make, mop, endless dish or floor, mop wringer, how to make, mortises, guide for cutting, mosquitoes, trapping, motion-picture, camera, and, projector, homemade: part i, part ii, part iii, motion-picture machine, simple, motor, disk-armature, made of candles, simple electric, how to build, small series, how to make, water, how to make, motorboat, repairing bruised sides of, motors, prony brake for testing small, small, armatures for, small, reversing switch for, mouse trap, , multiplying attachment for camera, musical doorbell, muskrat trap, mysteries, tricks, illusions, etc.-- bottle-opening trick, card and coin trick, changing pip on a card, corks-in-a-box trick, die-and-box trick, dissolving-coin trick, electric-light mystery, finger-ring trick, flutter ring, hindoo sand trick, lightning-calculation trick, magic-change card, magic string, mysterious revolving wheel, mystic fortune teller, optical illusion, mysteries, tricks, illusions, etc.--"q" trick, ring trick, rubber-band-change trick, string-and-ball trick, surprise water bottle, swinging-pendulum trick, trick bottles and glasses, trick of taking dollar bill from apple, trick with knives and glasses, tricks performed with thumbs tied together, mystery coin box, mystery, trunk, mystic fortune teller, nail, finishing, to clinch, name, writing reversed on paper placed on forehead, nature scene, falling leaves in, needle and thread tray, combination, needle box for talking machines, needle for repairing screens, needle for sewing burlap, needle-spray nozzle, negative, to hold in printing frame, newspaper holder, clothespin, nickel or silverplate iron by friction, how to, night bolt, hinges used to substitute, night croquet playing, nonsticking drawer guide, nozzle angle for lawn sprinkling, nozzle, garden-hose, holder for, hose, needle-spray, novelty chain, nursing-bottle holder, nutcracker, adjustable, nuts, different-size, wrench for, homemade wing, wing, how to make, oak, imitating ebony on, oar holder, oarlocks, rope, odors, to remove from ice boxes, oil burner for cook stove, oilcloth, to prevent from cracking, oiling bright parts of machinery, oilstone, cleaning, repairing broken, old-oak stain, opener, fruit-jar, opening for air at top of shade, opening for steam in utensil cover, operation of compass, optical illusion, pad for percolator, paddle-wheel boat, how to build, pagoda, chinese, pail cover handle, new, pail hook for pitcher pump, pail, live-bait, pails, carrying two in one hand, paint brushes, care of, paint, preserving in open cans, protecting brush handles from, removing from glass, removing grease from, painted or frescoed walls, to clean, painting lead pipe, paints and pastes, preserving, palette knife, homemade, pan, egg-frying, panels, decorative wood, leaded-glass, for furniture, pantograph, homemade, paper, carbon, renewing, paper drinking cup, paper drinking cup, how to make, paper gas pipe, paper glider that loops the loop, paper, large hole in small piece of, paper perforator, paper shades for electric-light globes, paper smoother and penwiper, paper transparent, to make, paper-bag holder, paper-pulp utensils, mending, papers, addressing roll of, papers in mailing tube, securing, parachute cut-away for kite lines, toy, partitions, box, pearl articles, cleaning, pea-shooting gun, pedestal, jardinière, peeler, potato, pen and brush holder, pen, ordinary, fountain attachment for, ordinary, fountain for, substitute for, pen rack on an ink bottle, pencil compass, emergency, pencil holder, pencil rack, pencil sharpener, pencil sharpener stick, pencil sharpening guide, pencil stubs, use for, pendulum, magnetic-suspension, penholder, inkwell and, substitute, penwiper, paper smoother and, percolator, pad for, perforator, paper, perspiration stains, removing from delicate cloth, photo printing, timing, photo vignetter, photograph prints, timing, photograph, radium, how to make, photographer's dark room, drying towels in, photographic appliances and processes-- brush hanger for dark room, camera support, developing machine, developing tray made of tin can, developing tray rocker, dull black for cameras, easy way to develop roll film, electric stirring machine, electrically operated camera shutter, film-developing machine, adjustable, frame for printing post cards from negatives, holding prints in a liquid-filled tray, homemade enlarging camera, homemade motion-picture camera and projector, , , lighting a room for making photographs, mile-o-view camera, multiplying attachment for camera, photographic print washer, slide-opening cover for plate holder, stereoscopic pictures with, ordinary camera, tank development methods used in tray development, telephoto attachment for hand camera, to hold negative in printing frame, trimming photographs, view finder, direct, for cameras, washing photographic prints, , photographic, enlarging, and, reducing, copying stand for, printing, frame,, attached back for, printing, papers,, electric switch for exposing, print washer, simple, prints, washing, tray-rocking stand, worktable for small quarters, photographs, distance marker for printing, electrically, ignited, flash light for making, enlarging, lettering, lighting room for making, spirit, submarine, trimming, picture frame and triangle clamp, picture-frame corner joints, picture-frame miter box, homemade, picture frames, mantel, made in plaster, pictures, enlarging, machine for sketching, magazine, transferring, stereoscopic, with ordinary camera, pin tray, brass, pincushion for the arm, pip, changing, on card, pipe caps used as castings for engine pistons pipe, connecting to sheet metal, pipe used as leather punch, pipes, frozen, thawing out, pistol, disk-throwing, pitter, cherry, plane iron, guide for grinding, plane, rabbet, how to make, plane-table surveying, planing, arrow sticks, rough-grain boards, thin boards, bench stop for, plant shelf for window, planting seeds in egg shells, plants, watering at roots, window, hose attachment for watering, plaster, mantel picture frames, made in, plaster of paris, retarder of, plate hangers, plates, heel, platinum, gold and, cleaning, playground ferris wheel, playhouse, child's, plots, to enlarge or reduce, pocket for inside of book cover, pocket memorandum, homemade loose-leaf, pocket rule, gauge attachment for, pocket, utility bed, home or traveling, pointed end on hoe, poison bottles, simple way to mark, polarity indicator, pole, bamboo, uses for, pole, merry-go-round, poles, houses made of, polish, furniture, , furniture, for fine woods, metal, polisher, floor, homemade, polishing gunstocks, pop-corn popper, popgun, toy, porch swing, springs on chains of, portable and folding bookcase or closet, portière pole, fastening in doorway, post cards, frame for printing from negatives, post, removable, postal cards, wood, potato peeler, potted plants, adjustable rod for, poultry coop, poultry fencing, stretching, poultry-food chopper, poultry roost, insect-proof, poultry shade, poultry water, to prevent from freezing, poultry yards, automatic watering system for, powder, bug, power, light, windmill for, power plant, small hydroelectric, power, revolving shaft without, power windmill, preserving flowers in color and form, preserving paint in open cans, preserving paints and pastes, press, homemade cut, presser, lard and fruit, pressure, relieving,, on heated canned foods for opening, prick-punch center gauge, printing frame, to hold negative in, prints, holding in liquid-filled tray, photographic, timing, photographic, washing, , profiles, aid in sketching, projecting protractor readings, prony brake for testing small motors, propeller wheel attachment, hand, for rowboat, propellers for hand sled, protection, finger, on laboratory vessels, protector cap for chisel handle, protractor readings, projecting, provision box, camp, pruning-saw guard, puller, staple, , pulling nails straight, double-claw hammer for, pulling wire through curved electric fixtures, pulse beats, reading, with sun's rays, pump, pitcher, pail hook for, pump spout, filter in, punch, homemade leather, purse, puzzle, push button, floor, pushmobile race, pushmobile racer for ice, putty, how to preserve, removing old, puzzle, purse, spool-and-ball, with figures, "q" trick, rabbet plane, how to make, race, pushmobile, rack, chisel, clothes, pencil, radium photograph, how to make, raft, swimming, rake, fish, grass, razor blade, wafer, cutter made of, razor blades, discarded wafer, use for, reading date of worn coin, reducing amperage of fuse wire, reed furniture--a reed basket, reel, clothesline, homemade clothesline, hose, substitute for, refinishing chairs, reflector, electric lamp, for target, reflector for viewing scenery from car window, refrigerator for dry and warm climates, refrigerator, locating drip pan under, reinforcing chair bottoms, removable post, removing basketball from closed-bottom receptacle, removing tight-fitting can covers, renewing dry batteries, repairing, broken lock keeper, broken ball-clasp purse, broken knife handle, coaster brake, worn stop cock, broken oilstone, broken tenon on chair post, broken whip, rocker on chair, worn, escapement wheel of clock, worn thimble, resistance-wire connections, small, welding, retarder for plaster of paris, reversing switch for small motors, revolving shaft without power, revolving wheel, mysterious, rheostat, quickly made, small, how to make, ring, flutter, how to make, ring-throwing game, ring trick, rings, brass, turning, rivet set, homemade, riveting, soldering and, robe, automobile, how to make, rocker, developing-tray, rocker on chair, repairing, rod, adjustable, for potted plants, rod, casting, one-piece, rods, small, filing in lathe, rods, various two and three-piece, roll of papers, addressing, roller coaster, homemade, roller, garden, roller, homemade towel, roller skate on bicycle wheel, roller skating, beginner's helper for, rope oarlocks, rosette, tying, in couch-cover corner, rotary tuning coil, rowboat, hand propeller-wheel attachment for, rowing a boat, mirror an aid in, rubber-band-change trick, rubber stamp, substitute for, rubber, white, on croquet arches, rubbing slats for washing board, rudder, dory, holder for, rule gauge, ruler, maulstick used as, ruling blank books, runner for go-cart, rust and corrosion, preserving shafting from, rust stains, to remove from clothing, sack holder, sadirons, holder for set of, safety catch for flour bin, safety pin, anti-tangle, safety tips on chair rockers, safety match-box holder, sail for a boy's wagon, sander mandrel for lathe, sandpapering machine, emergency, saw and knife, combination meat, saw cut, starting, sawbuck, holding wood in, scale, letter, how to make, scales, to hold fish while removing, scarecrow, garden-bed, scene, theatrical night, with appearance of fireflies, scenery, reflector for viewing from car window, scissors, grinding, scissors sharpener, sconce, horn candle, scorching, to prevent baking ovens from, score board, electric, for indoor games, scraper, handle, kitchen-utensil, shoe, scratch pads of old labels, to make, screen and storm-door cushion, screen, crystallization shown on, screen-door spring, homemade, screen, fly, exterior sliding, screen, tacking on frame, screens, needle for repairing, screw, broken, extracting, screw, small vise, how to make, screweye driver, screws, driving, in tile and brick walls, fastening locking, in door hinges, small machine, how to start, scrubbing brush, corner cleaner attachment for, secret compartment in ordinary table drawer, seed receptacle for bird cages, seeds, drying, growing, to prevent moles from damaging, in egg shells, planting, self-feeding match box, settee rocker and cradle, combination, setting colors in fabrics, sewing-box, window-seat, sewing burlap, needle for, sextant, simple, shade and awning, combined, shade, opening for air at top of, paper, for electric-light globes, poultry, shade roller, and curtain-pole bracket, attached to upper window sash, to prevent from unwinding shaft coupling, shaft, revolving, without power, shafting, preserving from rust and corrosion, sharpener, pencil, sharpener, scissors, shaving cabinet mounted on adjustable pedestal, shaving-mug, electric, sheet metal, connecting pipe to, sheet music, preparing for turning, shelf, cupboard-door spice-box, easy way to make, hinged, telescoping support for, wire mesh used as, shellac cement, shellac, stick, how to make, shellac, to clean from brush, shocking machine, small, shoe dressing, waterproof, shoe hanger, shoe heels, ice creeper for, shoe pull made of eyelet, shoe scraper, shoes, cleaning and polishing, shoes, stretching tight-fitting, shoe-shining stand, shoestring end, show-window attraction, novel, show window, electric display for, sickle, handle attachment for, signal, electric fishing, how to make, silverware, cleaning bath for, singers, mechanical aid to, sink a substitute for dishpan, siphon, acid, compensating, starting, to start, skates, holder for while sharpening, skates made of wood, skating merry-go-round, sketching pictures, machine for, sketching profiles, aid in, ski staff, how to make, skiff, how to build, skimmer for bottled milk, skimming spoon, skis, back thrust prevented on, homemade, sled, hand, propellers for, monorail, how to make, steering, sleepwalker, alarm for, slicer, vegetable, slide-opening cover for plate holder, sliver extractor, smoking, to prevent torch lights from, snap hooks, homemade, snowball maker, snowball thrower, snowshoes, how to make and use them: part i--shapes of snowshoes, part ii--making the shoe, snowshoes, shapes of, soap shake, soft hat, to keep crease in, softening tone of talking machine, soldering acid, brush for applying, soldering and riveting, soldering small work, burner for, sounder for wireless-telegraph messages, sounder, telegraph, homemade, spark coil, vibrator for, spice-box shelf, cupboard-door, spirit photographs, splice for round belts, splinter, to remove from flesh, spool and ball puzzle, spool, non-rolling, thread, non-rolling, twine, wire wound on, measuring length of, holding on hot dish, skimming, spot and colored lights, lantern for, spring hinge, small, spring, homemade screen-door, springboard, springs on chains of porch swing, springs, small coil, how to make, sprinkler, homemade lawn, sprocket, rear bicycle, removing, squaring wood stock, stain, brown, for wood, old-oak, stains, acid, removing from cloth, iodine, removing, rust, to remove from clothing, vegetable, removing, stairway handrails, detachable clamp for, stamp, electrotype, how to make, stamp moistener, stand, shoe-shining, telephone, for sloping desk, washtub, staple puller, , star, five-pointed, start small machine screws, how to, stationery, how to emboss, steam-engine cylinders, small, made from seamless brass tubing, steam-turbine boat, model, steam-turbine engine, homemade, steel, cleaning of grease and stains, steering sled, a, stemmer, fruit, stencil, copper, for marking laundry, how to make, stereoscopic pictures with an ordinary camera, stick for lowering top sash of window, stick holder for chopping block, stick shellac, how to make, still, laboratory, cooling tube for, stilts, adjustable, stirring machine, electric, stirring stick, stocking-stretcher form, stone jars, carrying, stool, milk, stool, woven-top, stop cock, worn, repairing, stop, curtain, stop, door, stop on chair rocker for baby, stopper, inkwell, storage battery, filled, alarm to designate stove, camp, canoe, cook, oil burner for, stovepipe, bushing in chimney hole, stove-wood carrier, strainer, cover, strainer for milk pail, strap hinge, applying, straw hat, to hold on head, strawberries, clean, growing, stretching a curtain without a frame, stretching poultry fencing, stretching tight-fitting shoes, string and ball trick, string, magic, stringer, fish, submarine photographs, substitute for, a hose reel, a rubber stamp, broken bench-vise nut, candles, cleats on boards, glaziers' points, iron-holder knob, pen, penholder, drawing instruments, suitcase, carrier for, sulphuric acid, mixing, summer dish washing, sunlight flasher for garden, support, kettle-handle, support, telescoping, for hinged shelf, supporter for double clothesline, supports for camp-fire utensils, surprise water bottle, survey, camera, plotting a, surveying, camera, surveying, plane-table, surveyor, boy, , , surveyor's transit, how to make, sweatband, hat, reducing size of, sweeping compound, swimming raft, swimming--springboard, swing, chair, swinging-pendulum trick, switches, electric lights controlled from two or more, table, double top for, table legs, loose, fastening, table, old, use for, table top, workbench equipment for, tablespoon end used as lemon squeezer, tack puller, emergency, tack puller, homemade, tacking a screen on frame, talking machine, needle box for, remodeling, softening tone of, tan leather, to color black, tank-development methods used in tray development, tannin stains, removing from teacups, taper ferrule, how to make, taps, small, making, target, electric-lamp reflector for, teacups, removing tannin stains from, telegraph code on typewriter keys, telegraph, flash-light, on kite line, telegraph sounder, homemade, telephone stand for sloping desk, telephoto attachment for hand camera, temperature alarm, tennis net, tightening, tenon on chair post, repairing broken, tenoned joint, how to lock, tent, wall pockets in, testing dry batteries, testing instrument, electrical, for experimenters, thawing out frozen pipes, theaters, child's seat for, theatrical night scene with appearance of fireflies, thermo engine, atmospheric, thermometer, outside, illuminating, thimble, repairing worn, thread spool, non-rolling, threads on wood shafts, tie a hammock, to, tie rack and collar holder, combination, tie-pin holder, tightening a tennis net, tilting inkstand, time chart, compass, time indicator for medicine bottles, time light, electric, timing photo printing, timing photograph prints, tin ball, cutting from child's finger, tin can used for watering chickens, toasting bread over an open fire, tone of talking machine, softening, tongue holder for boy's wagon, tongue of a shoe, holding in place, tongues, buckle, replacing, tool for amateur draftsmen, combination, tool holders made of brass clips, tools, homemade graining, top, double, for table, torch lights, to prevent from smoking, torch, small, tourniquet, emergency, towel roller, towel roller brackets, towel roller, homemade, towels, drying, in photographer's dark room, toy balloons, inflating, toy bank, homemade, toy parachute cut-away for kite lines, toy parachutes, kite-line cutaway for, toy popgun, transferring magazine pictures, transformer, small bell-ringing, construction of, , transit, surveyor's, how to make, transparent paper, to make, trap, mouse, , muskrat, traveler, kite-line, tray, brass pin, combination needle and thread, developing, made of tin can, holding prints in liquid-filled, milk-bottle, tray development, tank-development methods used in, tray-rocking stand, photographic, trellis, flower, umbrella used as, trellis, raising cucumbers on, trick, bottle-opening, bottles and glasses, card-and-coin, corks-in-a-box, die-and-box, dissolving-coin, finger-ring, hindoo sand, lightning-calculation, taking dollar bill from apple, "q", ring, rubber-band-change, string-and-ball, swinging-pendulum, trick with knives and glasses, tricks performed with thumbs tied together, trousers hanger, trout fishing with fly and bait, , trunk mystery, tube, drinking, tuning coil, rotary, turning brass rings, twine ball holder, simple, twine cutter for use at wrapping counter, twine spool, typewriter keys, telegraph code on, typewriting on card stock, umbrella holder for display purposes, umbrella used as flower trellis, upholstered furniture, homemade brush for cleaning, upholstering, cleaning dirt from tufts in, utensil cover, opening for steam in, utensils, camp-fire, supports for, paper-pulp, mending, vacuum experiment, interesting, valve, automatic, for funnel, vane, wind, varnish, removing, varnished candles burn longer, varnishing bases for electric apparatus, vase, hanging, vaulting-pole attachments, vaulting-pole holder, vegetable slicer, vegetable stains, removing, vent for pouring heavy liquids, ventilator, window, to prevent drafts, vessels, laboratory, finger protection on, vibrator for spark coil, vignetter, photo vise, bench, homemade, clamp used as, homemade bench, attaching to bench, vise screw, small, how to make, vise used as caliper gauge, voltmeter, pocket direct-current, wagon, boy's, sail for, tongue holder for, wall pockets in tent, wall-paper cleaner, , walls, painted or frescoed, to clean, tile and brick, fastening screws in, walnuts, hulling, , war kite, how to make, wash bottle for laboratory use, washbasin bottom, to prevent from wearing out, washbasin holder, washboard, to prevent from slipping in tub, washer, simple photographic-print, washing board, rubbing slats for, washing photographic prints, washtub stand, wastebasket, wire, rim of wrapped with felt, waste-paper basket, watch demagnetizer, how to make, watch, how to demagnetize, water bottle, surprise, water, distilling apparatus for, water filter, water heater, electric, , water heating coil in furnace pipe, water meter, homemade, water motor, how to make, water, surplus, scraping off on grindstone, water wheel, how to make, watering plants at roots, watering system, automatic, for poultry yards, watering window plants, hose attachment for, waterproof shoe dressing, welding small resistance-wire connections, wet batteries, protecting binding posts on from corrosion, wet battery, homemade, wheel, mysterious revolving, whetting block, whetting, chisel holder for, whip, repairing broken, whirligig clapper, whistle, whistle, homemade, whitewash, to make stick to surfaces coated, wind vane, wind vane with electric indicator, how to build, winding, holding small armatures for, windmill for light power, windmill, power, window casing, mirror hinged to, window catch used for locking extension table, window glass, loose, holder for, window lock, window, plant shelf for, window sash, to prevent from freezing to sill, window sash, upper, shade roller attached to, window-seat sewing box, window-shade guides, window, stick for lowering top sash of, window ventilator to prevent drafts, wing nut, how to make, wing nuts, homemade, winter sports, devices for-- bobsled, coasting, four-passenger, bobsled, guide ropes on, bobsled, inexpensive, game played on ice, ice boat and catamaran, ice glider, monorail sled, propellers for hand sled, pushmobile racer for ice, skates made of wood, skating merry-go-round, ski staff, skis, back thrust prevented on, skis, homemade, snowball maker, snowball thrower, snowshoes, how to make and use them, , steering sled, wire clothespin, wire expansion meter, wire mesh used as shelf, wire, pulling through curved electric fixtures, wire wound on spool, measuring length of, wireless-lighted lamp deception, wireless stations, distance chart for, wireless telegraph messages, sounder for, wireless telephone set, simple, construction of, , wood, brown stain for, wood clothes peg, wood, holding in sawbuck, wood, homemade countersink for, wood lathe, how to make, wood panels, decorative, wood postal cards, wood, raising dents in, wood scraper handle, wood shafts, threads on, wood, skates made of, wood stock, squaring, wood, to harden small blocks of, wood turning, artistic, woods, fine, furniture polish for, workbench, back stop for, workbench equipment for table top, worktable, photographic, for small quarters, wounds, small, application for, woven-top stool, wrench for different-size nuts, wringer, mop, how to make, wrist brace, writing board for children, writing name reversed on paper placed on forehead, [illustration: colophon] do you know a boy who is waiting for this book? [illustration] he may have the few tools and materials to be found in every household, or he may possess his own complete chest of tools and well-equipped workshop, but something is lacking--he needs ideas--suggestions of things to make or do. he is tired of all the things that he and his companions have been able to think of. now there are hundreds of other boys scattered all over this big country who have many new and interesting ideas he has never thought of, but how can this one boy ever get in touch with all these others? in just one way--through the pages of book i the boy mechanic the great book of things for boys to do these original, practical suggestions have been furnished by hundreds of boys who have actually built and experimented with the devices they are now telling other boys how to build. in no other way could a book containing such a wide and interesting variety of contents have been prepared, for no one author or staff of writers, for that matter, could have possibly gleaned such a wealth of ideas from their own observation and experience. a few practical features: a large number of the things described may be made from old cast-off articles which the average boy has at his disposal. many articles involving the purchase of only a few cents worth of material will be found fully as serviceable as similar ones costing several dollars. scores of handy things the family can use in the home are described. finally, this book will develop and interest the boy along mechanical lines and educate him at his play. book i--the boy mechanic represents the best accomplishments of the mechanical genius of young america for the material used in the book is a careful selection of only those articles which are new, practical and of more than ordinary interest; the selection having been made by mechanical experts who still have active recollections of their boyhood interests. it gives complete directions for making all the things boys love to build and experiment with in the fields of electricity, mechanics, sports, arts and crafts work, magic, etc., such as electrical appliances--steam and gas engines--turbines--motors--wireless and morse telegraph--self-propelled vehicles--toboggans--ice boats--canoes--paddle boats--punts--camping outfits--tents--fishing tackle--magic lanterns--searchlights--cameras--telescopes--gliders, kites and balloons--electric furnaces--lathes--pottery kilns. a boy would be an old man before he could make half the things described in this wonderful book. it is entirely different from any other published and has [illustration: "wish i knew what to make"] articles-- pages-- illustrations ( x ) price $ . postpaid it is clearly printed on high-grade book paper and durably bound in cloth. the cover is of an attractive design in four colors showing a boy building a small boat. there are ten solid pages of index alone. neither care nor expense have been spared to make this the greatest boys' book published, and to enable as many boys as possible to have one, the price has been made absolutely as low as possible. it would be difficult to think of a way of investing $ . that would benefit a boy as much as through the purchase of one of these books. popular mechanics book department north michigan ave. chicago the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel [illustration: hanging a picture the wall space is a part of the framing of a picture] home decoration by prof. charles f. warner, sc.d. _for eight years master of the rindge manual training school, mass. twelve years principal of the technical high school and director of the evening school of trades, springfield, mass._ [illustration: title page] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company to the boys and girls of america this book which records what some of them have done is hopefully dedicated some pure lovers of art discard the formula, _art for progress, the beautiful useful_, fearing lest the useful should deform the beautiful. they tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the muse's arm. they are solicitous for the sublime if it descends as far as to humanity. ah! they are in error. the useful, far from circumscribing the sublime, enlarges it.... is aurora less splendid, clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any diminution of majesty and of radiant grace, because, foreseeing an insect's thirst, she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop needed by the bee? victor hugo. acknowledgments this volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical problems which are more or less closely connected with the general problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age. while the book is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this department of educational work, he has received many suggestions from co-workers in the same field. it will be impossible to give credit to all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of this book: but special acknowledgments are due to mr. fred m. watts, who furnished the material for the chapter on pottery and several drawings for other parts of the book; to miss grace l. bell for the illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on block printing; to mr. burton a. adams for the problems in metal work; to mr. edwin a. finch and mr. lewis o. richardson who contributed many of the specifications for the problems in furniture-making; to miss elizabeth m. morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress as related to the principles of decoration; and to mrs. ruth b. s. flower, of florence, mass., who supplied several of the photographs and much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on weaving. springfield, mass. c. f. w. contents chapter page i. introductory--the story of a house ii. decorations and furniture iii. pictures iv. the arrangement of flowers v. decorative fabrics vi. dress and the principles of decoration vii. furniture making viii. finishing and re-finishing ix. hand weaving x. pottery xi. decorative work in leather, copper, and other materials xii. concluding suggestions--country homes illustrations hanging a picture _frontispiece_ facing page all the rough carpentry was assigned to the boys of the woodworking sections of the vocational school the boys of the forging classes of the technical high school were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house a table runner of russian crash and pillow cover with geometrical design window draperies with stencilled border crocheted panels, a linen work bag with conventional landscape in darning stitch, a crash table mat embroidered in darning and couching stitch finishing a library table weaving a rug hand made rugs, hand made towels an alcove with window draperies, pillow covers, window seat and moss green rug, all hand woven hand woven window draperies, couch cover, slumber rug, and pillow covers girls at work on pottery bowls vases and fern dishes tiles pottery: designed and made by schoolgirls decorative forgings home decoration [illustration: a model house: designed by girls and built by boys] i introductory the story of a house to design, plan, and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the lot of boys and girls. in fact, it is not the common experience of men and women to build houses without the aid of architects, masons, and carpenters. such a task, however, was recently offered to certain classes in one of the public schools of a well-known new england city. it was, indeed, a school problem, and yet there was something about it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. it did not seem at all like some school work. it was more like real life; for all boys and girls must some day have homes of their own, and here was a chance to learn how the house, which is an important part of every home, is planned and built. it is hardly necessary to say that this work--or play, if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine enthusiasm. it was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from the beginning to the end. _the house a work of art._--one of the first lessons learned by these young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a great many things have to be thought of in planning a house, if the thing is to be well done. it is not simply a question of deciding how many rooms one will have, arranging them in some conventional order, and building the house around them with whatever external features style or fancy may dictate. too many houses, it is true, are planned, or at least put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever goes into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings. people who are satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art, the highest product of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs. modern cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their ready-made surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage. the most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the age of concrete construction, now at hand, means that we are to have concrete houses poured into a standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours, and finished for occupancy in a day or two. the boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a machine-made, standardized house if one had been offered them, ready for use. there was a special purpose for which their house was to be planned and built, as there generally is in the case of any real house. no style a, b, or c, chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded houses, could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could, would they willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing? would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this work? this is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to any one who builds his own house. in the present instance it was the chief motive, since the boys and girls who were planning this house were not expecting to make their home there. _why the house was built._--what, then, was the purpose for which this house was to be built; and what were the specific problems involved in realizing this purpose? it was to be a practice house for the girls of the household technology course. this meant that it should be, so far as possible, a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple one. economy, always a safe guide, was a most important factor in determining the character of the design. a limited appropriation--about $ --for building material was available. economy of space as well as of expense was also important. the only available land was a triangular lot in the corner of the school yard, square feet in area. this limited the dimensions of the floor plan to by feet. it was decided to develop the design within these dimensions, on a rectangular plan, with one story and a hip roof, because such a design would present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of pleasing external proportions. the general design and the plan in attacking the problem of design the method of approach was determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be the architects and builders. house planning, home decoration, and household management were important subjects of study on the part of the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were required of all the boys of this school; so they all felt that they had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience that might be of value in working out this problem. the design must therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies. _a composite design._--the rooms required for a house of this character were thought to be a hall, a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen, a pantry, a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen closet. nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests. with these requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations of the problem, the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were taking the course in household technology, entered into a lively but friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable design and draw the best plan. so many excellent plans resulted from this competition that it was difficult to select the best. it was therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem with equal success. two of these were selected as having the greatest number of good points. from these the final floor plan was developed and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make the general design of the building fit the plan. [illustration: floor plan of the model house] _the hall._--it may be of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design were worked out for the final plan. beginning with the hall, it was easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have small dimensions. in fact, it did not need to be a separate room at all. it could easily be a space between the living room and the dining-room, separated from both by means of portières and joined upon occasion with either room or with both, thus making possible a reception room or a dining-room of good size, or one large room. of course, the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in providing for a desirable extension of other rooms. it should suggest a warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the fireplace may fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed. the absence of a stairway, since none was needed, was a favourable circumstance. appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few distinguishing marks so that the house could retain, without any appreciable sacrifice of space, the dignity of an entrance hall. _the living room and the dining-room._--the relative positions of the living room and the dining-room, as already stated, were determined by the location of the hall. the purpose of each was distinct and self-evident, and determined the features of design that lent themselves most readily to appropriate decoration. in the living room the floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration with regard to their final treatment, to give pleasing proportions and harmonious colouring. the same was true of the dining-room, though its different purpose suggested a different design. an abundance of light was important for both rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. such windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects. _the kitchen and its appointments._--no room demanded so much study as the kitchen. in the first place it was necessary to make provision for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a house of this size, because in this case it was designed to be used as a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time. this point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that was due them in order to get a "nice, big kitchen." but by clever adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan. the range, laundry tubs, and sink were conveniently located near each other with the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush with the top of the range, forming a shelf on which kettles and other kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and forth from the range. it was thought that it would be very desirable, if not necessary, to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of sheet metal. it will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom, the living room, and the hall. this point received due consideration; but in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought allowable, inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used only occasionally. there seemed to be no more convenient location for the passageway, which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and bath room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it, easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom. _special features._--the pantry was located between the kitchen and the dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place. in place of a kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the more serviceable of the two. it is always desirable to have an entry or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator; but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby. another unusual feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the bedroom closet. such a window, although not common, was thought to be very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against moths. _early plans for decorating and furnishing._--these were by no means all the features of design that had to be considered. as already suggested, there was much study given to the question of interior decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage. this was simply necessary forethought; for much of the attractiveness, restfulness, and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect, who, in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways, and windows, disposes his wall areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces for a few choice pictures and opening up beautiful vistas. such house-planning, begun with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail, may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical composition. in fact, the parallel between sympathetic gradations of form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one, and the appreciation of it is by no means rare. any intelligent person, on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist, though he may not understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack of any jarring or discordant notes in the decoration, the simplicity, fitness, and real beauty, not of any particular part, perhaps, but of the whole combination. we often find ourselves using the same language whether we are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical composer. fundamental principles of design _adaptation to purpose._--our young architects discovered that there are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at the very beginning, if a really good and true design is to be made. the first of these laws is the _law of adaptation to purpose_. the application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions agreed upon for each, and in the details of arrangement, especially in the kitchen and other rooms connecting with it. but this law is universal in its application. it determines not only the broad features of the plan but the details as well. it does not permit anything useless or superfluous to exist, for that would mean weakness. it aims at efficiency and strength. it dictates the details of construction all along the line, from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration. it even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it. adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle. _simplicity._--another great principle that revealed itself as the plans of the house developed may be called the _law of simplicity_. this is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm of craftsmanship. it is an axiom of geometry that the straight line is the shortest distance between two points. not less evident is the fact that when nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in the simplest and most direct way. the natural tendency of all motion is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion. analyze the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines and movements. but the same law of simplicity which invariably marks the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of man. thus, in discussing the various problems that developed as the designing of the house progressed, it was found--as of course it should have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity, while satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the true one. _correlation._--a third great fundamental principle that found expression in these studies of the house plans was the _principle of correlation_. not only must each part of the design be adapted to its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must support all other parts and receive support in return. it is like cooperation or team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life. every room in a house bears some natural relation to every other room, and even the objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other, whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of both. only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various elements that must enter into the composition, can the designer produce those pleasing space effects, those blendings of colour tones, those manifest relations between the various objects, useful or decorative, that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to a complete design. the colour scheme _the floor the foundation._--almost unconsciously our young architects found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental principles of design. when they came to the problem of specifying the finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall, living room, and dining-room, they found that this problem was intimately associated with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole. the mutual dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked. it was evident that the floor, which is the foundation of the room, should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the furnishings, in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain. the effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards or by providing a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large ones as well as small ones. there was no question of carpets. these, of course, are not allowable in a model house. a few rugs were already available, and others could be procured by buying them or by making them. a properly toned floor, however, is desirable, even with a most generous covering of rugs. it was therefore decided to give the floor a coat of stain when it was ready to be finished. _importance of colour schemes._--but what was the colour to be? the designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the final product, if it be made a good example of the designer's art. the problem of the colour scheme is fundamental. upon this depends not only the tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but also, to a certain extent, as has already been suggested, the kind of woods to be used in the interior finishing, and whether they are to be painted, stained, or left in their natural colours. it will determine the material and the colours of the portières, curtains, cushions, lamp shades, picture frames, vases; in fact, it will largely settle the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms. the consideration of movable objects, however, may be deferred till the more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon. _southern exposures and cool colours._--in settling the all-important question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external surroundings. rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected against the glare of too much light. for such rooms dull tones of colour are the best--dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain blue tones, and the medium grays--light, cool colours that counteract the overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered feeling to the atmosphere of a room. incidentally, too, perhaps because they are the tints associated with distant views, the cool colours make a room seem larger than it really is. _northern exposures and warm colours._--northern rooms, on the other hand, do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat. warm colours are needed in such rooms. deep reds, rich yellows, and golden browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room. our designers noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning must be comparatively dark. the house was to face the high brick walls of the neighbouring school building, not more than twenty-five feet distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure. a warm colour treatment, therefore, was unquestionably needed. should red, brown, or yellow be the prevailing tone? the deciding point was the location of the hall and its relations to the other rooms. it was, first of all, the hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it was dark. its walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow. the same would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps a brown with yellow enough in it to be well in tune. the dining-room could safely be darker and more luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow of the hall; but it must not be decidedly red. the ceilings of these three rooms, whether beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint. this might well be a light corn yellow. the colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath room, and kitchen was not so important a question as the decoration of the three front rooms. utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be considered. light tints were decided upon, which in the bedroom might be relieved, in the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures in some warm tone. _interior woodwork._--with the colour scheme settled it was a comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone and character of the interior woodwork. the floors of the three front rooms, since they were to be closely associated, required the same solid colour, which could well be a walnut brown, darker than any of the walls. fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the dining-room and gum wood for the living room, either of which could be extended to the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the hall, leaving the oak for the dining-room, found much favour. it was finally decided, however, to adopt for the three front rooms the combination of natural woods first suggested. the bedroom and bath room, where suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate, were specified to be finished in white. yellow southern pine was decided upon for the kitchen and its accessory rooms. organizing the work of construction as soon as the chief features of design were decided upon, preparations were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building; for the house was not to be a "castle in air." the first step was to put these ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly executed and accurately dimensioned drawings. these included, as the first to be used, the working drawings for the framing and other rough woodwork, blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of the boys of the elementary vocational school, who were to carry out this part of the building plans. [illustration: front or north elevation of the model house] _the working drawings._--a considerable number of detailed drawings had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun. this furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical drawing groups of the technical high school. the material for this work consisted of rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct dimensions as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in design. these preliminary sketches required much study on the part of both boys and girls, under proper guidance, in order to find out what the elements of construction should be, what dimensions were required, and how the various parts should be put together. it was an experience of great value to all, but especially to those boys who were looking forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation. they got an inside view of the importance, on the one hand, of accurate working drawings as a basis for good construction and, on the other hand, a practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of constructive principles, in order to make correct working drawings. they saw that the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason, informed upon all the conditions to be met, and knowing the best ways of meeting them. they gained impressions which should help them, in studying the work of great architects, to look beyond the exterior, however pleasing it may be, for those elements of strength and beauty that characterize all good workmanship. [illustration: all the rough carpentry was assigned to boys of the woodworking section of the vocational school. plate i] _how the work was distributed._--it will be recalled that boys and girls were to be coworkers in the designing, planning, and building of the house. the boys were to be held responsible for the drawings, the decorating after designs made by the girls, and the higher grades of woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms and the making of the furniture. they were to do the wiring for the electric lights, the bells, and the interior telephones; and they were to install all the fixtures in connection with this wiring. boys from the metal-working sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating plumbing are strict and well enforced, as they should be, it was necessary to keep this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed plumbers. but this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of the building from the field of public school work; for, fortunately, this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school department, under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing, who were glad to have given them, as an exercise for their classes, a practical problem in house plumbing. the boys in the forging classes were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. many of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made in the school forge shop. the girls designed and made rugs, curtains, portières, and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and stencilling; and they contributed many decorative articles in clay, copper, leather, and other materials. thus every technical department of the school was brought into service; for in the building of a house there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and girl. [illustration: the boys of the forging classes of the technical high school were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. plate ii] _boy foremen in charge._--to bring about the right distribution of the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the oversight and management of an experienced instructor. but much of the work of direction was delegated to competent boys. the preliminary tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially observant and capable as leaders, and those who worked best under specific directions. thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs of three or four under a foreman. the plan was varied according to the nature of the work in hand. when leaders of more technical knowledge and skill were needed, as was the case in setting the window frames and directing the shingling, capable boys from the technical high school were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational school. in this way the work was advanced in several directions at the same time; and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the house construction. it was a delightful and profitable experience for all the boys, not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious affairs of life. in after years they may look back upon the first house that they helped to build and recall the part they took, their companions in the work, and the good time they had withal. some details of construction _setting batter boards, posts, and sills._--the first step in actual construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards. these were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house was to be located. two rough boards, one for each side of each angle, were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes, with their upper edges all brought to the same level. it is very important to set these batter boards with accuracy, since their function is to carry the lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor. in the present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on which the sills of the house were to rest. twenty-two of these posts, which were feet long and inches square, were put in position by first setting moulds or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were those of the posts, feet deep in the light soil and filling them with a mixture of concrete and crushed rock. it was not thought necessary to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete. in fact, the sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden. the sides of the boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that they could be easily broken off just below the ground, exposing the projecting ends of the concrete posts for about one foot. the sills were of by -inch first quality spruce. they were set on the -inch face, the two long sills being spliced over posts, using a long halved joint. mortise and tenon joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the corners. the floor timbers of by -inch spruce were gained into the sills with the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning (_i. e._, bending) upward if at all. the spacing of the floor timbers was taken off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce, / of an inch thick by inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked timbers into line. the bridging was then nailed in, the outside last to prevent springing the sills. [illustration: plan a. framing details] referring to the accompanying sketch (plan a) it will be noticed that the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills, but were simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. there was a time when carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong; but those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding, placed two or three times as far apart as is the practice now. it was thought that placing the studs inches on centres, which is the common practice in modern house framing, removed the necessity of mortising into the sill. mortising is still recognized, however, as a good thing to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters. plan a also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings; and plan b shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on the top of the plate. [illustration: plan b. details of cornice, sill, and roof a shingles b roof boards c rafter " × " " o.c. d plate " × " e rough boarding f stud g frieze h crown mold i bed mold j ceiling joist " × " k ground l lath & plaster m base n finished floor o lining floor p furring q sill r concrete post " × " s corner post t hip rafter " × " u floor joist ] the window frame details are shown in a series of cuts (plan c) which for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior finish, not usually represented in the framing drawings. a detailed description of these features of construction is unnecessary, since the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the illustrations. [illustration: plan c. details of interior finish a outside casing i header q surbase b back band j corner block r sill - / " th'k c head k rough boarding s inside casing d stop / " thick l shingles t soffit e sash - / " ditto m weight u bed mold f lath & plaster n pulley style v finished floor g ground / " th'k o parting strip w base h stud " × " p stool cap x lining floor ] in the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes the framing, the base board, and the lath and plaster. it should be stated, however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially designed for walls and ceilings, which it was decided to use. the use of this material removed the necessity of the "grounds" shown in the drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered. in the detail of the dado cap, which will be found on the page of construction drawings, the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail, requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between, in the finishing of the walls of the dining-room. among these drawings will also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish. it will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the house was practically completed. all the rough work, which included framing, boarding, shingling, laying of the lining floors, and putting up partitions, was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the vocational school. this is an elementary industrial or trade school, admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade. it represents a new and promising experiment in american education. the building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their right to have the chance. so the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and girls of the public schools of this new england city, unassisted by professional architects or paid labourers. how they carried out with their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is told in the succeeding chapters of this book, which also suggests wider applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country. to carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that gives pleasure to the worker and to many others. it was work for the young designers and builders of whom this story tells, but they said it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure quite equal to that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing. the true craftsmen of all time have found it so. one of these master workmen, stradivarius, the violin maker, so george eliot tells us, made his confession thus: " ... god be praised! antonio stradivari has an eye that winces at false work and loves the true, with hand and arm that play upon the tool, as willingly as any singing bird sets him to sing his morning roundelay, because he likes to sing and likes the song." ii decorations and furniture have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or believe to be beautiful--_william morris_ the decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning in good architectural design. it is a mistake to proceed upon the theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of the room in which it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings. the truth is, a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful; but however beautiful it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in an appropriate setting. and the decorator who is actuated by the true spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest successes in acknowledging that leadership. to attempt to lead when one should follow is neither good art nor good sense. there is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be taken too seriously. it would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified like contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon after the house is built. the problem is one of growing interest, especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the smaller objects of use or beauty, and for its best and happiest solution requires time and study. only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in advance. the important thing is to have the main lines, dimensions, space relations, and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility and appropriateness and, as the work of construction proceeds, to keep all details in harmony with this general plan. the floors, the walls, and the ceilings _colour harmony in the model house._--it will be remembered that the colour scheme of the hall, living room, and dining-room of our model house was settled quite early in the development of the design. standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the hall into the dining-room, one may see at a glance how some of the details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general treatment. the walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation of colour. it flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all the lower wall spaces. the suggestion of olive green in the frieze of the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room, which, it will be remembered, was designed to be finished in gum wood. this beautiful wood, when properly treated, presents a surface of satin-like texture and soft colour tone. in the dining-room a corner of which is shown in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim. the wide openings into the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together with the long, unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings, give the impression of generous width. the plain wall spaces, though varied in tone and relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors and windows, are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of the room. plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures. _redecorating old houses._--it is, of course, true that the decorating and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of the problems involved. as a matter of fact, in the great majority of cases, the houses in which homes are made are already built and have been previously occupied. often they are very old houses, presenting difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator. sometimes, however, such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm. but the spirit which inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with the foundation of a new and original design. his first thought is to discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved. his constant care is to avoid incongruous elements, however beautiful they may be in themselves or however appropriate in other houses. his general aim is to use his art to develop the design as it is, if there be any design at all, and make the most of it. _decoration as a corrective._--but this does not prevent him from attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad architecture. such correction, indeed, forms a large part of the work of decorators and furnishers, both professional and amateur. if the lines and space divisions of a room be not good, the decoration must be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions, or at least the appearance of it. if the ceiling be too high, it may be made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding. the effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by wainscoting. if the ceiling be too low, the depressing effect may be largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the wall spaces close to the ceiling. this is a desirable thing to do in the living rooms of most modern houses. striped wall papers of proper tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their apparent height. bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging door-ways, substituting portières for the doors, and by arranging the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or of diminishing their height, as the conditions may require. _wall papers._--probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do. it is easy to fall a victim to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall paper displayed on the dealer's rack. the same interesting figure, spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room, may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt by sensitive persons. a wise choice cannot be made in the absence of all the conditions that should really determine it. after all, it is not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected, but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of a certain room. papers with large figures should be avoided unless there is a special reason for using them. they always have the effect of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them. they make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the large-figured patterns. strong contrasts in colour values should also be avoided, not only between the designs and the ground colour of the wall paper itself, but also between the paper and other objects of importance in the room. the principle of gradation in colour values, which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light and dark shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony of colour tones. _nature of decorative design._--the one fact never to be lost sight of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design. it is never a picture. while it may suggest the natural forms of plants or animals, it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way. some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms; but, whether they do or not, the central idea is the repetition of good combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values on a flat surface. if natural forms are used, they should be more or less highly conventionalized. anything that destroys the idea of flat surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration. in the nature of the case, a wall can have but one plane. clusters of flowers or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or back of it, are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness. such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively shock the sensibilities of refined people. extreme examples have been known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the room. _advantage of plain walls._--decorative designs, however, are not essential in wall papers. the main point in the treatment of walls is to secure and preserve a good background. if one is in doubt as to the kind of figure or pattern to be used, which is often a perplexing question, it is well to leave them out altogether. plain walls are always good if the colour tone is right; for colour is the main thing in wall decoration. the decorative effects of form may be brought out in the portières and window draperies, which may easily carry more elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable with figured wall decorations. in fact, with figured walls plain portières and curtains are much to be preferred. in our model house, as has been explained, the wall decorations were designed to offer a plain background of colour. the figured borders of the portières and curtains, combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the floors, wall spaces, and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony. _trial needed in doubtful cases._--it is, indeed, a good rule to omit whatever is unnecessary. to observe this rule wisely is to escape much that is positively bad in decoration. overwrought designs, too great variety in decorative material, too many decorative objects, however great their individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture, too many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn, create an oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel. and yet it may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not apparently needed to complete it. it is, in fact, often very difficult to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and what is not needed. the fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be given a trial. such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained. to take a step like this, somewhat out of line with accepted rules as strictly interpreted, is entirely safe if this step is dictated by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield. exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint, and such restraint, when it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in itself an attractive feature. _precise rules not always practicable._--the truth is, the rules of decoration, though founded upon fundamental principles of art, are not rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles. in the nature of the case they must in their application yield more or less to circumstances. it is, for example, a good general rule to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate other decorative features to these as a foundation; and yet it is possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete reversal of this rule. here is a concrete case. a young artist was the fortunate possessor of a considerable number of japanese and chinese embroideries and other oriental ornaments. he wished to make these the main decorative materials for one of his rooms. the embroidered figures were in yellow and white on a deep, strong blue, the general effect being quite dark. there were in the collection several prints, showing the typical dull reds, dark blues, and yellows of japanese art. now the room itself happened to be one that, under the general principle of colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions, would demand warm colours on its walls. it would easily support a rich red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor, dado, and ceiling. this would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture, but it would rule out the oriental decorations. one or the other must give way; and, since the value of these decorative materials was beyond question, it was decided to try them, even at the cost of setting aside the general rule. the whole matter resolved itself into selecting a proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries; and for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours. but when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and exquisite workmanship of the oriental prints and draperies, all the circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were forgotten in the charm of originality. no one thought of the exposure as requiring warm colours, the dark oak trim was not noticed, and the mahogany furniture was still in keeping. the result was so absolutely satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste displayed in this very original plan of decoration. but such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the fundamental principles of decoration. it is true that these principles cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases, and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only one possible in any given case. modifications in the application of these principles are always possible, but the principles themselves are as unalterable as the mosaic law. one is, indeed, tempted to summarize them thus as the ten commandments of decoration thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful or those that be useful. thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house. thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great masters of decorative art. remember the colour scheme and keep a good background. honour the original design, however old it may be, and make the most of it. thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of faulty design and bad architecture. thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind. thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit insane arrangements of anything that is thine. thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy decorations. thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator to show originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence upon those who have preceded him. the furniture _relation of furniture to decoration._--so much for the treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings. we may now turn to the more special consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be associated with these backgrounds--furniture, pictures, lamp shades, and small ornaments. that these are closely related to decoration has been implied in all that has been said. they are, in fact, in themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey the same laws. their value, however, depends more or less upon their utility, and for this reason they seem to require consideration somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions. this is especially true of furniture, which would have very little reason for being if it were not for its usefulness. in designing the furniture for the model house the questions that constantly suggested themselves were: what is this piece of furniture under consideration to be used for? what form, construction, and finish will enable it to give the best service? what features of design are needed to render it suited to its surroundings? in considering the furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests to the various rooms in order. [illustration: a library desk in fumed oak] _hall of the model house._--first, there is the hall. this is the room into which a visitor is first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets his first impressions. but in this house it is a very small room and designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side. its furniture must consist largely of the fireplace. there is no room for a hall settle nor even for a chair. a mirror, simply but richly framed, might hang on the wall near the front door, balanced by a picture on the opposite wall behind the door. an umbrella rack should stand outside on the porch. [illustration: a hall chair] [illustration: a hall settle--simplicity, strength, dignity] _hall furniture in general._--the halls of modern houses vary greatly in their relative importance. in some the traditions of the old english manor houses seem partially to survive. in mediæval england the hall was the principal room, if not the only one comfortably furnished. when modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room with the hall, there is need of something more than hall furniture of the formal kind. the requirements of comfort must be met. but, generally speaking, hall furniture is of little real use. odd chairs, attractive by reason of their oddity, the richness of the materials used in their construction, or some other assertive quality, but not fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable in the hall. the hat and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer appears in well-regulated houses. in place of it is found the hall settle, which is of real use. it should be designed on simple lines and give the impression of strength and dignity. if the hall is to be used as a waiting room for guests, a few good chairs, conveniently placed, will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the walls will add greatly to their pleasure. [illustration: two morris chairs that invite to solid comfort] [illustration: a satisfactory writing desk] _living room furniture._--in furnishing living rooms there is bound to be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements. it will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a topic. the important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a living room--the place of all places where the freedom, comfort, and protection of home life are to be enjoyed. the very atmosphere of the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity, and good cheer. every article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need, and it should be strong enough to do its full duty. spider-legged, top-heavy tables; light, weak chairs; chairs on casters or rockers; sofas with carved backs or couches with none at all,--these have no place in the living room. the long, straight lines of the craftsman or mission style of furniture are in the right direction; but if these be used at all they must be made quite general, since few other styles harmonize with them. wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception. when well designed it will fit in almost anywhere. [illustration: an ample library table] [illustration: a plain but useful magazine stand] the frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use. a plain, serviceable magazine rack, which may be easily made, will relieve the tables of an accumulation of weeklies and monthlies. moderately low bookcases, with or without doors, are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room, which are generally longer horizontally than vertically. if doors are used, it is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash, the spacing of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner. good design in library tables calls for ample size. firmness and convenience as well as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk. [illustration: a low bookcase with sash doors] _dining-room furniture._ only a few elements enter into the design for the furnishing of a dining-room; but they are evident and should have a controlling influence. the table and chairs are for a definite purpose and this should show itself in good design. heavy construction is permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table is practically stationary. moreover, weight and generous dimensions are suggestive of bounty and good service. the rectangular extension table is most readily adjusted to varied demands, but the round table is preferable for the family circle; and for a company of twelve or fifteen a large, round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary extension table, has been found very attractive. [illustration: a round dining table] [illustration: a sideboard of good proportions. convenient and generous but not overdone] as comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living room, so richness, within one's means, is an appropriate aim in furnishing a dining-room. the history of sideboard design might be cited in proof of this statement, if proof were needed. probably no single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration; but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured without overdoing it. the unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room. the buffet or serving table furnishes an equally interesting, though simpler, problem. [illustration: a buffet of simple but effective design] for the care of the china, the built-in cabinet as a feature of the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable cabinet designed for this purpose, because of its richer decorative possibilities. large, glazed doors are desirable in either case, not for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive glimpse of it. as this cabinet is for decoration and not for show, it is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash. leaded panes are frequently employed with good effect. the decorative effect of old and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is better to leave the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and inappropriate ornaments. [illustration: a china cabinet. a part of the finish of the room] _chamber furniture._--the bedroom speaks for itself. a dainty freshness in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the distinctive purpose of this room to provide. the necessary articles of furniture are a bed, a dressing table, a bureau or chiffonier, a few chairs, and, if there be no bath room attached, a commode or wash stand. a couch is an appropriate addition; and here, if anywhere, rocking chairs are allowable. when the bedroom must be used more or less as a living room or sewing room, as it too often unfortunately is, furniture to serve such uses must be provided. in selecting or designing all this furniture, lightness, and simplicity of design, combined with strength, should be allowed a controlling influence. the recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass or iron beds; but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak, maple, or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture, carry out the idea of daintiness, and have sufficient strength for service. [illustration: leaded panes] many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter. a small house like this, limited to one story, does not permit great variety in its furnishings. certain standard conditions, however, were to be met here, as everywhere else, and the young designers found much pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems. some of the construction details will be given in the later chapters. [illustration: a duxbury chair] arrangement of the furniture _arrangement follows selection._--the problem of furnishing a home is not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and the right selections made. after selection comes arrangement, or, to speak more accurately, after a certain amount of selection a certain amount of arrangement; for, as has already been suggested, there is considerable dependence of one upon the other. it is not wise to drop the arrangement till the selection is complete, for the simple reason that the happiest choices are often the late ones, determined by the disposition of the earlier ones. and yet in the main the order as stated is the true one. it should be noted, too, that in arrangement there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste. while artistic principles still hold sway, they yield more readily to exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household, to the demands of style, and to the larger number of possibilities for pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value. [illustration: a dainty bed in white maple] _utility the controlling principle._--the problems of arrangement, however, are by no means vague and uncertain. the natural law of adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow. in some rooms obedience to it has become a settled custom. no one, for example, would think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre of the dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the centre of one end. the sideboard, serving table, and china closet likewise fall into their natural places. so also the bedroom and the hall, though perhaps to a less degree, present comparatively easy problems in furniture arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such rooms are designed. _importance of appropriateness._--but it is in the library and the living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the most interesting problems. and this is due to the operation of the same law of adaptation to purpose. it is the variety of uses and the diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex. however refined and beautiful the different units may be, there must be some arrangement of them into working groups. the important elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall naturally into related but subordinate places. the easy corner with its couch, pillows, and its low seats, has a definite function to perform. so also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases and library table, the morris chairs and tabourettes, the window seats and screens, the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp, the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to it. the various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive decorative features. it may be well to add one word of caution, and that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem neglected and bare. _the danger of overcrowding._--finally, the one great danger to be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the temptation to overcrowding. many otherwise excellently appointed living rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches. such overcrowded rooms are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and sink as one might well wish them to. to secure the right things and just enough of them, arranged with a proper balance between utility and beauty, is the true aim. it is as true to-day as it ever was in the arrangement and beautifying of the home, and, for that matter, in everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors of the temple at delphi: over one, know thyself, and over the other, the golden mean of not too much. iii pictures i now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me, not that they dazzle me. pictures must not be too picturesque. nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing. all great actions have been simple, and all great pictures are.--_ralph waldo emerson_ the decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures. there is, of course, great value in good pictures entirely aside from their decorative effect; and too great care cannot be exercised in their selection. but our present purpose is to consider them as decorative features; for, though a decoration is not a picture, pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the general scheme of decoration. and this is especially true as regards matting and framing, the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces, and the method of hanging them. _importance of space relations._--a picture mat and frame are simply elements of finish, and their function is to give the picture a certain individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which it hangs. in fact, the wall space is a part of the framing of the picture. the importance of giving some study to the relations of all the spaces involved is evident. the mat and the frame should not be of equal width. here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing. no definite rules can be given; sometimes the one, sometimes the other should give way. generally speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical pictures, and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures. but variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the grouping of several pictures. in grouping, however, there is danger of being tempted to allow too many pictures. in the houses of the well-to-do, and even in the homes of those of moderate means, too many pictures, rather than too few, are often found. the example of one new england home, known to the author, may be mentioned. the house is new, of generous proportions, and it is the home of an artist. there are few pictures on the walls, but they are distributed with rare artistic effect. there are many good pictures stored in the attic because there is no suitable space in which to hang them. _the japanese way._--the japanese have taught us many valuable lessons in art, and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed they have a very interesting lesson to teach. it is their practice to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may be best enjoyed, and then after a time to replace it with another picture, and this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit. there are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to be displayed. it may be the preference of a guest, or it may be the season of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give a certain picture special significance. there is, in this singular custom, a very definite service which the picture is made to perform, and it is given an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice. _grouping of small, simple pictures._--if a considerable number of pictures are grouped together, it is quite essential that all the pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and similarly framed. it is hardly possible for them to be all of the same size, nor, indeed, is such agreement desirable except in so far as is required to give proper balance to the group. small pictures in light frames are, of course, the most desirable for such grouping, and if possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping. a series of photographs of a certain locality, for example, might form a group of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen together and so more thoroughly enjoyed. a collection of photographs in passe-partout bindings, especially if they deal with subjects in any way related, may form an attractive group. but pictures of any considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally not suited to any plan of grouping. they should appear by themselves, in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits. _the kind of frame._--the material of the frame, its colour, and the colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture. oil paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light. pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow gilt frames. carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour, and appear best when hung against a dark wall. the truth of these statements will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour harmony. but there are many other elements that enter into a concrete problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules or formulas. it is generally best to depend largely upon the tests of trial. in framing and hanging pictures, as in many other things, observation and experience are the best teachers. some suggestions may be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that were satisfactorily solved. framing an old-time interior, drawn in colours the conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall. the picture itself is a small one, inches wide and inches long. it is interesting because of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes of the colonial period. the mistress and her two young daughters are engaged in sewing and embroidery. patterns are displayed upon the wall; the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of the period. all these details are suggestive of the delightful home life of our grandmothers. such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize its details; and it requires a simple, narrow frame. the mat was accordingly made - / inches wide and the frame inch wide. the tone of the mat selected was a light bluish gray, forming a good connecting link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall against which it was to be placed. since it was to hang directly over a fine old mahogany table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown in the picture with that of the room. the frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain, square-edged birch, which readily takes a mahogany finish. the stain was first applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to dry. a surfacing coat of shellac, coloured to match the stain, was next put on, allowed to dry, and then carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to guard against rounding the edges and corners. a coat of varnish was next applied, which, after hardening for one week, was rubbed first with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil. a final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on, which was lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect required to match the antique mahogany table. framing a carbon photograph of a masterpiece the picture is a copy in sepia tones of murillo's saint anthony, inches in height by inches horizontally. the frame is made of quartered oak inches wide, slightly convex but smooth; and it is well joined with mitred corners. a picture of this character needs no mat. indeed, it would have been the height of presumption to strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning and treatment. it must be left to itself as much as possible. the dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the picture itself. the picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light, somewhat apart from other pictures. it was a happy thought thus to recognize its dignity. it was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the room. since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish, this requirement was easily met. but there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close association with the commonplace that would have been anything but appropriate to such a picture as this. a gilt surface, a silver-gray tone, or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders. nothing should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture, least of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one. the frame should seem to be a part of the picture, repeating its prevailing tones with a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself. the colour should be a rich, dark brown, but not so dark as to obscure the figure of the wood. the finish should be dull, but soft and smooth. there are several brown stains which, properly applied, would give the desired effect. for the colour it was thought best to rely upon van dyke brown, which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine. it is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because it would raise the grain, necessitating sand-papering, which should be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the edges and corners intact. ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the wood better than any other form of staining, but it was thought that the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements. it was decided, however, to try the fuming method and to tone up with a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark. the ammonia process resulted in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour too light. a thin van dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly alcohol--coloured to match the stain. this was to fill partially the grain of the wood. finally, it was thoroughly coated with wax finish and well rubbed to restore the soft, satin-like surface. [illustration: a group of passe-partouts] passe-partouts framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little arts of home decoration, though it is by no means an unimportant one. it is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and money, but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant associations; and it is in itself a delightful occupation. it offers the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts, in spacing, and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult methods of framing do, with the added advantage that one need not be deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful result and trying again. _varieties of binding._--passe-partout binding is made in a great variety of colours. it costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of twelve yards, according to colour and quality, and it may be purchased of dealers in artists' supplies. for general use the ordinary width of binding-- / of an inch--is required; but extra narrow widths are supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour. for these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are, with certain pictures, very effective; but white and other light colours are often used for this purpose. _artistic colour effects._--the choice of the colour for the principal binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture, with which, as a general thing, it should blend. if no mat be used, more or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding is permissible; but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats are used. these should, of course, be in harmony with the colour tones and general character of the picture. it may be a harmony of agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and the mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing. without such a border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone. but in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the picture. for example, if it be a picture of an english hunting scene with mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be of a light greenish hue and the binding red. if it be a landscape photograph in sepia tones, a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding is a good combination. a scotch scene is appropriately framed in a plaid binding. in this case it is the subject of the picture rather than the colour that suggests the binding. but in all cases opportunity is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations, planning the spacing, and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character. thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large artistic possibilities. _an actual problem._--the various steps in the process of framing a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood by giving an example of it. the actual problem is to frame a silhouette--an original drawing in black india ink on light gray paper, by inches in size, with the longer dimension vertical. _materials and tools._--the materials and tools required are as follows: a piece of glass the size of the picture ( by inches), since no border is needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may be cut from an old box cover, the same size as the glass; a generous yard of black passe-partout binding; two passe-partout rings, which cost five cents per dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife or a pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed nail. _the process._--with these materials in hand it will require scarcely more than twenty minutes to complete the work. the first step is the setting of the rings. this is accomplished by punching two small holes in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen for the top and about one inch from each side. through these holes the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the pasteboard. bending the points over in opposite directions fastens the ring firmly. this is a comparatively large picture. had it been small--say by inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre, fastened about - / inches from the edge, would have been needed. the picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste. it is desirable to use as little paste as possible. the two pieces of pasteboard are then brought together, care being taken that the rings are on the outside, and the glass laid over the picture. these parts are now ready to be bound together. the sides are bound first. this is done by cutting two pieces of the binding / of an inch longer than the short edges of the picture, wetting the gummed side and laying it along the edge of the glass so that it will lap / of an inch over the face of the glass. each end of this binding will extend / of an inch beyond the glass. the rest of the binding is now folded over upon the pasteboard back, taking pains to draw it down close to the edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened. the / of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass and pasteboard. the upper and lower edges are bound in the same way, excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length as the edges over which they are to be pasted, and, before they are pasted on, the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are cut off / of an inch back at an angle of degrees, and the other corners are also trimmed back to about / of an inch. the accompanying drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. the purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are pasted over the top and bottom edges of the glass, it is seen that they have been cut to give the appearance of mitred corners, and that when folded over the edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are left exposed at the corners. [illustration: how the binding strips are trimmed] one of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before pasting them on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again. the more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats, borders, and double bindings, are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just described, though they will require more time. it is well to begin with the easier problems. when borders and double bindings are used the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first, with proper care to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before pasting them down upon the glass. the edges are bound last. this partly covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of the glass, and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just inside the binding. hanging pictures [illustration: a correct method of hanging pictures] _how to hang pictures._--if wire be used for hanging pictures, it should be as small and inconspicuous as possible. in place of the braided steel wire, which may be needed for large pictures, a single brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter weight. in all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over a single hook in the form of an inverted v, so commonly seen and so manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room. levelling the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire, making it continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture. these screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall. whenever possible, however, pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all. this may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall which is to come directly behind the top of the picture, allowing them to project about / of an inch and bending them up a little with a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off. choice, small pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks. it is often possible, when the wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze. whenever it is necessary, as it often is, to suspend wires by means of the so-called picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the frieze, some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks. bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in bad taste. some people prefer to use the inverted v suspension in order to reduce the number of these picture hooks. but it is far better to retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible wires and colour the hooks to make them less conspicuous. in determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed. while monotony in height is to be avoided, the average eye level should not be disregarded. the frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a picture in the dining-room of the model house. iv the arrangement of flowers "i know not which i love the most, nor which the comeliest shows; the timid, bashful violet, or the royal-hearted rose; "the pansy in her purple dress, the pink with cheek of red, or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs, like a bashful maid, her head." --_phoebe cary_ formerly when the furniture, pictures, and draperies had been arranged in our rooms, with perhaps a few pieces of bric-à-brac, we considered their decoration quite complete. but we have learned how much cheerfulness a few simple flowers, properly arranged, impart to the same rooms; and so flowers have come to be considered as almost essential to the complete decoration of the home. _a lesson from the japanese._--if we have learned much from the japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures, from them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers. they have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as essential to an artistic arrangement, that flowers of the same kind should be grouped together, and that harmony and blending of colour are necessary to secure the most artistic effects. _flowers of a kind grouped together._--we may have been in the habit of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being satisfied with such a composition; but the japanese would tell us that when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping the full beauty of each is lost; and after a few experiments we shall come to see the truth of this. here is an illustration: at a summer camp with which i am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp gay. he often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be used together. no pleasing arrangement could be made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the rose, especially those with the buds. the convolvulus we arranged in a flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the vine hang over the mantel, and he quickly saw that it "looked prettier--more as though it were growing." when a few of the stalks of the wild rose were arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much "prettier than when mixed up with other flowers." _the way of the garden._--in our gardens we plant the sunshiny daffodils by themselves, the sweet peas grow in a mass together, and we have beds of roses. if we follow the same plan in the arrangement of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to the utmost. so we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging flowers,--to use only one kind of flower, with its stems and leaves, arranging them loosely, rather than to have many in a compact grouping. one single, long-stemmed rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall, slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase. _exceptions._--while the above rule should be generally followed, there are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of flowers of two or more kinds together. among these we may mention the combining of field daisies and buttercups, or buttercups with the grasses among which they grow. so, too, the lacy flower of the wild carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower. the spikes of the cardinal flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour, but very stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a few sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing. colour arrangement we have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves. there is another element to be considered before we can have artistic results, and that is arrangement as to colour. _colour grouping._--we may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves, but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure that is to be given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen. there are three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction to all. in one we group together only flowers of the same colour, as red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris, not red, pink, and white roses, nor all of the various colours of sweet pea. another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour. with many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this scheme. for instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss. sweet peas have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined, as well as shades of red and of lavender. nasturtiums are never so effective as when the various shades of yellow, orange and brown are used together. the garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and purples, a variety of pink tones, beautiful reds, and perfect white ones. and the white ones! what shall we do with these? three or four pure white asters of the same variety may be used together; or two or three white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or pink ones. white may be combined with any colour with good results. nature is a good teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost every variety of flower. for example there are crimson cosmos and white cosmos, scarlet geraniums and white geraniums, blue violets and white violets, and so on through a great many varieties. _combination of complementary colours._--another colour grouping that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours. the salpiglossis, a garden flower that ought to be better known than it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and orange-yellow flowers that are so effective together. the iris also has flowers of complementary colours, yellow and violet blue being common among them. the flower holders _a flower composition as a picture._--having learned something about the artistic use of colour, we come to the consideration of the arrangement of the flowers, and this includes the vase or other receptacle used for holding them. an artistic flower composition is a picture; and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging on the wall, so the vessel holding flowers should give the required finish to the flower picture. like the frame, it should be simple in design, have graceful lines, and serve only as a medium to set off the flowers to the best advantage. there should be as little decoration as possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them. _receptacles for flowers._--it often is a problem to find the most fitting thing for holding flowers; but in the reliable japanese shops one can always find some simple holders, and there are very good designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and appropriate. as a rule the less expensive the article the better adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers. one need never mourn that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they and their cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders. _four typical flower holders._--let us suppose our equipment includes four simple receptacles,--a small, clear glass fish globe such as may be had for twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve inches in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top, costing twenty-five cents; a large cylindrical japanese jar of a pale green tint, eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight inches in height, which may be bought for sixty or seventy cents. the fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are loosely arranged in it. the stems show through the water and glass and form a part of the composition. short stemmed roses may be most artistically grouped in it. i have seen a very charming combination of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as a harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the various shades of california poppies and their foliage. [illustration: a fish globe with daisies] the tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses: and a few yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well in it. poppies for a day, in the same vase, have given pleasure to the beholder. at easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect lilies, and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at home in it. our tall japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be about one third the height of the whole combination; so this is adapted to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if one is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about three branches from these are effective in it. tall-growing golden-rod looks equally well placed here. it furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions has been two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones. the possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous, and only a few are given as suggestions. a loose arrangement of jonquils and their leaves, or of white narcissus, is effective. the shorter stemmed lilacs, either the purple ones or the white ones, may be placed in it. an arrangement of white field daisies, and one of yellow roses, have been found equally successful. one soon discovers the harmony and balance that exist between the flower and holder. [illustration: a tall vase with narcissus] the background _space and harmonious surroundings._--to obtain the largest decorative effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting of flowers, but space and background, just as are needed for the hanging of pictures. many a floral composition has lost all decorative effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by distracting objects. a few days ago i stepped into a room on an errand and forgot my errand in the pleasure i derived from seeing some beautiful yellow chrysanthemums, three or four, i think, in a yellowish brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for a background the upturned leaf of the table. it stood some little distance from anything else, a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole, and as i looked at it i thought: here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of flowers. it was the feature of the room that held one's attention. [illustration: an arrangement for the tall japanese jar] _flowers for the dining table._--if we can have flowers in but one room in the house, it may be difficult to decide which one it shall be. since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where a busy family comes together for any length of time, flowers should certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer. any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low; and there are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage. for instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet (root and all), to be found in any field in the spring, and put them in a shallow glass dish. simple and effective decoration for the table is the result. flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used in the dining-room. the fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many people, and when combined with the odour of food doubly so. [illustration: an arrangement of roses in a small jar] at a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral decoration for the table was a half dozen single, yellow jonquils with their foliage, placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the girls. their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and furniture in browns, nothing could have been more harmonious than these few simple flowers. _expensive flowers not necessary._--it is evident that for floral decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary, that simplicity is the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of wild flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive hot-house flowers. in this country we do not, as the japanese do, make a festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we rightly appreciate and utilize the flowers of each season, we may give a touch of festivity to the life of every day. in the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels, while the red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten any room. a clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend. the flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which they can give. there is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any other means of decoration, not even in pictures, with the single exception of good portraits. they seem to speak to us. we can almost believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them. if they really could know, would they not approve the principles that we have laid down? we may fancy that they _would_ approve and that, if they could really speak and we would listen, they would tell us so in some such language as the following: what the flowers say about it don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our own kind. don't make a confusion of colour with us. don't arrange us in snug, solid masses. don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration. don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills around us. don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods; we need space and a background. don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining table. _do_ love us and use us in the home as much as possible. this is well for you. by so doing not only will your love of us increase, but your artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge. for truly has it been said, "the poorest woman in the world, if she has faith in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with light; she can always place there some flowers." v decorative fabrics portiÈres, window draperies, cushion covers, table mats the very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate discontent with plain, smooth surface--_lewis f. day_ no kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics. portières, curtains, cushion covers, table runners and mats, lamp shades, and many other furnishings, in which fabrics are involved, present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and, when well worked out, add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings. and every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when the possibilities of development in this direction are realized. here, as everywhere else, decorative art is secondary to architectural design and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence. its glory is to follow. to attempt to lead means miserable failure. _example of the model house._--the wide doorways connecting the hall, the living room, and dining-room of our model house made doors undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish. they were made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer in tone. the multiple windows, with the absence of direct sunshine, suggested the light style of drapery; and the preference given to straight-lined, substantial furniture, made in the school shops, led as a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse fabric, in order to bear out the idea of simplicity, directness, and durability in craftsmanship. velvets and satins would have been out of place. _utility to be regarded._--the highly decorative function of such accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting materials, designing the ornamental features, and properly placing the completed article, in order that the requirements of use be not subordinated to the demands of art. it must never be forgotten that utility is the basis of all true decoration. portieres were originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening between rooms. it must be possible always for them easily to serve this purpose. hence loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole, should be used. portières may properly be made of heavy cloth and they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the tone of the principal fabric. they should always be at least opaque. window draperies, on the other hand, are not a substitute for shades or curtains. they should not shut out the light but soften it. they should, therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable material, and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning. the simplest style of hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets, is the best. since there is no need of frequently sliding them over the rod, it is well to hang them by means of a hem, stitched two or three inches from the top of the drapery, through which the rod may be easily pushed. cushion covers and table runners, made of durable material and decorated with colours that are washable, are manifestly more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new, and hence are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration. there is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if it is to meet the tests with equal success. [illustration: pillow cover with geometrical designs printed on dyed cotton cloth. table runner of russian crash with block printed and embroidered end panels. plate iii] how such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end, is told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are known to be practical, because they have been actually carried through from the design to the completed article. this detailed and complete explanation, with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest many similar problems which every home offers. block printing problem: _decorating a table runner_.--this problem is easily separated into four distinct parts--making the design, cutting the block, printing, and finishing. the materials needed are as follows: ( ) making the design ordinary drawing paper rice paper charcoal pencil japanese or sable brush, medium size water-proof india ink ( ) cutting the block gum wood small penknife vise sand-paper, fine ( ) printing the design printing board sheet of glass oil paints turpentine palette knife cotton batting cheese cloth ( ) finishing the runner embroidery silk or mercerized cotton [illustration: the peacock design] _the design._--to carry out the problem as illustrated, it is necessary, first of all, to make the design. geometry, nature, and the imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif. if the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one should study for suggestions the figures in oriental rugs, photographs of early eastern art, and the fine old tapestries in museum collections. some good geometrical designs, like that used on the pillow cover illustrated on page , were made by school-girls after drawing many figures found in rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying numerous reproductions of coptic designs. in no case was the block pattern in the least like the designs studied. they served only as ideas to start with and led to the production of truly original work. it is essential to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design: ( ) both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful in proportion as possible. ( ) there should be a centre of interest, one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other. ( ) the design must be a unit--_i. e._, the parts must hold together. all feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to themselves to the exclusion of the whole. [illustration: block used in printing the peacock design] _preliminary sketches and the drawing._--it will be found desirable to make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark and light effect. these should be compared, keeping clearly in mind the principles stated above. when one possessing the right qualifications has been found, the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an accurate -inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in pencil outline. this should be done very carefully, that the spirit of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. when the drawing is completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block. to do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces with black ink, using a brush. this brush work may be done directly without the pencil line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper. when the ink has thoroughly dried, the design may be cut out on the edge of the -inch square. [illustration: bird pattern] _laying the pattern and cutting the block._--a block × × / inches will now be required. this should be procured and sand-papered. one face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste, the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down smooth. if the design is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block, ink side up, but otherwise with the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon the cloth. when the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block in the vise and, holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and always away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design along the outlines. these must be kept very smooth and sharp. all of the white shapes should be cut out, leaving the black ones in relief. usually an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background, but it will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should be cut deeper and that, when the edges or corners of the block form a part of the background instead of the dark pattern, they also need a deeper cut. the paper that still adheres to the face of the block may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have an absolutely level surface. [illustration: a flower and leaf design] [illustration: block used in printing this design] _the padded board._--all block printing should be done upon a padded board. a very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board three or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over these several thicknesses of cheese cloth. in place of these an ironing board may be used. _material required._--it is essential to select for the runner a piece of crash of fine texture and even weave. this is sold under the name of russian crash and is from to inches wide but varies considerably in quality. it is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades. [illustration: alternating animal and geometrical design] [illustration: blocks used in printing this design] _trying the colours._--after deciding upon a colour which will harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the table runner is to be used, it is in order to mix the paint and try the block upon a small piece of crash. to prepare the paint, squeeze a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and blend thoroughly with the palette knife, thinning with turpentine to the consistency of cream. it is seldom that a colour right from the tube will prove a pleasing one to use. other colours mixed with it will change its hue and intensity; black or white will alter the value. tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove from the raw edges all ravellings that might drop into the paint. spread out quite thin upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will. now charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad. press the block upon the cloth evenly. only by repeated experiment will it be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix, its brilliancy of tone, its consistency, how heavily to charge the block, etc. a good print shows the texture of the cloth through it, is even in tone, and has clear-cut edges. if the print looks like a painted spot, or if, when quite dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged. different materials require different treatment. for a thin silk the block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed upon the material. in printing upon crash it is necessary to press the block very firmly upon the material; and frequently, to insure getting a sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to tap the block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet. if one has a steady hand, the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the extra pressure is needed. the block should be thoroughly rubbed with old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered to remove any paint that may adhere to it. the first print made after sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material. _centring the work._--a good way to plan the placing of the panel design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the woven threads. mark the centre of the runner upon this thread, and, using these guides, print the design, beginning with one of the central units. _additional features._--considerable charm can be added to the pattern by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch in some bright colour. the embroidery thread used should be rather fine. it is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with ravellings of the crash. tiny dots of some colour used in the panel may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge. _colours._--the following list of oil colours will be found practical: ivory black, flake white, burnt sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome yellow, chrome green, permanent blue. _materials._--linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk pongee, crêpe de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached muslin are excellent materials for block printing. beautiful background tones can be obtained by dyeing the two latter with easy dyes. in place of the gum wood for the block, basswood, maple, or holly may be used. it is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board. success is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand. _laundering._--if the material used for the foundation is washable, block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in soapy, lukewarm water. the colours are not injured in the least. a liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine, insuring still greater permanency of colour. _other applications of block printing._--other articles suitable for decoration by block printing are curtains, pillow covers, table covers, cushion covers, bureau scarfs, portieres, table mats, bags of many sorts, etc. printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal use, such as aprons and scarfs. stencilling problem: _window draperies_.--making the design, cutting the stencil, printing, and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked out. a list of necessary materials follows: ( ) making the design charcoal pencil reflector ordinary drawing paper tracing paper carbon paper stencil paper ( ) cutting the stencil sheet of glass sharp penknife ( ) printing large board blotting paper turpentine oil paints bristle brushes pins _the design._--suggestions as to the method of procedure in making a design have been already given in the section on block printing. the principles of design to be considered are outlined there also. in working out this problem, however, several new things come up for explanation: ( ) the difference between a design to be stenciled and one to be printed by means of a wood block; ( ) the method of joining units to form a border; ( ) the method of turning a corner in a border design. [illustration: window draperies with stenciled border. designed and executed by a school girl. plate iv] _the stencil bands._--by studying the illustrations accompanying this section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by bands of varying widths. [illustration: a stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover] these bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve to hold the stencil together and are connected throughout the design. though they may be as wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than one eighth of an inch, as they are easily broken; and, unless carefully pinned down when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under them and ruin the work. in a block print design no connection of the light or separation of the dark parts has to be considered. in the illustration of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared with the stencilled pattern--_i. e._, the dark represents the stencil paper, the light the openings through which the paint is applied. [illustration: the stencil for this pattern] _the complete unit._--it will be readily understood that a border may be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in itself. the unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow, so that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces a narrow band, while along the horizontal edge the band is broad. a border worked out in this way, with perfectly straight and practically continuous margins, is very structural in character, emphasizing, as it does, the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery. the effect is strong and dignified. the corner in this kind of border presents no difficulty. _the subordinate unit._--by studying the illustration in plate iv it will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete in itself, but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit, composed, in this case, of a leaf form. the units are so closely spaced that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--_i. e._, the upper and lower edges of the border are nearly straight, giving a feeling of restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or wavy edges. _designing the corner._--having planned a design for the straight running border of the curtains, take a reflector and experiment with the corner. the reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece, - / by inches being a convenient size. the edges should be very straight and the corners square. hold the reflector at various points along the border and always at an angle of degrees. study these possible corners which will be reflected in the glass, and when one sufficiently strong and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the reflector. this line, of course, exactly bisects the corner of the border to be made. avoid making a border of this kind too deep or, when turned for the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and heavy band. _the outline drawing._--the dark and light design having thus been worked out in charcoal, the next thing to do is to make a very careful pencil-outline drawing of the same. it is well to draw the corner and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. to do the tracing, pin a piece of very thin paper over the finished part, and trace with a well sharpened and fairly soft pencil. turn the tracing paper upside down, fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath. after tacking it down, trace the remainder, using a firm, even pressure and being careful exactly to follow the line. strengthen the part of the pattern thus transferred by going over it with a sharp, hard point, and continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical and horizontal sections are from to inches long. _transfer to stencil paper._--now, take a piece of stencil paper and square up one corner. fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil paper along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between the two, and trace the design. _cutting the stencil._--before cutting the stencil for the curtain a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the paper. trace a portion of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a sheet of glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife cut along the outline of the pattern. the knife should be held at a slight angle and the cut made completely through the paper. the pieces of stencil paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the cutting is completed. after a little practice it will be found a simple matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges. _suitable materials for stencilling._--for the curtains fine cheese cloth or batiste will be found excellent. even unbleached muslin will make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered. unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure white materials will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone. scrim in a charming, grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good, soft quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. it is not advisable to hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or failure so much work is lost; but the hems should be carefully planned and basted, those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower than the bottom hems. _the colours._--the color scheme of the room should be carefully considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in stencilling. if two colours are chosen, they should be of the same value--_i. e._, the two colours should form equally dark spots in order that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as the original charcoal sketch. _pinning the stencil._--when ready for the actual process of stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over this place the corner of the curtain. pin the stencil securely to the curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely parallel. use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil close to the cloth. _testing the paint._--having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or stencil mordant, using an old cup or glass for each colour, practise stencilling upon a small piece of cloth. put blotting-paper under the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care. use short, stiff bristle brushes for the stencilling, one for each colour. remove almost all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper. when it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth, working close to the edge of each spot. if, upon removing the stencil, the edges are blurred, the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned down. if, on the other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty, so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in these places, you may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too wet. the secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the brush as dry as possible. hold the stencilled sample up to the window and see whether, when the light shines through it, the colour appears right. _the real process._--when confident that the process is understood and that the colour is satisfactory, proceed to stencil the corner of the curtain. always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean piece of cloth to use in case of accident. when removing the pins from the stencil wipe each one carefully. clean the stencil, too, handling it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken. replace the stencil, fitting a section of it to the finished work. put the pins in the holes already made, otherwise the paint will get into them and disfigure the work. continue the stencilling, a section at a time, until the border is completed. do not fold the curtains until the stencilling is thoroughly dry. if the threads of the material can be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make the best finish; but careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste. _the valance._--the curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top of the window to a point slightly below the window sill. they should be drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps deeper if the window is very high. this valance should have the border stencilled upon it and should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains. sometimes, as in the illustration in plate iv, a valance running across the entire width of the window is used. in this case it is run upon an extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs. double rods for this purpose can be bought. _other possible problems._--as stencilling can be employed in practically the same place and upon the same materials as block printing, it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling. embroidery problem: _table mat_.--as in the preceding problems, the first thing to do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible. if convenient, the mat should be made for use with some special lamp or vase. by measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine the size of the plain central space, which may be either circular or square in shape. the forms in the decorated part may be made of various shapes, but it is well to keep them very simple in outline. straight lines alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated in plate v, or a combination of straight and curved lines, as in the one shown in plate iii. after working out the design very accurately with a hard pencil, the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of coarse russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper, taking great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the threads of the crash. _desirable combinations of colour and stitches._--the simple running or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern. two or more colours may be used. darning in dull green and outlining with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat. other good combinations are green and white, blue and white, blue and green, soft dull blue, and pinkish orange. this by no means exhausts the pleasing contrasts that may be found. the brighter colour should always be employed in the smaller quantities. the mat illustrated in plate v was embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton. after the darning was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone was too conspicuous, although it was very dull in tone. this defect was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by outlining the forms in a couching stitch, using both colours. this was done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a stitch of red over it at equal intervals. [illustration: crocheted panels a linen workbag with conventional landscape in darning stitch a crash table mat embroidered in darning and couching stitch designed and executed by school girls. plate v] after the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine, close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the crash. the latter method is usually more pleasing. the simple darning stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table runners, sofa pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated in plate v, besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed or stencilled articles. _the satin stitch._--another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin stitch. when planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which the threads can be easily counted, transfer the design, after having carefully drawn it in pencil outline, to paper marked off into little squares. this can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold. redraw the outline of the design, following exactly the lines on the paper, and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original form. let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross stitch if preferred. no transferring of the pattern to the cloth is necessary. a pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be crocheted, as illustrated in plate v, and set into linen or some of its many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal adornment. this crocheted work, if evenly done in fine thread, is quite suggestive of the italian filet lace. vi dress and the principles of decoration "a foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet with a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it; and that the other maidens of the little town might know it, she thought she'd go to meeting of a sunday just to show it. 'hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head. 'hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she thought they said." in considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought. it is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no connection with the subject of decoration; and yet there is much that is common to both. well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the design and general make-up of their costumes, must observe the same laws that govern design wherever it is applied, as an expression of the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life. beauty of line and proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use and to a great variety of special conditions, simplicity, symmetry, restraint, are all involved in personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a room; and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart in the other. have we not often remarked of a house or of a room that it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him"; and do not attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them? _art and the fashions._--in discussing the parallel between art in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be admitted, of course, that style in dress introduces some embarrassing questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer wonderful changes with every season. and yet people of artistic feeling and good taste, succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as applied in dress. _how to be well dressed._--the well-dressed woman knows how to select her clothes and how to wear them. she must study her own figure and know her defects as well as her good points. with this knowledge she can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other. she should have a clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to it. to acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration must be understood and applied. she should never wear a garment of a certain style simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make it conform to her individual type. _good lines._--decorative design in dress must follow the construction lines of the figure and not destroy them. these are the much discussed good lines of which we hear and read so much. horizontal lines break the figure and increase the breadth, while vertical lines give the appearance of height. it is the simple lines, conforming to and following the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. the taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes; but through ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim. a stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with lapels or ruffles over the shoulders. this only serves to accentuate her defect. _unity and harmony._--in all forms of decoration harmony is essential--_i. e._, all the parts that are to be combined must agree with one another and with their surroundings. to secure this in dress is to give unity to the entire costume. a dress hat with plumes should not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning; and yet we often see such a combination. here the lack of harmony is between the parts of the costume; but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities of figure. there are women who never look well in the straight lines of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to them. they must tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock, or some such softening elements of dress. others do not look well in fluffy things. each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly. _importance of colours._--every season we hear that certain colours are to be worn. many women will choose a colour because they like it without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear. a little attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures of this kind. it is generally recognized that light colours seem to increase the size. striped materials should not be worn by the stout women unless the stripes are very indistinct. dots are also very dangerous for her; but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots scattered over the surface at some distance from each other. she is always safe in a plain, dark colour. _colour and complexion._--in deciding on a becoming colour one must take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of the complexion. it has been thought that young girls can wear clear, light shades and that older women should keep to dark, quiet colours; yet there are older women who wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink. it is quite impossible to make accurate colour rules, because it would be hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour setting. it is well, however, to study combinations of different colours with the idea of finding the right colour, to use in any costume, the amount of each, and the best arrangement to give a proper balance. _proportion._--the importance of the principle of proportion is often overlooked, but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected. a well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must have given consideration to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the entire figure. strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head, and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect it, and, through harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass, to improve the appearance of the whole costume. the artist, when drawing a figure, uses the head as the unit of measure. therefore in choosing a hat one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of the head and to the height of the figure. if the mass of the head is increased disproportionately by too large a hat, the entire figure is apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed. one often wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned and sometimes so ridiculous. it is because the hat is not in good proportion. the gainsborough and reynolds ladies with hats never look queer. their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure. _appropriateness._--the general proportions of a hat or a gown may be good, but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass. the aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole. beauty of dress, therefore, depends upon simplicity and appropriateness of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the material. wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of fitness to place; otherwise it is not really decorative. in trimming a hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror, and place the hat comfortably upon her head; then with the aid of a hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until the best effect is obtained. the designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment. the size of the design and the kind of form used should be considered. simple forms are the best for all decorative art work. in fact, there is great advantage in plain materials. they always work to greater economy than stripes or plaids. _influence of occupation._--the well-dressed woman should realize how great is the influence of occasion and occupation. some gowns were intended only for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see them worn on the street cars or for shopping. i have always approved of the rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns. formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear. now the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon her clothes than the woman at home. her clothes have harder wear and must be appropriate for her work. the dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked. it should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be comfortable. it should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing should not interfere with any function of the body. but we often see children dressed with much lace, with many ruffles, and even with jewellery; and we have seen school girls wearing net waists, plumed hats, and high-heeled shoes. what an infraction is this of the principle of appropriateness in dress! vii furniture making it is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by thought that labour can be made happy--_john ruskin_ the chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give specific directions for working out a number of typical problems, following designs which have been proved in completed articles made, for the most part, by school-boys and tested by use. no attempt is made to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment; for this would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding number of working drawings, with specifications for the selection and preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter. the aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of experience in constructive work with special reference to our main subject of household decoration. it is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can, with some assistance, perhaps, easily command their use. it is not thought necessary, therefore, to describe in detail the proper method of using tools, but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection, preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and, in the series of problems which follow, to give some helpful hints on the way woodworking tools should be used. it is also assumed that in most cases the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized, especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy reach of the hand-tool processes. the true art-craft spirit, which always honours handwork as the supreme method, may not hesitate to command the services of machines so long as it does not become slavishly dependent upon them. selection and preparation of stock the first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials, commonly known as the stock. the sculptor selects his marbles with the greatest care. so should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are properly sawed and well seasoned. the importance of this cannot be overestimated. hard wood boards, cut from the sides of a tree, will in drying, invariably curve across their grain. it is only those that are cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended upon to remain approximately true; for, after this cutting, the grain runs directly through the thickness of the board, or nearly so. boards taken from timber in this way are said to be "quarter sawed"; those cut by sawing through the logs from side to side, as is always done with soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to be "plain sawed." this is illustrated in the accompanying drawings. _quartered oak._--in the case of oak, the quarter sawing not only maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the stock when finished. the popularity of quartered oak for furniture may therefore be said to be well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods. it is as good as it looks. [illustration: quarter sawed log] quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined to oak because the appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from being improved by this method of cutting. thus ash and gum wood and all the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed. we shall, therefore, generally find stock from these woods curved and twisted badly so that it will be necessary, in selecting material for large surfaces such as table tops, to pick out the straight parts for these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces which will always be needed. these pieces can be easily planed without much loss of thickness. [illustration: end of quarter sawed board] [illustration: plain sawed log] [illustration: end of plain sawed board] _kiln-dried lumber._--this bending and twisting of the boards does not take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log, but gradually during the process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is kiln-dried, the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending. lumber is kiln-dried by stacking it, with air spaces left between the boards, in steam-heated closets or kilns, where the process of drying is carried on evenly though rapidly. kiln-dried lumber, therefore, retains its shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile. but whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed to remain in a dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent shrinking and warping. a good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink, warp, and crack, but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold the glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other methods of finishing. _planing down to a flat surface._--since boards are seldom perfectly flat, even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned stock, it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way. to accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on the same side, as shown in the illustration, and thus provide for the final working down with the least possible removal of stock. they can be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so that they will lie as flat as possible. the boards should then be taken out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they will match together in the position in which they are laid. it will be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible. the object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from springing--_i. e._, from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts are glued up. in joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work, like table tops, it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of dowel pins. small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up without dowelling. [illustration: boards placed for planing to flat surfaces] _fastening glued-up work._ it will be readily understood upon a little reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move slightly upon the framework to which it is attached; for even after it is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest movement being across the grain. solid table tops, therefore, should never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with screws, but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus allow for expansion and contraction. a drawing is shown to illustrate the method of attaching the table-top buttons. much of the warping and splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker to observe this precaution. [illustration: method of fastening table tops] in planing up stock, whether it be a single piece or several glued together as just described, the cabinet-maker planes off one side first and then, using this side as the working face, gauges to the required thickness and planes off the other side if necessary. if the work be upon glued-up stock, it is well to plane off the projecting edges of the concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat easier and may be all the planing that will be necessary. if it be single pieces of stock that need to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is first planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane to the opposite side. _the surface plate._--planing to a flat surface requires some device to guide the eye. if the surface be very uneven at first, a beginning may be made in the planing without much assistance; but a point will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand can determine whether or not a surface is flat. to determine this a surface plate, as it is called, is needed. this consists of a block of cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it from being bent--_i. e._, an inch or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one side. this surface is well chalked over. when the wood surface which is being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts are to be removed. by making several tests of this kind he is able to plane to a good flat surface. [illustration: winding sticks] _winding sticks._--if the amateur's workshop is not provided with a surface plate, a simple means of testing for a flat surface is by means of two narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece, as shown in the illustration, and sighting across their upper edges. the slight projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be level. these winding sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made, with opposite faces parallel. their dimensions may be × - / × inches. _importance of true surfaces._--it may be well to add that all this care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces. true surfaces are necessary for the good of the work as a whole, for they form the basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts "trued up"--_i. e._, made square or otherwise geometrically correct. when the main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped, all the framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending or twisting. all such strains should be religiously avoided in good cabinet work. the natural curves, twists, or projections of the stock used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes. such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts, displacing them, causing new defects or a general failure of the parts to support each other. _a systematic plan of work._--when the cabinet-maker undertakes to make either a single piece of furniture or several pieces, he goes about it in a very systematic way. consulting his working drawing he makes an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required. for example, if he is to make a morris chair he notes the fact that he will need four legs or posts - / inches square by - / inches long, a front rail and a back rail each / × - / × inches, two side rails / × - / × inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is completed. with this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough, allowing economically for the necessary working waste. economy of time and labour is also secured by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done. thus, if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned to the same curves, it is generally the best plan to work these parts out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose. such a plan not only saves time but, partially at least, it obviates the danger of mistakes. it is important also to follow a systematic order of work. all sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the latter operations should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the joints. as the work progresses toward completion great saving of time and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled. gluing _necessity of good joints._--after the selection and preparation of the material for the stock, the next important general process that demands attention is gluing; for good cabinet work implies good glue and a knowledge of how to use it. prepared glue, such as is sold in bottles, is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence. a good woodworker always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready for use on short notice. the glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. it should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills. it is the glue which penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of glue between the joined edges or surfaces. it is therefore evident not only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue, hot and thin enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the parts should be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any surplus from remaining in the joint. this is an additional reason for making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as well as in those which are not. it is a common fault of beginners to be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the glue to fill up the spaces. much of the furniture found in the markets falls to pieces for the same reason. such work should never be allowed to pass. it is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood. [illustration: method of holding framing parts square while glue is setting] _systematic methods required._--as in the preparation of stock and working it up, so in gluing, system is all important. the hand screws or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is applied. the whole process must be managed as quickly as possible because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to set. a carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right angles, since it is more reliable than the small try squares. it will frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the glue is hardening. this can easily be done by nailing small strips of waste stock across the parts, as shown in the drawing. a beginner should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one time. two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole rectangle together. the two remaining joints, however, should be glued and clamped together at the same time. picture framing _inexpensive framing stock._--picture-frame stock can be easily obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a great variety of styles. much of it is so well prepared and so nicely finished that it leaves little to be desired. it is, therefore, often best to secure the stock for frames in this way. it is, however, somewhat expensive, so that, when economy is important, it behooves the young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock. very satisfactory frames inches in width or less may be made from matched oak flooring, a section of which is here illustrated, by planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to furnish the inset for the glass. wider flat frames of any thickness can, of course, be cut out from the ordinary stock. a special tool for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary. a / -inch saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful chiselling. [illustration: picture framing stock made from oak flooring] [illustration: the mitre joint] _mitres._--frames may be joined at the corners in various ways. a common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing. to secure good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an angle of exactly degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding sides of the frame be precisely of the same length. hand sawing is generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy even when an ordinary mitre box is used. hand-sawed mitres, therefore, will require a little truing with a small plane. great care must be exercised also in fitting the corners together. the common bench square is not large enough to prove the work. a better way is to lay a carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the frame against the sides of the square, testing each corner in that way. [illustration: clamping mitre joints] _gluing the joints._--if the corners are unusually well fitted, a good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface, leaving them undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard. by sizing the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with glue, rubbing it into the pores with another block. generally speaking, however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device. if a special clamping device is not available, one can be easily made by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing. in a half hour or so these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may be glued together, clamping them up with a hand screw. as already explained under the general directions on gluing, it is good practice for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up the two remaining corners until the first two are well set. when the first two corners are well set they should be nailed; and before the two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing. these joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set. in nailing, small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order to avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails should be used. _the defect of shrinking._--with proper tools the mitre joint is the easiest one to make, but it has one unavoidable defect, especially in wide frames. it is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so that wide frames, however well finished, must be expected to shrink a little after they are joined together. as most of this shrinking is across the width of the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on the inside of the corners. this is what happens almost invariably with joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing. the same defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around windows and doors. there are three other methods of joining the corners of picture frames--_viz._, the halved lap joint, the mortise and tenon joint, and the dowelled joint. a drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint. all these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than the mitre joint requires, but they are more easily glued up. the halved lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw, even when the frame is a very large one. but the other two require long clamps in order to pull the joints up well. [illustration: halved lap joint] [illustration: mortise and tenon joint] _character of the frame._--the kind of joint required depends upon the general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light, wide or narrow, and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the plain framing stock with round or flat face; and the character of the frame is a matter of design, determined by the kind of picture, by its setting, and by other considerations discussed in chapter iii. how the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which follows: [illustration: dowelled joint] making a frame for a large photographic reproduction this photograph is inches long by inches wide. it is a copy in brown tones of a classic painting by otto kneille--_the education of athenian youth_, the original of which hangs in the royal gymnasium in berlin. it represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a group of younger men gathered around. in the centre of the scene a boy lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript. near him several youths under the direction of a master, are contending in feats of strength. the composition is one that suggests weight and power. it may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide, low bookcase. a picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide, heavy frame. the stock chosen was oak, inches wide, - / inches thick, and flat faced. the size and weight of such a frame, including the glass, demand firmness of construction as the first consideration. the stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would naturally open and weaken such joints. it was therefore framed together with mortise and tenon joints, well glued. a dowelled joint might have sufficed, but it would not have the same strength. the mortises were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long horizontal pieces. this was in conformity with the usual method of joining framework--for example, door frames, window frames, panel frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest possible length is invariably given to the vertical parts. the frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating the darkest tones of the picture. long screw eyes were fastened to the back inches from the top, so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall. a strong braided wire about inches long was run through the eyes and securely looped at each end, so that a little more than an inch of wire on each side passed through the eyes. since the picture was to have a prominent place on a certain wall, two nails inches apart allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of the picture were driven into this wall, and the heavy photograph was easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view. to make a knock-down bookcase [illustration: a knock-down bookcase] _the design._--the problem of design was to plan a simple, inexpensive bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's room and which would hold approximately two hundred books. the drawings show how these requirements were met in the design. when in use it is held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom. the necessary stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws. additional stiffness is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by means of screws. upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for transportation. it is equally easy to set it up again. it has no back and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it. its contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity which will harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping company with more pretentious furnishings. the original of this design was actually made up in white wood, stained and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture; but it may be made up in oak, ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for furniture. for one bookcase the stock required is as follows, the sizes allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing: for the ends, two pieces / inch × - / inches × feet - / inches; for the short shelves, three pieces / inch × - / inches × feet inch; for the long shelves, two pieces, / inch × - / inches × feet inches; for the base pieces, two pieces / inch × - / × inches × feet; for the keys, one piece / inch × / inch × foot. in addition to this there should be two dozen no. round-headed blued screws, and one half dozen - / inch no. flat headed blued screws. the tools needed are as follows: rip saw, cross cut saw, back saw, compass, jack-plane, smoothing plane, block plane, spokeshave, try square, steel square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver, / , / , and / inch bits and bitstock, and / and / inch chisels, gauges, and sand-paper. [illustration: details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase] _construction._--all the stock should be jointed, planed to width, and smoothed with sand-paper. the two end pieces should be squared to length, the top corners rounded, and the curve at the bottom cut as shown in the drawing. care should be exercised in sand-papering not to round the edges. the correct spacing for the shelves should then be marked off on the end pieces and squared across, care being taken to have both ends spaced alike. to do this plane the ends together, with their edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure off each of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf and mark these spaces across the edge. then, separate the end pieces and with the marks on the edges as a guide, square across each of the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife. in allowing for the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock, though originally / of an inch in thickness, has been planed and sand-papered, some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down more than others. it will therefore be necessary to measure and allow for the thickness of each shelf separately. [illustration: method of gaining-in the shelves] the three middle shelves are "gained" in--_i. e._, set into grooves in the upright ends-- / of an inch deep, as shown in the sketch. it will be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full width of the end pieces but stopped, say, one inch from the edge, the shelves being cut to fit, as shown in the drawing. if this be done, the grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel. if the grooves be carried across the full width of the end, they may be cut down with a back saw and then chiselled out. to insure a good fit in either case care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines. chisel the bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly / of an inch deep. the next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves. the dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by means of a gauge. they should then be bored well inside the marks and carefully chiselled out. before this chiselling is done, however, knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly opposite the gauge lines. in mortising, as in cutting the grooves, the greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut outside the knife lines. in working for a close fit it is better to err on the side of removing too little stock at first, if one must err at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final fitting. it is quite impossible to replace stock once removed. in measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed through the end pieces. these tenons should be cut out accurately with a rip saw, and the stock between them removed with a chisel after a deep knife line has been made. after fitting these tenons to the mortises and finishing them, the mortises for the keys should be cut, using a small chisel. it should not be overlooked that the outside face of each key mortise is cut on an angle, as illustrated. the three middle shelves are then cut to length, the ends squared by means of a block plane, and corners cut out to fit the grooves. [illustration: details of the keys] the parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by mere measurement. it will add a pleasing detail to set back these base pieces / of an inch from the front and back faces. after all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled and the key and screw fastenings inserted. when this is accomplished the bookcase is ready for finishing. as this is a distinct part of furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter. a hanging book rack [illustration: a hanging book rack] _the design._--it is designed to plan a light but strong book rack, to be fastened to the wall of a chamber. since it is intended to occupy the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in construction as a picture frame, depending upon good proportions and symmetry to give a pleasing effect. the straight lines of the design, which is illustrated above, meet these requirements and also harmonize with the general form and outline of books. both shelves may be used for books, if desired, but the design permits them to be confined to the lower shelf, reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of bric-à-brac. the mortise and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without requiring the use of heavy stock. _materials and tools._--since strength with lightness is an essential feature to realize in the working out of this design, soft woods should be avoided. ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common use. oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work. white wood is comparatively light and very strong. gum wood is classified with ash excepting that it is closer grained. since this book rack is to be used in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of the furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally appropriate to make it of white wood, to be finished in enamelled white, or of bay wood as a basis for mahogany finish. it was decided to adopt the latter course. the stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows: back posts, - / inch × - / inch × inches; front posts, - / inch × - / × inches; centre uprights, / × × inches; back rail, / × - / × inches; end rail, × - / × inches; and shelves, / × by inches. [illustration: construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack (front)] the tools needed are much like those required in the previous problem--_i. e._, the same planes, saws, bitstock, squares, and the gauge; but there will be needed a / -inch bit, / -inch and / -inch chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box, and a mallet. _construction._--the details of construction required are as follows: dressing the stock pieces, cutting the posts to length, cutting the points on the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving on the end rails, cutting and fitting the shelves, cutting, fitting, and fastening the back rail, arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up, and cleaning off the glue after hardening. [illustration: construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack (end)] [illustration: how the tenon is applied to the rail] the stock pieces should be first "dressed" down to the drawing dimensions. this means that they should be planed and sand-papered preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions. the front and back posts should be cut to length in the mitre box, care being taken to allow an extra / inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom. these pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the post and sawing to lines squared around the post / inch from the other end. the angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre box, thus giving the same elevation for all the posts. the -inch by - / -inch piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane designed for that purpose, and afterward cut to length as called for. the blind mortises should be made not more than / of an inch deep, and the tenons / of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the mortise. one of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern. the drawing shows the location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which the shelf rests. this is the most convenient position for cutting the tenon and it also gives greater strength. the centre uprights should be halved on after the end rails are in position, being cut for this purpose as illustrated in the drawing. they may be allowed to stand out / of an inch beyond the face of the end rail, and in making the joint an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the upright. the shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted with the block plane and dropped into place, being lightly glued and nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet. finally the top back rail should be halved in, being left to the last in order that the more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished. [illustration: how the centre uprights are halved on] in gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the parts may be promptly drawn up in position. after gluing they should be allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly harden before the clamps are taken off. all the extra glue squeezed out of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel, after the glue has hardened a little; and any remaining spots of glue must be carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to interfere with the filling and finishing. an umbrella stand _the design._--so far as the question of use is concerned, no problem of design could be more definite than this one, since an umbrella rack can have but one use. the only elements of beauty possible are found in simplicity, proportion, and the general effectiveness of the construction for meeting the demands of use. the drawing shows four square, straight posts, squared at the ends, which are allowed to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect. all the joints are mortised except the division bars at the top. the cross pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack. _materials and tools._--oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate wood; but other woods, if the surroundings require it, may be used to good advantage. oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish. it is also quite easily obtained. [illustration: an umbrella stand] the stock requirements are as follows: four corner posts - / × - / × - / inches; four top rails / × - / × inches; four base rails / × × inches; two division bars / × - / × - / inches; four cleats / × / × inches; and one board / × - / × - / inches to support the pan. the same tools in general will be required as in the previous exercises, but it will be necessary to add a / -inch bit, a / inch chisel, a steel scraper, and two short clamps. [illustration: details and dimensions for umbrella rack] _construction._--all the stock should be planed to size, scraped, and sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan, since that is hidden from view. the scraper corrects all slight unevenness of surface and removes scratches and other blemishes. care should be taken in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid rounding the corners. the corner posts should first be cut to proper length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. mortises are then to be located, bored, and chiselled up. the top and bottom rails should be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have them too long. the inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off slightly, as illustrated in the drawing, to allow room for each when they come together. [illustration: top rail tenons] [illustration: bottom rail tenons] the next step is to assemble the parts, clamp them up, and test them for accuracy. while these parts are in the clamps, measurements should be taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made, allowing extra length of / of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top rails. these cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as shown in the drawing. the base rails are designed to be thick enough to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the corner, as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction. the next step is to assemble the parts for gluing. it is not necessary to explain this process in detail, since it has already been thoroughly explained in the general section on gluing. it is not necessary to glue on the cleats on which the pan rests; they may be nailed in. when the base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan. a magazine stand _the design._--this problem calls for an attractive article of furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and current newspapers. an enclosed portion between two of the shelves is desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable papers, parts of magazines, or clippings, as may be found convenient. the perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple requirements are met. the overhanging top adds character and strength to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to carry. [illustration: a magazine stand] _materials and tools._--oak is selected as a suitable wood because of its strength and durability; for this stand is likely to be in almost constant use. a light wood, delicately finished, would soon show wear. the stock list, according to the drawing, may be itemized as follows: corner posts - / × - / × inches; upright slats / × × inches; four shelves / × - / × inches; one piece for the top / × × inches; top rails × - / × inches; piece for the door / × × - / inches for the ends and the back of the closet piece / × × inches; pair - / -inch brass butts with screws for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch. the tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a smoothing plane, steel square, try square, knife gauge, fine cross cut saw, / -inch bit and bit stock, key-hole saw, / -inch chisel, mallet, nail set, hammer, screw-driver, and steel scraper. the principal operations are as follows: planing to size; scraping and sand-papering stock; squaring ends and smoothing them to the required length; laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises for top rails; making the rails; assembling the main parts; fitting ends and sides of the closets; hanging the door and putting on the fixtures. [illustration: details and dimensions for magazine stand] _the construction._--smoothing with the plane and scraping are very important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done because particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood, will dull the steel tools. all three operations are needed to remove the marks of the machine tools of the factory, in order to give a good finish in the end. the scraper follows the plane, removing the unevenness which the latter leaves on board surfaces. sand-papering gives the finishing touches. [illustration: method of mortising] after the stock is well smoothed, the top and the shelves should be squared off, cut to length, and block planed. the posts should then be cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions. they may be marked with a knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to be fastened. since the posts are perfectly square, no attention will have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the gains; but when the mortising for the rails is laid out, care must be exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper faces for assembling. in mortising for the top rail it is well not to work up to the end of the post but to cut back, say / of an inch, as shown in one of the details. the rails may now be laid off and the tenons cut and fitted. it is exactly - / inches between the shoulders of the rails. since the shelves are - / inches wide, one inch is thus left on each side to be gained into the posts. the parts are now ready for the first assembling. to do this it is convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on one side, face down. the rails and shelves may then be slipped into place, the other two posts placed on top, and the whole clamped firmly together. this is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing the accuracy of the work. if it be found all right, it should be taken apart again, and, after glue has been applied to the tenons and to the ends of the shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true. before the glue hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts, as indicated in the drawing. in this case it is the nail that is the main stay. the glue is accessory, adding much to the stiffness of the construction. [illustration: method of fastening shelf] the top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed by putty, coloured to match the stain used. the end slats should be fastened on in the same way. the back and ends of the closet are next cut to size and bradded in. the door is then fitted and, to break the surface a little, an ornamental design is cut in the centre. still further relief is given by setting in the door / of an inch from the edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. the door is now hung on brass hinges, the stop and catch added, and the stand is ready for staining and finishing. [illustration: method of fastening posts to the top] a light library table _the design._--this is to be a table designed on simple lines and of good proportions. it is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as conveniently possible. the under shelf is designed to be cut out to allow a chair to be drawn up on either side. the end shelves may be regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding much to its usefulness. _materials and tools._--for a table of this kind oak is very appropriate. the following list gives the stock required for one table. the widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing, but the lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting. a board not less than inches wide and feet long will be needed as stock for the top, the dimensions of which are / × × inches. a -inch board, - / feet in length, will also be required for the shelves. there will also be needed four legs - / × - / × inches; eight slats / × - / × inches; two back pieces / × × - / inches; two rails / × × inches; and two rails / × × inches. [illustration: a light library table] the same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting that a / -inch bit and a / -inch chisel will be required for mortising, and two -foot clamps. _construction._--the first step in the construction is to dress the stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering it, and working the various parts to size. the lengths, however, of all parts excepting the legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of construction, these parts are needed. the legs are at once cut to length and the mortises laid out, bored, and cut. a gain should also be cut in each leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted, glued, and bradded from the under side. the end and side rails may then be laid off for shoulders and tenons, and cut. in this case the tenons should be made / of an inch wide. [illustration: construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end] in gluing up, the top should receive attention first, in order to allow the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable changes due to continued seasoning. great care must always be exercised in making the glued joints. it is often necessary to make them over on account of the development of cracks. proper care, however, will prevent this. the general directions for gluing, given at the beginning of this chapter, will be of service. as soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be glued to the shelf, taking pains to make good joints before applying the glue. it should be noted that the inside ends of these short pieces are to be inches apart, and it is important that the ends on opposite sides should be exactly squared across, as indicated in the drawings. this may be accomplished by first locating the centre of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c in the drawing, and measuring - / inches each way to the line of the back pieces, which are to run across the whole bottom shelf. as soon as the glue is hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains when the table is assembled. finally, the legs, the rails, and the shelf may be assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside to harden before the clamps are removed. it is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before the glue hardens. after standing a few hours the table will be ready for the / -inch strip which forms the back of the shelf. this is to be fitted and bradded in. then the slats may be cut to length. they project slightly below the shelf, and are fastened in position by screws. the top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed, after which it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons, as already described in the early part of this chapter. a heavy library table _the design._--this table, as the illustration shows, is designed to be of simple style, without a drawer or side shelves, and with the bottom shelf keyed into the base rail. heavy, square legs, and mortise and tenon joints are called for. [illustration: a heavy library table] _materials and tools._--the mission type of furniture, to which this design belongs, suggests oak as the fitting wood. the stock for the top, the dimensions of which are to be / × × inches, may be cut in three pieces from a -inch board, feet long. for the shelf a board / × × inches is required. there are needed also four legs - / × - / × inches; two side rails / × × inches; two end top-rails / × × inches; two end bottom rails - / × × inches; and for keys a strip × × inches. [illustration: construction details and dimensions (front)] the same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem. _construction._--since this table has a larger top than the light library table, even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the smaller table to join the boards for gluing up. all like parts should be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and fitted, as in the previous case. the two end rails may be glued into the legs first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put in place last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by means of the tenons and keys. the latter should be cut somewhat longer than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as they really are; and they should be tapered at least / of an inch in order to drive up well. a small brad may be driven in to keep them from getting loose when the work shrinks. [illustration: construction details and dimensions (end)] a bookcase with glazed doors _the design._--this is to be an upright bookcase, with five shelves and an overhanging top. some variety of surface is afforded by the arrangement of the sash, as indicated in the drawing. the shelves are made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other problems. _materials and tools._--the stock required for one bookcase of this pattern is as follows: two end pieces / × - / × - / inches; for the top and bottom, two pieces / × × inches; four shelves / × × inches; for the sides of the doors, four pieces / × × inches; for the top and bottom rails of the doors, four pieces / × - / × inches; for the middle rail, one piece / × × inches; for the sash, one piece / × / inch × feet; for the back, enough / inch stock to cover the space × inches. in addition to this there will be required four hinges, two catches, a lock, and glass for the sash as dimensioned in the drawing. it is not necessary, however, to cut the small lights. one large pane of glass may be set in the full width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent rather than real. [illustration: bookcase with glazed doors] the tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous problems with the addition of a / -inch bit and / -inch chisel, and a rabbet plane, or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the glass. [illustration: details and dimensions for bookcase] it is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the stock, since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding problems. the details for cutting dimensions are given in the accompanying drawings. it would be well for the young woodworker to study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar to that which has been outlined in other problems. _construction._--the first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--_i.e._, to cut the sides, the top, the bottom, and the back pieces to proper form and dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten them. it will be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out, as indicated in one of the small drawings, so that the edge of the back will not show when it is nailed in position. the bottom shelf is also made narrow enough to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the edge. [illustration: method of concealing ends of back boards] after the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to give an inset for the glass. if it is decided to use one large light at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this arrangement. when the doors are ready for setting the glass it may be held in place by small / round strips, bradded in behind it. great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not be fitted to the case. careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is attempted is a wise precaution. it will also be wise to allow a little stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the doors are finally fitted in. a round centre table [illustration: details and dimensions for round centre table] [illustration: detail of top mortise] [illustration: details and dimensions for round centre table] _the design._--this problem calls for a table of mission style with square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. simplicity of form combined with strength characterizes the design. _materials and tools._--quartered oak is recommended for a table of this design. the stock required for one table is as follows: four legs - / × - / × inches; two cross rails - / × × inches; one piece of × × inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to make a round top - / inches thick and inches in diameter. the only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane. _construction._--the first step is to join up and glue the top so that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is being accomplished. the stock for the legs may then be dressed and the bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. care must be taken to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be accurately outlined on the face. care must also be taken in cutting the mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. a dimensioned detail of the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail, shown on page , should be consulted before laying out this work. it should be noticed that the legs project - / inches above the top rail. after the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. it will be noticed that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this should not be done until the fitting is completed. in laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails the trammel comes into use. with this, mark off carefully the inside and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an exact quarter circle. this is shown in one of the drawings on page . then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. this locates the shoulder of the tenon. the pattern should then be carefully cut out of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock the form of the curved rails. after these rails are band sawed and smoothed, the tenons may be cut. when the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they may be assembled and glued. finally the top is placed face down on a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. these should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on the opposite side, and the stock cut out. the top and frame should then be fastened together from the under side. after a few finishing touches have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table will be ready for the filling and varnishing. a library desk this is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making here suggested. details are given in the drawings on the opposite page. if the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task to undertake. most of the operations required in its construction have already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed directions. there are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making called for in this problem which were not required in the others. they will therefore need explanation. [illustration: a library desk] _panelling._--to avoid the difficulties which would result from the swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice to make use of the panel. the design of the panel is easily understood. it consists of a framework of ordinary thickness, put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. the inside edges of this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between the sides of the frame. the panel board may be in one piece of wide stock or it may be glued up. it may be of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the panel frame. in this problem the panel board is to be made of / -inch stock, flat on the outside, and inset / of an inch. the back of the panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. the narrow stock of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and, if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. the panel, on account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so that its changes may not be noticeable. should it be desired to finish the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to the panel board. _danger in the power saw._--the panel frame may be constructed by hand, but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service. beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. the necessary operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished stock, with a good square and gauge. a combination plane is quite essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. care should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece, and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges of the joints. the cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are indicated in the drawing. in gluing up, the directions already given in the section on gluing should be followed. _sand-papering._--there is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in almost every kind of fine woodwork. its use has already been advised in the directions for furniture making. in furniture manufactories sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by their productive value. it is quite impossible to work down large pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. if a sand-papering machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run through the machine. the expense is very slight. in sand-papering by hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible and always along the grain. any movements directly across the grain or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. the process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about × inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same dimensions. a morris chair _history of the design._--among furniture designs the morris chair has become a classic. it takes its name for its originator, william morris, the great english designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in england but in other european countries and in america. and probably no one of his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort, and utility in furniture than the morris chair. [illustration: a morris chair] [illustration: details and dimensions of morris chair (front)] [illustration: details and dimensions for morris chair (side)] it may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works of art, the original design of william morris has suffered much in countless imitations. the furniture shops display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities under the name of morris chairs which are nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. but the life of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be short. only the good and true, which are the original, survive. the really valuable features of the original morris chair design, combining beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid comfort in these chairs. the chairs contemplated in this problem are illustrated on page , chapter ii. both are in quartered oak. the one on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. the one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour. on account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will be followed in this problem. this chair is an exact copy of one in ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself. by careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should select his stock according to the following list: legs - / × - / × inches; two arms × - / × inches; two bottom side rails - / × × inches; two top side rails / × - / × inches; two bottom rails (front and back) - / × × inches; one top rail (back) / × - / × inches; two back uprights - / × - / × inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) / × - / × inches; one cross piece for back (top) / × × inches; one bracket × × inches; four pins - / × - / inches square. [illustration: detail of morris chair arm] [illustration: detail of pins] in sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. the arms are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out of -inch stock. there will be a considerable saving in material and labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the curve is very pleasing. the back slats may be sawed to a slight curve, which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make and just as serviceable. the process of construction does not differ in general from that already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not be repeated here in detail. the method of finishing this and all other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the following chapter. since the morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be necessary to provide casters for it. the acme pin caster, so-called, was used in the chair referred to in this problem. it makes use of a steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so as to leave only about / of an inch of the ball exposed. a hall clock [illustration: a hall clock note.--the original of the hall clock was designed and made by mr. egbert e. macnary.] _design._--this clock was designed and built to conform to the requirements of the space allotted to it. the lines of the case are all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top. a hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc., are horizontal. if the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then the top might be spired or pointed. [illustration: construction detail of a hall clock] the construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and substantial. the long sides extend the entire height of the clock, being firmly joined into the base and head. the works are supported between these sides. the wood is / -inch quartered oak, hand dressed, and stained a warm brown. the dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and weight are of brass. _cutting glass with a wheel cutter._--the long door has a panel of transparent leaded glass. this leaded glass work is a most fascinating process. the lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in lead specialties. stained glass window concerns are usually willing to sell this lead. a full-size drawing was made of the design for the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. a ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. one caution, kept in mind, will enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _it should never be used twice in the same cut._ one stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. the glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand, making a continuous cut against a straight edge. _soldering._--the long lines of the design are in one piece; and there is a strip around the entire outside edge. to solder the pieces together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board, and brads (about inch long) are driven part way into the board close against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position. a small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. a small soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. the copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder wire. the point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say, "tinned." the iron will need frequent heating. a quick, light touch of the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result. [illustration: method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering] the two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. the piece of oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the centre of the dial into the oak piece. when a short arc of the ring had been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about inch and the groove continued. [illustration: method of raising the dial rings] the length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the escape wheel. it was necessary in the case of this clock to take out the escape wheel, which had teeth, and substitute one of teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired. [illustration: dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned] outdoor furniture the greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found within the house. this is especially true in the village or in the country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "god's great out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden, the touch of nature is not lost. it is possible, however, for art to assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed. it is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the village or city home. if there be a garden, as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out any form of interior decoration. there are problems of design and construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps, for an out-door dining-room. the more decorative features are found in the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen. _general types._--in the designing of out-door furniture there are two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression. on the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest solidity, weight, and permanence. this idea is embodied in walls of masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or in some other kind of heavy construction. on the other hand, there are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens. _an example of heavy furniture in wood._--a settle designed for comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well protected by several coats of paint. a suggestion is here given for such a design, laid out on substantial lines. ordinary × spruce, planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest of the construction, -inch stock being used for the back pieces and arms, and / -inch boards for the rails and seat. mortise and tenon joints should be used in the framing. the illustration shows also a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front posts. it is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is designed to be built. [illustration: a garden settle] _concrete furniture._--still more substantial out-door furniture may be made of concrete cement. this material has come into use for sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy building construction. concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made by mixing portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it to harden. it is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide range of out-door decorative uses. gate posts, pedestals, fountains, window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety, tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this material. its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion requires it. in weight and durability it leaves nothing to be desired. _the wire form._--concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. in its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. it must be supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape and until it has hardened. in general there are two methods of giving the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when hardened. the latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number of marketable results from the same moulds. the simpler wooden moulds may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form successfully. for single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire forms are to be preferred. a suggestive illustration of this method is found in the following problem: a cylindrical garden vase the dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of inches and a height of inches. the wire form must therefore be made to approximate quite closely to these dimensions. a good material for the form is galvanized wire lath of / -inch mesh. this problem will require a piece about inches wide and inches long for the convex side, and a piece about inches square for the base. from the square piece a circle inches in diameter should be cut out. a strong pair of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. in bending the long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular bends. a good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. if nothing better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. when the bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends of the strands of wire. a pair of pliers will be of great assistance. if this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result a cylindrical form inches in diameter. the circular piece should now be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece where there are uncut meshes of the wire. the form is now ready for covering with the cement. [illustration: a garden vase] the first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the scratch coat. this is made by mixing portland cement with fine, clean sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. these ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked apart. for the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. the whole should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. it is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. a scratch coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together. when a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel or a large knife. it is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will be held together firmly when dry. the inside is given a smooth coat as a part of the later finishing process. when the convex surface has been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. after the wire has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder has been obtained. this is allowed to stand for about five hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. it is then ready for the finishing coat. the next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing coat. considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour and other surface effects that are desired. in this design a light, sparkling surface when finished is required. to produce this effect a mixture of one part portland cement and two parts marble dust will be needed. this should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that used for the scratch coat. before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. there are various methods of applying this coat. the simplest is carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. when the surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. it is not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and yields very satisfactory results. [illustration: a vase with blocked rim] _the decoration._--a great variety of decorative effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this material for out-door use. in pottery these decorations may take the form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the surface, and of inlays in colour. whatever the form of design, the necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well set but not very hard--_i. e._, from to hours after the finishing coat is applied. a stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool that will be required. a narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable for deepening the cuts. the knife should be guided by means of a ruler, which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. in work similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of / or / of an inch is sufficient. this cutting, of course can be made after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it will be much more difficult. [illustration: a square form] _the colours._--colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the best quality of white portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or cement-proof colours. among the pigments suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields a good brown. these come as dry powders and should be mixed with the dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before the water is applied. in order to determine the right colour it is well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory shade has been found. then with this as a guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions, to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. to insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be well moistened with a wet brush. a number of suggestive designs are shown in the accompanying drawings. _rustic furniture._--the lighter out-door furniture can be easily made up in a great variety of designs. the form of rustic settles and chairs is determined largely by the material which is available. very useful and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops or from branches of small trees. birch saplings, easily found in the second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material. it is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. chairs, settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material. [illustration: a garden screen] _lattice work._--trellises and garden screens have been made in an almost endless variety of forms. among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. its simplicity and evident durability are points in its favour. experience proves also that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted to this form of trellis. the size of the stock required in making the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of it. for a garden screen the uprights need to be of × inch stock and of any convenient length. end posts of × inch stock will be required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals of ten or twelve feet. the horizontal pieces may be strips of / -inch stock, inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights. spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in -inch widths, is suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. the top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than by inches. the best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set into the ground at intervals of feet, to which the bottom rail or the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when the posts are formed. two coats of dull green paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches which it supports. viii finishing and re-finishing 'tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--_ebenezer elliot_ in the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing to do with the finishing of his work. this essential part of furniture making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. in a separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner. it is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production; for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in the finishing. [illustration: finishing a library table. plate vi] but the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. he should familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be applied to the different woods. he should know the object of filling wood and how it is done. he should understand the processes of fuming, staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the results desired. cleaning, surfacing, and filling _first steps in finishing._--the first step in finishing woodwork is to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. too great care cannot be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired in any part of the process of construction. light planing, chiselling, or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain, may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. the most serious of these generally result from gluing. all surplus glue should be carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the wood. the slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of the wood and show through any kind of finish. _importance of filling._--as soon as the furniture is thoroughly cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance, known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes, should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a handful of shavings. this process, as its name indicates, fills the pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture and the consequent swelling. but this is by no means its chief purpose. strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most important operation connected with wood finishing. if improperly done, no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. in fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. good varnishing or good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth, free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate the wood. if the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough surface will be sure to follow. this may, of course, be rubbed down and re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured by laying a good foundation in correct filling. it may be set down as a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce the desired result. _liquid fillers or surfaces._--there are many kinds of fillers in common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the other of two classes. they are either liquid fillers or paste fillers. woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. the coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary as a foundation for good finishing. the close-grained woods, on the other hand, do not present the same filling problem. they could not absorb a paste filler. in fact, it is hardly too much to say that the fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler. but all such woods _do_ need to be given a finishing surface which will prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood. this is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers." _how to make a liquid filler._--a standard formula for the preparation of a liquid filler is as follows: mix four parts by weight of carbonate of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine to the consistency of linseed oil. laundry starch may be used in place of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application than the clay filler because it does not settle. it lacks in durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. the finest grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler to give body. a great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which, without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface. glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose. but these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should be used on the best grades of woodwork. shellac is always preferred as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. if oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. shellac is an excellent first coater for other woods also. it is commonly used in house finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. but it dries rapidly, and generally with a rough surface. the first coating of shellac, therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on. _time needed for a shellac coat to dry._--it may be well to caution the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying of shellac. while it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has been applied, though it may appear to be. it is a good rule to allow at least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow. _cost of surfacing._--a practical question that the amateur finisher will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? for a good quality of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight square yards with one coat. the cost varies greatly, depending upon the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a dealer. a good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $ . per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about - / cents. a small can costs cents. good work cannot be done with the cheaper grades of filler. shellac, which is, all in all, the best of surfacers, can be bought for $ . a gallon, which would make the cost of surfacing somewhat under cents a square yard. _how to make a paste filler._--a good paste filler, such as is required for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base, thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste. if the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily be thinned with turpentine. the final mixing of this filler requires grinding in a hand mill. unless a considerable quantity of it is needed it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. they often contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica. _how a paste filler is applied._--paste fillers should be spread on the surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. but it must not all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. this is an easy mistake for an inexperienced worker to make. the thing to do is to rub it in and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. the surfaces should then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the final finishing coats. varnishing the importance of a good foundation surface--even, smooth, and free from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing. if this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the desired results in this part of the finishing process. the selection, preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts and principles are easily learned. _how a good varnish is recognized._--it is hardly necessary to say that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant. these qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. but durability is also a necessary quality. an expert will, with his eyes shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is to him an agreeable one. he will at once detect inferior grades by the rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. the range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more varied than in any other finishing material. for fine, artistic work only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $ . a gallon. _"sag" and how corrected._--a good varnish flows easily from the brush, spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its proper distribution over the surface. and time enough should be taken to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. it is of the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface when first applied. great care should be taken not to brush long in one place. re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which are objectionable. unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes the varnish to run or "sag." a tendency to sag may be brushed out if attended to promptly. but, if it is not noticed until the varnish has begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been put on. by that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will be beyond repairing by any simple means. _time required between varnish coats._--the best varnishes, as has been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward. this peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time between coats. and it should be added that mere drying is not all that is required. each coat must harden; and during the process of hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat until it becomes permanently set or hardened. the time required for this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat itself. five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period. as many weeks would not be too long for the best results. it is folly to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. in the nature of the case it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. there is no other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that it does in varnishing. great pains must be taken with each coat. least of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish coat is applied. all this work should be done in a well-lighted room, free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even temperature, of about degrees--certainly not colder than this, since a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly. _number of coats needed._--the number of coats of varnish required vary with the character of the work. what is known as piano finish requires from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the best brushing can give. in addition to these under coats a final finish coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre. _how to rub down varnish._--rubbing down varnish is a unique and important part in the process of finishing. the beginning of the operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood. whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary. this is a block about inches square, made of thick, loose cloth like felt or hair cloth. in use it is first moistened in the oil or water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered pumice. with this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. as the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used. near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or adhering to the rubbing pad. what remains on the surface is finally all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine scratches due to the grains of the pumice. these are removed by a second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water. _dull finish and flat varnish._--for many purposes good finishing requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural lustre. for furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. it is more durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. in working for a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer coats are necessary. in fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture without any varnish at all. two or three coats of shellac, each well rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. wax finish, to be described later, gives beautiful effects. there are varnishes known as flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. they are made by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish. what is known as the old dutch finish is obtained by using over the proper stain one coat of wax varnish. but there is no kind of dull finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish, each well rubbed down. wax finish _how to prepare and apply finishing wax._--the simplest and at the same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is rubbing it with finishing wax. this is one of the old processes which has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and is becoming deservedly popular. finishing wax may be purchased ready for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. to do this the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish, and covered with the liquid. the solution may be hastened by heating in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water, care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine vapor. this mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. soft cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. the rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of varnish. less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. one of the greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for use. filling and finishing are accomplished together. it is also easy to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. in fact, it is desirable to re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the first few months of their use, and after that about once a year. staining _object of staining._--up to this point the processes of finishing considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural colour, excepting that it may darken with age. but it is often desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--_i. e._, to dye or stain it. this is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize with various colour schemes. to accomplish this great variety of results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all easily classified under three heads. they are oil stains, water stains, or alcohol stains. _a perfect stain._--a perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure. _water, alcohol, and oil stains compared._--the water and alcohol stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains do. they are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration. but they are not free from faults. many of the water stains are made from aniline dyes which are not durable. the alcohol stains, however, are generally permanent. both the water stains and the alcohol stains raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. the oil stains, on the other hand, are free from these faults. they spread easily and evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects which overbalance these good qualities. they have considerable body which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface, so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or the alcohol stains do. their oily nature causes them partly to close up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent process of filling. this is so bad a defect that oil stains are not to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which depends so much on correct filling. they are more successful with the close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the ordinary liquid filler. _how stain is applied._--if furniture or any kind of woodwork is to be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing operations to be attended to. the stain should be spread upon well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into the wood. the surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean, soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect. after the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as already explained in the section on natural finish. the beginner will need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. he will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or grease, which will interfere with good results. excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of dealers in painters' supplies. they will not always produce the effects claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. they are somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to develop his own stain. following are some suggestions along this line: _asphaltum and golden oak stain._--a good chocolate brown stain may be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush. a considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough to make a sticky liquid. this will need to be finished with shellac or finishing varnish. when applied to quartered oak it produces the beautiful effect known as golden oak. it may also be used on white wood to give an imitation of black walnut; and georgia pine under this stain takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of the wood. _mahogany._--a clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining birch of the right grain with logwood stain. the stain is made by boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three hours. while the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually until the right shade of colour is produced. the stain should be allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be needed to secure the right depth of shade. the filler used should be coloured with burnt umber and sienna. the finish may be a brilliant or a flat varnish, or wax. _baywood as mahogany._--mahogany stain is also applied to baywood, resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. the genuine article, however, is an imported wood coming from south america, mexico, and africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood than the american baywood imitation. both the birch and the baywood imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties. _flemish oak._--the various oak stains are worthy of special mention. flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. it is prepared by first applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water. the solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. after drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. this is allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. after a thorough drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper and finished with wax. _mission oak._--the so-called mission oak finish may be in several colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly reddish. the stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. the mixture should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining brush. wax finish is invariably used for mission oak. _forest green oak._--forest green oak is among the best of the green effects in this wood. the stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material. this is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw linseed oil, with a little white japan. the resulting stain should be somewhat thinner than linseed oil. after this has been applied to the oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. this should have a wax finish. _gray oak._--a gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by adding a little sulphuric acid. this solution is most conveniently used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are thoroughly saturated. the pieces may be kept separate by stout cords tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of weights. when taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are rubbed down. _weathered oak._--weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved mixing them together. when applied to oak it gives it the natural weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. it may then be oiled, shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax. _fumed oak and chestnut._--but the most satisfactory method of giving a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods, viz., white oak and chestnut. all other woods, including red oak, are deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the ammonia gas in the production of the stain. this method requires a fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture to be fumed. it must be carefully constructed with all its joints made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering them with shellac. the top or one side of the box should be fastened with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use and yet easily removed. the operation of fuming consists simply in placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia, which is too weak--screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand from to hours, according to the shade desired. if the fuming box be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of colour may be observed without opening the box. when the desired shade has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture. _peculiarities of fumed finish._--it will be observed that the toning of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain far better than any other process of staining; and there should also be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are the reverse of those given by staining; _i. e._, the parts that appear lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. this gives a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of detecting that which is not genuine. white enamel a vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the trim of some rooms is white enamel. it is used on new work and also in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. in the latter case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. but whether the wood be old or not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat transparent. it is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening and thinned with turpentine. oil should not be used in any part of the process. three coats of this paint will generally be needed to produce the right surface for the final finish. each of these coats should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. two or three days, better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats, since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats and develops a tendency to chip off. when a surface is ready for the enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. enamel is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. it may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a brush like any other varnish. problems problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of furniture making problems in chapter vii. it is only necessary to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. our problems are, therefore, the following: _the knock-down bookcase._--if made up in white wood it may, like its original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. it may, however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the furniture with which it is to be used. _the hanging book rack._--in the design for this rack it was suggested that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish. _the umbrella stand._--oak was advised for this piece of furniture. it needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish, well rubbed down. _the magazine stand._--oak was suggested for this stand. the color will depend upon the surroundings. filling and varnishing will be required if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed. _the light library table._--oak was mentioned as a very appropriate wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. it will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a paste filler before they are finished. _the heavy library table._--as this was designed in the mission style, oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. it may be given the so-called mission oak stain and a wax finish. _the round centre table._--this may be made in any of the woods commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. a golden oak finish will be found very satisfactory. _the bookcase with glazed doors._--this may be made up in ash, in quartered oak, or in gum wood. the finish will depend upon the kind of wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated. _the library desk and the morris chair._--the originals were made in quartered oak, fumed, and waxed. _the hall clock._--this may be made in quartered oak and given a weathered oak stain and wax finish. re-finishing old furniture there is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. some of the rare old colonial designs are of exceptional merit. this is proved by the high prices which they often command. these designs originated in the days of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made, cheap furniture. the work of the older designers was characterized by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. it is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much desired. _caution as to repairs._--in the work of renovating old furniture, problems are met which are very different from those which have to be considered in the production of new work. all questions of design are settled. there is generally enough of the original article to show what the design was. the problem is one of restoration; we must supply the missing parts and re-finish the whole. the first thing to do, therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. it will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add new wood to the old. this is especially true of veneering, which cannot be well matched in any other way. old bits of veneer, on the other hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing. _scraping._--after the necessary repairs have been made, the next thing to be done is to remove the old finish. if the varnish is dry and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. if the scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine sand-papering may be resorted to. it is generally wise, also, to give the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for finishing. _the varnish remover._--it often happens, however, that the scraper will not accomplish the desired result. in that case the liquid varnish remover is necessary. this may be found at the paint stores. the best formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only to the manufacturers. it is therefore not wise for the young finisher to attempt to make his own remover. he should provide himself with a can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture. after putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife. if it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. the amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old finish. but in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and effectually removed. a putty knife, however, will not remove it all. after scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean off what remains. it is of the greatest importance that none of the old varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain. either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on. _re-finishing._--the re-finishing process is much like that described for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making the repairs. generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the stain of the furniture. this is sand-papered lightly before receiving the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the desired effect. very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax finish. problem: re-finishing an antique mahogany table the table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful lines. much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture. this table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. it was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at each of the four corners. the legs were of turned stock and fluted, terminating in brass thimbles with casters. one leg was broken off, one of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was made. it took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay in this much abused and dilapidated old relic. the first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as possible with a damp sponge. the part of the top that remained on the frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. the broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting them together with a / -inch dowel, glued in. the brass tips and casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. the missing parts of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued, and stained to match the original wood. after the necessary repairs had been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the old finish scraped off with a putty knife. this part of the process was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine, carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish remover. after carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with fine sand-paper. it was found that the wood was well filled, so that all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. the transformation from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and beautiful article of antique furniture was complete. ix hand weaving and aphrodite came to comfort them with incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine; and heré gave them beauty of face and soul beyond all women; purest artemis endowed them with her stature and white grace; and pallas taught their hands to flash along her famous looms. the "daughters of pandarus" (from the "odyssey," lib. xx). translation by mrs. browning. among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater honour than weaving with the hand loom. weaving is an ancient art. if we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the skins of animals. that was a great change, for it meant the beginning not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. it is no wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient mythologies. not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early beginnings of our own history. the new england colonists spoke with pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth; and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable women. it was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion. many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill--handed down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud possessors. [illustration: weaving a rug. plate vii] _the primitive loom._--in the orient, where our choicest rugs are made, two trees growing near each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo, and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires. this is a primitive loom. the modern hand loom is the same in principle; and the looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially. while it is true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied, this great improvement, which was actually one of the chief causes of a great industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive genius of two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the english hand looms. [illustration: shuttle and bobbin] _warp and woof._--the fundamental process in all weaving is essentially the same; and it is exceedingly simple. it consists in passing one set of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. the set of threads which cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the thread which is passed between them, is known as the _warp_. the thread which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called the _woof_. by careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful oriental rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience. [illustration: the hand loom] [illustration: the reed] _what the hand loom is._--the hand loom consists of four uprights or posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces. attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back and forth. this is the beater. these cross pieces are grooved on their inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from to or more sections to the inch. it is called a reed because it was formerly made from reeds. the sections of the reed are called dents, and through each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. from the upper cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height of about two feet above the general framework. they are united at the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end, are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across the width of the loom. these sticks are in pairs and carry cords or wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the dent of the reed. this is called the harness. there must be at least two of them, and there may be more. two are necessary for the simplest weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or any figured products of the loom. near each end of the loom are two rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the loom is set up for weaving. these rollers are called beams. over one of them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other holds the unwoven warp. at the back of the loom is still another cross piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. these pedals connect by chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of the other set or sets of warp threads. an ingenious device of cogs at the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work. the process _preparing the warp._--when the essential parts of the hand loom and their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready the warp and attach it to the machine. the thread or warp is taken from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what is called a bout. after determining how many threads will be required, allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. with the width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount until she has it all in one great skein. in putting this upon the bars or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--_i. e._, each four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or leash-sticks. these attachments keep the order of the threads so that they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are wound on the beam. _warping the loom._--to warp the loom the operator loosens one end of the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. at this point an attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a certain number of threads placed in each division. by the aid of the lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. the rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece. [illustration: warping hook] _drawing in the warp._--as has already been explained, two harnesses only will need to be used for simple weaving. taking the first bout of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the right-hand pedal is attached. the next thread is put through the centre of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the left-hand pedal. the third is drawn through the second loop of the harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn, through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal. great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done over again. a special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the warp. when the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each thread through each dent in regular order. when this is done it is only necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the work, and proceed joyously with the weaving. _beating up the woof._--the weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from right to left, carrying the woof threads through. the operator then draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. a sheer fabric requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more force. releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads just thrown. the shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. so the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the strokes of the beater. [illustration: hand-made towels. plate viii] problem: making a rug _the design._--this problem, like all others in house decoration, involves in its initial stages questions of design. before planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to have--whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room, or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or with a carpet. this is a question of colours, and of materials; for the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring inconsistencies of texture. unless the beginner has special talent as a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many colours in one piece of work. if the warp is dark it is usually better to use light or medium woof. if several shades are used in the body of the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with the principal colours of the body of the rug. [illustration: hand-made rugs. plate ix] _materials: denim._--there are many materials suitable for rug making. denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. this should be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. in preparing the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into strips from / to / of an inch wide. the latter width is better. in cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of degrees. crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along the fold. with a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias. when a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button hook. there is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. the fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. the moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for filling the shuttle. a special form of shuttle without a bobbin or spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. its simple construction is shown in the illustration. the woof is wound endwise and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle. [illustration: shuttle for woof cloth] another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of woollen cloth. warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. geometric designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are possible. very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber use. materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses, discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two plain colours reserved for use in the borders. _combination of blue and white._--blue and white is always a happy combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe. a vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white or blue between the two. another happy combination of blue and white results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of old blue and figures of the same colour. for a chamber or for a bath room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired. _a weaving design._--it has just been said that design in rug making is a question of colours and of materials. it is already apparent that it is more than that. it is largely a question of procedure in the process of weaving. that this is so may be shown in the following account of the making of a blue and white rug. the thought was to produce a rug with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at regular intervals through the middle of the rug. to accomplish this result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the rug was woven. the white figures were formed by first throwing the blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up together. for the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were used, two of which were inches in length and three inches, the two longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. a space of inches was left between the white figures, the location of which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right place. the result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug. [illustration: white figure in blue rug] _another example of weaving design._--this feature of rug designing is capable of indefinite expansion. perhaps one more example may be given. the object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an -inch border all around of a darker colour. this effect was produced by first weaving inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. having reached the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared in its proper place but inches of border on each side. when the proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by weaving another inches of the border colour. the result was a rug of individuality and charm. _great variety of material._--endless combinations will occur to any one who becomes interested in this captivating art. the field for colour design is almost without limit. no material is so old and useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. old bed ticking with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. a charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which was ravelled from an old raw silk portière of a mahogany shade and wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being rewound several times. this was used as the woof for the centre of the rug. the border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal to that of the tan cloth. discarded clothing in which the prevailing colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down by a border combination as desired. dyes may, of course, be used if the colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out. _weaving the rug._--when the design for the rug has been thoroughly worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in the discussion of the general process of weaving. further details of procedure are not needed here. the thing to do is to weave a rug as designed. the next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and then another and so on. as in most crafts so in weaving, experience is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every success. some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated opposite page . rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore a good problem with which to begin. after serving a satisfactory apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more difficult problems. this will take her out into a large field of opportunity. portières, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads, and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest themselves to the ambitious worker. in all these, as has been seen in the case of rug making, design is all important. the management of the loom is much the same in all plain weaving. what differences there are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. in the following problems are described some of the special features involved in the other forms of weaving. problem: portiÈres and couch covers _suggestions for the design._--if the loom is wide enough these may be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in sections or breadths. in this case, of course, they must be afterward neatly joined. the possibilities in colour design are naturally varied. they may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped ends. harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. depth and richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a generous use of black. materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet, or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. the warp may be silk or linen or mercerized cotton. beautiful portières have been woven by leaving out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy effect. silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided tone to the whole product. in portières, the general appearance is much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. the soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portières. couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear, should be beaten up harder. in preparing the silk and wool pieces the cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint uniform in size. if the material is cloth of ordinary thickness / an inch is quite wide enough for strips. the length of the pieces used may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. they may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave an inch in the portière or cover. this makes it very easy to secure a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads for these products of the loom. almost any household will be able to save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful pair of portières or a couch cover which will be durable in quality, easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point of view. problem: window draperies and curtains _the design._--curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the simple loom with two harnesses. they may be of the soft cream tint, the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired. but if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily changed to secure this result. one may, for example, weave at first inches of the plain cream. this will give woven material enough for a -inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and inches before the beginning of a coloured border. the border may consist of two threads of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a stripe of about inches in width. following this may come to inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the same colour as the border, inches wide, in turn followed by another inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on, alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven. if desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about inches--and it must be added so that it will show below the hem. in any case the top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain. vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible means for making it seem higher. such stripes may be made by using two colours for the warp--as, for example, blue and white or green and white--with one of these colours as woof. [illustration: an alcove with window draperies, pillow covers, window seat cover, chair seat and moss green rug. all hand woven] _importance of selecting good warp._--the successful working out of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of materials. while many things may be used for warp with a certain degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon giving due attention to these points. it is always well to remember that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. mercerized cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many times. in the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk, at a much less cost. but silk may often be obtained at a low price if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. bargains in small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed at small expense. our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp. they were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. not everything would suit them. they learned from experience that the wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and harder twisted than the filling. it was common for them to spin a certain thread for this purpose. exquisite results follow the use of a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for filling. striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse linen warp. _variety in woof threads._--a very pleasing effect in sash curtains or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins, one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. two or more threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid, heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the alternate coarse and fine threads. such curtains are very beautiful in cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the curtains may be successfully laundered. pattern weaving before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be necessary to explain in general two important processes. the first one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. among the heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. no one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by such names as spring flowers, governor's garden, the path of the roses, flowers of lebanon, ladies' delight, fairies ring, and doubtless by many more names which have been lost. this work in pattern design is wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional harnesses. _to be learned by experimenting._--if the beginner in weaving has mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a pattern weaving loom. but the procedure is too technical and too varied to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for amateurs. it is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step by step. nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving. copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study and practice. after a little it will be possible to make variations and so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate new patterns. [illustration: hand woven window draperies, couch cover, slumber robe and pillow covers. plate x] [illustration: a written pattern with a variety of figures woven from it] _how patterns are written._--complete working directions for pattern weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself this interesting application of the art of weaving. patterns for this work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration, each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses of the loom and the pedal attached to it. if we have a four-harness loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated by the number , and correspond to that harness number in the pattern. following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses are numbered , , and to correspond with the same numbers in the pattern. turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when the pattern is "drawn in"--_i. e._, when the warp for weaving the pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to the number of the harness through which it is drawn. thus, according to the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn into the d harness, the d thread into the th harness, and d thread into the d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the th thread, which is drawn into the d harness; the th, th, th, th, and th threads are drawn alternately into the d and d harnesses, and the th, th, th, th, and th are drawn alternately into the st and d harnesses. this process is now continued, as will be clearly understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the d thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed. a further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines and form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on and , and , and and form also a continuously alternating series. but these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers to , are drawn. it thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns. we must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be woven. the illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern. _operation of the harnesses._--having explained the method of drawing in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. it has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses and hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving harnesses and to take up all the intervening warp threads. if then the operator should throw down pedals and together, and alternately and also together, the warp threads would be crossed exactly as in plain weaving. bringing out a pattern in weaving must, of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used in plain weaving. now, upon reference to the illustration it will also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no two threads have ever come together on the same harness. if the st thread has been drawn into the d harness, and the d thread into the th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the d and th pedals together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread. this operation is what weavers call a "pick." each pick of the pattern thread is represented in the diagram (page ) by a broken black line running across the pattern. thus the diagram of the first design shown indicates that there are throws of the shuttle alternately over and back, or picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section of this design. but between every two picks of the pattern thread there must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been explained, the pressing down of either the st and d pair of pedals together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the d and th if thrown from the left side. it is evident, then, that there must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. one of these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern weave. the shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation according to the design of the weaver. the pattern weaving shuttle should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or mercerized cotton. _variations in pattern._--from the fact that a carefully written pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely followed in the weaving process. and so it must if the pattern be woven as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to follow the written pattern. as the weaving progresses it is easy to see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each other. in fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting original figures. we have only to remember that patterns are made by the order and number of the overshots--_i. e._, the throws of the shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. in the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by and , by and , by and , or by and , not counting and and and , which are the pairs for plain weaves. we should also remember that the last end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. examples of two variations in design that may be woven from the original written pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible. problem: a bordered table scarf this problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. the first thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw it in. when the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth. in doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to produce a plain weave. it will be remembered that to do plain weaving with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page , it is necessary to press pedals and together alternately with and --_i. e._, both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving. when a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order for the weaving of the pattern. the second or weaving shuttle carries the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern. any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour. _the design._--a great variety of design is possible in table scarfs. it is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally the full pattern of the border. the centre of the table scarf is simply a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour, while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order. _variations in design._--one pleasing style of decoration is found in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between. another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones at short intervals throughout the length. shadow borders, so-called, are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may constitute the entire decoration. shadow borders are heavy borders woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a contrasting shade. in order to make them stand out well it is necessary to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. a gray linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect. there is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. it is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring out the patterns in greater perfection. darning silks in fast colours are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain the best effect. they are found in the market in short lengths and in such attractive colours as delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba. the last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a happy combination. scarfs should be woven from to inches wide and about - / yards long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different length. not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons, and arranging pockets to hold the work. one scarf will make two aprons. fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but the width needs to be only or inches. these may be woven of the pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders. lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much admired for embroidery and other fancy work. dyeing in the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference has been made to the use of coloured materials. while it is possible to obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. in former times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and, in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were then, sister arts. when the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking, still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before weaving it into cloth. one notable exception was found in the natural gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black and the white sheep carded together. the modern worker with the hand loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a knowledge of the art of dyeing. seldom will she find at hand just the shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. much of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example, will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. and even the new material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed. _some good points in dyeing._--good results in dyeing are obtained by using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the desired shade. instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye first in one colour and top off with another. a fine permanent green is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a blue bath. green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. in all cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in a stronger dye. the advantage is not only greater permanency of colour but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark. the material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade nor crock. _some common dyes._--the dull, soft colours, made generations ago from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities and were generally permanent. it is well worth while to experiment in this direction. straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns that have acquired a dull or faded colour. white maple bark boiled in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. a permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. in fact, nearly everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. vegetable substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. all this will mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants, kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. the use of the prepared dyes, which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and fascinating home industry. x pottery to watch a potter thumping his wet clay--_rubaiyat of omar khayyam_ the boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in the sun, and the indian who, ages ago, coiled clay in a basket which he burned away, are but two widely separated links in a continuous chain; for men of all time have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use. and, beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has also been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races, independently of each other, to develop the primitive household arts, like pottery and rug making, by the use of methods no less remarkable for their similarity than for their cleverness. the impressions that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably not long before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically indestructible. improvement was bound to come in due time. by washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in which the heavier particles settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to be poured off, some artist of a very early time found a material that became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of his tribal household. first it was simply burned clay; but in due time enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes, in grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds of table ware; for the uses of ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous. [illustration: girls at work on pottery. plate xi] the primitive arts, however, were not confined to objects of necessary use. we find, buried with the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences of the potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating the home, for personal adornment, and for religious use, like the rings and scarabs of egypt. and in modern decorative art, as applied in the household, the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm, which it is the aim of all art to give, is perhaps to be found in a few--a very few--choice bits of pottery. all of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric times to the finest product of modern skill, is based on a plain scientific fact, _viz._, that a small quantity of water in the clay, not removable by any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out by intense heat so as to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay. this water is called the water of combination. if the clay is not heated more than enough to dry it, a later mixing with water restores it to its former plastic state; but clay once burned has lost its water of combination and never can return to its original condition. most beginners in clay modelling will expect, perhaps in the early stages of their work, to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel; for who has not heard of this interesting device? it is of interest chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery; and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which longfellow begins his beautiful poem keramos, making it a text for a sermon on the philosophy of life: "turn, turn, my wheel! turn round and round without a pause, without a sound; so spins the flying world away! this clay, well mixed with marl and sand, follows the motion of my hand; for some must follow, and some command, though all are made of clay!" _potter's wheel unnecessary._--the potter's wheel was used in comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the art ever since. but it requires much physical strength and considerable skill to use it effectively; and its use has been by no means universal. we find the indians of our own time and people of other races, expert in building pottery by hand, using the method of coiling. it seems best, therefore, to advise beginners to adopt the simpler method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel. the comparative inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its favour. the tools required are few and simple. inexpensive and easy methods are favourable to the experimental stage; and it is well for the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with methods for building and with designs for his ware, keeping in mind always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong, not the fantastic and complicated. _the method of coiling._--it will be understood, therefore, that in general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right consistency, welding and shaping them together, and scraping them down, if necessary, until they are ready to receive the first firing. after this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again. at first the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with the building up process. materials and tools the materials and tools needed are as follows: clay; oil-cloth, inches square; cotton cloth or flannelette, inches square; a few simple modelling tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate. _clays._--it will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order that these materials and tools may be well selected. there is a great variety in clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain. the latter is called kaolin and is very pure. a good modelling clay may be obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries. in some localities, especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be easily found. but, however obtained, some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability. the modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing results. the cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the intervals when it is set aside. this will not be necessary during the early part of the process, for then it is desirable for the clay to stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means. [illustration: simple tools used in pottery] of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood. they are not expensive, however, and the beginner will perhaps find it well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials. the accompanying illustration shows some of these, among them a very useful tool (f) with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer wire. f and c are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be easily managed with smooth edges. the thumb-like tool a is perhaps the most generally useful of those shown here. in this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that _the greatest of all tools is the human thumb_. cultivate its use. most modelling and building can be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers. _the bat and how made._--a plaster of paris bat will be found exceedingly useful. a sheet of thin, unsized paper serves well, however, for a surface on which to build; but the dry plaster of the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens the stiffening process. this bat can be easily made. take a small quantity of water (a half pint or more according to the size of the bat required), sift into this from the hand an equal amount of plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears at the surface. after a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are or inches in diameter by inch deep. the pans should be previously coated on the inside with a thick soap solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water to the consistency of a thick cream. the bats will harden in or minutes and may be easily removed from the pan, ready for use. problem: a bowl for flowers this problem naturally divides itself into six important steps, as follows: the design or profile; building and shaping; decoration, if any; firing (bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze. [illustration: variety in dimensions] _the design or profile._--as in all problems of decoration the first step is found in design. for present purposes we may consider a bowl as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height. the bowl will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is a difference between its height and its greatest diameter, and also between its diameters at the top and at the bottom. the accompanying drawing shows such differences. [illustration: suggestive profiles] another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve of the profile. a line that is simple but constantly changing in its degree of curvature--as, for example, an elliptical curve--is more pleasing than an arc of a circle, which is sometimes called the curve of limitation. it should be noted that a curved form, in order to be forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination with others which are subordinate. the profiles illustrated in the following drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs of circles. these varied, interesting, yet simple lines--live lines as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or three elements, are given here merely as suggestive material. a little experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong, forceful curves, and the young student is advised to make many experiments in the effort to discover such possibilities. an example of profiles to be avoided is given in problem ii, on page . that these are vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial. _a_ is commonplace because the two parts of the curve are too much alike. _b_ is unrestful in its three curves of nearly equal size. if the suggestive profiles illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before. it will be found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very different effects with the same profile. a bowl having top and bottom alike may, so far as design is concerned, be classed with the pill box. we don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills. if attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable, it will invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of glaze, colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the defects of form. _natural forms._--it may be well to add a word here in regard to the imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece of pottery; and that word is a very brief one. avoid them. nature is a great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery her suggestions are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental shapes. a fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate; but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not take the form of a fish, might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration. _testing profiles._--a good way to study the effect of the profile of both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed by rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other half of the drawing in exact symmetry. when the general shape of the profile has been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully; then, with the paper folded along the centre line, so that the pencil line falls outside, the whole form may be cut out; and then it may be unfolded. the next step is to begin to build up the design in clay. _the building._--roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps / or / of an inch will serve, since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping. the roll should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible, in order that it may not become too dry. upon the piece of paper or the plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired size is reached, then smear the rolls together, working toward the centre. turn the coil over and work the other side together, truing up the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness. avoid the use of water in smoothing the coils together. it may seem to make the work easier, but it softens the clay and invites careless work. [illustration: manipulating the coil] with another coil begin to build up the sides, making a complete circle, and, having pinched off the ends where they meet, join them carefully. lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each coil firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them together as in the base. the process is illustrated in the drawing. if the clay is very soft, the work may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning is made upon other pieces. it is well to have two or three pieces in the process of construction at the same time. _testing the work._--a template or gauge will be needed to test the work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish. this is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile, leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the template is held upright on the table or bat. [illustration: a template] as the work goes on, if the design requires that the form should be "brought in" toward the top, the coil must be laid a little inside of the profile desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter slightly. in all the building, allowance should be made for this enlargement. when the coil is high enough and of the shape desired, it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle. with the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a symmetrical shape to the desired profile. [illustration: scraping a square form] a drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping. the surface should be left smooth and even; and this may be accomplished without water or sponge. the flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--_i. e._, hard and stiff, but before it begins to whiten and dry. the lip or top of the bowl will require special attention. it will probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed. then the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to a depth of / to / of an inch, leaving a "foot" or rim around the outside of the circle to give it steadiness. _the decoration._--after the bowl is complete as to its general form, the problem of its decoration, if there is to be any, must be solved. this may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set the bowl aside to harden. if the form and colour are good, the bowl may possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration. on the whole, less decoration, rather than more, should be the aim. the three vases illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery without decoration. (see page .) [illustration: bowls. plate xii] generally speaking, bowls like the one we are building may be decorated by one of three methods: by sinking lines or channels in its surface by means of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (d, page ); by modelling or carving the surface; or by painting the surface with coloured "slip" or with coloured glaze. it should be explained that "slip" is a mixture of clay and water of the consistency of cream; it may be coloured or uncoloured. a combination of two or more of these methods is, of course, possible. examples of the first two methods are shown in the illustrations of bowls, vases, and tiles. a combination of the first and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row shown in plate xiv opposite page . [illustration: spacing in decoration] _classes of decoration._--the _form_ of the decoration is simply a matter of space division, as illustrated by two examples shown below. it is evident, too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned, divides itself naturally into three general classes: (a) the horizontal band; (b) the vertical division; (c) a combination of these two. the last will prove to be the most common of the three. it should be noted that an all-over pattern, which has been left out of consideration as tending to monotony, would commonly be a combination of both horizontal and vertical methods of division. it should be noted also that the presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery decoration does not affect the main classification. typical examples of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases, as well as in the cuts a and b. it will be seen in each case that one scheme or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great variation in treatment. analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations, we find that the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small spaces, giving variety and rhythm. in many of those patterns showing the combination type there is a concentration or "knotting" of the line at regular intervals, frequently at the intersection of both horizontal and vertical elements. this is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page . when the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is composed of mass instead of line. all this serves to give emphasis and rhythm. for subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in plate xiii, opposite page . or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed, as shown in its nearest neighbour, which may or may not have had its origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif. the essential thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application. _how the design is applied to the clay._--after the design has been studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the bowl with a soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised line or channel to be made. the clay should be leather-hard--_i. e._, stiff but not dry. the spacing around the circumference should be made exact, deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing of the paper drawing. a good way to manage this important step in the process is to measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the paper evenly into the number of units desired. by wrapping the paper around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that it is desired to meet. it is necessary to make sure that the vertical lines are true "meridians" and do not swerve to the right or the left. in order to test the horizontal lines, measurements may be made from top or bottom. all of this work is best done free-hand; for, aside from the value of the eye training derived, hand-built pottery is seldom exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its decoration. the drawing on the clay having been completed, the next point is to choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts, deepening them from time to time as the work progresses. if the design is to be worked out in line, a chisel, like that illustrated in d (page ), may be whittled from a pine stick. it is held nearly upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel. reserve should be exercised in cutting, because, generally speaking, there is danger of making the design too insistent. some of the best designs are very subtle and quiet. care should be taken, however, to allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is applied. _modelling a decoration._--if the decoration is to be modelled it would seem wise to do it, in whole or in part, as the work is built up; but in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the relief and unity of the decoration. it will be easy to over-model the work. _how under-glaze is applied._--for decoration with under glaze the colours given under the head of glazing (page ) are mixed in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a colour paste. this is painted on the "green" or moist clay, forming a smooth and even surface. experience will teach the proportions of colour to be mixed with the clay. these proportions vary greatly with different colours. a very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts of clay. colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium strength, and antimony is quite weak. before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light and rough through the glaze. the use of sand-paper, however, is not advised, though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry. the aim should be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the material out of which it is made. _firing._--pottery must be "bone" dry before it is fired. a very satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from $ to $ , according to the size. the smallest size, which is illustrated in the next drawing, will be ample for the needs of one or two persons. if, however, the amateur does not care to go to the expense of purchasing a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery factory in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing. [illustration: a portable kiln] _temperature required._--pottery is fired at a temperature varying, according to the clay and the glaze used, from approximately to degrees fahrenheit. modelling clay fires at degrees fahrenheit, or what is called "cone ." this term comes from the fact that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones, which can be seen through a spy hole attached to the kiln. these cones are graded compositions of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to heat. they are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more. when one of them melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing, which shows cone --the most fusible one--completely "down," and at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from the kiln. this must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to cool completely before it is opened. this is especially necessary when firing the glazes described in the following section, which require the same temperature as modelling clay. further details about firing and caring for the kiln may, of course, be learned from descriptions accompanying the apparatus. pottery comes out of the first firing in the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or red, according to the amount of iron in the clay. in this state it is called "bisque" or "biscuit." [illustration: pyrometric cones] _glazing._--it is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of bisque before it can be glazed; or, to speak more accurately, before it can be over-glazed; for it has already been shown how the so-called under-glaze is put on before the first firing. the subject is somewhat technical, and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up the details extensively. briefly speaking, the glazes most used for this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of "white lead" or carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and other ingredients. these are supplied in powdered form and are ground together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle; a mortar inches in diameter will serve. _grinding the glaze._--the grinding should continue about an hour. it should be said, however, that there is such a thing as grinding too fine. after the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be added as a binder to prevent flaking and rubbing off in handling. it is also a good plan, though not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon as it is ground, through fine muslin. the tools and materials needed for this work may be itemized as follows: lead carbonate, whiting, canadian feldspar, florida kaolin, french flint, white oxide of zinc, and various other oxides and colours noted in the text; earthenware bowls, or inches in diameter, for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, inches in diameter. _example of matt glaze and bright glaze mixes._--two mixes are given below calculated to fuse at cone . one has a "matt" or dull velvety surface, and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface. the matt will be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better with flowers and foliage. the figures given below refer to units of weight. metric weights (grams) are most convenient to use, but any units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout. the matt glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream, the bright glaze somewhat thinner. matt base lead carbonate whiting canadian feldspar florida kaolin bright base lead carbonate whiting canadian feldspar florida kaolin white oxide of zinc french flint the bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to them from to per cent. of colouring material that will stand heat. a list of materials with their colours when fired is given on page , together with a few typical combinations of colours in quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above. the following lists are by no means complete, and it is expected that the young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an introduction to quite extensive experimenting: colour materials black oxide of cobalt blue black oxide of copper blue green green oxide of chromium yellow green white oxide of antimony lemon yellow red oxide of iron yellowish brown green oxide of nickel dirty gray (for neutralizing) white oxide of tin makes glaze opaque black oxide of manganese purplish brown yellow ochre yellow burnt umber brown colour combinations olive green iron oxide cobalt oxide . dark brown iron oxide nickel oxide manganese oxide light gray-blue tin oxide cobalt oxide . copper oxide . blue-green cobalt oxide copper oxide yellow ochre dark gray-blue nickel oxide yellow ochre cobalt oxide copper oxide _applying the glaze._--before applying the glaze to the piece of pottery or bisque, the latter should be soaked in clear water for about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores. when this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all moisture should be wiped from its surface. the piece is then ready to be dipped into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it, if the size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze in this way. it is usually best to glaze the inside first, shaking out all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside. during this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points of contact as possible. these points of contact will generally need to be touched up before it is ready for firing. it is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush, putting on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness. the matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture. the greater thickness may be easily secured, because it flows more slowly than the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of the piece to which it is being applied; but, on the other hand, it is at a disadvantage in that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze does. a certain thickness, however, is essential; and if, after firing, it is found that the glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be applied and the article again fired. _firing the glaze._--before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot should be scraped off. it should then be set in the kiln on a kind of pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the "stilt," which prevents the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln. all glazed ware should be placed in the kiln with at least / an inch of space between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the fusing state of the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil." the firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the production of bisque, already described. greater care, however, must be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat. the cooling also should be very gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should be allowed to get cool before it is opened. with this second firing the pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze is found to be necessary. if only a few spots need attention, this second coat is best applied with a brush. problem: a vase for long stemmed flowers the tools required for making this vase are the same as those used for the bowl, and the process of building is much the same. the chief difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in building because the added height and the greater weight tend to bulge the lower part. to meet this difficulty it will be necessary to set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden sufficiently to support the upper part. _the profile._--in preparing the profile the same rules hold as were applied in working up the problem of the bowl. it will be well to remember, however, that the curves of a vase must be treated with greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in the case of the bowl--_i. e._, the curve of a vase should be enclosed within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the case with the curve of a bowl. the reason for this, of course, is found in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter. the following figure shows three typical vase forms. if these curves be compared with those shown on page , illustrating bowl contours, it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the greater restraint and subtlety of its curves. in the next illustration we have two "horrible" examples to which attention has already been called in the suggestions for the design of bowls. the dotted lines in the illustration show how these curves may be improved if, in either a or b, one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense of the other. if at the same time the diameter be made smaller in comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be still more improved. indeed, it will be a transformation from a profile that is positively bad to one that is very good. [illustration: typical vase forms] [illustration: profile to be avoided] _decoration._--the problem of decoration is not very different from that of the bowl. here again, however, the added height seems to call for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions. unless this be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a barber pole effect. _handles._--if handles or buttresses are desired, care should be taken that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--_i. e._, that they continue or reinforce its lines. two suggestions for the treatment of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing. it will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the lines of the vases to which they are attached. handles that give the impression of being made for another vase should be avoided. [illustration: suggestions for handles] problem: the fern dish the process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem. if the fern dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used; but if the dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this method. in place of it the process of "piecing on" may be employed--_i. e._, one piece of soft clay may be added to another and the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds. [illustration: development of the fern dish] _the lining._--the fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower pot. this feature forms the unique part of the problem. generally speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl; and yet some latitude is allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated in plate xiii following, which is somewhat similar in profile to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing. this drawing shows the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish. much freedom, however, may be used in the plan as either the round or the rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction. the half section in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer bowls at the top edges. this adds greatly to the good appearance of the completed fern dish. the sides of the inner dish are made vertical, since it is necessary for it to be easily removed. _decoration._--the problem of decoration differs very little from that discussed under the problem of the bowl. either the fern itself or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif. sometimes there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for other plants. thus the smaller square dish, illustrated in plate xiii opposite, was designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and the subject matter for its design was found in that flower. _glazing._--the rules already given for glazing apply in this case, but it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only. it is well, however, to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed. it hardly needs to be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer dishes separate. [illustration: vases and fern dishes. plate xiii] problem: the candlestick _the design._--this problem introduces several points in design that need to be especially emphasized. the candlestick should be of such size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting it down. it is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops of wax that will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be a convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base if the candlestick is to be carried about. if a handle is to be added it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as was explained in the discussion of handles for vases; and it should, at the same time, offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp. the accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a part of the candlestick and at the same time, by means of a sharp bend or elbow at the top, to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist in grasping the handle. whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user. generally speaking, a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table. it is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the form chosen. merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without carefully relating these three different elements according to the requirements of use, can hardly be called designing a candlestick. [illustration: suggestive designs for candlesticks] the building of the candlestick is started, like the bowl in the first problem, by coiling from the centre, and the rim may be added in the same way. care should be taken, however, to attach the central tube firmly. this may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump of clay. if there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the time the central tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm attachment. problem: tiles the varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit the scope of this problem. tiles are used for paving, wall facings, ceilings, coverings for stoves, linings and facings for fireplaces, rests for flower pots and teapots, and for various other purposes. tiles figure very prominently in the history of art. they are objects of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout the civilized world. but this problem will confine itself to two of the many varieties of tiles, _viz._, tiles designed for bowls or teapots and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces. [illustration: a tile frame] _the tile frame._--in building tiles a frame is used measuring about inches square by / of an inch thick. the strips forming the frame may be inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that, if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is moist. this frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the centre, until the frame is completely filled. it is then turned over in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly welded together. care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the surplus clay with a straight edge. while the clay is moist, one side is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping. the hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the top of plate xiv, or it may be in the shape of channels / of an inch or more in width, separated by ridges / of an inch wide running across the back of the tile. whichever method is used, the depth should be about / of an inch and not over / of an inch. even when the utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. it should therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of exposure on both sides. the greatest help of all is found in the use of the so-called "grog." this is made by grinding to a powder clay that has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. it is used by mixing it with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog to three of the clay. it may be added here that grog will be found of great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. it will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of making grog. the occasional failures which develop at the first firing of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply. [illustration: tiles. plate xiv] _decoration._--when the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite stiff before decoration is applied. while the hardening process is going on the decoration may be studied. the three general methods of decoration considered under the flower bowl--_viz._, the sunken line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile. if it is to be a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to rest upon. _firing._--in giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more than the others. it may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed on one of the shelves. for the glaze firing the tile should be placed flat on the stilt. _tea tiles._--the tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of plate xiv were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl, or a vase. it will be noticed that the centre is left free with one exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general rule. the free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon. in the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. emphasis should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design. _fireplace tiles._--some of the tiles illustrated in plate xiv would be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a fireplace. this is especially true of the middle design shown at the top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. this makes it especially adapted to repetition in a facing or border. [illustration: pottery, designed and made by schoolgirls. plate xv] _decoration of tiles._--it is in the field of painted decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in fireplace tile designs are found. the framed tile illustrated in plate xv opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for use as a colour accent for the wall. this tile is painted in matt glaze between raised outlines. three similar tiles are illustrated in the middle row in plate xiv. the right-hand one, like the framed tile of plate xv, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead of being raised was slightly depressed. the other two are examples of under-glaze painting. they were painted on moist clay, as described in the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze. in this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to the colour scheme. the repetition in a tile facing of landscapes, designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. it is better so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat conventionalized, landscape. a treatment of this kind lends itself to many other decorative schemes. the fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which it is placed. it should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the focal centre of the room. this fact, together with its comparatively small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. tiles, properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for charming effects in colour and texture. xi decorative work in leather, copper, and other materials to become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his craftsmanship--_hamilton wright mabie_ leather work leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin. the new testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred to bottles of leather, or wine skins. we read of leather as having been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses, parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. in the middle ages the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers' useful productions but included much ornamental work. there were wall coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled leather. some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt figures like the celebrated spanish leather. _why leather is suited to decoration._--leather seems, therefore, to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to decoration. its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses. _limited decoration desirable._--the tooling of leather is based upon the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. but the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. it is therefore a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. the decorations should be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of the surface. calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. they are supplied in two general forms, _viz._, the smooth, generally as russia calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. leather may be stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere. [illustration: leather-working tools] _tools._--the simple tools required for tooling leather may be purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. the illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. a and b are different views of the first tool; c is the second tool. the narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into corners. the broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use; the broad tool should be used whenever possible. the round point on the left end of c is used for outlining and transfering the design to leather. the right hand end of c is known as the background tool. it is cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may be used for the same purpose. the background tool, however, is to be used sparingly. if used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance. problems to design and tool a belt the sizes given in the illustration on page are typical, but it is expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to suit conditions. when the size has been determined the leather should be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be, to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. the strip of leather should be thoroughly soaked in _cold water_ and then rolled in dry cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. it is essential that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. if on applying the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. if it should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on the back. there is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back is not wet. [illustration: two belt designs] _the design._--the illustration shows two treatments. an interlaced pattern is shown in a which concentrates the interest at the ends and in the middle of the back. the pattern shown is tooled solid and the background is left untooled. if the pattern be tooled in outline it is well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give relief to the interlaced bands. modelled natural forms are shown in b. in this the background is tooled down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised forms. this gives the background a richer appearance than it has when tooled absolutely flat. both patterns here shown are straight with parallel sides. other shapes are possible--for example, those wider in the middle and tapering toward the ends. when a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is transferred to thin bond paper. the greatest care should be taken not to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. it may be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil. _the process._--as soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up, allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. the paper may be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. the pattern may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing, with the round pointed tool. care will have to be exercised to make sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. when this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines, which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool. [illustration: method of using the broad tool] the next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge of the pattern farthest from the hand. this not only insures a correct and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the work. in this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying cut. in working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if necessary. the movement may be described as "ironing the leather down." the surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." it is a process requiring time. one should not try to get the full depth with the first pressure of the tool. one should coax the surface and add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool does not scrape. it should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble scratching and patting. a firm, even gliding pressure does the work. as the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a dark, glossy surface. when the process is completed the belt may be trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge wherever straight lines are desired. to design and tool a mat [illustration: supported and unsupported circles] _the design and the process._--the purpose for which a mat is used requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain surface in the middle. if the general form be square the design at the corners should be strengthened. if circular, the design should be so arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle rather than weaken them. in the three outlines given below, c shows a form supporting the circle; d and e show forms tending to weaken the circle. conditions determining size are more variable in this problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a mat may serve. in a design like that shown in a of the accompanying illustration, the portions left untooled--_i. e._, the leaves and fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the back by means of a tool. to do this the leather should be placed face down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. then by gently forcing the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. after this is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct the modelling. in order to preserve the higher relief it is well to back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover the entire back with a lining of silk or leather. [illustration: two mat designs] to design and tool a pen wiper a pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. the process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that already employed in the foregoing problems. it should, of course, be carried through to completion before the book is made up. these parts are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same colour. [illustration: steps in tying a knot] the series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming the knot, which should finally take the shape of figure . after it has been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the back, resembling figure with the ends cut as close as will leave them securely tied. [illustration: two designs for pen wipers] another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: a, a rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; b, a circular pen wiper tied with one knot in the middle. in these designs, and indeed in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer form of the article to which it is applied. this point is made in the illustration. to make a slip cover for a note-book filler [illustration: design for slip cover] _planning the cover._--the object in this problem is to make a permanent protection for fillers. it is well known that the fillers themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat pocket note-book. it is evident that the dimensions of the filler determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. this means that the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than called for in the final size. the design illustrated shows both the outside (a) and the inside (b) of the cover. as it is planned the cover is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish to put it in. _assembling the parts._--the first step after cutting out the leather for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have any decoration. a piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and the edge (c) shaped. the edges of the lining and the pocket should next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. a line is then to be ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as a guide for stitching. a machine stitch may be employed or it may be done by hand. if by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. hand stitches may safely be a little longer than the machine stitches. [illustration: stitching with two needles] _stitching._--a good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the required distance. a more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. the hand stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. if with one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. it is better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread, selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to proceed as illustrated in a and b, _i. e._, to draw one needle with its thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in a, and then the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in b. it will, of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly. _trimming and finishing._--when the sewing is finished the thread is fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the ends inside between the cover and lining. then a line should be tooled on the cover about / of an inch outside of the stitching, and on this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. the raw edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. finally the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather. to design and make a desk pad _the design._--the problem of design in this case is, first of all, to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon the use to be made of it. then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the drawing (a). the only detail that will need elaboration is the corner. the shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to the leather and tooled as in other problems. [illustration: detail of the leather corner] [illustration: outline of desk pad] _material and the process._--for making the pad it will be necessary to secure a piece of binders' board--_i. e._, heavy pulp or straw board--of the required size. the medium weight is the best, and it may generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. if this cannot be obtained, two sheets of -ply card-board may be used instead. the size given in the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. the edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. after the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and yet leave a suitable width of the binding. the so-called "cover papers" will be found satisfactory. _making the corners._--the next step in the process is to lay out and cut the leather corners according to the original design. the form in which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the illustration b. the little flap at _x_ should be noted. it is designed to tuck under and close the corner. the edges of leather at _x_ should be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the work. further improvement will result from skiving down the edges s r s and t v t of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath and pasted down to the back of the board. the ordinary photographers' paste is satisfactory for this work. when the leather corners are placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. after the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion of the binding and leather exposed. finally a number of blotters of full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry. to design and make a card-case _the design._--in the illustration (a), showing a card-case unfolded, the dimensions give the finished size. the same card-case is illustrated in b somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned in. the design on a is a rectangle broken at the corners. in this case, as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort of binding, extending across the middle fold. c shows an alternative design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both sides of the card-case. the question of which is the top and bottom in such a design as that in c can be determined only by the owner's habit of holding a case. sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner flaps, as illustrated in a, or on one of the outer surfaces. [illustration: design for a card-case] _the process._--in cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in order to allow for trimming. the design should be transferred, the line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the description already given for the other problems. _the lining._--a card-case may be lined either with silk or with sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. if lined with silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true and square. then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly pasted along the edges to a width of / of an inch, care being taken, however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible when the flaps of the cover are turned in, _i. e._, the middle of the fold b. this precaution should be taken because the paste may strike through and spot the lining. the flaps should then be moistened a little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. this takes the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in the problem of the note-book. if lined with sheepskin, the ooze side showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching; then both may be trimmed at once. to make a leather purse _the design._--the details of design and construction are shown in the accompanying illustrations. in a the outer flap is shown tooled. it will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the central point in design. the tooling is done as directed in the other examples of this class of work. [illustration: design for a purse] the purse is lined throughout with leather. it has bellows ends, as shown in the perspective at c and in the end view at b. the pattern of the bellows end shown in d is intended to fold in the middle, bringing both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double thickness. with thin leather, such as is used in the present instance, this pattern is practicable. if thicker leather be used the bellows must be made of single thickness. in this case the pattern would simply be like that shown in the lower half of d. _the process._--after the lining is pasted to the cover a snap fastener should be attached. proper care, of course, should be taken to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse will fold properly. the cover and lining should then be trimmed and the leather surface ruled for stitching. it is well to fold the inner flap of the purse while it is moist from pasting. finally a little paste is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in position. stitching is started at the point e shown in the perspective. hand stitching is the most practicable. the direction is down one side, up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end, stopping at the point f. when the stitching is completed the inside flap should be folded down. to make a limp leather book cover _the design._--the first step is to choose the book to be bound. for the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." and it should be _worth binding in leather_. the subject, the paper, and the typography should be worthy of the distinction. [illustration: typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers of books. details of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other problems.] _the process._--if the book selected is already bound or "cased" it is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. then at least three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of the folio. a piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a colour to harmonize with the leather. the next step is to prepare the leather cover. to do this, first place the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing / of an inch at the top and bottom and / of an inch at the fore edge, mark and cut out the stock for the cover. the decoration, if there is to be any, may now be tooled on. if the design is heavy enough in relief to need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper. stock for the end papers is now selected. they may be of cover paper, or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. they are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. if of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen is pasted in. if the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of / of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the fore edge. we are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. strong paste, with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the process. now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other two to the outer fly leaves. finally, the book should be placed under very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. care should be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling, if there is any, so as not to crush it. copper work there is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most interesting operations. beginning with the gate, which may be of wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass, we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals. ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds, andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. how some of these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems: to make a letter rack this is an easy problem. only four constructive operations are required, _viz._, cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending, and finishing. the illustration shows the form and the dimensions and suggests a simple design. the material required is -gauge soft copper. [illustration: design for a letter rack] the first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper inches long and inches wide. if necessary the edges may be trimmed even and then the round corners should be cut. the design is traced on strong, thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position by using cold liquid glue. a hole is drilled through each unit of the design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the design cut. time and patience will be required for this operation. saws are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and again applied to the work. after sawing the design it is necessary to give the edges a smooth finish. this is done with a file. the surface which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and polished with water and pumice. the copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. to do this prepare a block of hard wood inches long and inches wide, grip it in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of the block. when this has been done it only remains to clean the outside surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. if a fine polish is desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a scotch water stone and water. to make a letter opener this requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same operations, with the addition of riveting. after the stock is cut out, trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. the top is then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head of the tack in the vise before inserting it. while the tack is being riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead block. finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross section, and the whole cleaned and polished. [illustration: design for a letter opener] to make a hat pin for this problem -gauge copper will be needed. the operations required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. after the necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed, the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. it is desirable to grind with the scotch stone and water to a good polish. the head will then be ready to be attached to the pin. [illustration: the hat pin] carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. now place the copper, outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this portion of the copper, and fuse as before. when the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing wheel. to make a belt pin [illustration: the belt pin] eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. the operations are like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. the slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means of a horn mallet and a sand pad. for hard soldering, the surface must be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water and applied with a small brush. the belt plate should then be placed on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. the catch should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder at the base. the solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. the hinge is soldered on in the same way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use. to make a set of book ends this problem is much like the first one described under metal work. sixteen-gauge copper is required. it may be bent by placing it between two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet. [illustration: design for book ends] to make a teapot stand [illustration: design for a teapot stand] twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. the operations are similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are much more difficult. after determining the design it will be necessary to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated in the detail of the corner. the four corners must be marked and cut exactly as shown in the drawing. a piece of hard wood is then cut to the size of the top, inches square in this case, to be used as a form on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. if the corners are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. in order to protect the tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the under surface. as an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on the bottom. [illustration: detail of a corner] to make a watch fob this problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but somewhat difficult operations. the process to be carried out is as follows: using -gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. then strengthen the pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. imbed this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. using an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to the depth of / of an inch. it is well to have the bottom of the spot reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly undercut. before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off under the water tap. flux should be kept in a closed jar under water after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of copper previously cleaned with acid. enough flux should be applied to cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot must not be filled up. [illustration: design for a watch fob] now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. heat very slowly until all the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused. allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to the surface of the fob by grinding with scotch stone. clean with acid as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was applied, and fuse again. after fusing, the surface should be stoned again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and buffed on the wheel. if it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little above that of enamel. the depth of the engraving on the silver need not be as great as on the copper. to make a card tray eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new operations, _viz._, raising and chasing, are introduced. after cutting out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric acid pickle bath. a circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. now holding the copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the roughing hammer. it is well to anneal frequently. [illustration: design for a card tray] after shaping, the design may be applied by means of transfer paper and the lines lightly scratched on the surface. then imbed the tray in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow chasing tool. reverse the tray on the pitch and, with a chasing tool of suitable shape, raise the body of the design to the height desired. reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and smooth the background. remove from the pitch, trim the edge of the tray if it is forced out of line, clean with pumice stone and buff. [illustration: method of shaping with the hammer] all the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them with, or immersing them in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of sulphur. if soft solder has not been used, another pleasing finish may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating gently until the oil is volatilized. an antique green or verdigris finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and copper carbonate. several coats may be necessary; and it is desirable to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency. work in other materials a candle shade the materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull shades of gray, brown or green, and with mat surface; japanese paper of average thickness; passe-partout binding a little darker than the card-board and of harmonizing colour; paste; a penknife with a thin blade; and a water colour outfit. of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of this problem. referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the edges ae and dh be continued until they meet at o, oe and oh are really equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the upper part of the group, and oa and od, to the radii of the inner arc. this upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle shade. [illustration: details of candle shade] the decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board segments. these are covered with japanese paper, thus allowing light to pass through, but adding the effect of colour. a margin of / of an inch is allowed along the openings, the remaining spaces being divided by partitions of card-board, as shown in the different typical designs at the right of the illustration. it will be noticed that the group of openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the shape of that side. it will also be noticed that there is a variety of size and shape in the openings, but that they all show a certain unity and harmony of space division. the openings are cut with a penknife, care being taken to make as clean a cut as possible. japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or some suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings. the process of pasting is one that requires some care. it is well to paste only a portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings. the paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist, and the paper itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. it should be placed with colour side next to the openings. when the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the lines ae, bf, etc., and bent on these lines, bringing the sectors together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding. if the binding is of the ordinary width ( / of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting the edges. no attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge. the separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and bottom edge and applied one at a time. then the side edges are bound, with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding. when the binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and bottom. electric light pendants [illustration: a seven-light fixture] two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. they were derived from suggestions in the _craftsman_, and were successfully worked out in remodelling a house. the seven-light fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about inches in diameter, made from -inch plain oak stock, cut into -degree segments and, with splined joints, glued up to form a circular piece which was turned up on a large lathe. an open space inches in diameter was left in the larger circle, which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws. the considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights. seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had large, coarse threaded screws. a / -inch hole was drilled lengthwise through the shanks of these hooks. holes were bored near the centre of the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks. when the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper surface of the board, passed down through the hole in the shank of the hook, woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook, like those described above, which linked the socket to the chain. as a finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and oxidized to a tone somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board. copper cups in a conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs. the chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work. the entire combination was satisfactory. [illustration: a five-light fixture] another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to construct is also illustrated. it will be observed that the square form instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and metal caps. these caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull finish. the shades are of ground glass, decorated with a flower design in heavy black lines. the central light has a larger shade than the others, wholly enclosed. in this one is placed a red incandescent bulb for use whenever such decorative effect is desired. decorative forgings in the story of the designing and building of the model house reference was made to contributions from the forge shop. among these were the andirons, door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles shown in the accompanying illustrations. it should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production. there must be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools, all in the hands of a workman of some experience and skill. successful forge work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with poor equipment. but with good tools, proper equipment, and a little experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit. [illustration: decorative forgings. plate xvi] for the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there may be made the shovel, poker, and tongs, and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot hooks. other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks, lantern brackets for the wall or for lantern posts, standards for the newel post, the hall lantern or the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker for the door, and, if the architectural design permits, hinges, plates, and bolts for the door. this list by no means exhausts the uses of wrought iron in house decoration. it may be extended to include draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles and hinges of great variety, nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction, and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles, toasting forks, candle holders, and many other useful articles which have also decorative value. xii concluding suggestions country homes to know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul alive.--_robert louis stevenson_ keen observers of american customs, who have studied the development of our taste in house designing and furnishing, tell us that the best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to be found in our country homes. they do not overlook, of course, a beautiful public building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether, or an occasional private residence on millionaire avenue, which are monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any country may be proud. what they mean is that as a people we seek and secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more frequently in the country than in the city. at first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration. is it reasonable, we ask, that people of good sense, such as most americans are, really succeed better in planning, building, and decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the summer than they do in developing their city homes? we are told that it is true and that there are good reasons for it. _simplicity of country life._--it is the life in the country and at the seashore that is the simple life, the natural life, the life that sets us free from the accumulated burden of mere "things." here we come to forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few. here we are to feel the joy of living. nature is all about us, and she gives of her bounty freely. our wants are few because we are so well satisfied with the free gifts. what wants we have keep step with our needs here as they do nowhere else. we care less for what others have; we are more individual, more rational. here we generally demand what we really need and we more frequently obtain it. and this is true whether it be something that appeals to the æsthetic side of our natures or whether it be that which ministers to our material needs. in seeking the beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget the useful; for here, away from the world of museums and studios and collections, we learn that art is possible without paintings and statuary. in the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage, set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea, in the harmonious arrangement of its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen only for use and comfort and placed where needed, and with decorations, cheerful but restrained and subordinate, suggestive of more glorious colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such surroundings we have beauty and utility combined. here we have the time and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home, if not its highest mission, its most open field for giving to appreciative people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful. _opportunities for constructive art._--if it be true that there is a more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better class of our country homes than in our city homes, it is proof, if proof be needed, that the elements of art expression are found in the simple, natural materials of every-day life. it may be that in the development of art amid simple surroundings "necessity is the mother of invention," and that, more or less naturally, simplicity is thrust upon us. the general habit of our time is to extend the vacation period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home there for every summer season. but only a few can carry wealth and elegance with them. a great majority must be satisfied with simple and inexpensive homes. at first we accept them as the only thing possible, and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best of opportunities for true æsthetic expression. and this opportunity is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and girls whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest in the summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature. we have seen that it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under the exacting requirements of city life. how much easier it must be to build a cottage for the summer season, decorating and furnishing it in harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home. if such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those who undertake the work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the foregoing chapters. it is not expected, of course, that the directions there given will always be exactly followed. in the furniture problems, for example, soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for the harder woods specified. very attractive as well as very useful simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal expense. staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of new pine and spruce is in itself by no means unattractive. the smooth, exposed beams of the ceilings and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be stained a beautiful gray green or a soft brown. a good colour suggestion may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old buildings. the effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a backing of inexpensive sheathing. these materials are very durable and inexpensive, and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful shades. they make excellent portières. a lighter, thinner material like scrim is better for window draperies. all these fabrics afford good surfaces for decoration by stencilling. stained or painted soft wood floors, covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving, with simple, useful furniture, a picture or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery, complete the equipment for a charming living room. if it all be the product of home industry, the cash outlay for the material need not be over forty dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount for better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur artists and craftsmen of the family. [illustration: a fireplace in field rock] the chief expense would naturally be for the living room, dining-room, and kitchen. the dining-room, however, may well be simply a corner or alcove of a large living room. such an arrangement greatly increases the value of a single fireplace, which will be required to give the summer home the sense of perfect comfort. this may be of rough field rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood. the chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed. furniture dealers make a point of supplying beds, bureaus, chairs, and cabinets of simple design, unfinished, so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize with any desired colour scheme. but such furniture, or good substitutes for it, can be made very inexpensively. for example, the stock for a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. cases provided with shelves and curtains in place of drawers, made at a cash outlay possibly of one dollar, will serve for bureaus. the cost of materials for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not exceed five hundred dollars; and such a cottage could be beautifully furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars. [illustration: an inexpensive bed] in the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs very little assistance. no colours harmonize so well with the gray rocks, sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees by the seashore, as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage. the window frames, door frames and facings, painted to preserve them, may be of the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly marking the outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts. a stained roof in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping. the underpinning and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently fitting. the house among the hills will stand more colour because the colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn season. but wherever the house may be, it should repeat in its larger surfaces the prevailing colour tones of its natural setting. it should seem to fit into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain there, a part of the simple, natural beauty all around it. [illustration: a country house] the country life press, garden city, n. y. [transcriber's notes: spelling is the same mix of us/uk as others in series (eg color/colour) corrected obvious typos: tell -> tells arrrangement -> arrangement croheted -> crocheted stenciling -> stencilling on account -> on account of will be be -> will be retain -> and retains expecially -> especially portières/portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts (left as in text in each case) hyphenation made consistent: wood-work -> woodwork outdoor -> out-door ] +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | note: | | | | tags that surround words =materials required:= indicate | | bold. tags that surround the words _a hurdle race_ indicate | | italics. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ the child's rainy day book _other books by mary white_ how to make pottery how to do beadwork how to make baskets more baskets and how to make them [illustration: building a piece of pottery with coils of clay--as the indians do] the child's rainy day book by mary white illustrated by the author [illustration] new york doubleday, page & company copyright, , by doubleday, page & company published, october, _all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages including the scandinavian._ to my sister anna white sherman and her children roger, herbert, elizabeth, rosamond and anna contents chapter page i. a foreword to mothers ii. simple home-made toys and games iii. basket weaving iv. knots with raffia and cord v. what a child can do with beads vi. clay working vii. indoor gardening viii. gifts and how to make them ix. paper flowers and toys x. games for two or three to play list of illustrations building a piece of pottery with coils of clay--as the indians do _frontispiece_ facing page playing the bean bag game planning a book house basket weaving knots with raffia and cord: . the beginning of a ping pong net. . a turk's-head knot. . raffia work bag. . doll's hammock. . a rattan napkin ring a little garden for a little girl making a chrysanthemum a ball-and-fan race list of figures figure page rattan ring a b c l a leather tag case a foreword to mothers child's rainy day book chapter i a foreword to mothers how shall we answer the ever recurring rainy day question, "what shall i do?" we hear it wherever children are kept indoors--from whatever cause. all of us are concerned with the answer--mothers, fathers, teachers, big brothers and sisters--even maiden aunts. we all know what is coming when jack turns from the rain-splashed window with a listless face and dorothy, none too gently, thrusts her favourite doll into the corner with its face to the wall. one might suppose that, with the hosts of mechanical toys, of costly french dolls, each with a wardrobe as much in keeping with fashion as that of a society woman, the small sons and daughters would be content for a year of rainy days. but that proves how little one knows about it. such toys are too perfect, too complete, and very soon they are pushed into the background. the boy's real treasures are the willow whistle that uncle tom taught him to make last summer, the boat that he is building and the game he invented--a favourite one with all the children. bedtime and getting-up time for the french doll may come and go, while she lies forgotten in the corner, for is there not a dress to be made for the clothespin doll? we need only to look back about twenty years to realise how natural all this is. what do we remember? not the toys that were brought us when father and mother went on a journey. they are very hazy--these visions of a doll in silk and lace, and a donkey with real hair and a nodding head. what became of them afterward? we forget. but the games we "made up," the paper dolls we cut from fashion papers, the target we laboured to make of coiled straw--these are as fresh in our memories as if we had played with them yesterday. shall we not answer the question by giving the children something to do, not by entertaining them but by helping them to entertain themselves. simple home made toys and games chapter ii simple home made toys and games _a bean bag game_ =materials required:= / yard each of blue, red, yellow and green gingham, quarts of small white beans, a length of no. rattan, a bunch of red raffia, a tapestry needle, screw eyes, / yards of strong twine, a spool of no. white cotton, a needle, scissors. very many good games can be played with bean bags. the following is a simple one to prepare. cut from blue gingham three pieces, each five inches wide by twelve long. other pieces of the same size are cut from red, yellow and green gingham--three of each colour. these pieces are made up into bags by doubling them and stitching up the sides with strong thread; leaving one end of each open. this will give a small girl something to do for more than one rainy day. when they have all been stitched, fill each bag half full of small, white beans, turn in the edges of the open end and sew it up, over and over, with strong thread. be very careful to sew the seams securely, for if you do you will have a good, durable bag instead of one from which the beans are always dropping. the other part of the game is a large ring of rattan ten inches across, which is made as follows: soak a piece of no. rattan in water for a few minutes. while you are waiting for it to get pliable thread a tapestry or darning needle with red raffia. whittle an end of the rattan into a long point. next coil the rattan into a ring, ten inches across; lay the end of your raffia, with its tip turned to the right, on the rattan ring and bring the needle, threaded with raffia, around and over the ring. the raffia is then brought under the long end of rattan, around it and down under the ring, binding the second coil of rattan to the first with what is called a "figure eight" stitch (see fig. ). hold the ring firmly in your left hand while you sew with the right. first under and around the lower coil, then up, under and around the upper one. it is pretty work, besides making such a firm, light ring. [illustration: playing the bean-bag game] [illustration: fig. ] when you have bound the second coil to the first almost all the way round the ring, cut the rattan so that it will overlap the beginning of the ring about an inch, and whittle it to a long, flat point. continue the figure eight stitch as far as you can, then bind the raffia round and round the ring, and sew back and forth through the raffia covering till it is secure. you can then cut it close to the ring. [illustration: rattan ring] fasten a screw eye at the top of the frame of the playroom door and one on each side of the doorway, on the edge of the frame, four feet and a half from the floor. tie a piece of strong twine, about a yard long, at the top of the ring and another, three-quarters of a yard, on each side. fasten the upper string to the screw eye above the doorway so that the ring will hang with its lower edge about four feet from the floor. tie the other strings through the screw eyes to right and left of the doorway. the game is now complete. from two to four children can play it. each has three bean bags of one colour and takes his turn at throwing them through the ring, standing on a mark eight feet from the doorway. one player keeps the score, and whenever a bean bag is sent through the ring the child who threw it is credited with five points. the one who first succeeds in making fifty points is the winner. _a book house for paper dolls_ =materials required:= a large blank book with a stiff cover, and preferably with unruled pages, a number of old magazines, some pieces of wall paper the size of the book's pages, several pieces of lace or other fancy paper, a tube of paste, scissors. any little girl who is looking for a home for a family of paper dolls will find a book the very best kind of a house for them. and then such fun as it will be to furnish it! first comes the house hunting. a large new blank book with unruled pages would be best of all, and that is what we want if we can get it, but of course all doll families cannot live in such luxury. an old account book with most of its pages unused will make an excellent house. i have even known a family of dolls to be cheerful and happy in an old city directory. it will be easy to find furniture in the advertising pages of magazines, rugs can be cut from pictures in the same magazines and bits of wall paper are used for the walls of the book house. tissue paper of different colours and papers with a lace edge make charming window curtains, while thicker fancy papers may be used for portieres. on the cover of the book a picture of the house, or just the doorway, may be pasted. the first two pages are of course the hall. for this you will need a broad staircase, hall seat, hardwood floor and rugs, with perhaps an open fireplace or a cushioned window seat to make it look hospitable. try to find furniture all about the same size, or if you cannot do this put the smaller pieces at the back of the room and the larger ones toward the front. next there will be the drawing room to furnish, then the library, the dining room and pantry, not forgetting the kitchen and laundry. use two pages for each room, leaving several between the different rooms, so that the book shall not be too full at the front and empty at the back. if it does not close easily remove some of the blank pages. cut out the different pieces of furniture as carefully as possible, paste them in as neatly as you can, and you will have a book house to be proud of. flowered papers will be the best for the bedrooms, or plain wall papers in light colours; and with brass bedsteads, pretty little dressing tables and curtains made of thin white tissue paper (which looks so like white muslin), they will be as dainty as can be. now and then through the book it is interesting to have a page with just a bay window and a broad window seat with cushions and pillows--as if it were a part of a long hall. hang curtains of coloured or figured paper in front of it so that they will have to be lifted if anyone wants to peep in. when you have finished the bathroom, playroom, maids' rooms and attic there will still be the piazza, the garden, the stables and the golf course (covering several pages), to arrange. if you have a paint box and can colour tastefully you will be able to make your book house even more attractive than it is already. [illustration: planning a book house] _united states mail_ =materials required:= a pasteboard box, about by inches, some old white pasteboard boxes with a glossy finish, a box of paints, unused postal cards, a tube of paste, pen and ink, scissors. this is a fine game for rainy days. any boy can make it and if he likes to use pencil and paint brush he will find it as interesting to make as to play with. get a small pasteboard box about six inches long by three wide and an inch deep--such as spools of cotton come in. cover it with white paper, pasting it neatly and securely. then draw and colour on the lid a mail bag, which should almost cover it--either a brown leather sack or a white canvas one with "united states mail" on it in large blue letters. do not forget to draw the holes at the top of the bag and the rope which passes through them to close it. you have now something to hold the counters for the game. these are made to look like letters and postal cards. to make the letters, rule a set of lines three-quarters of an inch apart, across a box or cover of shiny white cardboard. then another set, crossing the others at right angles. these should be an inch and a quarter apart. the postal cards are ruled in the same way (on real, unused postal cards), so as to make oblong spaces. cut these out with a sharp pair of scissors. there should be thirty cardboard pieces and at least twenty-five of the postal cards. now draw on the cards, with a fine pen and black ink, marks like those on a postal card--the stamp in the corner, the lettering and the address. make pen lines on all of the pasteboard letters like fig. and paint a tiny red dot on each to look like sealing-wax. on the reverse side of one write something to look like an address, and paint in large letters "d.l.o.," (to stand for dead letter office) in the corner. six other letters are also addressed in the same way, but have instead of "d.l.o." a red stamp and a blue one, the latter wider than it is high, to represent a special delivery stamp. nine pieces should also be cut from brown cardboard in the shape shown in fig. to represent packages. paint three red stamps in the corner of each of these. [illustration: fig. ] _rules for playing united states mail_ [illustration: fig. ] two or more persons can play this game. when the pieces are equally divided among the players, the one on the right of the dealer throws a piece on the table, saying as he does so, "i send a letter to b----," for example, and then counts five, not running the numbers in together, but as deliberately as a clock ticks. before he has stopped counting, the player on his right must name a city or town beginning with b. if he succeeds in doing this he wins the piece, otherwise it goes to the player who threw it. when all the pieces have been played each player counts his score. the value of the pieces is as follows: each postal card counts one, each letter two, each package six. the special delivery letters are worth ten points each, and the person who is so unfortunate as to have the letter with "d.l.o." upon it loses ten points from his score. _flying rings_ =materials required:= a flour-barrel top, / yard of yellow cheesecloth, large wire nails, lengths of no. rattan, a bunch of red raffia, a bunch of green raffia, a bunch of yellow raffia, a tapestry needle, some small tacks, a hammer, a tube of glue, a sheet of note paper. boys and girls will enjoy this game, and both can help in making it. the materials are simple and easily obtained, which is also an advantage. first of all we shall need a flour-barrel top. this should be covered with yellow cheesecloth drawn smooth and tight and tacked in place along the outer edge. measure with a rule to find the exact centre and make a pencil mark on the cheesecloth at that point. another mark is made above this one, half way between it and the edge. a third mark is placed at the right of the middle one and half way between it and the edge, as well as one to the left and one below it at the same distance from the centre. a large nail is driven into the barrel top at each of the five marks (see fig. ). two screw eyes are then put in at the top, about a foot apart, so that it can be easily hung. next draw on note paper that is not too stiff the figures , , , and . make them about an inch high and quite thick and go over them with ink. with a small pair of scissors cut out these numbers and paste each under a nail, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] next there are the rings to be made. follow the directions given on pages and , using no. rattan instead of no. , and these rings should only be two and a half inches across. make three rings of each colour, green, red and yellow, and the game is complete. _to play it_: hang the barrel top on the wall or against a screen and see who can throw the most rings on the nails standing six feet away. each player has three rings of a different colour, and each in turn throws his rings at the mark. when he succeeds in tossing a ring on one of the nails he scores as many points as the number under the nail indicates. _how to make a cork castle_ =materials required:= a number of old corks, the larger the better, a tube of glue, a penknife, a piece of pasteboard a foot square, a sheet of dull green tissue paper. [illustration: fig. ] such fascinating castles can be made from old corks--or if you live near a cork factory you can get plenty of odds and ends of cork bark that will be even better for the purpose. with a penknife cut small bricks, half an inch long by quarter of an inch wide and an eighth of an inch thick. if you are planning a round tower, such as is shown in fig. , make the bricks in the wedge shape shown in fig. . cut them as nearly alike as possible, but it will do no harm if they are not perfectly regular; the castle will only look more ancient and interesting. it is wonderful how much the bits of cork look like stone. when you have a good supply of bricks ready you may begin to build. use glue to stick the blocks together; the kind that comes in a tube is the easiest and cleanest to handle. leave spaces for doors and windows, and for the roof use a large flat cork from a preserve jar. mark it off into battlements such as are shown in fig. , and cut them out carefully. then glue the roof securely on the walls of the castle. [illustration: fig. ] where shall we place it now that it is made? a green mountain side is a good location for a castle, and it can be made quite easily. bend a piece of pasteboard about a foot square (an old box cover will do) into dents that will almost break it, these look quite like hills and valleys and sharp crags, especially when they have been covered with green tissue paper. to do this spread a layer of paste or glue all over the pasteboard and then press the paper upon it. if it wrinkles, so much the better, for it will look more like grass and growing things. _a doll's shaker bonnet_ =materials required:= a piece of fine straw about x inches, some scraps of plain-coloured china silk, / yard of straw-coloured ribbon, / of an inch wide, / yard of narrow ribbon the colour of the china silk, a spool of straw-coloured sewing silk. [illustration: fig. ] the daintiest little shaker bonnet may be easily made by a little girl to fit one of her dolls. from the brim of an old leghorn, or other fine straw hat, cut two pieces, the shapes shown in figs. and . for a doll six or eight inches long the front piece will need to be about five inches long by an inch and a half wide. bind the curved edge of the front piece with the straw-coloured ribbon, sewing it through and through with small stitches, using straw-coloured sewing silk. sew one edge of a piece of the straw-coloured ribbon close to the curved edge of the back piece from a to aa (see fig. ). mark, with a pencil, a dot at the middle of the curved edge of the back portion and one at the middle of the straight edge of the front part. pin the two parts together at these dots and sew the edges together. in doing this you will have to turn back the ribbon which edges the back portion. next bring the ribbon forward to cover the rough edges of the straw where the two parts join and sew its loose edge along on the front portion. cut a piece of china silk seven and three-quarters inches long by an inch and three-quarters wide. make a narrow hem all around it. a tiny pencil mark is then made on the lower edge of the back piece and another at the middle of the silk strip. gather the silk just below the hem on the upper edge and sew it to the lower edge of the bonnet at the back. stitch a piece of narrow ribbon eight inches long at each side of the front, for strings, and the bonnet is done. [illustration: fig. ] _leather and string puzzle_ =materials required:= a strip of thick leather, inches long by wide, a piece of heavy linen string a foot long, a knife. [illustration: fig. ] with a sharp knife, a small strip of leather and a bit of strong string any boy can make this simple puzzle. it is easier to make, however, than it is to do, as the boy's friends will discover. fig. will show how it is made. a strip of leather five and a half inches long, an inch and a quarter wide at one end and five-eighths of an inch at the other, is first cut. then, starting at about five-eighths of an inch from the narrow end, cut with a sharp knife two slits down the middle of the piece three-eighths of an inch apart and three inches long. at three-eighths of an inch from the wide end a small piece, one-quarter of an inch square, is cut out of the middle of the strip (see fig. ). from the scraps of leather remaining cut two pieces, each one inch long by five-eighths of an inch wide. make a hole in the middle of each. then pass a piece of stout linen cord eleven inches long back of the long, open strip in the large piece of leather, leaving the ends of equal length. pass both ends down through the square hole and tie each of them securely through the hole in the middle of one of the small pieces of leather. this completes it. [illustration: fig. ] the object is to try to get the string, with the small piece of leather at either end, off the large piece of leather without cutting or untying it. the only way to do this is shown in fig. . holding both ends of the string, close to where it passes back of the narrow strip in the middle of the large piece of leather, pull the strip out through the small square hole. one of the small pieces of leather can then be slipped through the loop thus formed, releasing the string. _a bed for a little doll_ =materials required:= an oblong pasteboard box an inch or more longer than the doll it is to hold, / yard of flowered or striped muslin, / yard of blue and white seersucker or other cotton, some cotton or wool wadding, / yard of thin white cotton cloth, / yard of outing flannel, / yard of white piqué. almost any little girl who chooses to do so can make this dainty bed for one of her small dolls. she will only need an oblong pasteboard box with a cover, and large enough to hold the doll comfortably. if mamma will let her have some pieces of cotton, flowered, striped and plain and a little cotton or wool wadding, she will have all the materials she needs. first cut from blue and white striped cotton a bag the length and width of the box. stitch it neatly together around three sides, turn it right side out and fill it with cotton or wool wadding. turn in the edges on the fourth side and sew them together over and over. with a darning needle threaded with blue cotton or silk the mattress can be tufted here and there. the needle is first run through to the under side, then one little stitch is taken, bringing the thread back again to the right side, where the two ends are tied tightly together and cut close to the knot. if these tufts are made at equal distances, say one inch apart, all over the mattress it will make it look very "real." [illustration: fig. ] the pillow is made in the same way as the mattress, except that it is not tufted. cut the sheets and pillowcase from thin white cotton, allowing enough for hems. make the pillowcase a quarter of an inch wider and about an inch and a quarter longer than the pillow. stitch it around both sides and on one end and hem the other end. tiny blankets may be cut from outing flannel, and a spread made from a piece of white piqué or other thick white wash material. the bed can now be made up, but it will look very plain. a fluffy canopy and valance (or flounce) of flowered or striped white muslin will improve it wonderfully. the cover is set on end and the head of the bedstead is pressed into it (see fig. ), making a frame for the canopy. measure from the front corner of this frame to the middle of the front and cut a piece of muslin half again as wide as this measurement and long enough to reach from the top of the frame to the bottom of the bed. another piece the same size is cut, and then both are turned in and gathered at the top, hemmed on the other edges and sewed into place on the top edge of the canopy frame, so that the two will meet in the middle. they are both looped back against the front edge of the frame, see fig. , and sewed there securely. the valance or flounce around the lower part of the bed is cut wide enough to allow for hemming at the bottom and to turn in at the top. it should be long enough to reach once and a half around the bed. turn in the upper edge of the valance, gather it to fit the bed and pin it in position. then sew it with a strong needle and coarse thread on to the box through and through. this makes as comfortable and pretty a bed as dolly could wish. _floor baseball_ =materials required:= a piece of white chalk, a piece of sheet lead, by inches, and as thick as a fifty-cent piece, or strands of scarlet raffia, a tapestry needle, a gimlet. this is a delightful game for a rainy day, and the preparations for it are very simple. in fact, when you have fashioned the disk of lead with a raffia covering, there is nothing to provide but a piece of chalk. you can buy, from almost any plumber or tinsmith, for a few cents, a scrap of sheet lead two or three inches square and about as thick as a half dollar. upon this piece of lead lay a half dollar, draw around it with a pencil and cut out the circle with a sharp, strong pair of scissors. it cuts as easily as cardboard of the same thickness. bore a hole one-quarter of an inch across through the centre of the disk with a gimlet or sharp-pointed awl. it is possible to use the disk just as it is, but it makes less noise if it is covered with raffia. to do this, thread a worsted (or tapestry) needle with raffia--the grass-like material that you have seen used for making baskets. tie the other end of the raffia through the disk, as shown in fig. a, put the needle down through the hole in the centre, up through the loop in the raffia (see fig. b) and pull your strand up close to the edge. this will make a stitch like that shown in fig. c--what sailors call a half hitch and mothers a buttonhole stitch. make more of these stitches around the disk, until finally it is entirely covered (see fig. ). if the strand of raffia gives out before the disk is covered sew the short end through the last two or three stitches on the edge of the disk and start a new piece by bringing the end through the last stitch on the edge. the short ends of both strands should be covered with the buttonhole stitches as you go on. [illustration: fig. a] [illustration: fig. b] [illustration: fig. c] [illustration: fig. ] now mark the diagram shown in fig. on the playroom floor with chalk, making the diamond two feet long by a foot and a half wide. in the centre of it is a circle, four inches across, which is home. each player takes his turn at throwing the disk, standing on a line eight feet away. if he throws the disk into the space marked he counts that he has a man on first base; if on , that he has one on second; and if on h, a home run is counted. if by chance with his first and second throws he puts the disk into and and with the third throw sends it into h he will have three runs to his credit. should he throw the disk into f he loses one point from his score, and when he has thrown the disk outside the diamond three times he is out. [illustration: fig. ] _a rug for the doll's house_ =materials required:= a small wooden frame, a piece of cream-coloured canvas, a ball of dull green worsted, a ball of cream white worsted, a steel crochet needle, no. . hooked rugs such as our grandmothers used to make are great fun to do. why should not a little girl make one of finer materials for the floor of her doll's house? either an empty slate frame or a wooden frame such as is sold by dealers in kindergarten supplies for chair caning will do very well to hold the canvas of which the rug is made. instead of strips of woolen we shall use worsted of various colours, and a strong steel crochet needle will be needed for "hooking." when you have decided upon the size of the rug you wish to make cut a piece of canvas an inch wider and longer than it is to be, and make a hem a quarter of an inch wide all around it. with a needleful of white linen thread sew the rug into the frame, taking the stitches through the edge of the canvas and around the frame until it is securely fastened in. suppose a green rug is planned, with a group of white stripes at each end. it will be well to mark on the canvas where the stripes are to run before beginning the work. the worsted should be wound into balls. starting with an end of the green worsted, at the lower right side of the frame, hold it under the rug and hook it up through the canvas with the crochet needle. draw up a long enough end so that it can be cut off when the rug is finished and leave a thick texture. do not make all the loops the same height, for if now and then one is left too low to cut with the others it will make the rug wear better. one after another of these loops is drawn through the canvas, leaving two threads of canvas between every two loops, in a straight line across the rug. when the edge of the rug is reached a row is made above the one just finished, bringing the worsted from left to right. so it goes on till the rug is finished, only changing the ball of green worsted for a white one when it is time to make the stripes. after the hooking is done, the tops of the longer loops are cut off with a sharp pair of scissors, so as to make a smooth, soft rug. it will wear better if it is lined. when you have completed this rug you may want to make others with patterns woven into them. draw the pattern on the canvas with a soft lead pencil and it will be quite easy to work. basket weaving chapter iii basket weaving the rattan of which the baby's go-cart and mother's armchair are woven came from a far-away forest in india. troops of monkeys may have swung upon the very pieces on which your baby brother is bouncing, for the rattan hung from tree to tree in long festoons. one day some brown natives cut it down and stripped it of its leaves. it was then packed in bundles and sent to this country. the hard, shiny bark cut into strips has been woven into cane seats for chairs, and the inner part or core of the rattan was cut by a machine into the round strands that you see in wicker furniture. it takes a man's strong hands to weave great armchairs and baby carriages, but boys and girls can make charming little mats and baskets as well as tiny chairs and tables for the doll's house, and other interesting things. dealers in kindergarten supplies sell the rattan in different sizes, from no. , which is as fine as cord, to no. or no. , which is almost as thick as rope. you will only need the medium sizes, nos. , and , for your weaving, with some raffia--the soft but strong fibre that the gardener uses for tying up his plants. this you will also find at the kindergarten-supply store. a pair of shears, a yardstick and an awl are the only tools you will need. [illustration: fig. . twist of rattan] rattan comes in long skeins or twists (see fig. ). always draw it out from the loop end, so that it will not get tangled and break. two sizes of rattan are generally used in making a basket, the thicker for the spokes or ribs and the fine for the weavers. both must be soaked in warm water to make them soft and pliable. as many spokes as are needed are first cut the required length and tied together with a piece of raffia. the weavers are then coiled into rings, so that they also can be soaked. this is done as follows: starting near one end of a length of rattan, coil it into a ring. twist the short end around this ring once or twice to hold it (see fig. ). coil the rest of the strand into rings, one above the other, and twist the other end of the rattan around them all until they are held securely. have ready a basin or pail of warm water--not hot--and let the spokes and weaver soak in it for ten or fifteen minutes. [illustration: fig. ] suppose we begin with a mat, which is started, just as the baskets are, at the centre. _a mat or stand for a teapot_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, weaver of no. rattan. feel the ends of your weavers and you will find that some are stiff while others are almost as soft and pliable as cord. choose a soft one to start the mat. the four spokes arranged in pairs are crossed in the centre, the vertical ones being above the others, or nearer to you. place the short spoke, seven inches long, between the upper parts of these vertical spokes. they are held in position by the left hand, which is, as always, the one that holds, while the right is the weaving hand. an end of the weaver (which has first been unwound) is placed along the horizontal spokes, back of the vertical ones, with its tip toward the right. the forefinger of the right hand now presses the weaver across the vertical spokes and down behind the horizontal ones on the right (thus binding the end of the weaver securely), next over the lower vertical spokes and behind the horizontal ones on the left (see fig. ). this is repeated, and then, starting with the upper vertical spokes, the spokes are separated and the weaving begins (see fig. ). if you want to do close, even work, do not pull the rattan as you weave, but _press_ it with the forefinger, under and over the spokes as close to the work as possible. the spokes should be very evenly separated, for upon this much of the beauty and strength of your baskets will depend. think of the regular spaces between the spokes of a wheel and how much trouble one badly placed spoke would make. when there is just enough weaver left to go around once, the edge is bound off. this is very much like overcasting. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] after going under one spoke and over another, the weaver is passed under the last row of weaving just before it reaches the next spoke. it then goes behind that spoke, in front of the next and under the last row of weaving before the next spoke. when a row of this binding has been made around the edge the mat is finished with the following border: cut the spokes all the same length, not straight across but slanting, so as to make a point that can easily be pushed down between the weaving. then hold them in water for a few minutes. when they are quite pliable the first spoke (any one you choose to begin with) is pushed down between the rows of weaving beside the one to the left of it or spoke no. . no. is pushed down beside the next one to the left, no. , and so on all the way around the mat. take care that at least an inch of each spoke is pressed below the edge of the mat. _small candy basket_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, inch spoke of no. rattan, weavers of no. rattan. this little basket may be woven of rattan in the natural colour and afterward dyed or gilded, or one can buy the rattan already coloured. weave a bottom like the beginning of the mat, and when it measures two inches in diameter (that is, from side to side, across the centre), wet the spokes and turn them up. the spokes should be turned up away from you, for the side toward the person weaving is always the outside of the basket and the weaving should go from left to right--as you read. bend them over the middle finger so that the sides of the basket will be curved. [illustration: basket weaving] place the bottom of the basket on your knee, with the side which in starting was toward you turned down and the spokes bent upward, and do the weaving of the sides in that position. in joining a new weaver lay it across the end of the old one, back of a spoke (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. . joining weavers] the weaver at first should not be drawn too tight, but allowed to go easily, though it must be pressed closely down upon the row beneath it. when about three-quarters of an inch has been woven up the sides, the spokes are drawn gradually closer together by a slight tightening of the weaver, and this should be continued until an inch more has been woven. bind off and finish with this border. the spokes for the border should measure at least four inches from the last row of weaving to the end of the spoke. cut and soak as described in the directions for making a mat. spoke no. crosses the next one on the left, or no. , and is pushed down beside the next spoke, no. . no. crosses no. and is pushed down beside no. , and so on around the basket. _doll's table of rattan_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, weaver of no. rattan, a piece of fine wire, or inches long, several strands of raffia, an awl. perhaps you did not think it was as interesting to make a mat as to weave baskets, but you will be glad you know how to do it when you see some of the things that can be made with mats. for example, this dear little wicker table, just the size for a doll's house and the shape for an afternoon tea. two groups of spokes, one of three and the other of three and a half, are crossed in the centre. the short spoke should be put between two others, never on the outside of a group. the mat is woven like the other mat and basket until it is three and a half inches in diameter, when the edge is bound off. bring each spoke across the next one and press it down beside the next, as in the border of the basket, except that the long end is not cut off, but brought out between the fourth and fifth rows of weaving on the under side of the mat. the loops of the border are drawn in so that they will not be more than a quarter of an inch beyond the weaving. the long ends of the spokes (which are to form the legs of the table) are brought together and bound with a piece of fine wire just under the centre. separate them into three groups of four spokes each. the odd spoke is either cut off or whittled very thin and bound in with one of the three groups. a strand of raffia is now doubled around two or three spokes, above the wire binding, and wound tightly around one of the groups until it has covered two inches, from the binding down. at the end a half hitch or one buttonhole stitch is made, to keep the raffia from slipping. it is then wound up again to the top. the raffia is brought down the second leg as far as the first one was wound; here it is turned with a half hitch and brought up again in the same way. the third leg is also wound down and up again, with a half hitch at the bottom to hold it. after this third leg has been covered the raffia is brought in and out between the legs, where they separate, in order to spread them more. it is then tied and the ends are cut close. finally the spokes at the end of each leg are cut slanting so that the table will stand firmly. _doll's chair of rattan_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, -inch spokes of no. rattan, piece of no. rattan about inches long, weavers of no. rattan, several strands of raffia, an awl. would you like to make a tiny high-backed chair to use with the tea table in the doll's house? it is only a trifle more difficult to make than the table. two groups of twenty-inch spokes of no. rattan, one having three and the other three and a half spokes in it, are crossed at the centre, bound around twice with a weaver of no. rattan and woven into a mat three inches in diameter. after binding off the edge the following border is made: each spoke is brought down beside the next one, as in the border of the mat, except that the long end is drawn out between the second and third rows of weaving on the under side of the mat. when all the spokes have been brought out in this way underneath the mat, or seat, the four groups of three spokes each which are to form the legs are so divided that the vertical spokes in the centre of the chair seat shall run toward the front and back of the seat. the thirteenth spoke is whittled to a thin point and bound in with one of the other groups, which are wound with raffia down to the end, turned with a half hitch and brought up again. a neat way to start the raffia is to thread it across a row of weaving in the chair seat, just above the group it is to bind. a piece of no. rattan about nine inches long is coiled into a ring and held within the space enclosed by the legs, about half way down, where it is wound around with a strand of raffia and bound securely to each leg. the back of the chair is formed by inserting four spokes of no. rattan, ten inches long, beside those in the seat, at that part of the seat which has been chosen for the back. to do this push a sharp pointed awl in between the weaving, beside a spoke, draw it out and you will have made room for the new spoke to run in. bend the spokes up and weave back and forth upon them with a no. weaver, turning on the outside spokes. needless to say, the weaver must be very soft and pliable in order to make these sharp turns. you will find that you can make almost any kind of a back you choose. if you decide to make an oval-shaped back, then when you have woven it high enough, bring each of the outside spokes over and down beside the other one, running it in between the weaving. the inner spokes are crossed at the centre and run down beside the outer spokes. to make an armchair insert six spokes instead of four at the back of the seat and weave the outer spokes in with the others for a few rows. they are then bent over and forward to form the arms. each is cut to the desired length and run in beside one of the side spokes in the seat. _a bird's nest_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, / weavers of no. rattan, a bunch of raffia a tapestry needle, no. . at the bird market in paris charming little nests are sold, woven of rushes on spokes of brown twigs, in the shape of an indian tepee. they are intended for caged birds, who cannot build their own nests of sticks and grass and horsehair from the fields and wayside. some free birds like them, too--wrens, for example. a boy or girl who has made the mat and basket and doll's furniture will have no difficulty in weaving one of these nests. then there will be the delight of hanging it in a tree (not too near the house) and watching to see what bird will choose it when nesting time comes. [illustration: fig. ] let us weave a nest that shall be light and yet firm. spokes of rattan will give it strength and weavers of raffia will make it soft and comfortable. two groups of spokes, one of four and the other of four and a half, are crossed at the centre, bound three times with a strand of raffia and woven into a bottom an inch and a half across. another weaver is then added and an inch of pairing is made. pairing, or _bam tush_, as the indians call it, is a simple stitch. two weavers are started, each one behind a spoke (see fig. ). the one on the left is brought over the first spoke, under the next and down in front. it is now the turn of the second weaver, which also passes over the first spoke on its right, under the next and outside, where it is held down in front while the other weaver repeats the process. so it goes on around the nest. the spokes are then wet so that the bottom may be formed into a bowl shape, with sides rounding up from the very centre. a row of pairing in no. rattan is next woven to hold the slippery raffia in place. this is followed by five-eighths of an inch of raffia woven in pairing, the sides still being flared. two rows of pairing in no. rattan are then woven, drawing the spokes in very slightly. at this point, which is the widest, the nest should measure eleven inches around the top. a row of under and over weaving is started, and at the place which has been chosen for the doorway the weaver is doubled back on a spoke and woven from right to left until it comes to the second spoke to the right of the one it first doubled around. it is brought around this spoke, thus making the beginning of a doorway, which has an unused spoke in the centre of it. the weaver then returns to the spoke it first doubled around, where it doubles back again. this is repeated until the doorway is an inch and a quarter high. two rows of pairing in no. rattan are then woven all the way around, forming a firm top for the doorway, where they cross it. the spokes are drawn in closer and closer with rows of pairing in raffia, until, when an inch and a half has been woven, they meet at the top. the ends of the spokes are left uneven lengths and bound around with a strand of raffia threaded through a tapestry needle. a loop to hang it by is made of two strands of raffia, five and a half inches long, covered close with buttonhole stitch in raffia. the spoke in the centre of the doorway should be cut at the lower part of the opening, just above the weaving, and after it has been wet until quite pliable it is bent and pressed up between the weaving beside the upper part of the same spoke. knots with raffia and cord chapter iv knots with raffia and cord sailors' knots are of course fascinating to boys, but why should not girls enjoy making them, too? think of the dolls' hammocks, the work bags and twine ball nets one can make, and think of being able to tie a good, square knot--one that will hold--instead of the "granny knots" that brothers and boy cousins laugh at! [illustration: fig. ] of course you know how to tie the simplest knot of all--the one shown in fig. . let us call it the loop knot, for it is made by tying the ends of a strand together to form a loop. you have used it often for that purpose, i am sure, and sometimes to tie two pieces of string together. you can make a pretty and useful sponge bag of raffia in the natural colour with this knot. the wet sponge will not hurt the raffia, and in such an open bag the air soon dries it. _knotted sponge bag_ =materials required:= strands of raffia, a length of no. rattan, a tapestry needle. [illustration: fig. ] roll a length of no. rattan into a ring, as described on page , so that it can be soaked in warm water till it is pliable. cut it into three pieces, each forty-seven inches long. tie an end of one of these pieces into a ring seven inches in diameter and twist the long end in and out once around this (see fig. ). at the end of this row the ends, where they meet, should overlap an inch. if they are longer, cut them off with a slanting cut and tie them tightly together with a piece of raffia. two more rings, the same size as the first one, are made with the other pieces of rattan. hang one of the rings where you can reach it easily, on a low bedpost, for example. double a strand of raffia and tie it through the ring as shown in fig. , drawing the knot up quite close. twenty-two strands are knotted on in this way. space them along the ring about an inch apart, and, beginning with any pair of strands, tie the right-hand one with the nearest strand of the next pair on the right, making an even mesh at an inch from the first row of knots. continue this all around the ring, when you will have made one row. ten more rows are knotted in this way. then bring the ends of all the strands straight down together and tie them below the centre of the ring with a piece of raffia. the ends are cut off evenly at about two inches and a half from where they were tied, to form a tassel. the two other rings are used for the handles of the bag. lay one of them against the ring at the top of the bag so that the places where the rings are tied will come together. thread a tapestry needle with raffia and bind the rings together with buttonhole stitch for an inch. then sew through and through the binding to make it secure and cut the end close to the ring. the other ring handle is bound to the opposite side of the top ring in the same way. _a doll's hammock_ =materials required:= strands of raffia, a tapestry needle. even simpler to make than the sponge bag is a doll's hammock of raffia. it is knotted in just the same way. [illustration: fig. ] lay twelve strands of raffia evenly together. bend them to find the middle, or "middle them," as the sailors say. lay the short end of another piece of raffia on the middle of the twelve strands, with its tip turning toward the left, and wind the long end round and round from right to left, binding them together for two and three-quarter inches. bring the two ends of this binding together to form a loop, wind a strand of raffia tightly around them (see fig. ), and tie the ends securely. you will then have twenty-four ends to knot together, two and two, as the knots in the bag were made. pin the loop on the cushion of a chair or tie it to a low hook or to the doorknob, so that you can pull the strands taut. the first row of knots is tied about two inches from the loop and after that the rows are only an inch apart. the finishing of the edge of the hammock is of course different from the bag. [illustration: fig. ] it is done in this way: in starting the second row of knots the left strand in the first pair is of course left untied, and, after knotting the row across, the right strand of the last pair is also left free. when the third row is started the loose strand on the left side of the hammock is knotted in with the left one in the first pair of strands in this row (see fig. ). in other words, the strands which are left untied at each side of the hammock when the second, fourth, sixth and all the even numbered rows have been knotted, are tied in with the outside strands in the next uneven numbered row. to make a hammock for a little doll thirteen rows of knotting will be enough. when the last row has been tied bring the ends of the strands together, start a new strand at two inches from the last row of knots, and bind the ends together tightly for two and three-quarter inches to make a loop like the one at the other end. after the loop is finished cut the ends close to the binding, and with a tapestry needle threaded in the end of the binding strand sew it through and through, to secure it, and cut its end close to the binding. _how to tie a square or reef knot_ [illustration: fig. ] once upon a time a little girl was carrying a bundle of cookies by the string, when suddenly the knot slipped and the cookies rolled in every direction, over the sidewalk and into the street. if the baker's wife had known how to tie a square knot instead of that useless "granny," the accident would never have happened. i wonder if you have ever had an experience of this kind. if so, i am sure you will like to learn how to tie the ends of a piece of string together so that they cannot slip. [illustration: fig. ] take the ends of a piece of string, one in each hand. cross them and bring the upper end down under the long end of the other piece (see fig. ). now turn it back in the opposite direction above the first part of the knot, to make a loop, and pass the other end down through it (see fig. ). in this way each end of the string will come out beside its own beginning. _two hitches_ there is no simple knot that you will find more useful than the half hitch. it is described in the directions for making the game of floor baseball in chapter ii. two of these half hitches, side by side, are called by sailors a "clove hitch." in making nets this clove hitch is used to attach the first row of meshes to the top line or head rope, as it is called. [illustration: fig. ] another use for the half hitch is in the process that sailors call "kackling" (see fig. ). this is used to prevent two ropes from rubbing against one another, or chafing. a beautiful handle for a basket or bag may be made with this knot. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] take two pieces of rope and some light cord, or, if it is to be the handle of a basket, two pieces of heavy rattan, no. , and some no. rattan with which to do the knotting. if you use the rattan be sure to soak it for ten minutes in warm water and choose a soft piece of the fine rattan for knotting. hold the heavy pieces of rattan side by side, lay an end of the fine rattan upon them at the middle (see fig. ), with its tip turning toward the left, and hold it there with the left hand, while with the right you bring the long end up and around both of the large pieces of rattan up and under the short end of the fine piece. it is then brought down and around the two large pieces of rattan and the end is passed down through the loop made in starting the hitch (see fig. ). draw the tying strand up tight and bring the long end up and around the large pieces of rattan and up under the loop it left in starting (see fig. ). take care to keep the fine rattan wet so that it will be very pliable; if it dries it will surely crack as you tie it. _net making_ if you would like to make a ping-pong net or a net for crabbing, you will find it quite easy to do and very interesting. after you have made these small nets you may feel like trying a tennis net if you have plenty of time and patience. [illustration: fig. ] at a hardware store you can buy tightly twisted cord of the size you wish to use in making your net. it is generally sold by weight. if you are planning to make a ping-pong or tennis net you will also need a heavy piece of cord for the head rope. a crab net would of course be netted on to an iron ring attached to a long wooden handle. a needle such as is shown in fig. may be made quite easily by any boy who can whittle. [illustration: fig. ] when you have wound your cord on the needle, stretch the head rope taut between two convenient points, the backs of two chairs, for example, and begin at the left by tying one end of the cord to it. make a loop the size you wish the mesh to be and fasten the cord to the head rope with a clove hitch, or two half hitches (see fig. ). when you have worked as far as you wish, get on the other side of the net and work back again. this row of meshes and all that follow after are made by fastening them to the upper row with a sheet bend (see fig. ). after the second row is finished come around to the other side again and knot the third row. when the net is wide enough knot it to a piece of rope the size of the head rope with a row of clove hitches. _the weaver's knot_ [illustration: fig. ] in weaving bead chains on a loom, and in doing other things, you will often need to tie a new piece of thread or cord to a very short end. the weavers have a knot they use for this purpose, and as it is a simple one perhaps you would like to learn it. hold the old end in a vertical position (that is, as if it were standing up), lay the new piece back of it, its short end turning toward the left and reaching an inch or more beyond the vertical thread. bring the long end around in front of the vertical thread, up back of its own short end on the left and across in front of the vertical thread (see fig. ). all these threads are held in position by the fingers and thumbs of the left hand, while the right hand brings the thread around. the vertical or old end is now turned down through the loop in front of it and there held by the thumb, while with the fingers of both hands the long and short ends of the new thread are pulled up tight. _turk's head_ there is a beautiful knot called by sailors a "turk's head." girls will find that they can make the prettiest buttons imaginable with it, using silk cord of any colour, and both boys and girls will enjoy making napkin rings of rattan with a more open arrangement of the same knot. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make a button take a yard of cord, and at about four inches from one end bend it into a loop (like the one shown in fig. ), about half an inch across. the long end should come above the short one. next make a second loop lying above and to the left of the first one (see fig. ), bringing the long end under the short one left in starting. the long end is then brought over the left side of the second loop, under the left side of the first loop, over the right side of the second loop, under the right side of the first and around to the beginning, inside of the short end (see fig. ). this makes one row, or the beginning of the button. if you have a bodkin with a large eye, the long end of the cord can be threaded into it and this will make the work easier. the next row follows the first one exactly--close to it and always on the inside. when the cord has followed in this way four times, to complete four rows (keeping the button form always in mind and moulding the cord into that shape), a firm little button will have been made. [illustration: fig. ] _napkin ring_ =material required:= length of no. rattan. [illustration: at the top of the plate is the beginning of a ping-pong net. below it at the right is the turk's-head knot. still lower the knotted raffia work bag hangs. on the left is swung a doll's hammock of knotted raffia and above it a rattan napkin ring, made with the turk's-head knot] with a piece of rattan in the natural colour or a length of coloured rattan you can make a useful and very pretty napkin ring by following the directions just given, with only one change. in beginning the second row (shown in fig. ), the long end is brought to the left or outside of the short end and continues around on that side. five rows may be made instead of four. keep the ring form in mind all the time, have the rattan wet and pliable and mould it into the shape of a ring, keeping the top and bottom as nearly the same size as possible. _green raffia work bag_ =materials required:= a bunch of green raffia, a length of no. green rattan, a tapestry needle. _a tapestry needle_ when your mother was a little girl her mother used to make with linen twine a kind of coarse, heavy lace called macramé. one of the knots she used was called "solomon's knot," and that is the one you will use if you decide to make this work bag. a length of no. rattan and a bunch of raffia, both in a soft shade of green, will be needed. these you can buy of a dealer in basket materials for a few cents. twist three rings like those for the upper edge and handles of the sponge bag described in the first part of this chapter. hang one of these rings on a low bedpost or on a hook placed so that you can reach it easily when seated. take two strands of raffia, double them around the ring, and with the four ends thus made tie a solomon's knot as follows: hold the two upper strands straight and taut. bend the under strand on the left across them to the right (see fig. ), and bring the under strand on the right over the end of the left strand, back of the middle strands and through the loop made by the left strand in starting. another pair of strands is knotted on in the same way, and another, until there are twenty-two groups around the ring. starting anywhere on the ring, the two strands on the right of a group are brought beside the two on the left of the next group to the right. the middle pair of these four strands are held straight down, while the strands on the right and left are tied upon them in a solomon's knot. this knot should be half an inch from those in the first row. make a double knot this time as follows: after tying the knot (shown in fig. ), take the end which is on the right after the first knot has tied, bring it over to the left, above the middle strands, and bring the one on the left down over the end of the strand which was on the right, back of the two middle strands and up through the loop left in starting the right strand (see fig. ). the whole row is made in this way. ten rows are knotted, each one about half an inch from the row above. the bag is finished in the same way as the sponge bag, with a tassel and two handles. if you choose you can line it with silk of the same colour as the raffia, or, if it is to be used for a duster bag or to hold grandmother's knitting, it will not need a lining. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] what a child can do with beads chapter v what a child can do with beads long, long ago when the world was young, the child who wished for a gay and pretty necklace for her little brown throat strung berries and seeds or pieces of shell and bone that her father ground smooth by hand and pierced for stringing. for thread there were grasses and fibres of plants or sinews of deer. indian children sometimes used beads of clay, and so did the little egyptians, for the fine clay by the river nile made beautiful beads, as well as pottery. the children of the north--the little esquimaux--had beads of amber, and the indian tribes farther south strung shells that look so much like the teeth of animals one can hardly believe they are anything else. look for them at the natural history museum and you will see that this is so. nowadays there are of course many more kinds of beads--beads of glass, china, gold and silver, and even of semi-precious stones. after all, though, the child who lives in the country or by the sea can gather the most interesting kind of all--such as were strung by those children who lived so long ago--seeds, berries, shells and seaweed. gather them on a sunshiny day and store them away for use in the dull hours when you are obliged to be indoors. the seeds of muskmelons are soft enough to pierce; watermelon seeds will take more effort and a stronger needle. then there are the orange berries of bittersweet and the red ones of holly. haws or hawthorn berries are a beautiful red, too, and perhaps you will find in a neighbour's garden a bush of job's tears--gray, white or brown. the grape-like seaweed which bursts with a pop when you step on it makes very pretty beads. cut each one close to the bulb, yet far enough to leave a short piece of the stem on each side of the bead. pierce the bulbs while they are still wet, and after they have dried for a few days they will be ready to string. apple and flax seeds, beans and peas before they have dried, make excellent beads. a few of the small glass beads which come in bunches may be used with these natural beads, and will set them off wonderfully. although they are usually sold in bunches, eight skeins to a bunch, the skeins can sometimes be bought separately. olive-green crystal beads of the size that dealers call no. - are beautiful with red berries, and what could be prettier to string with brown seeds or job's tears than gold-lined crystal beads? let us use them in making a chain for a muff or fan. _muff chain in brown and gold_ =materials required:= brown seeds or job's tears, a bunch of gold-lined crystal beads, no. - , a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. have you ever seen any job's tears--the interesting tear-shaped seeds of an east indian grass? it grows very well in this climate, and you may like to raise it yourself. think of being able to pick beads from a plant of your own! be careful to boil these beads before stringing, for a little grub sometimes lives in them, and he may appear when you least expect him or may even make a meal of the thread on which the beads are strung. if you have not the job's tears, apple seeds will look almost as well, or you can buy at the grocer's whole allspice. use a no. needle and a piece of no. white linen thread four inches longer than you wish the chain to be when it is finished; two yards and a quarter is a good length. string a seed and draw it down to the middle of the thread, then string some of the gold-lined crystal beads for about three-quarters of an inch. a seed is next threaded on, and then quarter of an inch of gold-lined beads. keep on in this way, first threading a seed and then quarter of an inch of gold-lined beads, until there are only two inches of the thread left. tie this end through a bead to keep the others from slipping off. thread your needle with the other end of the strand and start by stringing three-quarters of an inch of the gold-lined beads, then a seed and quarter of an inch of gold-lined beads. when this end of the strand has been strung--just as the other was--to within two inches of the tip, tie the two ends together and the chain is finished. _raffia and bead chain_ =materials required:= strands of rose-pink raffia, a bunch of large rose-pink crystal beads, fine darning needles. [illustration: fig. a] another pretty and simple chain is made of large rose-pink crystal beads strung on pink raffia; or you can use seeds or berries instead of the crystal beads, in which case the raffia will have to be split. tie the strands of raffia together at one end, and on each of the other ends thread a fine darning needle. string one bead, then pass both needles through a single bead and through another and another (see fig. a). two beads are then slipped on each strand (see fig. a). next both needles pass through three beads, and so on to the end of the chain. tie the ends securely. _double chain of seeds and beads_ =materials required:= a bunch of crystal beads, letter e, large beads of a deeper shade or the same number of seeds or berries, a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. [illustration: fig. ] a double chain like the one shown in fig may be made of crystal e beads strung with seeds or larger beads of a deeper shade. measure off a piece of white linen thread, no. , double the length you wish the chain to be. three yards twenty-two inches will make a chain sixty-five inches long, which is a good size. in one end of it thread a no. needle and string one large bead, or seed, which should be pushed down to the middle of the strand. here it may be tied, to hold it in place. next string two inches and a half of e beads, then another large bead, or seed, and so on to the end of the strand, where the tip is tied through the last bead. the other end of the strand is then threaded and two inches and a half of the e beads are strung, the needle passes through the next large bead on the end first strung (see fig ), and two and a half inches more of the e beads are threaded. so it goes on to the end of the chain--the needle always passing through the next large bead on the strand already strung, after two inches and a half of e beads have been threaded. _braided raffia chain_ =materials required:= strands of pale green raffia, darker green crystal beads, no. . [illustration: fig .] a braided raffia chain with a cluster of three crystal beads every few inches is so simple that any little girl can make it. choose pale green raffia and beads of a deeper shade, and it will look like clover leaves on their stems. string twenty-two of the green crystal beads, no. size, on a strand of split raffia. on two other strands thread the same number of beads. tie the thin end of each piece around the last bead, so that it cannot slip off. the other ends are all tied together. now pin the knot securely to a cushion, or tie it to a hook at a convenient height and braid the three strands together closely and evenly for about two inches. then slip a bead from each piece up close to the work and braid it in as shown in fig. . this will make a clover leaf. after braiding two inches more slip another bead on each strand up close to the work and make another leaf. when it is finished tie the ends together securely. _a daisy chain_ =materials required:= half a bunch of olive green opaque beads, no. - , half a bunch of milk white beads, no. , skein yellow crystal e beads, a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. [illustration: fig. ] next best to making a daisy chain out-of-doors is to string one of beads. and this rainy-day chain will last as many months as the real chain would hours. first string sixteen green beads, then eight white ones. run the needle down through the first white bead and string a yellow one. next pass the needle through the fifth white bead (see fig. ) and draw the thread up tightly. this makes a daisy. string another stem of sixteen green beads and make a daisy as you did the first one. the whole chain is strung in this way. _chain of watermelon seeds strung with beads_ =materials required:= fresh watermelon seeds, a bunch of pink crystal e beads, a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. a chain that is very pretty and effective may be made with watermelon seeds and pink crystal e beads, the colour of the inside of a watermelon. the seeds can be pierced quite easily with a no. needle. take two pieces of white linen thread, well waxed, the length you wish the chain to be, and two needles. tie an e bead on the end of each piece of thread. lay them side by side and string four more e beads on the strand at the right. pass the needle on the left up through the three middle beads of the five on the right strand (see fig. ), and string one more e bead. next thread a seed on each strand and string the e beads in the same way. so it goes on for the whole length of the chain. [illustration: fig. ] if you are fond of playing indian and have no indian costume, you ought to be happy. that seems a strange thing to say, but the reason is this: you can have all the fun of making a costume yourself, you can learn how to do it in the indian way, and after it is finished it will be far more like the dress worn by western indians than those that are sold ready made. suppose we begin with the belt. it is woven on a loom--not an indian loom, which, as perhaps you know, was a bow strung with several strings which served as the warp threads for the belt or chain. possibly you have a loom of your own and know how to use it; but if not you can either buy one for twenty-five or fifty cents, or, what is still better, make one yourself. a simple, good loom may be made from a cigar box. _a home made bead loom_ =materials required:= an oblong cigar box, about / inches deep, small sticks of wood / inches long and / -inch square, / -inch screws, small screw eyes, tacks, a sharp knife, a screw driver, a hammer, sand paper. choose a good strong cigar box, one that is quite shallow, and remove the cover. rule a line one inch from the bottom of the box on each long side and draw a sharp knife across the line several times until the upper part separates easily from the lower without injuring it. smooth the tops of the sides with sandpaper. fasten each of the small sticks of wood inside a corner of the box, to strengthen it. this is how it is done. drive one of the half-inch screws up from the bottom into the end of the stick, another into it through the side, and two, one near the top and one lower down through the end of the box, into the stick. on the outside of the box at one end six round-headed tacks are driven in a row an inch and a half from the top and about three-quarters of an inch apart. drive six screw eyes in the same position on the opposite side. cut a row of notches on the top of each end of the loom, about one-sixteenth of an inch apart, and deep enough to hold a thread. the loom is then ready for weaving. chalk-white beads are much used by the bead-weaving indians like the sioux and winnebagos, especially for the ground-work of their belts. let us choose them for the background of the belt and weave the design in indian red and blue. _indian bead belt_ =materials required:= bunch chalk white beads, no. - , skeins each indian red and dark blue beads, no. - , spool no. white linen thread, spool no. white linen thread, a no. needle, a piece of wax. [illustration: fig. ] cut twenty-two pieces of no. linen thread about six inches longer than you wish your belt to be. tie a loop at one end of each piece and slip it over the round-headed tacks at one end of the loom. bring the long ends one at a time through twenty-two of the notches at the top of the loom and stretch them across to the notches in the opposite end. draw them taut and tie them through the screw eyes. these make the warp threads for the belt. as you will see by the pattern, the belt is twenty-one beads wide and you have twenty-two threads. this is so that there will be a thread on each side of every bead. thread the needle with no. white linen thread. tie one end of it to the warp thread on the left (as you hold the loom with the end on which are the screw eyes toward you). bring the needle out to the right below the warp strands, string twenty-one white beads and press them up between the warp strands, so that one bead will come between every two threads. run the needle back from right to left through the beads, making sure that it goes _above_ the warp threads. this makes one row. the whole belt is woven in the same way, except that when the figure begins the beads should be strung according to the pattern. for example, in making the first row of the pattern shown in fig. , you will string nine white beads, three indian-red ones and nine more of the white. the next two rows will be the same, and then you will string six white beads, three indian-red, three blue, three indian-red, and six white. wax the thread you weave with, so that the sharp-edged beads will not cut it. in joining new needlefuls use the weaver's knot shown on p. . armlets are woven in the same way, but much wider--about forty beads wide and long enough to go around the upper part of the arm. tie them together with strips of chamois, knotted in with the ends of the warp strands. head bands, bracelets and chains are also woven in this way. _bead wrought indian shirt_ =materials required:= large chamois skin, smaller chamois skins, spool white linen thread, no. , a no. needle, / bunch dark blue beads, no. - , / bunch indian red beads, no. - , / bunch white opaque beads, no. - , large indian red opaque beads. [illustration: fig. ] although this shirt and the moccasins and leggings that go with it are so simple to make, you are almost sure to need the help of your mother or governess in planning and cutting them. the shirt is the size for a child of seven or eight, but it can easily be enlarged so as to fit a boy of twelve or fourteen. it is made by the pattern shown in fig. , which is drawn on the scale of one inch to a foot. one large chamois skin and two of medium size will be needed. double the large skin lengthwise to cut the upper part of the shirt. this should be ten inches deep and a yard wide. cut at the centre a slit about nine inches long for the neck. the ends form the sleeves. lay the two smaller skins together and cut from them the lower portion of the shirt. the back and front are alike, each measuring nineteen inches wide at the top, twenty-two inches at the bottom, and fifteen inches deep. make a pencil mark at the centre of each lower edge of the upper part and one at the middle of the top of both of the lower pieces. turn up an inch at each lower edge of the upper part of the shirt and baste the doubled edge of one side against the top of one of the lower parts, keeping the pencil marks at the middle of each together. sew the edges together over and over with no. white linen thread. join the other side in the same way. the overlapping edges of the upper part of the shirt should be kept on the right side. sew the sides of the shirt together with a row of backstitching, four inches from the edge. the edges are cut into a fringe four and a half inches deep at the ends of the sleeves and three inches on the sides and bottom of the shirt. the edges of the upper part which hangs over the lower are also cut into a short fringe. work two narrow bands of bead embroidery round the neck, and if you like you can also work a band half way down the lower part of the shirt and one near the lower edge just above the fringe. they are made in this way: thread a no. needle with white linen thread and make a knot at the other end. start at the right of the neck close to the edge. bring the needle through to the outside of the shirt. string four beads, press them down close to the shirt and bring the needle through to the inside. this makes a stitch which runs up and down at right angles with the neck opening. bring the needle out again on a line with the place where it went in and close beside it, string four more beads, bring it up and run it in again just at the left of where the work began (see fig. ). this simple stitch is the one that is most used by the indians in embroidering their buckskin shirts, leggings and moccasins. string different colours, according to the pattern. several designs for this work are shown in figs. , and . if you wish to decorate the shirt still more, cut strips of chamois about a quarter of an inch wide and five inches long, pierce a row of holes, two together, at intervals of an inch and three-quarters across the shirt (see fig. ), bring the strips of chamois through them and tie them once. string a large indian-red bead on each end and tie a knot to keep it from falling off. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _indian leggings_ =materials required:= small chamois skins, / bunch dark blue beads, no. - , / bunch indian red beads, no. - , / bunch white opaque beads, no. - , a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] nothing could be easier to make than indian leggings, and you can put as much work or as little as you choose into the embroidery. cut from two small chamois skins two pieces in the shape shown in fig. . they should each be eight and three-quarters inches at the lower edge, twelve inches at the top and twelve high. the design shown in fig. will be simple and effective, and narrow bands like those in fig. may be worked along the edge that laps over and across the bottom. six strands of chamois about eight inches long are brought through the leggings on each side at an inch from the edge. these form the fastenings. [illustration: fig. ] _beaded moccasins_ =materials required:= medium-sized chamois skin, / bunch dark blue beads, no. - , / bunch indian red beads, no. - , / bunch white opaque beads, no. - , spool no. white linen thread, a no. needle, spool no. white linen thread, a no. needle. to make the pattern for these moccasins you need only stand on a sheet of brown paper and draw with a pencil around your bare foot so as to get its exact size and natural form. cut the pattern out and take it to a shoemaker, who will cut from it a pair of leather soles. the uppers you can cut from a paper pattern copied from the shape shown in fig. . it will not be difficult to plan them to fit the soles, for you have only to measure the distance around the outer edge of the soles and make the uppers measure about an inch more along the outer edge, to allow for the seam at the back and for a little fulness across the toe. work them in some simple design, like the one shown in fig. . a pretty beaded edge is made with a stitch which is very like the one used in working the bands. thread a needle with no. white linen thread and bring it through the top of the moccasin close to the edge. fasten the end by taking two or three small stitches. string six beads of a colour used in working the bands and bring the needle through the edge from the inside of the moccasin out, about a quarter of an inch from the beginning, making the stitch shown in fig. . before starting the next stitch pass the needle under the first one. work the whole upper edge of the moccasin in this way, then stitch it together up the back, making a seam a quarter of an inch wide. it should be stitched on the inside and then turned right side out. the uppers are stitched on to the soles with a no. needle and a well-waxed piece of white linen thread, no. . should this prove too hard work for small fingers the moccasins may be taken to a shoemaker to finish. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _bead wrought silk bag_ =materials required:= a piece of silk or ribbon, inches wide by / inches long, bunch of crystal beads, no. - , the same colour as the silk, skein of no. - beads of a contrasting colour, a spool of letter a sewing silk of the same colour as the silk, a no. needle, a yard of inch-wide ribbon the colour of the silk. [illustration: fig. ] the daintiest little silk bag may be made by any small daughter for mamma or a dearly-loved aunt to carry a bit of lace work or some other treasure. a piece of soft ribbon five inches wide and seven and three-quarters inches long in a pale shade of lavender makes a charming bag. a network of lavender crystal beads of the same shade, with a pearl or gold-lined crystal bead at the point of each diamond-shaped mesh, gives the finishing touch of daintiness (see fig. ). start by threading a fine needle with a piece of sewing silk the colour of the bag. fasten the end by taking one or two small stitches near the left side of the strip of silk at about two inches from the lower edge. string six lavender beads, one pearl and seven lavender beads, and take a stitch a quarter of an inch from the beginning and on a line with it. now run the needle down through the last bead strung (see fig. ), and string six more lavender beads, one pearl and seven lavender. another stitch is made a quarter of an inch from the last one, the needle is run down through the last bead, and it goes on in this way until a row has been made across the piece of silk. the bag is then stitched up the sides and around the bottom on the wrong side and turned right side out. bring the needle attached to the beadwork down through the six lavender beads and one pearl one, at the left side of the first half diamond made, and string six lavender, one pearl and six lavender beads. pass the needle through the next pearl bead on the right in the row above and string another six lavender, one pearl and six lavender beads to make another half diamond. so it goes on around the bag. this row and all the other ones are only attached to the row above, not to the silk. the last row of netting should reach a little below the bottom of the bag. a twisted fringe is then made as follows: run the needle down through the beads on the left side of the first mesh in the row just finished, through the pearl bead at the point, and also pass it through the pearl bead on the back of the bag which lies just beneath it. string thirty lavender beads and pass the needle up through the beads on the right side of the first mesh and down again through those on the left side of the second mesh. it runs through the pearl bead at the point of the mesh and the one under it at the back of the bag. string thirty more beads and twist the thread on which they are strung once around the right side of the loop just made. the next loop is made in the same way--passing the needle up through the beads in the right side of the second mesh, down through those in the left side of the third one, and through the pearl bead at the point of the mesh at the front and the one below it at the back. thirty more beads are then strung. when you have made this fringe all across the bottom of the bag, fasten the end of the silk by sewing it two or three times through the bottom of the bag. finish the top of the bag with drawing strings as follows: turn in a hem three-quarters of an inch wide at the top of the bag and baste it. hem it around neatly with the lavender sewing silk and make a casing for the drawing strings to run through, by putting a row of backstitching a little over a quarter of an inch above the bottom of the hem. there should be two little holes made on each side of the bag on the outside of the hem between the stitched seam and the bottom of the hem. they are put there so that the ribbon drawing strings can run into the casing. you can make them with an ivory or metal piercer called a stiletto, or any other tool that has a sharp round point. the neatest way to finish these holes is to sew the edges over and over with a needleful of sewing silk. half a yard of narrow ribbon should be allowed for each drawing string. thread it in a bodkin, or ribbon needle, which is run into one of the holes at the side of the bag, through the casing at the lower part of the hem, all around the bag and out of the hole beside the one where it went in. now tie the ends of this drawing string together, thread the other one through the bodkin and run it into a hole on the opposite side of the bag, through the casing all around the bag and out of the little hole beside the one where it went in. the ends of this piece are also tied, and then the bag is done. [illustration: fig. ] clay working chapter vi clay working have you ever noticed how, when it rains, one road will dry at once, and on another your footprints will hold the water like a cup for hours? do you know the reason for it? the first road is sandy, and so the water filters through the coarse particles and soon disappears. the other is mostly of clay, which is close and fine, and after your foot made that little hollow it was doubtless half baked by the sun so that it became like natural pottery. you probably know all this, and have felt with your own fingers the difference between the sand, in which you have built forts and dug with your shovel in the summer and played with on the kindergarten sand table in winter, and the soft, smooth clay that you have formed into bird's nests, eggs and other things in kindergarten. years and years ago, before our great-great-great-grandfathers were even thought of, some man noticed the same thing that you do--that one part of the earth held water for hours, while it disappeared so quickly from other parts--and it set him thinking. why not make a bowl in which he could carry water when he was travelling or hunting in dry places? this is the way, some wise men think, the making of pottery began. cups and small vessels could easily be moulded from small lumps of clay, but large pieces--great bowls and jars--it was soon found would have to be formed in a mould. shallow baskets, pieces of gourd or fruit rind, were the moulds in which these large pots were started. in beginning the bottom, either a small piece of clay was patted flat into a form like a cookie and fitted into the bottom of the mould, or else a strip of clay was coiled round and round into a mat shape, working the coils together with the fingers. the sides were almost always built up with coils of clay, then, with the fingers and some rude tools--smooth stones, bits of shell or pieces of gourd--they were smoothed and polished. soon the potters began to decorate their vessels with patterns cut or pressed into the damp clay and even painted them with coloured clay, ground fine and mixed with a liquid. the clay objects you enjoyed making in kindergarten were not very strong. a bowl or cup that is moulded from such clay will not hold water for very long either. it will soon soften and fall to pieces. that is what happened to the first clay bowls and cups. if clay is baked in the sun it becomes a little harder and more useful--but not much--so the first clay workers found that they must bake their clay pots more thoroughly if they were to be really strong. some of the old potters--like the catawba indians--baked their vessels before the fire, and as the clay they used was very good they found it made them hard enough. in other tribes the potters made a bed of bark, set fire to it and baked the pot until when it came out it was red hot. at first the clay workers used the clay just as they found it, but when they began to make large pots and cauldrons to cook in they found that powdered shell or sand mixed with the clay made them stronger and less liable to crack in baking. [illustration: fig. ] the cooking vessels had almost always rounded bottoms, because in those days the floors of houses were of sand or soft earth into which the rounded bottoms would set and hold the pots upright. these pots were set directly over the fire and kept in position by stones or sticks of wood. some that had handles or flaring rims could be hung over the fire by cords or vines. [illustration: fig. ] the indians moulded all sorts of things out of clay besides these utensils. drums were made by stretching buckskin over the tops of earthen pots. then there were whistles and rattles, trowels, modelling tools, figures of men and animals, and many toys like those shown in figs. , and . beads were also made of clay, and so were tobacco pipes in many shapes. one would have the face of a man on the bowl, another a goat with open mouth, or a bird with its neck outstretched and bill parted, and on another the bowl would be formed by a natural-looking snake coiled up for a spring. [illustration: fig. ] in time men learned more about clays and how to mix and form and bake them, until now, as you know, pottery that is beautiful and serviceable is made all over the world, and in great factories china and porcelain made of the finest clays are moulded, decorated and fired for our use. it will be interesting to you sometime to see one of the factories where such ware is made, but although it is so fine and smooth and perfect and so useful to us, i doubt if the workmen who make it have half the pleasure in their task that the first potters had in moulding their rough cooking utensils and clay pipes. so i am glad to think that although you may never be able to make china, you can work in clay as the indians used to do, for that you will enjoy far more. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] of course you would like to make something that you can use, something that will not crumble and break like the things you modelled in kindergarten. to do this you will need to get a clay which can be baked--or fired, as potters express it--and you must have a clay that is so mixed or arranged as to bake well in the kiln (or pottery oven) to which you are going to send it. if you live near a pottery where flower pots or gray stoneware are made you can probably arrange to buy your clay there, and after your pottery is finished have it baked at the same place. the clay that is used at a stoneware pottery is arranged so as to fire at a much greater heat than the flower-pot clay, and so the ware is stronger, but the flower-pot ware will be strong enough for the things you will make. although this clay is gray before it is baked, it comes from the kiln a beautiful indian red. [illustration: fig. ] you will not need many tools beside your own fingers and thumbs. one boxwood modelling tool the shape shown in fig. , and another with more flattened and rounded ends (see fig. ) will be enough to begin with. these you can buy at a kindergarten-supply store. later you may need the sheet-steel tools shown in figs. and . dealers in hardware sell the sheet steel, and these tools can easily be cut from it--doubtless the dealer will do it for you. [illustration: fig. ] buy fifteen or twenty pounds of clay at a time, ready mixed if possible. if it comes to you in the dry state--in rock-like pieces--you must first pound it to a powder. this you can do out of doors by spreading the lumps of clay on a paper laid on flat stone and pounding them with a smaller stone, or, if it must be done in the house, spread the clay on a strong bench or table and pound it with an old flatiron. it is now ready for soaking. put a little water in an earthen crock and add the powdered clay to it, mixing it with your hand and adding clay until it is the right consistency to mould. if you find you have too much water, pour off some after the clay is well mixed, and if it is still too moist, spread it on a board in the air until it has dried out sufficiently. keep the clay in an earthen crock with a cover. pour a little water into it first, just enough to moisten the bottom of the crock, and then put in the clay. when it is to be left over night or a longer time, make deep holes in the clay with your thumb and pour water into them. lay a damp cloth over it and cover with the earthen top. if at any time it dries out so that it cannot be easily moulded, let it dry entirely, pound it to powder again and mix as already described. if you live in the country the place to work with clay will be in an outbuilding, a woodshed, barn or workshop where there is a good strong table or bench. the best place for a city child to work is a playroom where there is a wooden floor, an old table and nothing valuable to be harmed with clay or water; or a light, dry cellar. a girl should wear a long-sleeved apron and a boy a pair of overalls. in such a workshop and costume you need not give a thought to clothes or carpets. have a pitcher of water and a small bowl for the "slip"--or clay thinned with water until it is about as thick as cream--which is almost as important as the clay itself. when you are ready to begin work, take a lump of clay about as large as a grape fruit; pound and knead it on the table. next draw a strong wire through it, dividing it into halves. press the two outer surfaces together and knead out the air-holes which you will see on the inner surfaces. repeat this process several times, and all these air bubbles will finally be expelled. suppose you begin with something simple--some tiny red building bricks which will delight your small brother--perhaps even you may not feel to old to enjoy playing with such a "real" toy. _building bricks_ =materials required:= about pounds of clay, level boards, by inches, / yard of white cheesecloth, a rolling pin, a foot rule, a strong, sharp knife. the clay of which these bricks are made should be well kneaded, and it should also have a great deal of what potters call "grog" mixed through it. "grog" is baked clay pounded into small pieces--an old flower pot will do if you are using flower-pot clay. mixed with the unbaked clay it tempers it, that is, it makes it less likely to shrink and crack in baking. cover a level board with a piece of wet white cheesecloth and tack it securely upon it. mould the lump of clay into a square, by hand, lay it on the board and pound it with the thick part of your hand into an irregular square cake, then roll it with a rolling pin till it is about three-eighths of an inch thick. have ready another board the same size and covered with wet cheesecloth, lay it on top of the clay sheet and reverse it so that the clay shall be transferred to this second board. roll it again till quite smooth and set it away overnight. the next day take a foot rule and a sharp pencil and mark the clay sheet into bricks, two inches long by an inch wide. cut them out with a strong, sharp knife, but do not lift them until they are thoroughly dry, which will be in three or four days. they should then be carefully packed and sent to the pottery to be fired. _a clay whistle_ =materials required:= a piece of clay about the size of a lemon, the wooden modelling tools, a bowl of slip, a pen knife. [illustration: fig. ] the mexicans mould tiny whistles of clay, which are as simple as possible to make and very fascinating to own. if you would like to make some for yourself and your friends this is the way to do it: mould a small piece of clay into a cup shape about an inch across and three-eighths of an inch high. put it in the air to dry for ten minutes. now roll a piece of clay, about the same size, on the table with the palms of both hands (near the base of the thumb), lightly, yet so as to make the clay roll entirely around with each push. if the roll flattens from too hard pressure, pat it till it is round again and roll it until it is of even thickness--about quarter of an inch in diameter. it is then flattened evenly by patting it with the fingers, one end is cut into a long point and the coil is started on edge with the narrow side up on the top of the cup of clay, whose rim must first be wet with slip. bend the upper edge of the roll of clay in quite a little, to follow the shape shown in fig. . hold the long end of the clay strip with the left hand, while, with the thumb and middle finger of the right hand held on each side of the coil to support it, the forefinger presses it down firmly on the top of the little cup. when the coil has gone all the way around cut the end into a flat point, which will fit evenly in with the one at the beginning, and press the edges together with the flat part of the nail of your forefinger. do this where the edges of the coil come against the rim of the cup. make quick and firm yet short strokes of the nail up and down, inside the cup and out. then let it dry for a short time, about ten or fifteen minutes. roll another coil in the same way and attach it, after brushing the top edge of the clay cup with slip, bending the top edge of the coil in very decidedly so as to leave only a small opening at the top. the third coil is made in the same way, but put on so as to make the sides go straight up like the neck of a bottle or vase. one more straight coil completes the neck, and a piece of clay is then put across the top, closing it. after the whistle has dried for an hour or more a triangular hole is cut with a knife in the lower part (see fig. ), and a slit in the top. a hole is also made in the bottom. it should then be thoroughly dried for several days before sending it to be fired. not every one of these whistles makes a good clear sound, but they are so easy to mould that you will not mind one or two unsuccessful attempts when you finally make one that blows clear and shrill. [illustration: fig. ] _clay rattle_ =materials required:= a piece of clay about the size of an orange, a bowl of slip, the modelling tools. the indians used to make clay rattles like the one shown in fig. . it is formed like the whistle except that the cup-shaped piece which is made in starting should be an inch and three-quarters across and three-eighths of an inch high. roll the strips of clay as already described and brush the edge of the cup-shaped piece with slip before attaching each coil. the handle should be about three inches long. before closing the end of it drop in four or five clay pellets, about the size of small peas, which have been well dried in the sun. then seal it with a piece of clay, let it dry for several days and send it to the pottery to be fired. [illustration: fig. ] _birds' drinking dish_ =materials required:= about / pounds of clay, the wooden modelling tools, the oval tools of sheet steel, a bowl of slip, a low wide bowl, a small sponge, a knife, a ground glass slab about a foot square, a cloth in which some ground flint is tied. one of the best ways to attract the birds is to have a drinking dish, wide and generous, always ready for them on the lawn. this is of course taking for granted that you live at least a part of the year in the country. isn't it delightful to think that you can make such a dish with your own hands? it is a little more difficult than the other things you have made, but what of that--it will be worth the trouble if you can give a lawn party to the birds every day! as this is to be quite a large dish, you will need to have a mould to form it in, or at least to support the sides in starting. choose some low, wide bowl or dish, one about two inches high and ten inches across the top. have ready some powdered flint tied up in a piece of cotton cloth--you can buy it of dealers in potters' supplies or possibly at the pottery where your clay work is fired. this is to dust over the inside of the mould to prevent the clay from sticking to it. take a lump of clay, about two and a half pounds, knead and pound it until all the air bubbles are worked out. a small piece of the clay is then patted out with the hands on a table or board and rolled smooth with a rolling pin until it is three-eighths of an inch thick and about two inches wider than the bottom of the bowl you have chosen. lay it in the bottom of the mould, which has first been dusted with ground flint. press the clay lightly but carefully against the bottom and sides, making sure that it fits close against them. then cut the top edge even with one of the wooden modelling tools. with the same tool cut crisscross strokes in this upper edge and wet it with slip, to prepare it for the first coil of clay, which is made and attached like those used in forming the whistle. these coils should, however, be larger--about an inch wide and long enough to go all around the bowl once. join every coil in the same way, taking care to press each one against the sides of the mould as well as upon the coil beneath, and to smooth the inside of the bowl with your fingers and the modelling tools. after attaching a coil, let the bowl dry for ten or fifteen minutes--in the air, unless it is a cold day. be careful never to let your clay work freeze or it will be spoiled. when the bowl is about two inches and a half high set it away overnight to dry. in the morning it will have shrunk so that it will slip easily out of the mould. turn it bottom up on a table and wet the cracks between the coils with slip, then fill them in carefully with clay of the same stiffness as that of which the bowl is made. never put water or wet clay on a piece of clay work that is almost dry, or it will crack. after it has been set away for a few hours to harden, make it smooth and even as follows: first take the oval tool of sheet steel with rough edges, hold it in your right hand, not straight but bent to fit the curves of the outside of the bowl; with it scrape the large humps away from the sides of the bowl, making quick, light and short strokes in every direction--up, down, across and diagonally. when the largest humps have been removed, go over the bowl in the same way with the smooth-edged oval tool. then take a damp sponge, one from which the water has all been squeezed, and pass it lightly over the bowl, smoothing it with the fingers. make it as even and perfect as you can. next the bottom is to be finished. draw with a pencil a circle on the bottom of the bowl, about an inch in from the edge all around, and scrape, with the sharpest wooden tool, a layer of clay out of the bottom within the circle, so that the outside ring shall form a ridge about one-sixteenth of an inch above it. now cut the top edge of the bowl as even as you can by eye, using a knife. then make it perfectly even in this way: pour a little water on the ground-glass slab, hold the bowl bottom up and move it firmly yet quickly round and round on the wet surface and then quickly slide it off at the edge of the slab, before it has a chance to cling to the glass. if the bowl seems too heavy for you to hold securely in moving it about so quickly, it will be wise to let an older person do this for you. then there will be nothing more to do but let it dry for a few days and send it to the pottery to be fired. indoor gardening chapter vii indoor gardening _a rainy day in october_ all summer long the out-of-door gardens kept us busy, planting, weeding and watering. when we had had a week or two of sunshiny weather we began to wish a cloud would sail over the blue sky and bring the rain our thirsty flowers needed. we could see the reason for rainy days in summer-time. now, however, it is different; a rainy day in autumn is so cold and disagreeable. it settles down to work in a business-like way--not like a summer shower, which has, all through, a hint of the sun behind the clouds. no, an autumn rain is chilly and gray and lasting, and the best way to forget it is to find something interesting to do indoors. suppose we plan an indoor garden. there are the plants that were brought in from the garden the other day--geraniums, heliotropes, lobelias and begonias--all need our care and attention. a boy with a taste for woodworking can make a shelf and put up brackets in a window where the sun will reach them. even a plant table may not prove too difficult for him. there is one particularly interesting thing that both boys and girls can do, and that is to plan christmas gifts of budded or blossoming plants for their family and friends. how is it to be done? why, by planting bulbs in october. you have seen bulbs, of course, at the florists; they are mostly dingy brown or yellow and look like onions. if anyone in the family had a garden last summer there will be sure to be catalogues of seeds and bulbs in the house, and you can begin by making a list of the bulbs you wish to send for. such a number as you have to choose from--tulips, crocuses, lilies, hyacinths, narcissus, daffodils, and plenty more. they are not costly either. hyacinths can be bought for from six to fifteen cents each; these are the ordinary ones. roman hyacinths, which have beautiful white flowers, cost only four or five cents. chinese lily bulbs are more expensive; one can be bought for ten cents or three for twenty-five cents, but they are large and the blossoms are so fragrant and beautiful that they are well worth it. these are grown among pebbles in a dish of water. they will look well in a glass dish or in a shallow pottery bowl--such as you can buy for ten or fifteen cents at a japanese store. for hyacinths, tall, slender glasses are to be had at the florist's for fifteen cents. they come in several colours, but the dark green is best--and that reminds me that there is a case you can make of rattan and raffia around one of these glasses to enable you to hang it beside a window. this you can do some other rainy day. the chinese lily bulbs are put into a dishful of tepid water which has a few small pieces of charcoal in it. a number of small stones are fitted around the bulbs to keep them upright and steady, and then they are put near a window where the sun comes. hyacinths may be grown in the glasses or in flower pots, just as one chooses. a mixture of good soil from the garden and sand is best if they are to be grown in pots. be careful in taking the garden soil to sift it through your fingers, making sure that no worms are lurking in it, to trouble the bulbs later on. put stones for drainage and some pieces of charcoal at the bottom of each pot. the bulb is planted so that about one-third of it is left above the earth. if it is to be grown in water, use rain water and fill the glass so that the base of the bulb will just touch it. however they are planted, in pots or in glasses, they should be left in a dark, cool place like an airy cellar, until they are rooted. this will take about two weeks for those in glasses and six for the potted hyacinths. if it is possible, bury the pots in the open ground about six inches deep, or cover them with soil, for about five weeks. they can then be put into the window garden. consult the bulb catalogues for suggestions as to the care of your plants. _basket case for a hyacinth glass_ =materials required:= a dark green hyacinth glass, weavers of no. rattan, weavers of no. black rattan, a bunch of copper red raffia, a tapestry needle, no. . after you have bought your hyacinth glasses, and before the bulbs are put into them, you may like to make for each a simple case of basket work by which it can be hung against the window frame. it is made of rattan rings bound together with raffia of some colour that will look well with the hyacinth blossoms. a dark green glass with a covering of black and the natural-coloured rattan bound with copper-coloured raffia is a good combination, if the hyacinth is to be white. make two rings of black rattan like those described in the directions for making a sponge bag (see chapter iv). one should be large enough to slip over the glass, down to about half an inch from the bottom of it, the other to three inches from the bottom. this second ring must be made on the glass, as the flaring top will not allow so small a ring to slip over it. this will not be difficult to do. tie the rattan around the glass just below where you wish it to be placed (about two and three-quarters inches from the bottom), then slip it up where the glass is narrower and twist the ends around this foundation ring twice, as shown in fig. . this makes a ring of three circuits, the foundation ring counting as one. make four rings of the natural-coloured rattan, each measuring two inches and a quarter in diameter on the inside. these are made with two circuits; that is, after tying the foundation ring the ends are twisted all the way around it once, instead of twice as the black ones were, and are cut just so that they will lap. bind these four rings together in a hollow square with bindings five-eighths of an inch long of raffia in buttonhole stitch (see fig. ). fasten the ends of the rings by making the binding come over them. slip this square over the top of the glass and down between the two black rattan rings. here each of the four light rings is bound with raffia in buttonhole stitch to the black ring above it, as well as to the one below. to make a loop to hang it by, tie a ring of black rattan around the neck of the glass, twist its ends twice around it, and then without cutting the ends tie them into another ring an inch and a quarter in diameter, inside measurement, which stands out from the glass and forms a loop. this ring is made with two circuits. [illustration: fig. ] _growing plants in fibre_ later on, in november and december, there may come days when you are kept indoors, and then perhaps you will like to do some more gardening with bulbs. shall we begin with the spring bulbs--tulips, crocuses and daffodils? it is wonderful, isn't it, to think of being able to plant them when out of doors the earth is covered thick with snow? this is how it is done: buy from a florist or seedsman a fibre mixture which they sell for this purpose. take a large tub or pail and put some fibre into it, add plenty of water and stir the fibre thoroughly with a stick. let it remain in the water for two days, stirring it from time to time so that it shall get water soaked. it will then be ready for use. if you plan to give the plants away when they are in bud they should be started in jars or bowls that can be included in the gift. japanese or spanish pottery bowls can be bought for from ten to twenty-five cents each, and one of these with a daffodil or narcissus growing in it will make a delightful birthday gift for someone you love. if you are not planning to give them away, of course you will be able to collect about the house enough bowls and jars of china and pottery to hold them. put a few pieces of charcoal at the bottom of each dish--these are to keep the water pure and the fibre wet. put into each bowl some of the wetted fibre until it is about two or three inches deep, depending on the depth of the bowl. place the bulbs on the fibre so that they just touch and fill all in with the wet fibre. put more fibre over them and press it gently down and around them--not too hard. fill the dish in until it is nearly solid. now put the bowls away in a cellar or any dark but airy room where they will not get frostbitten and watch them day by day to see that the fibre does not get dry; it must be kept moist but not soaking wet. be especially careful that the bulbs do not get dry. when they are all rooted and have grown perhaps an inch, bring the bulbs into a lighter room and let them have plenty of air. put them on the window sill or even in the garden in the middle of the day, if it is not too cold, and as they begin to show some buds water regularly and often. _planting indoors in february_ as early as february you can begin to plan your out-of-door flower garden and start some seeds indoors. tuberous begonias, canterbury bells, verbenas, single dahlias, scarlet sage or salvia, tufted pansies and cosmos can all be started now. first of all you will need some flats or low wooden boxes--they should be about three inches deep and not too large to handle. if it is possible to get such shallow boxes at your grocer's so much the better, otherwise you can have a soap box or two sawed down to the required height. if they have no cracks or holes for drainage, bore some and partly cover them with pieces of an old flower pot, rounded side up. put pebbles or other rough material in the bottom of the box. now you are ready for the soil. get good, rich loam from the garden and sift it into the boxes. you can then begin planting. the large seeds should be planted about half an inch deep, medium sized ones as deep as four times their own width; the very small ones are just pressed into the earth, and the smallest should have a piece of glass placed over the box so that they will not dry out entirely. wet the soil until it is quite moist and press it with a level board after planting. set the boxes in a sunny window, one that faces south or southeast, and keep them moist, but not wet, with a bulb sprinkler (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] _march planting_ this blustery month of bad weather out of doors you can have a delightful time with your indoor garden. the bulbs you started in fibre should be in bloom by this time, and while you are enjoying them you can start some flower seeds for your out-of-door garden. this is the time to plant what are called annuals--that is, plants that live just a year--like batchelor's-buttons, sweet peas, nasturtiums, four-o'clocks, marigolds and zinnias. use flats or shallow wooden boxes, like those already described, to plant in. choose good garden soil and, before filling the boxes, heat it in the oven, very hot--this will kill the weed seeds. sow the seeds in rows an inch and a half apart and three-quarters of an inch apart in the row. when all the seeds are up, thin the little plants out so that they will be an inch and a half apart in the row. put them in a sunny window as close to the glass as possible and keep the shades rolled high. if you do not give them enough sun they will become thin and spindly--like children who never go out. turn the boxes now and then so that all sides will get the sunlight. you will need to put some labels into each box, bearing the names of the seeds that are planted there. the best ones are made from the covers of old grape baskets. cut them into strips, write on each the name of the seed and the date, and stick it into the earth. [illustration: a little garden for a little girl] gradually as the weather gets warmer you can give the little plants more air by opening the windows, and later by putting them out of doors in some sheltered but sunny spot. when there is no longer any danger from frost, the boxes can be set out of doors day and night, only taking them in in case of a severe storm. the seedlings may need to be separated and transplanted indoors before it is warm enough to set them in the out-of-door garden. common grape baskets do very well for this purpose and hold about a dozen little plants--flats may also be used. allow as much space between the seedlings as possible, for if they are too close the roots will twine about each other and make it very hard to transplant them later on. when they are large enough to be transplanted put them into a basin of lukewarm water and plant them in their new box one at a time. do not put them in the sun for a few days, but keep them shaded until they have taken root. _starting gourd vines in the indoor garden_ of course you have seen gourds, perhaps not growing, but surely you know how they look when dried. hard, smooth-shelled things of a beautiful golden brown colour, they grow in the strangest shapes. some are round or oval with a queer twisted stem (see fig. ). they have many uses--to hold the stockings open and smooth (so that grandma can darn them easily), as bird houses, match holders, and even for drinking cups. [illustration: fig. ] they are the fruit of a vine which would be charming to train on a trellis or arbour in your out-of-door garden, and then when harvest time came you would have the interesting gourds to dry and use as you chose. if you would like to raise them, sow the seeds in shallow wooden boxes indoors in march. plant them a quarter of an inch deep, and when the little plants crowd one another and are strong enough to transplant remove them to larger boxes and plant them six inches apart. when planting the vines out of doors in may or june put plenty of manure about them and give them ample space. if the vines bear many gourds, and all small ones, pinch off some and the others will develop better. do not pick the gourds until they are quite ripe; that is, when they begin to look slightly yellow. they need plenty of hot sun in order to come to perfection. leave them as long as possible on the vines, only being careful that they are not touched with frost. in the south they are sometimes left on the vines all winter. after picking them, hang them in an airy place in the house or out of doors. leave a little of the vine on each one and they can then be hung by strings tied to these handles. if you follow these few rules your gourds should dry smooth and hard. _how to start lavender indoors_ do you know the smell of lavender--that sweet, refreshing perfume that clings to some of grandmother's treasures of linen and embroidery? one catches a whiff of it in old gardens sometimes, and it is always welcome. you can buy the seed from a florist or seedsman--_lavandula vera_ is what the true english lavender is called, and that is best. if it cannot be had, _lavandula spica_ is next best. it takes time to raise either, but it will be such an addition to your out-of-door garden that you will not regret the time spent. about the first of march the lavender seed should be sown, in window boxes or flats. make shallow drills with your finger, drop the seed in and cover lightly. sprinkle them every day with your bulb sprinkler until they come up. when the little plants each have four leaves they may be transplanted. before starting to transplant them they should be thoroughly wet. set them five inches apart. in the winter protect the plants with litter--leaves, straw, etc.--six inches deep. the next year, in march, they should be set in rows three feet apart. when the plants are in full bloom the sprigs are cut, and then dried in a cool, darkened room or closet. lay them on paper so as to save all the blossoms. the lavender flowers may be made into the daintiest of sachets by filling with them sheer linen bags or pale lavender silk ones. the sprigs that are left after the blossoms have fallen may be used like chinese incense to sweeten a room, by lighting the blossom end of a single piece and letting it burn in a vase or incense holder. gifts and how to make them chapter viii gifts and how to make them it is wonderful what your head and hands can do when you begin to plan gifts for family and friends at christmas, birthdays and the in-between times when "un-birthday presents"--as "alice in wonderland" called them--are so welcome. but i am sure you know the breathless feeling of having to make or buy a long list of christmas presents with only two weeks or so in which to accomplish it. why not keep a gift box or drawer, where you can pack away the pretty things you take such pleasure in making on dull days all the year round? there are ever so many things--games, toys, baskets and beadwork--which you will find in other chapters--that will help to fill this gift box, and i am going to tell you about some others. there are several things to think of in planning a gift. it should be something that will be within your means, something that is worth giving, however small--not "trash"; but what is most important of all is that it shall really please the one who receives it. if it can be a lasting pleasure so much the better. suppose you try keeping a notebook; begin it now, and write down the little things that you hear the family wish for during the year--tiny things, maybe, but just what they want. for instance, aunt helen, who writes, never has enough pencils--her nieces and nephews know why. father is unable to find an express tag when he wants one, because he has no case to hang close beside his desk. joe says he wishes someone would make him a chamois cover for his new knife--it is getting scratched already; and mamma cannot find that recipe for potted pigeons that she cut from the paper saturday evening. what a number of entries you will be able to make in your gift book! see how it reads: aunt helen: one dozen pencils. father: leather tag case and tags. mother: a blank book with her newspaper recipes pasted in. joe: a chamois knife case. and this is just a beginning. when you visit your friends you will soon see or hear what little things will please them. then you can begin collecting the materials for your gift box, and when a rainy day comes what pleasant hours you will spend. let us begin with the _beaded knife case_ =materials required:= some scraps of chamois skin in the natural or another colour, skein no. - beads in a colour that will harmonise with the leather, e bead of the same colour, a spool of letter a sewing silk the colour of the leather, a no. needle. one of the simplest and prettiest gifts you can make is this beaded knife case. if you have made the indian costume described in chapter v. you will have plenty of scraps of chamois left. otherwise you can buy a small chamois skin in the natural colour, or, if you prefer another colour, skins of beautiful tints may be bought. red is very effective and not as costly as some others. in buying a skin, choose a colour that you will not tire of, for you will be able to make so many small things of it that it will be well to have a colour you will always like; either red or green or a soft brown that is not too light will be a good choice. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] from a piece of cardboard cut the patterns shown in figs. and . if the case is for a penknife, the larger one (fig. ) should measure one inch wide by four and one-eighth inches long, and the other should be the same width but two and three-quarters inches long. cut two pieces of chamois from these patterns, lay the smaller one against the larger, with the rounded ends of both together and the edges of the sides fitted evenly, and baste them so. now start at the top left-hand edge of the smaller piece, where it comes against the edge of the larger one, and sew the edges together with the stitch shown in fig. . this is how it is done: thread a no. needle with sewing silk the colour of the chamois. fasten the end by sewing through and through the edges of the case. string three beads and make one over-and-over stitch through both edges of the case, bringing the needle out at about one-eighth of an inch from where it started. run the needle up through the third bead, string two more, make another stitch, run the needle up through the last bead strung, and so on. when you have gone all the way around the double edge, continue the stitch across the top of the smaller piece and around the rounded top of the larger. next a loop must be made to fasten the case. hold a small pencil at the top of the larger piece of chamois close to the rounded edge, and, starting about an eighth of an inch from the centre of this end, fasten an end of a needleful of sewing silk; take a stitch around the pencil and in at one-eighth of an inch the other side of the centre. take six or eight stitches back and forth in this way. this will make a loop, which should be covered with buttonhole stitches. now slip the knife into the case, turn the flap (the rounded edge of the larger piece) down and mark the place to sew the large bead over which the loop is to fit, in order to fasten it. sew an e bead the colour of the smaller beads at this place, bring the loop over it, and the case is complete. [illustration: fig. ] _needle book of flowered silk_ =materials required:= a piece of flowered silk or ribbon inches long by / inches wide, a piece of plain-coloured ribbon the same size, a piece of white flannel inches long by inches wide, / yard of narrow ribbon the colour of the silk, a spool of sewing silk the same colour, a piece of bristol board by inches. the shakers make needle books of fine straw cloth, that are so dainty and yet simple that they are well worth copying. fig. shows the shape in which the cover of the book is cut. it may be made of two pieces of bristol board; one covered with flowered silk or ribbon, the other with plain silk that will harmonise with the flowered. the two are then basted together and sewed over and over. two pieces of flannel are cut the same shape, but about half an inch smaller all the way around. these are laid inside the cover, which is then bent exactly at its centre so that both ends will come evenly together. a hole is punched through both sides of the cover and the flannel at about half an inch in from the edge and quarter of an inch from the doubled middle of the cover. another hole is made on the other side of it and a narrow ribbon threaded in a bodkin, or ribbon needle, is brought in through one hole, across the back and out through the other. the ends are then tied in a pretty bow (see fig. ), which finishes it. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _sweet clover bags_ =materials required:= all the white sweet clover that a little child can gather, some pretty cotton cloth, a needle and thread, scissors. did you know that the white sweet clover that grows in long spike-shaped sprays on low bushes along the wayside is even more fragrant when it is dried? gather some this summer, and spread it where it will dry in the sun, turning it often. strip the blossoms from the stems, and when a rainy day comes you can make with them some gifts that will be welcome wherever they go. keep the flowers in a covered box till you are ready to use them, then make linen, or even pretty white cotton, bags about ten inches long by six wide. fill them with the dried clover, sew up the ends securely, and they will be ready to send to grandmothers, aunts and cousins, to make their linen closets fragrant. a little pillow of white cotton filled with these flowers, with a pretty outer case of fine linen, makes a delightful gift for an invalid friend. _eyeglass cleaner_ =materials required:= several sheets of soft white tissue paper, a piece of green or brown leather inches wide by / inches long, a strip of leather inches long by / of an inch wide, skein no. - beads, large beads of the same colour, an awl or punch. one of your friends who wears eyeglasses was told by a wise person that the best thing with which to clear her glasses was--what do you think? not a handkerchief or a piece of chamois, but soft tissue paper. "that is simple enough, i'm sure," said she; but it wasn't, for whenever she wanted a piece of tissue paper it didn't happen to be near, so she used a handkerchief or chamois most of the time. she found the tissue paper was much better, however, and wondered why children who don't know what to give to friends who wear eyeglasses or spectacles, don't give them a pad of tissue paper to hang by the dressing table or some such convenient place. true, its use would have to be explained, for not many people know that tissue paper is such a good cleaner of glasses; but when they have tried it they will be really grateful for the helpful little gift. cut soft white tissue paper in sheets four inches wide by six and one-half long, and make a cover of green or brown leather the same size. punch two holes at the top of the cover, each about half an inch down from the top and one inch in from the side. lay the cover on the pile of tissue paper sheets and run an awl or punch through the holes in the cover, making holes in the same places through the tissue paper. cut a strip of leather about one-quarter of an inch wide and fifteen inches long, thread it in a bodkin, run it through the hole on the right of the cover, through the sheets of tissue paper and out of the hole on the left of the cover. here it is tied in a bow, leaving a long loop at the back to hang it by. a large bead of a colour that will look well with the leather may be strung on each end of the bow and a knot tied to keep it from falling off. if you choose, the edges of the cover may be worked with the bead stitch shown in fig. . _a german wonder ball_ =materials required:= hank of single zephyr worsted of some pretty colour, several tiny gifts. one of the most delightful of gifts can be planned by a little girl of boy for a friend who is learning to knit. this is the wonder ball. it is one of the many good ideas that come to us from germany--the land of knitting. buy a hank of worsted of some pretty colour and a number of tiny gifts--a thimble, a wee package of chocolate, the smallest of baskets and any other little things you can think of. start winding the worsted around the very choicest gift--so that it shall be at the centre--then by degrees, as you wind, lay the other gifts on the ball and cover them with the worsted. your little friend should be told to knit till all the presents are found. _pin case for travelling_ =materials required:= a piece of flowered silk or ribbon inches long by inches wide, a piece of plain-coloured silk inches long by / inches wide, a piece of cotton wadding / inches long by / inches wide, / yard of ribbon / inch wide, the colour of the silk, a spool of sewing silk the same colour. the friend who travels will be glad to have a case in which to keep her pins. it is very simple to make. cut from any pretty piece of silk or velvet a strip five inches wide by eight long, or a piece of five-inch flowered ribbon the same length will do even better. another strip of thin silk--white or some colour that will look well with the first piece--should be cut the same size, if the flowered piece is of silk; if it is of ribbon, cut the lining silk half an inch wider. a piece of the cotton wadding that comes in sheets is cut half an inch smaller in length and width than the others. half a yard of narrow ribbon to match the silk, and a spool of sewing silk will also be needed, and if you like you can give a still more festive touch to the case by filling it with fancy pins, those with pearl or gun-metal heads. [illustration: fig. ] first baste the strip of cotton wadding on the lining silk through the centre, then turn quarter of an inch of the edge of the silk up over the wadding and baste it securely around all four sides. now baste the flowered silk cover against the other side of the wadding, turning in all rough edges, and making sure that the edges of the lining and cover are quite even, one above the other. sew them together over and over, as neatly as possible, with the coloured sewing silk, and stitch the ribbon at its centre to the middle of one end of the case to form strings (see fig. ). after it is filled with the pretty pins and rolled up, bring the ribbons around it and tie them in a dainty little bow. _a case for tape_ =materials required:= a piece of flowered or figured cotton inches long by / inches wide, a piece of plain-coloured cotton the same size, / yard of / -inch ribbon the colour of the cotton, a package of india tape, a bodkin, a spool of cotton. a case that is made in very much the same way as the one for pins is used for holding pieces of tape of various widths. it is something that almost any aunt would be delighted to have for her work basket. [illustration: fig. ] packages of what is called india tape are sold at many of the dry goods shops for five or ten cents. they contain bunches of tape of different widths, a yard or two in each bunch. pieces of pretty cotton, one figured or flowered, the other plain, will do quite as well as silk to make the case. then you will need a simple metal or bone bodkin and three-quarters of a yard of narrow ribbon or silk braid. that is all except a spool of cotton, needle and scissors. cut a piece of plain-coloured cotton eight inches long by four and a half wide, and lay the bunches of tape all along it, about an inch apart. now lay a piece of half-inch wide ribbon or silk braid along above the bunches of tape and exactly at the middle of the strip of cotton, as shown in fig. . pin the ribbon to the cotton lining at each side of every piece of tape, making a loop that is large enough for each bunch to slip through without pulling the cotton lining. a little loop should also be made just large enough to hold the bodkin. now take out the bunches of tape and stitch the ribbon to the lining where it is pinned. cut a piece of flowered cotton the same size as the lining, and, turning in the edges of both pieces for a quarter of an inch all the way round, lay them together with the raw edges in and baste them evenly one above the other. next sew them together over and over all around. stitch the middle of a piece of ribbon sixteen inches long to the middle of the right end of the case, slip the bunches of tape and the bodkin through their loops, roll the case and tie the ribbon strings around it. it will then be ready to pop into your gift box. _a braided raffia lamp mat_ =materials required:= a bunch of raffia, a bunch of coloured raffia, a tapestry needle, no. . [illustration: fig. ] a lamp mat will be a welcome gift to mamma or even to your big brother for his room at college. the simplest one to make is of braided raffia. take six pieces of raffia and tie them together at one end. fasten this end to a nail or chair back, at a convenient height. if the raffia is dampened a little it will work more smoothly. now braid it into a three-stranded plait, using two pieces for each strand. when a new piece is needed lay it above the end of the old one and continue. the ends are cut close after the braid is finished. you will need a great deal of this braided raffia--about ten yards of the natural colour and two or three of the coloured--but do a little at a time and you will find it pleasant work. when you have enough prepared, thread a no. tapestry needle with a split strand of raffia and bind the end of it tightly around the end of the natural-coloured braid, taking a stitch or two through it to secure the binding. now cut off the knot (which tied all six pieces together in starting) close to the binding and coil the braid into a tiny round centre. run the needle through this centre back and forth, then start coiling the second row, bringing the long end of the braid around with its edge under the outer edge of the centre. the needle is run in slanting from right to left (see fig. ), then out from right to left, so that the stitches form a v within the coil. the whole mat is coiled and sewed in this way, except that when the last row of natural-coloured braid is stitched on, the end is bound as it was at the beginning and brought gradually in under the mat, where it is sewed securely. be sure that you have finished a row before you end it off. this you can tell by counting the rows, from the centre out, on all sides of the mat. an end of the coloured braid (which is to form the border of the mat) is also bound with a split strand of coloured raffia and sewed against the under side of the mat. it is then sewed around like the rest of the mat, except that in the first row you will have to take great care to run the stitches through the natural-coloured braid so that they will not show. be sure to finish the border at the part of the mat where it was started. _sewed raffia lamp mat_ =materials required:= or yards of cotton clothesline or window cord, a bunch of raffia, a bunch of coloured raffia, a no. tapestry needle. a soft, thick lamp mat that is beautiful to look at and very useful is quite simply made as follows: [illustration: fig. ] buy twelve or fourteen yards of cotton clothesline. it is white and smooth, and twisted like the fibre clothesline. or there is a soft cotton window cord that is even better, because it is smoother. thread a no. tapestry needle with a strand of raffia, putting the thick, or root, end through the needle. lay the other end of the raffia on the rope, with its tip turning toward the long end. starting at the very end of the rope, wind the long end of raffia around it (and its own short end) for an inch or more. then coil it into the smallest ring you possibly can, bring the long end of the raffia around, up through the centre of the ring and around again, taking in two coils--the one of which the ring was made and a second one made by bringing the long end of the rope around the ring (see fig. ). the first and second coils are covered in this way with a simple over-and-over stitch, which binds them together, passing around both and up through the centre. with the third coil the real stitch begins. it is an indian one called the figure eight stitch. the needle passes under the third coil (that is, the long end of rope which you are coiling around), around, over it, under the coil below, around, over it and up again, under and around the third coil--drawing the coils close together. the whole mat is sewed in this way. if you choose, you can work a design of coloured rings as a border or a solid border of the coloured raffia. fig. shows how the new pieces of raffia are added. cross the old and new ends on the rope, bring the needle threaded with the new strand under the lower coil, out in front, over the lower coil, under and around the upper one, and so on. [illustration: fig. ] _doll's hat of raffia_ =materials required:= a bunch of raffia, a tapestry needle, no. . how would you like to make a doll's raffia hat, as a birthday gift for one of your special friends--one that will fit her favourite doll? of course it is to be a surprise, but you will have plenty of opportunities to measure the dolly's head. the raffia comes in so many colours that you will be able to choose one to match a special gown. when you are ready to begin, make five yards or more of braided raffia as described in the directions for the braided raffia lamp mat, and start the hat in the same way as the mat was begun, except that an oval instead of a round centre is formed. when you have made a large enough top for the crown, bring the coil of braid around, with its upper edge a little above the middle of the row just finished, drawing it quite tight, and in sewing make the stitches run like the twists in the braid--so that they will show as little as possible. the next row is sewed in the same way, and the next, until the crown is the height you wish. in starting the brim flatten the braid and bring it around more loosely. be sure that each row of braid is sewed half way under the row to which you are stitching it. make the whole brim in this way, keeping the braid always flat and loose so that it shall not pucker. when it is as large as you wish, you can make the edge roll slightly by drawing the last two rows quite tight as you sew them on. fasten the end of the braid at the back of the hat by binding it with the raffia in your needle and stitching it firmly on the under side of the brim. _leather tag case_ =materials required:= a piece of heavy leather / inches wide by / inches long, a piece of leather / inches wide by / inches long, some strips of leather / inch wide, several kindergarten beads of a colour to match or harmonise with the leather, a punch to make round holes, dozen baggage tags, scissors, a bodkin. [illustration: leather tag case] one of the best presents a child can give to his father, or a man friend, is a leather case full of tags. things made of leather are so handsome and durable that you cannot do better, in buying material for your gift box, than to invest in a skin of heavy leather in the natural colour, red or green. another useful thing for your gift work will be a punch with which to make round holes in leather or cardboard. you will then only need a pair of scissors, a pencil and a few beads in order to be equipped not only to make this tag case but several other charming gifts. measure and mark with pencil on the leather two pieces, one six inches and one-quarter long by three inches and one-half wide, the other four and one-half inches long by three and one-half inches wide, and cut them out carefully. also cut a number of strips of leather a quarter of an inch wide and as long as the skin will allow. on each corner of the smaller piece of leather mark a dot three-sixteenths of an inch in from the edge. then make three more dots the same distance from the edge and about an inch apart on each side, and two near the bottom, the same distance from the edge and each other. now with your punch make holes through these dots. lay this piece of leather on the larger one, with the lower edges and sides together, and with a pencil mark through the holes on the piece below. dots are also made three-sixteenths of an inch in from the edge at each of the upper corners of the larger piece of leather, two about an inch apart at the middle of the top edge, and one more on either side, half way between the dots at the upper corners and the upper ones of those already marked from the smaller piece of leather. all these dots have holes punched through them. now lay the pieces together, the smaller one on top, with its lower edge and sides fitting exactly with the bottom and sides of the larger piece. starting at the upper right-hand corner of the smaller piece, bring a bodkin threaded with a long strip of leather up through the holes in both pieces, then up through the next hole below in both pieces, lacing them together all the way around to the other side. here the bodkin is slipped off and the end is knotted with another strip of leather. on this new strip the bodkin is threaded and brought up through each hole in succession along the left side, the top and down the right side of the large piece of leather. it stops where the lacing began, and the ends are there tied together. a large bead is slipped on each of these ends and one on each of the two ends on the opposite side, and a knot is made at the tip to keep the bead from falling off. to make a loop to hang it by, thread the bodkin with a short strip of leather, run it down through the left of the two middle holes at the top of the case and out again through the right one. cut it the length you wish the loop to be and thread a bead on each end, making a knot at the tip to keep the bead on. _beaded leather pen wiper_ =materials required:= two circular pieces of leather about / inches in diameter, circular pieces of natural-coloured chamois about inches in diameter, a strip of leather / inch wide and / yard long, skein of beads, no. - , skein of beads, no. - , of another colour. [illustration: fig. ] a pen wiper is such a usual present that you may think no one would care for it, but look around and you will surely find a big brother or sister, or perhaps a friend, who hasn't one. and this is such an interesting pen wiper to make. it is very simple, just two round pieces of leather and three of chamois. the top piece of leather has the design shown in fig. worked on it in beads of a colour that will look well with the leather you have chosen. black and crystal beads will harmonise with red leather or dark-green crystal and opaque white. if the leather is not so bright a colour, the beads may be more gay. work the design with the stitch described in the directions for making an indian beaded shirt in chapter v., bringing the strings of beads farther apart at the outer edge of the circle than on the inside. when the beadwork is done, put the pieces of leather together with the chamois ones between, mark two dots a quarter of an inch apart at the centre of the top, punch holes through the dots and then through the other pieces of chamois and leather. a bodkin threaded with a strip of leather is then run down through one hole, up through the other, and the ends are knotted together and cut quite short. _baby's worsted ball_ =materials required:= a piece of thin cardboard a foot square, odds and ends of worsted, a worsted needle, a piece of string, scissors. we have not made any plans, as yet, for a gift for the baby. suppose we make him a great, fluffy worsted ball. among your mother's odds and ends of worsted you will find plenty of gay colours that will be exactly what you want. then you will need some thin cardboard, or bristol board. on this mark two circles, five inches in diameter, and at the centre of each of these, two smaller circles an inch and a quarter in diameter. cut out the two large circles and the small holes within them. you will then have two circular pieces of cardboard with a round hole in the centre of each, making it look like a cookie. take a strong but slender piece of string about a foot long and lay it around the hole in the centre of one of the pieces of cardboard, with the ends coming together below the outer edge (see fig. ). lay the other piece of cardboard directly over the first one and hold them firmly together (see fig. ) while with a needle threaded with worsted you sew around and around the cardboard rings, bringing the needle each time through the hole in the centre and around the outer edge of both rings. when a needleful of worsted is finished leave the end hanging and start another. keep on until the hole in the middle is quite filled up and the whole thing looks like a puffy cushion. now take a sharp pair of scissors and cut the layers of worsted at the outer edge of the pasteboard rings all the way around. do this carefully but quickly, and be sure not to cut the two ends of string, for now is the time to use them. they are tied together just as tightly as possible, and as close to the centre. the cardboard rings are then slipped out, leaving a soft, fluffy ball of many colours. clip off the uneven ends of worsted here and there, and the ball will be complete. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] raffia sewed in the same way over tiny cardboard rings, then tied and cut, makes fascinating little pompons for a doll's hat. paper flowers and toys chapter ix paper flowers and toys [illustration: fig. ] it sometimes seems, on a rainy day, as if there was nothing to do because you have not the materials that are needed for certain occupations--but there is always paper. you may not, of course, have all the things that are used in making tissue-paper flowers, unless you have been so thrifty as to buy them, looking forward to just such a time as this. but if you cannot make the flowers at once, you can decide which ones you wish to do and plan a list of the materials you will need. then there are numbers of things that you can fashion from watercolour paper, or even heavy note paper and cardboard; so let us get out pencil and paper, paste and scissors, and begin. =materials required:= large sheets of linen writing paper sheet of deep-yellow tissue paper, sheet of olive-green tissue paper, a little cotton batting, a long wire stem, a tube of paste, pen and ink, scissors. [illustration: fig. ] how would you like to make a game of your very own with which you and your brothers and sisters or some of your friends can play? it is quite simple--just a great paper daisy with a slip of paper pasted on the under side of each petal. upon each slip is written a sort of conundrum, the answer to which is the name of a plant or flower. if you can get a real daisy for a model, so much the better. fold a large sheet of linen writing paper diagonally so that you will have a square eight by eight inches. bend it over again diagonally, and then again and again, so that it will have been folded four times in all. now draw the outline of a daisy petal upon the folded paper (see fig. ), and cut it out through all the thicknesses. this will give you a sixteen-petaled daisy. the centre has next to be made. cut from deep-yellow tissue paper eight circles three inches across, six circles two inches, and six an inch across. this is easily done by folding the paper into as many thicknesses as you wish circles of each size, so that you can cut through them all at once. before separating the circles cut the edges into a fine fringe about three-eighths of an inch deep. fold a piece of olive-green tissue paper in the same way as the white paper for the petals was folded, but once more, and cut it like fig. . this is for the calyx. next cut some slips of paper just large enough to be pasted on the underside of the petals and write on each a number and a conundrum from the following list: . a public building in philadelphia. . a plant that rhymes with pansy. . a foolish wild animal. . a wise man. . fit for a king. . a girl's name. . a plant for sundays. . for thirsty folk. . several droves of sheep. . part of a pet. . two girls' names. . something that we know flies, though no one has ever seen it. . a rosy athlete. . a necessary article of food and a piece of china. . a girl's name and a metal. . an animal and a covering for the hand. the following key, or answers to the conundrums, you will of course keep hidden until after the game has been played: . mint . tay . dandelion. . sage. . goldenrod. . sumach (sue mack). . jack-in-the-pulpit. . pitcher-plant. . phlox (flocks). . cattail. . rosemary. . thyme. . scarlet runner. . buttercup. . marigold. . foxglove. when the slips have each been pasted on a petal the daisy is put together in this way: take a long, stout piece of wire, such as is sold for paper-flower stems; put the yellow circles all together, the larger ones at the bottom, then the medium ones and the smallest on top. bend one end of the wire into a tiny ring and run the other end down through the centre of the yellow circles, then through the middle of the white circle with the petals on its edge, putting a touch of paste between the centre and the petals. now paste a thin layer of cotton batting to the lower side of the petal-edged piece, at the centre, and run the wire stem through the middle of the green calyx, pasting the paper lightly to the cotton. wind the stem with olive-green tissue paper cut in strips two inches wide, and cut from the same paper some leaves as much as possible like the little leaves of a daisy plant. the directions for playing this game are given in chapter x. _how to make a country girl_ =materials required:= a sheet of brown paper, a sheet of heavy watercolour paper, by inches, a pencil, a box of watercolour paints, scissors. [illustration: fig. ] little country girls are almost always useful, and though this one is only made of paper she can be useful too. she will serve as a dinner card or a penwiper, or even carry courtplaster to those who need it. if you do not care for any of these things you can play with her, for she makes a charming paper doll. fig. shows one side of the little girl, the other is just the same. she is made as follows: cut from brown paper the pattern shown in fig. , making it six and a half inches high by four and three-eighths inches broad--at the widest point. take care to mark the dotted lines exactly where they are in the picture. it will be better to draw the apron, sunbonnet and little shoes on the pattern, for then you can copy directly from it instead of from the smaller one in the book. lay the pattern on a piece of heavy watercolour paper and draw around it with a sharp-pointed pencil, marking the dotted lines exactly. next the little girl must be cut out. do this carefully with a pair of small, sharp scissors. bend the paper on the dotted lines so that it will look like fig. . on all the lines except the one down the front a (see fig. ) and the two marked b the paper is bent forward, on these two it turns back and the flaps on the bottom of the shoes are turned back. now for the finishing touches. for these you will need pen and ink and a box of watercolour paints. the dress, where it peeps out beyond the white apron, the bands on the sleeves and the dots and edge of the sunbonnet, should all be painted some pretty colour--pink, red, blue, green or yellow--whatever you choose. the shoes should be black, and the outlines of the apron and pockets, the gathers of the sleeves and sunbonnet are all drawn in black ink. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the little girl is now complete unless you wish to have her stand by herself, in which case cut a circular piece of cardboard and glue her upon it by the flaps on her shoes. if you would like to make her useful, you can attach two or three tiny sheets of courtplaster between her skirts or several leaves of flannel, so that she can serve as a penwiper. [illustration: fig. ] _a paper santa claus_ =materials required:= the same as for the country girl. [illustration: fig. ] another delightful little paper person made on the plan of the country girl is the santa claus shown in fig. . he makes a charming christmas card to carry greetings or a gift. the pattern (see fig. ) is made five and one-eighth inches high by five and a quarter inches wide, of brown paper, in the same way as the pattern of the country girl. santa claus is also cut from watercolour paper and bent according to the dotted lines. the colouring should be red and white, of course, with a green holly wreath. it would not do to forget the saint's pack, which is cut from the pattern shown in fig. . it is painted brown, with gaily coloured toys--dolls, drums and noah's arks--peeping out at the top. paste it between the two sides of santa claus near his shoulders. _a seashore boy_ =materials required:= the same as for the country girl. [illustration: fig. ] as a companion for the country girl you can make, if you like, a seashore boy (see fig. ) in just the same way. the pattern given in fig. shows where the paper is to be folded. from all the folds the paper should bend backward except on the lines marked a, from these it bends forward. the colouring should be mostly blue and white. the great sun hat will be straw coloured, of course, with a blue band. his short socks are of white, with brown legs showing above them, and his suit should be blue, or a white one with a blue tie. the pail may be painted red. _a valentine favour_ =materials required:= a piece of watercolour paper a foot square, a box of watercolour paints, a strip of scarlet china silk inches wide by / yard long, a yard of scarlet baby ribbon, a spool of scarlet sewing silk, a bodkin, a tube of paste, scissors. a boy or girl with deft fingers can make the most attractive little valentine favour imaginable in a short time and at very slight expense. it is a double heart of watercolour paper, painted scarlet and with a silk puff of the same colour drawn up at the top, making a bag for bonbons. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the heart is perhaps the most difficult part, but a child who has learned in kindergarten to weave with paper will be able to do it without much trouble. cut from watercolour paper two pieces in the shape shown in fig. . the paper should be doubled and the fold laid against the straight edge at the bottom of the pattern. the size does not matter very much, though if the heart is to hold anything the pieces should measure four inches and a quarter from the doubled edge to the top of the rounded end and two and five-eighths inches across. rule with pencil a light line across each piece at two and five-eighths inches from the straight end. five lines are also ruled in the other direction, the first one seven-sixteenths of an inch from one side of each piece of paper and the others the same distance apart (see fig. ). cut along these lines with sharp, strong scissors from the double straight edge to the ruled line near the top of each piece. the lower part of both pieces will thus be cut into doubled strips. now take a piece in each hand, rounded end down, and weave the lower strip of the piece in your right hand through the strips in the left-hand piece. as the strips are double, the weaving must be done rather differently than with single strips of paper. the strip with which you are weaving goes around the first strip in the left-hand piece, through the next one, around the next, and so on (see fig. ). when it comes to the end it is pushed down a little way and the next strip on the right is woven above it, only that this one passes through the strips that the first one passed around, and around those that the first one passed through. weave one after another until all six of the strips in the right-hand piece are woven in with those on the left--when it should open to form a heart-shaped bag, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] colour the heart on both sides with vermilion watercolour paint and it will then be ready for the silk top. cut from scarlet china silk a strip five inches wide by half a yard long. sew the ends together, hem the top and make a casing for the ribbon drawstring, as described in the directions for the beaded silk bag in chapter v. the lower edge is gathered to fit the inside of the top of the heart and pasted into it on a straight line, running just below the openings, around both sides of the heart. if the paste is not very sticky you may need to take a tiny stitch here and there with scarlet sewing silk, tacking the silk top more securely to the heart. it will then be ready to line with a lace paper doily or some waxed paper, and fill with bonbons. _a frog jumping jack_ =materials required:= a small sheet of -ply bristol board, a box of watercolour paints, a ball of fine white string, pen and ink, a pair of sharp scissors, a large, sharp-pointed worsted needle. there is a funny frog jumping jack that you can make if you like some cheerless, rainy day. he brings smiles wherever he goes. take a sheet of heavy four-ply bristol board and draw upon it the pieces shown in figs. , , and --the frog's head and body, legs and one arm. make them as large as you can. the head and body together should measure eight inches high by seven wide, from the right side to the end of the mandolin on the left. the legs should be about six and a half inches long and the right arm should of course be the size of the left, which is drawn on the same piece as the body. colour the body, throat and legs pale yellow with watercolour paint; the upper part of the head, the arms and the outer edges of the body and legs are first painted light green and then marked with irregular spots and dashes of medium and dark bluish green. a red ribbon with a maltese cross of the same colour is painted around his neck, and the mandolin he holds is white above and black underneath. the eyes should be dark green with very large whites, and the smiling mouth red, of course. the strings of the mandolin are drawn with pen and ink, as are the outlines of the whites of the eyes, the hands and feet. now mr. frog must be put together. tie a knot in a piece of fine white string and thread the other end through a large worsted needle. run the needle through the frog's body at the lower right side (where you see the dot on fig. ), leaving the knot in front, pass it through the right leg about half an inch from the top and fasten it with a knot at the back. the other leg is attached in the same way, and the right arm is placed in position and fastened to the body as the legs were. a knot is then made in a piece of white cord and the end is brought through the right arm (leaving the knot in front) about three-quarters of an inch below where it is fastened to the body, and near the outer edge of the arm. the end of the string is brought down at the back of the frog, quite loosely, to the upper part of the right leg, where it passes through and is tied to the part of the string that comes from the arm (see fig. ). it is then brought across to the top of the left leg, where it is tied. a separate string fifteen inches long is attached to the centre of the piece, which passes from one leg to the other (this is the one that is pulled to make him jump), and a short loop of string is fastened at the top of his head by which to hold him. when the long string is pulled mr. frog will dance and play the mandolin. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _paper flowers_ have you ever made paper flowers? if not, you have probably seen them made by the cardboard patterns which dealers in tissue paper sell. how about making the patterns yourself--for the poppies, daisies and tulips and all the other flowers. it will be an interesting thing to do and not difficult. catch one of the poppy petals as it floats off from the flower, blown by a summer breeze. notice that there are only four petals (if it is a single poppy), the two smaller ones setting across the larger pair below. poppies are charming and much simpler than other flowers to copy in paper. you may have noticed that the petals of the real ones look almost exactly like silky, crinkled paper. draw an outline of the petal a little larger than life on heavy brown paper. fold the paper back at the base of the petal and cut it out in the two thicknesses so that it will look like fig. . the two lower petals will be cut in the same way but larger. you now have a pattern for as many poppies as you choose. they can be made in various colours--white, red, pink, pink and white and yellow. you can buy poppy centres ready to use, or if you prefer you can make them yourself in this way: for a poppy four and a half inches across, cut a circle of yellow paper an inch and a quarter in diameter. fringe the edge about half an inch. next take a wire stem, bend the end into a small circle, cover it with a tiny ball of cotton batting and over this a piece of olive-green tissue paper, forming it to look as much as possible like the real poppy centre (see fig. ). wind the edges of the paper close around the wire stem. now run the other end of the stem down through the yellow circle, brushing it with paste to attach it to the green part of the centre. slip the smaller pair of petals on the stem, then the larger pair (with a little paste between), so that the smaller pair will set directly across the larger. this completes the poppy. the stem is wound with strips of olive-green tissue paper, and the leaves are cut from the same paper by a pattern which you can easily make by laying a poppy leaf on a sheet of cardboard and drawing around it with a sharp-pointed pencil. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _ox-eyed daisies_ =materials required:= or more sheets of deep-yellow tissue paper, a sheet of olive-green tissue paper, a ball of dark-brown worsted, several wire stems, a tube of paste, scissors. ox-eyed daisies are easily fashioned and look so like the real ones that they are as satisfactory as any paper flowers you can make. take four thicknesses of deep-yellow tissue paper. bend the corner over diagonally and cut a square four by four inches. next fold the paper in the same way as for the petals described in the daisy game in this chapter. mark on the top of the last fold a petal, as shown in fig. , and cut it out through all the thicknesses. after it is unfolded you may have to cut some of the petals up nearer to the centre. wind some brown worsted around your thumb about twenty times, take it off and run through it the end of a wire stem which has been bent into a tiny crook. tie the worsted centre just above the wire with a short piece of worsted, or bind it with fine wire, and cut the loops at the top. now run the other end of the stem down through the centre of the petals. make a green calyx like the one for the white daisy but much smaller, not over an inch across. wind the stem with strips of olive-green tissue paper, laying in every now and then a daisy leaf cut from the same dark-green paper. other single flowers can be as easily made as this, and you will find that the patterns will not be difficult to make if you take the natural flowers for your models. _a curled chrysanthemum_ =materials required:= several sheets of pink or yellow tissue paper in a light and medium shade, several sheets of olive-green tissue paper, a small piece of cardboard, some wire stems, a tube of paste, scissors. [illustration: fig. ] chrysanthemums are among the most natural of paper flowers, and fascinating to make. white ones are pretty, and those that are made of shades of pink or yellow are even more attractive. cut the pattern shown in fig. from cardboard and lay it on three thicknesses of medium yellow tissue paper, seven and a half inches square, which have been folded diagonally three times. hold the pattern firmly upon it and cut it out carefully. then in the same way cut two thicknesses of light-yellow paper into petals. a piece of olive-green tissue paper is folded into a smaller square and cut in the same way, to make a calyx. to curl the petals, put a small sofa cushion on your knee, lay a petal upon it, and, taking a common hatpin with a smooth, round head, press it upon the end of each petal up to the centre. this will curl it as if by magic. do another and another till the whole piece is finished. then curl a second piece and a third in the same way. when they are all done bend a long wire stem at one end and run the other end through the centre of the petal-edged pieces, which should be laid one above the other, the darker ones on top. put a touch of paste between them, slip on the green calyx, wind the stem with strips of green tissue paper, laying in a chrysanthemum leaf from time to time, and the flower is complete. [illustration: making a chrysanthemum] games for two or three to play chapter x games for two or three to play on stormy days the children of a family are likely to be alone--unless they are so fortunate as to have a little visitor in the house, or a friend who lives near wraps up and comes to play with them. a child who is alone can read, or find in the other chapters of this book some absorbing occupation; for a party of children there are always plenty of games, but it is sometimes difficult to think of a game that two or three will enjoy. the following are a few suggestions for such an emergency: _picture puzzles_ =materials required:= as many pieces of cardboard about by inches as there are children, as many pairs of scissors as there are children, one or more tubes of paste, several old magazines. there is such a fascination about cutting and pasting that a game like this is one of the best you can choose for a dull day. each child has an old magazine, a piece of cardboard and a pair of scissors, while tubes of paste lie conveniently near. when the children are seated around a table the game begins. it is played in this way: each player cuts from his magazine a picture (which must be smaller than his card), pastes it upon his piece of cardboard, and when it is dry and firm cuts it in pieces with six straight cuts of the scissors, so as to make a puzzle. he then mixes the pieces and passes them to his neighbour on the right. at a given signal each child tries to put the puzzle which he has received together as quickly as possible. the one who finishes first calls out that he is through, and he is of course the winner. as a sequel the children will enjoy colouring the puzzles. if they are pretty and neatly made they may be given to a child's hospital, to amuse some other little children in the long days of convalescence. _how to play the daisy game_ this is a good guessing game for two or more children to play, and if you will follow the directions given in chapter ix. you will find that it can be made quite easily. none of the players should have seen the key, or answers to the conundrum, but if you find that they have seen it, you can write on the slips of paper, instead of the conundrums, the names of flowers with the letters mixed for example, sapyn, for pansy. each child in turn pulls a petal from the daisy and tries to guess the name of the flower, which is the answer to the conundrum written on the under side of the petal. five minutes is the time allowed, and if the player has not guessed the flower in that time he must pass the petal to the child on his left, who also has five minutes in which to guess it. if he guesses correctly the petal belongs to him, and at the end of the game the player having the most petals has won. _horses in the stable_ =materials required:= a pasteboard shoe box, some marbles, pen and ink, scissors. although this game is played with marbles, girls as well as boys will enjoy it, and it is so easily prepared that it can be played at short notice. take a long pasteboard box--a shoe box is about the right size. remove the cover and turn it upside down. now, starting at the lower edge, draw five doorways, like those shown in fig. . the one in the centre should be an inch across and an inch and a half high, the two on each side of it an inch and a half wide and two inches high, and the outer ones each two inches wide and two and a half inches high. cut out these doorways with a sharp, strong pair of scissors and mark over the middle one in pen and ink the number . the two on either side of it have marked above them , and the other two each have . stand the box, or stable, thus prepared, against the wall and place a mark four feet from it. each player has three marbles, and in turn tries to roll or shoot them from the mark through the little doors into the box. if he succeeds in putting one through the smallest door he makes twenty-five; if through either of the other doors his score is increased by the number marked above it. there should be a time limit for the game--half an hour, for example. the score of each player, which is kept on a sheet of paper, is added at the end of that time and the one having the most points has won the game. [illustration: fig. ] _plants and flowers_ =materials required:= as many pencils and sheets of paper as players, a large sheet of cardboard, some seed catalogues, pen and ink, a tube of paste, scissors. although a number of children can play this game, two or three will enjoy it quite as well. any boy or girl can make it. you will need first of all a number of seed catalogues. cut from these eighteen or twenty pictures of flowers and plants, taking care not to leave the names on them. write in pencil, on the back of each, a number (any one from to ) and the name--this is for your own guidance later on. now make a list of the flowers and plants, each with its number before it. this is the key, to be put away till after the game is played. take a large sheet of cardboard, about twenty by twenty-four inches, and paste upon it the flowers and plants in the order of their numbers, marking the number of each clearly in pen and ink underneath it. if you like you can colour the pictures--this will make the game more attractive, of course, and as you can use it many times it is worth while. a loop of string, by which to hang it, should be run through the top of the card at the centre. when you are ready to play the game hang the cardboard sheet where all can see it; give each player a pencil and a piece of paper, on the left side of which numbers from to have been marked. each child tries in the time allowed--about twenty minutes--to guess the names of the flowers and plants on the sheet or cardboard, and write each opposite its number on his piece of paper. the correct names are then read from the key and the players check off their guesses. the one who has guessed the greatest number correctly is of course the winner. _a ball-and-fan race_ =materials required:= japanese paper balls, palmleaf fans. [illustration: a ball and fan race] two children will find this race an interesting one for a rainy day. the best place in which to play it is a large room with very little furniture in it--a playroom for example. each player stands at a corner of the room diagonally opposite the other, three feet out from the corner, and each has a japanese paper ball in front of him and a large fan in his hand. they must face different ways and both count together "one, two, three, and away!" as they finish counting, the children begin to fan their balls around the room, close to the wall. there will be some lively skirmishing when they meet, as they are likely to do when half way around the room. then each tries to send his opponent's ball back and his own forward. when each finally gets his ball back to the corner where he started, he must try to send it as quickly as possible to the middle of the room, where a chair is placed. the ball must be fanned through the legs of this chair and to the goal of his opponent. the player who first accomplishes this is the winner. _fun with popcorn_ =materials required:= an open fire, a corn popper, several ears of popcorn, a prize, if desired. if the open fire burns brightly in your playroom, no matter how gray and bleak the day may be outside, you and your brothers and sisters can keep warm and cheerful over this delightful game. you may provide a prize for the winner, if you like, but the only things that are absolutely necessary are the fire, some popcorn and a popper. when the players are seated in a semicircle around the fire they may all help in shelling the corn. after this is done, divide the popcorn evenly between them, so that each shall have a small quantity. the player on the left side of the fireplace now takes the corn popper and pops his corn. when it is done, the kernels that are fully popped are counted, also the unpopped ones, and a record is made of each. the next player pops his corn and counts the result, and so on until all have finished. the child having the largest number of fully popped kernels is the winner, and may receive a prize. afterward the winner and the defeated players will equally enjoy eating the fluffy popcorn, or if the cook is particularly amiable they may be allowed to flock to the kitchen and make popcorn balls. _express_ =materials required:= or articles, large and small, light and heavy. this is a lively game that needs little preparation. all you will have to provide is a number of articles, toys, pieces of china (not valuable ones), a glass of water, some very small things and one or more large ones, something heavy like a dumb-bell or flatiron and something light--a palmleaf fan, for example. when you have them all collected, on a table or stand on one side of the room where the game is to be played, place another table or stand across the room. then you must have a clock or a watch, and that is all--except the players. each child in turn takes one thing at a time, from the stand where the various articles are piled, and carries it to the table at the opposite side of the room. it is done as quickly as possible, for the object is to move everything from one place to the other in the least possible time. each player is timed and his record kept on a piece of paper. if a player drops anything he must carry it back to the starting point and make another trip with it. the next player begins at the table to which the first one took the baggage and carries it, in the same way, back to the first table. so it goes on until everyone has played expressman. the player who succeeds in transferring the baggage in the shortest time is, of course, the winner. _a hurdle race_ =materials required:= a box of tiddledywinks, a sheet of white cardboard, a box of watercolour paints, a pencil, scissors, a ball of white string, some pins. the next time you are kept indoors by the weather, you and a brother or sister may enjoy a hurdle race. it is played with tiddledywink chips and pasteboard hurdles on a large table or on the floor. you can make the hurdles yourself. they should be cut from cardboard, eight inches wide and four inches high. paint some of them with wooden bars and others green--like high hedges. in making the hurdles, cut the cardboard so that a strip two inches deep by an inch across will extend below each lower corner (see fig. ). one of these is bent sharply forward at the place marked by the dotted lines, the other is turned back, forming stands to keep the hurdles upright. the racecourse will have to be laid out on a covered table or carpeted floor, as the tiddledywinks can only be used on a soft, cushiony surface. you can make the boundaries with white string, held in place here and there with pins. an oval course, though more difficult to mark is rather more exciting than a straight one, but either will do. have the course eight inches wide and as long as you please. the hurdles may be placed where-ever you choose, but be sure to have plenty of them. [illustration: fig. ] when you are ready to begin, each player takes a large tiddledywink chip and a small one of the same colour--but different from his opponent's--and at a signal given by a third person, who acts as umpire, the race begins. snap the tiddledywink chip just as you do in playing the game, only taking great care not to send it out of the course, for if it goes outside the lines you must set it back three inches. the umpire follows the race, of course, and settles all disputed questions. _pictures from fairy tales_ =materials required:= a number of old magazines, twice as many sheets of cardboard or heavy brown paper, by inches, as there are children, as many pairs of scissors as there are children, a tube of paste for each child. two or three children who know and love the old fairy tales can spend a delightful hour playing this game. each one should have several old magazines and a sheet of cardboard, as well as scissors and a tube of paste. the leader, who may be one of the children or an older person, explains the game as follows: each child is expected to make a picture on his sheet of cardboard to illustrate some fairy tale. it is not necessary to draw it; he can cut from the magazines people and properties and scenery and paste them upon the card. he must be sure not to tell anyone the story he has chosen. at the end of half an hour the pictures should be finished. a bell is rung for everyone to stop work and the pictures are placed where all can see them. the leader now holds one up before the children and asks them what story they suppose it illustrates, and what particular part of the story. the child who answers first wins the picture. the other pictures are held up, one at a time, and the children try to see who can guess them first. if they are ready for another round of the game after this one is finished, they may find it amusing to vary it by making pictures from "mother goose." +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | transcriber's notes: | | | | p. . 'aesily' perhaps a typo for 'easily', changed. | | obvious punctuation errors repaired. | | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ transcriber's note: this book is a summary and index to a series of books that can also be found in the project gutenberg collection. details of these books can be found in the notes at the end of this volume. the library of work and play guide and index the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson. needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel. [illustration: wireless station and workroom of george riches, montclair, n. j. george made most of the apparatus at home or in the school shop] _the library of work and play_ guide and index by cheshire l. boone [illustration] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company the country life press, garden city, n. y. contents chapter page i. significance of the crafts in the life of a people ii. the cultivation of taste and design iii. the real girl iv. that boy v. a house and lot--especially the lot vi. vacations, athletics, scouting, camping, photography index list of illustrations wireless station and workroom of george riches _frontispiece_ facing page an example of furniture such as boys like clay pots made for germination experiments the work of children between ten and eleven years of age two examples of furniture grouping for the porch or outdoors the numerous photographs suggest disorder and dust an interesting curtain which might be duplicated by any girl since flowers are so beautiful in themselves, is it not worth while to arrange them with judgment? a school garden in jordan harbour, ontario, can. domestic science class the work of girls in the public schools a children's garden gives fresh air and sunshine all children love to play at being "grown up" girls must sometime learn of the conventions and customs of domestic arrangement a boys' camp with ernest thompson seton the play idea very soon grows toward the representation of primitive though adult customs and actions a typical boy's workroom and shop the kind of shop which one may have at home the kite fever is an annual disease pump and waterwheel boat made by percy wilson and donald mather these are the forerunners of numerous other electrical constructions a real derrick in miniature waterwheels and fan a self-recording telegraph receiver wireless station and workroom of donald huxom an electrical soldering iron and glue-pot waterwheel connected with model lathe excellent examples of high school work a manual training shop the machine shop the study of aeroplane construction a successful machine finished aeroplanes the boy who does not love to camp is unique this and other illustrations of homes, show such places as people make when they care about appearance even the most beautiful house must have a background one should build a house as one builds a reputation trees, shrubbery and lawn form the frame of the picture there was a time not long since, when people built houses according to style a school garden the watchung school garden there is a fascination about raising animals whether for sale or as pets two more illustrations which will suggest plans for the future every child, and especially the boy, needs active outdoor exercise organized play (woodcraft) under ernest thompson seton more woodcraft. has the boy had a chance at this kind of experience? even the technical process of photography has been reduced to popular terms in these days photography has become so simplified that every child can use a camera to advantage the library of work and play guide and index [illustration] chapter i significance of the crafts in the life of a people there was never a time in the history of the world when each race, each nation, each community unit, each family almost, did not possess its craftsmen and artists. in every instance, these so-called gifted members were by no means the least important citizens; their names appeared again and again in the stream of tradition as wonder workers and idols of the people. this is still true in the very midst of a materialistic age, when money and mechanics work hand in hand to produce the most in the least time for economic reasons, and when the individual worships "hand-made things." they may even be poorly made or bizarre, but "handwork" satisfies the untutored. now it is quite possible for the machine to produce a bit of jewelry, textile, or woodwork--even carving--quite as pleasing as any made by hand alone, and it is being done every day. but the machine-made article must be produced in large quantities (duplicates) for profit, whereas the work of hand alone is unique. there lies the reason for reverence of "handwork." it is always individual and characteristic of the workman in style or technique and has no duplicate; it is aristocratic. among the primitives, the pot, necklace, or utensil was wrought by infinite labor, and, being valuable because unique, was embellished with all the wealth of current symbolism. it was preserved with care and became more valuable to succeeding generations as a tangible record of race culture and ideals. and so down to the present time, the handiwork of the craftsman and skilled artisan has always stood as the one imperishable record of racial development. the degree of finish, the intricacy of design and nicety of construction are evidences of skill and fine tools, well-organized processes, familiarity with material and careful apprenticeship: the pattern, color, ornament, and symbolism point to culture, learning, and standards of taste and beauty. a crude domestic economy, rude utensils, coarse, garish costume and of simple construction, are characteristic of an undeveloped social order. in fact, all the arts of both construction and expression exhibit at a given period the degree of civilization; art products are true historical documents. since then through their arts and crafts it is possible for one to know a people, does it not follow that one entrance to sympathy with the ideals and taste of the present time is through practice in the arts? of course a considerable mass of information about them can be conveyed in words, especially to adults who have passed the formative period in life and have not the same _work_-incentive as have children. but even the adult never really secretes much real knowledge of the arts unless he has worked in them. he acquires rather a veneer or artistic polish which readily loses its lustre in even a moderately critical atmosphere: he learns artistry and the laws pertaining thereto as he would learn the length of the brooklyn bridge or the population of el paso. he merely learns to talk about art. but children learn primarily and solely by _doing_, and the foundations of taste and culture need to be put down early that they may build upon them the best possible superstructure which time and opportunity permit. [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone an example of furniture such as boys like and which they can make under direction] [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone clay pots made for germination experiments in grade iv. of the public school. the boys of this grade built a small kiln in which these pots were fired] [illustration: the work of children between ten and eleven years of age] the foregoing paragraphs will perhaps have opened the way for questions: "what kind of knowledge is of most worth? why do children--practically all of them--try to make things, and what is their choice?" and when these queries have been answered so far as may be, do the answers possess immediate value? at the outset it will be evident that no sort of knowledge will be of much avail until it is put in such form that the student can use it to advantage. mere knowledge of any kind is inherently static--inert and often seemingly indigestible, like green fruit and raw meat. one too frequently meets college graduates, both men and women, equipped with so-called education, who are economic failures. these people are full of information, well up to date, but they seemingly cannot use it. their assortment of knowledge is apparently in odd mental sizes which do not fit the machinery of practical thinking as applied to life: it is like gold on a desert isle. what the boy and girl need and desire is ( ) a favorable introduction to the sources of information, and ( ) the key to its use. they will have to be shown simple facts and truths, and have their mental relations and importance explained. by gradually introducing new knowledge as occasion offers, the field of study is sufficiently widened. children profit little by books and tools alone: they crave encouragement and some direct constructive criticism. in such an atmosphere their endeavors become significant and profitable, and the accumulated learning will be applied to business or economic ideas which result in progressive thinking, which uses information as a _tool_, not an end in itself. if then the arts of a people stand as monuments to its beliefs and ideals, an intimate understanding of some of the arts ought to be provided for in every scheme of education both at home and in school. the child is by nature interested in the attributes of things associated with his life and upbringing. he wants to know about them, how they are made, and learn their uses by means of experiment. the elements of science, mechanics and natural phenomena, business and household art, and finally play (which is often adult living in miniature)--these comprise a large portion of the subject matter which is of prime importance to children. it is just such material as this which bids fair to serve in the future as the basis for public school curricula, simply because of its strong appeal to youth and its potential worth in forming the adult. the boy makes a kite, a telegraph outfit, or sled in order to give to his play a vestige of realism. he seeks to mold the physical world to personal desires, as men do. incidentally he taps the general mass of scientific facts or data and extracts therefrom no small amount of very real, fruitful information. the result possesses marvelously suggestive and lasting qualities because it came through effort; because the boy wanted above all things to see his machine or toy _work_, _move_, or obey his guiding hand, he was willing to dig for the necessary understanding of the problem. his study brought about contact with numerous other lines of work which were not at the time, perhaps, germain to the subject, but were suggestive and opened various side lines of experiment to be considered later. therein lies the lure of mechanics and craft work, gardening, outdoor projects, camping, etc.: the subject is never exhausted, the student can never "touch bottom." there is always an unexplored path to follow up. the intensity of interest in mechanical things and in nature is the one influence which can hold the boy in line. turn him loose among mechanical things where nicety of fitting and accurate workmanship are essential and he appreciates construction immediately, because it is clear that _workmanship_ and _efficiency_ go hand in hand. it is very much the same with the girl: she may not enjoy the tedium of mere sewing, but when the sewing serves a personal end, when sewing is essential to her greatest needs, these conditions provide the only, inevitable, sure stimulus to ambition and effort. the school of the past, and often that of the present, has sought to produce the adult by fertilizing the child with arithmetic, grammar, geography, and language. the process resulted in all kinds of crooked, stunted, oblique growth, the greatest assortment of "sports" (to use a horticultural term) the world has ever seen. it isn't intellectual food the child needs most (though some is very necessary); the real need is intensive cultivation. within himself he possesses, like the young plant, great potential strength and virility, enough to produce a splendid being absolutely at one with his time and surroundings; he simply requires the chance to use the knowledge and opportunities which lie at hand. it is, then, the common subjects of every-day interest--science, business, nature and the like--which are the sources of knowledge which has greatest worth to children.[a] they are the valuable ones because they are of the type which first attracts and holds the child's attention; they are concrete. through them one may learn language and expression, because one has something worth saying. the second question, "why do children like to make things and what is their choice?" in the light of what has been said practically answers itself. children work primarily in response to that law of nature which urges the young to exercise their muscles, to become skilful and accurate in movement, for the sake of self-preservation and survival. it is another phase of the same law which makes one carry out in work, in concrete form, the ideas which come tumbling in from all conceivable sources. the child can only think and learn in terms of material things. finally, the child's interests, the things he desires to make and do, are such as will minister to his individual or social needs, his play and imitation, and such as will satisfy his desire to produce articles of purpose. the need may be a temporary, minor one, but every child is stubborn on this one point, that everything he does must lead to utility of a sort; through such working with a purpose he in time rises to an appreciation of beauty and other abstract qualities. now this complex condition of child and school and society, in which there is seemingly so much waste--"lost motion"--has always existed; the facts are not new ones by any means. it is a condition where the child is always curious, inquisitive and ready to "hook a ride" on the march of business, science and learning, but the school sternly commands "learn these stated facts because they are fundamental" (philosophically), while society, represented by the parent, alternately abuses the school, which is collectively his own institution, or spoils the child by withholding the tools for learning easily. in the meantime the child, with the native adaptability and hardiness of true need, thrives in barren, untoward surroundings, and matures notwithstanding. in other words, the school and society have always tended toward misunderstanding--toward a lack of mutual interest. in this period of uncertainty, of educational groping, the child is found in his leisure hours pushing along the paths which connect most directly with life and action, shunning the beaten but roundabout highways of custom and conservatism. the deductions are evident and clear-cut. if one accepts the foregoing statement of the case, and there is ample evidence in any community of size, it will be clear that certain definite opportunities should be opened to the boy or girl to make the most of native talent and enthusiasm. encourage the young business adventurer or artisan to make the most of his chosen hobby (and to choose a hobby if he has not one already), to systematize it, develop it, make it financially profitable if that is the desire; but first, last and all the time to make it a study which is intensive enough to satisfy his or her productive ambitions. at this age (up to the high school period) the boy or girl may not have been able to decide upon a profession or business, but he is working toward decision, and he is the only one who can choose. instead of trying to select an occupation for him, father and mother would do well to put the child at the mercy of his own resources for amusement, recreation and business, merely lending a hand now and then in their full development. it will preserve the freshness of youth beyond the ordinary time of its absorption by a blasé attitude toward the world, and lead toward a more healthy and critical kind of study than the haphazard lonesomeness, or the destructive gang spirit of the modern community.[b] perhaps it would not be amiss to indicate just how this unofficial study may be promoted, and to name the resources of the parent for the purpose. first of all, nine children out of ten will definitely choose a hobby or recreation or indicate some preference, as photography, animal pets, woodwork, electricity, drawing, sport, one or more of the domestic arts, collecting coins, stamps, etc.; there are as many tastes as children. the child may get his suggestion from the school or companions. any legitimate taste should be actively encouraged and supplemented by books which really explain and by tools and materials with which to use the books. if it is a shop he wants, try to give him the use of some corner for the specific purpose so that the occupation may be dignified according to its juvenile worth. second, endeavor to emphasize the economic and social significance of the work done and urge right along some definite aim. if a boy wants a shop, or pets, see that they are kept in condition, attended to, and if possible give some measure of tangible return on the outlay of money and energy. third, connect the boy's or girl's chosen avocation with real living in every possible manner. girls are rather fond of those decorative arts which contribute to artistic pleasure, and should they make experiments with stenciling, block-printing, and the like, have them use them also in embellishing their own rooms, the summer camp or club. fourth, make the child feel that a given hobby is not to be satisfied for the mere asking. put some limit on the money expenditure until it is clear that the interest is genuine and honest, and that the child is either producing results which are sincere, or acquiring real knowledge. fifth and last, but perhaps most important of all, support the school in its effort to solve the problem of formal education, because the heavy burden rests there. it is quite essential that the home give the boy and girl every possible chance to develop along original and specific lines at their own pace, to experiment with the world's activities in miniature, and establish the probable trend of individual effort for the future. but this can only supplement and point the way for the formal training which the institution (school) gives. the school, being democratic and dependent upon the general public for existence, takes its cue therefrom, and creating ideals in consonance with public needs perfects the method of reaching them. when father and mother believe in a vigorous, efficient education, rooted deeply in the child's fundamental attitude toward the world and its affairs, then will the public approve and urge the proper kind of organized training. even so, the school cannot really educate the child--he educates himself through the agents aforementioned--it simply organizes information and gives the pupil access to methods of using facts and ideas. in closing this chapter there is one more word to be said concerning the main theme. the arts and crafts[c] of expression and construction fulfil that precise function in the child's preliminary training which they did in the early history of the race. they indicate just that degree of manual skill and constructive ability of which both the youthful individual and the young race are capable; they serve as indices and guides to the development of design, taste and constructive thinking. as the child matures he may elevate a given craft to an art or science, but the early familiarity, the simple processes, he should have, because they are essential to childhood. hence, the large amount of handwork in the kindergarten and primary school; it is the necessary complement to academic work and balances the educational diet. footnotes: [a] for the elaboration of this question as it concerns girls see chapter iv. [b] both boys and girls have clubs, societies and organizations, which are useless, enervating or merely harmless when they exist without purpose. if, on the other hand, the aggregate energy can be collected into profitable channels, these same gangs or societies are a real source of education and training. any organization without consistent, sustained purpose is a waste of social energy. baseball is worth while, but the merits of high school fraternities are doubtful. [c] it will be evident that the term _crafts_ as here used is a more comprehensive term than when employed in connection with the arts and crafts furore of the past few years. any kind of manual occupation may be a craft; if it involves a measure of art and science it may become more than a craft. but with children the craft stage, which is characteristic, includes many occupations which may not even be true crafts as the term is ordinarily used. chapter ii the cultivation of taste and design it will be evident to the thinking man or woman that art or any phase of it is not to be taught successfully as a profession through books. the very most that one can expect from reading is a knowledge about art matters and acquaintance with the conventions and rules which obtain therein. but even this slight result may be the precursor of a fuller, more intimate familiarity with the principles of good taste and design. one may be able to say "that is a beautiful room" or "a fine garden" or "a charming gown" and yet be unable to produce any such things. how is it possible then to _know_ if one cannot _do_? the answer is that, _potentially_, every individual who really sees and appreciates beauty can produce it through some form of artistic expression; the power to execute and the power of invention are merely undeveloped. and as for the artist or craftsman who can make beautiful things, but who cannot explain how he does it--he is unique, like the mathematical genius; he just sees the answer; it is a gift. though there are born in every generation a few with the divine spark of genius, the mass of men and women has always learned by effort. in other words, it has been possible to _teach_ the subjects which were found necessary to culture and education; it is quite possible to present the ordinary phases of art to the lay mind in such a way, even through books, that one may have worthy ideals, and a healthy point of view. the present chapter will be devoted to showing how books such as these[d] for boys and girls can contribute to the development of taste. frankly, taste has much less to do with fine art than with the arrangement and choice of the ordinary externals of living. of course fine art does in the last analysis pass judgment upon form, color and design in clothes, furnishings and architecture, but the common home variety of taste is derived directly from custom, comfort, and convention, not from art at all. only in the later stages of refinement does the lay mind succumb to direct supervision by art. on the other hand, all conventions and ideals are the result or sum total of general experience, in which art has played its part, and has left some impress on the individual, giving rise to belief in a few principles so common as to be accepted by all. principles of this kind are not always serviceable or effective, because they are not stated in precise language, and cannot therefore become standard. in truth, so far as design is concerned, there are very few absolute rules for guidance, and a book like "home decoration" cannot tell the child or parent how to make a beautiful, inspiring home. its mission is to create the desire for fine surroundings, to suggest ways and means for studying design, especially those phases of decoration associated with the crafts, and above all such a book invites and helps to maintain a _receptive attitude_ of mind toward artistic matters. in the effort to produce work of merit, one becomes critical, and seeks reasons and precedents for judgment. this is the beginning of design study: and the fact that one has real interest in taste is indicative of the desire of the cultured mind for ideals. if a child is allowed to grow up in the "i know what i like" atmosphere, without reasonable contact with choice things, and without the necessity for selection based upon reason, there is small chance that such a child will ever acquire any sense of fitness or taste in material surroundings. [illustration: two examples of furniture grouping for the porch or outdoors. these few pieces suggest comfort, cleanliness and moderate expense] [illustration: the numerous photographs in the upper illustration suggest disorder and dust. they do not decorate. sometimes a lack of small, insignificant objects like these is the secret of successful decoration] the aims of all practical books for boys and girls may be summarized about as follows: (_a_) to absorb the overflow of youthful energy and turn it into profitable channels. (_b_) to develop organized thinking and accomplishment, and eliminate wasted, aimless, non-productive action. this is the complement to the routine of formal training in academic subjects, which are in themselves, normally un-useful. (_c_) to explore the field of accomplishment in order to select intelligently a future occupation. (_d_) to develop and foster standards and ideals of efficiency, comfort, enjoyment, beauty and social worth. this last purpose includes taste and is the one of concern here. the peculiar æsthetic standards which interest young people are of the most practical kind. they apply every day and to everybody. and they are fundamental. the illustrations given below will indicate the common-sense way in which design should be approached: _color._ the tones of the color scale have not yet been systematized so well as those of music, but each year students of design and artists move a little toward agreement. now, suppose one wishes to use two or more tones in a room, how may harmonious effect be secured? the very word "harmony" means _agreement_, and suggests _similarity_, _likeness_, _relationship_. therefore the tones one would use in the embellishment of a room should possess some common _quality_ for the harmonizing element. each tone having that quality as characteristic is similar in that one respect to all other tones having the same quality. hence they are related in a way. the relation may be made strong or weak by the manipulation of the bond which holds the tones together. for instance: red and green are not related at all. by mixing gray with each, red and green become related through gray. by mixing yellow, orange or blue, etc., with red and green, the relationship may be established in the same way. yellow and green have a common quality--_yellow_, and in so far tend toward harmony. but it may not be a pleasing one, and it will be necessary to bring them still closer together by introducing other bonds, as gray or a color. yellow is very light and green is dark: they will work together better if brought nearer together in value. [illustration: an interesting curtain which might be duplicated by almost any girl--if she wanted curtains] [illustration: since flowers are so beautiful in themselves, is it not worth while to arrange them with judgment?] it is by such simple means that all color combinations are brought into line and rendered satisfactory. no rule can be given for mixing or choosing the actual colors, but it is a safe rule to select those of a kind in some respect. the popular belief in low-toned (grayed) color schemes is a sound one, and the principle can be used very comfortably by the amateur decorator in furnishing a home. she can have any colors she wishes, and make them pleasing, if she will unite them by some harmonizing tone. of course, all grays even are not rich and beautiful, but they are better than unadulterated color. mr. irwin in one of his breezy skits quotes the æsthete as saying: "good taste should be like the policeman at parade; he should permit the assembled colors to make an orderly demonstration but not to start a riot." the moment the unskilled amateur tries to use white woodwork, red wallpaper, and gilt furniture in combination, he or she courts failure simply because the choice lacks the pervading tone which would modify the three. there are ways to secure harmony even under the most adverse conditions, but the technical details are not pertinent here. another characteristic which stands in the way of harmony is _emphasis_. the moment any one tone becomes greatly _different_ from its neighbors in value or otherwise, it stands out, attracts attention, just as in material objects, unusual, curious shapes and sizes invite notice, often beyond their just dues. hence a brilliant yellow house, a bright green gown, large figured wallpaper, are over-emphatic. clothes, which by their color and style are loud in their clamor for inspection, are out of key and bear the same relation to surroundings which foreign, exotic manners and customs bear to domestic conventions. and ordinarily one does not seek such prominence. this question of taste is a vital one to children, and these books about "needlecraft," "home decoration," "outdoor work," "gardening," etc., are indirectly most useful because they put the child in a _position to choose_. the girl who sews and helps run the home is bound to cross the path of design a dozen times a day. she is faced with problems of arrangement, color and utility at every turn. her own clothes, her room, the porch and garden, whatever she touches, are inert, lifeless things which await artistic treatment. it is when the child is faced with the problem of personal interest and pleasure that these elementary conceptions of design may be proposed. _form and line._ each year fashion decrees for both men and women certain "correct" styles. at slightly longer intervals the shops offer new models of furniture, hangings, jewelry, pottery, etc. have these new things been devised to meet a change in public taste? not at all; they are inventions to stimulate trade. most of such productions are out of place, incongruous, in company with present possessions. one must have a pretty sound sense of fitness and selection in order to use them to advantage or to resist their lure. as single examples, many of the new things are beautiful in color and line, though they may have nothing whatever in common with what one already owns. one chooses a given pattern in furniture first, because of its _utility_; second, because of its harmony in line and size with other furniture already owned; and third, because of its intrinsic beauty. it is much less difficult to furnish a house throughout than to refurnish an old room in consonance with others already complete. all the household things need not be of one kind, though the closer one clings to a clear-cut conception of harmony (relationship of some kind) the better the result. hence clothes may either beautify or exaggerate personal physique, and the garden may attach itself to the house and grounds or stand in lonely, painful isolation. down at bottom design aims to assemble elements and parts into proper groups, and in the common questions of home decorations and dress the student can usually work on just that simple basis. it is usually the incongruous, over-prominent, conspicuous, or isolated factor in decoration which causes trouble. this fragmentary discussion will perhaps suggest some of the benefit which may come from the pursuit of crafts and occupations. the illustrations here given are in some detail because it is so easy to overlook design at home and in common things. everything is so familiar there, one is so accustomed to the furniture, rugs and their arrangement, that it never comes to mind that the situation might be improved. it must be remembered that, when children begin to apply design to their own handicraft, their fundamental conceptions of beauty originate in the home. either the children must lose faith in home taste, or, as they grow and learn, be allowed to bring their new-found knowledge back into the home and "try it on." this is where the craft does its real work. the true privilege conferred upon children by the possession of such books as these on various special occupations is a chance to obtain, first-hand, individual standards of perfection and beauty. before this they have merely accepted the home as it stood, with no thought of what was choice or otherwise. since taste and design are merely implied, or indirectly included in the several volumes, save "home decoration," the latter should be used as a supplementary reference in connection with the others. as has already been said, it is not possible or advisable to systematically teach good taste. it will be better and more effective to just _include_ taste in the several activities the child undertakes. when the girl begins to make things for herself, help her to select materials which are appropriate in every way. have her seek materials for the purpose. have her _choose_ decoration and color rather than take the first handy suggestion or copy the plans of another. she would do well to experiment independently. the girl should create her own room down to the last detail, not make everything herself, but plan it, plan its arrangement, its color (tone) if possible, and make those small decorative articles like pillows, runners, curtains, etc. but before beginning such a comprehensive experiment in decoration have her look about a bit and note the conditions imposed. the light and exposure, size of the room, furniture which must be used, treatment of hangings--these are all stubborn factors, but they respond to gradual treatment. then the room is hers in reality. the boy's attitude toward taste is totally different. he cares less than the girl for the charm of tone and arrangement; he is quite willing to despise the niceties of decoration. he must approach the question obliquely through interest in the efficiency of a given effort; he appreciates the utility phase of design most of all. the boy will come to see gradually that his pets and chickens should be decently housed, and that it is good business to do so. he should not be allowed to impose upon his own family or their neighbors a slovenly yard or garden. he will find that those tools work best which are sharp and clean and always in place. his final lesson in design grows out of association with his mates. when he begins to go to parties, to enter the social world in a small way, a new body of conventions in taste appear and he must be taught to appreciate them if he would be well liked. but the real training in design arises from manual work--the playthings, toys and utensils the boy makes for _use_. they need not be beautiful nor is there excuse for clumsiness in construction. one cannot expect even the mature child to take much interest in design in the abstract, but when he meets the subject on a common-sense basis, as a part of some personal problem, design--even taste in color and form--acquires definite standing in his esteem. it has earned the right. hence a liberal contact with youthful amusements and occupations encourages both boy and girl to build ideals of working, and among these ideals taste is bound to appear in some guise--usually unbidden. the book on design or decoration is but a reference, an inspiration, a stimulant, never a text of instruction. the ability to choose, to secure appropriate, beautiful, accurate results, is largely a by-product of judicious reading combined with persistent effort. it remains for the parent to skim off this by-product as it appears and infuse a little of it into each problem the child presents for inspection. footnote: [d] library of work and play. [illustration] chapter iii the real girl _what is the ideal home?_ [illustration: a school garden in jordan harbor, ontario, canada. any child who has had this experience, who has produced or helped nature to produce such wonderful things, will be richer in sympathy for fine things] [illustration: domestic science class. these girls not only cook but learn about foods, housekeeping, entertaining, and themselves keep open house at the school occasionally] strange as it may seem, most of the plans for industrial training, the majority of school courses of study, and probably seventy-five per cent. of the books on the crafts and arts have been devised for the use of boys. now there are hosts of girls in this world, probably as many girls as boys, and these girls are just as keen, intelligent, ambitious and curious about things and how to make them, as are boys. in very early childhood when both boys and girls have the same interests, similar books of amusement are used by both. but as girls develop the feminine point of view and need the stimulus of suggestion and aid in creative work, the literature for them seems meagre; they have somehow been passed by save for a manual now and then on cooking or sewing, left as a sop to their questioning and eagerness. this state of affairs is more than unfortunate, it is fundamentally wrong for two very good reasons. ( ) the girl up to the age of twelve or thirteen has practically the same interests, pleasures and play instincts as the boy. she is perhaps not so keenly alive to the charm of mechanical things as the boy, but like all children regardless of sex, she seeks to be a producer. she is just as much absorbed in pets and growing things, in nature, in the current activities of her environment, and requires the same easy outlet for her play instincts as the boy. ( ) the girl, when a woman grown, becomes the creator of the home, and too often enters upon her domestic career with a minimum of skill or taste in the great body of household arts, which in the aggregate, give us the material comforts and homely pleasures. moreover, since she, as a girl, probably did not have the chance to satisfy her play desires and consequently never learned to _do things_ herself, she is at a loss to understand the never ceasing, tumultuous demands of her own children for the opportunity to experiment. to quote gerald lee in the "lost art of reading," which is one of the real modern books: "the experience of being robbed of a story we are about to read, by the good friend who cannot help telling how it comes out, is an occasional experience in the lives of older people, but it sums up the main sensation of life in the career of a child. the whole existence of a boy may be said to be a daily--almost hourly--struggle to escape being told things ... it is doubtful if there has ever been a boy as yet worth mentioning, who did not wish we would stand a little more to one side--let him have it out with things. there has never been a live boy who would not throw a store-plaything away in two or three hours for a comparatively imperfect plaything he had made himself...." when one goes deep enough--below the showy veneer of present-day living--one comes to agree with mr. lee. the normal child, especially the boy, is potentially a creator, a designer, discoverer, and we have committed the everlasting sin of showing him short cuts, smoothing away difficulties, saying "press here." no child can survive the treatment. father and mother have the very simple obligation to furnish the place, raw material (books, tools, etc.), and encouragement. [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone the work of girls in the public schools, montclair, n. j. these girls are only eleven years of age] [illustration: a children's garden gives fresh air and sunshine, and best of all, brings nature very near. to be really happy one must make nature's acquaintance] for these reasons, if for no other, the girl ought to have a permanent outlet for her native ingenuity and constructive skill in such crafts and occupations as are adapted to her strength, future responsibilities and possible interests. a home should comprise other elements than food and clothes, which are bare necessities; and though these may be expanded and multiplied, becoming in their preparation real art products, they alone are deficient in interest. look over any well-ordered household, note the multiplicity of things it contains which are primarily woman's possessions, and collecting all one knows about them, the amount of real knowledge is surprisingly small. how much does the embryo housekeeper know about textiles, curtains, carpets, hangings, linens, brass, china, furniture? where do all these charming things come from? many of the hangings, table linen, embroidery, etc., are home products. they cannot be bought at all. the simple stenciled curtain which one likes so much draws attention by virtue of its personal quality. to have such things in any abundance the girl must create them, and this she is more than willing to do. how may one explain the restful atmosphere of certain homes visited? how many housewives have intelligent insight concerning home management and administration; of simple domestic chemistry or sanitation? yet these are vital elements in the domestic machine. one never mistakes a proper household, orderly, smooth running for the showy establishment--gay outside and sad inside. even the most untutored child unconsciously responds to the healthy influence of selected material environment and conditions, when these are combined harmoniously. there are systematic ways of creating pleasant rooms, fine grounds, comfortable places for living, places imbued with the spirit of contentment. the people who produce such places are seldom the professional decorator, landscape architect, and hired housekeeper. it is the woman of the family, who, having practised some of the arts, or at least been their disciple, has learned to appreciate order and love beauty. therewith comes an almost instinctive knowledge of how to use them to advantage. one can never really have beautiful baskets, pottery, sewing, gardens, until one has made them. one surely cannot appreciate the true worth of clean linen, a spotless house, and perfect routine anywhere so thoroughly as in one's own house. it naturally follows that the girl, like the boy, should be a producer, not a mere purchaser, of personal or domestic commodities. she may have unlimited means, but the place where she lives as a girl and the home she seeks to create in adult life will always be impersonal, detached, _hotel-like_, unless she personally builds it. she must know the structure, composition, and functions of inanimate things; this knowledge comes easiest and persists longer through use and experience. [illustration: all children love to play at being "grown up," even beyond the time of childhood. these girls will make real women, because they are normal and happy] [illustration: girls must sometime learn of the conventions and customs of domestic arrangement, and too often their only opportunity lies in such classes as these] there is a good bit of psychology behind the suggestions offered, and the reasoning is simple. all our ideas, our plans, and conceptions are just ideas and nothing more until they have been worked up into concrete form--put to test. there is nothing tangible about an _idea_. but living is real; hence all the details which comprise living are real too and mere thinking about them without action is futile. one must execute, arrange, and experiment with the raw materials of everyday use. the result is either pleasant or otherwise; if otherwise, the effort has somehow failed, and one should do it again and learn thereby; if pleasant, one is the richer and happier for a bit of success, and is warmed by the presence of mere accomplishment. this last phrase reveals the nub of the whole question--accomplishment. material surroundings and comforts of course go far to make one happy, and they are the evidence of success, but the ideal home is also composed of people each of whom is or should be a contributor to the work of the world. the ideal home contains no drones, and therefore no discontent. now the girl cannot plunge headfirst into the maelstrom of domestic management. she must learn her strength and acquire confidence, and there are simple occupations for early years, occupations which train the muscles, sharpen the wits; occupations which through suggestion gradually lead to a wider and wider intellectual horizon, and which, by a cumulation of information and experience, mature both judgment and taste. these occupations form, as it were, some chapters in the unwritten grammar of culture and efficiency whereby the girl grows in self-reliance and maturity. there are, for instance, a number of crafts which, in their delicacy of technique and the artistic worth of the finished product, are splendid occupations for girls, and some few of which every girl should know. the girl who cannot sew is an object for sympathy; it is the typical feminine craft for the reason heretofore named--that one cannot know how things should be unless one is familiar with the process involved. gowns are manufactured of pieces of cloth cut in proper shape and sewn together in some, to the male, occult fashion, and this complex operation only explains itself even to a woman by going through the experience. one has always been accustomed to think that the accomplished mistress is also an expert needle-woman or skilled worker in textiles of some kind. products of the needle and loom have always been her intimate, personal possessions, and the charm of old hangings, lace, needlecraft of all kinds, rests in the main on this personal quality. without a doubt the most precious belongings of the young girl are her own room with its contents of decorations and furnishing, and the garments which emphasize her inherent feminine charm. it is not only a girl's right, but her duty, to maintain her place as the embodiment of all that is fresh, cleanly and attractive. to this end clothes and the various other products of the needle contribute not a little; a clean-cut, thorough experience in manufacturing things for herself is the best assurance of future taste, which will spread out and envelop everything she touches. it is much the same with clothes and furnishings as with other matters, what one makes is one's own, characteristic, appropriate, adequate, with the touch of enjoyment in it; the purchased article is devoid of sentiment, it is a makeshift and substitute. then by all means let the girl learn to sew, learn to do for herself, to study her own needs and desires, to find as she progresses, ways to master the details of woman's own craft, and it is hoped, lay up a store of just the sort of experience which will enable her to supervise the work of others in her behalf when the time comes. but sewing, valuable as it is in connection with the young girl's problems, is not the only craft at hand. in recent years craftworkers have revived a number of old methods of using or preparing textiles for decorative purposes, and some of these have proven increasingly worth while in the household. stenciling, block-printing, dyeing, decorative darning, and even weaving itself, since they have been remodeled and brought out in simple form, offer opportunities to the wideawake girl. the results in each case may be very beautiful, and perhaps more in harmony with the individual taste and scheme of living of the particular girl than any materials she could buy, because they may be designed and executed for a specific place. few people, least of all a child, work just to be busy; there is always a motive. with the girl it is a scarf, a belt, collar, curtain, or sofa pillow; is it not well worth while if she can make these for herself or her room, in her chosen design motif, (as rose, bird, tree, etc.) and color? it may be an ordinary design, peculiar color, but they satisfy a personal sentiment which, by the way, can be modified and improved as time goes on. one must needs allow children to begin with the bizarre, distorted, seemingly unreasonable, archaic desires they have and cross-fertilize these with better ones in the hope of producing a fine, wholesome, sturdy attitude of mind. among the minor crafts which may be a source of real pleasure and good taste, two are prominent: pottery and basketry. the technique, decorative possibilities, and functions of the finished products as elements in household economy and ornament place these crafts high in the list of those especially suitable for girls, though boys and adults do find them equally interesting. pottery is so closely associated with flowers and growing things, with the decoration of fine rooms, with choice spots of color, and with those receptacles and utensils which belong to the household, that it makes a strong appeal to the feminine mind. here is a craft which vies with textiles in age and beauty of design, and possesses even greater charm of manipulation because it is plastic. one can imagine no finer outlet for creative effort. lastly, there is the eternal, magnificent, womanly craft--home-making. when one stops to think that the home is the one imperishable, absolute social unit, the power which creates it must take rank with other vital forces of constructive economics. mothers' clubs and women's organizations of divers kinds, or, rather, the individuals who comprise such societies, are continually drifting into the discussion of the worries, difficulties, and trials which attend the household. the instant household routine becomes awkward or inadequate it affects adversely each individual member of the family, and naturally the mistress who is responsible shoulders a burden. there are times when the maid leaves, or the cooking goes wrong, or the house is cold, or just a time when one gets started for the day badly. there are times when the innate perversity of humans and material things runs riot. one is led to believe that such untoward occasions, since they have been in the past, will in all likelihood continue to crop up to the end of time, though one cannot find any good reason why they should. there are homes unacquainted with any household rumble or squeak, where the domestic machinery is always in order, and flexible enough to care for sudden overloading, or absorb any reasonable shock. in many such places, devoid of servants and confined to a modest income, the mistress is ever an expert; the chances are that her daughters will be equally resourceful. really, the only sure way to bring up an adequate number of fine, competent, resourceful wives and home-makers is to train them definitely for the profession. the girls must be made acquainted with every detail of the business which they will surely inherit. the people who would live in hotels and frankly abandon home-making themselves merely emphasize the charm of the household, because hotels have nothing in common with homes. it seems rather strange that a business so old as housekeeping does not, and never has, applied to its development the laws of commercial enterprise. when the community or corporation state sees the need for workmen, foremen or directors, it tries to educate individuals for the purpose. the supply of competent men and women is not left to chance. whereas, womankind trusts to a very fickle fortune, that every girl will somehow learn to steer the domestic craft and be conversant with methods of preserving family ideals. contrast the far-sighted plans of business to fill its ranks with the casual training the average girl undergoes to fit her for the future. what is her chance of success? is it reasonable to suppose that one who has never made a home, or even helped actively to run one made for her, can on demand "make good?" it is a lasting tribute to the inherent genius and indefatigable patience of the modern woman that she has achieved so much with a minimum of experience. hence, in order to properly equip one's children for a practically inevitable future, let the girls into the secret of domestic planning; let them know of costs and shopping, income and expenditure; of materials and uses; the care of possessions, repairs and cleaning; try to show them that the menu is not a haphazard combination of ingredients and foods, but a conscious selection of viands which will entice the appetite, furnish proper nutrition and accord with the season. by all means emphasize the fact that housekeeping, like any business, can be systematized so that the hundred and one activities may succeed one another in orderly procession through the weeks and months. wash day and housecleaning should be absorbed into the domestic program, and never present their grisly features to the home-coming male, with sufficient trouble of his own. recent issues of the magazines have contained much discussion of the household tangle, and most of them have ended with the slogans "industrial education," "back to the kitchen," and such. granted that girls need this training, and that schools in time will give it; granted that the social position of the servant is a source of discussion and friction; that the demands of modern living are exacting; and, finally, granting the insistent prominence of all the other economic disturbances, who is, in the last analysis, to blame? would a business man think for one moment of handing over any department of his affairs to one not trained for the particular duties involved? industry in every branch seeks men and women _fitted_ to take charge of even minor matters. and when trained assistants are scarce the obvious policy is to prepare other promising workers for such special places. on the other hand, mothers too often prepare their daughters for marriage, not for home-making, seemingly blind to the fact that marriage is an inert, barren, static condition, save in the stimulating atmosphere of a fine home. how can the servant question ever be settled by untutored girls who get no closer to the domestic question than fudge, welsh rarebit and salted peanuts? the _school can and does_ now, in all well-ordered communities, give a very satisfactory formal, technical training in domestic art and science.[e] there students learn to cook and sew; they learn a good deal about food values, dietetics and simple food chemistry, simple sanitation, etc. but the management of a real house, system and everyday routine, that fine sense of adjustment to the conditions as they exist--these essentials can only be learned in the home itself. the efforts of the school can largely supplement but never replace home guidance, experience and _responsibility_. keeping house ought to be a science and art rather than a game of chance. _definite suggestions_ in the "library of work and play," to which the present book is the introductory volume, one will find a collection of books replete with suggestion. but these are not manuals, or courses to be followed from end to end, because children do not _profit most_ by such a plan. the child is like a pebble dropped into still water. it communicates its energy of momentum to the surrounding fluid and makes a circular ripple, which in turn makes another and wider ripple, until the energy is exhausted. in much the same way the child, landed in the midst of a more or less inert material world, acts upon it with energy, _which, however, is never exhausted_, producing the results which become more and more extended. he begins in the middle of a given subject and works in all possible directions, which gives one the clue to how to make the most of books like these.[f] if the girl has not already indicated a decided preference for some recreation or play, place at hand the books which show the possibilities open to her. it would be well for one to go over them rather carefully first in order to know what they contain. let the girl take her leisure in searching the chapters and illustrations for the suggestion which strikes a responsive chord. ofttimes it will be quite in order to point to chapters which have a bearing on some personal need or desire. at any rate, the book or chapters which seem to be most significant at the time should be followed up. read over with her such a volume as "home decoration" or "housekeeping." let her discuss the plans offered and try them out in her own home. every girl wants and should have a dainty, inspiring, beautiful room of her own, and as she grows older she also wants the rest of the house to match, so that she can entertain her friends with pride and confidence. if one will take "housekeeping," "home decoration," and "needlecraft" as texts, and select from them first those suggestions which are _immediately apt_ in a particular home, the girl will shortly find herself looking at home problems from several different and very important angles. but it is desirable also that the study be taken up first in a very simple way, in order to tie it to real living and needs. new curtains, pillows for the porch or den, stenciled scarf, the decorations and menu for a small party, additional linen: these are some of the problems always coming up, which may be used as a beginning. and once the start is made the girl should have the chance to try other experiments along the same line. read with her the chapter on menus and marketing, or housecleaning, and turn the house over to the daughter for a time to manage--absolutely. there is nothing in the world which children love more or which develops them more quickly than responsibility, and the mutual consideration of household affairs gives the girl real partnership in the domestic business. she may use the "housekeeping" book as a kind of reference, to be sought when new problems in management fall to her share. the question of home decoration is so vital that it deserves special statement. the text[g] deals with all those details of interior furnishing and embellishment which indicate taste. all of these are not equally important, nor do they interest all girls to the same extent, and in using the book one can profit most by the study of those topics which touch the individual or particular family. but everywhere there is the problem of furniture arrangement, wall decorations, color schemes, and the skilful use of flowers, pottery and textiles. give the young people, and especially the girls, an insight into how the interior should be treated. have them look up pertinent questions in the text and then try their 'prentice hands at creating a pleasant, restful, homelike house with the furnishings at hand plus whatever they can make or secure. really, the book is as much a volume of suggestion for the mother, to which she can refer her daughter, as a text for the child. there is very keen interest in taste in recent years, among young people as well as parents, and the elements hitherto lacking have been ( ) accessible information and ( ) opportunity to "try it out." offer that opportunity; a flat is just as fruitful a field for experiment as a house, perhaps more. the active participation in outdoor life, nature-study propaganda and the multiplication of popular scientific (nature) literature has greatly opened another field to children--that of raising pets, gardening, etc. here the boy or girl will readily make some choice at an early day, if there has been any contact with such things. if not, a volume of this kind[h] will be a real stimulant and inspiration, as it should be, not a lesson manual. place the book in a child's hands, help him look over the conditions, available ground, cost, care, etc.; let him send for circulars and catalogues, or if possible visit some one interested in the same hobby and the experiment is under way with irresistible momentum. it is a godsend to any child to give him a simple, direct statement of what can be done; he furnishes the steam and imagination for future development, and father and mother comprise the balance wheel of the business. this volume and the one on "outdoor sports" contain a mass of information which touch the interests of practically all boys and girls at some time in their first sixteen years. when the child is old enough to launch out in any personal undertaking, old enough for even minor responsibilities, when he or she expresses the desire for possession and money, then give them books like these. let them soak in and digest. encourage only those requests which are convincing, but give them all the scope possible. every child will eventually select the pastimes which are best for her though she may stumble in doing so; she will make fewer mistakes, and waste less time if she have access to books which will crystallize and guide her ambitions. footnotes: [e] as the high schools of springfield, newton, and brookline, mass.; cleveland, ohio; los angeles, cal., among others. and the elementary schools of practically every well-organized community. [f] "library of work and play." [g] "home decoration." [h] "outdoor life." [illustration] chapter iv that boy "the prime spur to all industry (effort) was and is to own and use the finished product."--hall. one day the pedagogue, who was a learned man and addicted to study, shut himself up in his library, bent on devising a method for training boys into men. this master was well versed in the sciences so that he could follow the stars in their courses, make the metals and substances of the earth obey his will, and guide the plants in their growth from seed to blossom. nor was this scholar lacking in sympathy for the arts, if they were not too fine, for his desires all led to systems and orderly arrangements of matter, and those subjects which would not succumb to analysis he looked upon coldly. [illustration: a boy's camp with ernest thompson seton. there was never a boy who did not "make-believe," and here the play spirit, under stimulating guidance, becomes a powerful factor in developing the appreciation of community effort] [illustration: the play idea very soon grows toward the representation of primitive though adult customs and actions, in which several join a common body or company. hence city gangs which merely seek romantic expression] hence in this problem of education he made a careful survey of the history and development of learning from the beginning--seeking those ideals and standards of culture which had been approved for the _scholar_, because scholars have always been held in high esteem by those patrons who, being ignorant themselves, wanted scholarship nearby. it was found in the course of his delving that the sciences had originated and developed in about this order, mathematics, astronomy, geology, botany, biology, etc. the arts of expression had of course developed as a group, but chiefly through literature from the beginning. there seemed to be a good deal of recent interest in machines and engineering, and of course certain classes had always tilled the soil, because one must have food; but the study of these activities could not lead to culture, because culture had always had to do with thinking, not manual labor. therefore it became clear to the master that up to the present time, since the end of all scholarly ambition had been a profession (law, medicine, theology, etc.), education must be a very simple matter. all one had to do was to prepare certain capsules of mathematics, grammar, greek and latin, and a few, very few, odd pellets of science, etc., and at stated intervals stimulate the boy's mental organism with the various toxins in rotation. were these subjects not the very basis of culture, and what would be more logical than direct systematic presentation of the fundamental principles? if the patient did not respond nothing could be done but to use more medicine, more lessons; there could be but one line of treatment. with this question settled the good savant signified his readiness to instruct youth in such branches as were desirable for the educated man, and pupils came in numbers to obtain the precious learning, for the pedagogue was favorably known as a great scholar. but these pupils who came, like the master, happened to live in or about the year , when the chief interests of the people were business, science, and engineering; when transportation and communication had become highly developed and systematized; when farming and agriculture were almost arts, the whole welfare of the nation rested on industry, and utility held high rank as an element in culture among the people who worked. even when a boy of this period did not seek industrial honors and follow in the footsteps of his father, he must needs be interested as a citizen in so important a source of prosperity. hence the children who set out to become pupils of the learned teacher were alive to the business and activities of their time and surroundings, and were more than willing to learn when the learning led to a useful end. but the scheme proposed by their mentor was such a queer scheme. of course it was better to go to school than do nothing and one must study a few things, but how much more fascinating and worth while to talk about birds and animals, trolley cars, the railway, electricity, machines, and doing things with a purpose, than to discuss impossible stories written by people who evidently knew very, very little about young people, to learn unending pages of numbers and definitions and facts, which, since one had no use for them, were speedily forgotten to make room for better material? [illustration: a typical boy's workroom and shop. pride of personal possession develops rather early and the boy should have a place of his own] [illustration: the kind of shop which one may have at home] now these children were obedient and reverent toward learning and did the tasks assigned them by their master, but in their leisure hours they did a good bit of experimenting along other lines, and found several other studies which were not in the master's scheme much more to their taste. animals and pets were not only nice, live, soft, downy, fuzzy things to play with, but they had such queer ways and were so useful that one could talk about them forever. and then if one raised numbers of them, often neighbors would desire to purchase, and behold, a business began whereby it was just possible one could make a profit now and then. again, it was fine if one had even a few tools so that one could put together the toys and playthings _necessary_ to every-day amusement. of course it was needful to measure and calculate and scheme about materials and costs, but all this scheming led to real purpose, while the questions proposed by the teacher were just questions after all and it couldn't make much difference whether one found the answer or not. now the usual thing happened. because of their reverence for traditional learning and respect for its apostle the youths continued to attend upon the master and go through the ceremonial form of intellectual purification. but really their hearts were outside, wrapped up in the work of the world, where they had found just the tonics which were good for them. in just so far as the school and home open ways which "enable the student to earn a livelihood and to make life worth living" do we see the passing of the old type school (suggested above) and ideal of training. not only are there comparatively few in this world capable of receiving high polish through the so-called culture studies, but the definition of culture has changed; now _any activity is cultural which arouses one's best efforts_. moreover, the boy of the present is on the lookout for a new type of instructor, one born of the new era of industrial success, a teacher who will unlock the mysteries of modern nature, science, engineering and business, and who will make it possible for the student to find his special abilities or bent at an early age. it is no argument at all to say that the boy is too young to know what is best for him, that the mature mind is the only safe guide. the adult teacher and parent becomes a true guide only when he uses as a basis for guidance those qualities and instincts of childhood which cannot be smothered or eradicated. the child, whether boy or girl, knows instinctively some of the kinds of information which do not agree with him, because they possess no significance at the time and he cannot assimilate and fatten on them. the child needs a new and more nutritious mental diet. father and mother cannot be of great _direct_ assistance because, strange to say, they are not experts with _children_, they merely know _a child_ (their own) passably well, but they can provide a most effective, indirect, contributory stimulus through outside opportunities for healthy play and experiment which will supplement the formal instruction of the school. and children of all ages up to the time they go to college need some strong outside interest, or group of them, which will serve as a finder to determine the trade, profession, or business of the future man. [illustration: the kite fever is an annual disease. common to practically the whole country. but it is a disease which flourishes only among normal children, chiefly boys] [illustration: pump and waterwheel. a type of mechanical problem which the boy may begin with, both in and out of school, because it touches his keenest interest] the children who enter the school, from whatever grade of society or given race, are all much alike--lively little animals that sleep, eat and talk continuously, and play, though play and expression are one and the same. they do what all animals do--keep on the move, acquire muscular skill and precision, and endeavor by every possible means to express their ideas and convey them to others. this expression takes on a constructive phase when children play at store, keeping house, fire engine, and make toys of paper and cardboard, and such amusement is the forerunner of that intense mechanical interest which overtakes boys about the age of ten or eleven.[i] girls have an equally positive leaning which is characteristic and will be noted elsewhere. watch any group of boys of average parentage and surroundings and make a list of the things they construct for themselves, for their own ends. in any such list extending over a period of several months will be found, according to locality, such things as wagons, sleds, whistles, kites, dog houses, pigeon roosts, chicken coops, boats, guns, etc., etc. the young artisan uses whatever raw material he can; he is chiefly concerned with the plan, and makes the best of conditions and materials. the things he makes are always for real use, a principle held in high esteem in all the arts. in making these toys the boy acquires some exceedingly valuable information and a physical skill and perfection which can only be secured at an early age. he learns about things, about raw material, about tools and utensils common to every household; he gets on speaking terms with the fundamental laws of mechanics and, more than one would imagine, develops a real ingenuity in molding material to his immediate needs. the construction of a bird house or kite is in itself simple enough, but the boy has to spend considerable effort in finding out how to do it, which is beneficial. moreover, this constant struggle to get into tune with his physical environment and subdue it results in a considerable independence, confidence, and resourcefulness, which under moderately favorable conditions will produce a boy alert to the world in which he lives and full of the spirit of investigation--the critical attitude. such a boy will not lean on others for either learning or pleasure. [illustration: boat made by percy wilson and donald mather, montclair, n. j., independent of adult assistance. the method of construction, which is unique and sound, was devised by the boys] [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone these are the forerunners of numerous other electrical constructions, many of which are produced out of school, in the home workrooms and shops] actually, however, the modern boy has not been encouraged along these lines, nor has he been taken very seriously in those activities which affect him most; hence his struggle toward any real efficiency. a prominent man once said: "when i was fifteen years of age i could break wild horses to saddle or harness, and teach kicking cows to stand while they were being milked. i could fell trees and drop the tree in any direction desired. i knew the relative value of all native woods, appreciated the differences in soil, grains, fruits, and simple minerals. i could use the draw-shove, adze axe, broad axe, cross-cut saw, sickle and cradle. i could make a figure-four trap, an axe helve, a neck yoke, axe yoke, whiffletree, clevis, and could braid an eight-strand cattle whip. we used to mend our harness on rainy days and i could make a wax-end and thread it with a bristle, and use a brad-awl. i knew how to construct an ash-leach and to make soft-soap, apple butter, and pumpkin pies. i knew the process of weaving flax and wool, of making and burning brick. i knew on sight and had names for a score or more of birds, and had a good idea of the habits of squirrels, skunks, wolves, and the fishes that swam in the creeks. i knew how to cure hams, shoulders, and side-meat: to pickle beef and cover apples with straw and earth so that they would keep in safety through the most severe winter, and open up in the spring fresh and valuable. of course my knowledge was not of a scientific order, and i could not have explained it to another, because i never knew i had it." how many boys or girls of the present time possess anything like this sum of _useful knowledge_--useful for the conditions in which they live? there was a time when children had to learn in order to survive, and now that the necessity is removed and children are simply allowed to grow without purpose, the boy and girl inevitably lose one of the best elements in their training unless new opportunities are opened. it is not difficult to see how the boy's interest in construction grows and expands; mere acquaintance with boys will furnish the data. at a comparatively early stage the youthful experiments are naturally sifted to a few specialties, which assume prominence either because of the boy's reading or the type of locality in which he lives. from time to time his interest may shift, investigating one subject after another, always seeking the unknown avocation. the process will probably lead in time to a more or less fitting selection of trade or profession. how else is the boy to find himself? [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone a real derrick in miniature, operated by means of a waterwheel (at the right). the lifting, turning and handling of the bucket are controlled by levers attached to spools (in the middle section). this sort of thing is part of regular school work] [illustration: waterwheels (lower illustrations) and fan (upper illustration), made by public school pupils] after he has passed through the preliminary stages of mere play and haphazard amusement the boy becomes conscious of the mysterious, unusual forces of electricity; they hold even adult attention and wonder, but the boy, being more impressionable and confident, immediately forages for information, reads enormously, and experiments. he takes in the whole subject with a vim and sureness that is _de facto_ evidence of its intrinsic worth for study purposes. and in a much shorter time than adults would require, he has mastered the fundamental laws and is eager to put this wonderful force to work, to make things move. he has the same attitude toward steam and gas engines, water motors, and studies them with the same intensity of purpose. here are dynamic elements which appeal to the human appreciation of _power_ and which may be harnessed, subdued. the idea is comparable to the ancient reverence for fire, water and the storm. since modern science has organized engineering and mechanical knowledge and simplified it, the student can have at his disposal just the books and periodicals needed to unlock this storeroom of mystery; these publications were written for the purpose. but there are several other openings for creative effort which appeal no less strongly, and among which both the boy and girl may choose, with complete confidence that there will be ample room for initiative, ingenuity, and utilitarian bias. every child loves to go camping, and in common with his elders reveals the close connection with primitive life in general through the pleasure derived from the simplicity of camp life. there in the woods, where conveniences are few, every device and construction counts the utmost, and its purpose is apparent. the whole spirit of such living is more in harmony with child nature and longings than the modern city home; it supplies the craving for physical freedom and places the boy or girl almost entirely on his own resources. what he obtains in the way of pleasure comes from his own efforts and is correspondingly precious. the boy especially finds in camp just as much chance for mechanical skill as elsewhere. temporary furniture, utensils, cooking conveniences, the shelter, traps, etc., are suggestive. and lastly the unconventional, untrammeled outdoor life stands in that same relation to the boy as it did to the savage (because boyhood is a primitive stage); he puts forth his strongest endeavors to conquer the elements, the climate, the earth, and growing things; to provide himself with food and shelter--in other words, to survive as the savage sought to survive. the idea is truly epic. no wonder the child expands and develops under the simple responsibilities imposed, and absorbs woodcraft with such astonishing ease. the recent extraordinary growth of the summer camp among boys' schools, and the results suggested in the writings of ernest thompson seton, are, with the unfolding of industrial education, two pointed examples of the shifting view of education in the home as well as school. probably no outside agency will in time become so effective for good as the boy scouts, whose code is based on a very primitive framework suited to boys. during a recent visit to california, and while crossing the flat prairies of kansas, the writer saw a company of scouts at work. it was borne in upon the observer that there was an organization which fitted every locality, every climate; it appealed to _boy_, not _creed_, _social order_, time, or _adult dogma_. [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone a self-recording telegraph receiver. an excellent example of what the juvenile mechanical mind will attempt. the number of boys interested in such projects is considerable] [illustration: wireless station and workroom of donald huxom, montclair, n. j. this, too, indicates how boys square themselves with scientific progress] one should at least mention athletics in this connection, because of the excellent physical benefit in both activities. athletics, however, contains an element which is all-important--team work. and no restraint is so much needed, nor so cheerfully heeded for that matter, by the restless boy and girl as a community of effort. the elimination of a purely selfish personal point of view is very difficult to bring about with the best of children, because they are wrapped up in their own affairs, and nothing serves to introduce them to the rights of others and the value of concerted action for a common good so well as sport. the kind does not matter. any well-conducted, clean enjoyment of this kind develops that mental pliability and willingness to _take a part_ which is a fundamental of citizenship. incidentally leaders arise, and the beginnings of organization dawn. it is a great day when the boy learns his first code of signals in the ball team! [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone an electrical soldering iron and glue-pot, made at suggestion of instructor for use in school shop] [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone waterwheel connected with model lathe] there is one more side (at least) to the boy and girl business--_earning money_. it is nothing short of marvelous that this desire for personal income, however small, has not been taken seriously. why do children want to earn money? for the best reason in the world, _independence_. man's entire existence from the earliest age down to the twentieth century has been one long struggle toward it--toward survival. first he had to combat the elements and animals, then his fellows, for possession of food, lands, water, raw materials, and wives. when he found that possession of certain commodities added to his importance and therefore comfort and safety, and especially to his privilege, he sought wealth and its freedom. now the boy and girl follow stages in development toward similar independence, and among the privileges most desired is that of money or possessions of value. if they earn it, the amount represents so much work and gives the coins a fixed worth which cannot be established in other fashion. moreover, this desire for income (rather than money) is one characteristic of the child between the ages of thirteen and fifteen years. his power of reasoning and organization are developing rapidly, and it is the time when adult ideals and actions first look attractive. the time is ever ripe for launching the boy or girl into any avocation which holds their fancy, that they may forget their own oblique tendencies to laziness, stubbornness, wayward action, and selfishness; these are all characteristic of the stage. sex changes too play no inconsiderable part, because the boy's companions are for a time all masculine. business of some kind is just what he needs, and if that business is profitable, a powerful motive is supplied. perhaps the keenest interest is that in nature, and most children at some time have desired pets--chickens, rabbits, pigeons, dogs, song birds. there is scarcely a town or city condition where some animal hobby cannot be pursued without disturbing others' peace of mind. but it should be looked into seriously as a business, a miniature counterpart of other like enterprises. the disposal of personal service and products to others brings the child in close contact with numbers of adults and adult standards and business connections. it fosters responsibility and places upon the child the burden of proof, to show that he is entitled to a place as a valuable member of society. and just here it may be well to say, even if the child does not need the money he earns, it will be the most precious he will ever own, because since it came through effort, it will be spent with due caution. the vegetable and flower garden may be made to yield similar returns and such products are always salable. in addition, every house, every yard, every farm is in constant need of repairs, changes and care which the alert boy or girl can furnish. the development of such odd tasks into a business parallels the development of every large enterprise which began in a modest way. it fosters the best of personal and civic ideals, and tames the restless, self-conscious energy of youth into smooth and profitable channels through which to journey in peace to a sane maturity. [illustration: excellent examples of high school work which is really profitable. these machines will work and develop power which can be measured] [illustration: a manual training shop] is it any wonder that education is so ineffective at times? in the light of present-day appreciation of physiology and psychology it is increasingly clear that education has furnished an impersonal, rather stilted system of stuffing along restricted lines for a warm-hearted, all-inquisitive, nature-loving human animal which automatically refuses to be nourished thereby, and forages elsewhere. although the child's judgment can by no means be followed concerning what is best for him, his instincts and possible future will serve as a most excellent guide. his early training must take into account those interests which are most keen and lasting and use them as the framework for instruction, and all subsequent stages of training involve a distinct obligation to build upon this elementary foundation, with a view to social worth. most children will have to earn a living (the girl usually helps by managing the home), and this necessity is preëminent. but whether rich or otherwise, the ideal of social worth remains for all. and the least the home can do is to nurse childhood's efforts and experiments in play and occupation which lead finally to mature judgment and conceptions. _how to use books with boys_ boys probably obtain more help from books than girls do because they are more self-reliant, more assertive and impatient. and as has been indicated, more books have been written for boys, but the same general method of use is common to both. the boy too finds in the book of crafts, mechanics, science, or sport a stimulant and incentive. he reads it much as he would a story of adventure. no matter what his greatest enjoyments may be, the perusal of accounts of others' juvenile activities widens the productive horizon in a way not to be ignored, and for this reason "how to do" books of all kinds are a serious element in the boy's life, at a time when he is less concerned with what to do than with how to produce something. but there is a danger in this catholicity of interest: it may become dilettantism. the boy may merely potter or fuss with one hobby after another, more because he cannot supply the need for more and more information, than because he does not care. hence it is worth while from time to time to add more fuel to the flame of ambition in a given direction, to provide books and tools, a working place or shop, and open the way for progress in some stated direction. [illustration: the machine shop. public school, montclair, n. j.] [illustration: the study of aeroplane construction, public school , n. y. city. this toy is full of possibilities for the live boy] [illustration: a successful machine] [illustration: finished aeroplanes. public school , n. y. city] specifically, books like those on "mechanics, indoors and out," "electricity," and "carpentry," and parts of "outdoor work" may be considered as of one type. when he receives the books the boy will spend days in absorbing their contents, maybe dreaming a bit over the possibilities in view, and finally, by a process which will always be unintelligible to the adult, will light upon a problem or group of them that meets his wishes, as the kite for instance; all he needs from then on is human sympathy with the, to him, important undertaking, and he will gallop through all phases of the kite construction and devices, aeroplanes, propellers, forms of motive power, probably bringing up short at the steam or gasoline engine, which opens another chapter. the really important item connected with the use of such books is to keep the young mechanic on one thing at a time. a bit of judicious questioning now and then, always aimed at a group of related problems upon which he may be engaged, will keep his mind working connectedly. his efforts will then be cumulative in effect. visits to the aero park, the museums, to the shops and technical schools, and to the local power plants are other distinct aids which should be invoked to supplement and emphasize reading and experiment. in some of the cities model kite and aeroplane contests are held at regular intervals, and these put boys on their mettle to succeed. in fact the proper way to use books of this kind is to _let the boy use them_; let him begin in the middle of the book and work outward or at the end and go backward, but see that he has books which present the subject vividly, simply. provide him with the essential tools and materials and a place to work. about the surest way to make a success with boys is to let them have a room or corner of their own where they can work to their hearts' content, where they can store their precious belongings, and where companions may come and talk over things. really the book is inadequate alone. unless one provide the opening for action, books but aggravate and excite the mind, mockingly spur the student on to "do." hence with the book goes a tacit obligation to provide means and place, even the most modest, for putting the book to test. there is yet another phase to this use of books, and it is one which the boy will usually meet, if the texts are adequate. it is this: whatever the young student does best will be the result of real desire, real personal enthusiasm. it is a fallacy to suppose that the boy interested in tools should always put up shelves, mend the door, or fix the fence. he will execute these tasks cheerfully, but they are not the subject of his dreams. on the other hand, if the desire be to earn money, to have a small business of his own, fences and shelves and plant stands may be the most interesting things in the world to him, because they are _means_, not _ends_. hence the printed book is no teacher or trainer of children, no direct guide to future vocation, but is the very essence of inspiration, the foundation from which the young secures nourishment for day dreams and ambitions, out of which he patiently weaves the rich fabric of experience. footnote: [i] this bias toward mechanics has already been noted by teachers and parents, but in recent years has assumed unusual significance because of the extraordinary development of industry. this, combined with the researches of modern psychology and pedagogy, has introduced a new, a powerful motive into teaching. [illustration] chapter v a house and lot--especially the lot the past decade has witnessed a movement, just now taking aggressive shape, which is unique--the interest in outdoors, nature study, farming, summer homes, sport, and what is termed the simple life. it is a movement filled with the greatest promise of any among the host now claiming attention, and bids fair to soothe the tired nerves and over-stimulated minds of a frantically industrial age. busy men and women, particularly the men, who once thought their affairs would become hopelessly muddled if they were not at the desk each and every day, now indulge in sport, farming or gardening, and horticulture. they have become convinced of the benefits of fresh air and consequent health, and have a calmer, more serene outlook on life as a whole. it has become "quite proper" now to live in the "country," even though the country is represented by a lot Ã� , for one may have a garden which produces wonders even on such a lot. indirectly, people get the desire to fix up their homesteads, to plant hedges and vines, to have window boxes and put on a kind of apologetic style which develops into conscious pride ultimately. one cannot play with such an avocation long without learning a bit more about nature in general, and without any conscious resolution drifts into keeping chickens or pets as a kind of pleasurable refuge from mundane things. all this activity is much more than a fad; it points to a recurrence of the primitive instinct to always bridge the ever-widening gaps between nature and the human, who is merely an extra-developed animal himself. children always possess in a marked degree a love for outdoors, for animal life, for growing things, and fight hard during the early years to satisfy the desire. when they cannot achieve results at home, the surplus energy is worked off by harrowing the neighbors. steam will do a great deal of work when under control, but if one allows steam to accumulate it must get off sooner or later, and children are under steam always. [illustration: the boy who does not love to camp is unique. this illustrates one of ernest thompson seton's camps where boys come in contact with nature at her best] [illustration: this and other illustrations of homes in this chapter, show such places as people make when they care about appearances] the adult, when he becomes a city dweller, takes his nature study in stiff two-weeks' doses, fishing or shooting, plus all the modern gastronomic tidbits he can carry, and accumulates a fine crop of scientific fables and sunburn. this is not real rest, not even the best acquaintance with nature; rather it is a sort of primitive spree, inherited in garbled form from tradition as a seasonal necessity. the truly fine side to the nature movement lies in its influence on everyday living through a sound regard for what nature can do at her best, and the resultant modification of taste in general. it is a questionable satisfaction to make a whirlwind campaign into nature's midst for a few short weeks, comfortably supported by the consciousness of urban conveniences in the end, when there is the possibility of bringing nature to our very doors, almost to the hearthstone. nature is complacent and excellent company when offered a suitable welcome. the ideal home is ideal throughout--outside as well as in. there is no vital difference between the kind of pride which demands clean linen and that which craves beautiful lawns (to be used however), beautiful flowers (also to be enjoyed), trees and porches for shade and rest. the kind of nature too which really rests and enthuses one is the kind which may be enjoyed for twelve months in the year; in other words, gardens, grounds, and trees which belong to the climate, to the locality, and, being hardy, commend themselves at all seasons. [illustration: even the most beautiful house must have a background to soften the conventional lines and areas of construction] [illustration: one should build a house as one builds a reputation, gradually, allowing ideals and execution to expand and develop together. then the house and grounds will appear at their best] but nature is no designer. the landscape gardener and the amateur must, by their united efforts, bring an artistic plan to bear upon nature's offerings, using her trees and flowers and the contour of the ground, and create an environment which pleases. the result should not only be fine of itself, but should furnish a proper and rich background for the house which is the centre. there are in existence numerous periodicals devoted to country living, farming, gardening, animals, sports, and the special suburban problem, and also a very distinguished library dealing with similar types. these have a surprisingly wide circulation, probably because they are as a class guiding the public taste in such matters instead of following it. this literature has in a few short years uncovered a new public interest in matters allied to nature, notably in home architecture and surroundings, and there is distinct evidence at the present time of improvement in architectural style. domestic buildings are more appropriate in material and design than ever before, and are such as seem to be in tune with the somewhat informal suburban or village surroundings. formerly architectural style was imported from abroad, and with it came a certain few odd fragments of landscape gardening, full of patterns, floral arabesques and geometric arrangements, imitation renaissance, urns and alert iron dogs to guard the dooryard. one can still find houses with ugly mansard roofs, stiff, forbidding doorways, and gloomy windows, the whole perched high on a hill, or at least elevated above the street, suggesting in every feature the barrenness of the artificial. it is art at its worst. the effort was further emphasized by the consistent designers through formal, wax-like landscape accessories, tender budding plants, cast-iron benches and garden ornaments, which must surely be blood kin to the modern steam radiator and art cook stove. there was nothing human about such a place: it always suggested the hereafter. but the new, healthy, public interests in outdoors, in a joyous life, have banished those artificial shells and substituted a type of dwelling which is planned for living. and the outside aspect of the house gives one the impression that it belongs to that particular spot, for those people for home purposes. of course all houses are not so successful, but one finds a good many nowadays. it was bound to come, because when people began to study nature, to live closer to their flowers and animals, to want green lawns and pleasant hills, they soon sought a type of shelter which would nestle close to the ground and look hospitable and inviting. architecture and gardening are more closely related than one would first imagine, and it is questionable whether one can deal successfully with one and ignore the other. [illustration: trees, shrubbery and lawn form the frame of the picture, and a bad frame will spoil the finest picture] [illustration: there was a time not long since, when people built houses according to style. they now build for pleasure and comfort, producing the finest style of all] in previous chapters the discussion of children and their training has touched lightly upon certain points which may well be elaborated a bit here. most of the child's waking hours would virtually be spent out of doors; no house is large enough. and it was urged that these intense outside activities would be excellent foci for most profitable study. no yard, however restricted, is too small to accommodate some hobby which will absorb the child's energy and aid in generating constructive skill and judgment. the matter of pocket money is also very important and becomes a powerful motive when properly used. but there is another and more mature point of view concerning the home as a whole, which should not be discarded. _every child should learn to so respect and value his own personal property and affairs that he will respect those of others, neighbors for instance._ he will not do this unless his own efforts and experiments are taken seriously, or unless his home grounds and living are maintained at top condition, or unless he grows to appreciate a beautiful physical environment. the lawn, the garden, poultry house and stable ought to be in perfect trim all the time. it is better taste to have them so, and it is good business. one cannot succeed with raising pets or animals in unsanitary quarters, or inadequate shelter. it will not be difficult to develop proper ideas of taste and charm in the grounds about the house if one begins with the boy's and girl's own business and steers that to a decent working basis. ragged grounds, unkempt lawns, weeds, littered porches and hopeless, tired-looking flowers--all persistent manifestations of neglect--leave on the youthful mind ineradicable impressions which undermine good taste. most boys and girls dislike any kind of work which is mere drudgery, and most children in these days shy at work for ends other than their own, because they have found that they can have privileges and amusements without responsibility or other return to their parents. the solution lies in the restoration to the boy of a feeling of personal responsibility and pride, restoring to him and his sister the rights of ownership to things and privileges earned, and make the children something other than social puppets. make their youthful occupations count. among those occupations one finds a number which are equally fascinating to both children and adults. [illustration: courtesy of miss annie washburn a school garden. if children cannot expand at home, the public school is under obligation to satisfy the need for outdoor occupation] [illustration: courtesy of prin. f. c. clifton a school garden. watchung school, montclair, n. j.] probably no accessory to the home is more to be valued than the garden, especially the flower garden. it adds so much of color and variety to the whole scheme, and helps to bring the house into intimate relation with the grounds. the finest gardening has probably been due to feminine influence, and every girl can draw from practical experience with growing things a delicacy of taste and wealth of knowledge to apply to ends peculiarly her own. the latent intuitive feminine outlook often remains undeveloped in these days, and no craft will preserve and stimulate it more than gardening. there is a reaction just now against the formal flower beds of tender plants, a patch of exotic color dotting otherwise irreproachable lawns, though the florist would like to keep such arrangements in fashion, for he is seldom a true artist. but better standards of living, a fresher study of nature, a more personal, intimate architecture, have brought into them many of the old garden ideals where the garden belonged to the mistress of the house and showed it. the garden has a most significant history. it has always been a centre of family life, and among the romans was in fact the element about which the household revolved. here the family rested and visited, worked and played. the dwelling was built around it, with living rooms which opened on its walks and fountains, bringing the family together in the most intimate way. the early dutch and english colonists brought to america a similar taste for this soothing adjunct to the home and early put into effect such garden plans as their limited resources permitted. and always it has been the women-folk of the community who have kept the garden alive with persistent belief in its harmonizing influence on the family. not infrequently the children learned their first lessons in business, in ownership and in responsibility, there. gardening is one of the oldest and simplest of crafts and may not be overlooked in seeking a pathway for youthful energy. perhaps the boy or girl would rather grow fruits or berries, vegetables, raise pigeons, keep bees--one and all are equally good. this is the essential fact: every boy and girl should come into direct and positive contact with some of the important natural phenomena and life. growing things have to be cared for, they must have food, water and protection. one cannot play with them when one feels like it; they need attention every day. the obligation is a pleasant one, but nevertheless it is an obligation and gives a much needed lesson in a way that sticks. any occupation around the home, if it be one which ministers either to the pleasure, comfort or profit of individual members, is quite likely to knit that family into a more compact group. it keeps the children more at home. the interchange of service and advice which brings into relief the interdependence of the individuals stimulates this one of the important characteristics of domestic society. there has been an indication in recent years to lay upon the schools the entire training for manhood and womanhood. it is expected to teach manners and ethics, to give the proper kind of academic information, to formulate character, to even teach "nature." it is impossible to do this. the finest character, habits of study, executive ability, and the social attitude must be started and nursed to strength, if not to maturity, at home. five hours each day under incomplete authority can accomplish little else than formal instruction. even the beginnings of technical and scientific training have their roots deep in these childish hobbies which originate and flourish at home, where a deep obligation rests upon parents to make the most of this early time. it is a lead the school can follow, but never originate. the school represents the average educational ideal of a given community, and when schools are inefficient, languish and give indifferent service, it is an excellent index of the local culture standard. therefore, when parents develop to their highest pitch the enthusiasms and abilities of childhood, when they foster family life and enrich it so that every member, particularly the younger ones, become active participants, and feel that they too have work to contribute to the general welfare, then and then only will the school by force of public sentiment revise its own standards. [illustration: there is a fascination about raising animals whether for sale or as pets. to the child this occupation acquires the dignity of a real business] [illustration: two more illustrations which will suggest plans for the future] for reasons such as these every home should be a kind of unofficial training school, in which the courses are mostly elective. some outdoor hobbies which the children will enjoy should be maintained, and, on however small a scale, the house and grounds should be planned with this in view. the city boy and girl will have somewhat limited choice, but even there one can enjoy several hobbies, even in a flat. one can at least grow things, for there are few corners, even in a city, so dark that some plants will not flourish. [illustration] chapter vi vacations, athletics, scouting, camping, photography [illustration: every child, and especially the boy, needs active outdoor exercise. this kind has much to recommend it] [illustration: organized play (woodcraft) under ernest thompson seton] the boy of to-day is at a real disadvantage in his struggle for health and happiness. he is always a primitive at heart, surging in the direction of direct physical expression, showing almost on the surface the simplicity of savage instincts, to live close to the earth, be outdoors, perform feats of strength and skill, hunt, fish, camp and play at doing the essential acts of life. through succeeding generations society has perfected a veneer of convention which glosses over the crudities of childish abandon, and as they (children) grow, the polish becomes thicker and more lasting, even so as to make the individual a "ready-to-wear" being. but at intervals, even in adults, one finds the periodic plunge into camp and field. that vacations do not always supply the benefit which doctors would, but cannot, is rather the fault of brevity than of the outings themselves. boys can, as a rule, enjoy vacations without responsibilities, they can have ample scope for the close acquaintanceship with the simplicities of outdoor living. one of the first true signs of summer is the tents and crude shelters in backyards of our suburban villages. it is the nearest approach to a normal, sane existence the child can make. no proper child omits to play "indian" or "hunter" in his early years, and no youth ever quite outgrows the keen pleasure of sleeping in the open, companioned by the sighing of the night. one recent experience of the writer, camping among the giant redwoods of california, where one could before going to sleep have a last look at the stars framed by the wondrous trees, and drift to unconsciousness to water music in the gorge way down below, was a time never to be forgotten. it is such experiences as these in the open which both keep and restore one's mental balance; they breed cheerfulness and optimism, develop friendships. and the boy is not so very particular about the place, provided there is water and woods, some companions, and things to do. he loves to swim and should learn. he wants to be of some account and have a part in the camp, learn how to make camp, protect things, prepare for weather, engineer the routine of camp life. probably no institution outside formal educational institutions is likely to have more vital influence on boys of the future than the boy scouts, already mentioned, a marvelous scheme to organize this play spirit. it takes hold of the most primitive instincts in child life, develops them to the highest pitch of efficiency, and turns the enormous energy generated thereby into useful channels by the simplest of devices--service. but be it noted, service for which the need is perfectly plain. the boy gets the finest of physical training imaginable and readily cultivates moral virtues which have been the despair of teachers and parents. [illustration: more woodcraft. has the boy had a chance at this kind of experience?] [illustration: even the technical processes of photography have been reduced to popular terms] [illustration: in these days photography has become so simplified that every child can use a camera to advantage] in general, the vacation cannot be more profitably spent elsewhere than outdoors. if a boy cannot actually go into the woods, away from home and the restrictions which modern living must of necessity impose, then the next best thing is pastime or amusement which requires outdoors for a setting. there is much to be said for each and every one of the sports common at the present time, baseball, tennis, football, golf, boating, riding--they are all good--and every healthy child will take part in one or more. now a book about sport can never teach a boy or girl how to become skilful; it cannot explain the mystery of the golf stroke or pitched curve, but it can and does awaken the spirit of trial and test. it suggests that there is possibly a right way to do things; to play even, if one would succeed. the book may tell of the necessity for team work and organization, for system and regular living, and observance of rules made by others. in other words, the book acts through suggestion, very seldom directly; and for the same reason that one gives children books on mechanics, sewing, pets and gardening, that they may learn of the dignity and worth of these occupations, so also does one recommend books of sport and games, which surely are the more valuable when taken in all seriousness. it is through their games, involving dependence upon the confidence in others, that children acquire the best traits of character. aside from the inherent return in physical well-being derived from amusement in the open air--one can use this kind of medicine twelve months in the year--such pastime possesses a second quality of no mean importance; it brings one, ofttimes unconsciously, into communication or hailing distance at least of that nature which is so charming. it is easy to see the beauties of birds and flowers and skies, in camp; and the dynamic loveliness of crisp fall weather, even in a great city, is evidenced out of doors by the animation of passersby. but one cannot read about the beauties of beneficent nature; one must enjoy them personally, and is led on to do so through those pastimes which take place in the open. several of these have been mentioned, and there is one other: photography. photography has almost ceased to be a science; it is a habit. one goes to the store, invests in a comfortably small parcel and a book of instructions which says "press here," and that is about all. the fine succeeding details are minor matters. whether one merely "presses the button" or goes the whole road and really makes the picture, photography has come to be a regular accessory to sport and enjoyment. no doubt it is evidence of human vanity, but it takes so mild a form and is the source of so much pleasure that the world needs it, to preserve the thousand and one scenes and incidents which comprise the background of life. [illustration] index symbols used *--illustrated a--outdoor work b--mechanics, indoors and out c--carpentry and woodwork d--home decoration e--electricity g--gardening h--housekeeping k--outdoor sports m--working in metals n--needlecraft index page accounts balancing, h - , charge accounts, h check book method, h credits, recording, h dairy accounts, a debit and credit, h department method of keeping, h - housekeeping, h - how to keep household accounts, by c. w. haskins, recommended, h personal expense account, specimen, h poultry raising, a , _see also_ allowances; income acorns, care of seed for planting, a aeronautics. _see_ aeroplanes; balloons; flying machines; kites aeroplanes, b - *, c - * balance problem, b biplane making toy model, c - * principle of construction, b - * bleriot monoplane, b - * engines, types used, b construction principles in general, b - controlling direction of, b - gyroscope principle applied, b making models, b - *, c - * management not difficult, b maxim's aero-curve, b - * monoplane making a model, b - , c - * principle of construction, b - *, - motive power for toy model, b - , c , - planes aspect ratio, b , shape of, b - propeller blades making for a model, b , c - * position on machine, b - santos dumont monoplane, b - * testing a model, b triplane, b voisin biplane, b - * why aeroplanes fly, b - , - wind velocity table, b wireless telegraph control a possibility, b _see also_ balloons; flying machines; kites ageratum, planting, g sowing and blossoming time, g agricultural clubs book about, a organizing, a - agricultural pests. _see_ insect pests agriculture. _see_ dairying; domestic animals; drainage; fertilizers and manures; flower gardening; forestry; fruit gardening; irrigation; soils; trees; vegetable gardening; vegetables alaska sable, skunk skin, a alcohol as a cleaning agent, h , , airships. _see_ aeroplanes; balloons alarm clocks, electric, e alfred, king story of the burned cakes, h algae. _see_ seaweed alligator wrench, making, m allowances how to manage, h alloys definition of, m almonds food value, h alternating currents. _see_ electric currents althea (rose of sharon) characteristics, g aluminum extraction from clay, e utensils advantages, h care of, h ammeter, e - * construction, e - how it measures electricity, e - , - shunt, use of, e - ampere, andre marie ampere's rule, e - amusements. _see_ games; sports andirons forging, m - * how to use, h andrew, saint story of the loaves and fishes, h anemometer making, c - anemone japanese, characteristics, g , wood anemone, g angora goat, a - book about, a animals feeding motherless animals, a tamed versus domesticated, k training, a - fear versus kindness, a - wild animals, a - _see also_ domestic animals; pets; also names of animals, e. g., birds, newts, toads, etc. annealing copper bowl, m definition of, m steel, m - tools for, m - * annuals (plants) blooming after frost, g climbing, g definition of, g for cut flowers: table, g for heavy soils: table, g for rocky places: table, g for sandy soils: table, g for shady places: table, g for sunny places: table, g fragrant: table, g self sowing, g value of, g , what to plant, g annunciators, electric, e - * antique furniture. _see_ furniture ants development from the egg, a - garden pest, g habits, k household pests, h anvil metal workers' tool, m * apartment houses heating by electricity, e how to have a play house in, h apiculture. _see_ bees apple distance to plant trees, g food value, h saving seeds from cider making, a surplus used for cider vinegar, a wood for canes, a applique embroidery, n - honiton lace, n leather, n , * overlaid work, n underlaid, n apricots, dried food value, h april birds, k blooming plants, g aprons, making, n - bands and strings, n - gathering, n - * sewing apron and work bag combined, n - * aquarium care of sick fish, k cost of ready-made boxes and globes, k feeding fish, k making a water-tight box, k - stocking a self-sustaining aquarium, k - what to keep in, k _see also_ gold fish arago, francois jean wave theory of light, e arbor vitæ characteristics, c arbors. _see_ pergola arbutus gathering and conserving, a arc lamp. _see_ electric lamp--arc archery practice of, k - architecture adapting the plan to the purpose, d , american city versus country homes, d - bungalow, plan and elevation, c * dining-room plan, d floor plan, d * hall plan, d kitchen plan, d living-room plan, d a model house, d - pantry plan, d plan in relation to decorations and furnishings, d - principles of design, d - , - wall areas, considering, d _see also_ building; carpentry; cottages; foundations; pergola archimedian screw, b - *, * armatures ammeter armature, e dynamo armature, e , - arrowhead (plant) characteristics, g art copyrighting works of art, b arthur, king the king's kitchen: story, h artichoke indoor planting time, g arts and crafts. _see_ basket making; bead work; block printing; brass work; copper work; embroidery; lace making; leather work; metal work; iron work; silver work; stenciling arum (plant) characteristics, g ash characteristics, c strength of wood, c ash tray copper work, m * ashes fertilizing value, a asparagus insect pests, g aspidistra indoor plant, g assisi, saint francis of, h association foot ball, k aster characteristics of new england aster, g half hardy plant, g sowing and blossoming time, g starting, g athletics all around athletic championship, k - best college record, k olympic games, events, k rowing record, k training rules, k - value of, k - atlantic cable laying, e - atmospheric pressure. _see_ barometer attic playhouse, h atwater, w. o. principles of nutrition; quotation, h auger bit, c * screw principle, b august blooming plants, g australian boomerang, b - * automobiles gasolene consumed per mile, b making frame for one and two cylinder motors, b - * making toy automobile, c - * aviation. _see_ aeroplanes axe selecting, k - azalea indoor plant, g b babylon proposed irrigation works, b baby's breath (plant) characteristics, g , bachelor's buttons. _see_ cornflower backing enamel definition, m bacon cuts, h food value, h , for basting meat, h bacteria in soils, g baden-powell, sir robert organizer of the boy scouts, k badminton (game), k bags braiding, n - * raffia hand bag, n - * stenciled, n * bait fish bait, k - _see also_ trapping baked beans food value, h baking cake, h principles and process, h - thickness of food, h baking powder composition and use, h how to retain strength of, e ball one old cat, k _see also_ base ball; basket ball; call ball; cricket; foot ball; hand ball; hand polo; hat ball; hockey; japanese fan ball; lacrosse; polo; push ball; racquets; roley boley; skittles; squash; tennis; tether ball; volley ball ball bearings principle of, b balloon vine characteristics, g balloons history, b - making paper balloons, b - * balsam characteristics, g , c gathering, a sowing and blossoming time, g baltimore belle, story of, n - baltimore oriole as insect destroyer, a bananas food value, h band saws. _see_ saws bandy (game), k bantams breeding and care, a - game bantams, a bar, horizontal making a pull up bar, c * bar pins silver metal work, m - * barberry characteristics, g picking, a - jelly, receipt, a , barometer complex, how to make, b - * construction of, b - * inventors of, b purpose of, b simple, how to make, b - theory of, b water barometer, how to make, b - * base ball, k - *, - art of playing, k - balls, standard, k base hit, k bases, k bats, k batsmen left-handed, k qualifications, k training, k batting, k captain's duties, k - catcher, k - diamond, k laying out, k - * doubtful balls, providing for, k "fan", k first baseman, k gate receipts, k ground rules, k home run, k innings, k choice of, by contesting team, k manager's duties, k methods, old and modern, k - national game of america, k nine, k , opponent's methods, learning, k outfielder, k - pitcher and pitching, k *, *, - positions, k , scores, k , - second baseman, k shoes, k short-stop, k signals, k team, how to organize, k third base, k training rules, k two-bagger, k umpire, k uniforms, k visiting teams, expenses, k what makes a game, k basket ball rules, k basket making materials for, n - porcupine quills for, a raffia work, n - , - * rattan basketry, n - * reed flower baskets, g - * sweet grass baskets, a bass bait for, k basse-taille definition, m basswood characteristics, c basting meat, h , basting stitches, n * bath tubs cleaning, h sanitation, h bathroom care and cleaning, h - baths electric shower baths in a summer camp, e - summer camp device, e - bats usefulness of, k batteries, electric. _see_ electric batteries bayberry description of bush, a dips, making, a - leaves for sachet, a baywood staining mahogany, c , d bead work, n - * chains, n - * curtains, n cushion covers, n - daisy chains, n - * loom, home-made, n - * portieres, n - purse, n - * stringing the beads, n beam action, c beams, wooden strength of materials, b bean bag rules of game, k beans bush beans, varieties, g experiments in growing, g - food value, h , , insect pests, g planting seeds depth and distance, g distance of drills apart, g eye downward, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g pole beans ornamental value, g varieties, g seeds age for planting, g germination per cent., g , germination time, g soil, g , _see also_ lima beans; string beans bearings anti-friction, b * beck-iron definition of, m bedbugs, h - bedell, frederick discovery that the same wire carries two currents, e bedroom atmosphere, h care of morning work, h - night preparation, h personal responsibility, h furnishings for a girl's room, h furniture, designs for, d - * guest room, h _see also_ beds; closets bedroom electric heater, e * bedroom slippers. _see_ slippers beds bough beds, k * camping outfits, k - * designs, d *, * doll's bed of pasteboard, and fittings, h - making fittings for a doll's bed, n - * making up a bed, h , - bed spread. _see_ counterpane bee balm (flower) habits and characteristics, g , bee-hive. _see_ bees bee-keepers association, value of, a bee stings prevention and cure, a - beech nuts characteristics, a gathering, a beef cuts and their uses, h - food value: table, h beef tea making, h bees, a - books about, a brood chamber, description, a *, what goes on in, a - buying, hints about, a - cost of colony, a development from the egg, a - diseases and enemies, a , egg-laying, a feeding, spring and fall, a hives arranging, a drone and queen trap at entrance, a * entrance to, a kinds, a , - , modern, a - * observation hive, a , k old-fashioned, a opening how to open, and remove frames, a - reasons for, a putting together, a supers, a * ventilation, a where to place, a - hiving, a - honey harvesting, a making, a - plants which supply, a supply for hives, a uses of, a honeycomb cells, a - how bees work, a - how to approach the hive, a italian, a keeping how to begin, a - supplies for first year, a - life, length of, a locating the hives, a - marketing the honey, a - nucleus, meaning, a observation hives, a , k * products of the hives, a - profit in, a - , - protecting from wind and sun, a - queen bee clipping wings, a locating, a rearing, a - testing, a runaway swarms, securing, a shipping, a smoking, a - success with bees: stories, a - swarm catcher, home-made, a - * swarming reasons for, a time and process, a - to prevent, a varieties, a wax making, a wintering, a - * worker bees, development of, a - beeswax for cleaning irons, h beetles development from the egg, a - extermination of pests, g , , , mounting specimens, a * beets boiling, g cooking preparation, h food value, h insect pests, g planting seeds, g depth and distance, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination time, g soil preparation, g transplanting, to avoid, g , begonias bedding plant, g window box plant, g bell, alexander graham inventor of the telephone, e bellflower habits and characteristics, g bellicent mother of gareth, h bellows blacksmith's, m * metal worker's, m * bells brass work, m - * _see also_ electric bells belt buckle copper work, m - * designs for, m * belt pin copper work, d * belts knotted raffia, n - irish crochet, n - * tooled leather, designs and process, d - * bench double seat for summer house, c - * riverside, b selection of wood for, c stationary outdoor bench, c - _see also_ settees bench hook making, c - bench stop, c bench work. _see_ carpentry; whittling berries food value, h picking, a - seasons, a washing, h _see also_ names of berries, e. g., raspberry; strawberry; thimbleberry; etc. bessemer steel. _see_ steel bethsaida story of the loaves and fishes, h bezel setting, m - *, *, bicycle sprocket wheel, b * biennials definition, g what and how to plant, g binding edges and seams, n * biplane construction, b - * making a toy model, c - * birch aspen leaved, c bark, removing, a - uses, a black or sweet birch, c blue or hornbeam, c gray, c kinds and characteristics, c - red, c staining mahogany color, d white, canoe, or paper birch, c yellow, c birds april birds, k attracting the birds, a - * bath, making, c * books about, a crows as pets, k eggs and nests, collecting, a enemies, a - , k flight, theory of, b - game preserve, creating, a - houses building, c - *, k - location, c suiting the birds, c supports for, c march birds, k may birds, k migration, k nesting time, k non-migrating, k protecting fruit from, a protection and care of, a - song birds, attracting, a - unlawful to cage, k that stay all winter, k traffic in skins, a - training, a - value as garden pest destroyers, g , a - bit and brace. _see_ carpentry and woodwork--tools bites of insects treatment of, h bittersweet, a black bass bait for, k blacksmithing, m - equipment, m fuel, m fullering, meaning, m iron used, m - tools, m , - *, , _see also_ forge; forging; horseshoeing; iron work; tempering; steel; welding blankets campers' outfit, k making for doll-bed, n * washing woollens, h , bleeding heart characteristics, g , blood root habits and characteristics, g blindman's buff (game), k block and tackle. _see_ pulleys block printing on fabrics designs and process, d - * laundering articles, d materials used for, blood stains removing, h blotting pads leather, design and making, d - * metal corners, making, m - * making and carving hand blotter, c - * blow pipe metal workers' tools, m * blowing engines diagonal catch and hand gear, b blue flag. _see_ iris blue printing leaves and flowers, a - bluebell characteristics, g blueberries burning over land, a , c canning factories, a picking, a varieties, a where found, a , c bluebird insect destroyer, a migration, k bluets, g bluing clothes, h , boards. _see_ lumber boat building, b - * carvel ribbon built boat, b centre line of shaft, b decks, b dimensions of the _mocking bird_, b * displacement, b exhaust pipe fitting up, b - pet-cock, b under water, b - expansion chamber, b floor boards, b keel block for, b laying and setting up, b - * keelson, b * knees, b "knock down" system, b , launching the boat, b , - laying off the profile, b lettering the name, b - materials and dimensions, b - * motor dimensions, b installing, b - * motor bed, fitting, b , offsets, table of, b patterns, buying, b plan and section of the _mocking bird_, b - * propeller shaft, installing, b section of launch, b * sections, spacing of, b - sheathing, b * skeleton, fitting posts together, b * steering gear, b * stem, b *, thwarts, b unloading materials, b - varnishing the boat, b _see also_ screw propeller boat house building, b - * covering the frame, b doors and windows, b foundation, b * frame, end and side, b - * pier, constructing, b , roof, b - slides or ways, b - boats fishing boats, fitting and cost, k _see also_ boat building; canoes and canoeing; launch; screw propeller bob sled, k * bob white migration, k planting seed birds, a bo-bo and the roast pig, h bobolink migration, k bog plants, g bohnenberger's machine, b * boiling meats and fish, h principle and process, h seasoning, h vegetables, h boiling point of liquids, h bolsters, h bolts forging, m - * book case designs, d *, *, *, c * "knock down" design and construction, d - * mission style, c staining the wood, d , with adjustable shelf, design and construction, c - * with glazed doors, design and construction, d - * _see also_ book rack book cover limp leather design and making, d - * book mark copper work, m * book rack copper work, m *, d * folding, designing and making, c - * wall rack, designing and making, c - *, d - * book shelves. _see_ book case; book rack book supports copper work, m *, d * books care of, h boomerang, australian making, b - * boone, daniel wilderness traveler, k bootees knitted, n - * bordeaux mixture receipt, g , uses, g , , boring. _see_ drilling and boring bossing up, m , botany collecting native plants in california, a - _see also_ flower gardening; flowers bottles killing bottle for insects, a - *, k *, washing, h boulder up (game), k boulders moving on rollers, b - * raising, b - * bow and arrow, k bowling lawn bowling, k bowls. _see_ brass work; copper work; metal work; pottery box elder characteristics, c box furniture, c - * box kite. _see_ kites box making design to resemble books, c * dovetail joints, c - * drawing instrument box, c * hinging a lid, c knife and fork box, c - * nail box, c - * pencil box, making and carving, c - * proportions, c seat and chest combined, c * simple box, c * toilet boxes, c - *, - * _see also_ copper work; inlaying; metal work; wood carving boy scouts of america, k - * activities, k ambulance badge, qualifications for, k aviator badge, qualifications for, k badges, k - bee-keeper's badge, qualifications for, k blacksmith's badge, qualifications for, k bugler's badge, qualifications for, k campaigning, k camps, routine and model programme, k - carpenter's badge, qualifications for, k clerk's badge, qualifications for, k cook's badge, qualifications for, k cyclist's badge, qualifications for, k dairyman's badge, qualifications for, k electrician's badge, qualifications for, k engineer's badge, qualifications for, k farmer's badge, qualifications for, k finances, k fireman's badge, qualifications for, k first aid to animals' badge, qualifications for, k first-class tests, k - founder of society, k gardener's badge, qualifications for, k handy man's badge, qualifications for, k headquarters, k horseman's badge, qualifications for, k interpreter's badge, qualifications for, k laws, k - leather workers' badge, qualifications for, k life saver's badge, qualifications for, k marksman's badge, qualifications for, k master-at-arms badge, qualifications for, k membership requirements, k - missioner's badge, qualifications for, k musician's badge, qualifications for, k oath, k official hand book, how to obtain, k origin, k pathfinder's badge, qualifications for, k patrols, forming, k , - photographer's badge, qualifications for, k pioneer's badge, qualifications for, k piper's badge, qualifications for, k plumber's badge, qualifications for, k poultry farmer's badge, qualifications for, k principles of good scouting, k printer's badge, qualifications for, k purpose, k salute and secret sign, k scout craft, k , scout master, qualifications and duties, k , - second-class tests, k sign posts for scout master, k - signaler's badge, qualifications for, k seaman's badge, qualifications for, k stalker's badge, qualifications for, k starman's badge, qualifications for, k surveyor's badge, qualifications for, k swimmer's badge, qualifications for, k tenderfoot, class requirements, k troop, organization, k - , - boys' clubs. _see_ clubs brace and bit. _see_ carpentry and woodwork--tools bracelets silver work, m - * bracket brass work, m - * iron work, m - * wood corner bracket, c * designs, c - * making, c braiding coronation braid daisy pattern, n - * what it is and how to sew it on, n - * fastening the ends of the braid, n flat braid, how to sew it on, n rugs and mats, n soutache braid, n stamping the design, n weaving four strands, n * how to begin, n - * joining a new strand, n , *, on frame, n - * six strands, n * braising, h brass cleaning, h , m coloring blue black, m coloring green, c composition and characteristics of, m tarnish, to prevent, m brass work, m - * bell and bracket, m - * bracket, m - * crumb tray and scraper, m - * finger bowl, m - * handles to vase, making, m soldering a vase, m tea caddy, m - * vase, m - * weighting a vase, m _see also_ copper work; metal work brazilian point lace, n * brazing metals, m - preparation of parts and process, m - value, m bread baking, h brown bread, food value, h camp cooking, k - curled bread for camping, e food value, h , , freshening dry bread, h ingredients, purpose of, h - kneading, h mixing, h raising, h setting, h unleavened, h yeast for, h - bread board making, c - * breakfast food food value, h left overs, h breeding purpose and standards, k skill in breeding dutch belted varieties, k _see also_ domestic animals; also names of animals, e. g., horse; poultry; swine etc. bridges building a foot bridge, b - * brier stitch. _see_ feather-stitching broilers. _see_ electric broilers; poultry raising broiling process and utensils, h - brooches silver work, m - * brooders making, k brook trout bait, k reclaiming a trout stream, a - broth. _see_ soups brother juniper's cooking: story, h brown bread combinations for food values, h brushes paint brushes, h stenciling brushes, n - * _see also_ commutators (electricity) brussels sprouts soil and planting, g - brussels stitch, n - * buckeye tree characteristics, c buckles belt buckles, making, m - *, * turn buckles, forging, m , - * buckthorn for hedges, g buckwheat cakes and sausage, food value, h food value, h budding plants, g - buffet design, d * building base boards, c batter boards, posts and sills setting, d cheap finishings, c chimneys, style of, c construction boat house details, b - * house details, d - * cornice detail, d * flashing chimneys, c interior finish details, d * joists, placing, b model house, d - rollers for moving heavy weights, b sills, setting, d - * walls, finishing, c woods and their uses, c working drawings for, d - _see also_ architecture; bird houses; boat building; boat house; carpentry; columns; doors; floors; foundations; house framing; joints; pergola; poultry house; summer house; strength of materials; windows; wood buildings wrecking, b - , bulbs (metal) forging iron bulbs, m - * bulbs (plant), g - california bulbs, collecting and cultivating, a - bedding plants, g , blue flowers, list, g colors, list, g - drying and storing, g easiest to grow, g flat for, making, g * forcing varieties, g insect pests, g outdoor planting, soil preparations, g planting, hints, g planting in lawns, g , a , potting for winter, soil and drainage, g red flowers, list, g resting time, g to prevent plants from blossoming low down, g transferring to light and heat, g , water bulbs, g care and development, g when to buy, g white flowers, list, g winter care of, g yellow flowers, list, g _see also_ canna; chinese lilies; crocus; hyacinths; narcissus; tulips bulgarian drawn work, n - * bull in the ring (game), k bungalow plan and elevation, c * bunsen burner, m * burdock class and seed time, g destroying, a distribution of seed, g bureau drawers arrangement and care of contents, h - doll's playhouse in, h burgees, b bur-marigold (beggarticks) class and seed time, g burned wood. _see_ pyrography burns care of, h burroughs, john love for birds, a butcher knife. _see_ knives butt joints, c * butter food value, h , how to judge butter, h butterflies breeding, a - classifying a collection, a collecting, a - *, k - series to illustrate development, a - time for, a development from the egg, a - killing bottle and how to use it, a - , k *, mounting a collection, a - *, k * net for catching, k * butterfly weed habits and characteristics, g , buttermilk cleansing properties, h butternut tree characteristics, a , c buttonball tree characteristics, c , g buttonholes, n - * cutting, n loops, making, n * stitch, n * tailor-made, n * thread for, n , buttonholing blanket stitch, n * finishing edge, n , hedebo embroidery, n - * honeycomb stitch, n * knotting thread, to avoid, n mount mellick, n padding, n - roman cut-work, n - * american stitch, n * european stitch, n - * scalloping, n * cutting out, n triangular buttonholing, n * _see also_ wallachian embroidery buttons sewing on, n - * buttonwood characteristics, c buying. _see_ marketing c cabbage bleaching heads, g cooking preparations, h family, g food value, h growing, g - harvesting, g indoor planting, g insect pests, g , planting seed depth and distance to plant, g early and late crops, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g savoy variety for poor soil, g seed germination per cent., g time required, g soil requirements, g , storing, g cabinet with drawers, making, c - * with shelves and glass doors, making, d - * _see also_ filing cabinet; medicine cabinet; tool cabinet cabinet work. _see_ carpentry and woodwork cables, submarine laying the atlantic cable, e - number in operation, e rates, e cactus use of pitch, a cahill, dr. inventor of telharmonium, e - cake baking, h freshening dry cake, h making, h - substituting lard for butter, h calcimine cleaning walls, h calendar back whittling, c * calendula sowing and blossoming time, g calf beef versus dairy feeding, a diseases, a fattening, a feeding, a - raising, a - teaching to drink, a training to lead, a , watering, a calfskin for leather work, n california bulbs collecting and growing, a - california poppies sowing and blossoming time, g calipers blacksmiths' tools, m call ball, k caloric theory of heat, e calves. _see_ calf cambium, a camelot, h , cameras kinds and cost, k - lenses, k camp stool making, c - * camphor for packing, h , camping beds, k - * blankets, k bough bed, k * boy scouts' camp, k - brush leanto, k * clothing, k - cooking, k - * bread, k - coffee, k fish, k , frying, k game, k , indian meal, k johnny cake, k left overs, k meat, time, k rice, k rules, k - utensils, k - vegetables, k , drainage problem, k electric lights, installation and cost, e - fireplaces, building, k - fires for cooking, k - * gypsy rig, k hunter's fire, k - lighting in the rain, k making, k - that will burn all night, k , * firewood, providing for, k - fitting up an old mill, e - food, care of, k - girl's work in, k - hints for comfort, k - locality, choosing, k - mosquitoes, protection from, k outfit, k - * ovens, k - * principles of, k - selecting a leader, k shower bath device, e * site, selecting, k - sleeping bag and head shelter, k * tents, k - * pegs, securing, k pitching, k - * sod cloth, k water supply device, k - * canadian pine, c candleberry, a - candles bayberry dips, a - shades, making from cardboard and paper, d * candlestick copper work, m - * pottery, designing, d - * spiral, iron work, m - * wrought iron, making, m - * candytuft annual, g characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g cane rush, k canes woods used for, a - canna bedding plants, g planting bulbs, g , planting seeds, g canning and preserving elderberries, a canoe tilting (game), k canoeing, k - * accidents, avoiding, k girl's sports, k indian model canoe, k * paddling, k - sailing canoes, k - * canterbury bell biennial, g capstan, b , * car springs, b - * carafe washing, h carbohydrates effect of boiling processes, h food composition, h in vegetables, h proportion in diet, h , carbon bisulphide insecticide, g , carbon filaments. _see_ electric lamps--incandescent carbonic acid as leaf food, g - carbureter, b * card, leslie e. how i started with hens, a - card case making and embroidering, n - * tooled leather, design and making, d - * card tray copper work, d - * carpentry and woodwork beveling, c * gage device for, c bill of material, value in making, c *, board feet, estimating, c construction, c - curved rails, making, d curves, cutting with gouge, c - * cutting up old lumber, b - doweling, d dressing down lumber, c - , - estimating lumber, c - gaining-in shelves, d * glued-up work, joining, d - * gluing joints, d - *, - mitre joints, c - * process, c gouge work, c - * grooves chiseling, c - , cutting, c - * gouging, c - * joint edge, meaning, c joints. _see_ joints in main alphabet mathematics of woodwork, c - * mortise, cutting, d nails holding power, b - sinking, c * outdoor carpentry, c - * panels for desk, d - * for door, c - , - original purpose of, c - * planing, c , d - , position for planing, c surface planing and taking out wind, c use of shooting board, c * rabbeting, c - sand papering, d shop equipment, c - * grindstone, c - * lumber rack, c - * nail box and cabinet, c - * tool box, making, c - * tool chest and cabinet, making, c - work bench, types, c - * spokeshave work, examples, c *, *, * squaring up stock, c - , - * stock, selection and preparation, d - * systematic plan in working, d - testing grain of the wood for strength, c truing up, c - , d - * undercutting, c - * warping, to prevent, d * working face of lumber, c _see also_ building; doors; floors; house framing; joints; lumber; polishing; rustic furniture; stains and staining; strength of materials; whittling; windows; wood; wood finishing carpentry and woodwork--problems box furniture, c - * brackets, c - * bread board, c * camp stool, c - * chest and box seat combination, c * checkerboard, c - * clock cases, c - * coat hanger, c * couch hammock, c - * drawers, making, c - *, * drawing board, c *, foot stools, c - * mission style, c - * handles for hatchet and hammer, c * hinges, setting, c household utensils, c - , - * knife and fork box, c - * ladle, c * linen chest, c - * magazine rack, d *, - * mechanical drawing outfit, c - * medicine cabinet, c - * mitre box, c - * morris chair, d *, - nail boxes, c - * pen and ink trays, c - * pin tray, c * rustic furniture, d - * sugar scoop, c * toilet boxes, c - *, - * tool cases and chest, c - *, - tool rack, c * towel rack, c * towel roller, c - * umbrella stand, d - mission design, c * _see also_ bird house; book case; book rack; box making; building; chairs; desk; doors; floors; house framing; inlaying, wood; joints; mechanical drawing; mission furniture; pergola; picture frames and framing; plant stands; poultry house; settees; stains and staining; tables; tabourette; toy making; whittling; windows; wood; wood carving; wood finishing carpentry and woodwork--tools auger bit, c * bench hook, c - * bench stop, c bit and brace "chuck", c extension bit, c * ratchet attachment for corners, c types, c - * boring tools, c - * braces, making, c cases and cabinets, making, c - *, - * centre bit, c * chisels, socket and tang, c * clamps, devices for, c * coping saw, c * cutting tools, construction and action, c dowel bit, c draw knife, c * drill bits, c drills, c - * dulling edges on old lumber, b - files, kind and uses, c forstner bit, c * gimlet bit, c *, gouge, c - * hammers, c * hand screw, c - * using, c - * mallet, c * mitre box, c - * nail set, c * oil stone, c * planes, c - * pliers, c * quality, c rack, c * rules, c saw horse, making, c - * saws, c - * screw driver, c * screw driver bit, c sharpening, c - * shooting board how to make, c * how to use, c * spirit level, c * spokeshave, c square, steel, c *, m * surface plate, d template, c * vise, quick action, c * winding sticks, d * carpets cleaning, h storing, h _see also_ rugs carriages cleaning, a carrier pigeons, k carrot planting seed quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination period, g , soil for, g thinning plants, g varieties, g wild carrot, g , carving shelf fungi, a _see also_ wood carving case hardening, m - cast-iron brazing, m castors, acme pin, d cat characteristics, k - cat (game), k cat-stitch embroidery stitch, n * cat-tail characteristics, g catalpa characteristics, g ornamental value, g catbird insect destroyer, a migration, k caterpillars collecting specimens, a garden pests, g , , , cauliflower cooking, preparation for, h growing, g insect pests, g seed, germination per cent., g time to plant, g cavies care of pets, k - raising for pets, a varieties, k cedar red characteristics, c durability, c white, characteristics, c cedar bird migration, k cedar chest making, c - * ceiling as reflector, h care of, h decorations to correct defects of height, d celery blanching, g fertilizer for, g food value, h insect pests, g , planting plants, g - planting seeds, g indoor planting time, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g soil for, g , substitutes for, in salad, h transplanting, g trenches for, g cellar, h - care of, h cleaning walls, h materials for floor and wall, h , must, preventing, h racks for barrels and pans, h rooms and equipment, h - ventilation, h windows, h cells. _see_ electric batteries cellular kites, making, c - * cement cellar walls, h coloring for pottery, d columns, building, c - dams, b - engraver's receipt, m floors, making, a foundations boat house, b house, c pergola, c - lining pond, g - mixing for floors and walks, a , b , , c , g portland, origin and uses, b - retaining walls, riverside, b - cement blocks making, b - cement furniture, d - * color for inlaid designs, d decoration, d * finishing coat, d scratch coat, making and laying, d wire forms for, making, d - cement walks floating operation, b jointing, b laying out, b - leveling, b * materials, b - , roots, danger from, b sides, making, b * tampers for, b trench digging and filling, b , - , centigrade scale, b centre punch. _see_ punch chafing dish, electric, e * chain-stitch crocheting, n * embroidery, n - * chains welding iron chains, m - * adding links, m _see also_ bead work; necklace chairs box furniture making, c - dining-room, design, d * duxbury design, d hall chair, design, d * kitchen furniture, h morris chair designs, d *, * making, d - * _see also_ bench making; settees chalk french chalk, h , lime composition, g chamber work, h - chamois gloves washing, h chamois skin for leather work, n champleve definition, m enameling, m chanterelles, mushrooms, a character influence of occupations on, a charcoal how made, m purifying qualities, h , charge accounts. _see_ accounts chasing metals definition of, m chassis. _see_ automobiles checkerboard designing and making, c - * table, making, c * woods to use, c - cheese food value, h chemical elements of food, h of the human body, h cherry tree characteristics of the wild or black variety, c seeds, care of, a wood for canes, a chest making a box seat combination, c * making a linen chest, c - * _see also_ tool boxes and chests chesterton, g. r. keeping good health: quotation, h chestnut characteristics of tree, c chinquapins, characteristics, a - cultivating, a disease, a durability of the wood, c food value, h grafting trees, a japanese, hardy variety, a varieties, a weevil, pest, a wood finish antique, c fuming, d chicken house. _see_ poultry houses chickens. _see_ poultry chickweed class and seed time, g chimney, house cold, meaning of, h fire, extinguishing, h "flashing", c _see also_ flues china aster characteristics, g chinese lilies water bulbs, g , chinese windlass, b chinquapin characteristics, a - weevils, pest, a chip carving. _see_ wood carving chisel cape chisel, making, m * cold chisel, hardening and tempering, m making, m *, * what used for, m * hot chisel making, m * what used for, m * metal work tool, m * sharpening, c - * silver work tool, making, m - * socket and tang, how to use, c - * stone chisel, forging, m - * wood chisel, forging, m - chlorinated soda ink stain remover, h chocolate food value, h christmas greens collecting and marketing, a - christmas tree harvesting, a oak trees transformed, a chrysanthemum back ground plants, g characteristics, g time of blooming, g chuck ribs, h cider wastefulness in making, a cigar box copper decorations, m *, cigar lighters, electric, e * circle how to draw, c - * citizenship training for, a - city water supply. _see_ water works city yard making and cost of a garden, g , - clamps, c * clams cooking, h food value, h testing, h washing, h clap boards for siding, c removing, b clarkia characteristics, g , claw tool making, m * clay. _see_ soils clay modeling. _see_ pottery cleaning delicate colors and textures, h restoring color taken out by an acid or alkali, h stains and spots on fabrics, h - woodwork, h _see also_ brass; carpets; curtains; embroidery; flues; furnace; furniture; house cleaning; matting; pictures; rugs; shades; tiles; vegetables; walls; vacuum cleaners cleft grafting. _see_ grafting clematis decorative value, g japanese, characteristics, g clippings making envelope file, n - * clocks cases, making, c - * clocks for cases, selecting, c electric clocks alarm clocks, e master clock, e - operation, e - program clocks, e self winding, e watchman's time detector, e * fastening the clock into the case, c * grandfather's clock, design and construction, c - * hall clock, design and construction, d - * wood finish, d mantel clock, design and construction, c - * mission style, design and construction, c - * pendulum clock case, design and construction, c - * pulley mechanism, b * wall clock, design and construction, c - * _see also_ watches cloisonne definition of, m enameling, m closets, clothes cleaning and care, h , window in, d closets, toilet cleaning bathroom toilet, h sanitary equipment and care of outdoor closets, h closing the house, h - clothes basket for laundry, h clothes-horse, h clothes line, care of, h clothes pins, care of, h clothes poles, h clothes press. _see_ closets, clothes clothing and dress art and fashions, d being well dressed, d - business women's attire, d camp outfit, k - care of importance, h in bureau drawers, h - in closets, h responsibility for, h children's attire, d color in, d decorative principles, d girl's equipment for outdoor sports, k - harmony and good lines, d proportion of income assigned for, h , , _see also_ dressmaking; sewing clouds cumulus, b formation, b - hail clouds, b clubs agricultural, organizing, a - garden club, g - outdoor club, a - science club, e sewing club, n wireless club, e - _see also_ boy scouts of america coal bituminous, value of, m estimating energy in, e specific gravity, b supply decreasing, e _see also_ fire making coasting, k luge-ing, k coat hangers making, c * cocklebur class and seed time, g cockroaches, h cocoa food value, h cocoanuts food value, h cocoon. _see_ silkworms codfish combinations for food value, h food value, h codling moth woodpecker enemy of, k coffee camp cooking, k coffee mill mechanical principle of, b - * coffee percolator, electric, e * coffee pots care of, h coffee stains, h coffee tree, kentucky characteristics, c cold chisel. _see_ chisel coldframe changing to a hotbed, g directions for making, g - * drilling the rows, g planning, g soil and location, g storage for endive, g transplanting from, g - coleus bedding plant, g collar metal work appliance, m collar, dress. _see_ dressmaking; irish crochet collar slides silver work, m - * collecting. _see_ insects; plants; seaweed; shells college athletics best records made in intercollegiate contests, k college education earning, a , color due to wave length, e in dress, d restoring to fabrics, h _see also_ floral decoration; house decoration colts. _see_ horses columbine habits and characteristics, g , columns, concrete constructing and setting for pergola, c - * combs silver work, m - * commutation (electricity) brushes, e principle of, e - compass use in drawing, c - compost. _see_ fertilizers and manures concrete. _see_ cement cones. _see_ pine conic sections describing, b * coniferous trees, c - conservation of natural resources conserving nature's crops, a - _see also_ forestry cook duties, h , cook book making from books and magazines, h cookery, h - camp cookery, k - * definition, h emergencies, h - freshening bread or cake, h left overs, utilizing, h , k mixtures, principles of, h - preparation of foods for, h - processes, h - purpose of, h sequence of work in getting a meal, h - soda, uses of, h substitutes for articles called for by receipts, h - sun as cook, h time tables, h - warming over food, h _see also_ baking; boiling; braising; bread; broiling; cake; canning and preserving; coffee; corn; desserts; diet; eggs; electric cooking; fireless cookers; fish; food; frying; game; meat; mushrooms; oysters; pastry; poultry; rice; roasting; shell fish; soups; stewing; tea; traveler's cooker; vegetables coons. _see_ raccoons copper work annealing, m ash tray, m * belt buckle, m - *, * belt pin, d * bill file, m - * book mark, m * book rack, m *, d * bowls, m - * chalice, m * loving cup, m nut set, m * shaping, m * box for jewels, m - * candlestick, m - * drip pan, m * night candle holder, m - * sconce, m - * shaping, m * card tray, d - * cedar chest, trimmings, m - * chalice, m - * cigar box decorations, m *, coloring, d , m , , corners, d * cutting heavy copper, m * desk set, m - * draw filing, m enameling on copper, d , facets, how made, m filing, m - * hammering, m - *, - *, * handles candlestick, m loving cup, m * making and riveting, m - making and soldering, m - hat pin, d - *, m - * soldering pin to head, m * hat pin holder, m - * hinges, m - *, - * ink well holder, m - * jars, m - *, - * jewel box, m - * hinges, m - * knobs on lids, m lamp, electric, m - * lamp shade framework, m - * setting glass, m - * letter opener, d * letter rack, d - * lids chalice, m - * ink well holder, m * jewel box, m - * rose jar, m tobacco jar, m - * loving cup, m - * match safe, m - * molds for, m - nut set, m - * nut spoon, m - * paper knife, d *, m - *, * turned handle, m * patina, imitation, m composition for, m pen tray, m - * polishing, m rose jar, m - * russian coffee pot, m * sawing, m - * sconce, m - * serving tray, m - * sheet copper, grades, m smoking set, m - * soldering handles, m - hat pin, m * spindle, m - * spoon for nut set, m - * teapot stand, d - * tobacco jar, m - * trays, m - *, - * ash tray, m * handles, making and riveting, m - pen tray, m * round, m - * serving tray, m - * smoking set, m - * square, m - * watch fob, d - * _see also_ brass work; metal work; silver work; tools copyright application items, b assigning rights, b directions for securing, b - duplicate certificates, b fees for recording, b issue of work, not limited, b invalid, when, b labels, b paintings, statues, etc., b penalties for breaking laws, b , projected work, b renewals, b term, b trade marks, b translation rights, b volumes and variations, b coral how coral is formed, g coral bells characteristics, g coral fungi, a coreopsis annual, g characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g corn contest in growing corn, g - cooking dried corn, a cultivation of soil, g drying, a - food value, h husking for cooking, h husks, uses of, a insect pests, g percentage of corn to cob, g points for judging, g planting seeds distance to plant, g , depth to plant, g , , , quantity to plant, g , time to plant, g planting varieties near together, g pollination, how plants are fertilized, g raising on a suburban lot, a seed age for planting, g book about, a germination per cent., g , selection, g - , , a - * soil required, g , stalk pith, use of, a corn meal food value, h cleansing property, h corned beef food value, h cornell university poultry course, a cornflower biennial, g characteristics, g , planting, g self-sowing, g sowing and blossoming time, g corning, w. o. experiment with raising goats, a - coronation braid how to braid, n - * cosmos characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g cost of living division of income, h - cottages building and furnishing a simple home, d - * cost of materials, d cotyledon seed nourishment, g couch cover weaving design, d - couch hammock, c - * couching embroidery stitches, n * counterpane making for doll-bed, n * counting-out rhymes, k country homes. _see_ cottages country life making the country a better place to live in, a - _see also_ camping; gardening; sports court, tennis, k cover for note book tooled leather, d - cows milking, a - by electricity, e profits in keeping cows, a - from one cow on a suburban lot, a - testing for milk supply, a _see also_ calf; milk crab (machine), b * crabapple, wild butter or sauce, a regions found, a crabs food value, h cooking soft shell crabs, h opening and cooking hard shells, h craigin, belle s. amateur's experience in poultry raising, a - cranks (machinery) crank motion, b * mechanism, b * cream. _see_ milk and cream cream of tartar uses, h credit. _see_ accounts creepers insect destroyers, a creosote wood preservative, c cricket, k - crocheting, n - * abbreviations for stitches, n chain stitch, n * crazy stitch, n cross stitch, n * doll's cap, n - doll's hug-me-tight, n - * double crochet, n * edging stitch loop, n * narrow, n * tiny edging, n * fringe, n hooks, n - * insertion stitch cone, n * loop, n * tiny insertion, n * insertion with ribbon, n * jacket, n - * shell stitch, n - * patterns, n - * position of hands, n * rainbow pattern, n - * scarf, cross stitch, n * shawl, rainbow pattern, n - * shells, n *, - * single crochet stitch, n *, * slip stitch, n slippers, n - * crazy stitch, n * star stitch, n - * star stitch, n *, * treble crochet, n * washing, n * crocus planting in lawns, a , planting tables, g , crops succession crops, g _see also_ gardening croquet, k golf-croquet, k _see also_ roque cross bow spring, b * cross stitch embroidery stitches, n - *, *, * marking towels, n crosses drawing designs, c *, greek, inlay design, c crowbars making, m * crows as pets, k crucible cast steel. _see_ steel crumb tray and scraper brass work, m - * crystals, snow, b * cuckoo insect eater, a cucumber food value, h how to peel, h indoor planting time, g insect pests, g origin of, g planting seed directions, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g thinning plants, g cucumber vine ornamental value, g cuff links metal work, m - * cuffs. _see_ dressmaking cumulus, b curling (game), k curling iron, electric, e * curtains dry cleaning, h dusting, h girl's room, furnishings, n - materials for stenciling, n stencil design, n * stenciling, d - * stretching, h valance, d washing, h - weaving, designs and materials, d - _see also_ block printing curves drawing, b * cushions. _see_ pillows cut worms, g detecting and destroying, g toads enemies of, k cyanide bottle for killing insects, a *, k cypress varieties and characteristics, c d dado joints, c *, daffodil narcissus family, g van sion variety, g white and yellow, planting table, g , dairy cow. _see_ cows dairy products food value, h _see also_ butter; milk dairying book about, a keeping accounts, a - sanitary milk pail, a * daisy characteristics of the english daisy, g class and seed time of ox-eyed and yellow, g embroidery stitches, n - * dampers in pipes and ovens, h principle of stoves and ranges, h - dams famous dams of concrete, b - dandelion class and seed time, g greens, a daphne characteristics, g darning limerick darning, lace stitches, n stockings, n - * dates food value, h day and night cause of, b debit. _see_ accounts decanter washing, h decoration and ornament woods suitable for, c _see also_ block printing; carving; embroidery; enamel and enameling; floral decoration; house decoration; leather work; metal work; pottery; pyrography; stenciling; wood carving decoration, interior. _see_ house decoration deer book about, a design. _see_ architecture; basket making; bead work; brass work; copper work; embroidery; furniture; house decoration; leather work; metal work; pottery; silver work; stenciling; wood carving desk library desk design, d * design and construction, d - * wood finish, d mission style writing desk, design, c * writing desk, design, d * desk pad copper fittings, making, m - * leather, design and making, d - * desk sets copper, m - * pen and ink trays, gouge work, c - * dessert combinations for food value, h deutzia characteristics, g devil's snuff box, a dibber, g * dies (metal work) making, m - diet carbohydrates, h - , chemical properties, h giving undue concern to, h - ideal, objection to, h principles of, h - proteins, h - , _see also_ food digestion. _see_ diet digitalis made from foxglove, a dining-room, h - care of, h , - furniture arrangement, d design, d - * ideal, h plan in the model house, d work, setting and serving the table, h - dirigible balloons, b dish washing cloths, care of, h decanters and bottles, h egg stains, removing, h glasses, h preparation of dishes, h process, h - rinsing dishes, h silver, h steel knives, h wiping and putting away, h , - without running water, h disinfectants use in plumbing, h ditch drains. _see_ drainage dividers (tools) forging, m - * using in metal working, m *, * diving, k * girls as divers, k dixie's land (game), k dock, yellow class and seed time, g dogs as friends, k bathing, k boarding dogs as a business, a - profits from, a breeds, k - farm dogs, a feeding, a , k puppies, a fleas, k , house, working drawing of a toy house, c * housing, k punishing, k raising, a - story of success in, a - selecting a pet, k - training, a - , k - for cattle herding, a , for hunting, k - for retrieving, a for running machinery, a - dog's tooth violet characteristics, g dogwood characteristics, c , g doilies irish crochet edge, n * doll's clothes cap crocheted, n - * knitted, n * cape, knitted, n * hug-me-tight, crocheted, n - * jacket, knitted, n - leggings, knitted, n * _see also_ dressmaking; sewing doll's furniture bed fittings, n - * cigar box trunk, h pasteboard box for bed, h , domestic animals books about, a raising, a - for pets, a - _see also_ cat; cow; dog; horse; pigeon; poultry; sheep; swine domestic economy. _see_ housekeeping door handles metal work, m , , * door hasp forging, m - * door knockers escutcheon plate, m *, - iron metal work, m - * door pulls metal work, m * doors batten door, c * electric door opener, e * frames, setting, c hanging, c inside trim, c * paneled, c - , - * saddles, c dough. _see_ bread; pastry dovetail joints, c *, *, - * dowel bit, c dowel for weaving, n dowel joints, c * doweling, d dracenas window box plant, g drafting. _see_ mechanical drawing dragon-flies habits, a drainage ditch building, g grading and digging, g pipe, depth laid, g problem for garden plot, g - "sighting" for drop and bed level, g - sloping land, g standing water, g stones for trough, setting, g tiles, laying, g types of drains, g wooden troughs, disadvantage of, g drainage, house. _see_ plumbing; refrigerator draught of open fires, h principle of stoves and ranges, h - draw knife, c * draw plate definition of, m drawer pulls metal work, m - * drawing designing a corner for stencil work, d designs for block printing, d - * how to enlarge or reduce a drawing, c , b outline drawing for stencil work, d _see also_ mechanical drawing drawing board making, c *, - * drawing instruments making a box for, c * making a mechanical drawing outfit, c - drawnwork, n - * all-over, n - * bulgarian weaving patterns, n - * butterfly pattern, n - * convent work, n - * daisy pattern, n * feather stitch, n * filling spaces, n frames for, n handkerchiefs, n - * maltese cross, n mexican, n * sheaf stitch, n * soaping threads, n twist stitch, n * _see also_ fagotting; hardanger embroidery; hemstitching dress. _see_ clothing and dress dresser. _see_ bureau dressmaking bands, cutting, n bias bands, cutting, n box plaits, n collars cutting, n fastening to waist, n cuffs cutting, n sewing on sleeves, n cutting from a pattern, n - * frills, cutting, n patterns allowing for seams, n cutting doll's skirt from, n * cutting from, n - drawing and cutting, n * notches and perforations, n pinning material on, n - * plaiting skirt, n - * seams, tailored, n skirts bands, n *, basting seams, n cutting from a pattern, n , - * hemming, n , plackets and gussets, n - *, plaiting, n - * putting on the bands, n sleeves cutting, n gathering, n * putting into waist, n * putting together, n * waists cutting, n cutting from pattern, n * joining seams, n _see also_ sewing driftwood gathering, a drilling and boring tools draw boring, c * drills for copper and silver, m * forging and tempering rock drills, m - * forging hand drills, m - * kinds and their uses, c - * driveways of ashes, g drowning method of rescue from, k dry cleaning delicate and light-colored articles, h duck on a rock (game), k ducks book about, a brooders, a characteristics, a feeding ducklings, a how to select for cooking, h marketing, a raising, a - ducks versus chickens, a - story of a boy's animal cage, a varieties, k water not essential for raising, a - wood ducks, domesticating, a * duplicating machine, b dusting bedroom, h floors, h house cleaning process, h little services, h opening the house, h dutch collar irish crochet, n - * dutch oven, k dyeing colors, how to obtain, d - hints, d - lace, n dynamometer, b * dynamos, e - alternating current, e - batteries replaced by, e - construction of a simple dynamo, e - * definition of, e efficiency, e - field, e , - generating electricity, e - how a dynamo generates both direct and alternating currents, e how used as a motor, e - installing, e load, e magneto, e - * illustration of use, e - rate of vibration, e - use for ringing telephone bells, e - * principle of a simple dynamo, e - * producing tones with, e - series wound, e * shunt wound, e * transmitters not power producers, e _see also_ armatures e earth attraction exerted by sun and moon, b - diameter, b distance from sun and moon, b - elements, b globular form proved, b - * rotation, b , eddy kites making, c * edging. _see_ crocheting; irish crochet edison, thomas a. discovery of carbon filaments, e new storage battery, e - eggplant cooking preparation, h parasites on, g planting seed, g indoor planting time, g time to plant, g seed, germination per cent., g soil for, g transplanting, g eggs cooking, preparation for, h ducks' eggs, a fancy breed eggs, a food value, h gold fish eggs, a guinea fowl, value of, a insect eggs, a judging freshness of, h marketing, a pheasant eggs, packing, a preserving for winter use, a - yolks in water, h record for laying hens, a selecting for sitting hens, a separating yolks from whites, h stains removing, h _see also_ poultry egyptian pyramids, b - elderberries canning, receipt, a picking, a steam pudding, receipt, a electric annunciators construction and operation, e - * electric apparatus and appliances using electricity to aid the memory, e - _see also_ armatures; clocks; dynamos; telegraph; telephone; vacuum cleaners; and words beginning electric electric armatures. _see_ armatures electric batteries cells, positive and negative plates, e , dry cells cost, e increase of voltage by increased resistance, e - structure, e - use for lighting a summer camp, e - * electrolytic cells, e - galvanic cells depolarizing agent, e effect of heat on chemical action, e electricity produced by chemical action, e polarization of, e - replaced by dynamos, e - simple cell, chemical action, e - sparking apparatus for a gasolene engine, e - * storage batteries, e - edison battery, construction and care, e - lead, construction and care of, e - why they run down, e - electric bells alternating current bells, e equipment and installation in a house, e - operated by induced current, e - operated by wireless outfit, e * operation of electric bells and buzzers, e - * transmitter in wireless telegraph, e electric buzzer operation, e - * used in electric organ, e - electric cars electric heaters, e _see also_ electric railroads electric central station, e - * electric cigar lighter, e * electric circuit breakers, e * electric circuits open and closed, e electric clocks. _see_ clocks electric conductors copper sulphate, e copper versus iron, e effect of impurities in water, e salt solution, e , water, e electric controllers arc lamp feed, e automatic air control, e principle of, e - * elevator switches, e principle of, e _see also_ electric rheostat electric cooking broilers, e * chafing dish, e * coffee percolator, e * fireless cooker, e - *, hot plate, e - * oven, e , - * toaster, e traveler's cooker, e * with incandescent lamps, e * electric curling iron, e * electric currents alternating definition, e for telephone bells, e generation of, e how produced, e - changing alternating to direct currents, e - chemical reaction produced by powerful currents, e - decomposition of water, e different currents pass through the same wire, e direct, definition of, e induced current by interrupting the circuit, e by moving the magnet, e - direction of, e experiments, e - magnetic field about, e * primary and secondary, in spark coils, e - * produced by chemical action, e - rectifiers, e - secondary, voltage, e - telephone, e electric engine principle of a toy engine, e * electric flash light, e - * electric flasher, e - * electric fuses, e * "blowing", e , electric gas lighter, e - * electric generators. _see_ dynamos electric heating apartments, e applications, e - bedroom heater, e * cars, e hot plates versus incandescent lamps, e pad, e principle of, e - * _see also_ electric cooking electric hot plate, e - * electric incubator, e electric induction coil illustration, e electric insulators and insulation, e glass knobs for telephone wires, e electric iron, e * principle and cost of using, e - electric lamps, arc arc lamp feed, e carbons, adjustment, e - * glass globes, economy of, e - mechanism, e - mercury vapor lamp, e - * moore light, e search light, e * stereopticon, e * electric lamps, incandescent burglar's flash light, e - * connecting lamps with the circuit, e * construction, e - * cooking with, e * current required, e filament carbon, e - life of, e - making of, e testing, e development of, e - * metal, e - platinum wire, e sizes, measuring, e hylo, use and cost of, e * intensity, comparison of, e - nernst lamps, e numbers manufactured, e operating by induced currents, e - * operating by wireless outfit, e resistance, e of lamps in parallel, e * socket, e * tungsten lamp, e *, , electric light percentage of waste in producing, e search light, e * electric light fixtures copper lamp, m - * design, d - * electric lighting cost, e , - , fitting up a summer camp, e - growth of demand for, e electric measurements units, e - * ampere, e kilowatt hour, e volt, e watt, e electric meters care when closing house, h reading, h _see also_ ammeter; voltmeter; wattmeter electric milking machine, e electric motors, e - acting as dynamo, e compared with dynamo, e - * e. m. f. in motors, e _see also_ electric controller electric organs, e , - *, - pipe organ, e - electric oven, e automatic control of temperature, e - * brick, construction, e - electric potential meaning of difference in potential, e - electric power conversion of steam into electric energy, e cost in large and small plants, e production of, e - electric power distribution cost, e distances, power and cost, e - loss in transmission, e , voltage in relation to distances, e electric power plants central stations, e - * equipping an amateur plant, e - estimating the capacity, e number and annual output in the united states, e water power for, e - electric pumps use of, e - electric push buttons, e - * for elevators, e - * house bells, e - electric railroads current controller, principle of, e toy operated by wireless outfit, e - * what moves the cars, e electric resistance impedance, e - laws for wires, e of electric lamps, e of lamps in parallel, e * ohmic resistance, e principle of electric heating and lighting, e - resistance board, e starting box, e , - * telephone circuit, e - unit, ohm, e - variation of heat with resistance, e wires, diameters and resistance, e electric rheostats, e - * _see also_ electric controller electric seal, a electric shock conditions necessary, e electric waves, e experiments with spark coil, e , - , - * how it feels, e - electric shower bath constructing, e - * electric soldering iron, e electric spark coil automobile spark coil, e * gasolene engine equipment, e - * how voltage is raised by the spark coil, e - jump spark coils, e make and break coils, e primary and secondary, e - principle, e - * telephone, e - * vibrator, e voltage, e wireless telegraph, e - * with two windings, e - * electric spinner, e * electric switches, e - * circuit breakers, e * double-pole, single throw, e * electric thermostat, e for brick oven, e - * electric toys engine, e * spinner, e * train operated by wireless, e - electric transformer construction, e - * illustration, e * magnetic circuit, e * relation of voltage to windings, e step-up and step-down transformer, e electric washing machine construction and use, e - * electric waves, e - changes in length, e hertzian waves, e electric welding, e - electric wires diameters, e - glass knobs for insulating, e ground wire for wireless telegraph, e resistance laws of, e tables, e - electric wiring use of earth circuit, e - electricity ampere's rule, e - chemical transformer, e doing chores with, e - * e. m. f., meaning, e electrical current compared with water current, e , - , every-day uses, list, e galvanic, e how electricity feels, e , medical use, e ohm's law, e - _see also_ induction (electricity); telegraph; telephone; wireless telegraph; also headings beginning electric and electro electrocution, e - of rats, e - * electrolysis of solutions, e - of water, e - electrolyte, e electrolytic actions in every-day life, e - electrolytic cell, e - electromagnet, e - applications of, e - * arc lamp control, e construction, e * discovery of, e , lifting power, e - , - magnetic intensity, e principle of, e - strength compared to bar magnets, e use in relay, e electrometallurgy separating iron from ore, e * electromotive force counter electromotive force in motors, e * electroplating, e - elevators electric controllers, operation of, e how annunciators are operated, e - * elijah and the widow's cruse of oil, h ellipse, drawing, b - *, c * string and pin method, c * trammel method, c * elm red or slippery elm, c rock or cork elm, c white or american, c embankments retaining wall for riverside, b - wall for lawn, g emblems bullion embroidery, n embossing iron, m embroidery, n - * bars, twisted and woven, n * blanket stitch, n * bullion stitch, n - * bullion work, n - butterfly pattern, drawnwork, n - * buttonhole and satin stitch design, n * buttonholing, n - *, - * card case, n - * cat stitch, n , * chain stitch, n - * cleaning washing, h , n - without washing, n collars, hedebo embroidery, n * combination stitch, n - * combinations of colors and stitches, d - compass design, n - couching stitch, n * cross stitch, n - *, *, * daisies, n , - * designs, planning, d drawnwork, n - * eyelet work, n - * fagotting, n - *, * feather-stitching, n - * flower work, n - * colors, n shading, n - stems, n french knots, n - * hardanger, n - * hedebo embroidery bars, n * circles, n - * materials for, n triangles, n * hemstitching, n - *, * herring-bone stitch, n * honeycomb stitch, n * hoops, n - ismet stitch, n * kensington stitch, n - * lace, embroidering on, n ladder stitch, n - * lazy-daisy stitch, n - * leaves, shading, n letters, n - * lingerie hats, n - long and short stitch, n * monograms, n - * needles, n outline stitch combination stitches, n - * rough and smooth, n * padding, n , - , - , picots, n *, * pin cushion top, n - * pyramid stitch, hardanger, n * ribbon work, n - * card case, n - * rococo, n - * roman cut work, n - * satin stitch, n - *, d design, n * scalloping, n - drawing scallops, n seeding, n * shadow embroidery, n - * silks, when not to use, n skeleton stitch, n smocking, n - * spider stitch, n stamping patterns, n - star patterns, hardanger, n * stem stitch, n substitute for, n * suggestions for a girl's room, n - threading the needle, n tools, n - turkish stitch, n * van dyke stitch, n * wallachian embroidery, n - * emergencies, housekeeping, h - enamel and enameling, m - backing, m basse-taille, m black spots, removing, m champleve method, m , characteristics of enamel, m cloisonne, m , finishing, m firing process, m - muffle furnace for, m on copper, d - on silver, d placing enamel on metal, m polishing, m preparing enamel, m tools, m unsoldering, m _see also_ wood finishing enamel ware kitchen utensils, h endive blanching, g planting and transplanting, g seed, time to plant, g winter culture, g engineering. _see_ mechanics engines external and internal combustion, b - , - , oscillating, b - * parallel motion, mechanism, b - * speed regulator, b * steam versus gas or oil, advantages, b _see also_ electric engines; electric motors; gasolene motors; horse power; steam engines; turbines english bind weed (morning glory) class and seed time, g engraving cement, m iron work, m ensigns, code, b , entomology. _see_ insects envelope for clippings making, n - * equestrian polo, k ermine, a escallops. _see_ scallops escutcheon plates, m *, - etching iron work, m ether (of space) chemical waves, effect of, e development of the universal ether idea, e - kinds of ether waves, e - medium for transmitting wave motions, e original meaning, e wave theory, exponents of, e - waves sent forth by halley's comet, e - evergreens, c - for hedge, g landscape gardening, g southern smilax, a _see also_ pine exercise value of, k - walking, k - exhibits, vegetables and flowers, g - flowers, arrangement, g labeling, g vegetables arrangement, g , preparation of, g eyelet work designs for, n *, *, - edges of, n lingerie hat, n * making eyelets, n - * padded eyelets, n * eyes and hooks sewing on, n - * f face plate definition of, m fagots collecting, a fagotting lace stitches, n * bermuda fagotting stitch, n - * fahrenheit scale, b fancy work. _see_ applique; basket making; bead work; braiding; crocheting; embroidery; hemstitching; knitting; lace making; needle work; also names of articles, e. g., pin case; sewing apron, etc. faraday, michael discovery of magneto-induction, e , theory of ether phenomena, e farm machines dog power for running, a farmers' bulletins how to secure, a farming. _see_ dairying; domestic animals; drainage; fertilizers and manures; flower gardening; forestry; fruit; gardening; irrigation; soils; trees; vegetable gardening; vegetables fashion. _see_ clothing and dress fat (game), k fats food composition and value, h , frying fats, h proportion in diet, h , feather race, k feather-stitching decorations in, n double stitch, n * marking with, n seaweed stitch, n * single stitch, n * threads, n * feathers goose, a - poultry, a feed rolls mechanism, b * fences. _see_ hedges fermentation principle of, a fern dish making pottery, d - * ferns care of, in house, g gathering, a , varieties to grow, g fertilization of plants, g - fertilizers and manures amount required for poor soil, g hen manure, a leaf mold, making, a - preparing manure for hotbeds, g sod for compost, g source of nitrogen, g wood ashes, a for strawberries, g _see also_ humus; lime; nitrates; phosphates; potash field athletics. _see_ track athletics field, cyrus, w. and the atlantic cable, e figs food value, h files and rasps, c draw filing in copper work, m metal work, m filing cabinet construction, c - * drawer designs to represent books, c * for drawings, making, c - filling. _see_ wood finishing finance. _see_ accounts; allowances; housekeeping; income finger bowls brass work, m - * use of, h finishing. _see_ wood finishing fir. _see_ balsam fire mystery of flame, h fire extinction burning grease, h chimneys, h fire making camp fires, k - for cooking, k - * coal fire, h - daily care, h laying and lighting, h furnace fires, h lighting a fire with kerosene, h open wood fires, h - _see also_ ranges fire of coal: story, h fire screen for metal work, m * fire tools making, m - * poker, forging, m * shovel, forging, m * stand for, making, m - tongs, making, m - * riveting, m _see also_ andirons firearms shot guns versus rifles for boys, k use of, k - * fireless cookers electric, e - *, fireplaces camp fireplaces, k - hearth, flue and draught, h - made of field rock, d * tiles, making, d - _see also_ andirons; fire tools fires damage from, c danger from oily cloths, h preventing forest fires, a - fireworks operated by wireless outfit, e - * firing pottery, d - * fish boiling, h whole, h broiling, h - cleaning, h to preserve heads and tails, h food value, h , combined with vegetables, h frying, k how to select for cooking, h pan fish, meaning, k protecting from natural enemies, a taming, a _see also_ brook trout; gold fish; shell fish; trout fish spears forging, m * fishing, k - * bait, k - * bait casting, k - boats, k fly casting, k , - * gaff, k game fish, k hooks, k - * landing nets, k * line winder, whittling, c * lines, selection and care, k , methods, k qualifications of a successful fisherman, k reels, k rods, selecting, k rules, k still fishing, k , - tackle, k - * time to fish, k trolling, k *, * fixtures. _see_ electric light fixtures flag (plant) characteristics of dwarf flag, g flags yacht signal code, b - flannels washing, h , flash light burglar's, e - * flat irons. _see_ electric iron fleece. _see_ goats; sheep flemish oak stain, d fletcher, horace theory of food chewing, k fleur-de-lis. _see_ iris flicker bird house for, c flies book about, a breeding places, a - danger to health, a development from the egg, a - exterminating, a - floating heart characteristics, g floors building estimating lumber for octagon or hexagon, c - for model house, d for summer house, c laying floors, c setting beams, c carpets versus rugs for, h cement floors for poultry house, a color scheme in house decoration, d cleaning appliances, h dusting, h finish for wood floor, h kitchen floors and floor coverings, h polishing, h refinishing, h waxed floors, polishing, h _see also_ carpets; matting; rugs; strength of materials; vacuum cleaner floral decoration backgrounds, d - color scheme, d - combinations, d dining table, d - garden method, d grouping, d holders and vases, d - * japanese idea, d principles of arrangement, d - wild flowers, decorative value, a flour cleansing qualities, h food value, h flower basket weaving, g - * flower embroidery. _see_ embroidery flower gardening, g - annuals, g - blooming after frost, g arrangement of plants, g background plants, g , , bedding plants, g biennials, g border plants, g , climbing annuals: table, g color scheme, g , cut flowers: tables, g , drills, making, g establishing a nursery business in california, a - formal garden border, g color scheme, g diagram of, g gradation of plants, g , staking plots and paths, g , straight lines in, g fragrant flowers: tables, g , girls' work, g - hardy and self-sowing plants, g - house plants, g - , h informal gardens, g insect pests, g , location of garden, g perennials, g - potted plants, g - drainage, g , - pests, remedy, g pots, cleaning, g potting process, g - soil, g , - transplanting, g - watering, g profit in selling flowers, g selling seeds, g - selling young plants, g - rock garden, g - round beds, making, g - school grounds, g - screening unsightly places, g selection of flowers for landscape effect, g self-sowing annuals: table, g shady places, annuals for: table, g slipping plants, g - soil, annuals that suit heavy or sandy soils, g - succession in bloom by months, g , time table, g topping plants, g _see also_ bulbs; gardening; vines; wild flower gardening; window boxes; also names of special flowers, e. g., chrysanthemum; larkspur; pansy flower missions, a flowers collections, labeling, k preparation and mounting, k cut flowers annuals for, g , care of, h honey or pollen producing, a jardiniere for, making, g - * pistils and stamens, g - propagating wild flowers, a protecting wild flowers, a - supplying city children with wild flowers, a water and bog plants, g _see also_ floral decoration; flower gardening; plants; wild flower gardening; window box; also names of special flowers, e. g., lily flues cleaning, h purpose of, h _see also_ chimney flux definition of, m iron and steel, m use of, in welding, m fly casting, k - * flying theory of, b - flying machines glider, b heavier than air and lighter than air types, b - _see also_ aeroplanes; balloons fobs. _see_ watch fobs foliage plants, g follow the leader (stump master), k food ash, meaning of, h carbohydrates, h combinations, h - condensed, harmful, h fats, h non-nourishing, value of, h pre-digested, harmful, h proportion of income to be used for food, h , protein, h refuse, meaning, h values, h - experiments of united states government, h variety essential, h , _see also_ cookery; diet; fish; fruit; marketing; meat; vegetables; also names of special foods, e. g., bread; macaroni, etc. football, k - *, - association or soccer, k , captain, k centre rush, qualifications, k , dangers of the game, k "down", k , , drop kick, k , ends, qualifications, k , field goal, k , full-back, qualifications, k , goals, choosing, k gridiron, k *, , half-back, qualifications, k , kicking off, k , line-up diagram, k , * players, weight and size, k playing the game, k - , positions of players, k , punt, k quarter-back, qualifications, k , rugby, k rules, k - rushing the ball, k "safety", k scores, k , - , scrimmage, k season, k shoes, k * signals, k - tackles, qualifications, k , team, organization, k - team work, k - touchdown, k , training, k uniform, k - *, foot bridge. _see_ bridge building foot pound, b foot stools designs and construction, c - * mission style, design, c - * forest fires damage from, c preventing, a - forestry book about, a conservation, c value of forests, c - waste timber problems, a _see also_ lumber and lumbering; trees; wood lots forge bellows, m * building fire in, m - construction, m draught systems, m - explosion, danger of, m portable forge, m - * draught system, m tuyere, m forget-me-not characteristics, g , forging bending, m bending corner in iron, m - * bolts, m - * butcher knife, m - * crow bar, m * dividers, pair of, m - * door hasp, m - * eccentric strap, m * fish-spear, m * fork, two pronged, m * garden hoe, m - * gate hooks, m - * grub hoe, m - * hand drills, m - * hand hammers, m - * harness hooks, m * heating steel, m hinge and butt, m - * ice-shaver, m * nail puller or claw tool, m * nuts, m - * oxidizing fire, m pipe method, m pitchfork, m * punching holes, m * reducing fire, m rock drills, m - * shackles, m - * sockets for wire ropes, m - * stake pin, m - * staples, m - * steel hook, m - * stone chisels and picks, m - * tongs, iron, m - * turn buckles, m - * upsetting bolts, m * definition, m rings, m wood chisel, m - wrenches of steel, m - * _see also_ blacksmithing; iron work; welding formal garden, g - , forsythia selection principles, g foundations boat house, b cellar, c concrete box mold for, c , * bracing, c * leveling, c pergola foundation, c - setting columns, c setting wooden frame, c , thickness of wall, c depth for houses, c - house building, d - * posts for small buildings, c setting, d - * setting and leveling, c - * four o'clock sowing and blossoming time, g fowl. _see_ poultry fox book about the silver fox, a foxglove biennial, g characteristics, g , , , digitalis made from, a sowing and blossoming time, g fragrant herbs and grasses, a frames. _see_ picture frames framing. _see_ house framing; picture frames francis of assisi, saint stories about, h franklin, benjamin kite flying, b fraternity pillows, n french chalk for dry cleaning, h , french hem, n french knots letter outlining, n needle for, n working, n * french seal, a fresnel, augustin jean theory of light wave, e fringe knotting fringe, n - * raffia, n frogs taming, a fruit food values, h selection of, for food, h washing, h _see also_ names of fruits, e. g., apple; grape; orange, etc. fruit trees budding, g - distance to plant, g protecting fruit from birds, a seeds versus grafting, g - _see also_ grafting frying fats for, h methods, h fuchsias bedding plants, g fuel blacksmith's fuels, m refuse timber, a _see also_ coal fulcrum principle of, b - * fullering. _see_ blacksmithing fumed oak and chestnut, process, d fungi shelf fungi, a _see also_ mushrooms fur dry cleaning, h packing, h _see also_ ermine; mink; mole; muskrat; rabbit; sable; seal; skins; skunk; weasel furnace draughts and dampers, h - gas and oil for heating steel, m house furnace, management and cleaning, h muffle furnace for enameling, m furniture antique mahogany table refinished, d - re-finishing, d - bedroom, d - * beds, designs, d *, * box furniture, making, c - * care of furniture and fittings, h - castors, acme pin, d concrete furniture, making, d - * covers for, h decorative value, d dining-room, d - * enameling white, d evolution of, c - hall furniture, d - * kitchen furniture, h - living room, d - * outdoor, c - *, d - * designing, principles of, d painted, cleaning, h polish, h , renovating, d - rustic, d - * woods for, a , k - selection for use and beauty, h - upholstered, cleaning, h , _see also_ book case; book rack; carpentry and woodwork--problems; chairs; desk; house decoration; stains and staining; tables; tabourette; wood; wood carving; wood finishing furrows. _see_ gardening fusee, principle of, b * fuses. _see_ electric fuses g gaging lumber, c , gaillardia characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g gained or housed joints, c * galileo, galilei barometer invention, b galloway, beverly t. back yard swimming pool, a - galvani, luigi production of electric currents by chemical action, e galvanic electricity, e galvanized iron, e soldering, m galveston sea wall, b gambling in housekeeping expenditures, h game and game birds cooking in camp, k , creating a private game preserve, a - domesticating wild game, a - protecting, a wild rice food for, a _see also_ bantams; guinea fowl; pheasants games list of one hundred games, k - _see also_ archery; base ball; camping; canoeing; coasting; fishing; football; golf; hockey; hunting; skating; skiing; swimming; tennis; also names of games, e. g., croquet; marbles, etc. garbage can cleaning, h , location, h disposal of, h in country, h garden club election of officers, g exhibits, g - reports on garden plots secured, g - vote to aid oldfield centre school grounds, g vote to disbar girls, g garden hockey, k garden paths materials and making, g garden pests. _see_ insect pests gardening city back yard, g , - compost pile, g drills, making, g exhibits, g - furrows, making, g *, - hill, meaning of, g hoeing, g indoor experiments, g - money-making garden, g - selling garden fittings, g - plan, drawing, g - * paper plan for garden plots, g preparing new plot, g - pricking out plants, g raking, g rows, direction to plant, g rubbish, removing from new site, g site for a garden, choosing, g - sowing seeds, g spading, g - success, principles of, g succession crops, g thinning seedlings, g transplanting, g - , , - trenching, g - * work shop end of the garden, g - * _see also_ coldframe; drainage; fertilizers and manures; flower gardening; herbs; hotbeds; insect pests; landscape gardening; lawns; plant food; plants; school grounds; seeds; soils; vegetable gardening; vegetables; vines; weeds gardening--tools and appliances bulb flat, making, g * dibber, g * flower basket, weaving, g - * good versus poor tools, g - hoe, how to use, g labels for plants, making, g * measurements on tool handles, g plant jardiniere, g - * pot rest, g - * reel, making, g * sieve, making, g - spades, how to use, g stake, making, g * sundial, making, g - * gareth service in the king's kitchen, h garlic, wild class and seed time, g garret playhouse, h gas and oil engines compared with steam engines, b , e construction and fuel supply, b - cylinder, what takes place in, e water supply, quantity, b _see also_ gasolene motors gas furnace heating steel, m gas lighter, electric, e - * gas lighting average bill for careful families, h gas meters reading, h gas range baking bread in, h cleaning, h fire from fat, extinguishing, h lighting, h gasolene composition, b danger of explosion, b gasolene automobiles. _see_ automobiles gasolene launch. _see_ boat building; launch gasolene motors action, b automobile frames, construction, b - * carbureter, b * description and dimensions, b * exhaust pipe, b - , expansion chamber, b four-stroke cycle, b - * installing in launch, b - motive power, how obtained, b motor-cycle, principle, b - muffler, b - multiple cylinders, b petcock, b pipe joints, finishing, b power, developing, b - single cylinder, b , * sparking, b - electric equipment for, e - stationary foundations, b - location, b vibration, avoiding, b - stopping the engine, b suction and overflow pipes, b tank, setting, b testing new engine, b two-cylinder, b * two-stroke cycle, b vertical, b water jacket, b water supply, b - gate hooks forging, m - * gearing. _see_ mechanical movements geese book about, a breeds, a , k domesticating wild geese, a fattening for market, a feathers, plucking, a - feeding and caring for goslings, a food value, h how to select for cooking, h raising, a - setting eggs, a genista indoor plant, g georgia pine. _see_ pine geraniums bedding plant, g slipping, g - wild geranium, g window box plant, g germination of seeds. _see_ seeds gifts playthings outgrown, h spent in advance, offense of, h the tenth of your income, h gilding lettering name on boat, b gimlet bit, c *, ginger root use of, a girders, wooden strength of materials, b girls' clubs. _see_ clubs girls outdoor sports for, k - girl's room color scheme, n , , cretonne versus linen for furnishings, n curtains, n - stenciling furnishings, n wall decorations, n window seat, n girl's secret, g - glass cutting with a wheel cutter, d for lamp shade, m kitchen utensils, h leaded glass, soldering, d - * polishing, h washing, h glider flying machine, b glove box. _see_ boxes gloves cleaning chamois gloves, h glue preparing and using, c _see also_ carpentry gnomon making, b goat age, telling, a angora commercial value, a fleece, a , book about, a common goat, advantages of, a - feeding, a - housing, a , kid, care of, a market value, a milk, value, a products, a profit from, a - raising, a - experiment in new england, a - rate of increase, a selecting for a herd, a space needed, a , value in reclaiming land, a - water supply, a goat skin for leather work, n * godetia characteristics, g , , gold fish age, a book about, a characteristics, a color of young, a diseases, a eggs, care of, a enemies, a food, a , habits, a hospital, a making an aquarium, k - raising for profit, a - rearing tank, a , spawning pond, a storage tank, a training, a winter tank, a golden bell characteristics, g golden glow characteristics, g , golden oak finish, d golden seal value, a golf, k - *, - addressing, k * bogie score, k caddy, k clubs, k *, course, k , hole, k , links, k playing the game, k putting, k green, k , scoring, k , tee, k golf-croquet, k gong. _see_ brass work--bell gophers destroying, a gouge blacksmith's tool, m sharpening, c - * woodworker's tool, c - * governors (machinery) gyroscope governor, b * steam engine, b - *, grafting cleft grafting, g - improving stock, g - occupation for boys, a * scion and stock, g - season for, g tongue grafting, g wax making, g whip grafting, g - grain food value, h , _see also_ corn grandfather's clock making, c - * granite for roadway, g grape food value, h green grape jelly, receipt, a wild grapes picking, a jelly receipt, a grape juice book about, a food value, a making, a - grass seed kind for rapid growth, g preparing the soil, g - sowing, g grass stain removing, h grasses basketry uses, a grasshoppers distinguishing young from old, a garden pests, g grates. _see_ fireplaces gravel road beds, g _see also_ cement walks graver definition of, m gravitation definition, e laws of, b - principle of, b - gravity acceleration, meaning of, b force, meaning of, b specific gravity, meaning of, b - grease spots removing, h greek cross, c greens (cookery) dandelion greens, a greens, christmas, a - grinding machine edge runners or chasers for crushing, b * grindstones grinding tools with, c - * principle of, b types and uses, c * grosbeak, rose-breasted insect destroyer, a migration, k grounds. _see_ school grounds grouse book about, a guests entertainment of, h - guinea fowl book about, a characteristics, a , - eggs, value, a feeding, a marketing, a , raising, a - guinea pigs as pets, k making a house for, c - * raising for pets, a _see also_ cavies gum. _see_ spruce gum gum tree sweet gum, red gum, or liquid amber, c gun. _see_ firearms; rifles; shotgun gussets. _see_ sewing gymnastics outdoor life versus gymnastics, k pull up bar, making, c * gyroscope applied to aeroplanes, b bohnenberger's machine, b * construction of, b - * mechanism, b * h hab-enihan (game), k hacmatack, c hail formation, b - haley over (game), k halibut food value, h hall clock design and construction, d - * hall furniture, d - * halley's comet ether waves sent forth by, e - halley's thermometer, b halved joints, c * ham. _see_ pork hamburg steak, h hammer adze eye claw hammer, c * claw hammer, c * cross peen hammer, making, m - * hand hammer, m * handles, making, c * hard wood peg for copper work, m peen, m * planishing hammer, m * raising hammer, m * round peen hammer, making, m - * set hammer, m *, * shaping hammer, m * hammocks making couch hammocks, c - * hand ball, k hand polo, k hand tennis, k handkerchief drawnwork, n - * hemstitching, n - * rolling the edge, n * handkerchief box. _see_ boxes handles wooden, making, c * _see also_ copper work; metal work hands removing stains, h hardanger embroidery, n - * bars, weaving, n block stitch, n - * materials, n picots, n *, * pin cushion tops, n - * pyramid stitch, n * star pattern, n * hardening metals. _see_ steel hardie blacksmith tool, m * making, m * hardy plants meaning, g hare "varying" hare, a - hare and hounds, k harebell, carpathian characteristics, g harrowing, g harvesting nature's crops, a - haskins, charles waldo how to keep household accounts, recommended, h hat baby's buttoned hat, n - how to select a hat, d lingerie hat, n *, - raffia hats, n - for doll, n - hat ball, k hat pin copper work, d - *, m - hat pin holder copper work, m - * hatchet handle making, c * haws (fruit) location and uses, a hawthorne, nathaniel quotation, h hawthorne, english characteristics, g hayes, ruth success with chickens, a - hazel nut cultivating, a - for fence hedge, a gathering time, a pruning bushes, a health. _see_ hygiene hearth meaning, h heat british thermal unit, e - calorie and caloric, meaning, e generation, e - transmission by radiation, e waves length, e production and velocity, e - theory, e heating automatic control of temperature, e - * regulation by electric flasher, e - * _see also_ electric heating; fuel; furnace; steam radiators hedebo embroidery, n - * hedges hazel bush, a poplar versus evergreen, g shrubs for, g helianthus background plant, g sowing and blossoming time, g helicoptere flying machine, b heliotrope bedding plant, g characteristics of winter plant, g hellebore, white insecticide, g , hemlock characteristics, c hemming. _see_ sewing hemp ropes. _see_ ropes hemstitching double hemstitching, n * handkerchiefs, n - * padded, n - * hen coops. _see_ poultry hen manure. _see_ fertilizers and manures henry, joseph first to make electro-magnets, e hens. _see_ poultry hepatica blossoming time, g habits and characteristics, g , herbarium, k herbs bee balm, g for basket weaving and sachets, a in colonial gardens, g list of, g soil for, g uses, g hero engine, b * herring food value, h herring-bone embroidery stitch, n * hertz, heinrich discovery of electric waves, e hertzian waves, e hewitt, peter cooper inventor of mercury vapor lamp, e hexagon problem in estimating lumber for hexagon floor, c hickory characteristics, a - , c food value of nuts, h lumber value, a varieties, a hide and seek, k hides. _see_ skins high kick, k hinges copper or brass, metal work, m * copper or silver, metal work, m - * iron hinge and butt, making, m - * ornamental, making, m - * riveting, m * setting, c hives. _see_ bees hockey forward, k garden hockey, k goal tender, k ice hockey, k - *, lawn hockey, k "puck", k rink, k rules, k skates, cost, k * team, k , uniform, k , _see also_ curling hoe forging a garden hoe, m - * forging a grub hoe, m - * how to use, g - hog. _see_ swine hogan, clarence a. raising chickens, a hoisting machinery inclined plane, b - , lewis for lifting stones, b * lifting magnets, e - * screws, b - tongs for lifting stones, b * _see also_ capstan; pulleys; windlass holly care of trees, a characteristics, c wood, value, a wreaths, making and marketing, a - hollyhocks background plant, g characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g home decoration. _see_ house decoration homemaking art of, h _see also_ housekeeping homing pigeons, k honey cooking with, a food value, h marketing, a plants which supply, a wholesomeness, a _see also_ bees honeysuckle decorative value, g honiton applique, n hood knitted, n - * hooke, robert wave theory of light, e hooker, ava a start with poultry, a - hooks centrifugal check hooks, b * forging gate hooks, m - * harness hooks, m * steel hook, m - * hooks and eyes, sewing on, n - * hoops, embroidery, n - hop hornbeam, or iron wood characteristics, c hop vine value, g hopover (game), k hopscotch, k hopper joints, c * horizontal bar making a pull up bar, c * horse book about, a raising colts, a - training, a - , horse chestnut, g horse power converting into kilowatts, b estimating, b - estimating energy in coal, e horsemanship, k - * bridle wise horse, k care of the horse, k girls as riders, k jumping fences, k * mounting, k - * packing a horse, k saddles, selecting, k - * selecting the horse, k styles of riding, k - horseshoeing, m - * heels, m making shoes, m - * mule shoes and horse shoes, m toe calk, m * hospitality. _see_ guests hot water bottle electric heating pad, e hotbed coldframe changed to, g directions for making, g - * preparing for winter, g , time to transfer plants, g ho-ti and the roast pig, h house cleaning, h - appliances for, h , order of work, h - principles, h repairs and renovations, h , small spaces, h unobtrusive methods, h weekly schedule, h woodwork, h _see also_ ceilings; cellar; curtains; floors; flues; furnace; furniture; garbage can; kitchen; lamps, oil; laundry work; matting; painting; paper-hanging; pictures; refrigerator; rugs; shades; tiles; vacuum cleaners; walls; windows house decoration ceilings, d correcting defects of height, d color scheme, d - harmony, d - interior woodwork, d southern and northern exposures, d - corrective for architectural defects, d - decorative fabrics, d - dutch room, suggestion, n experimenting, d - floors, color scheme, d , , french room, suggestions, n furniture arrangement, d - selection, d - modifying rules, d - overcrowding, d principles, d - re-decorating old houses, d relation to building plan, d - summer cottage suggestions, d ten commandments, d - use and beauty of possessions, h - walls, d , - stenciling, n window seats, n - _see also_ copper work; curtains; cushions; floral decoration; furniture; girl's room; leather work; metal work; pictures; portieres; pottery; stenciling; weaving house fly. _see_ flies house framing construction details, d - * drawings and instructions, c - * corner framing, c * corners, finishing poultry house, c * paper for siding, c siding cheap houses, c cottages and bungalows, c putting on weather boards, c tongue and groove boards for, c small and cheap houses, c - * studding for a boat house, b - * summer house construction, c - * window and door frames, setting, c house plans. _see_ architecture household pests, h - housekeeper effacement of, h - health of, h stories of inspiration, h - worries, h _see also_ house cleaning; housekeeping; servants housekeeping accounts, keeping, h - adjustment of work, h alleviations, h as a profession, h - bedroom work, h - closing the house marking wrapped articles, h meters, shutting off, h packing, h - repairing household appliances, h traps, care of, h daily work, h dignity of, h dining-room and pantry work, h , - emergencies, h - expenses, division of income, h - home training for, h inspiration, h - learning and helping, h - learning by observation, h menus and marketing, h - my heritage, h - objections to, h opening the house, unpacking, h playhouse, h - possessions, use and beauty, h - rest provisions, h schedules of work, h - school lessons helpful in, h servants, h - upstairs work, h - _see also_ cookery; food; furniture; house cleaning; house decoration; insect pests; ironing; kitchen; laundry; marketing; needle work; plumbing; receipts; servants; sewing house plants. _see_ plants huckleberries canning factories, a picking, a where and how they grow, a , c hudson seal, a hugo, victor his description of paris sewers mentioned, h humming birds taming, a humus soil composition, g , hunt the sheep, k hunting choosing companions, k training dogs for, k - _see also_ game and game birds; shooting huygens, christian wave theory of light, e hyacinth cone developer, g indoor planting, g , planting and blooming time, g , varieties, g , , water growing, g , hydrangea characteristics, g , hydro-electric stations in the united states, e - hygiene how to keep well, k - outdoor life, k - rules of health, k value of play, k , _see also_ athletics; exercise; walking hygrometer construction, b - * hylo electric lamps, e * hyperbola describing, b i i spy, k ice home-made, a - ice box. _see_ refrigerator ice hockey. _see_ hockey ice-shaver forging, m * incandescent lamps. _see_ electric lamps, incandescent inclined plane principle of, b - * rule for power, b income allowances, management of, h gifts, provisions for, h how to divide for family needs, h - increasing, ways to avoid, h management of, h - savings from, h uncertain, management of, h incubators, k - electric, e temperature regulator, e * indian bracelet making, m - * indian proverb about home making, h indian's plume (bee balm), g , induction (electricity) current induced by interrupting the circuit, e by moving the magnet, e - direction of induced currents, e experiments, e - human voice as interrupter, e - piano strings as interrupter, e telephone induction coil, e - * tuning fork as an interrupter, e wireless spark coil, e - * ink stains removing, h ink well holder copper work, m - * gouge work, c - * inky caps, mushrooms, a inlaying, metal, m inlaying, wood, c - * borders, designs and making, c - * buhlwork, c building up designs, c - *, *, * checkerboard, design and making, c - * curved designs, c gluing process, c marquetry work, c placing the design, c thickness of veneer, c woods suitable for, c inoculation of soil, g insect pests, g - , k - , h - ants, g asparagus beetle, remedy, g bean anthracnose, g bed bugs, h - book about, a cabbage worm, g , caterpillars, g , , , cauliflower lice and maggots, g celery caterpillar, g , chestnut weevil, a chicken lice, a , cockroaches, h cut worms, g , , destruction of, by birds and toads, a - , g - detecting, g - eggplants, g gnawing class, remedy, g - grasshoppers, g hornworm, g house plant pests, g household pests, h - leaf-hopper, g moths, prevention and extermination of, h plant lice, g , , potato bug, g , red spider, g rose slug, g , slugs, g , , , squash bug, g , , striped beetle, g , , , sucking class, g tomato worm, g water bugs, h _see also_ flies; insecticides; mosquitoes insecticides bordeaux mixture, g , kerosene emulsion, g paris green, g insects adult stage, a chrysalides, a , development, a - distinguishing young from old, a - egg stage, a habits, a - homes, a - injurious and helpful, k - larval stage, a life of a butterfly, a - pupa stage, a _see also_ ants; beetles; butterflies; dragon-flies; grasshoppers; moths; silkworms; spiders; wasps insects--collecting and preserving baiting moths, a - , k - sugar receipt, a , k books about, a breeding cage, making, a - * cases for preserving, a , *, , c - cornstalk pith for lining, a classifying, a - egg shell, mounting, a eggs of butterflies, a filing cabinet, making, c - killing bottle, making and using a cyanide bottle, a - *, , k - * mounting, a - *, k * net making, a - * outfit, a , k pinning butterflies and beetles, a - * pins for mounting, a spreading board, a * times and localities for collecting, a - insertion. _see_ crocheting instruments. _see_ tools insulation. _see_ electric insulators and insulation insurance. _see_ life insurance intercollegiate amateur athletic association of america best records, k events contested for, k rowing record, k interior decoration. _see_ house decoration invalid tray preparing, h - inventions ancient and modern, b - _see also_ aeroplanes; matches; typewriters; wireless telegraph; and words beginning electric iris blue flag, g border plant, g dwarf, characteristics, g , english, planting and blooming time, g german, characteristics, g japanese, characteristics, g spanish, planting and blooming time, g varieties, g irish crochet, n - * baby irish pattern, n - * belt, n - * doily with edge, n * dutch collar, n - * edging, n - * grapes, n jabot, n - * leaves, n materials, n motifs, joining, n rose, n - , shamrock, n tie rose, n - * wheel pattern with rose and straps of shamrock n - * irish stew; story, h iron galvanized incorrectly named, e soldering, m magnetic properties, e oxidation, preventing, m pig iron, m stretching processes, m wrought iron, m - iron work bending corner, m - * bracket, making, m - * bulbs, making, m - * candlestick, making, m - * spiral, m - * chains, welding, m - * decorative forgings, suggestions, d handles, m hinge, making, m * hinge and butt, making, m - * kettle stand, making, m - * lamp holder for, m lamp, making, m - * holder, m shade and holder, m - punching holes in, m * rings, welding, m - *, * spirals, making, m tongs, forging, m - * twists, m braided strand, m umbrella stand, m wrench, forging, m * _see also_ andirons; blacksmithing; fire tools; welding ironing bed linen, h board for, h clothes-horse for, h electric irons for, e - , * embroidery, h iron, care and use, h iron holders, h iron-stand, h lace, h process, h - scorched places, h starch sticking, to prevent, h table linen, h wax, cloths and paper, h ironwood characteristics, c irrigation book about, a chinese treadmill device, b * persian wheel device, b * j jabot irish crochet, n - * jack fagots, k jack-in-the-pulpit description of, g jacket. _see_ crocheting jai-a-li (pelota), k jam thimbleberry, a japan barberry hedge shrub, g japan quince hedge shrub, g japanese clematis characteristics, g japanese fan ball, k japanese hop characteristics, g japanese snow flower characteristics, g japanese snowball characteristics, g jardiniere. _see_ plant stand jelly barberry jelly, a green grape jelly, a jerusalem cherry tree, indoor plant, g jew fish catching, k jewel box copper work, m - * jeweler's tools. _see_ tools jewelry. _see_ silver work joe pye weed habits and characteristics, g story of name, g johnny cake camp cooking, k joints butt, c * clamping mitre joints, d * dado, c *, * dovetail blind, c * box, c *, * half-blind, c * lap, c * single, c - * single open, c * doweled, d *, c gained or housed, c * gluing, d - *, - * mitre joints, c - halved, c * lap joint, d * hopper, c * joint edge, definition of, c kinds and construction, d - *, - * lap, c , *, * lock, c * mitre, c - *, d - * lap, c * mortise and tenon, c *, d *, * blind, c * draw boring, c end, c * relished, c * through, c * notched, c * rabbeted, c * rubbed joint, c * splice or scarf, c * stretcher, c * tongue and groove, c * trick, c * jonquil narcissus family, c planting and blooming time, g july blooming plants, g june blooming plants, g k kale planting and care, g time to plant, g keel. _see_ boat building kelvin, lord and the atlantic cable, e kennels. _see_ dogs kensington stitch flower embroidery, n - * kentucky coffee tree, c kerosene cleaning woodwork, h , lighting fires with, h kerosene emulsion insecticide, g , receipt, g , key rack carving design, c whittling, c - * key tag whittling, c * kick the stick (game), k kiln lumber kiln method, c - portable pottery kiln, d - * kilowatt converting into h. p. b., b hour, e kindling wood cutting and collecting as a business, a - king alfred. _see_ alfred, king kingbird insect eater, a , migration, k king of the castle (game), k kitchen chairs, h cleaning weekly, h clock, h curtains, h floors, h - furnishings, h - hooks, h house plan, d light fixtures, h ornament, h rugs, h shelves, h sink, h size, h tables, h walls and woodwork, h _see also_ ranges kitchen utensils, h - aluminum, advantages and care, h , bread board, making, c - * care of, h materials, h selection, h , sugar scoop and ladle, making, c * _see also_ soldering kites, b - aeroplane kite, making, c - * american malay launching, c making, c * box kites launching, b , c making, b - * bridle, fastening, c *, * cellular, making, b - *, c - * chinese, designs, c coverings, importance of, c detail drawings, c * eddy kite, making, c * flying, c - principle of, b - * groups, flying, b *, c joining sticks, c - , * lines, c making, b - , c - * materials, c , , photographing by means of, b record flight, b - reels for, c sails, c shape, b stability, principle of, c tailless, c - tails, principle of, b tandem, c * tetrahedral, making, c - * war kites, making, b * wind velocity table, b knife. _see_ knives knife box making, c - * knife work. _see_ whittling; wood carving knights of the round table. _see_ round table knitting, n - * baby hood, n - * baby vest, n basket stitch, n * bootees, n - * doll's cap, n * doll's cape, n * doll's jacket, n - * doll's leggings, n * german method, n * lace pine pattern, n - materials for, n patterns, n - * shawl finishing edge, n long, n - wide, n , stitches basket stitch, n * binding off, n - casting off, n - casting on, n * popcorn, n * purling, n * washing, n widening the row, n knives butcher knife, forging, m - * steel, washing, h whittling, c * knot holes how made, a knots raffia knotting, n - * silk, cotton, or linen, n - _see also_ sewing knuckle of veal, h kodak, k kohlrabi planting and care, g l labeling. _see_ insects--collections; plants--collections; shells labels for plant markers, making, g * lace and lace making, n - * basting braid, n , brussels stitch, single and double, n , * buttonholed bar, n * connemara lace, n - * dyeing lace, h , n edge finishing, n fan stitch, n * fagotting, n * foundation stitch, mesh or net, n honiton applique, n braids for, n - irish crochet lace, n - * knitted lace, pine pattern, n - limerick darning, n maltese cross, design, n * over handing on, n * point lace, n brazilian, n - * renaissance, n rolling and whip stitching on, n spider stitch, n - * teneriffe or brazilian point, n - * twisted bar stitch, n *, washing, h whitening, h lacquer for brass, m lacrosse, k ladder stitch, n - lady bug, value to farmers, k lakes tides, b lamb cuts and their uses, h food value combinations, h table, h _see also_ sheep lamp copper work, electric lamp, m - * steel base, making, m - * wrought iron making, m - * shade holder, m lamp, oil care of, h trimming wicks, h lamp shade copper work, m - * glass for, m _see also_ candle shade land drainage. _see_ drainage landscape gardening, g - formal gardens, g flower gardens, g - garden furnishings, g hedges, g helping nature, g lawns flowers, what and where to plant, g treatment of, g points to observe, g - principles of, g purpose, g screening unsightly places, g shrubs grouping, g - selection principle, g table of, g - summer house, location, g trees, selection and grouping, g - , vines, g water garden, g wild flower garden, g _see also_ flower gardening; gardening; shrubs; trees lantern metal work, m - * lantern wheel, b * lap joints, c , * laplace, pierre simon corpuscular theory of light, e larch characteristics, c larkspur background plant, g characteristics, g oriental, characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g , varieties, g , larva. _see_ insects last tag (game), k lathe tools making, m - * lattice work, d - * launch launching the boat, b , - rules for running, b - _see also_ boat building; gasolene motors laundry work appliances, h - blankets, h , bluing, h , removing, h boiling clothes, h chamois gloves, h clothes basket, h clothes line, care of, h clothes pins, care of, h colored clothes, h curtains, h - economizing, h electric washing machinery, e - * embroidery, h , n - emergencies, h - freezing weather, h hanging out clothes, h , knitting and crochet work, n lace, h muddy water, h poles for, h rinsing clothes, h schedule for wash days, h silk clothes, h soaking clothes, h soap, h soiled clothes, care of, h sorting clothes, h sprinkling and folding clothes, h - starch, h starching clothes, h stormy days, h stove, h tubs, care of, h wash board, h wash boiler, care of, h wash stick, h washing process, h - white clothes, h woolens, h wringer, h _see also_ ironing lavender growing, g lavender stick making, a - * lawn bowling, k lawn bowls, k lawn hockey, k lawn mower care of, a - lawn skittles, k - lawn tennis. _see_ tennis lawns crocuses in, a , embankment wall, making, g flowers in, what and where to plant, g grading, g landscape gardening, g mowing, a - rolling, g layering plants, g laying the table. _see_ setting the table lazy tongs, b * lead bath to prevent steel oxidation, m , soldering, m leaded glass cutting and soldering, d - * leaf hopper, g leaf mold making, a - leaks. _see_ plumbing leap frog, k spanish fly, k leather work, d - *, n - * applique, n , * applying designs, n - articles made from, list, n belt designs and tooling, d - * book cover, d - * card case, d - * cover for note book, d - * cutting, n , dampening for tracing, n decoration, principles of, d designing, n desk pad, d - * knots, d * lining articles, d , mat, design and tooling, d - * paste, receipt for, n , , pasting, n , pen wiper, designs and tooling, d - * planning a skin, n * polishing, n purse, d - * skins suitable for, d , n - *, stitching by hand, d - * tinting, n tooled leather, n - * embossing with die n * paste, receipt for, n , polishing, n process, d - *, n - relief work, d *, n - * filling with paste, n russia calf for, n tools, d - *, n *, * tracing the design, n , leaves blue printing, a giving off water, g simple, compound and doubly compound, c * leek germination per cent., g left overs utilizing, h legumes value as plant food, g lemon lily characteristics, g lemon tree, ponderosa, g lemons food value, h preserving in water, h removing stains with, h letter copying devices, b letter opener copper work, d * letter rack carving, c - * copper work, d - * two compartments, making and carving, c - * lettering. _see_ gilding letters. _see_ embroidery lettuce cabbage lettuce, g cos lettuce, g food value, h going to seed, g head lettuce, g planting seed depth to plant, g , distance to plant, g how to sow the seed, g indoor planting time, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g succession crops, g transplanting, g lever arms, b * double, b - lazy tongs, b * principle of, b - * rule for power, b library tables. _see_ tables lice cauliflower pests, g chicken lice, a powder receipt, a , k plant lice, g life insurance advantages and disadvantages for saving, h lifting machinery. _see_ hoisting machinery light ancient theory of, e color dependent upon wave length, e electro-magnetic theory, e emission theory, e a form of vibration, e theories held by eminent scientists, e - velocity, b - , e waves, e length of, b , e lighting economizing bills, h reading meters, h - * _see also_ electric lighting; gas lighting lightning arrester, e * weather symbol, b why lightning is seen before thunder is heard, b lilac characteristics, g lily red speciosum, planting and blooming time, g white day lily, g lily-of-the-valley characteristics, g false, g lima bean food value, h planting, g lime disinfectant, h protecting vines from insects, g _see also_ soil limerick darning, n limestone formation of, g road material, g linden characteristics, c , g linen. _see_ doilies; ironing; table linen linen chest making, c - * lingerie hat eyelet work, n * making and trimming, n - links. _see_ chains; cuff links linoleum care of, h liquids boiling point, h living expenses. _see_ housekeeping living-room furniture, d - * arrangement, d loam meaning of, g loaves and fishes: story, h lobster boiled, h color, h food value, h lock joints, c * lockjaw cause and prevention, b - locks escutcheon plates, making, m - * _see also_ door hasp locomotives boilers, b link motion valve gear, b locust durability of black locust wood, c varieties and characteristics, c , g log cabin woods for making, k lombardy poplar, g , looms. _see_ bead work; weaving loops for buttonholes, n * lotus, american characteristics, g luge-ing (game), k lumber and lumbering "boom", c clear lumber, c curls or eyes, how made, a cutting logs, k defects, detecting, c - drive, c drying, c estimating, problems in, c - kiln-dried, c , d - knot holes, how made, a knots versus strength, c length, standard, c log jams, c measuring, c old method of sawing, c * plain sawed, d * quarter-sawed, d * railroad consumption, c saw mills, c seasoning, c - , d shakes, c shearing, c shrinkage, principle of, c - thickness, standard, c volume of business in united states, c warping, principle of, c * waste in cutting, c waste in saw mills, c - winding lumber, c _see also_ forestry; trees; wood lumber rack making, c - * luncheon: story, h m macaroni food value, h mccray, arthur h. profits of bee-keeping, a - machine shop equipping to run by electric power, e , - machinery. _see_ capstan; engines; gas and oil engines; gasolene motors; locomotives; mechanical movements; motorcycles; sewing machines; steam engine; tools; typewriters; water wheels; wheels; windmills mcintyre, flora how i earned two hundred dollars, a - mackerel food value, h madeira embroidery. _see_ eyelet work magazine cover tooled, n * magazine rack design, d * and construction, d - * wood finish, d maggots garden pests, g magic lantern. _see_ stereopticon magnesia cleaning properties, h magnet earth as a magnet, e iron, e - poles, e * steel, how to retain magnetism, e _see also_ electro-magnet magnetic field, e about electric currents, e * dynamo, e , - effect upon a magnet, e * magnetos. _see_ dynamos mahogany imitation stain, c , d maids. _see_ servants mallet carpenter's tool, c * metal worker's tool, m * maltese cross drawing, c * lace making pattern, n * mandrake. _see_ may apple mandrel, m *, manifolding devices, b , manures. _see_ fertilizers maple box elder or ash-leaved maple, c characteristics, c moose wood, c mountain, c norway maple, g qualities of, g red or swamp maple, c , g seeds, value of, a silver, white, or soft maple, c sugar or rock maple, c , g sycamore, c maple sugar and syrup boiling down, a bonbons, a - books about, a colors, changes in, a food value, h identifying trees, a proportion of syrup to sugar, a sap care when running, a ingredients, a states that have sugar trees, a straining, a sugar making, c equipment and preparation, a indian methods, a primitive and modern methods, a - tapping trees, a - testing when boiling, a weather for making, a marathon race championship, k marble composition, g marbles first shot "fat", k names of, k playing, k reals, k march birds, k blooming plants, g marconi, guglielmo inventor of wireless telegraph, e , marguerites bedding plants, g marigold african, characteristics, g characteristics, g good blooming plant, g marsh marigold, characteristics, g planting seeds, g pot marigold, characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g varieties, g marine engines. _see_ gasolene motors; steam turbines marketing, h - principles of buying, h quantities, consideration of, h staples, buying of, h _see also_ names of articles, e. g., fish; meats; vegetables; etc., also beef; shad, etc. markets in venice, h marking bath towels, n *, combination stitches, n - * cross stitch, n emblems, bullion, n - feather-stitching, n french knots, n ladder stitch, n - monograms, n - napkins, n , outlining, n * papier-mache letters, n table and bed linen, n marquetry work, c marsh rabbit, a martha, h - martin migration, k masonry. _see_ cement; foundations; retaining walls match safe copper work, m - * match scratchers drawing and making, c * matches invention of, b mathematics woodwork mathematics, c - mats corn husk for braiding, a tooled leather, designs and process, d , * woven rattan, n *, _see also_ rugs matt tool definition of, m matting cleaning, h mattress making for doll-bed, n - * corn husks for, a maxim's, aero-curves, b - * maxwell, james clark scientist, e may birds, k blooming plants, g may apple, a , g mayonnaise remedy for curdled, h meadow lark migration, k meadow mushroom, a meals clearing the table, h effect of mental attitude during, h preparation advance, h sequence of work, h - serving courses, h dessert course, h duties of waitress, h - finger bowls, h who to serve first, h without a maid, h - measures. _see_ weights and measures meat boiling whole, h braising, h broiling, h - buying principles, h camp cooking, k cooking, preparation for, h cuts of, h * food value, h table, h judging condition of, h left overs, h names of parts, h roasting, h stewing, h _see_ also beef; fish; lamb; mutton; pork; poultry; veal mechanical drawing, c - * circles, c - * crosses, c - * curves, b cylinder and cones, c * design for filing cabinet, c - * for match scratcher, c * ellipse, b - *, c *, - * enlarging or reducing drawings, c , b first lessons, c - * triangle, hexagon and star, c * mechanical drawing--instruments compass proportional compasses, b * how to use, c - cyclograph for describing circular arcs, b * drawing board how to use, c - * making, c - * drawing table, making, c - * irregular or french curves, making, c making an outfit, c - pantagraph making, c - * how to use, b * section liners, c t-square making, c - * to prevent warping, c use of, c triangles, constructing, c - * views and dimensions, c - * mechanical movements anti-friction bearing, b * balance, principle of, b balance spring, b - * capstan, b * centrifugal check hooks, b * circular motion continuous, b * intermittent, b - * variable, b * combination, b - * compasses, b compound, definition, b crank motion, b cyclographs for describing circular arcs, b * diagonal catch and hand gear, b , disk-engine, b * driving feed rolls, b * endless bands, b * feed motion, b * fulcrum, principle of, b - * geneva stop, b * governor centrifugal, b * engine, b water wheel, b * grinding or crushing, b - *, * gyroscope, b - * hyperbolas, b * irregular motion, b - * lantern wheel, b * lewis, b * link-motion valve gear, b - * number of, b oscillating engines, b - * pantagraph, b * parabolas, b * parallel motion, b - * parallel ruler, mechanism, b - * pendulums, b - * perpetual motion definition, b impossibility of, e - pulleys, b - * ratchet wheel, b - * rectilinear motion, b * releasing hook, b * rollers, principle of, b rolling contact, b * rotary, b * rotary engines, b * intermittent, b * simple, definition, b speed, changing, b * steering gear, b stop and rotary motion, b * toe and lifter, b * tongs for lifting, b * tread mills, b * turbine, jonval, b * water wheels, b - * windmills, b * weight, lever and fulcrum, b - * _see also_ mechanics; pumps mechanical powers. _see_ inclined plane; lever; mechanics; pulley; screw; wedge; wheel and axle mechanical toys. _see_ toys mechanics first mechanical power, b problems in estimating mechanical power, b progress of mechanical arts, b - six mechanical powers defined, b - _see also_ aeroplanes; electric power; engines; gasolene motors; inclined planes; kites; lever; mechanical drawing; mechanical movements; perpetual motion; power; pulley; pumps; screw; water wheel; wedge; wheel and axle medicinal plants digitalis from foxglove, a golden seal, a pokeweed, a weeds, g medicine cabinet making with paneled doors, c - * melon origin, g planting seed depth and distance, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g _see also_ muskmelon; watermelon mending and repairing. _see_ patching; soldering menus, h - combinations and varieties, h - selection for ease in cooking, h variety, essential, h _see also_ diet; food; marketing mercury vapor lamps, e - * metal work alloys, m andirons, forging, m - * belt buckle, designs, m * bending process, m blotter pad, corners for, m - * bossing up, m , bowl making, m *, - * dutch bowls, m - * finger bowls, m - * brazing metals, m - chasing, m coloring metals, d blue black, m heating process, m oxidizing silver, m patina, imitation, m solution for, m violet, m corners for chest, m for desk pad, m - * decorative forgings, suggestions, d metal work, m - * definitions of terms, m - designing patterns, m - * die making, m - door handles, making, m , , *, door knockers, m - * door pulls, m * drawer pulls designs, m * making, m - * drawing process, m embossing, m , process, m engraving process, m escutcheon plate, m * etching, m eye bolt, m , facets, m * oval, m flux, m forming process, m hammering, m *, , handles cedar chest, m crumb scraper, m * hinges cabinet, m * cedar chest, m copper or silver, m - * fine hinges, m * riveting to box, m * tube hinges, m - * binding tubes in place, m * wings, making, m * impressing, m inlaying, m lanterns, m - * letter openers, m * lids, m *, *, , lock plates, m , molds making, m - * value of, m pickling metals, m planishing, m processes other than smithing operations, m - repairing by brazing, m repousse definition, m design, m * ring and ring post for box, m riveting, m - * handles, m iron tongs, m * process, m , * rivets, making, m splitting iron or soft steel, m , - * tools for, m - *, - trimmings for cedar chest, m - * for cigar box, m - * tubing for hinges, making, m - * twisting process, m upsetting, definition, m wire, reducing size of, m _see also_ annealing; blacksmithing; brass work; candlestick; copper work; enamel and enameling; fire tools; forging; iron work; silver work; soldering; steel; tempering; tools; welding meteorology. _see_ barometer; hail; lightning; rain; thermometer; weather meter. _see_ ammeter; electric-meters; gas-meters; voltmeter; wattmeter metric system, c - mexican drawnwork, n * mice as pets, k pests, h microbes tetanus, b mignonette annual, g characteristics, g choosing and planting, g sowing and blossoming time, g mildew removing stains, h milk boiling point, h book about, a food value, h , goat's milk, value, a marketing, a removing ink and rust stains with, h testing for butter fat, a sanitary and unsanitary methods of milking, a - milking machine, electric, e milkweed (prickly lettuce) class and seed time, g distribution of seed, g mimeograph, b minerals collecting, k mining machinery centrifugal check hook, b * mink breeding season, a skin stretching, a value, a , skinning, a * trapping, a - minnows catching, k - * mirrors. _see_ glass mission furniture book case, making, c clock case, making, c - * foot rests, making, c , * library table, making, c - * making, c - plant stands, making, c - * tabourette, making, c - * tea table, making, c - * umbrella rack, making, c * writing desk, design, c * mission oak finish, d mississippi river proposed dam across, b mitchell, frank success with chickens, a mitre box making and testing, c - * mitred joints, c - *, *, d - * model house. _see_ architecture modeling. _see_ pottery molasses food value, h mole fur, a habits, a trapping, a - mollusks preserving specimen, a money. _see_ accounts; allowances; income mongolian pheasants, a monogram embroidering, n - monoplane construction of, b - * toy model, making, c - * months lunar and calendar, b moon diameter, b distance from earth, b light, origin, b orbit, b phases, b * rotation, b _see also_ tides moon flower characteristics, g moon vine value, g moore, d. mcfarland inventor of moore light, e * moore electric lamp, e * mops kinds and uses, h morels mushrooms, a morning glory characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g value, g morris, william rule for household possessions, h morris chair construction, d - * designs, d *, * history of designs, d wood finish, d morrison, arthur budget of housekeeping expenses, h morse, samuel finley breese inventor of the telegraph, e mortise and tenon joints, c *, *, *, mosquitoes book about, a breeding places, a enemies of, a , k eradicating, a - protection from, in camping, k moss pink characteristics, g moths baiting, a - , k - collecting and mounting, k - collecting time, a development from the egg, a - how they come out of the cocoon, a pests, h _see also_ silkworm motion. _see_ mechanical movements motor boat. _see_ boat building; gasolene motor; launch motor cycles engines, b - * motors. _see_ aeroplanes; automobiles; dynamos; electric motors; engines; gasolene motors; locomotives; steam engines; vacuum cleaner; water wheel molding. _see_ metal work; pottery molds concrete block molds, b concrete furniture molds, d die making, m - metal work, m - , mount mellick stitch, n mountain climbing healthfulness of, k mountains snow line, b mounting specimens. _see_ insects; plants; seaweed mouse club membership, k movements. _see_ mechanical movements moving toys. _see_ toys muffins mixing ingredients, h mulberry leaves food for silkworms, a mullein, moth class and seed time, g habits and characteristics, g mumblety peg, k mushrooms book about, a chanterelles, identifying, a cooking, a , coprinus comatus, a coral fungi cooking, a identifying, a edible varieties, a *, - food value, h inky caps, identifying, a meadow mushrooms, a morels, identifying and gathering, a * oyster mushrooms, identifying, a propagation, a puff balls cooking, a identifying, a - , - varieties, a - shaggy manes, a where to get information about, a music transmitted by telephone, e musical instruments. _see_ organ; piano; pipe organ; telharmonium musk characteristics, g muskmelon american, outdoor planting, g english, how grown, g - food value, h indoor planting time, g seeds, germination per cent., g muskrat book about, a food, a fur, value, a houses, a river trapping, a setting and baiting traps, a skinning, a * skins, value, a swamp trapping, a trapping, a season, a mustard, wild class and seed time, g mutton cuts and their uses, h food value, table, h my heritage, h - myrtle characteristics, g n nail puller making, m * nails boxes for, making, c - * cabinet for, making, c - * driving into plaster walls, c holding power, b - sinking nails, c * napkin marking, n _see also_ table linen napkin rings silver or copper work, m - * naphtha cleaning properties, h narcissus easy to grow, g poets narcissus, planting and blooming time, g varieties distinguished, g water bulbs, g , nasturtium characteristics, g , , , dwarf, characteristics, g planting, g , natural resources conservation, a - by specimen collectors, a nature study keeping a diary, k - making a beginning, k - methods, k mineral collections, k practical side, k water life, k - water telescope, k _see also_ insects; plants; shells; silkworm necklace silver work, m - * neckties. _see_ ties needham, john reclaiming a spring, a - needlecase making, n - * needlecraft. _see_ basket making; bead work; braiding; crocheting; drawnwork; dressmaking; embroidery; irish crochet; knitting; lace making; leather work; sewing nemophila characteristics, g nernst lamp, e nets butterfly net, k * collector's net for water specimen, k * making, for insect collecting, a - newspapers cleaning lamps with, h polishing glass with, h newton, sir isaac corpuscular theory of light, e theory of tides, b - newts taming, a nigger baby (game), k nile river dam across, b nitrates plant food, g , , for sandy soil, g norfolk island pine, g norway pine. _see_ pine--red notched joints, c * notched trophy stick, c * nut hatch insect destroyer, a nutrition. _see_ diet; food nuts beech nuts, a - book about, a chinquapins, a food value, h grading for market, a growing, a - from seeds, a hazel nuts, a - hickory nuts, a pecans, a - pine nuts, a tree seeds, a care of, a use of, a walnuts, a - nuts (iron) forging, m - * o oak antique, stain for, c black jack or barren oak, characteristics, c black or yellow, characteristics, c chestnut oak, characteristics, c durability of wood, c flemish oak stain, d forest green oak finish, d fuming, d - golden oak finish, d gray oak stain, d laurel oak, characteristics, c live oak, characteristics, g mission oak finish, d mossy-cup or bur oak, characteristics, c oak gall, k pin oak, characteristics, c , g post or iron oak, characteristics, c quality of, g quarter-sawed, c *, d - red, characteristics, c scarlet, characteristics, c stains, list of, c swamp white oak, characteristics, c weathered oak stain, d white, characteristics, c - willow oak, characteristics, c oats depth to plant seeds, g obelisks moving, b - occupations berry picking, a - best ways of earning money, a - birds, attracting, a - carriage cleaning, a character building, a - choosing, a cider vinegar, making, a - collecting christmas greens, a - collecting insects, a - collecting plants, a - , - collecting tree seeds, a - collecting useful plants, flowers, grasses, etc., a - collecting wood for rustic furniture, a corn, drying, a - corn, selecting seed, a - * fall work, list of, a forest fires, preventing, a - game preserve, creating, a - grape juice making, a - harvesting nature's crops, a - keeping bees, a - kindling wood, gathering, a - lavender sticks, making, a leaf mold, making, a - making brooks and springs useful, a - maple sugar making, a - mosquitoes and flies, exterminating, a - mushroom gathering, a - nuts, gathering and growing, a - odd jobs, a - orchard work, a * outdoor worker's library, a - raising animals for pets, a - raising domestic animals, a - silkworms, raising, a - snow shoveling, a - spring work, list of, a summer work, list of, a tennis court, making, a - training animals, a - trapping, a - weeds, killing, a - wild fruit, gathering, a - winter work, list of, a year-round, list of, a _see also_ housekeeping ocean. _see_ tides odd jobs, a - oersted, hans christian discovery of magnetic action of currents, e discoverer of magnetic field about an electric current, e ohm, george simon ohm's law, e - oil cloth as a floor covering, h oil engines. _see_ gas and oil engines oil furnace heating steel in, m oil lamp. _see_ lamp, oil oil nut. _see_ butternut oilstone sharpening tools, c * okra germination per cent., g olympic games events contested for, k one old cat (game), k onion food value, h indoor planting time, g insect pests, g peeling, h planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g planting sets and seed, g - seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g soil for, g , open air life. _see_ outdoor life opening the house. _see_ housekeeping opossum bait for, a skin, value, a orange food value, h orange root, g , orchard. _see_ fruit trees organ electric, e , - * pipe organ, e - telharmonium, e - oriental rug washing, a oriole insect eater, a migration, k ornithoptere flying machine, b osage orange hedge shrub, g osmium lamp metal filament, e oswego tea, g , outdoor furniture. _see_ furniture outdoor games. _see_ games outdoor life sleeping outdoors, a - , * value of, k _see also_ camping outdoor sports. _see_ sports outdoor work free printed matter, how to obtain, a - occupations suited to the four seasons, a odd jobs, a - _see also_ occupations outlining. _see_ marking ovens camp ovens, k - * clay, k dampers for regulating, h dutch, k electric, e - reflector, k , * temperature for baking and roasting, h , owl as a pet, k oxen trained oxen, value of, a - oyster broiling, h - cleaning, h food value, h opening, h testing, h oyster mushroom, a p packing books, h fixtures, h - furs and woolens, h textile furnishings, h paint cleaning woodwork, h , , removing stains, h stenciling, n - painting (mechanical) brushes, h mixing paints, h preparing surface, h summer house, c palms care of, g varieties to grow, g panama canal cement used for, b pandanus window box plant, g pansy care of bed, g characteristics, g , picking flowers, g planting seeds, g to prevent running out, g tufted, characteristics, g pantagraph, b * making, c * pantry arrangement, h plan in model house, d _see also_ dish washing paper hanging applying paste, h matching and cutting, h putting on paper, h quantity of paper required, h removing old paper, h paper knife carving designs, c * copper work, d *, m - *, - * whittling, c - * papier-mache letters for marking, n par (game), k parabolas describing, b * parasites eggplant pests, g paris green insecticide, g , , , , rule for mixing, g paris sewers described by victor hugo, h parsley, g planting seed depth to plant, g , distance to plant, g in a box, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g parsnips food value, h planting seed, g time to plant, g wild parsnips, class and seed time, g partridge migration, k pass it (game), k passe partout, d - * color scheme, d - materials and tools, d process, d - * paste receipt, h for leather work, n , , pastry filling pies, h juices, to prevent boiling over, h mixing the dough, h , soggy crust, preventing, h patching square patch, n - * patents applying for, b - , canadian, b caveat, provisional protection, b drawings and specifications, b - duration, b fees for application, b , in a foreign country, b re-issuing, b time required to procure, b what granted for, b patterns. _see_ embroidery; dressmaking; stenciling peach trees care of seeds for planting, a distance to plant trees, g peacock care and feeding of young chicks, a habits of the hen, a indian peacock, value, a raising, a - acquiring information about, a peanuts food value, h pear distance to plant trees, g food value, h peas food value, h , insect pests, g planting seed, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g , germination period, g peasants german embroidery work, n russian applique work, n pecan commercial value, a , cultivating, a - gathering, a - grading, a - polishing for market, a peen of hammer. _see_ hammer pelota (game), k pelts. _see_ skins pen rack design and making, c - * pen tray gouge work, c *, * pen wiper tooled leather, d - * pencil box making and carving, c - * pencil sharpener drawing and making, c * pendulum compound bar, compensation pendulum, b * mercurial compensation pendulum, b * pennant yacht pennant, b peony annuals, g arrangement in the garden, g chinese, characteristics, g , depth to plant, g european, characteristics, g garden, characteristics, g planting and blooming time, g pepper indoor planting time, g planting and transplanting, g - planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g stuffing, varieties for, g varieties, g pepper bush, sweet characteristics, g perennials definition of, g for cut flowers: table, g fragrant: table, g low: table, g medium height: table, g tall: table, g value of, g pergola designing and building, c - * perpetual motion, b impossibility of, e - persimmons picking, a region grown, a pests. _see_ household pests; insect pests; mice; rats pets book about, a care of, k - housing, c - *, k ornamental land and water fowl, k - raising, a - story of a boy's animal cage, a - taming wild animals, k trained, market value, a _see also_ bantams; birds; cats; cavies; crows; dogs; ducks; gold fish; guinea pigs; mice; pigeons; poultry; rabbits; raccoon; shetland pony; squirrels petunia characteristics, g good bloomers, g sowing and blossoming time, g pheasant book about, a breeds, a coops and rearing ground, a - eggs, packing, a feeding young chicks, a localities in united states for raising, a migration, k protection from birds of prey, a raising, a - care of mother, a in england, a serving in german fashion, a varieties, k _see also_ guinea fowl phlox characteristics, g , , , late, characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g phoebe bird insect destroyers, a migration, k phosphates plant food, g , , photography, k - action of chemical waves, e cameras, kinds and cost, k - dark room, k developers and developing, k - exposure, k fixing bath, k , focusing, k - lens, importance of, k negatives, preserving, k plates versus films, k printing papers, k snap shots, taking, k - snap shots versus real photography, k subjects, choosing, k piano, electric, e pickerel weed characteristics, g pickles walnuts, a pickling metals definition, m picks (tools) forging stone picks, m * picnic tables and benches making, b - picture frames and framing carbon photographs of a masterpiece, framing d - carving designs, c , , - colonial interiors in colors, framing, d gluing mitred joints, d - * joints kind required, d mitred, d - *, c - * large photographic reproduction, framing, d palette photograph frame, c passe partout, d - * rabbeting, c * selecting, d shrinkage, d silver work, m - * staining, d , stock, securing, d - * whittling back for, c whittling out of solid piece, c - * pictures, d - * cleaning, h decorative value, d grouping and hanging, d - hanging correctly, d * considering space values, d - height to hang, d hooks and wires, d - japanese way of hanging, d - piers foundation walls, b filling space between, b pies. _see_ pastry pig. _see_ swine pig iron, m pig pen. _see_ swine pig weed class and seed time, g pigeon holes. _see_ filing cabinet pigeons breeds, a , k prize winners, k carrier pigeons, k characteristics, a common, care of, k devotion of male, a dove cote, a - care of, a for fancy breeding, k sanitary provisions, a dragoons, k fancy pigeons for pets, a - feeding, a , k fly made of wire, a * market value, k nest building, a nest dishes, a , nesting compartment, building, a - net for capturing, a * perches, making, a pests, guarding against, a pouter, k roosts, making, a * rufflenecks (jacobins), k tumblers, characteristics, a , k water bath, a white fan tail, model, k _see also_ squabs pile driving machine releasing hook, b * pillow bead work, n choosing cushion covers, d cornhusks for filling cushions, a fraternity pillow, n lingerie pillow, n making for doll-bed, n _see also_ block printing; stenciling pillow case making for doll-bed, n * marking, n pillow shams fastening, h pin insect pins, a metal work tool, m pin case making, n * pin cushion embroidered, n - pin tray gouge work, c * pine cones, gathering and storing, a georgia pine, characteristics, c long leaf, a pitch pine, characteristics, c red, characteristics, c white characteristics, c strength, c white pine seeds gathering and curing, a - marketing, a yellow, characteristics, c pine needles. _see_ balsam pine nuts gathering, a pink characteristics, g fringed, characteristics, g moss pink, characteristics, g pioneer life "goin' plummin'", a - pipe organ operating by electricity, e - pipes. _see_ plumbing; soldering; stove pipe; waste pipes pistil seed making function, g pistons mechanism of, b - * pitch block definition of, m pitch fork forging, m * pitcher plant characteristics, g plackets. _see_ dressmaking plaited skirts. _see_ dressmaking plane. _see_ inclined plane planes and planing adjusting planes, c block plane, c , cap iron, adjustment and use, c * jack plane, c operation of the plane, c , - , d - , sharpening plane irons, c - * smooth plane, c * use of shooting board, c * wooden and iron, c * planishing definition of, m plant breeding budding, g - improving seeds, g - layering, g - methods, g mongrel varieties from close planting, g , seed selection, g - slipping, g - topping, g , - plant food, g - chemicals essential for, g how plants feed, g nitrogen, g , for sandy soil, g source of, g phosphorus, g , , potash, g , , source and value of, g plant stands jardiniere of wood, g - * mission style, making, c - stool making, g - plantain rib-grass, class and seed time, g seed production, g planting tables. _see_ flower gardening; seeds; shrubs; vegetable gardening plants action of chemical waves, e books about, a effect of light, g essential parts, g food manufactured and stored by, g - herbaceous plants, definition, g honey or pollen plants, a leaves food factory, g - functions, g lice, destroying, g , , life history, g - making wooden labels for, g * medicinal plants, a root-system, g - stems, passage way, g studying, a - transplanting, g , - from coldframe, g - useful to attract birds and protect trees, a _see also_ flower gardening; flowers; gardening; insect pests; plant breeding; plant food; salad plants; seeds; vegetable gardening; vegetables; also names of plants plants--collection and preservation, a - arranging specimens, a - blue printing, a - classifying specimens, a - drying specimens, a labeling specimens, a , k marketing collection, a mounting specimens, a - , k outfit for, a preserving in covers, a reasons for collecting, a - , representing different stages of growth, a - rules of the game, a seaweed, a - play importance of, k - playhouse, h - in flats and apartments, h in garret, h in a tree, h make believe, h , playthings make believe, h - _see also_ toys pleurisy root, g , pliers carpenter's tool, c * metal worker's tool, m * plug in the ring (game), k plum care of seeds for planting, a distance to plant trees, g origin and distribution of wild plums, a value of trees in chicken yards, k plumb-line home-made device, g plumbing, h - care of, in closed houses, h importance of, h leaks, peppermint test, b location of pipes for housekeeper, h principle of the u, h - * taps, repairing, b traps, construction and care, h - ventilation pipes, h _see also_ soldering; waste pipes pocket book. _see_ purse point lace. _see_ lace making poison ivy destroying, a - poisoning. _see_ lockjaw poker making fire tools, m * pokeweed roots and berries, a shoots as food, a polish and polishing french polish, c wax polish, c _see also_ brass work; copper work; enamel; floors; furniture; glass; metal work pollination of plants, g corn growing, g polo equestrian, k hand polo, k water polo, k wicket polo, k pompey's pillar, b pond making in a city back yard, g - ponderosa indoor plant, g pony as a pet, a - poplar carolina, g characteristics, c for landscape gardening, g quick growers, g popp-mallow characteristics, g poppy characteristics, g , depth to plant seeds, g iceland, sowing and blossoming time, g in england, g oriental, characteristics, g planting, g , plume, characteristics, g self-sowing, g transplanting, g porcupine quills how to procure, a uses, a pork cuts and their uses, h food value, h combined with vegetables, h used as chicken, h porterhouse steak, h portieres bead work, n - stenciling, n weaving designs, d - _see also_ block printing portland cement origin and uses, b - portulaca blooming plants, g characteristics, g posts preserving underground, c _see also_ foundations pot rest, g - * pot roast, h potash plant food, g , , potato boiled or baked, h food value, h insect pests, g , planting seed potatoes, g cutting device, a - * depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g profit from raising, g spraying, g soil for, g potato race, k pots and pans care of, h , materials, h soldering, m - potted plants. _see_ flower gardening pottery, d - * bat and how made, d "bisque," meaning, d bowl decorating, d - * designing and modeling, d - * candlestick, designing, d - * clay, selecting, d coiling method, d , * concrete pottery, d - * decoration applying the design, d - classes, d - * color combinations, d - methods, d modeling a decoration, d under-glazing, d - designing, d - * avoiding natural forms, d testing profiles, d * development of, d - fern dish, d - * firing, d - glazed pottery, d glazes, matt and bright glaze mixes, d glazing, d - * grinding the glaze, d "grog" making, d handles, making, d * kiln, portable, d * materials and tools, d - * template, d * modeling process, d - * potter's wheel versus hand method, d - scientific principle of, d scraping, d * "slip," meaning, d testing work, d * tiles for tea plate and fireplace, d - * tools, d - vases, designing and decorating, d - * poultry, a - , k - accounts, how to keep, a , , , acquiring information, a amateur's experience with, a - american breeds, k asiatic breed, k bantams, breeding and care, a - books about, a brahmas, k breeding pure stock, a purpose of, k breeds, characteristics, a - , k - broilers, raising, k fattening for market, a - brooders, making, a , k broody hens, curing, a business methods in poultry raising, a - care and housing, a - , k - city experiment with, a cleanliness, a - , clipping wings, k cochins, k cooking broiling, h - preparation for, h - coops, model, a - * crested variety, care of, a drawing poultry, h dust bath for, a *, k eggs best layers, k cost of, for settings, k effect of feeding on layers, a keeping a record for idlers, a * of fancy fowls, a quality affected by feed, a selections for settings, a testing layers, a - * winter laying, k - exercise, provisions for, a , expenses of one experiment, a experiments, a - fancy breeds and their care, a - , k - fattening broilers for market, a , feathers, marketing, a food value: table, h fruit trees in the chicken yard, k hamburgs, characteristics, a hatching average number from a setting, k time required for eggs to hatch, a , k , hen gate, a * houdans, characteristics, a incubators, a average time for eggs to hatch, k , operating, k - killing, h lakenvelders, characteristics, a langshans, k laying hens. _see_ poultry, eggs leghorns, k eggs, a in a prize contest, a - lice on small chicks, a , k preventing, a marketing, a - mediterranean breeds, k molting season, a nests for sitting hens, a non-sitters, k ornamental land and water fowl as pets, k - cost of, k orpingtons, record price, k plucking, h plymouth rocks, k polish varieties, a prize contests, stories of, a - prize-winning orpingtons, k profit in, k ranging versus housing, a runs, cornfields for, a selection of, for cooking, h shows, purpose of, k sitting hens coops for, a - *, feeding, a nests for, a raising, k - starting a business with eggs versus chickens, k - stories of success in raising, a - thoroughbreds versus mongrels, k training for poultry raising, a trap nests for testing layers, a - * white wyandotte, a - , k wild fowl, clipping wings, k winter care, k - young chicks, care of, k - , a - yokahamas, a _see also_ ducks; game and game birds; geese; guinea fowl; peacock; poultry feeding; poultry houses; turkey poultry feeding effect on quality of eggs, a feeding six thousand hens in one half hour, a - growing feed, a making hens lay, a molting season, a rack for feed pans, to prevent waste, a * regularity essential, a self-feed grain box, a * self-feed grit box, a * sitting hens, a trough for feed, making, c * winter feeding, k young chicks, a - , k poultry houses building a poultry house, a - *, c - *, k * cleaning provisions, a , k construction principles, a , c - coops, a - * corners, finishing, c * curtained shed, a doors and windows, a *, c dropping board, a , c dust bath, a *, k floors, cement, a foundation, c - frame for window screen, c framework of the house, c - * for an eleven dollar house, a * furnishings, a - *, k * heat, planning for, a location, a , k materials, a - nests, location, a - , k roofing paper, c roosts, making, a , c , k runs, a , , c , k sanitary principles, a - , scratching shed, a , k , siding for frame, c sleeping room, k working drawings, c , powell. _see_ baden-powell, sir robert power dynamometer for measuring, b * foot pound, b problems in estimating, b steam versus electricity, e - units of power, b - _see also_ electric power; gasolene motors; mechanics; steam; water power precious stones bezel setting, m - *, *, cutting metal away for setting, m - * prong setting, m - * selecting for rings, m preserves storing in cellar, h _see also_ canning; jam; jelly press copying methods, b pressing skirts, n prime roasts, h printing block printing, d - prisoner's base, k propeller. _see_ aeroplanes; screw propeller proteins effect of boiling, h effect of cold water, h food composition, h foods containing, h proportion in diet, h , proverbs indian proverb about home making, h pruning hazel bushes, a methods, a - * puff balls, a - , - pulleys chain, b * dynamometer, b * endless chain, b expanding, b * mechanical principle of, b - * movable, theory of, b - * multiple, b - * rule for power, b , snatch block, b * spanish bartons, b * triangular eccentric, b * use of, b * white's pulley, b * pumpkin planting, g depth and distance to plant, g quantity of seed to plant, g time to plant, g with corn, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g striped beetle pests, g pumps action of, b - archimedes screw, b - *, double acting, b * force pumps, b , lift pumps, b , * plunger pump for vacuum cleaner, b - * theory of, b - _see also_ windmills punch (tool) centre punch, making, m * metal work tool, m * pupa. _see_ insects puppy. _see_ dogs purdy, carl collecting and growing california bulbs, a - purling, n * purse bead work, n - * tooled leather, making, d - * _see also_ card case purslane (pursley) class and seed time, g push ball, k push button. _see_ electric push button pyramids of egypt how they were built, b - pyrography outfit, c - woods suitable for, c , pyrometric cones, d * q quail. _see_ bob white quaker ladies, g quarter sawed oak, c , d - * queen anne's lace, g quills, porcupine, a quoits, k r rabbeted joints, c * rabbit bait, a breeds, common and fancy, k , a care of, k characteristics, a enemies, a fur, value, a house, construction, c - *, k - * hunting, a raising for pets, a snares, making, a story of a boy's animal cage, a raccoon bait for, a habits, a skin, value, a story of a boy's animal cage, a taming, a - racing feather race, k marathon race, k potato race, k sack race, k three legged race, k tub race, k water race, k racquets or rackets (game), k radiators steam as distributors of heat, e radish icicle, g indoor planting time, g insect pests, g planting seed depth to plant, g , distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g quick development, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g raffia work, n - * basket making, n , - covers, n handles, n - melon-shaped basket, n - * belts, n - braiding raffia, n - *, doll's hammock, n doll's hat, n - * fringe, n hats braiding, n - * trimming, n , , weaving on wire frames, n - jewel case, n - * knotting raffia, n - * materials for, n napkin ring, n , * preparing the raffia, n , shopping bag, knotted raffia, n - * skip stitch, n solomon's knot, n split stitch, n three strand braid, n - whisk broom, n * winding stitch, n rafters. _see_ roofs ragout, h ragweed class and seed time, g rain causes of, b - drops, formation, b - shape, b fall effect on forestation, b measuring, b - * recording, b - gauge, making, b - * importance of, b period of rainfall, b table for measures, b weather symbol, b raisins food value, h raking, g ranges draughts and dampers, h - _see also_ gas range raspberries food value, h picking wild raspberries, a ratchet wheel mechanism, b - * rats book about, a electrocution device, e - * trapping, a rattan work baskets, n - * mats, n *, whisk broom holder, n reamur thermometer scale, b receipts barberry jelly, a canning elderberries, a elderberry steamed pudding, a green grape jelly, a pickled walnuts, a thimbleberry jam, a wild crabapple butter, a _see also_ camping--cooking; cookery; insecticides; paste red line, or red lion (game), k red spider, g reed basket weaving, g - * reel making a garden reel, g * refrigerator cleaning, h , drainage, regulating, h economy in ice supply, h how to avoid odors, h location, h purifying, h remington typewriter, b - * renaissance lace. _see_ lace rent what proportion of income to use for, h , , repairing. _see_ furniture; soldering repousse definition of, m retaining walls batter, making, b - "closers", b designing, b - * foundation, b *, galveston sea wall, b "header", b pointing, b "stretcher", b rheostat. _see_ electric rheostat rhubarb food value, h ribbon embroidery. _see_ embroidery rice camp cooking, k food value, h washing, h wild rice characteristics, a - harvesting, a uses of, a , richards, ellen h. "cost of living" quoted, h rifles aiming, k care and cleaning, k learning to use, k - rings iron, welding, m - *, * silver work, m - * steel, making, m * _see also_ precious stones rivers protecting river banks, b tides, b , _see also_ retaining walls riveting handles, m iron tongs, m * making rivets, m metal, m - * metal worker's tool, m * rivet set, m silver letters on copper, m - * stove pipe, m roads material for road-bed, g - repairing dirt roads, g - roast pig, story, h roasting meats, h open fire for, h thickness of food, h robbers irish stew and the robbers: story, h robin insect destroyers, a migration, k rock how soil was formed from, g _see also_ boulders rock garden flowers to plant in, g location, g plants, g soil requirements, g roentgen rays ether waves, e roley boley (game), k roller ball-bearing principle, b making wooden rollers, c * moving rocks on rollers, b roman cut work, n - * roof construction for summer house, c - * construction of frame, c - * cornices, c hip roof, construction, c * painting, b , c rafters fitting, c * making curved rafters, c roofing paper, c saddle boards, c shingling, b - , c - * estimating shingles, b nails required, b square of shingling or clap boarding, meaning, b rooms. _see_ bedroom; dining-room; furniture; girl's room; guests; house decoration; kitchen; living-room; pantry; servants ropes carrying power of hemp, b preservative for hemp, b strength of wire rope, b roque, k rose christmas, characteristics, g insect pests and remedies, g , irish crochet, n - , moss, characteristics, g rose chafer, g rose jar copper work, m - * rose slug, g rotascope. _see_ gyroscope rotation of crops, g round steak, h round table, knights of how gareth became a knight, h rowing intercollegiate record, k rubbed joints, c * rubber plant topping, g , rubbish disposal of, g rubicon (game), k rugby football, k rugs bathroom, h beating-rack, a - * braiding, n - * carpets versus rugs, a - cleaning, a - , h dry cleaning, h kitchen, h oriental, washing, a storing, h washing, a - weaving, d - *, n - * color combinations, d designs, d - , - *, n materials, d , , n preparing the woof, d - process, d - , n - setting the loom, n - woof shuttle, d * rulers carpenter's rule, c parallel, mechanism of, b * run, sheep, run (game), k running hare and hound chases, a russia calf for tooled leather, n rustic furniture collecting wood for, a suggestions for making, d - * rye food value, h s sable, alaskan, a sachets herbs and grasses for, a sack racing, k sad iron. _see_ electric iron saddles english, mexican and army, k - * safety valves for steam engines, b sage growing, g saint francis of assisi, h salad plant endive, g lettuce, g salamander taming, a salary. _see_ income salmon bait for, k * food value, h salt removing stains with, h salt cellar silver work, m - * salt pork cuts, h salvia bedding plants, g san jose scale, k sand bag definition of, m sand papering. _see_ whittling sandy soil. _see_ soils sanitation. _see_ garbage; plumbing; refrigerator; sewerage santos dumont's monoplane, b *, - sap. _see_ maple sugar sardine food value, h sashes. _see_ doors; windows satin stitch, n - * combinations, n - * design, n * sauce wild crabapple, a sausage buckwheat cakes combination, h food value: table, h sauteing, h saving methods, h - necessity and value, h savoury herb, g saw horse making, c - * saw mills, c saws band saw, c brazing steel band saws, m buck saw, c * compass saw, c * construction principles, c - * coping saw, c * cross cut saws, principle and use, c * danger of the power saw, d gang saw, c hack saw, c * metal worker's tools, m * rating by points, c rip saw, principle and use, c * sawing copper work, m - * turning saw, c * using, position for, c * saxifrage habits and characteristics, g , scabiosa sowing and blossoming time, g scales mechanical principle, b - * scalloping, n - *, scallops cooking, h scarf crocheted, n * scarf pin silver work, m - * scarfing, m - , wrench, m * scarlet runner beans, g scarlet sage, g scarlet tanagers insect destroyer, a school grounds improving, g - science value of study, e - science club, e scilla, bell flowered planting and blooming time, g , scissors protecting points of, n shears for metal work, m * sconce copper work, m - * scorched stains removing, h scotland's burning, k scours remedy, a scouts. _see_ boy scouts of america scraper definition of, m screen. _see_ fire screen screw archimedian, b - *, * case hardening screws, m - concealing in woodwork, method of, c * countersunk, meaning, c driving, b endless, b finish, c flat and round head, c - * friction, provision for, b mechanical principle, b - * number designation, c nut, principle of, b power principle, b - principle applied to tools, b removing, device for, b rule for power, b use of, c - * wooden screw, strength of, b worm gear, b * worm and wheel, b - * screw drivers, c , - * screw propeller aeroplane, b - , c - * blades area versus power, b - finding area, b principle, b features of, b pitch, calculating, b * power calculating, b - * principle of, b - speed, reckoning, b sea walls. _see_ retaining walls seal electric, a french, a hudson, a seams. _see_ dressmaking search light, electric, e * seasoning broiled meats and vegetables, h , seats. _see_ benches; chairs; settees seaweed care of specimens before mounting, a collector's outfit, a mounting specimen, a - * time and places for collecting, a varieties, a seeds, g - age for planting purposes, g cotyledon, g depth to plant: table, g , distribution of wild seeds, g envelopes, making, g - * germination aiding, g experiments, g per cent., g - table, g method of improving, g - planting compacting soil, g - how to plant, g , quantity to plant: table, g time, indoor and outdoor, g - saving for sale or planting, g selection germ developing power, g impure seed, g seed plants, g - size, g - selling, how to put up seed, g - soaking, g testing for germinating value, g , _see also_ grass seed; trees; vegetables; also names of plants, e. g., beans; nasturtiums; pansy; peppers, etc. seesaw mechanical principle of, b selvage, n september blooming plants, g servants, h - cook, duties, h , days out, adjustment of work, h duties four or five maids, h one maid, h , three maids, h , two maids, h , , hours, h mistress and maid business relations, h - personal relations, h - personal liberty, lack of, h proportion of income required for, h room, h servant question, h - meals, when served, h waitress dress, h duties, h - serving table. _see_ buffet; setting the table serving the meal. _see_ meals--serving serving tray copper work, m - * seton, ernest thompson boy scouts organizer, k settee box furniture, making, c * garden settle, making, d * hall settle, d * outdoor settee, making, c - * setting the table dining table decorations, h glasses, h methods, h serving table, use of, h sideboard arrangements, h silver, h table linen, h - settle. _see_ settee sewer pipes. _see_ plumbing sewerage system, importance of, h sewing apron making, n - * back stitching, n * half back stitch, n * bands for aprons, n * skirts, n *, basting stitches, n * binding, n * blanket making, n * buttonhole stitch, n * buttons, n - care of hands, n counterpane for doll's bed, n * crow's foot stitch, n * darning, n - * felling seams, n french hem, n gathering, n - * stroking, n * gussets, n - * helping mother, n hemming french hem, n gauge, notched card, n * rolling the edge, n * skirt, n , straightening the edge, n turning corners, n * turning the hem, n hooks and eyes, n - * knotting the thread, n substitute for, n , mattresses, n * needle case, n - needles, emery for, n over-casting, n * over-handing, n - * patching, n - pillow cases, n * plackets, n - *, plain sewing, n - position of sewer, n - rolling the edge, n * running and back stitch combination, n * running stitches, n * scissors, how to hold, n * seams felling, n stitches for, n - * sewing apron, n - * sewing case, n - * stitches, n - * tape loops on towels and dresses, n * thimble, how to use, n * thread, length of, n tucking, n turning corners, n whip stitch, n * work box, fittings, n _see also_ basket making, bead work; braiding; dressmaking; embroidery sewing machines boat-shaped shuttle type carriers and drivers, adjustment, b - * looping the thread, b setting needles, b * cleaning, b oiling, b * puckering, to prevent, b - rotary hook type bobbin case, b - * holder, adjusting, b * compared with boat-shaped shuttles, b - construction, b - * feed, regulating, b feed motion, b * hook guide and hook driver, b - * hook ring, b needle bars, setting, b - needles changing, b setting, b - * presser foot, b - * repairing shuttles, b stitch regulator, b *, take up spring, replacing, b - * tension, b - thread controllers, b - * threading, b *, , wheeler and wilson, b - shuttle action of different types, b - * tension, adjusting, b - threads to use, b types, b vibrating shuttle, b - * presser foot, adjustment, b wheeler and wilson, b - , shackles forging, m - * shad food value, h shades cleaning window shades, h _see also_ candle shade; lamp shade shadow embroidery stitches and materials, n - * shagbarks, a shamrock pattern for irish crochet, n sharks catching, k sharpening tools. _see_ tools shawl crocheting rainbow shawl, n - * knitting, n - * shears protecting points of scissors, n tools for metal work, m * sheep feeding, a - book about, a lambs, care of, a raising, a - shearing, a sheepskin for leather work, n sheets making for doll-bed, n * marking, n _see also_ beds; ironing shell fish broiling oysters, h food value, h preparing for cooking, h - shellac method of using, c , d - source and qualities, c shells book about, a collecting, a - outfit, a preserving and labeling specimens, a shelters. _see_ summer house shelving. _see_ book case shetland pony breeding for profit, a characteristics, a - shingling. _see_ roof shinney, k shirley poppies, g shoe buttons how to sew on, n shoepac, k shoes base ball, k foot ball, k * for winter sports, k - shooting hints on how to shoot, k - rifle shooting, k - "wiping his eye", k shooting board how to make, c * how to use, c * shop. _see_ carpentry and woodwork; work shop shot guns aiming, k , barrel lengths, k care and cleaning, k choke-bore gun, k double barrels, k * "drop" of a gun, k for small game, k learning to shoot, k - pattern, testing, k - selecting, k - styles for various purposes, k unloading, k _see also_ rifles shovel blacksmith's shovel, m , * fire tools, making, m - * home-made snow shovel, a shrubs characteristics: table, g - hazel bush, a planting and transplanting, g selection principles, g , , , sideboard arranging for service, h design, d * siding. _see_ house framing sieve making a garden sieve, g - signals and signaling marine flag code, b - weather signals, b - silkworm culture, a - apparatus for rearing, a * book about, a cocoons preparing for market, a spinning, a - * weight of, a eggs hatching, a - laying, a - first age, a food and feeding, a , - racks for, a * moth how it comes out of the cocoon, a life of, a molting periods, a - stages of growth, a varieties of silk spinners, a silver cleaning and care, h , setting the table, h washing, h _see also_ silver work silver fox book about, a silver maple. _see_ maple silver work bar pins, m - * bezel setting, m - *, *, bracelets, m - * indian design, m - * brooches, m - * characteristics of silver for working, m collar slide, m - * comb, m - * cuff links, m - * enameling on, d gems selecting, m setting, m - *, *, , hinges. _see_ metal work--hinges lettering silver on copper, m - * links, making, m - * mustard spoon, m * napkin ring, m - * necklaces, m - * oxidizing silver, m pendants, m picture frame, m , - * pin, m - * rings bezel setting, m - * deep set stone, m - * prong setting, m - * twisted silver wire, m - * riveting letters, m - * salt cellar, m - * salt spoon, m * scarf pin, m - * setting the stone, m spoons, m - * sugar tongs bowl design, m * claw design, m - * tools chisel, making, m * mandrel, m * watch fob, m - * _see also_ copper work; metal work simmering definition, h sink location and care of kitchen sinks, h sirloin steak, h skate sailing, k - * skating, k - club skate model, k * damming a brook or pond, a fancy figures, k hockey skates and playing, k - * racing skates and skating, k sprinting stroke, k tennis court for skating pond, a - skee. _see_ skiing skiing, k - *, jumping, k ski pole, k * skis, k - * skins and hides curing, a removing, a tanning, a - solution, a skirts. _see_ dressmaking skittles lawn skittles, k - skunk nests and habits, a pelts, value, a , tame, a trapping, a - sled bobsled, k * toy, working drawing, c , * sledge blacksmith's tool, m sleep and sleeping advantages of outdoor sleeping, a - preparation for outdoor sleeping, a , * sleeves. _see_ dressmaking slippers crocheting, n - * slippery elm, c slugs exterminating, g garden pests, g rose slugs, g , small fruits. _see_ berries smartweed class and seed time, g smilax, southern, a smith premier typewriter, b - * smocking honeycomb pattern, n - stitch, n * smoking dangers of, k - smoking set copper work, m - * snake taming, a venomous, k snake's head, g , snapdragon, g snares. _see_ traps snarling iron definition of, m snow crystals, forms and colors, b - * formation, b line, b , measuring snowfall, b perpetual snow, b shoveling, a - uses of, b weight, b snow shoeing skis and skiing, k - * snow shoes, k - * snowballs japanese, g snowdrop planting and blooming time, g soap for laundry, h soccer. _see_ foot ball socket wrench. _see_ wrench sockets making an open wire rope socket, m - * soda combined with cream of tartar, h some uses of, h sour milk and, h sofa cushion. _see_ pillow softening metal. _see_ annealing soils acid, improving, g , , adapting crops, g - clay absorption of water, g characteristics, g formation, g - improving, g , , - , lime for acid soil, g elements, g formation of, g humus, g improving poor soil, g , - , - , impure air in, h inoculation, purpose and method, g , lime absorption of water, g formation, g - humus for, g improving, g testing for, g loam, meaning of, g preparing for grass seed, g - physical and chemical needs, g sand absorption of water and heat, g characteristics, g formation of, g improving, g , nitrogen needed, g subsoil, g testing, g - top-soil, g _see also_ drainage; flower gardening; plant food; also names of plants soldering brass vase, m copper handles, m - electric iron for, e * hard soldering, materials and directions, m - heat and tools for, m - * iron, making, m - * metals, m - * outfit, b , m - * preparations, b process, b soft soldering materials and tools, m process, m , - tinker's dam, b unsoldering, m solomon's seal, false habits and characteristics, g song birds. _see_ birds sorrel class and seed time, g sound production of, e variation with speed, e velocity, b - , e in dry air, water and metals, b independent of pitch, e vibrations of metal disks, e - waves, e length, b , e soups beef stock, what to buy, h boiling meat for stock, h to keep from curdling, h soutache braid for braiding, n spading how to spade, g , spanish fly (game), k sparrow bird enemy, k book about, a migration of song sparrow, k specific gravity meaning and application, b - speed indicator mechanism and use, e * spice bush characteristics, g spiders food for young wasps, a nature study, k spiked loosestrife characteristics, g spinach cleaning, h food value, h germination per cent. of seed, g time to plant, g spindle copper work, m - * spinning. _see_ silkworm spirea characteristics, g hedge shrub, g van houtte's, a good variety, g , spirit level, c * splice or scarf joints, c * spoons mustard spoon, silver work, m * nut set spoon, copper work, m - * salt spoon, silver work, m tea spoon, silver work, m - * sports girls' outdoor sports, k - winter sports, k - * _see also_ archery; base ball; camping; canoeing; coasting; cricket; curling; fishing; foot ball; games; golf; horsemanship; hunting; racing; rowing; shooting; skate sailing; skating; skiing; swimming; track athletics; trapping; walking spots. _see_ cleaning spring beauty habits and characteristics, g transplanting, g springs (machinery) air spring, b * bearing springs, b - car springs, b * cross bow, making, b * draw spring, b * tempering steel, m uses, b springs (water) preparing for trout culture, a - reclaiming springs, a - story of how one spring was reclaimed, a - sprocket wheel, b * spruce gum gathering, a - making, a marketing, a uses, a white spruce, a spruce tree seed year, a variety and characteristics, c - squabs book about, a care of, a homers as breeders, a - killing and dressing, a marketing and profit, a raising, a - record keeping, a where to get information about, a _see also_ pigeons square, steel carpenter's tool, c * metal worker's tool, m * squash food value, h insect pests, g , , planting seed, g depth to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g squash (game), k squirrels as pets, k bad habits of the red squirrel, a bait for, a flying squirrels as pets, k taming, a - stabbler, sydney s. my experience with honey bees, a - stains and staining alcohol stains, value of, d applying stains, d - asphaltum, d black walnut imitation, d brown stain, c chemical composition and use, c preparing, c flemish oak, d forest green oak, d fumed oak and chestnut, process, d - golden oak finish, d gray oak, d mahogany imitation, d , , c mission oak, d natural colors versus imitation, c object of staining, d oil stain composition and use, c merits of, c , d perfect stain, d preparation of surface, c water stain advantages of, c , d composition and use, c weathered oak, d stake pin making, m - * stand pipe principle of, h staples designing and making, m - * star of bethlehem planting and blooming time, g starch boiled starch, making, h cold starch, making, h protecting, h starching clothes, h sticking to irons, to prevent, h stars effect of aerial tides, e telling points of the compass by, k time required for light to travel from, e starting box (electric), e operation of, e - * steam condensation, b dry steam, b expansion principle, b generation of, b - heat units, b - wet steam, b steam engines calipyle, b - cylinder and piston, b - * disk engine, b * governors, b - *, gyroscope, b heating principle, b hero engine, b * history of, b - , horsepower, estimating, b - noise from exhaust, reason, b , power generation and distribution, b - principle of, b - rotary, b * safety valve, b slide valve, b - * toe and lifter for valves, b * waste in power, e steam radiators as distributors of heat, e steam turbine, b steam whistles why steam is seen before whistles are heard, b steamboats development of, b _see also_ screw propeller; steam turbine steel annealing, m - bessemer steel manufacture and use of, m brazing, m carbon steel, m , case hardening, m - crucible cast steel, making, m cutting tool steel, m grades, m hardening forged fires for, m lathe tools, m solutions, m - hook, making, m - * invention of, b lanterns, making, m - * manufacturing, m oxidation, prevention of, m sockets, forging, m - * soft, m - * weldless ring, making, m * working heat, m stretching processes, m tempering, m - color scheme, m - grade of steel required, m lathe tools, m side tool, m testing for carbon, m for hardness, m tool making, m - tool steel, m welding, m wrenches, forging, m - * wrought iron versus, m _see also_ knives; tool making stenciling, n - * brushes for, n - * color schemes, d corner designs for borders, d - cutting the stencil, d , n designs, making, d - * repeating unit, d * transferring, d materials and tools, n , d outline drawing, d paints for mixing colors, n - testing, d - patterns, making from paper, n - * pillows, n *, pinning the stencil, d process, d - , n repeating and joining units, d * reversing the pattern, n stencil bands, size and purpose, d - * use in home decoration, n , washable, n water colors for, n stereopticon lamp, e * stewing, h stickseed class and seed times, g still pon no moving, k stings care of, h stitches. _see_ crocheting; embroidery; knitting; lace making; sewing stock sowing and blossoming time, g ten-weeks, characteristics, g stock breeding. _see_ breeding stockings darning, n - * stone wall for lawn, g stones. _see_ boulders; precious stones stools. _see_ foot stools storage battery. _see_ electric batteries store room in cellar, h stories brother juniper's cooking, h fire of coals, h irish stew, h king alfred and the cakes, h king's kitchen, h loaves and fishes, h the luncheon, h roast pig, h widow's cruse of oil, h storing. _see_ packing stove pipe riveting, m stoves draughts and dampers, h - laundry, h _see also_ fire making; gas range; ovens strawberries care of first-year plants, g experimenting with varieties, g - food value, h growing, g - hill culture versus matted row, g planting rules, g - soil and location, g staking the bed, g * wood ashes for fertilizer, g street cars. _see_ electric cars strength of materials nails, b - ropes, hemp and wire, b - timbers, estimating, b woods, c - * string beans cooking preparations, h food value, h planting, g striped beetle remedy for, g stump master (game), k submarine cables. _see_ cables, submarine suckers (game), k sugar food value, h sugar bush. _see_ maple sugar sugar-scoop making a wooden scoop, c * sugar-tongs silver work, m - * sumach christmas green, a summer cottage. _see_ cottages summer house building, c - * location, g making a double seat for, c - sun cooking processes, h distance from earth, b time required for light to travel from, e _see also_ tides sundial making, b - *, g - * setting up, g - sun time versus clock time, g sunflower double, characteristics, g food for squirrels, g late, characteristics, g , planting seed, g sowing and blossoming time, g swages blacksmith tools, m * swallows migration, k swans varieties, k swastika inlaying design on wood, c , * swedish drawn work. _see_ hardanger embroidery sweeping carpets and rugs, h sweet alyssum characteristics, g , planting seeds, g , sweet clover and sweet fern leaves for sachet, a sweet flag characteristics, g sweet grass basket making, a sweet lavender, g sweet pea characteristics, g , sweet potato food value, h sweet sultan characteristics, g sweet william biennial, g characteristics, g , swimming accidents, k artificial supports, k breast stroke, k dangers, avoiding, k diving, k * dog stroke, k fancy stroke, k girls as swimmers, k learning how, k - on the back, k overhand or overarm strokes, k pool, artificial cost, a in back yard, a - keeping water fresh, a pool, book about, a pool, natural damming of stream, a - strokes, k - , - value as exercise, k swine, a - book about, a brood sow care of, a - selecting, a cleanliness, a fattening, a feeding young pigs, a pen, building, a profit in raising, a sycamore characteristics, c sycamore maple. _see_ maple symbols. _see_ signals syrup. _see_ molasses; maple sugar and syrup t table linen care of, h ironing, h marking, n table runner block printing, d - designs, d - materials, d weaving, d - tables checkerboard table, making, c * dining table design, d * drawing table, making, c - fastening table tops to prevent warping, d * kitchen, h library table design, d * heavy, design and construction, d - * light, design and construction, d - * mission style, making, c - * wood finish, d picnic tables, making, b - polished, care of, h round centre table design and construction, d - * wood finish, d tea table, mission style, making, c - * _see also_ setting the table tabourette, c - *, g - circular top, making, c - * estimating lumber for, c hexagonal top, c - * mission style, making, c - * moorish design, c - * octagonal top, making, c * working drawings, c , * tag (game), k last tag, k warning, k wood tag, k tamarack. _see_ larch tanager migration, k tanning skins, a , - tantalum lamp metal filament, e tapes sewing on, n * tapestry weaving, n - tapioca food value, h tarnish on brass preventing, m tarpon catching, k tea camp cooking, k tea caddy brass work, m - * tea kettle iron work stand for, making, m - * tea pot stand copper, d - * tea pots care of, h tea spoons. _see_ spoons tea stains, h teeter-tauter principle of, b telegraph invention and development, e - key, e * morse code reading, e poles, use of glass knobs, e relay, e - * signals, how produced, e - * sounders, operation of, e wires, insulation, e _see also_ cables; submarine; wireless telegraph telephone, e - automatic registering device, e bells magnets for ringing, e - operation of, e burning out of the coil, e central battery system, e current in telephone circuit, e double metallic circuit, first used, e electric spark coil, e - history of, e - lightning arrester, e * music transmitted by, e pole, equipment, e receiver as switch and circuit, e construction and action, e - * operating by induced current, e - principle of, e - * vibrator, e - resistance in the circuit, e - simple telephone system, e - * sounds, how produced, e , - transmitter, construction, e - vibrations of disks, e volume of business in , e wires installation, e use of ground wire, e telescope water telescope, k telharmonium, e - temperature. _see_ thermometers tempering hand hammers, m , knives, m lathe tools, m , steel, m - teneriffe lace, n * tennis, k - * court tennis, k girl's sports, k hand tennis, k "love", k playing the game, k - racket how to hold, k * selecting, k scoring, k stroke, k tether tennis, k tennis court accessories, making, c - * back stop, making, c - * dimensions and directions, c , k - * drainage, k grass versus clay, k , laying out, c - * making and caring for, a - marker, home made, a marking, k - * net, putting up, c post for net, placing and preserving, c surfacing and leveling, k tents "a" tent, k * brush lean-to, k * indian tepee, k * lean-to, k , * trapper's tent, k * wall tent, k * tetanus cause of, b tether ball, k tether tennis, k thermometers centigrade scale, b changing one scale into another, b - fahrenheit scale, b history and purpose, b scales in use, b - theory of, b thermostat, electric, e thimble how to use, n * thimbleberry description of, a jam, receipt, a picking, a thistle canada, class and seed time, g russian, class and seed time, g thorn apple, a thrasher, brown insect destroyer, a migration, k thrush migration, k thunder weather symbol for thunder storm, b why thunder is heard last, b tides, b - aerial, b cause of, b - ebb and flow, b elevations, changes in, b - height, b lakes, b lunar, b - moon's distance from the meridian, effect of, b - neap tides, b open seas, b rivers and channels, b sir isaac newton's theory, b - solar, b - , spring tides, b - theory of, b - * time, changes in, b - tidiness meaning of, h ties irish crochet, n - * tile drains. _see_ drainage tiles cleaning, h decoration of, d fireplace tiles, d - for kitchen floors, h making, d - * tea tiles, d * uses, d _see also_ drainage timber. _see_ building; lumber; strength of materials; trees; wood time day and night, cause of, b division of, b tin kitchen utensils, h _see also_ soldering tinker's dam, b tip cat drawing and making, c - titmouse insect destroyer, a toad book about, a enemy to cut worm, k garden pest destroyer, g , a taming, a toasters, electric, e tobacco jar copper work, m - * tobogganing, k toilet boxes. _see_ box making toilet closets. _see_ closets, toilet toilet fixtures care of, h , , tomato dwarf champion, g food value, h indoor planting time, g insect pests, g , peeling tomatoes, h planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g removing ink stains with, h seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g staking the vines, g starting and transplanting, g - vines, overgrowth of, g tommy tiddler's land (game), k tongs blacksmith's tools, m *, fire tools, making, m - * iron tongs, making, m - * tongue and groove joints, c * tongue grafting. _see_ grafting tool boxes and chests, c - *, - * old-fashioned chest, c - * suit case design, c - * tool making, m - * boring tool, m * cape chisel, m * centre punch, m * cold chisel, m *, crowbars, m * cutting off tool, m * diamond point, m * dividers, m - * drills, m - * eccentric strap, m * fire screen, m * fire tools, m - * hammers, m *, - * hardening, m - hardie, m * hoe, m - * hot chisel, m * lathe tools, m - nail puller or claw tool, m * pitch fork, m * rock drills, m - * round nose, m set hammer, m * shovel, m - * side point, m steel for, m stone chisel, m - * stone pick, m * tempering steel for, m - tongs, iron, m - wood chisel, m - wrenches, steel, m - _see also_ forging; steel; welding tooled leather. _see_ leather work tools anvil stake, m * beck iron, m burners, m - * calipers, m chisels, m , *, * dividers, m * using, m * draw plate, m *, , drills, m * enameling tools, m face plate, m files, m * fullers, m * gouges, m graver, m hack saw, c hammer, m * hand hammer, m * peen, m * set hammer, m * hardie, m *, * jewelers' snips, m * leather work tools, d - *, n *, * mallet, wooden, m * mandrel, m matt tool, m pin, m pitch block, m planishing hammer, using, m * pliers, m * pottery modeling tools, d - principle of the inclined plane applied to, b punch, m *, * ring mandrel, m * riveting tool, m * sand bag, m saw frame, m * scraper, m screw principle, b shaping tools, m * shears, m * shovel, m *, sledge, m snarling iron, m soldering outfit, m - * square, steel, m *, c * stake and riveting tool, m swages, m * tracer, m tongs, m *, vise, m *, *, * wedge, principle of, b - * wooden block, m *, * using, m * _see also_ carpentry and woodwork--tools and appliances; chisels; drilling and boring tools; gardening--tools; hammers; tool boxes; tool making; wedge; wrenches topping plants, g , - tops plug in the ring, k towel rack making a wooden rack, c * towel roller making a wooden roller, c - * towels marking, n toy making, c - aeroplanes, c - * boat in a storm, c - * designing moving toys, c - * dog house, c * electric engine, e * electric spinner, e * electric train operated by wireless outfit, e - * fencers, c - * happy jack windmill, c * indian paddlers, c - * moving toys, c - cautions, c method of procedure, c - * racing automobile, c - * sawyers, c - * turkey and executioner, c - * wooden boxes, c * _see also_ kites toys giving away, h inventions and discoveries, h tracer metal worker's tool, m track athletics all round championship, k best college record, k intercollegiate contest events, k olympic games, events, k one hundred yard dash, best record, k scoring in all round championship, k trained animals. _see_ animals transferring embroidery patterns, n - stencil designs, d transplanting. _see_ vegetable gardening; also names of plants, e. g., beets; lettuce, etc. trapping, a - baiting traps, a carrot bait, a * for muskrats, a books about, a box traps, a *, c * deadfall trap, a , , c * gophers, a * land animals, a mink, a - moles, a - muskrats, a - , profit and recreation in, a rabbits, a - rats, a - river trapping, a rules of the game, a - skunks, a - snares, c * with carrot bait, a * steel jaw traps, setting, a steel traps, cruelty of, a stop-thief traps, a - * traps, humane and inhuman, a swamp trapping, a water animals, a weasel, a - woodchucks, a traps (plumbing) construction and purpose, h , defective, reason and remedy, h location, h , trash disposal of, h trays gouge work, c - * _see also_ copper work tread-mill training dogs to run, a - mechanism, b * trees age, how to tell, c broad leaved, c - , - compound leaves, c * doubly compound, c * maple, c - oak, c - simple leaves, c * cambium layer, a classification and characteristics, c - coniferous trees, names and characteristics, c - cutting down, art of, k - * danger of roots to cement walks, b growth process, c heart wood versus sap wood, c identifying, a , planting directions, g - playhouse in a tree, h products of, c qualities of different varieties, k rings, meaning, c selecting and planting, g - seeds for propagation gathering, a - ripening and drying, a treatment, where to get information, a table describing, g _see also_ forestry; fruit trees; grafting; landscape gardening; lumber and lumbering; nuts; pruning; wood; also names of trees, e. g., maple; oak; pine, etc. trellises, d - * trench. _see_ cement walk; drainage; gardening trestle. _see_ saw horse triangles (tools) making, c - * trick joints, c * trilliums habits and characteristics, g trimmings. _see_ crocheting triplane, b trolling, k * trophy stick, notched, c * trout bait, k , culture from eggs, a feeding, a reclaiming the trout stream, a - trout lily, g truck garden. _see_ vegetable gardening trumpet vine decorative value, g t-square, c * making, c - * to prevent warping, c tub racing, k tubs. _see_ bathtubs; laundry tucking, n * tulip cone developer, g planting bulbs indoors, g red, planting and blooming time, g tree, characteristics, c varieties, g white, planting and blooming time, g yellow, planting and blooming time, g tungsten lamp cost of, e *, metal filaments, e turbines fourneyron, b * jonval, b * steam, b water, b turkey book about, a breeds, a enemies, lice and wet, a feeding young turkeys, a , food value, h habits of turkey hen, a hatching, time required, a laying and sitting habits, a raising, a - selection of, for cooking, h turn spit dog, b turnip food value, h planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g , germination period, g soil, g turnip-root cabbage planting, g turpentine moth exterminator, h paint stain remover, h turtle head characteristics, g where found, g turtles taming, a typewriter alignment, b "blind" writer, b carbon copying device, b card indexing device, b carriage, b , interchangeable, b *, mechanism of, b disconnecting parts, b double shift, b duplicators, b - essential features, b - invention of, b keyboard, b , , , universal, b kinds, b line-spacing mechanism, b , noiseless operation, b oliver, mechanical principle, b - * paper feed, b platen essentials, b interchangeable, b remington description of parts and their uses, b - * improvements, b - ribbon movement, b ribbons, two and three colors, b , , scales, b semi-visible writers, b single shift, b smith-premier, b - *, spacing bar, b tabulator, b - type cleaning, b cleaning device, b mechanism, b , , , , visible writers, b work done by, b u u-tube, theory of, h - umbrella handles woods and roots for, a - umbrella stand design and construction, d - * iron work, m mission design, c * wood finish, d unleavened bread nutriment, h upsetting. _see_ forging upstairs work, h - utensils. _see_ kitchen utensils v vacuum cleaner electric, e * home made, b - * plunger pump, making, b - * power driven, home made, b - * principle of, e using, b water motor, b * valerian characteristics, g vane. _see_ weather vane varnish and varnishing drying, time required, d - dull finish, d flat finish, d grades of varnish, c method of using, b , c number of coats needed, d quality of varnish, recognizing, d rubbing down process, d "sag" and how corrected, d - vase brass work, m - * concrete garden vase, making, d - * pottery, making, d - * typical flower holders, d - * veal as chicken, h cuts and their uses, h food value: table, h vegetable gardening, g - combinations for late planting, g indoor and outdoor planting time, g - intermingling from close planting, g money making garden, g - planting tables age for planting, g depth and distance, g germination per cent., g germination time, g quantity to plant, g seeds, selling, g - selling young plants, g - transplanting, g - from the coldframe, g - strawberry boxes for, g _see also_ coldframe; drainage; fertilizers and manures; gardening; herbs; hotbed; insect pests; plant food; plants; soils; also names of vegetables, e.g., beans; cabbage; carrot, etc. vegetables boiling, h burning, treatment, h camp cooking, k , cleaning, h cooking, h preparation for, h - with left overs, h dandelion greens, a exhibits, preparation for, g food value, h , husking, h peeling, h pokeweed roots, cooking, a preparation for selling, g scraping, h seasoning, h selection of, for cooking, h shelling, h soaking, h stewing, h _see also_ names of vegetables; e. g., cauliflower; parsnip; pumpkin; etc. verbena characteristics, g planting, g village improvement books about, a what boys and girls can do, a - vinegar cider vinegar book about, a making, a - "mother," meaning, a vinegar cruet washing, h vines annuals, g climbers, g for covering fences and buildings, g scarlet runner bean, g training, g use in landscape gardening, g violet california, characteristics, g habits and characteristics, g , insect pests, g russian, characteristics, g tufted, characteristics, g where to plant, g wild varieties, g vireos insect destroyers, a migration, k virginia creeper decorative value, g vise bench vise, m *, *, * quick action, c voisin's biplane, b - * volley ball, k volta, alessandro, e perfected method for producing electricity by chemical action, e voltmeter for direct and alternating currents, e measuring electric pressure, e - multipliers, e principle and operation, e - * w waists. _see_ dressmaking waiting on table. _see_ meals--serving waitress dress, h duties, h - wake robin, g walking healthfulness of, k - walking stick carved by the engraver beetle, a orange wood, a roots for handles, a shaping, a walks. _see_ cement walk; garden paths wall brackets. _see_ brackets wall cabinet. _see_ medicine cabinet wall flower characteristics, g wall paper. _see_ walls wall rack. _see_ book rack wallachian embroidery drawing scallops, n meaning of, n stitch, n * walls care of, h cleaning appliances, h cleaning wall paper, h decoration of, d , - , n dry cleaning, h how to drive nails into plaster walls, c kitchen, h paneled walls, cleaning, h _see also_ embankments; paper hanging walnut black characteristics of tree, c imitation stain, c , d device for husking, a drying and storing nuts, a food value of nuts, h receipt for pickled walnuts, a - white, characteristics of tree, c wandering jew window box plants, g warbler insect destroyer, a wardrobe. _see_ closets, clothes warning (game), k warp. _see_ weaving wash board and wash boiler care of, h washing. _see_ laundry work washing dishes. _see_ dish washing washington (game), k washington thorn, a washstands cleaning, h used as playhouse, h wasps development from the egg, a - feeding grub, a habits, a - waste classification, h disposal of in country, h in cities, h - waste pipes care of, h construction principle, h - disinfection in cleaning, h misuse of, h waste water disposal of, h in country, h watch fob copper and enamel, d - * silver or copper work, m - * watches balance and spring, b geneva stop, b * magnetized, b - mechanism, b , non-magnetic, b regulators, b - *, testing for magnetism, b watchman's time detector, e * water boiling point, h cold water as a preserver, h substitute for milk, h water and bog plants table, g water bugs, h water bulbs. _see_ bulbs water closets. _see_ closets, toilet water fowl, k water garden, g water glass egg preservative, a water life, k - collector's net, k * telescope for observing, k water lilies table, g water meter vibrating trough, b * water mint characteristics, g water motor. _see_ water wheels water pipes. _see_ plumbing; waste pipes water polo, k water power estimating, e from a continuous fall of water, b * reclaiming a spring, a - _see also_ water supply; water wheels water race, k water seal construction and purpose, h water supply importance of source, h principle of the tower, h spring water, a summer camp devices, e - theory of u-tube in waterworks, h - water tank. _see also_ pumps; water wheels; wells electric warning for empty tank, e * water tax economizing bills, h water wheels ancient, b * archimedian screw principle, b * barker or reaction, b * breast wheel, b * governors, b - * overshot, b *, undershot, b * vacuum cleaner motor, b volate, b * _see also_ turbines water works. _see_ water supply watermelon food value, h germination per cent., g planting, g watt, james inventor, e watt unit of power, b _see also_ kilowatt wattmeter, e - illustration of motor principle, e measuring watt hours, e - registering amount of electricity used, e - wax bayberry dips, a - grafting, g making beeswax, a wood finish, c , d - _see also_ floors wax beans, g wax myrtle, a - waxwings insect destroyers, a weasel colors of fur, a habits, a weather records, how made, b - symbols, b - _see also_ barometer; rain; thermometer; weather vane; wind weather boarding. _see_ house framing weather vane making, c - * zeppelin airship weather vane, making, c * weathered oak finish, d weathering meaning, b weaving, d - , n - bordered table scarf, d - color effects, n - curtains and draperies, d - dowel, n dyeing, materials for, d - french as weavers, n hand loom bridge, n description of treadle loom, d - * home-made, without treadle, n - primitive loom, d setting, d - , n - shuttle and bobbin, d * shuttle for woof cloth, d simple cardboard loom, n materials to use, n pattern weaving, d - drawing in the pattern, d - * hit-and-miss pattern, n operation of the harnesses, d - pick, d * variations in patterns, d , portieres and couch covers, d - process, d - , n - beating up the woof, d , n drawing in the warp, d , n pairing threads, n preparing the warp, d , n warping the loom, d , n rattan mats, n *, rugs, d - , n - harmonizing effects, n tapestry designs, n warp and woof, d , n - * warping hook, d * _see also_ braiding wedge cutting tool, c principle of, b - * rule for power, b weeds, g - annuals, destroying, g biennials, destroying, g book about, a definition of, a destroying and preventing, a - , g - distribution of seeds, g foreign, g good points, g medicinal, a - , g book about, a perennials, destroying, g - propagation seeds, g trailing branches, g table of, g test of acid soil, g weevils chestnut weevil, a weigela characteristics, g weight principle of lifting, b - * weights and measures english versus metric system: tables, c , tables, h units of measurement, c , _see also_ electric measurements welding, m - * built-up work, m butt welds, m * definition of, m , chains, m - * cleft weld, m * corner plate, m * electric, e - flat welds, m - * flat welds and t-welds, m - * horse shoes, m iron oxidation, preventing, m iron ring, m - *, * iron tongs, m - * jump weld, m - * kinds, m lap weld, m * scarfing, m - *, * a wrench, m * socket wrenches, m - * t weld, m - * temperature of fire, m - tool steel to wrought iron, m turn buckles, m * upsetting, m * wells location and care, h _see also_ pumps western union telegraph company equipment and amount of business, e whale oil soap spray for insects, g , wheat depth to plant seeds, g wheel and axle principle of, b , - * rule for power, b wheel-barrow leverage principle, b making, b - * wheels mechanical movements, b - * _see also_ screw propeller; turbines; water wheels whip grafting. _see_ grafting whisk broom raffia, n * white pine. _see_ pine white rabbit. _see_ rabbit whitewash preparing surface walls, h preparing the lime, h - value for cellar walls, h whittling, c - beveling, c calendar back, c * curves, cutting, c * cutting out process, c * drawing the design, c * first lessons in, c - * fish line winder, c * key rack, c - * key tags, c * knife kind to use, c * method of holding, c * paper knife, c - * picture frames, c - * propeller blades, c - * sand papering edges, c testing with the try square, c * tip cat, c - * weather vane making, c - * windmills, c - * woods for, c worsted winder, c * _see also_ wood carving wicket polo, k wicks trimming, h widow's cruse of oil: story, h wild animals. _see_ animals wild carrot class and seed time, g seed distribution, g wild crabapple, a , wild flower gardening april, june and july blooms, g - decorative value of wild flowers, a landscape gardening, g late blooms, g march blooms, g may blooms, g planning and care, g soil, g , succession of bloom, g - transplanting, g wild flowers. _see_ flowers wild fowl. _see_ game and game birds; water fowl wild geranium characteristics, g wild grapes. _see_ grapes wild nuts list of, a wild plums "goin' plummin'", a - wild raspberries, a wild rice, a - winch setting up, b - * uses, b - wind. _see_ winds wind break trees for, g , wind flower, g wind root, g , windlass principle of, b - * windmill common windmill, b * happy jack weather vane, c - * horizontal weather vane, c - * six-bladed weather vane, c - zeppelin weather vane, c * window-box advantages over pots, g construction and painting, g - crowding plants in, g draining, g how to fasten to window, g selection of plants for sunny and shady windows, g - window seat for girl's room, n windows batten blinds, c cleaning, h details of window frames, d * hanging, c inside trim, c * location of cellar windows, h setting frames, c winds measuring device, b - * table of velocity, b _see also_ weather vane; windmill winter sports, k - * clothing and footwear, k - * winterberries description of, a wire reducing size of, m _see also_ electric wires wire ropes. _see_ rope wireless club, e - wireless telegraph accidents prevented by, e , - aerials, e amateur stations, e antennæ, e * c. q. d. message, meaning, e coherer circuit, e * construction, e - * discovery, e electric bell as transmitter, e operated by wireless, e * ether waves, e fireworks, operated by, e - * first company organized, e first practical use, e first public stations, e ground wire, e hertzian waves, e incandescent lamps operated by, e * law requiring use on steamers, e morse alphabet, e operation of a simple type, e - * relay, e - sending messages to ocean steamers, e signal code, e spark coil, construction, e - * tapper, e - * toy train operated by, e - * trans-atlantic messages first sent, e wistaria decorative value, g witch hazel characteristics, g wolf and sheep (game), k women heritage of, h - home making power, h wood best woods for special purposes, k decay, cause of, c durability, c - hard wood, c , k beech, c black jack or barren oak, c black or sweet birch, c black or yellow oak, c bur oak (mossy cup), c chestnut oak, c cypress, c elm, white or american, c georgia pine, c holly, c honey locust, c hop hornbeam, ironwood, c hornbeam, or blue birch, c larch, c laurel oak, c locust, black and yellow, c paper birch, c pin oak, c post or iron oak, c red birch, c red elm, slippery elm, c red oak, c red or swamp maple, c red pine, c rock, cork elm, c silver, or white maple, c sugar maple, c swamp white oak, c tamarack, c white oak, c willow oak, c yellow birch, c yellow pine, c preservation, c - soft wood, c , k arbor vitæ, c balsam, c basswood, linden, c black spruce, c box elder, c buckeye, c fir, c gray, or aspen-leaved birch, c hemlock, c moosewood, c mountain maple, c pitch pine, c red cedar, c red spruce, c white cedar, c white pine, c white spruce, c strength of, c - * _see also_ forestry; kindling wood; trees wood anemone habits and characteristics, g wood carving black and white design, c blotter pads, designs, c - chip carving, c - * curved cutting, c - designs elliptical, c - for borders, c - * for centres, c - * for corners, c * flat work, c - * glove box design, c holding the knife, c * key rack designs, c , knives for carving, c * letter racks, designs, c - origin, c paper knife, c - * pencil box, c - * penholder, c - * picture frames, c - * polishing, c triangular cutting, c - veining, c * woods for, c wood finishing aging wood, c antique finish, c cleaning, the first step, d colors, obtaining, c dead flat surface, c dull finish, d enameling white, d fillers, c cost of surfacing, d liquid, formula, d importance of, d - paste, formula, d applying, d when to use liquids or paste, d flat finish, d polishing, c - process, c - re-finishing old furniture, d - mahogany table, d - rubbing down process, d scraping, d shellac, using, c , d - varnish, removing, d wax finish, d - , c white enamel, d white wood, d woods that do and do not require fillers, c _see also_ stains and staining; varnish and varnishing wood fire. _see_ fires wood lot clearing for kindling wood, a wood screws strength of, b wood staining. _see_ stains and staining wood tag, k woodchucks taming, a trapping, a woodcraft, k - * axemanship, k - getting lost, k - land marks, k lost signals, k _see also_ trees woodpecker insect destroyer, a , k woodwork. _see_ carpentry and woodwork woof. _see_ weaving wool combing machine roller motion, b * woolen clothes laundering, h storing, h work. _see_ housekeeping; occupations work bag and sewing apron combined, n - work bench. _see_ carpentry work shop garden tool making, g - * _see also_ carpentry worms fish bait, k wren insect destroyer, a migration, k wrench alligator wrench, making, m * flat wrought iron wrench, making, m - * forging, m - * hardie for, m * socket wrench, m - * welding, m - wringer for laundry work, h writing desk. _see_ desk wrought iron making, m - steel versus, m x x-ray ether waves, e physiological effect, e y yachts flag signals, b - _see also_ launch yeast principle in bread making, h - young, sir thomas ether wave theory of light, e z zeppelin's dirigible balloon, b zinnia characteristics, g planting, g selecting seeds, g * * * * * transcriber's notes: corrected obvious typos and inconsistencies, otherwise spelling has been left as printed. a small amount of inconsistent hyphenation left as printed. p. . dilletantism -> dilettantism. p. . bisulphid -> bisulphide. the following corrections have been made after referrence to the relevant book. p. . 'wall rack, designing and making, c - *, d - *' corrected to 'wall rack, designing and making, c - *, d - *'. p. . crum tray -> crumb tray. p. . 'experiments with spark coil, e , - , - *' changed to 'experiments with spark coil, e , - , - *'. p. . 'cooper or brass, metal work, m *' changed to 'copper or brass, metal work, m *'. p. . crum scraper -> crumb scraper. p. . reamur is correctly spelt reaumur but has been left as it was spelt in 'mechanics'. this book is a summary and index to the following books which can all be found in the project gutenberg collection. in the html version of this text, links are made to the other volumes, though for volumes g and k it has only been possible to a link to the correct chapter. a--outdoor work project gutenberg e-book b--mechanics, indoors and out project gutenberg e-book c--carpentry and woodwork project gutenberg e-book d--home decoration project gutenberg e-book e--electricity project gutenberg e-book g--gardening project gutenberg e-book h--housekeeping project gutenberg e-book k--outdoor sports project gutenberg e-book m--working in metals project gutenberg e-book n--needlecraft project gutenberg e-book generously made available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/toy-makinginscho polkuoft transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). a carat character is used to denote superscription. a single character following the carat is superscripted (example: c^ ). toy-making in school and home [illustration: plate i a scene in toyland _fr._] toy-making in school and home by r. k. & m. i. r. polkinghorne the county secondary school streatham london george g. harrap & company & portsmouth street kingsway w.c. the riverside press limited, edinburgh great britain prefatory note the authors wish to express their thanks to mr j. e. mansion for many valuable criticisms and suggestions, and to miss bassett, whose encouragement and support alone made the work possible. contents page introduction. _by_ miss r. bassett, b.a., _headmistress of the county secondary school, streatham_ part i toys for little ones: paper and cardboard chapter i. toy-making and its educational possibilities ii. general principles; materials iii. paper work for infants iv. more paper toys v. match-box toys vi. more complicated match-box and cork toys vii. cork animals harnessed to sledges, etc. viii. more cork toys ix. cardboard and paper ships x. cardboard and paper toys xi. simple woodwork xii. materials xiii. some difficulties in toy-making xiv. merry-go-round, swinging boats, and great wheel xv. flying airships, gondolas, and birds xvi. fire-engine, motor-lorry, and steam-roller xvii. gipsy caravan and bathing machine xviii. a train and railway station xix. red cross motor and taxi-cab xx. swinging and jointed animals part ii toys of cardboard and wood: mechanical toys chapter page i. additional tools ii. capstan, dreadnought, liner iii. motor-car, swinging cradle, deck-chair iv. a tram-car v. a crane vi. windmill, water-wheel, well vii. drawbridge and siege tower viii. war engines past and present ix. a fire-escape x. castle, tournament, and fair xi. an old chariot and some quaint dolls' furniture xii. railway signal and signal-box xiii. lighthouse, transporter bridge xiv. yachts and boats: the use of the chisel xv. the fret-saw xvi. little gymnast, dancing clown, rocking animals xvii. moving figures xviii. some old-fashioned toys xix. little swordsmen xx. some more fret-saw toys xxi. toys worked by sand xxii. toys worked by wheels, etc. xxiii. kites, gliders, and aeroplanes xxiv. more old-fashioned toys xxv. lift, pont roulant, tower bridge xxvi. soldering. screw steamer. toys worked by wind and by convection currents xxvii. buildings at home and abroad xxviii. a theatre introduction by r. bassett, b.a. headmistress, county secondary school, streatham i. external evidence women are often limited in their amusements and in their hobbies for lack of power or of knowledge to use the requisite implements. we may wield the needle, the brush, kitchen utensils, even the spade and the trowel, but what knowledge have we of the chisel, the plane, the saw, or even the friendly gimlet and the screw-driver? the scissors answer many purposes until the points are broken, but how helpless we are with a screw or a saw, how futile are our attempts to adjust a loose door-handle, or to set the knives of a mowing machine! it is humiliating to call for help in such simple jobs, and tantalising not to be able to enjoy the carpenter's bench as our men-folk do in their hours of leisure. a really active hobby, one entailing exercise of many muscles, otherwise resting, does help to keep a well-balanced mind and a healthy body. it saves one from fretfulness, from too great introspection; it keeps one cheerful and changes one's attitude of mind when change is needed. it is possible that the management of big things falls into men's hands because from babyhood they have dealt with larger things than women, and through handling manageable things from an early age have developed the constructive faculty more thoroughly. the little girl deals with 'wee' things: stitches are small, dolls are small; there is a fatal tendency sometimes to 'niggle,' to 'finick'--not that men-folk are immune from this--to love uniformity and tidiness for their own sakes, to seek regularity rather than utility. the little girl, however, must, unless she is too thoroughly supervised, exercise some ingenuity in planning a doll's dress out of a cutting from the rag-bag; but her amusements and hobbies tend to pin her down to small things, and she does not rise far enough from her immediate surroundings. the dress of her little doll will follow the prevailing fashion. originality in dress is eccentricity. the girl takes pains to carry out her work (neatness is often the sole aim put before her), the boy finds methods. the girl hovers round the well-known place, the boy makes a bee-line to fresh fields. see how this affects reading: the girl still hankers after _what katy did, what katy did next_, while the boy of her age is reading jules verne or ballantyne or henty, or if there is open access to shelves in the free library near him, you see him finding books on airships, submarines, carpentry, or engineering. we started our voluntary classes with these ideas in mind, and at first allowed girls to choose an indoor occupation in the two winter terms instead of outdoor games. many girls preferred games, but others chose art or first aid or cookery or handwork or needlework. they had to work at least a term at the chosen occupation. we felt that the girls gained great benefit from the hobbies, not only in the additional happiness of working at what they enjoyed, but in an increase of freshness of mind for other work. this year we have gone still farther and have given each girl one period of voluntary work in addition to a whole afternoon for games or gardening; moreover, the four lowest forms have each one period of class work in toy-making; yet even now the children say that the time is too short. it is really amusing to see a change of classes in the woodwork-room; the first class dare not and cannot stay a minute after the bell has rung, for the second class is in and already at work. i have tried to find out what is the great attraction to the child in the handwork lessons; the children's appreciation of the subject will be found in section ii. probably the strongest attractions are: firstly, they see the building up of a piece of work and the result pleases them (at all events, until they do something better); secondly, they are actively employed, learning by doing, not learning by listening; and, lastly, they love the cheerful noise of the hammer and the saw and friendly conversation. it is hard to estimate the value of handwork in education, for one cannot separate the influence of one subject in the curriculum, but one is tempted to say that it has a beneficial effect upon the child's attitude toward work in general; she looks into the why and wherefore of an object in order to see how it is made; unconsciously she adopts the same attitude toward things abstract. she learns to appreciate accuracy and to detect error, but how far she applies this to subjects other than handwork it is hard to say. it is possible, also, that handwork helps to develop the sense of justice. certainly the girl who has had a course in handwork does take a more intelligent interest in things around her, and does find out a way of 'setting about' a piece of work by herself. she has something pleasant and profitable to think about; she becomes more businesslike; in the lesson itself she resents interruption (this was the case when the photographer came for illustrations for this book); more strangely still, she plays no tricks with glue-pot or tools, although she has innumerable opportunities for mischief. the joy over the finished article is greater than the spirit of mischief. she realises how short the time is when there is work to be done, and looks out for devices for saving time, putting tools in handy places, saving pieces of wood of useful sizes to avoid sawing, and so on. there is a spirit of earnest endeavour abroad in the handwork class which prevents a girl from throwing aside in a pet something she has done badly; she does not give up in disgust; she finds out the cause of the failure and tries again and again until she gets better results. it is no unusual thing to find a girl return to a job that, five or six weeks before, she had thought finished, and do it again, because her progress with other articles has made her dissatisfied with her previous standard. this comes, not from suggestion from outside, but from the development of the child's own judgement. these are the things which show what is the real value of this training. ii. internal evidence in order to find from internal evidence the educational value of toy-making, the following questions were put to the two lowest classes (ages ten to eleven). the girls were told to write frankly what they really thought, not what they thought might satisfy the mistress. to the question, "if you like handwork, say why; if not, say why you do not," out of forty-five papers one answer only was against handwork--"because i do not like sawing." the answers in favour were of this type: "because we can make what we like." "because i like sawing and hammering." "because it is nice to see the things when they are finished." "because you can make interesting things." "because it is interesting making things out of wood like boys." "because i make useful things." the favourite tools were the hammer and saw. there was considerable difference of opinion on the question, "has it done you any good?" a fair number think it has made them careful or patient or more useful; others seem to think that the exercise in sawing has some good effect on the arms; one says her "fingers are better for music." others see in handwork a pleasant occupation for future grown-up days; another thinks it has made her "not so flabby and fat." if they admit that it has cured them of any faults (and they are not very ready to do this), the chief are laziness, clumsiness, and carelessness. to the last question, "will it be of any use to you when you are grown up?" the majority look forward to the joy of mending their little girls' toys. (not one mentions a little boy; is he expected to mend his own?) others will make things instead of buying them ready-made. some look forward to mending broken chairs or door-handles. one says: "it will teach me to earn my fortune," and finally one writes philosophically: "ordepents." (no! handwork does not cure bad spelling.) the girls of the next highest forms (ages eleven to twelve) were given the _questionnaire_ as suggestions and were asked to write an essay on handwork. from them we get the 'home' point of view, the views of the mother, father, sceptical brothers, and of the younger children, who appear to clamour for the toys. [illustration: plate ii a toy-making class at streatham] "handwork is my favourite lesson next to botany. it is a delightful pastime for myself and a great amusement for my little brother when it is finished. 'have you finished the swing yet?' is the usual question which greets me every thursday evening. when i am able to do handwork extra nicely i shall do a very nice piece of work and keep it as long as i can, and when i get old it will remind me of youth." "my brother tries to make some of the things i bring home. my sister likes the swing and uses it for her dolls." "it is a source of enjoyment to most children, but until i entered this school i had never heard of girls being taught it. i enjoy this so much that i hope to buy some tools and wood and do some work at home. my three brothers tease me terribly and call me the 'left-handed carpenter,' because i always work with my left hand. i am not satisfied with the handwork i have done at present, but hope greatly to improve. i enjoy making useful things because they make very useful presents at all times. i should like to teach handwork to others, as i think it so interesting. i have discovered that handwork needs patience and neatness in every way." "i have learnt that everything must be done properly, because i made a motor-car and gave it to my little sister, but she happened to drop it and it came unstuck. my little brother thinks it's silly for girls to learn handwork, and everything i bring home he says, 'i should not have done it like that,' and goes on to explain how he would have done it, although he has never learnt himself. i don't like the part much where you have to prepare everything to put together. i like putting it together and then you can see something for your work." some show the ethical value of the training; the need of patience seems to appeal most forcibly to children who are making their first attempts at handwork. "to make toys and other wooden things teaches us to be patient, for often just at a critical moment something will come unstuck and we have to begin all over again. the top of the roundabout which i am now making has come off three or four times, and consequently it has taken me about twice as long to make as it would if all had gone smoothly." "sometimes you have to wait for a piece of wood to stick. the other friday i was waiting for a piece to stick and after a while i went on, thinking it had got stuck; unluckily it had not and it came off. that very same piece of wood has come off every day except to-day. this shows any one that one needs time and patience. also you have to wait a while because some one has run off with the glue-pot, or else i find my file or gimlet disappeared." "when i first began handwork i could not knock a nail in straight or else i would hit my fingers. but i can now knock a nail in straight and without knocking my fingers. i can saw much more quickly than when i first began." "it teaches us a great lesson of patience. for instance, it is very trying to have to sit or stand for quite a long while holding some little refractory piece of wood that will not stick however much one tries: but it is no good getting cross, for the work will not be finished if we do not stick the little piece of wood or paper." "once mother told me i had not any idea for anything, but now she says i am much better, this being one result of handwork." "handwork, i think, has cured me of one fault and that is inaccuracy, for if the wood is not the proper length, it will not fit on to the thing which is being made. i have never done this kind of work before, but i think it does help us when we are grown up; one way is that everything must be accurate; and it is also very nice to make things." "i find that handwork helps me greatly, as i am bad at my drawing and needlework." "i love using the saws and hammers. mother is going to give me a set of fretwork tools so that i can put fancy tops to my frames, etc. if i had a little sister or brother i would make a motor or train, but as i am the only one, i make things for ornaments. next i shall make a table with the two sides to let down, or one with a separate leaf to put in. handwork teaches you to be exact and to hold things delicately. it is very awkward to hammer a nail into a thin leg of a table or chair, because they wobble over." "i think handwork is very interesting and it has taught me patience. i am not allowed to read more than half an hour after i have done my homework and practice because my eyes are weak, and as i am what some people call a bookworm i used to miss reading a great deal, but now i do handwork in my spare time. one day i hope to complete my doll's house, its garage and furniture, but i have not finished the house yet. i like making such things as chairs and tables best of all. handwork lessons were unknown to me until i came to this school nearly two terms ago, and at first mamma was always telling me that she would not let me do any more at home, until i thought of putting paper on the floor, which keeps the shavings and sawdust from untidying the floor. i always do this now, and when the paper is taken up i do not have so much trouble as that of picking the pieces off the mat and then sweeping the floor before i go to bed." "handwork also helps to make one accurate and careful; perhaps your fingers 'were all thumbs,' as the saying goes, before you started handwork, but you find that after say a month your fingers would be able to touch a frail thing without breaking it." their desire to make and remake varies between 'pleasure toys' and useful articles; one suspects sometimes a desire to appease the vexation of the 'house-proud' mother when there is much disorder caused at home with shavings and sawdust. "i can not only make toys, but useful things such as dish stands, brackets, photo frames, also easels to stand photographs on." "i like handwork. for voluntary work i do handwork, and it is also our first lesson on friday afternoon. i like it because it helps us to make useful things. for voluntary work i am making a medicine chest. it will be handy, because we always have a great deal of medicine at home. last term i made a knife-box, and it was useful, because mama's was getting old. my favourite tools at handwork are the saw and hammer. next term i want to make a writing-case and a red cross motor." "i enjoy going to handwork very much. the first thing to think about, on getting down to the handwork-room, is setting to work, and going about everything quietly. everything in handwork, to be done nicely, must be neat, clean, and carefully made and put together. in handwork i have made an easel (which is a bit difficult to fix, unless one has a proper hinge at the back) and a picture-frame and a little doll's house, and i would like to make another one, as i think it is so interesting planning out each little corner for different things, and it helps one to think of how they would plan out a home if they had one of their own, as perhaps some of us will. i am now making a tram-car, which is really very difficult. i have not nearly finished yet, as there is such a great deal of work in it." "girls' likings for tools differ, but a file is the nicest tool, in my eyes; it makes the rough places quite smooth and nice. in my experience of handwork i have made a boat with the captain's bridge and riggings, funnels, masts, and railings around the edge. i have also made a picture frame and doll's furniture for a friend's sister. at home i have made a basement for a doll gentleman's house for the servants to live in; i papered it and made it look neat and tidy." "it is rather nice to see all of the girls making things at the tables as busy as bees and it is nice to see their faces when they look at the thing which they have just finished." "the lesson i enjoy most during the week is the one termed handwork, really carpentering on a small scale. there are many things you can make, and if you take great pains with them they become really pretty little ornaments; in fact, i am thinking of having some shelves specially for my toys." "when thinking of what measurements to make your toy and planning it out in figures i think that it helps you greatly in arithmetic. the hardest tool to use, i find, is the saw; you have to have a steady hand to use it. when i first took handwork lessons i used to think it hard work, but now i think otherwise, and feel rather grand when i show my parents the things i have made. the most important use of handwork is that when you are older you can knock a nail in or mend anything that needs mending in the wooden line, instead of having to wait until father, brother, or husband comes home tired for them to do it. as well as this there might come a time when the making of toys would help to earn the daily bread." "i am making a tram-car now, and when i have finished it i want to make a whole set of furniture for a doll's house. the hardest part of it will be when i am putting legs on tables or chairs. they have to be quite straight or the table will not stand up." "sometimes we have just settled a post or a rail in the right place with the help of some glue when somebody knocks the table and over goes our piece of wood. then we have 'to grin and bear it.'" "our teacher's name is miss polkinghorne, she being very skilful and does much better work than us for we are only miniatures yet awhile!" "when i grow up handwork will be useful to me, for if anything breaks i shall know how to mend it, and if i had children i could make things to amuse them. often i do handwork at home. i like using the saw better than any other tool. i have made a good many things, but i think the best was a little toy motor-car. handwork is my favourite lesson; when i grow up i shall never leave off doing handwork. my little sister helps me sometimes. i think she will like it. my mother has asked me to make a little thing to put match-boxes in." "i think that it helps to make you very careful. for when one is hammering and the hammer slips you get hurt and that makes one careful. the hardest thing to do in a writing-case is to saw the piece of wood for the ink division. it is hard to get the exact size, but it does not look nice if it does not fit exactly." "i like handwork because it is different from any other lesson in the week; there is not much writing to do, only to mark on the wood certain lengths." "i once spent a long time in doing a ship, but i could not get on. i spent a very long time in trying to take the paper off a tobacco box, but it was not going to come. i then went on with the making, but it kept falling to pieces. i took it home, and took necessary materials with it; paper for flags and nails. i was a long time in doing it, as i took everything apart and scratched all of the paper off; but it now looks very much better. handwork is rather a funny kind of occupation for girls, but it teaches us how to do things." "handwork is one of the most interesting lessons that there is. it helps one to have ideas, and also to be careful. the reason why i like it is because i think that most people should have a pastime and this is a very pleasant one, and i think most children will agree to this point." "i have to use many kinds of tools but the nicest is the hammer, because when i use it i know i am near the end of a piece of work. (it is not that i dislike handwork, but that i am going to start something fresh.) i have already made two picture-frames, two beds, a swing, a chair, a motor-car, an easel, and i am now making another swing. i think i shall try to make a baby's cot after i have finished my swing." "i prefer to saw wood and stick pieces of wood together to hammering nails in the wood, because the nails are sometimes difficult to get in, for they very often go in crookedly. when we get older and understand handwork more thoroughly we may be able to make things for the home, such as knife-boxes and paper-racks; the things we make now are mostly pleasure toys that we will amuse our younger brothers and sisters with. in most cases it needs a great deal of patience, for the things, however simple, have some difficult part." "i like making toys, so then if you make them nicely you can take them home for your little sisters and brothers to play with. handwork gives you ideas about things. we can make very useful things such as letter-racks and pipe-racks. i like making furniture for dolls' houses--chairs, tables, and sofas. i like making swings. some of us make animals." "i do not know very much about handwork, as i have scarcely handled a tool before i came here this term, but i think i shall always enjoy it very much." "i am making a doll's house now, for my little sister (aged five), and i think it is teaching me to make myself useful, because nobody at home cares for it much, so i will soon be able to mend chairs, make brackets, etc., etc." "since we have not been able to have proper firewood at home lately, mother has had large wooden boxes to chop (a thing i delight in doing), and now and again mother has given me a few of them. i tried to make things out of them and soon found it too rough: so father has given me some nice polished wood, and he says that perhaps soon he will buy me a nice little fret-saw set of tools as his are so large and clumsy." "i think i like sawing best of all, but i think i like all the rest very well; i get quite excited when thursday and friday come round (for those are the days on which we have handwork)." "mother thinks it is a splendid thing for girls, and i quite agree with her. and we both think that it will help me on with my geometry (which i'm not very brilliant in, but am trying my best)." these compositions were written in school and the extracts have not been corrected, they are just as the children wrote them; we add no commentary, but let them speak for themselves. toy-making in school and home chapter i toy-making and its educational possibilities one's main object in teaching children how to make toys should be "to teach them how to make toys." through their efforts to make a beautiful toy they may become more patient, more accurate, more observant, and more nimble with their fingers, but these virtues will come more naturally and readily if the teacher has but one object in view; singleness of purpose is the secret of success. through classes in toy-making rightly conducted the children become more resourceful, more quick at finding the right thing for the right place, happier in some cases--that is to say, the so-called dull child, the child that has no gift for mathematics, no memory for languages, can often find in the handwork class the happiness of doing something well, of producing a praiseworthy and pleasure-giving piece of work. it is very necessary to find occupation for backward children, who sometimes drift rather aimlessly through the school, occupation that will develop initiative and involve effort, occupation that will bring disappointments (so often one careless bit of work spoils an almost finished toy), but will also bring the joy of successful achievement. the ordinary lessons--english, french, etc.--may be said also to bring their disappointments and joys, but not in the same tangible way as the handwork lesson. the table that will not stand steadily because all its legs have not been carefully cut the right length teaches to a certain type of mind a more forcible lesson than the incorrect sum or french exercise. again, it is very necessary that one lesson period a week should be devoted to an occupation which is of the nature of a hobby; the ordinary history and geography lessons do not often suggest voluntary work for the children's leisure. indeed, in many cases it is easier to train children to become future clerks and teachers than to train them how to use their leisure. now handwork classes suggest leisure occupations. the children who begin to make their own toys in the lower forms for themselves, when older will want to make them for other little children, when older, too, they will begin to ask how to make useful articles--writing-cases, medicine-chests, knife-boxes, soap-boxes--articles very frequently suggested by their parents and much valued by them when made. one need scarcely fear for the future of the child, however dull and mechanical her daily work as a grown-up person may be, if she has abundant interests in life--if she can use and love to use in leisure moments hammer, saw, and file, or if she has some other healthy hobby. still, for those who like the pleasant noise and pleasant mess caused by tools, it is hard to find a happier occupation than toy-making. a toy-maker becomes at once a collector of useful odds and ends, and a collector (that is, one who collects willingly the things he likes) is always a happy person; the toy-maker becomes, too, the contriver, one who can adapt materials to different purposes, and the giver--for the finished article must be disposed of. the mere acquisition of knowledge forms the least important part of school work. a large number of facts in connexion with history, geography, french, etc., have rightly to be learnt by heart and are useful to the child in after life, but they do not bring with them necessarily wisdom, nor does the learning of them play such an important part in the child's development as the activity of the child in the handwork class does. some one has wisely said, "if education at school means nothing more to the children than a respectable routine and a few examinations successfully circumvented, then education is a failure; if _besides that_, it has enlivened the years and counted for something in the general joy of growing, then it has a real value--a value which entitles it to a place among happy memories, perhaps even the highest place of all." many of us perhaps feel in looking back on our schooldays how many good things we lost for the sake of learning some now forgotten facts; how many good things we lost to be first in class; we confused means with ends, we toiled over our history and learnt it to get full marks in the coming test (we should have toiled over our toy for love of making it and to produce as perfect a one as possible); in after life we would gladly tread some of the by-paths of knowledge, have some hobby, but our rigorous system of training left us no opportunity in young days, and sapped the energy that alone would make it possible in after years. no scheme of work then for schooldays must be so rigorous that it leaves no leisure for 'feast days.' some days, some hours must come back to memory, bringing not only their past happiness, but ideas for present occupation. the happiest days of youth are generally the busiest, days when one had something one really wanted to be busy about for its own sake, not for the sake of marks or for the sake of outstripping one's fellow-pupils, or for the sake of one's future. these busy, happy, idle days are the feast days of youth, days one thinks of as the poet thought when he wrote: and none will know the gleam there used to be about the feast days freshly kept by me, but men will call the golden hour of bliss 'about this time,' or 'shortly after this.' this book on toy-making is not written to advocate the so-called 'primrose path in education,' the 'turn-work-into-play theory,' though undoubtedly the first chapters at least of this book will be attacked by those who fear that education is yielding or is going to yield to a popular clamour for ease. for these people, too, masefield has a message: best trust the happy moments. what they gave makes man less fearful of the certain grave, and gives his work compassion and new eyes; the days that make us happy make us wise. moreover, every teacher of handwork knows how little ease the busy children in her classes get--in these classes they are never passive listeners or passive learners by heart. they see the need of accuracy, the labour necessary to produce it, they suffer for every mistake they make, they realise some of the joy and pain of creating, and, best of all perhaps, they realise the joy of work--active, muscular work as distinguished from their ordinary scholarly work. with regard to the question of work it has been ably said that "no one has yet preached in an adequate way the gospel of work--real hard work--as the most amusing of all occupations--not a noble duty." it is somewhat unfortunate that directly one begins to like one's work one is accused of playing. to return to toy-making (which is work or play, according to whether one dislikes or likes it)--whether toy-making be taken in the school or not, the teachers will find it a useful hobby. through it they can amuse themselves and renew their youth; through it they will have an enduring bond of union with their children. our knowledge of history and geography often fails to impress our children; they probably think we are a little foolish to burden our heads with so many facts that seem to have no bearing on to-day; but when we can use our hands and make a toy they see us with other eyes, we are really clever people worth cultivating. if toy-making be taken as a form of handwork in school, one enlists at once the interest of the parent--especially of the father--the mother sometimes, not often, objects to the mess. this interest of the parents is a great gain; the father delights in doing a bit of the work--sticking on the difficult funnel, sawing the hard piece of wood; child learns from parent, and parent from child, and in this way the father may again remember half-forgotten ambitions, half-neglected talents, and find in toy-making a profitable occupation, profitable mainly in the fact that any occupation which recalls to the grown-up person his youth, with its fresher outlook on life, must be wholesome. finally, if the handwork classes make the children more 'at home' with themselves and with life, they will have done something; if they help them toward self-realisation they will help them toward the joy the writer speaks of who says, "joy of life seems to me to arise from a sense of being where one belongs, as i feel right here; of being four-square with the life we have chosen. all the discontented people i know are trying sedulously to be something they are not, to do something they cannot do.... it is curious, is it not, with what skill we will adapt our sandy land to potatoes and grow our beans with clay, and with how little wisdom we farm the soil of our own natures?" chapter ii general principles; materials in toy-making in schools it is very necessary to design toys that can be made from materials which are easily obtained. the board of education in a report on handwork in the london elementary schools says: "the range of materials used is limited, as a rule, to paper, cardboard, clay, and 'prepared wood' or 'stripwood.' it is perhaps unfortunate that these are almost entirely 'school materials,' in other words materials which are not likely to be much used outside the school, either in the child's home or in after life." there is truth in this--to give the child too much 'prepared material' tends to make him less inventive, resourceful, and painstaking, and prevents him from continuing his work at home, where he has not got prepared material. any series of toys made from the same material--say a series of toys made from match stales or from 'stripwood'--has very limited educational advantages. toys made from a combination of waste materials are the best--match-boxes, cardboard and wooden boxes of all sizes, mantle-boxes, reels, corks, broom-handles, silver paper, etc., can all play a part in producing an effective, even a beautiful toy. most of the toys described in this book are made from so-called 'waste materials.' with regard to infant school work, squares of white paper--cartridge paper or ordinary exercise paper--which the children can colour themselves are better than a too slavish use of the coloured gummed squares supplied to schools. further directions with regard to materials will be given in connexion with the various toys. it is advisable to use as few tools as possible, both because the fewer tools the less expense and because the fewer tools the more thought and ingenuity required. to have a perfect instrument at hand for every need paralyses work, thought, and happiness. most of the toys in this book are made--if for little ones, with scissors, if for older ones, with hammer, saw, and file. a graduated course is necessary. generally speaking, the little ones from five to seven make their toys of paper, clay, plasticine, and raffia. children from seven to ten can make simple wooden toys. wooden toys are the best; many things can be done with wood, impossible with cardboard or paper, and they are so lasting. cardboard modelling is always difficult, and as a rule should not be attempted by children younger than nine. except that they provide practice in accurate measurement, toys made of paper and cardboard by children of nine or older are disappointing, they crush so quickly. quite strong toys can, however, be made from a combination of wood, cardboard, and paper. if really strong paper toys are required (for example, the various articles of doll's furniture, the table and chair, etc., are more valuable if strongly made), an excellent medium can be made by pasting (using ordinary flour paste) two or three sheets of paper together and allowing them to dry thoroughly under pressure. both or all three sheets must be pasted over before they are brought together to avoid subsequent curling. this will, however, prove too stiff a medium for children younger than five. =skewers= will be found very useful in toy-making. any ordinary metal skewer is useful for boring holes in cardboard and corks, while the short meat skewers, three inches long (cost twopence per dozen), are an excellent substitute for bradawls when the children are making the early light woodwork models; later on in woodwork a fine workman's bradawl is required, or a drill. wooden skewers are useful for axles of all kinds. another useful boring tool (for making holes in paper, corks, or cardboard) is the metal pin stopper supplied with tubes of seccotine. this bores a hole in cardboard or paper that is the right size for a match. when boring holes in cardboard the children will find a cotton reel useful to bore upon; their meat skewer or seccotine pin stopper can then pass through the cardboard into the hole in the reel. =methods of joining cardboard and paper edges.= ( ) leaving a flange. in fig. the shaded portions represent flanges--flange a is for joining side of house b to c, flanges d, e, f, g are for holding the roof; they must, of course, be bent at right angles to the sides b and h. (note flange in socket of candlestick, fig. , chapter iv, and in pigeon-house, chapter x.) [illustration: fig. ] if fig. is made of cardboard, flange a must have the surface of the cardboard pared away, otherwise the joining will be clumsy. the dotted lines represent bends only in the case of paper, but half cuts in the case of cardboard. [illustration: fig. ] with regard to the size of the flange, this will depend upon the strength of the adhesive used and the stiffness of the material. generally speaking, the larger the flange the better, for a narrow flange tends to turn up and must be held down longer than a wide one. a good general rule to remember when joining two pieces of material is this--that it is always the thinner of the two that is to be pasted or glued. this must be borne in mind when using the second method of joining cardboard or paper edges. [illustration: fig. _a_] [illustration: fig. _b_] ( ) using paper hinges. the hinge should extend the whole length of the edges that come together, as in fig. , where pieces of cardboard a and b are joined by the hinge _a b c d e f_. before pasting the hinge must be folded along _b e_, care being taken that _b e_ is at right angles to _a c_ and _d f_. the sides, bottom, and roof of the noah's ark are joined together by paper hinges (chapter x). ( ) wherever it is necessary to join curved edges, the flange must be cut as in fig. _a_, flange _a b c d_. fig. _b_ shows paper curved and flanges bent down ready for pasting. this is the method used for fastening on paper funnels, the bottom of the paper mug (fig. , chapter iv), etc. =the making and fixing of wheels.= if it is desired to attach movable wheels to any of the toys described in the following chapters (in the early chapters for greater simplicity the wheels are gummed to sides of carts, or to matches, etc.), the following methods are suggested. ( ) the wheels can be rigidly fixed to the axle--that is, a match end is pushed tight into the cardboard wheel and the axle is free to turn in loose bearings, as in fig. , fixed under the cart or other vehicle or to the sides. these bearings can be cut from cardboard or cartridge paper. in fig. the paper is bent at a right angle along the dotted line, and the rectangular portion is gummed under the cart. if the rectangular portion is gummed to the side of the cart no bend is needed. the parts of the match sticks that pass through the holes must be rounded with sand-paper so that they will turn easily in the holes. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) the axle can be glued to the bottom of the cart and the wheels left free to revolve. the wheels are kept in their places by the following plan. cut some small cardboard washers, seccotine one near each end of the axle as in fig. _a_, taking care that they do not come under the cart. slip on the wheels, taking care that the centre hole is punched large enough to allow the wheel to revolve freely. this will be the case if a steel meat skewer (size about inches long) has been used to make the holes. fix washers outside the wheels to keep them on, as in fig. _b_. these washers keep the wheels from sagging. these wheels will revolve if the match stick has been rounded with sand-paper. [illustration: fig. _a_] [illustration: fig. _b_] with regard to the arrangement of the toys in this book, roughly they are described in order of difficulty, but for convenience sometimes this order has been departed from. for example, match-box toys have been grouped together, cork animals, etc. the teacher must select her own models from different parts of the book and use them in accordance with her children's ability and her own taste. another important principle to follow is this. the teacher should give as few directions as possible, be as silent as it is possible for a teacher to be. the child has an excellent opportunity in these classes of learning from his own mistakes. this opportunity must not be taken from him; he must be given the chance of finding out his own mistakes. moreover, every difficulty should not be anticipated for the child; nor should too many warnings be given. let the children set to work as soon as possible and use their tools without too many instructions about them. let them ask, let them have the pleasure of discovering; every child wants to learn, but not every child wants to be taught. all models should be made as large as is reasonably possible; this should be insisted on from the beginning. lastly, great accuracy (though much to be desired) must not be expected from the child; careful work must be insisted on, but one must learn to recognise the careful work of a child (which is so different from that of the grown-up person) and not heedlessly blame him or her for not reaching perfection. accuracy is so often the outcome of 'lack of vision.' the child so often has that 'vision,' that imaginative outlook on life that floods the mind with ideas, but lacks accurate power of expression, while the grown-up person has the accurate power of expression, but has lost the fresh imagination of youth and all its ideals. we must see to it that we do not dim our children's vision. chapter iii paper work for infants =materials.= white paper of any kind that is not too thick and bends easily, _e.g._ cartridge paper, plain white foolscap, pages from exercise books. pieces of coloured paper are introduced into some of the toys. it is better, however, to encourage the children to colour the white paper with chalks. one must remember, however, children's delight in coloured paper and let them have it sometimes. a wall-paper sample book will provide coloured paper, and gummed coloured squares are supplied to most schools. these gummed squares are really too thin for effective toy-making, and there is the temptation to the child to lick them when making models from them. =adhesives.= in many cases the toys can be fastened together by means of paper-fasteners. where this is not possible the following adhesives are recommended. ( ) gloy--this is clean and fastens the paper fairly securely. ( ) higgins' vegetable glue. this has one great advantage over gloy: it cannot be spilt. a little of it can be put on a piece of paper for each child; this is a great convenience in a large class. ( ) home-made paste of flour and water; this is very clean and wholesome. paper toys from the square the following toys should be made as _large_ as possible, never from a square of less than inches each side. the larger the toy the thicker the paper that can be used and the stronger it is. in the following diagrams, lines to be cut are drawn, lines to be folded are dotted, parts to be cut off are shaded. as soon as possible the child should be shown how to make a large brown paper envelope to keep his work in. model . =the rabbit hutch.= fold paper into squares as in fig. . cut lines indicated. draw bars in square a, or fold along t s (fig. ) and cut out the bars; the door is drawn and cut in square =b=. colour the whole yellow or brown to represent wood. gum l over m; n over m; o over n. the same on the other side. a small paper-fastener makes a good handle. rabbits and carrots can be cut out of paper to furnish the hutch (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] from a similar square folded into sixteen squares a =railway carriage= can be made. in this case the door is cut in the middle of c d (fig. ). windows and panels are drawn on the paper. a roll of paper is put on top for the light, or a small piece of cork can be used. the wheels are drawn by means of halfpennies, then folded in half; one half is pasted under the carriage, the other appears as in fig. . three or four carriages can be made and fastened by strips of paper. [illustration: fig. ] children delight in chalking the blinds of their carriages in various colours and labelling them st, nd, or rd class. the top of the carriage should be darkened with pencil or chalk, or a piece of black paper pasted over it. [illustration: fig. ] =a luggage van or cattle truck= (fig. ) can be made from a square of the same size by cutting off oblong e f (fig. ) and gumming l over n and m over l. the =basket= (fig. ) is a simple model. one quarter of the square is cut off to form a handle. cut remaining portion as in fig. , double over corners _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, paste corner _d_ over d, _c_ over c, _b_ over b, _a_ over a. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the basket should be coloured with yellow chalk to represent straw; the handle is fastened on with paper-fasteners. [illustration: fig. ] paper fruit, apples and oranges, can be cut out to go in the basket. =a wardrobe.= fold square into sixteen parts and cut as in fig. . gum a over c and b over a. repeat with d e f. gum a piece of silver paper on the door for a mirror; square h, with its corners cut off, forms ornament on top (fig. ). a match is gummed inside, on which clothes are hung. the children can either draw these and cut them out, or cut them out from old fashion plates. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an oak chest.= make exactly as for wardrobe, but stand on the long side. draw panels and colour light brown (fig. ). by cutting off the lid and making a handle from it a basket can be made. the children themselves may be able to suggest some of these articles and should be encouraged to. =a sedan chair= can be made in the same way as the wardrobe (see fig. ). loops of paper are gummed on at a and b (fig. ), through which the shafts pass; a window can be cut by folding the door c d g h in half along k l. a piece of coloured paper can be gummed inside the window for a blind; some sort of ornament can be gummed at the top along c d and e f. panels, etc., can be drawn. [illustration: fig. ] =a market basket= (fig. ). fold square as for wardrobe (fig. ), cut off the quarter k l m h. gum a to b and c to a--the same with d e f. to make lids, halve the quarter k l m h. gum k to a (outside) and l forms one lid; gum h to d and m forms the other lid. paper-fasteners may be put in each lid for handles. the handle of basket must be made from another strip of paper. the basket should be suitably coloured before being gummed together. [illustration: fig. ] =a cradle= (fig. ). begin with a square (each side four times the diameter of a penny). fold and gum together as for basket. cut two round discs of stiff paper the size of a penny. fold these in half. gum one half of each disc on to bottom of cradle; the other half forms the rocker. these halves must be made less round by being cut as in fig. , so that the cradle will rock. by means of the penny portions a and b can be cut to form top and bottom of cradle, a strip of paper c d e can be gummed across one end (round a) to form a hood (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a settee.= fold a square as for wardrobe (fig. ), cut off one quarter, k l m h. gum a to b, d to e for arms. cut arms as in fig. . for back legs of settee use portion k l m h; gum k to f and h to c (fig. ). to strengthen the settee gum a piece of paper over n o and m l. coloured paper can be pasted on back, sides and seat as shown in drawing. the legs may either be cut out or simply drawn on the paper as in illustration (fig. ). the settee will prove a really strong piece of doll's furniture. the children should be allowed to furnish a doll's house with the various articles described in this book. when they have had some practice in making them each child can be allowed to make one piece of furniture for a school doll's house. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =table.= top of table is a square of white cartridge paper. make the legs from a double square, each square the same size as top of table. fold and cut the double square as in fig. . bend flaps a b c d carefully along _a b_. gum a to b, c to b, d to a to form legs. gum square top on to a b c d. a square of coloured paper can be gummed on to top of table as in drawing (fig. ). leg e can be gummed to f by means of a paper hinge, or a flange may be provided, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make a =chair= to go with the table. take a double square the same size as that used for legs of table. fold into eight as in fig. . cut in half along _a b_. squares a, b, c form front legs, seat and back of chair respectively. square f is gummed to b, so that e forms back legs. the chair must be strengthened by gumming h to c and g to e. coloured squares can be gummed to seat and back; the rest of the chair can be chalked to represent wood (fig. ). a dining-room suite may be made in this way. =side-board.= begin with two equal squares. cut and fasten one square together as for rabbit hutch (fig. ), but cut two doors. one quarter of the second square must be cut and gummed on to back to form a mirrored top (fig. ). a piece of silver paper may be gummed on to back for a mirror. from the rest of the second square plates and dishes can be cut and coloured to go on top and inside sideboard. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an arm-chair.= begin with square folded into sixteen parts (fig. ), cut off one quarter d h n s, again cut off one quarter o p r. cut remaining square as in diagram. gum e to a and g to c. cut these squares to form arms. gum o to k and r to m to form back legs and sides. to strengthen chair cut off n from d h. gum h to p and d to b. the corners of b are rounded. coloured paper can be pasted over the arms and in the middle of back, seat and sides (fig. ). legs can be chalked on p, l, k and m, or cut out as shown in the figure. if preferred the arms are not folded over but cut round. this arm-chair is a strong one and will hold a heavy doll. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bed.= fold a double square as in fig. . cut portions indicated. gum a b c d to e f g h, the same the other side. bend up m and n to form head and foot of bed. these can be cut any shape, or simply be coloured to represent beams. legs can be drawn on or cut out of sides f h k l and b o d p (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a coal scuttle.= begin with a -inch square, fold into sixteen parts, cut off a quarter, cut off a quarter again; cut remaining portion as in fig. . gum a over b, c over b. for the stand take the smallest quarter (fig. ), fold and cut as in diagram. gum a to bottom of coal scuttle, b and c form the supports; a handle can be cut and gummed on as in fig. . the children can cut a shovel out of paper to slip in a little paper band at the back (fig. ). the coal scuttle should be coloured black, with yellow to represent brass. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a drawing-room cabinet.= fold and cut square as in fig. . gum b over a, c over d. bend e and k down and cut corners off to form shelves as in fig. . g h can be cut round, or in any way to make suitable top for cabinet. silver paper can be pasted on where desired for mirrors, doors cut or drawn, etc. from fig. the children will be able to make a number of simple and effective articles of doll's furniture--namely, doll's dresser, oak settee for hall, dressing-table, wash-stand, writing-case. these the children must be allowed to suggest and think out themselves. [illustration: fig. ] =a shop or stall.= this will hold together without the use of gum. fold and cut as in fig. . fold together so that square e n g m covers square g m k t; the same the other side. bend back c s g q along s q to form side (fig. ); the same the other side. fold b f d h along f h for roof, fold b v d w down as in fig. ; this portion should have name of shop written on it. fold a b f c along r s, so that a c coincides with b f. fold down r b x v so that top of c s g q lies between r b x v and a r x z; the same the other side; this folding keeps the shop together. gum can be used if greater strength is desired. from paper the children can cut materials to furnish their stall. from a similar square a piano can be made as in fig. . a piece of paper must be gummed to v b w d to close up the hollow; the sides s c g q must not be bent back but cut as in fig. to represent the sides of a piano. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =some simple tents.= a good imitation of an "a" tent can be made by little ones from a square. several of these make an excellent encampment for toy soldiers. fold and cut square as in fig. . to fasten it together paste square to square ; this forms the back of the tent; edges p o, k l, etc., rest along the ground. corners l and m must be bent back to form the entrance. pieces of cotton are fastened along f m and f l for straps for lacing up the entrance (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows a drawing of a real "a" tent spread out flat upon the ground. it is made of strips of canvas, , , , , , , , , , , , sewn together. children can imitate this in paper. [illustration: fig. ] =a triangular tent.= this is very simple. fold and cut as in fig. . paste a e b over e b d. cut door at f. chapter iv more paper toys [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bridge= (fig. ). begin with square ( inches each side), fold in four and cut off one piece. fold again in four, folds running in opposite directions to first folds, and cut off one piece. a square, a b c d, remains, divided into nine squares (fig. ). fold a g and f c in halves, cut off shaded portions. join l e, f n, m gand h o, and cut off shaded portions. cut along l r, n s, m p and o q; bend as in fig. . matches can be gummed on the slopes of the bridge. if a piece of white cardboard or paper is placed underneath a river can be marked on it and paper boats made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the children can make a very pretty scene from this. trees can be coloured and cut out of paper and gummed upright by means of a little flap of paper left at the end of the trunk of the tree. the house can be cut out of a piece of folded paper (fig. ) so that it will stand; animals can be cut in a similar way (fig. ). boats are made of plasticine, with paper sails stuck in it. children can add other animals and think of other additions to the scene. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a punt= (fig. ). begin with a square, fold into sixteen parts, cut off a quarter. fold in half oblongs a b and c d (fig. ). cut off the shaded portions. cut along the lines m e, c n, o b, p g. fold along m k, f n, o l and p h. the child will accomplish this fold more easily if she puts her ruler along a line from k to m and folds the paper over it. a coloured band should be chalked round the punt. to fasten it together gum k e m to m e c n, c n f to m e c n and so on the other side. three seats are fastened inside, made from the quarter cut off the original square. the length of the seat is equal to the distance e c; the height of the seat to half of the distance k e (fig. ). the punt should be made from a square of cartridge paper, eleven inches each side. it will be found to float well on water. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a candlestick= (fig. ). begin with two squares of coloured paper (sides inches); one forms the bottom of the candlestick; half the other forms the socket. to make the socket fold and cut as in fig. . the other half divided lengthways forms the handle. the handle and socket can be fastened on with paper-fasteners or gummed. it looks neater when gummed. a roll of yellow paper or white paper coloured forms the candle; into this roll some cotton-wool is put and into this a piece of red paper for the flame. children delight in making candlesticks of different colours and decorating their form rooms with them. the candlestick can be strengthened by being gummed on to a piece of cardboard (a post-card will do). a round candlestick can be made in a similar way. to make the socket, fold the oblong (fig. ) into four parts, leaving a piece, e, over; gum e to a. =a lantern.= begin with an oblong inches by - / inches, a b c d (fig. ). fold along e t k and g h to get flanges. fold c a b d into half to obtain the line l m, and fold a l m b into four parts to obtain the line l´ m´. fold a h c g into four parts along q p, o n and s r. draw the top of the lantern in a h l´ m´, as in fig. , and cut off the shaded portion. draw or cut windows in the sides of the lantern. cut the flange _abc_ as in the diagram. make the candle and the candlestick to fit into the lantern as in fig. . (note the length of the edge of the candlestick is the width of the lantern e t.) bend the flanges _a_, _b_, _c_ at right angles to the sides and gum the candlestick to these. flange _d_ can be gummed to the edge l´ e, and a door cut in one of the sides, or flange _d_ can be cut off and then side _l_ forms the door. make holes in the tops of the lantern and tie together with thread, as in fig. , or the flanges can be left round the triangular tops and they can be gummed together. fig. shows the finished model. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =colouring the lantern.= the lantern can be made of black paper (lines must be drawn on the white side), or white paper chalked, or painted black or yellow, etc., according to taste. [illustration: fig. ] =a well and bucket.= the well is made from an oblong about - / inches by inches. fold down one side of the oblong, about / inch; make cuts along this fold as in fig. . when the paper is bent round to form the well, these cut pieces form the edge of the well (fig. ). a b is a piece of cardboard or stiff paper bent, as shown in the diagram, and gummed to the sides of the well. two holes must first be made in a and b. then through these holes a piece of cane c is passed. d and e are pieces of cardboard of equal size; holes are made in each end and the strips are glued to each end of the piece of cane. into the other holes are glued two smaller pieces of cane or two matches, f and g, for handles. the well should be coloured red before being fastened together. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the bucket (fig. ) is made from a small oblong. fold and cut off the shaded parts as in fig. . when the bucket is fastened together stand on a piece of paper and draw round it to get the measurement for a circular disc for the bottom. cut this out and gum it to the bent edges , , , . a handle can be made of string or paper. [illustration: fig. ] =a mug= (fig. ). this is made like the bucket. the handle is made of a strip of paper fastened to the mug by paper-clips. a band of coloured paper is gummed round the mug; the handle can be made of the same coloured paper as the band. [illustration: fig. ] =motor-car.= begin with a square ( -inch side). halve it. fold each half into thirty-two parts. cut one half as in diagram . gum a to b and d to c, e to f and h to h. this forms the body of the car. the doors must be cut in squares k, m, l, n. from the second half (folded into thirty-two) pieces can be cut to cover exactly the front of the car, and to form seats o and r and backs and sides, s t. see fig. . the wheels are drawn on stiff paper or cardboard by means of halfpennies, cut out and gummed on to the sides. the children of six who made this car enjoyed adding, according to their own ideas, steps, steering-wheel, and other details. the car looks more attractive if coloured and if the seats are covered with red paper. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] from a similar square ( -inch side), divided into two (each half divided into thirty-two parts), a =book-case= can be made (see fig. ). one half gummed together as for the motor forms the case; the other half forms the shelves and the ornament on top. a door can easily be added, or two doors, one on each side. [illustration: fig. ] =a wigwam.= begin with half a square (fig. ). fold into thirty-two parts. draw a curved line from a through b and c to d, and from a through e and f to g. cut along these lines. join k with h by a curved line and h with l. cut along this line. gum l n to k m. fold back the corners g and d for the door. strips of paper can be cut out and gummed inside the wigwam for poles. designs can be drawn on wigwam as in fig. . marks from k to k show where it is laced up. the wigwam should be coloured brown, the circles on it red and white or yellow. this model will be found useful when illustrating scenes from _hiawatha_. other simple models to go with this are--a bow, arrows, quiver, canoe. the bow can be made from a piece of cane, the arrows cut out of paper. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a quiver.= fold square into sixteen parts (fig. ). join a to c, c to d, d to b by curved line; cut along it. join e with g and bend along it; g with f and bend along it. gum b h g to a k g. fasten a piece of string as in the drawing (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] for =canoe= begin with an oblong - / inches long (fig. ); width, twice the diameter of a penny. fold in half along g h. make half circles a b c and f e d, at each end, by means of penny. cut around a b c and d e f. fold in half along b e. join a by means of curved line with b e, and f with b e. cut along a h k f. gum the canoe together at a b c and f e d. cut out three seats to go in the middle; make drawings on the canoe. paddles must be cut to go with canoe (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] an =indian cradle= can be made in the same way as the quiver, but with the point g cut off as in fig. , and markings put on the front to look as though the cradle were laced up. string is attached for hanging the cradle to the mother's back or to a tree. canoe, quiver and cradle look effective cut out of brown paper and chalked with yellow or red chalks. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a clock tower= (fig. ). begin with an oblong inches by inches. fold in eight parts, and cut off three. fold the remaining portion a b c d in half along e f; fold a f in half along g h. fold along as in fig. . draw clock faces in squares , , and , a pattern of some kind in triangles and , and mark bricks on the sides , , , ; side is gummed over , which, therefore, is not seen (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =to fasten tower together.= fold the sides and at right angles to ; bend j forward and gum to it both k and l (fig. ), and cut off the part of j that projects beyond k and l. now gum the side to , bend o toward j; gum n to o and m to o and cut off the portion of o that projects beyond m and n. a piece of paper, painted to represent slates, can be gummed over the roof, so that it projects slightly, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] a simpler way of fastening the tower together is to gum o to j, m l and n k standing upright as in fig. . =a windmill= can be made in the same way. the sails are made as described in the match-box windmill (fig. ). =a lighthouse= (fig. ). take an oblong piece of paper, about - / inches by inches. fold down each shorter edge for / inch and cut the flanges as described in the case of the bucket (fig. ). bend the flanges inward, curve the paper round and gum together to form the body of the lighthouse. cut two squares of paper, one smaller than the other, gum the smaller one a to the flanges at the top of the cylinder; colour b blue and gum it to the flanges at the bottom. make a small lantern, as in fig. , to fit the top of the lighthouse. in this case it is better to gum the triangular tops of the lantern together. the door, windows and staircase should be drawn and the lighthouse coloured grey before fastening the cylinder together. chapter v match-box toys many simple and effective toys can be made from match-boxes. the great advantage of these toys is that the children can readily supply the materials themselves. in every case the toys explained here have been made by young children, whose ages vary from four to seven. the materials used are match-boxes, matches, paper of different kinds, white, brown, coloured, and cardboard, while in some toys corks and silver paper have been introduced. for sticking paper on to the boxes, gloy or vegetable glue is suitable, but when matches have to be fastened into or on to the boxes it is best to use liquid glue or seccotine. some of the toys can be made more effective by colouring them with crayons. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a canoe.= to make the canoe (fig. ) the inside portion of the match-box is gummed to a piece of stiff paper or cardboard pointed at each end. strips of paper gummed to the sides of the box form the seats. the paddle (fig. ) is made of a match, to the ends of which paper discs are gummed. to get these circles the children can use farthings and draw round them. the paddle and the seats can be coloured with brown crayons. [illustration: fig. ] =a kayak.= for the kayak (fig. ) a piece of paper is measured to fit over the box; it is doubled in half and a small hole cut in it, then gummed to the sides of the box. =a motor-car= (fig. ). the car consists of a match-box without the cover. the seats are of white paper. the following them measure and cut a piece of paper, a b c d, that will just cover the box from side to side, making bends _a c_ and _b d_ where the edges of the box come. fold paper into four as in fig. . cut along _e f_, and cut off the shaded portions and fold as in fig. . gum the parts g and m to the side of the box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] wheels for all match-box toys are made from stiff paper or cardboard, the circle being drawn from a farthing, or, where larger wheels are necessary, from a halfpenny. the spokes are drawn on the wheels. these can either be gummed to the sides of the match-box, or, if holes are made in the wheels, they can be fastened to each end of a match, which is then glued to the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a house or barn.= from the covers that are left, after making the canoe and the motor-car, a house or barn can be made (fig. ). one cover is cut open and the top bent back as in fig. . a portion of the second cover is cut off (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] side a is then gummed to b, and c d is fastened to e f by means of a piece of folded paper covering the whole of the roof. this paper is double the size of c d h g (fig. ), is coloured grey or blue to represent slates, and folded along the middle. [illustration: fig. ] =a sentry-box.= this is an easy toy to make. the children will notice that one end of a match-box is double--that is, one piece of wood overlaps the other. if they unfasten these and bend them out they form the roof of the sentry box (fig. ). a piece of paper can be pasted behind to fill up the hollow. the toy looks more effective if covered entirely with brown paper. a soldier can be cut out of paper, coloured and gummed to the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. ] =a castle.= a castle can be made from the cover. a piece of paper is cut to fit round it, doors and windows are marked on it with pencil or crayon, and one edge is cut to represent battlements (fig. ). the flagstaff is a match glued inside. a larger castle can be made by fastening two or more covers together. =a jack-in-the-box.= these toys are so simple that the diagrams almost explain themselves. in the case of the jack-in-the-box the children like to decorate the half-opened match-box with coloured paper. the little figure is made of bits of wool, a piece of cotton is tied round the neck and put through a hole in the top, a match is tied to the cotton to prevent it slipping back; another piece of cotton tied to the waist of the doll pulls it down (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a belfry.= in the belfry the back of the box at a has been cut out, the bell is made of paper or cardboard, covered with silver paper (fig. ). a match stick is passed through a hole in the bell, and gummed to each side of the box. another match is gummed to the bell, and a piece of cotton attached for ringing. [illustration: fig. ] =a van= (fig. ). the van is made from the inside of a match-box; the cover is of brown paper gummed inside the sides of the box. the seat is also of brown paper, while one end is bent back for the flap of the waggon. the shafts are made of matches. [illustration: fig. ] =a milk-cart= (fig. ). the can is a cork covered with silver paper, which is used to cover chocolates, etc. the paper can be screwed into a little knob at the top. in fig. the wheels are the same size. two are fastened to a match for the axle, which is then glued underneath the box; the third wheel is glued between two matches, which are fastened underneath the box. in fig. the side wheels are larger and a cardboard set of shafts is made for the small front wheel. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the shape of these shafts. the shaded portion is bent at right angles to the shaft and glued under the box. the small wheel can be gummed between these shafts, or, if the shafts are fastened on with a space between them, and holes made in each end, a piece of match stick, on which the small wheel is mounted, can be passed through the holes. a match is glued across the back of the box (fig. ) to form the bar by means of which the cart is pushed along. [illustration: fig. ] =a field gun.= fig. shows how the match-box is cut. the gun is made from a roll of brown paper. a piece or inches square is large enough. yellow bands can be chalked round the cannon. the wheels are made of circular discs, the size of a penny. shots can be made from silver paper, or from plasticine. [illustration: fig. ] =a field gun and limber.= the gun in fig. is mounted somewhat differently. a is one-third of a match-box cover, with one narrow side cut away, covered with dark grey paper; two holes are made in it opposite each other; the gun has a match or piece of cane passed through it, and the ends of the match or cane pass through the holes in a. b is a piece of cardboard or stiff paper shaped as in diagram: the shaded portion is gummed underneath a. [illustration: fig. ] =the limber= (fig. ). this is made from a match-box (c), covered with dark grey paper and fitted with a cardboard cover e, similarly coloured. match sticks, coloured black, form the shots. the handle consists of two match sticks, or two strips of cardboard, glued together. the wheels must be the same size as those for the gun. [illustration: fig. ] =a porter's truck.= this is made from a box of which three sides have been cut away (fig. ). it can be covered with brown paper, and matches can be glued across it. the handles are of matches, the legs of stiff paper fastened to the bottom. the children can make little paper parcels and boxes to put on the truck. [illustration: fig. ] =a sweep's barrow.= the figure ( ) shows how the match-box is used. a bundle of matches tied together represents part of the sweep's outfit. the broom is made from a roll of paper, the ends of which have been cut into a fringe. the broom and matches can be darkened with crayons or ink. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a windmill= (fig. ). prepare the inside of a match-box as described in the case of the sentry-box, and place it inside its cover, securing it with a little gum. paste a piece of paper in front to hide the hollow. the sails of the windmill are made of brown paper, cut as in fig. , and gummed to strips of cardboard which form the framework of the sails. the whole can then be fastened to the box by a paper-clip. [illustration: fig. ] =to make the sails turn.= bore two holes through the windmill; round a match stick by rubbing it with sand-paper; glue the sails to one end of it, pass it through the holes and glue a circle of cardboard to the other end to prevent it slipping back. fig. shows a more complicated but very effective way of making the sails. the paper is cut along the dark lines and bent back along the dotted lines. [illustration: fig. ] =a tram-car= (fig. ). for this toy two insides of match-boxes are needed. the children could cut and gum to one box a piece of cardboard a b. then into this box are gummed six matches of the same length. while these are drying the wheels can be made and the top prepared. the top is a box turned over with a piece of paper gummed round the edge. the paper should be coloured yellow. the projecting paper forms the rail round the top of the car. when the matches are quite firm the inverted box is placed over them. [illustration: fig. ] =a church= (fig. ). this is made from a combination of the barn or house and the castle. a strip of paper can be gummed along both sides to keep the two parts together. =a match-box train= (fig. ). the engine is a match-box turned upside down, to which is gummed a cork covered with red or green paper. the broad end of the cork has been sand-papered to make it more equal to the other end. the funnel is a piece of cardboard blackened and inserted into a slit in the cork. half a match-box glued to the cork forms the cab. the coal tender is a match-box on wheels; a piece of brown paper can be pasted round one end to form the back and the sides. the simplest way of making a carriage is to fold a piece of paper into three, mark on it the door and the windows and gum it to the inside of the box. for this piece of paper the children can get the measurements from the match-box. [illustration: fig. ] in order to make a long carriage like a real train a child suggested gumming two match-boxes together, end to end. when a long train was complete the children at once wanted to make a station (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] for this purpose two or three match-box covers can be fastened together by covering them with white paper (marked to represent the boards of a platform) and gumming them to a piece of cardboard, a b c d. the paper must be left long enough at each end to be gummed to the cardboard and form the slopes of the platform. the waiting-room or shelter is a match-box gummed to platform as in diagram, with a triangular piece of paper pasted behind to form a roof. a seat can be pasted inside. the name of the station, signals, and a signal-box (a half-opened match-box standing on end) can be added. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a railway bridge.= gum two sets of four match-box covers together as a and b in fig. . next, take a half-opened match-box (c in fig. ), gum cover securely to box, turn it upside down and to it gum cover d, and to this, half a cover e. fasten this to a by strips of paper gummed on each side (see shaded part in fig. ). b has a similar arrangement fastened to it. these portions form the two sides of the bridge, but the steps so obtained are too high and extra paper steps must be made. for each of these take a piece of stiff paper l m n o (fig. ). l m equals width of match-box; m o equals three times thickness of box. fold in three along t u and r s; fold l u and t s in halves and bend paper to form steps. l q is gummed to a and r o to e. repeat for each intermediate step. [illustration: fig. ] next cut a piece of cardboard the width of the match-box and long enough to leave a suitable distance between the two ends of the bridge to allow the match-box train to pass through, or two trains to pass each other. gum this to the top of a and b (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] next cut a piece of paper f g h j to fit across both parts of the bridge and to project to form railings or a wall, cut out the archway, colour to represent stones or bricks, and gum to bridge; cut and colour a similar piece for the other side (fig. ). chapter vi more complicated match-box and cork toys [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a paddle-wheel steamer= (fig. ). the cover of a match-box, a b c d, is covered on top and bottom with two pieces of stiff paper or cardboard pointed at both ends (fig. ). a long strip of paper is cut, e f g, etc., and fastened round the cover and projecting cardboard. the box is gummed on to a b c d. the funnel is made of a roll of red paper (fig. ). the mast is a roll or strip of paper gummed to inside of box. the wheels are strips of paper held together by a paper-fastener, the paper being bent sideways. the paper-fastener clips the wheel to the side of the box. a piece of cotton-wool can be put into the funnel for smoke. [illustration: fig. ] =a castle and drawbridge= (fig. ). a and b are match-boxes, with the shorter sides cut off, gummed to a square piece of cardboard ( -inch side). along the bottom of these a piece of blue paper is gummed to represent the water in the moat. c d f e is a piece of paper with archway cut out, gummed to sides of boxes a and b, and behind this are gummed match-box covers g and h. the drawbridge is a piece of stiff paper hinged to c d, and has match sticks gummed across it. holes are made in the bridge and wall through which pieces of thread are passed; the ends behind the drawbridge are fastened to a match. [illustration: fig. ] k is a box turned upside down and gummed to g, h. l and m are covers forming a passage from drawbridge. the castle can be enlarged by adding more boxes. =a lighthouse= (fig. ). this toy is made from two corks gummed together and fastened to the cover of a match-box which is gummed to a square of cardboard covered with blue paper. round the box, paper, cut and coloured to represent rocks, is pasted and paper steps are fastened to one edge. into the top cork four pieces of matches are inserted and between them is placed a small roll of red paper. a small piece of paper with four holes in it is placed on top of the matches. the corks can be coloured grey, and windows and doors painted on them. the top cork must be filed to fit the lower one, and its upper end filed to make it narrower. [illustration: fig. ] =an airship= (fig. ). the airship is made from three corks glued together, the thickest cork being in the middle. matches are inserted at each end. four matches are inserted into the corks and their other ends glued into a match-box. a piece of black thread is fastened to the matches as shown in the diagram. matches and corks can be coloured dark grey. [illustration: fig. ] =a bristol biplane= (fig. ). a b, c d are two strips of paper, in length about four times the length of a match-box, in width nearly three-quarters the length of a match-box. these are fastened together by match sticks, as shown in the diagram. [illustration: fig. ] e f is cut from a piece of paper as long as a b and about the width of a match-box. this paper is doubled along e f and marked and cut out as in diagram (fig. ); then unfolded and pasted on the bottom of a match-box (g), to which four small cardboard wheels are pasted. a b c d is then gummed along the back of the box g at right angles to e f. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bird-cage= (fig. ). this is made of two small squares of cartridge paper fastened together by matches, as shown. when making the holes the two pieces of paper should be placed together. a piece of cotton is fastened to the matches so that the cage may be hung up. a bird for the cage is made from a small cork, as in fig. . the legs are two halves of a match; the tail must touch the ground in order that the bird may stand. [illustration: fig. ] =a travelling menagerie= (fig. ). cages are made from match-boxes. the box is mounted on wheels, match sticks are glued inside the box, and a piece of paper with holes in it is fitted to the tops of the matches. [illustration: fig. ] animals are cut out of paper and coloured. if these animals are cut from a folded piece of paper (=fig. =) they will stand. [illustration: fig. ] the various cages can be harnessed to horses. a caravan to accompany the menagerie is shown in =fig. =. a piece of paper folded in three is gummed to the inside of a match-box. on the sides windows are marked, and a round paper chimney is gummed to the top. [illustration: fig. ] =a fire-escape= (fig. ). the ladder is made from two narrow strips of cardboard; holes are made in these and match sticks inserted. the ends of the matches should be slightly filed or sand-papered. b is a match-box, one end, c, of which is bent forward. to this end strips of cardboard, c d, e f are gummed, and across them other strips, f d and g h. wheels can be gummed on as in the figure. l and m are cardboard strips gummed to box and ladder to help to keep it in position. thread could be attached as shown in diagram, and an additional ladder made to stand between l and m. [illustration: fig. ] =a mangle.= a is a match-box turned upside down to which are gummed two corks which have been filed to make them perfect cylinders (b and c in fig. ). the two corks are gummed together and a strip of paper e is bent round them, gummed to their flat ends, and also to the sides of the match-box as at f. k and h are pieces of cardboard shaped as in diagram and marked to imitate the iron legs of a mangle. these pieces are gummed to the inner sides of the match-box to form the legs. g is a circle of cardboard (on which spokes should be marked) fastened as shown in diagram; to this a cardboard or match handle, l, is attached. [illustration: fig. ] =a submarine= (fig. ). a, b, c are corks filed to the shapes shown in fig. , and glued together. e f is a piece of cardboard, narrow and pointed at each end, gummed to the corks. before fastening it on holes should be made in it round the edge. through these small pins are put and pushed into the corks to form a railing, and round them a piece of black cotton is tied. g is a small cork, or a part of a large cork made small by filing, gummed to e f; a match, h, is inserted to represent the periscope. pins are inserted round g with black cotton tied round them. the corks, cardboard and matches should be coloured grey. older children can make this submarine so that it will float. the corks a, b, c must be fastened together by pieces of wire passing through them. the deck is made by filing the corks flat along the top, e f, and pins are inserted around it. cork g is fastened to b by a pin. a narrow strip of lead is cut and pointed at each end, these ends are bent at right angles and are inserted into slits in a and b. this submarine will float well, and makes a very effective little toy. it could be painted with grey enamel. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a barrel organ.= figs. , , show how a barrel organ can be made from a cork and match-box cover. a is a match-box cover, a cork; b, is made a perfect cylinder by means of sand-paper, and gummed to side of cover. it is kept in its place by a piece of paper, c d e, which is gummed to cover and also to the cork. wheels f and g are gummed to the sides or made to revolve on axles as described in chapter ii. the handle k is made of a match stick and bent piece of cardboard. support h and handles are made of cardboard. note that the piece of paper c d e reaches nearly to the ground. this prevents the toy from overbalancing. paper, etc., must be suitably coloured. the match-box cover might have brown paper pasted round it. chapter vii cork animals harnessed to sledges, etc. for these toys plenty of corks are necessary, and files or sand-paper; also some pointed instrument, a long nail or bradawl, for making holes in the corks. four of them are shown in plate iii. [illustration: fig. ] =horse and cart.= gum wheels (size of penny) and matches for shafts on the match-box as in fig. . file or sand-paper a cork quite smooth and round the edges. cut a horse's head out of cardboard and colour it, make a slit with a knife in the widest part of the cork, insert the horse's head, insert the tail and four matches for legs. gum a piece of paper on the horse's back, turn up and gum the ends of a paper strip to form loops for shafts to go through. these shafts can be gummed into the loops or fastened by thread or paper to a collar round the horse's neck. (this latter way is difficult for little children.) the collar is cut out of paper. a piece of thread can be put through a hole in the horse's mouth for reins. paper seats may be added to the cart. [illustration: fig. ] =a coster's donkey barrow= can be made in the same way, by substituting a donkey's head and cutting the box as in fig. . the van described in chapter v might be harnessed to a horse. [illustration: fig. ] =russian sledge.= to make the sledge cut two runners out of brown paper (as a in fig. ), and gum on each side of a match-box. make two brown-paper seats, c, d, and gum on. cut part of the cover of a match-box as in =fig. = to form the back of the sledge, b. gum a brown-paper hood round this. a narrow strip of brown paper, e, is bent and fastened on as in diagram. a match or piece of cane, f, is gummed in front of the box, and to this the horses are harnessed. the horses are made as already described. a piece of silk or thread is looped round their necks and gummed under the straps of the outside horses, then tied to match stick, f. [illustration: fig. ] this toy and some of those following will be found very useful to illustrate geography lessons. =a reindeer sledge= (fig. ). make the reindeer as the other animals. for the sledge the bottom of a match-box, a, and a piece of brown paper are needed. the brown paper should be in length one and a half times the length of the match-box and broad enough to wrap round a match-box and cover every side except one narrow side. fold the paper in two along c b. draw the runners on the doubled paper and cut out as in fig. . cut the straps e o and g p along the top k f and l h; double them along m and n. gum m k f and n l h to the bottom of the match-box, a. do the same on the other side; pieces m k f, etc., may be cut shorter for convenience in gumming. a piece of brown paper forms the back, d (fig. ). finally, a piece of paper just the size of the match-box can be pasted over a to make the sledge look tidy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =the howdah= on the elephant's back, the next model, is a simple one, though difficult for some little fingers. a is a little paper case, in which four halves of matches are glued, a square piece of paper with a little fringe cut round is gummed on the top (fig. ). =south african trek waggon= (fig. ). this is made from two match-box covers, a and b, fastened together by a strip of paper; two match-boxes, c and d, are gummed to the top; part of one box, d, is cut away as in the figure. a strip of brown paper must be gummed along a and b, and a piece along the bottom of boxes c and d; the outsides of c and d may be left their ordinary blue colour. a piece of bluish-grey paper, e, is folded in three and gummed inside the sides of boxes c and d, as in figure; three or four divisions should be pencilled on each paper side. the wheels are cut out of cardboard--the large wheels should be somewhat larger than a penny, the small wheels a little smaller--these are gummed to the sides. f is a strip of brown paper, through which a piece of thread passes to fasten the waggon to a stick, g, gummed across the oxen's backs; this can be fastened to a stick, h, and so on. five pairs of oxen should be yoked to the waggon in this way. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an irish jaunting-car= (fig. ). this toy is made from one match-box. first two cardboard wheels are cut out. these are gummed on each side of the match-box cover as in fig. . the box is then cut in half (fig. ) and each half gummed to the cover, _e.g._ e f g h (fig. ) is gummed to a b c d (=fig. =). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] two pieces of brown paper are bent as in fig. , and gummed on, l m n o to h g j k, to form foot-rests. a piece of paper bent as in fig. and gummed on to the front closes up the hollow cover and forms the back of the driver's seat. a similar piece without the top, p, is gummed to the other end. before putting on the seat the top may be covered with coloured paper, to represent the upholstered part of the car. shafts of cardboard or cane are cut out and gummed underneath the seat to the cover and a cork horse is harnessed to them. [illustration: fig. ] =a mexican cart with ox team.= a match-box is cut as shown in fig. . two pieces of narrow cardboard are cut the length of the box; holes are made in these and four matches are inserted in each. these matches are then glued inside the sides of the box. [illustration: cork animals] [illustration: plate iii noah's ark] while these matches are drying the wheels can be made. the wheels are very large (the diameter nearly equal to the length of the box); they must be shaded to represent solid wood. two strips of cardboard, a and b, are gummed on as in the figure. a strip of brown paper gummed underneath the box forms the shaft, which can be gummed or tied to a match lying across the oxen, just behind their horns. this match is tied to the horns; this is the correct way of harnessing oxen. [illustration: fig. ] =a donkey with panniers.= the panniers can be made of brown paper, in the same way as the mug described in chapter iv; they are gummed to a strip of paper, which can be fastened to the donkey's back (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a persian method of travelling.= the bottoms of the panniers, x and y (fig. ), are made from a small square of paper folded and cut as in fig. . a is gummed on b and d on c; h on g and e on f. the hood is made of a piece of brown paper gummed inside the paper boxes x and y. the panniers can be gummed to a strip of paper, the middle of which is gummed to the donkey's back. [illustration: fig. ] =an eskimo sledge= (fig. ). the sledge is made of a match-box turned upside down; one end, a, is bent back as in diagram; the other end, b, is cut in half, bent outward and shaped as in diagram. a match, c, is glued to the ends, and to this is tied the thread that harnesses the dogs. a team consists of twelve dogs. [illustration: fig. ] =a seal= can be made from a cork as in fig. , and placed on the sledge. [illustration: fig. ] =a belgian milk-cart= (fig. ). two pieces of cardboard, a, are gummed inside a match-box; cover the box with paper, colour it green and mark as in the figure. small corks should be filed to resemble milk cans. the carts generally contain six, three large and three small cans; they are yellow in colour. two pieces of cane, or two match sticks, d and c, are glued under the cart for shafts; the ends are slipped through pieces of looped paper gummed to the backs of the dogs. a piece of string tied to the ends of the shafts and round the dogs fastens them to the cart. the dogs are grey, and one is often smaller than the other. [illustration: fig. ] =russian dog sledge= (fig. ). this is made from a piece of paper folded along c d (fig. ); draw the sledge and cut out as in the diagram; bend along k l m. when opened out the sledge appears as in fig. . runners a b and e f are fastened together by strips of paper. [illustration: fig. ] a seat may be gummed over g and h. a piece of thread attached as in the figure harnesses the sledge to five dogs, made of corks. chapter viii more cork toys [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =cork boats.= besides the submarine described in chapter vi, many other boats can be made from corks, all of which will float well. the corks are joined together by pieces of wire passing through the middle. for the keel cut a narrow strip of lead (not more than / inch wide); point both ends, bend them up at right angles as in fig. ; make slits in the corks and push in the pointed ends of the lead. the keel is made more secure by driving pins or thin nails through the lead and the corks. the keel also helps to hold the corks firmly together and prevents them from slipping round on the connecting wire. =a steamer= (fig. ). select three corks, as uniform in size as possible. cut and file part of their round surface quite flat as in fig. . shape the bow and stern. the funnels are made of two small corks, fastened by pins. the masts consist of pieces of cane or thin sticks. =a sailing-boat.= a very pretty little sailing-boat can be made, as in fig. . the sails are of glazed lining. the edges of this do not fray, so the sails do not require hemming, and as they must be as light as possible, this is a great advantage. the gaff, a, is tied with thread to the mast, also the boom, b; both are pieces of cane, to which the mainsail, d, is sewn. the end of the boom is tied by cotton to a piece of wire at the stern, shaped as in fig. . care must be taken that the lead keel is exactly in the middle, and that the sails and masts are not too heavy, otherwise the boat will blow over on its side. =a paddle-boat.= two pieces of cork pinned on each side of the steamer and cut as in fig. , or even left round, make very realistic-looking paddle wheels. other models, such as a dreadnought, a fishing smack, etc., are easily made. [illustration: fig. ] =a flying proa of the ladrones= (fig. ). these boats are used chiefly in east indian waters. they are remarkable for their speed. bow and stern are equally sharp pointed. one side of the proa is flat, and in a straight line from bow to stern (fig. ), but the other is rounded as in other vessels. the outrigger prevents the boat from turning over. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in the model the outrigger is made of a cork fastened to the side of the boat by match sticks or pieces of cane. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an eskimo canoe= is very easily made by pointing the ends very sharply and hollowing out a hole in the centre (fig. ). fig. shows an =egyptian dahabieh=. for this boat it is better to use four corks, as two sails are carried. [illustration: fig. ] in the =double canoe= (fig. ) the two boats are joined by a thin piece of wood, a. a slanting hole is drilled in a for the mast. mast and yards are best made of cane. these little boats look wonderfully effective on the water. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =cork wrestlers= (fig. ). this is a very amusing toy and is very easily made. cut and file two corks to the shape shown in =fig. =. drill a hole through the shoulders (_a a_) and hips (_b b_), and flatten these for the limbs to work against. the arms and legs are made of cardboard. cut out the legs as in =fig. = and make holes in them. pass a piece of stout wire through the hips and the holes in the legs and double the ends over, so that the legs will not slip off, but let them be loose enough to move freely. in shaping the legs make them bend slightly at the knee, as this makes the figures more life-like in their movements. the arms must be cut out in pairs as in =fig. =. make holes near the shoulders and one at _c_. then fasten the arms to the body in the same way as the legs. the heads are made of cork, the eyes, mouth, etc., being marked in ink. cut a slit across the neck and one across the top of the body. fasten the head to the body by inserting, with the help of a pen-knife, a strip of calico into both these slits, so that the head is fairly close to the body (fig. ). the heads will move about as the figures wrestle. paint the legs and arms. [illustration: fig. ] pass a piece of thread through the holes c. hold one end of the thread steady and move the other about and you will cause the little figures to wrestle in a most life-like manner. if it is necessary to make the figures heavier, little pieces of lead may be glued to the feet. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] similar little wrestlers (fig. ) can be made from two wooden clothes-pegs (fig. ). cut the pegs in two along the dotted line. the upper part forms the head and body of a wrestler, and the lower parts are used for the legs. drill holes through the bodies (at a in fig. ) and through the legs at the thin ends; fasten these to the body with wire. for the arms two pieces of thin, flat wood are necessary, about inches in length. bore holes at each end and in the middle, shape them roughly with a pen-knife to represent the joined hands of the wrestlers. fix these pieces to the bodies and work them as described in the case of the cork wrestlers. =swiss musical figures.= these amusing little toys were first invented by the swiss. they are not musical in the sense that they produce any sound, but they dance about to music when placed on a piano lid, or on any flat surface which vibrates. the figures should be small and light and are easily cut out from a cork. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] shape a cork as in fig. and hollow out the centre (a). cut out arms and legs of thin cardboard. fasten the legs to a piece of wire passing through the hollow in the cork (b c in fig. ), so that they hang loosely. fasten the arms to the shoulders with wire. make four tiny holes in the bottom rim, e, with a pin; get some stiff bristles (from an old clothes brush), glue them into the holes and when firm cut them level, so that the figure stands upright, with the feet a little above the ground. a head is then made of cork, and a little dress and bonnet of paper added. this little figure, resting on the bristles, is affected by the slightest vibration. other figures, such as a soldier, a clown, or animals, such as a dancing bear or a monkey, can be made on the same principle. chapter ix cardboard and paper ships (plate iv) an interesting series of ships can be made of cardboard and paper. these ships can be used to illustrate the history lesson or to illustrate a lesson on the evolution of the ship. =materials.= cardboard of medium thickness (thin cardboard will bend and thick is difficult to cut), white paper--cartridge paper or ordinary exercise paper--and coloured paper or chalks, scissors and pen-knife, ruler. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: cardboard and paper ships schooner (part ii, chapter xiv)] [illustration: plate iv cardboard and paper ships] =the viking ship= (fig. ). give the children oblong pieces of cardboard, a b c d, about - / inches by - / inches. a line, e f, drawn across the middle of the cardboard gives the top of the ship. the ship is then drawn on the cardboard, and the shaded part of the cardboard is cut away. dragons' or serpents' heads are drawn on paper, cut out and gummed on to the stern and prow (as g and h); a tongue cut from red paper can be added to each dragon. (the 'dragon ships' were, as a rule, the largest, the 'serpent ships' being smaller and better adapted to sailing.) the mast is cut out of cardboard and gummed behind the ship; the sail is cut out of paper and gummed to the mast. the shields are cut out of cardboard and pasted along the sides. the ship may be painted white, blue, red, or any combination of colours; the warriors' shields were also of different colours. the sails were generally in coloured stripes, blue and white or red and white. masts brown. for teachers who want to be historically accurate the following notes on the viking ship may be useful. the viking ship (from ninth century on-wards) was clincher-built, caulked with hair, and iron fastened. one ship we know to have been feet long by - / feet of extreme breadth; the ships varied in length from to feet. they had from twelve to thirty-five seats for rowers. generally both ends of the vessel were alike, so that it could be steered from either end by the paddle, which was used everywhere until the invention of the rudder. standards and pennants were used, and possibly the two-armed iron anchor (for the romans used it), so the children can cut out pennants and anchors for their ships. children delight in naming their ships and should be given some of the 'real' old names to choose from. these old names generally referred to the figure-head, which was of wood or metal, in the shape of the head of a dragon, deer, bird or other animal--_e.g._ _dragon_, _serpent_, _raven_, _deer of the surf_, _sea-king's deer_, _horse of the sea_, _sea-bird_, etc. to support the boat two pieces of cardboard are cut and folded, as n p o q (fig. ). the cardboard must be half cut with a pen-knife along the line r s, so that it can be bent easily. [illustration: fig. ] the portion n r p s is gummed to the back of the ship, r s o q bent at right angles to n p r s forms the support, with corner s t q cut off, so that the ship tilts a little backward. =a phoenician warship=, b.c. (fig. ). this is made, as the viking ship, from oblong a b c d; pieces of paper, e and f, with railings drawn on them, are gummed on each end; a stern ornament, g, is cut out of paper and gummed at one end. (when a vessel was captured in olden days this was kept as a trophy.) [illustration: fig. ] small circles are drawn along the side of the ship to represent the holes for the oars, or holes may be made in the cardboard and matches or strips of cardboard passed through for oars. a device of the sun (common to carthaginian vessels) should be drawn on the sail and prow. the ship can be coloured in stripes yellow and red, with one blue band near the top; stern ornament red and yellow; sail yellow with red sun. the ships represented in fig. and in plate iv are made in the same way. in all these a piece of cardboard forms the foundation. masts, high funnels, anything likely to bend, should also be cut from cardboard, but sails, stern or prow ornaments, railings, flags, etc., are best cut out of paper. by means of a needle and cotton, rigging can be added to the ships. [illustration: fig. ] =a tudor ship= (fig. ). tudor ships are difficult, because of their elaborate and lofty forecastle and poops. a simplified one is shown in the figure. this can be easily managed by the children if an oblong a b c d is given them, divided into six parts lengthways, or if the oblong e b f d is given them. in the latter case the poop and forecastle are cut out of paper and gummed on separately. the ship is coloured red, yellow and blue, the sails white. the ship may be decorated with many flags. the =cunarder= has red funnels, with a black band at the top and two black lines underneath. the =super-dreadnought= should be coloured dark grey. children will delight to make, in a similar way, a roman galley, columbus' _santa maria_, in which he discovered america, the _black prince_, in which sir philip sidney's body was carried to england, britain's first =ironclad=, etc. instead of cardboard supports pieces of wood (about / inch thick, inch wide, the length equal to that of the ship) can be half sawn through along the middle line and the ship inserted in this slit; or pieces of wood (cubes) may be glued to the back. in the first case the surface of the wood should be painted blue to represent water. chapter x cardboard and paper toys involving use of ruler, set-square, scissors, and knife =materials.= the cardboard used should not be too thick; medium thickness is best (threepence a sheet). almost any paper that is not too thin can be used for making hinges. all kinds of cardboard boxes will be found of great use in making shops, engines, etc. =tools.= _scissors_ with round points are safer for children to use, though perhaps not quite so suitable for the work. _knives._ for little children the carton knife, consisting of a small blade projecting not more than a quarter of an inch from the handle, is the best, as the smallness of the blade does much to prevent the children cutting their fingers. for older children the "london" or "leipsic" pattern is suitable, or they can use their pen-knives. these can be sharpened quite well on an ordinary knifeboard. _rulers._ the "non-slip" safety ruler is the best. it grips the paper well, and the depression between the raised edges enables the children to hold it steady when cutting. =adhesives.= higgins' vegetable glue or seccotine. [illustration: fig. ] =a pigeon-house= (fig. ). on a piece of cartridge paper draw an oblong inches by inches, and divide it into four squares (fig. ). on the top of each construct an equilateral triangle. make a flange about / inch on the sides of the triangles, as shown in fig. , and on the sides of the squares. cut and fold back the doorways. fold and gum together. flanges , , , should be folded in. draw and cut out a square, side - / inches (fig. ); gum the house on to this. [illustration: fig. ] for the post draw an oblong inches by - / inches (fig. ). fold into five lengths ( / inch wide). draw j k and l m / inch from the ends of oblong e f g h. cut along the lines, cut off the shaded portions, and fold along the dotted lines. gum the two outer portions over each other to make a four-sided post. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] for the base cut a square, the side inches (fig. ), and to this gum the flanges at l m. gum the house to the flanges at j k. to make the top stronger, a second square (the side - / inches) can be cut; the flanges at l m are gummed to this, and then the house is fastened on. other easily made farmhouse models are a hen-coop, a barn, a pigsty, the farmhouse itself, etc. =the noah's ark= (plate iii). as this is a fairly large toy, it is best made from separate pieces of cardboard hinged together by strips of paper. if it is cut from one or two pieces, the size of the cardboard is somewhat unmanageable. the following noah's ark is of a suitable size for holding cork animals. two pieces of cardboard are cut, - / inches by inches (fig. ). cut two other pieces, - / inches by inches. mark and cut these out as a and c. in one side, a, a door is cut. a paper-fastener is put in to form the handle. on the other sides windows may be drawn and coloured. when fastening the pieces together the children must be very careful that the bend of the hinge is straight. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the pieces of the noah's ark hinged together. the children will find it easier if they paste the hinges on a and c first and let them dry thoroughly; then they can fasten a to b and c to b and d, and lastly d to a, but b must be firmly hinged to a before c is attached, and so on with the other parts. however, there is plenty of work to be done while the children are waiting for the paste to dry. (in their eagerness to finish toys the children often want to paste or glue too many things together at once.) for the bottom of the ark a piece of cardboard, - / inches by inches, is cut and pointed at each end. for the roof the children can get the measurements themselves. the long side of the ark is - / inches, so that if the roof projects / inch on each side of this the length will be - / inches. they must measure e f (fig. ); this will be about - / inches. now, the roof must cover e f and f g and project about a / inch beyond e and g, so that the width of the roof must be inches. therefore, they must cut a piece of cardboard - / inches by inches. down the middle of this a half cut is made, along which the cardboard is folded. a stronger method is to cut the roof in half and hinge the two pieces together by a piece of paper cut and coloured to represent tiles; thus the roof will open and shut easily without breaking. the roof can be coloured or covered with blue paper. when the body of the ark is complete, it must be placed on to the bottom, so that it stands in the middle. two hinges on each long side will be sufficient to keep the ark steady, but hinges can also be made for the shorter sides. the hinges are more easily put on the outside, but would look neater if fastened inside the ark. one half of the roof is fastened by paper hinges to three sides of the ark; the other half opens and shuts. a strip of cardboard, the width of the door, is cut to form a gangway for the animals to enter the ark. across this matches should be glued. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] very effective animals can be made from corks, as explained in chapter vii. easily made animals are the elephant, camel, giraffe, horse and donkey. the children will suggest other possible animals, _e.g._ a hedgehog, or porcupine, a small cork with pins stuck in it, etc. noah and his wife and children can be made from corks. a cork is filed round the narrowest end to form the head (fig. ). eyes, mouth, etc., can be marked in ink. round noah is pasted a piece of coloured paper to form a cloak, open in front; this, with the help of match sticks for legs, enables him to stand. half matches form the arms. a piece of round paper gummed to the head forms a hat. noah's wife (fig. ) has a piece of coloured paper round her body to form a skirt, on which she stands. =a dog kennel= (fig. ). this toy is made of either cardboard or stiff paper, on lines similar to those of the noah's ark. the bottom and the sides can be made from one piece, - / inches by inches (fig. ). half cuts are made along h a and b c. in fixing the front of the kennel it will be noticed that the bottom and the sides project beyond it. the back portion can be fixed to coincide with the edges of the bottom and sides. the roof can be measured and fixed as described in the noah's ark. planks can be indicated by drawing lines across the sides and the roof. the kennel may be fastened to two strips of wood, y and x. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a shop.= this can be made like the noah's ark, except that the bottom will, of course, be a rectangle, and one long side must be left open. the children can turn cardboard boxes of different kinds into shops quite easily. perhaps one of the easiest shops to make is the butcher's. the inside can be covered with white paper, upon which the children have drawn tiles in blue or green pencil. a little paying-desk (fig. ) can be made of brown paper and gummed to one of the walls. tables can be made of cardboard, or of wood if the children have begun woodwork. joints of meat drawn on cardboard, and coloured with red pencil, look very realistic when cut out. to hang these the children can hammer nails half way into a piece of stripwood and glue it to the wall. the joints can be attached to the nails by pieces of string. [illustration: fig. ] other toys that can be made in a similar way from stiff paper or cardboard are castles, houses, a sentry-box. =a wheelbarrow= (fig. ). this toy is made of cardboard of medium thickness. fig. shows how the bottom and the sides are cut out from one piece. half cuts are made along the dotted lines. small holes are made at d and c for the axle of the wheel. figs. and show the two ends of the barrow. before placing them in position a little seccotine should be put round their edges; with the help of this and the slits they will be quite firm. the wheel is about / inches in radius. it is mounted on an axle made of a rounded match stick or piece of cane. two small pieces of cork can be filed to the shape of e and f in fig. , and holes made through them. they are then slipped on to the axle on each side of the wheel (fig. ) to prevent the latter from wobbling. the legs are made of strips of cardboard about / inch wide and - / inches long (fig. ). a very slight half cut is made along the dotted line, so that part of the leg, k, may be bent straight when h is gummed to the side of the wheelbarrow. fig. shows another method of making the legs. a half cut is made along the dotted line, h is bent back at right angles to k and is gummed to the side of the barrow. the slant of the dotted line is the same as the slant of the sides of a in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this toy could also be made of three-ply wood with a fret-saw. the sides and bottom would then have to be cut in three separate pieces. chapter xi simple woodwork children as young as seven can begin woodwork, but the little strength they possess for sawing makes it necessary to give them prepared wood, called stripwood. there is no need, however, to begin woodwork in too great a hurry, so many are the toys which the children can make with match-boxes, corks, paper and files, and the more familiar the child gets with his ruler and with simple measurements, the better able he is to saw to advantage. woodwork may well be postponed to the age of eight or nine, then the child can begin to measure accurately and be introduced by degrees to the mysteries of set-squares, try-squares and t-squares. [illustration: fig. ] the following tools are necessary when beginning easy woodwork with children from seven to ten years of age; other tools, described in part ii, can be added as the children advance in age and in ambition: . bench-hooks, against which children can press their strips of wood and hold them firmly. a simple one is shown in fig. . c is a piece of hard wood about inches square, a is a strip of hard wood against which the child can hold her wood, b is a strip of wood that presses against the table. . try-squares. . a brass-back saw with a blade about inches long. . a light hammer. . files--these are very cheap. some must be round; the others should be -inch files, / cut (one safe edge). . bradawls (or meat skewers). . a pair of pincers. other materials required will be liquid glue, sand-paper, nails--useful ones are / and / veneer pins. with regard to wood, children as young as seven should be given prepared lengths (schools are commonly supplied with the so-called satin walnut, machine-planed, see next chapter), from which they can saw portions for making simple objects, such as picture frames, ladders, gates, objects which consist of different lengths of wood nailed across each other. a word of advice is necessary with regard to sand-paper; this varies in coarseness from no. to no. , every sheet being stamped. it should never be used until all work with edged tools is finished, as the particles of sand left on the surface dull an edged tool. when using sand-paper on a flat surface it should be wrapped round a rectangular block of wood. all corners should be left as sharp as they are left by the edged tools and rarely sand-papered. lastly, always sand-paper with the grain. the bradawl varies in size or diameter of the steel shaft from / inch to / inch or / inch. the legitimate purpose of the bradawl is to bore holes in wood so as to ensure the passage of a nail or screw in the right direction, and to facilitate its entrance into the wood. three words of advice might be remembered by teachers beginning woodwork: ( ) don't begin it too soon; don't begin woodwork with children of seven and eight because others do; wait until they are really ready, until they have the necessary strength. there is plenty for them to do in measuring and cutting out paper toys and toys of thin cardboard; they will enjoy the woodwork the more when it comes. ( ) simple doll's furniture, chairs and tables, are not easy for the child to make. ( ) leave behind as soon as possible prepared stripwood and its everlasting gates, railings, bridges, or picture frames. _suggestions for teachers who are beginning woodwork with their forms._ let the children measure out and cut a square of wood to support the merry-go-round, make the stand for the swinging boats and great wheel (chapter xiv). make the noah's ark and dog kennel described in chapter x. a very simple toy for beginners is a =flat-bottomed boat=. a flat, oblong piece of wood is marked out as in fig. , the bow and stern are cut as indicated; the three dots down the central line indicate the position of the masts. these can be made of wooden meat skewers or of pieces of strip wood ( / " Ã� / ") rounded toward the top. [illustration: fig. ] nails are driven through the bottom of the boat so that they project about half an inch above the surface; on to these points the masts are hammered, having first had a little glue applied to the base; nails are hammered carefully round the sides for railings, with cotton intertwined. funnels of red paper, little squares of wood for cabins, paper or cardboard lifebuoys and anchors, a captain's bridge, etc., may be added (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] children delight in tying thread from mast to mast (a ridge must be filed round the tops of the masts to keep the cotton from slipping down) and in decorating this thread with flags. instead of nails, stripwood ( / " Ã� / ") may be glued or nailed along the sides, and a piece of wood nailed over the bow (fig. ). these boats will float on water if they are not too heavily laden with cabins, etc. fig. shows a fishing-boat complete. [illustration: fig. ] a reel will be found very useful as an anvil when driving the nails through the bottom of the boat to hold the masts. the child should hold his piece of wood--through which he is driving a nail--in such a position that when the point comes through the wood, the nail makes its passage down the hole in the middle of the reel. as soon as the point has been driven through to a certain distance, the child can lift up his wood and examine--and if need be correct--the direction of the nail before fixing on the mast. [illustration: fig. ] hammering must be done with the hammer held with the hand well back from the head, and each blow struck so that the flat face of the hammer falls exactly upon the head of the nail. gentle but firm blows are necessary; heavy blows are likely to bend the nails. all bent nails should be at once drawn out. chapter xii materials =nails.= the nails used in the making of the toys described in the following chapters are made of very fine wire, with fine points. the wire commonly used for such nails is gauge, but a finer gauge ( ) is better for light woodwork, for it does not split the wood so easily. the nails vary in length from / inch to inches, increasing by eighths of an inch. the most useful sizes are veneer pins / inch in length and / inch in length. panel pins have small heads. =liquid glue.= though this is dearer than ordinary glue (it can be obtained in small bottles, price - / d), it is always ready for use, and is not affected by exposure to the air, except that it thickens and hardens from evaporation. if spread thinly over the wood it holds the various pieces firmly together. when fastening different pieces of wood together it is well, whenever possible, both to glue and nail them. =wood.= ( ) _satin walnut_ is one of the easiest woods to work, and is adapted for a wide range of work, but it is liable to warp and twist badly unless properly seasoned. for handwork in school, and for toy-making generally, satin walnut machine-planed can be had in the following useful sizes. they are supplied in lengths of feet and are done up in bundles of . (_a_) ' Ã� / " Ã� / " about s. d. per bundle. (_b_) ' Ã� / " Ã� / " " s. " " (_c_) ' Ã� / " Ã� / " " s. d. " " (_d_) ' Ã� / " Ã� " " s. " " ' Ã� / " Ã� " " s. " " in the toys described in the following chapters satin walnut lengths (_a_), (_b_), (_c_), and (_d_) are referred to simply as stripwood. ( ) _round dowel rods_ in beech or birch / inch to / inch diameter and inches long are useful for axles and for the perches for the swinging animals, etc. these dowel rods cost s. to s. per . dowels are made by planing up a strip square in section, then planing off the corners, and finally the resulting eight corners. they are now nearly round, and can be made quite so by hammering them through a hole in a piece of hard wood or metal. ( ) _sawn laths such as builders use_ are perhaps the cheapest material that it is possible to get. these can be got from builders' and timber-merchants' yards at a cost of about d. to s. per bundle of . each lath is ' " Ã� " Ã� / ". ( ) "_three-ply_" is composed of three thin layers of wood glued together under pressure. the grain of the centre layer is laid at right angles to that of the other two, so as to give additional strength and to avoid warping. "three-ply" will not split easily and should be used for the jointed animals and swinging animals described in chapter xx. ply-wood is usually sold in thicknesses varying from / inch to / inch. price of three-ply boards in large squares for cutting up: / in. thick, " Ã� ", / d. per sq. foot. / " " Ã� ", d. " " / " " Ã� ", - / d. " " =match stales.= these are sometimes useful in toy-making, though ordinary matches that have been used generally serve as well. match stales may be obtained from messrs bryant & may's, fairfield works, bow, e., at s. per bundle (about to the bundle). these are supplied without brimstone, - / inches long, and thicker than the matches in common use. most of the wood so far described is prepared wood (with the exception of builders' laths), and is ready for use at once; it has merely to be sawn to the right length or the right size. but it is well to get the children away as soon as possible from dependence upon this "prepared material" and to encourage them to use "waste material." if there is a kitchen or tuck shop in connexion with the school this will supply the children with useful wooden and cardboard boxes of various sizes. the wooden boxes in which fry's, cadbury's, etc., chocolates are packed are most useful in toy-making. the wood is easy to saw and fairly free from knots. if no school kitchen or tuck shop exists a grocer, for a few pence, will supply a delightful collection of wooden boxes, sweet-boxes, soap-boxes, boxes that have contained bovril, etc. the greater part of every wooden toy in this book has been made from materials such as these. to avoid expense one should begin at once to collect useful boxes; this adds to the enjoyment of toy-making. a tobacconist will often give away his cigar-boxes, the wood of which is a pretty brown colour and very useful. unfortunately, it is sometimes so thin that it is very liable to split. it is difficult, too, to get the paper off some boxes, and the children who resort to washing, scrubbing, and sometimes boiling (!) the wood do not improve it. however, all waste wood has to be prepared in some way; generally the file and sand-paper will make it ready for use. other materials that are invaluable to the toy-maker and should be carefully preserved are old broom handles, reels, and the round rods of various sizes that one often comes across. lead plays an important part in many toys; sheet lead can be bought in pennyworths; lead buttons can also be bought. chains are also useful (for example, in part ii, in the drawbridge, the siege tower, etc.), so toy watch chains or any odd pieces should be preserved, as these chains look more effective than those made of wire. very good chain can be bought from an ironmonger's--price, d. a yard. chapter xiii some difficulties in toy-making i. =gluing.= generally when pieces of wood are fastened together, both glue and nails should be used; the glue prevents the wood from revolving on the nails, and the nails hold when sometimes a sudden jar will cause pieces of wood that are glued to separate. however, if glueing be well done, it will serve well without nailing, and it is often convenient to use glue only when making small toys or when adding a piece of wood to a delicate toy that will not stand the shock of the hammer. to apply glue so that the pieces of wood that it fastens shall hold together permanently, the following points should be borne in mind: ( ) the layer of glue should be so thin that the seam will scarcely be seen. ( ) the glue must be perfectly free from sawdust, shavings, etc., and so must the wood. ( ) glue must be evenly and thinly applied to _both_ the surfaces that are to be joined. ( ) the surfaces to be joined must be perfectly smooth. ( ) time must be given for the glue to dry. children often want to touch too soon. ii. =nailing.= generally in nailing holes should first be made for the nail with a fine bradawl or drill. the holes for the nails should be made just large enough to allow them to stand upright in them without being held. the points or heads of nails that project should always be filed away. iii. =sand-papering.= a holder for sand-paper should be used, as by simply holding the sheet in the fingers it is impossible to retain the perfect flatness of the surface. a holder can be bought for twopence. sand-paper should always be applied with a very light pressure, lest it wear away the surface unequally. iv. =filing.= filing should be resorted to as little as possible. _avoid filing the sawn edges._ children often saw carelessly, relying on the file to remedy defects. the file, however, is useful when cutting discs, to make the circle perfect. round files are very useful in finishing off round holes and in enlarging them when required. the sharp edges of triangular files can be used for making notches, such as those in the deck-chair (part ii, chapter iii). v. =the making of wheels.= the child toy-maker often finds wheels somewhat of a problem. there are, however, several ways of making or getting them. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) small reels make good wheels for trams, motor-cars or trains. they require no sawing. fig. shows how they are fastened on. a is a block of wood glued and nailed on to the axle, b c, which is made of stripwood, / Ã� / inch, or / Ã� / inch; the ends, f b and g c, are rounded so that the reels can revolve easily on them. the bottom of the car is glued to the block. the reels can be placed quite under the bottom of the car, as in diagram, or they can project. for a train the wheels should be placed underneath. ( ) large reels may be sawn into several thicknesses. these make excellent wheels, but are very difficult to saw even with a mitre block. it is hard to hold them steady and there is some danger of the children sawing their fingers. ( ) broom handles, round rods, etc., are easily sawn up and make excellent wheels. holes have to be drilled through them and enlarged with round file for the axle, or a hole the right size can be made at once with the brace and bit. (for use of which see part ii.) ( ) wheels can be made with the brace and centre-bit. the way for the centre-bit must be prepared by using a small-sized pin-bit. the wood must be laid perfectly flat, the brace and bit held perfectly perpendicular, only a little pressure applied upon the knob and the crank turned slowly. the boring must be done half way through from each side of the wood, and this will liberate a disc of wood inch in diameter, or - / inch, according to the size of the centre-bit. ( ) there is a little instrument sold called a circle-cutter (price, s.), designed for cutting small circular pieces of wood from satin walnut board. it is so constructed that it will cut circles of any size up to inches in diameter. this, however, is difficult for children to use. ( ) for large wheels or table-tops a circle can be drawn in a square, the corners sawn off, the obtuse corners sawn off again and then filed perfectly round. this is rather a laborious method, but quite successful. holes can be made in the centre with a bradawl and enlarged with a round file. ( ) _cardboard wheels._ wheels can be cut out of cardboard with scissors and pen-knife (the latter is necessary only if the spokes are to be cut out). if several cardboard wheels of the same size are gummed together, a wheel strong enough for any toy in this book can be made. the edges can be filed to make them perfectly even. cardboard washers prevent the wheels from wobbling. ( ) the fret-saw (see part ii) is very useful for making wheels. ( ) the wooden tops of gloy bottles make very good wheels indeed (especially for motor-cars). they are ready for use at once, as they have a hole in the centre. also the tin tops of le page's liquid glue make excellent small wheels; a hole can easily be made in the centre by means of a hammer and a long nail or the pin stopper of a tube of seccotine. ( ) wheels can be bought. a sheet of four wheels costs a penny. this is the least satisfactory course. of the various ways of making wheels described above, the methods best suited to little ones are ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ). the axles should be narrow strips of wood, with the ends rounded. round rods do not make good axles, because they cannot be fastened securely to the bottom of the vehicle, the nailing being a difficult matter for the children. in fastening the axles to vans, carts, etc., there is no need for block a (fig. ); the latter is only introduced when the wheels have to be under the vehicle; in other cases the axle can be glued and nailed directly to the bottom. =colouring the finished toy.= a well-made toy is beautiful without paint, which is often used merely to hide bad work and give a false appearance of finish. children generally like the wooden toys, which they have made, uncoloured, until the grown-up person suggests paint. however, some toys should be coloured; for example, the swinging animals described in chapter xx. if the wood has been well sand-papered water-colour paints can be used. older children can use oil paints or penny tins of enamel. but let the children realise the beauty of plain wood; the drawbridge in part ii is far more effective in white wood, with the stones marked out in pencil or crayon, than if painted. chapter xiv merry-go-round, swinging boats, and great wheel a toy children delight to make is the =merry-go-round= (plate v). it has been made successfully by children from six to twelve. a square piece of stout cardboard ( -inch side) forms the bottom; this can be covered with brown paper or coloured paper. a reel is glued in the middle. into this reel a stick (about inches long) is fastened securely. another piece of cardboard is cut round (diameter, inches), and has a reel glued in the middle; this reel fits on the top of the stick and must turn freely. if the stick is square the top must be rounded to fit the reel. a handle for turning the top can be made from a reel, a piece of cork filed round or a piece of wood. cork horses, six or eight in number, are made as described in chapter vii. paper bands of various colours are gummed round the middle of each horse. these horses are fastened to the top disc by pieces of cane, which may be gummed into the top disc, or simply passed through the holes and bent over. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] paper boys and girls can be cut out to ride on the horses. they will sit on quite steadily if cut out as in fig. . a piece of paper is folded in two along a b, and a little sailor boy drawn; the figure is cut out, the two halves remaining joined along c d. both sides should be suitably coloured. the figure will be found to have four hands; one raised one on one side, and one lower one on the other, should be cut away. the heads are then gummed together. when placed on horseback the sailor may have his arms folded round the cane. little girls in sun-bonnets can be cut out in the same way. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows a very simple merry-go-round made by a large class, and more suited to the work of a large form than the first one described. two square pieces of cardboard ( - / -inch sides) form the top and bottom. small reels are glued on as in the first merry-go-round. four pieces of stout cane are pushed into holes in the top piece of cardboard, and the bottom of each piece of cane is split so that it holds a horse cut out of paper. the children themselves will think of various ways of altering and improving this toy. fig. shows how match-boxes may be hung round for cars; match-boxes and horses may also be hung alternately. the children delight in decorating the top of their merry-go-round and the stick with coloured paper. [illustration: fig. ] older children (nine to twelve) like to make the bottom and top of wood; in this case the top may be octagonal in shape. the central pillar, instead of being supported by a reel, can then be fastened as in fig. , by four triangular supports (of which only two are shown). =swinging boats= (plate vi). this is another simple and effective toy that little ones can make and play with. the wooden stand can only be made by children of eight and older; a simpler stand can have a cardboard bottom, the supports being reels, the posts stripwood ( / " Ã� / "), sand-papered to fit reels, and the cross-beam a strip of cardboard with holes in it. the boats are match-boxes. four strips of thick paper, all equal in length (a little longer than the match-box), are cut out and gummed inside the box, as a b, c d, etc., in fig. . a match stick, h, passes through these strips of paper where they cross and projects on each side. pieces of thread are tied to each end of the projecting ends. these threads fasten the car to the cross-beam. [illustration: plate v a merry-go-round] [illustration: fig. ] paper seats should be put in the box; it can be covered with coloured paper, and the strips a b, e f, etc., either chalked or covered with coloured paper. the children delight in making and decorating these swinging boats, and then swinging little dolls. =a great wheel= (plate vi). two circular pieces of cardboard are glued to a large reel; four match sticks are fastened into holes opposite each other, and to these match-boxes are attached, as explained in the previous toy. a round rod or wooden skewer passes through the reel and through two holes drilled in the wooden supports of the stand. a slight touch will set the wheel spinning. before putting the wheel together, the sides may be painted. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows another possible shape for the top of the supports. this hollow can be quite easily filed out with a round file. older children might like to make a pulley, as shown in fig. , by means of which the wheel can be turned. the pulley wheels, a and b, are each made of three cardboard circles gummed together, the inner one, in both cases, being of smaller diameter. a is glued to axle f g. [illustration: fig. ] a smaller axle, j h, is fixed into a hole in the support lower down. a hole is made in the wheel, b, into which a match is glued for a handle. b must turn freely on the axle, j h, and is prevented from slipping off by a nail driven through the axle. a small elastic band connects the two wheels. chapter xv flying airships, gondolas, and birds (plate vi) these toys are made in a somewhat similar manner to the merry-go-round. get a large reel (diameter about - / inches). next saw a piece of stripwood, a b, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". glue and nail to the ends of this cross-pieces of the same stripwood, - / inches long. make holes for nails with a fine drill, otherwise the stripwood may split. glue and nail a b across the top of the reel as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ". glue and nail cross-pieces - / inches long to one end of each of these. glue and nail them to the reel as in figure. next glue and nail another large reel to the centre of a board about inches by - / inches. get a dowel rod that will fit the reels (diameter about / inch), or file the ends of a square stick to fit; this central pillar should be about inches high. glue this pillar into the reel on the board and fit the other reel with the cross-pieces on the top of the pillar. [illustration: fig. ] the cars must next be made; they will hang by two strings from the ends of the cross-pieces (fig. ). grooves may be filed round the ends of the cross-pieces for tying the cotton, or holes can be drilled in the ends before the cross-pieces are fastened on. the cars are made of paper, cardboard or wood. fig. shows the pattern of a car. it should be - / inches long and inches wide. the dotted lines show where the paper is to be bent, or in the case of cardboard half cut and bent. the width of the bottom of the car is inches, the roof - / inches; this allows for bending, and makes a curved roof. the doors can be made to meet if desired; in this case each door will be inch wide. five, four or three windows may be cut in the sides, and windows in the doors. paper seats may be fitted inside. to hang the car a rod is cut, about inches long, e f in fig. , and grooves are filed at each end. this is glued to the top of the car, with the ends projecting. pieces of cotton attach the beam e f to the cross-piece. (length of cotton, about inches.) [illustration: fig. ] a reel may be glued on the top of the arms for turning the airships; cotton may be wound round this, and when pulled causes the cars to revolve. into the hole of the top reel may be inserted a stick bearing a flag. paint the cars according to taste. when the top reel is set spinning the cars fly round and outward in a delightful manner, gradually returning to a vertical position as the speed lessens. =gondolas.= for the cars gondolas may be substituted, as in fig. . these gondolas form simple and effective paper toys, even if not attached to revolving arms. draw on stout paper or cardboard and cut out the two sides, a a, as in fig. . the total length of the boat should be inches. next draw a line on a piece of paper, _a´ b´_ in fig. , the same length as _a b_ in fig. . divide the line into three parts at _c´_ and _d´_. _a´ c´_ represents the length _a c_ in fig. ; _c´ d´_ (not shown to scale), the length of the cabin _c d_. if the full length of the gondola is inches, the length _a b_ will be about - / inches, and the length _a c_ should be inches; this makes the length of the cabin, _c d_, about - / inches. draw two lines at _c´_ and _d´_ at right angles to _a´ b´_. make _e f_ and _g h_ (fig. ) equal to the widest part of the gondola. (if the length of inches has been decided on, the width of the gondola should be - / inches.) complete triangles _a´ f e_ and _g b´ h_ as in fig. ; draw flanges as in diagram and cut out. two other triangles exactly the same size with flanges will be required. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] now fasten together the bows, b, and the sterns, c, of the sides, a a (fig. ), with seccotine, taking care that no gum comes below the line _a b_. gum the triangle _a´ f e_ (fig. ) to the sides, a a, as in fig. . point _a_ must come at the very end of the sides a, and the surface of _a f e_ forms the deck. gum triangle _g h b´_ to the sides, a, in the same way (fig. ). now gum the other two triangles to the bottom of the gondola. their apexes will probably come at about k and m in fig. . the positions of these points can be determined by finding out at what spot the triangle brings the sides a a closely together; try to keep them as far from ends _a_ and _b_ as possible. [illustration: swinging boats and great wheel (chapter xiv)] [illustration: plate vi flying gondolas, etc.] the space left between the two bottom triangles has a piece of paper gummed over it. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the shape of the cabin and the measurements required for a cabin for a gondola of inches. four gondolas should be made. they should be painted black and red, or black and yellow, according to taste. the gondolas are hung from cross-pieces, like the airships, but the arms should be - / inches, and the cross-pieces inches; the strings must be of different lengths, since the bow is higher than the stern. seats may be put in the cabins if desired. [illustration: fig. ] =flying birds.= cut four arms as for the gondolas (stripwood / " Ã� / " will do), drill small holes at one end, glue and nail them to a reel. cut four short arms - / inches and glue them on between the long arms as in fig. . the birds are made of cardboard and corks. the birds from the long arms should hang low down, and the birds from the short arms higher up. cane may be used for hanging the birds to the arms. the outer circle may be hung with sea-gulls (fig. ), and the inner circle with swallows (fig. ), or all the birds may be swallows. when the reel is turned quickly the birds in flight are very effective. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows how the sea-gull is made out of a cork and four pieces of cardboard (one for the head, two for the wings, one for the tail). paint the cork white, paint eyes and a beak, mark a few feathers on the wings. figs. , , show how the swallow is made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: figs. , ] chapter xvi fire-engine, motor-lorry, and steam-roller (plate vii) [illustration: fig. ] =a fire-engine= (fig. ). for this toy two cardboard boxes are required, one about " Ã� " Ã� ", a in fig. , and the other, b, " Ã� " Ã� ". the cardboard case that contains le page's glue is a suitable size for b. make holes through both sides of a, about inch from one end, for the axle of the large wheels, and holes through b at k and j for the pieces of cane that support the ladders. gum b to a and cover both with red paper. d is part of a round mantle-box, and the funnel, e, a roll of paper. both are coloured yellow, f is a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, cut the right length and glued to b and to two supports, h. a similar piece is fastened on the other side. these are for the firemen to stand on. they may be left their natural colour or coloured grey. the seat, c, is a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, with a paper back, and l m are match sticks glued to the sides. g, the foot-rest, is made of cardboard and fastened to box, b, by two wedge-shaped pieces of wood. the ladders are made of strips of cardboard, with half matches as rungs. n is a piece of cardboard gummed underneath a and projecting from it / inch for the fireman's stand. this stand, seat, foot-rest, ladders, etc., should be coloured red. the small wheel is about inches in diameter. the diameter of the large wheel can be measured when the smaller wheels are in position. [illustration: fig. ] =a motor-lorry= (fig. ). the foundation is a piece of stout cardboard or wood. a is an open box gummed to this, and covered with paper, suitably coloured. b is part of a box cut as in figure and gummed to a. inside b a wooden seat, d, is fixed. c is a smaller box, gummed upside down. the size of the lorry will depend upon the boxes procurable. it can also be made of wood, in which case the windows, d and e, and the curved portion of b can be cut out with a fret-saw (see part ii). both this toy and the fire-engine look very effective made of wood. [illustration: plate vii fire-engine, motor-lorry and steam-roller] =a steam-roller= (fig. ). fig. shows the foundation of the steam-roller, a b, c d, etc., are pieces of stripwood, / inch by / inch. the front roller is made of a small mantle-box about - / inches in length. the cover is glued on, holes are made at each end and a round, wooden axle passed through. the ends of the axle should be filed flat as in fig. , so that a and c (fig. ) can be glued to them. the roller may be painted black. cut a piece of cardboard, - / inches by - / inches. bend this round so that it fits between a b and c d (fig. ); place the roller in position, mark with pencil the portions of cardboard that cover the roller and cut these off (see the shaded parts in fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the construction from cardboard of the part of the cab marked g in fig. . half cuts are made along the dotted lines; the axle of the side wheels passes through the openings x and y. fig. shows the part of the cab marked h in fig. . next cut a strip of wood, - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", for an axle for the side wheels, and round the ends; the wheels are inches in diameter. fasten these to the axle. now glue the ends of the axle for the front roller to a and c. while this is drying colour the cardboard parts of the engine dark green. bend j (fig. ) and glue this part to the inner sides of a b and c d. cover the part marked k (fig. ) with paper; the part underneath k may remain uncovered. glue the axle of the side wheels in position behind j, with just sufficient space for g to slip in between the engine and the axle. when the axle is secure glue g and h in position; g is glued to the inner sides of d c and b a, h is glued to the inner sides of blocks e and f. the supports, o and n (fig. ), are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] m and l are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". these supports are / inch shorter, as they stand on the axle of the side wheels. the roof is of cardboard coloured green. q is a cardboard wheel glued to l, and joined to the dome by a strip of cardboard, t, bent as in fig. . _a_ is inserted into a slit in the cork, and _b_ is gummed to the wheel. the steps, r, are made of stiff paper. the funnel and the dome are made of corks. chapter xvii gipsy caravan and bathing machine the foundation of the =caravan= is a piece of wood or cardboard, - / inches by inches. the sides are made of stiff paper or cardboard. for each of the long sides draw a rectangle, inches by - / inches, and to each side add / -inch flanges. make the two ends as follows: [illustration: fig. ] draw e f (fig. ) inches, mark off e k and f l / inch each; erect perpendiculars k o and l p; with e as centre and radius, - / inches (_i.e._ height of side a in fig. ) cut k o at g, find point h in the same way, join g e and h f. find m, the centre of e f; with m as centre and radius m g describe an arc from g to h. mark flanges along the top, g h, to which the roof can be gummed, and a flange at the bottom. in front and at the sides draw and colour the windows, which may be made to open. at the back cut out a door (fig. ). colour the sides a light brown. fasten up the caravan by the flanges; the base projects / inch at the front. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the roof is made of brown paper and should be cut to project about / inch over the sides and end of the caravan. it is then gummed to the flanges. the chimney is a roll of brown paper. the wheels should be at least inches in diameter. steps can be made of cardboard and paper, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bathing machine= (fig. ). this is similar to the noah's ark. the measurements are as follows: base, inches by inches; sides, inches by - / inches. measurements for the ends are given in fig. . the roof should be cut to project about / inch over the sides and end of the machine. cut a door in one end. paint the machine in red and white stripes, mark the windows on each side and a number in front. the wheels should be about - / inches in diameter. steps may be added. chapter xviii a train and railway station (plate viii) =a train.= ( ) _the engine_ (fig. ). the body of the engine, a, is a long mantle-box or a piece of old curtain pole, about - / inches long. the wooden bottom, b c, is - / inches by - / inches. a is glued to b c and kept in position by wooden blocks, e and f. the funnel and the dome are made from corks or pieces of round wood; their ends must be slightly concave, so that they may fit securely to a. a ring of cardboard is gummed to the top of the funnel, which may have a hole in it to take a piece of cotton-wool for smoke. the rim of the funnel and the dome are coloured yellow. the boiler can be covered with dark green or dark red paper. the buffers are pieces of round rod, to which cardboard discs are gummed. [illustration: fig. ] the cab is made of cardboard, as shown in fig. , and is coloured to match the engine. g k l m is gummed to the back of a (fig. ), and its sides are fastened to the footplate by the flanges. fig. shows the roof of the cab; the length, n o, is equal to the arc, g h k. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the wheels should be about - / inches in diameter and are fastened underneath b c, as described in chapter xiii. strips of cardboard, coloured black (d in fig. ), are glued to the wooden blocks behind the wheels. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) _the tender_ (fig. ) can be made in various ways. the bottom is best made of wood, inches by - / inches. the sides may be made of wood, inches by - / inches; the back must be cut to fit exactly between the sides. when the back and the sides are glued in position two wedge-shaped blocks may be glued into the corners for strength. the buffers and the wheels as in the engine. the sides of the tender may also be cut out of one piece of cardboard and fastened to the bottom by flanges. it should be coloured to match the engine. pieces of cork dipped in ink make realistic coal. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] ( ) _a cattle truck_ (fig. ). the foundation is a piece of wood, inches by - / inches. the sides may be cut from one piece of cardboard (fig. ) and coloured to represent bars, as in fig. . it may also be made of wood as follows: cut eight thin strips of wood, - / inches by / inch, a b c d, etc., and eight pieces - / inches by / , j k l m in fig. . the pieces are glued together to form the sides, as in fig. . the length of the cross-bar, x, can be obtained by measuring the distance between y and z. glue the sides to the bottom and to each other. wedges may be glued in the corners for strength. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) _a carriage_ (fig. ). the bottom is of wood, - / inches by - / inches. the carriage is made of cardboard, on the same principle as the cattle truck, according to the measurements given in fig. . the upper part of the door may be cut out and the lower part be made to open. the windows may be cut out or coloured with light blue pencil. the interior should be coloured or covered with paper to represent upholstering, etc. before fastening the cardboard to the bottom, glue to the corners of the bottom small blocks of wood, inch high, as supports for the cardboard seats, which should be gummed across them and be suitably coloured. cut the cardboard for the top and leave flanges for fastening it to the ends of the carriage. the top and the ends are coloured black or dark brown. a little piece of round wood or cork, coloured black, is gummed to the top for a lamp. the step is made of stiff brown paper. small screw eyes are screwed in the ends of the various parts of the train, which can be linked together by wire loops. =a railway station.= this station is a suitable size for the train already described. [illustration: train and station, signal-box and signal (part ii, chapter xii)] [illustration: plate viii red cross motor and taxi-cabs (chapter xix and part ii, chapter iii)] a (fig. ) is a piece of wood or cardboard, about feet by inches, standing on supports made of two match-boxes gummed together. b and c are pieces of cardboard fastened by flanges to a. d is a piece of cardboard gummed to supports e and f to cover the hollow in front; this and the platform may be suitably coloured. the railings are of cardboard and are fastened to a piece similar to d. advertisements may be cut from papers and fastened to the posts behind the railings; also the name of the station in the same way (see plate viii). [illustration: fig. ] the =ticket-office and waiting-room= is shown in fig. . this may be made from a cardboard box of suitable size, or from cardboard (according to the measurements given). the bar before the ticket-office is made of match sticks. tram tickets form good advertisements for the walls. additions to station: ( ) porter's truck. see chapter v. ( ) milk-cans. corks covered with silver paper. see chapter v. ( ) flower-pots. a cork filed the right shape and painted is used. the shrubs are cut out of cardboard, coloured and fastened into a slit in the cork (fig. ). ( ) lamp-posts (fig. ). a piece of round rod is placed in a reel or a cork to make it stand. the lamp is cut out of stiff paper, coloured as in the diagram, and is inserted in a slit at the top of the rod. a small piece of cane is passed through a hole near the top for the cross bar. ( ) benches and seats of various kinds may be made from cardboard. ( ) figures of men, women, etc., may be cut from illustrated papers and a strip of cardboard gummed behind them to make them stand upright. ( ) small boxes of various kinds may be placed on the platform for luggage. in country districts, where the station buildings are of a simple design, the children may be encouraged to make sketches of these, and to bring to the models described above such modifications as are to be found in their own locality. in part ii (chapter xii) models of working signals and a signal-box are described. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xix red cross motor and taxi-cab (plate viii) =red cross motor.= begin with a piece of wood - / " Ã� " Ã� / ". glue and nail to this two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", a b and c d in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next cut out a piece of wood inches by inches (a piece of cigar-box will do for this, or a piece of stout cardboard)--e in figs. and . saw out the corners f and g, so that the piece of wood e will fit between the strips c d and a b. saw slits at h and k to hold the cardboard hood. glue e in position as in fig. . a seat must be placed in front of e; it should measure about - / inches by / inch, and may be glued to a piece of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", which is glued to e as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the bonnet is made of two pieces of stripwood, m and n, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / "; these are glued together and glued on as in fig. . a piece of wood, p, well smoothed and with edges rounded, is glued over m and n. r is a piece of wood inches by inch, with the corners cut off or rounded. the hood is made of a piece of thin cardboard, inches by - / inches, cut as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] this hood may be painted grey or khaki-colour, and a cross painted in red on the sides, or cut out of red paper and gummed on. [illustration: fig. ] the hood is glued inside the strips of wood a b and c d in fig. , and fits into the slits h and k in e. for axles and wheels see chapter xiii. figs. and show another kind of van, made of cane and brown linen. =a taxi-cab.= begin with a piece of wood, inches by inches. cut out two pieces of cardboard (medium thickness), - / inches by - / inches. draw doors on them and cut out as in fig. . these pieces are painted the colour desired for the taxicab. [illustration: fig. ] cut out a piece of wood, - / inches by inches, for the back, a b. cut two blocks of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� " (c in fig. ), to be glued on to the bottom to support the seat and back, a b. when glueing these blocks in position see that they are about / inch from the end, and not quite close to the edges. if additional strength is required these blocks may be nailed as well as glued; the back, a b, is nailed and glued to these blocks. now cut two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". glue these posts - / inches from the back, a b (d e in fig. ). now glue on the sides. side f is glued to post d e, to block c and to back a b; the other side is glued in the same way. a cardboard seat may be glued across the blocks and painted the colour desired for the interior. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] now to make the front of the cab. cut a piece of cardboard of medium thickness, - / inches by inches, g in fig. . draw and cut out the windows (the shaded portion of fig. ). to the bottom of g glue a piece of stripwood, h, / inch by / inch, leaving a strip of cardboard / inch wide on each side. h is for the driver's seat. now glue the front, g, to the posts e d (fig. ), and the block h to the bottom. [illustration: fig. ] two cardboard seats, cut as in fig. , should next be fastened by paper hinges to the inside of g. to make the top of the cab cut a piece of cardboard, - / inches by inches (fig. ). make a half cut along a b and bend. glue portion k to the back of the car a b, and l to the tops of the posts e d and to the sides f. if necessary a paper hinge can be used to fasten the top l to the front g. a cardboard seat about inch wide is glued to the block h for the driver. the sides of this seat (m in fig. ) are made of pieces of wood, - / " Ã� " Ã� / ", one corner being rounded as in the figure, and they are glued to each side of the block h. two pieces of cane should be glued on each side and to the roof. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make the bonnet, first cut the piece of wood p, inches by - / inches (fig. ). two round cardboard discs, r and s, with centres painted red are glued at each corner. next two pieces of wood the shape of q in figs. and are cut out. one piece, r, is glued to p, and p is glued to the bottom - / inches from the front (see fig. ). the other piece, q, is glued in front. a piece of cardboard, - / inches by - / inches, is cut as in fig. ; half cuts are made along the dotted lines. it is painted as in the diagram. this piece of cardboard is bent along the dotted lines and glued round q and r to form the bonnet. two pieces of wood, / " Ã� / " Ã� / " (s and t in fig. ) are glued in front on each side of the bonnet; these have round pieces of cardboard gummed to them to represent lanterns. a number should be glued behind and in front of the car and a steering wheel added. the wheels may be made of wood or cardboard; diameter about inches (see chapter xiii). chapter xx swinging and jointed animals (plate ix) the peacock, monkey, and other animals with long tails can be cut from cardboard, and by means of lead buttons attached to their tails be made to swing realistically on a perch. it is difficult in some animals to get the balance correct and the position natural. if the drawings in this book are carefully enlarged and the lead buttons placed on the spot (a) indicated, they will be found to produce satisfactory animals. they look most effective and move more readily when made from three-ply wood with the fret-saw (see part ii), but this work is beyond the ten-year-old child. children of ten and younger can, however, make them quite well of cardboard (the thicker the cardboard, providing the children can cut it with scissors, the better). a set made of wood by the teacher will form a delightful plaything for very little ones, and even material for nature lessons. the =mouse= (fig. ) should be drawn on cardboard, cut out, and both sides coloured. if grey cardboard is used, eyes, whiskers, etc., can be drawn in sepia. two lead buttons (about the size of halfpennies) are glued one on each side of the tail (at a); pieces of paper should then be glued over the buttons and painted to match the tail. children will find it easier to draw these animals if a piece of cardboard is given them on which the animal to be drawn will just fit. the colouring should be as simple as possible to be effective. the stand is similar to that for the swinging boats, but with a rounded bar, on which the part of the animal marked b will rest. the =cat= (fig. ), enlarged, made more fierce-looking and with stripes painted on it makes a very terrifying tiger, ready to spring. the =monkey= (fig. ) may have another monkey swinging from his tail, and so on. animals with movable limbs can also be cut from three-ply wood (see part ii) or cardboard. if cut from cardboard the various joints are fastened by small paper-fasteners. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: plate ix swinging and jointed animals] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make the =elephant= cut out two pieces the shape of a for the body (fig. ), and make four holes in each piece as in the diagram. next, cut out four legs, and fasten two to each portion of the body by little paper-fasteners, then cut out the tail and fasten it between the two pieces that form the body; cut out two ears and the head; one fastener will hold the ears, the sides and the head together; the head is inside the two bodies, the ears outside. [illustration: fig. ] the =giraffe= (fig. ) can be made in a similar way. the =butterfly= and the =dragon-fly= (figs. and ) have their wings and feelers cut out of cartridge paper and gummed on to cardboard bodies, so that when the animals swing their wings wave in a realistic manner. fig. shows how cardboard =crabs= and =lobsters= can be mounted amid under-sea surroundings. part ii chapter i additional tools besides the tools mentioned in part i, viz., bench-hook, hammer, saw, file, bradawl, pincers, the following additional tools will be found of service, though some of these are luxuries, and generally it is best to use as few as possible: . a larger saw, for sawing rougher and larger wood than stripwood, _e.g._ a _tenon saw_, length to inches; to points to an inch, price about one and ninepence. . _an archimedean drill._ this is useful for making small holes when there is danger of the wood splitting, however when once this drill is used, the worker never again feels inclined to use a bradawl or any other kind of boring tool. a quite useful and efficient drill can be bought for sixpence. care must be taken that the drill bits or drill points do not break, for being quite slender and made of tempered steel they are rather fragile. a set of twelve drill points in assorted sizes in a metal case may be bought for sixpence. (for hints on the use of drill, see under fret-saw.) . the _cramp_ or clamp is a contrivance used for holding boards together. an adjustable g cramp is a handy article for small work. there are several models of g cramps; that shown in the plate costs twopence. . a _rasp_ or rough file for removing from boxes either paper or the names that are sometimes stamped on them. . _brace and bit._ the smallest-sized brace, which has a sweep of inches, is the most convenient for children. bits are of many patterns. the most common form is the _centre-bit_ which will cut holes from / inch to - / inches in diameter. the _pin-bit_ or shell-bit of the smallest bore is used to make small-sized holes for screws, etc., but more especially when making preparation for using the centre-bit. a _centre-bit_ - / inches in diameter costs ninepence; a brace and bit ( / inch diameter) together costs one and threepence; this latter bit is useful for boring holes in wheels for axles, etc. however the brace and bit is somewhat of a luxury and can be done without, for holes made with the archimedean drill can always be enlarged to the required size, by means of round files and patience. . the _mitre-block_ is a piece of beech-wood carefully squared and rebated so as to present throughout its length a rectangular step-like recess in which the wood to be mitred is placed in order to be cut at the necessary angle. in the raised part are three saw kerfs, two at an angle of ° with the sides of the mitre-block and one half-way between these at right angles to the sides. the inclination of the saw-cuts at an angle of ° is to the right and left respectively, so that when these angles are brought together in the mitred joint they may form a perfect right angle ( °). the mitre-block is a luxury, but it is useful in squaring off the ends of the wood, making picture frames, making the crane (chapter v), etc., price sixpence. a _compass_, _protractor_, _ruler_, _try-square_ and well-sharpened _pencil_ will be found useful in making nearly every toy. a _plane_ is not necessary for any of the toys described in the following chapters, but is mentioned here in case anyone should require one for reducing the thickness of wood or straightening a surface. the most economical one is a jack-plane fitted with a smoothing-plane iron. the jack-plane thus equipped may be used for reducing thicknesses of material (this is the real function of the jack-plane) as well as for planing up surfaces true and smooth (the purpose of the smoothing-plane). the jack-plane iron has its cutting edge slightly rounded in order to gouge out the wood and thus reduce thickness quickly, the smoothing-plane iron is ground to a straight edge. if both these irons are bought, the plane becomes both a jack-and a smoothing-plane. the stanley bailey adjustable iron plane is a good one. no. size, inches long, is recommended. [illustration: plate x useful tools . fret-saw . 'non-slip' safety ruler . card knife (london pattern) . craft knife . g cramp . round-nose pliers . brass back metal saw . mitre block . tenon saw . archimedean drill . try square . file . bradawl . brace and bit . carton knife] however, as we have said before, it can be done without. the first four tools are the really necessary ones. _the preservation of tools._ keep tools in a dry atmosphere in a wooden box. have them instantly dried after grinding and whenever they have been in contact with wet. iron or steel parts should be frequently rubbed over with a piece of oily rag (if grease is used it must be free from salt). a speck of rust must be removed at once with fine emery-paper and oil. a generous coating of oil or vaseline should be given when tools are laid aside for some time. _the sharpening of tools._ chisels, planes and knives are sharpened on oilstones. the lily-white and the rosy-red washita oilstones are perhaps the best natural stones on the market. with regard to the oil used, machine, engine, neat's foot and sweet oils are all suitable. clean the stone after use. knives are sharpened at an angle on both sides, and will therefore have one side rubbed on the stone a few times and will then be turned over to rub the other side. pen-knives can be sharpened on the ordinary kitchen knifeboard. chapter ii capstan, dreadnought, liner [illustration: fig. ] saw a square piece of wood, side - / inches, a b c d (fig. ). cut two others, sides - / inches. saw the corners of these and make them octagons.[ ] drill a hole through the centre of e (fig. ). into this hole glue a wooden meat skewer or round rod that will pass through the hole of a large reel. glue and nail e to a b c d. round the sides of f (fig. ) drill eight holes about / inch deep. make levers of wood to fit these holes as in fig. . match sticks could be used. now glue f to the top of the reel, g, taking care that the centre of f is over the centre of the reel. place the reel over the axle, round which it can be turned. the capstan can be used for dragging along a toy boat by means of a string tied to the boat and wound round the reel. [ ] to make an octagon from a square a b c d. draw a d and b c (fig. ). with centre c and radius c o mark points e and k, with centre d and same radius mark m and g, and so on. join e f, g h, j k, etc. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] a =dreadnought=. the bottom of the boat is made from a piece of wood - / inches by - / inches. shape the bow as in fig. . to this glue another piece of wood, a b c, shaped to fit over the first, and about inches in length. the two pieces can also be nailed together. [illustration: fig. ] cut a piece of wood, d, - / inches by - / inches, and glue and nail it to a b c. when these pieces are secure drill a hole through them at e for the mast. to carry the guns at the stern, shape two pieces of wood, g and f, in the form of circles or octagons, and glue and nail them in their place. the mast has holes drilled through it to hold pieces of cane. nail / inch nails round one end of d and tie black thread round them. the guns are made of small rolls of brown paper, narrower at one end and painted black or grey. they are glued in position. the guns h and k, are fastened to a small piece of wood, l, to raise them above the level of the deck. the funnels are made of pieces of round wood or rolls of paper. the whole boat is painted grey, and rigged with black thread. a =liner= (fig. ). the foundation of the boat is a piece of wood - / inches by - / inches, and about / inch in thickness, or thicker if possible. shape the bow as in the figure. round the stern. [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of cardboard - / inches by - / inches. these are for the decks (fig. ), and their stern ends must be shaped to correspond to the stern of the boat. place them together on the foundation and make holes right through along their edges about / inch apart. [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". place them one over the other and drill a hole ( / inch in diameter) at p, about - / inches from one end; this hole is to receive the mast, b. along each piece of stripwood mark little doors and windows or port-holes. glue each piece of stripwood along the middle of each cardboard deck, as in fig. , having made holes in the cardboard corresponding to the holes p drilled in the stripwood. now glue the stripwood of one piece to the middle of the cardboard of the other piece, taking care that the holes in each piece of cardboard are over each other (fig. ). while these pieces are drying, drill a hole about inches from the bow for the mast a; drill holes along the edge of the bow (c d e), / an inch apart. cut pieces of cane / inch to fit through the holes in the cardboard, and pieces about / inch in length for railings round the bow. now glue the stripwood, g, to the boat so that ends h and k correspond with the edge of the stern. while this is drying prepare the masts. the mainmast is about inches in length; this length allows it to stand inches above the upper cardboard deck; the foremast is about inches. round the foremast glue a circular piece of cardboard, m, resting on a nail passing through the mast. hammer a nail through at l for a spar, and put a piece of cane through a hole at n. [illustration: fig. ] glue the masts into position. put in a nail at o in the stern, and a piece of cane, d, at the bow. hammer in three nails in side d c and three on the other side for rigging. insert the strips of cane through the holes in the cardboard; put a little glue into the holes in the wooden deck, and tap the cane in very gently; put the smaller pieces of cane into the holes round the bow. tie cotton round the pieces of cane as in fig. ; tie cotton to masts, etc. the funnels are made of rolls of paper. if the liner is a cunarder, the funnels should be red with black bands round the top and two black lines lower down. the wooden sides of the boat are painted dark brown. chapter iii motor-car (plate viii), swinging cradle, deck-chair a piece of flat wood - / inches by - / inches forms the bottom of the car. two pieces of wood, - / inches by inch, are marked out and sawn as in fig. . if it is found too difficult to saw out the corner pieces e f g and h k l, piece a e c m can be cut right off, by sawing along a line e m; g m h n can be cut off by sawing along lines g m and h n, the same with l n b d. [illustration: fig. ] the corners e, f, g, h, k, l should be rounded with a file, as shown in the plate. the two side-pieces are then glued at each side of the bottom. front and back pieces are then cut, and fitted between the bottom and sides; also a top to fit over a e, and seats to fit over g h and l b. these seats are then provided with backs and arms as shown in the plate. axles and wheels should be made and put on as described in part i, chapter xiii. the wheels should be / an inch thick and have the edges rounded to represent the tyre. lastly the steering pillar, with cardboard wheel attached, is fixed into bottom. a drawback to this toy is that it is made of so many separate pieces of wood, but children delight in it and can make it most successfully. children from nine to twelve have turned out most effective motor-cars. =a swinging cradle= (fig. ). the _cradle_ is a wooden box, inches by - / inches, and inches deep. before nailing this together, holes must be drilled in the two short sides, large enough to take a wooden axle about / inch in diameter. a and b are two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� "; their tops are rounded and holes similar to those in the cradle are drilled in them about - / inches from the top. a is fastened to e, which is inches in length, by means of triangular pieces of wood, c and d, which are glued and nailed to a and e. [illustration: fig. ] f and k are wider pieces of wood, inches by inch. e is glued and nailed to f; a wider space must be left on one side of e so that the supports, h and g, can be fastened securely to f. g and h are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". for the axles on which the cradle swings two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / " must be cut and rounded, passed through holes in a and b, and glued securely to the holes in the sides of the cradle. =a deck-chair= (fig. ). two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ", a b, c d, are taken. these are nailed and glued to e and f, each - / inches. e and f should not be placed too near the ends of a b and c d, as the wood may split when the nails are driven in. e and f may be rounded. for the smaller frame of the chair, cut two pieces of stripwood, inches in length. to get the measurements for the bars, m and l, place g h and j k inside a b c d as in fig. , and measure distances g j and h k. this must be done very accurately. before nailing g h and j k together, notches must be cut in them as in fig. . the wood is partly sawn through at n and o, and the notch is then filed out, the safe edge of the file being turned towards n and o. to make the support, two pieces of wood are cut inches in length, q r and u v in fig. , which shows how the length of the piece of wood s, which fastens q r and u v together, is obtained. frame g k is now nailed to frame a d (fig. ). fix the point for the nail at t about inches from h and b. when hammering the nail in at t, the bars a b and g h should rest upon the edge of the bench or table. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] from a and c measure distances of - / inches to r and v respectively. to these points nail the arms of the support, q r and u v. a piece of coloured print or casement cloth is fastened to e and l. other toys which can be made in a similar manner are a camp-stool, a clothes-horse, a screen. chapter iv a tram-car this toy is made of wood, cardboard and paper (cartridge). a piece of wood, e f g h (fig. ), - / inches by - / inches is required for the bottom of the car, and two pieces, a b c d, inches by - / inches, for the sides. the supports ( , , , , , ) are pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". [illustration: fig. ] glue three of these to one of the sides as in fig. , allowing a b c d to project beyond them for a space equal to the thickness of the wooden bottom of the car, e f g h. this forms one side of the car; make the other in the same way. fig. shows how the sides and seats are fastened to the bottom of the car. the seat is a piece of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ". the top of the car is made of thick cardboard cut as in fig. to the given measurements. before the top is fastened on strips of cartridge paper are gummed round its sides. these strips are about an inch wide, and are doubled in half; one half is gummed to the cardboard as in fig. . the other half bends downward and the names of places to which the car runs are printed on it. similar pieces are gummed to the top and bent upward to form the railings round the top (fig. .) [illustration: fig. ] these pieces are painted yellow and edged with dark brown. fig. shows the entrance to the interior of car. j and k are pieces of cardboard, coloured yellow, and glued into position; l is a similarly coloured piece of cardboard or paper glued to supports and . the other entrance is finished off in the same way. cut two pieces of cardboard, - / inches by - / inches, as in fig. . make half-cuts along the dotted lines. these pieces are bent round and glued to the ends of the bottom of the car (m, n, o in fig. ). these are also coloured yellow and their edges are dark brown. [illustration: fig. ] the wheels are put on as the wheels of the engine (part i, chapter xiii). cut two pieces of cartridge paper (p in fig. ), colour as described before, and gum under each end of car. part q is a piece of cardboard one inch wide, coloured like m n o, and gummed along the side, so that it covers at least half the wheels. the top can now be glued on. thin strips of wood or pieces of cane (s and t in fig. and ) are gummed in position. the steps into the car are made of cartridge paper coloured black. fig. shows the simplest way of making the stairs leading to the top of the car. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] w y is a piece of cardboard, inch wide, to which pieces of stiff paper are gummed as in diagram. x is a flap of paper which fastens the steps to the top of the car. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _seats for the top._ pieces of cartridge paper are cut out, - / inches by / inch, and coloured yellow. these are folded and cut as in figs. and . part _a_ is gummed to the side of the car, flap _b_ is gummed to the floor. the second seat is gummed back to back to the first seat (fig. ). the top of the car will hold about six of these double seats. single seats can be gummed in the corners. steering-wheels are made as in fig. . the top is of cardboard, cut or marked as in the figure and coloured black. this is gummed to a round rod, about - / inches in length, which is fastened to the end of the car (n in fig. ). a similar steering-wheel is fastened to the other end. chapter v a crane =a crane.= _foundation_, _arm_, _pulley_. cut a piece of wood about - / inches by - / inches (h in fig. ). cut a second piece a square, a, side - / inches. cut off the corners. this forms a stand on which the crane, etc., is fastened. cut a piece of stripwood, / " x / " x ". this is the arm of the crane, c, and is usually inclined at an angle of ° to °. to support this arm cut b with sides about / inch, angles ° or ° and °. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, each inches in length; shape like e and f in fig. . these can now be glued and nailed to the arm c, projecting an inch beyond. a wheel for the pulley is cut from a round rod about / inch in diameter. if a groove is to be made round the circumference, the wheel should be about / to / inch thick. the groove is made with a file. a simple way to make the groove is to cut two cardboard discs a little larger in diameter than the wheel and glue them to each side of the wheel, in which case the latter need not be quite so thick. a hole is drilled through the wheel and enlarged by a round file to / inch in diameter. a piece of wood is now rounded for an axle, so that the wheel turns on it easily. this must fit tightly between e and f. pass it through the wheel and glue it in position (g in fig. ). _winding gear._ cut two pieces of stripwood, / " x / " x ", j and k in fig. . round their tops, drill and enlarge holes in them. a hole must now be made through the centre of a, to enable this part to rotate on the foundation h, so that the crane may swing round in any direction. one of the simplest ways of doing this is to use a rivet, but if such is not procurable a screw may be used; the hole in a is made large enough for a to turn easily on the pivot which can be screwed into h. before this is done, pieces j and k are fastened to a about one inch apart. to do this, drive nails right through a in correct positions, glue the ends of j and k and hammer them on to the nails. the head of the nail should rest on a piece of metal when the wood is being hammered down on its point. the support b should now be glued and nailed to a. when b is firmly fixed the arm c is fastened to it. the hole in the centre of a must be left clear. a is now riveted or screwed to h. a wooden axle, p, is made to pass through holes in j and k, and to the ends of this axle wheels are glued. (the figure shows one only.) the wheels can be made from reels, or several discs of cardboard gummed together. before glueing on the wheels, wooden handles, l, are fastened to them. a wooden handle o is fastened to a. this is used for turning the crane. a piece of stout thread is tied to and wound round p and passed over the pulley. to the end of this a hook is fastened, made from wire or a bent pin. bags can be made and filled with sawdust, etc. [illustration: plate xi a crane] chapter vi windmill, water-wheel, and well =windmill= (plate xii). cut a square of wood, side inches. this is the stand a in fig. . to the centre of this glue a large reel, b. next cut two -inch squares of wood and drill through their centres holes of about / inch in diameter. glue one to the top of the reel so that the holes coincide. next cut and glue into position the supports, c. for these stripwood / inch by / inch can be used. cut two pieces of wood, inches by inches. these form two sides of the windmill; glue and nail them to the other -inch square, which forms the bottom of the windmill. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next cut two pieces of wood as in fig. , for the other sides of the windmill. drill a small hole in each at d about - / inches from the top. on one of these sides mark and paint a door and windows as in fig. , and over the door make a small roof, like the roof over the porch of the signal-box (chapter xii). the windows and door may be cut out with a fret-saw and the door hinged on by means of a strip of strong linen. glue and nail these sides in position. make and fix the roof. _the sails._ for these, two strips of wood, / inch square and inches long, are necessary. in the centre of each of these, cut a slot half-way through the wood so that one may fit tightly into the other (f in fig. ). the sails are made of cardboard, and are rectangular in shape, measuring inches by inches. they are coloured light brown, with dark markings on them, as shown in the plate. shape each end of the arms of the sails as in fig. . this is easily done by filing, if the wood is fairly soft. saw half-way through the wood at e, and file, or cut off the wood with a pen-knife. to this flat surface the sails are glued, so that they may be inclined to the wind. now glue the two arms together, and when they are firm make a hole through the middle, f, where the arms cross. take a short steel knitting needle, about - / inches; fix one end into this hole with glue; then glue a small piece of cardboard or wood over it, and a cork washer behind, to keep the sails from touching the walls of the windmill; pass the needle through the holes in the sides of the windmill and glue a little knob of wood to the other end to prevent the needle slipping back. if a needle cannot be obtained, an old bicycle spoke, or even a wooden meat skewer, will do, but in the latter case the holes in the walls must be made larger, and the sails fixed to the end of the skewer by a small nail. now glue a piece of round rod into the reel (h in fig. ) so that it projects about an inch. place the mill on this stand, so that the rod passes through the hole in the bottom of the mill. the mill can be turned round in any direction so that the sails may catch the wind. make a small ladder to reach the door. a very pretty but somewhat more difficult windmill is shown in fig. . it is made of cardboard. the foundation, platform and railings can be made as described in the case of the lighthouse (chapter xiii). the truncated hexagonal pyramid forming the body of the windmill is made as follows. with centre o (fig. ), and a radius of about inches, describe an arc, a b. from any point on this arc mark off six spaces, each inches. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] join the several points to each other and to o. with radius about inches make arc c d. join points where c d cuts radii, by dotted lines. draw the flanges; make half cuts along the dotted lines, cut out along the dark lines, and fold into shape. fasten together with seccotine; turn in the flanges at the bottom, and fasten them to the platform. the _top of the windmill_ can be cut from one piece of cardboard. draw square, a b c d (fig. ), large enough to project beyond top of hexagonal pyramid (side of square should be about inches). on the middle of d c draw m k = inches, and draw a similar line on a b. join a j, j b, k d and k c, by curved lines. produce a b and d c both ways. make b f, c e, d h, a g, equal in length to arc b j. draw the flange e f p o. make holes in the middle of a j b and d k c through which the knitting-needle (on which the sail is fastened) may pass. draw flanges on b j, j a, etc. make half cuts along the dotted lines, and cut along the dark lines. before fastening the top together, put a very small paper-clip through the middle of square, a b c d, and fasten it to a square of cardboard of the same size, so that it turns freely on it. this second square will be gummed to the top of the hexagonal pyramid, so that the top of the windmill may be turned in any direction. bend up a j b and d k c at right angles to square, a b c d. bend up b c e f and a d h g and gum them to the flanges of a j b and d k c; gum flange f o to a d h g. the sails are made as already described. =a water-wheel= (plate xii). _the wheel._ cut two discs of cardboard, inches in diameter. make holes in the centre, glue them to a small reel (about an inch high), and pass a round rod through for an axle. this wheel is an overshot water-wheel--that is, one that receives the water _shot over_ the top, and must be fitted with 'buckets.' these receive the water at the top of the wheel and retain it until they reach the lowest point (see fig. ). the 'buckets' may be made of stiff paper or thin cardboard. cut pieces inch in width, and in length the distance of the two wheels apart plus / an inch. mark these out as in fig. , where _a b_ is the distance between the wheels, and _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_ are flanges for fastening the bucket to the wheels. fold as in fig. . make at least twelve of these buckets; divide the wheel into twelve parts, and fasten the buckets between the wheels. [illustration: windmill and watermill] [illustration: plate xii drawbridge (chapter vii)] to make the toy technically correct, the buckets should rest against a solid wheel contained within the two outer ones, as in fig. , so that no water can run down toward the centre of the wheel. this can be easily managed, if desired, in the following manner: before fastening the wheels to the reel, cut a long strip of paper, with flanges, as in fig. , in which _a b_ is the distance between the two outer wheels. describe a smaller circle on one of the wheels, about inches in diameter; glue the reel in position, then bend down the flanges of this strip of paper (fig. ), and gum these round the smaller circle of the wheel. now gum the other wheel to the reel and to the flanges of the paper. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the wheel should be painted brown, with spokes marked in darker colour. the plate shows the wheel and the mill-house. a hole is made in the side of the house, into which the axle of the wheel is inserted; the other end is held by the upright standard shown in the plate. the shoot may be made of cardboard; it should slope a little and should come just over the top of the wheel, which revolves freely beneath it. a chimney may be made of a cork, one end being cut on the slant, so that it stands upright on the roof, which is made of cardboard. the whole should be suitably coloured. _an undershot wheel._ this wheel is very simple to make. it has a number of float-boards arranged round it and is turned by a stream of water moving against the float-boards at its lowest point (fig. ). fig. shows how the float-boards, which are made of cardboard, are fastened between the wheels. with this undershot wheel, the shoot represented in the plate is not required. [illustration: fig. ] =a well= (fig. ). the round part of the well is made from a mantle-box or other round box. a is a fairly deep box turned upside down, with a circle cut out into which the mantle-box fits closely. this gives a fair depth. cover the well with paper coloured to represent bricks; colour the box, a, green. the cardboard roof is glued to posts, d, and to triangular pieces of wood, b and c, glued to each side of d. holes are drilled through the posts to take the roller, e, which is a round rod about / an inch in diameter. drill small holes in it at each end. push a pin from the end f through the side post into the roller. bind a piece of wire to form a handle, g, and push one end of this into the roller. bend a piece of wire or pin to form a hook, tie this to a piece of string, wind it round the roller and fasten the other end of the string to roller with seccotine. if a small chain is used this can be fastened by one of its links to the roller with a staple, and should be so fastened before the roller is put in position. chapter vii drawbridge and siege tower =a drawbridge= (plate xii). two pieces of wood for the front, h and i (fig. ), must first be sawn inches by - / inches. the white wood of chocolate boxes, etc., is the best. next two strips of wood, " Ã� / " Ã� / " are cut (satin walnut stripwood will do)--d e and f g in fig. . the bridge is made of a piece of white wood, - / inches by - / inches. the posts, d e and f g, are nailed to the bridge so that the bridge turns on the nails. (note that the bridge is nailed about - / inches from bottom of post.) next two lengths of stripwood, r s, are sawn " Ã� / " Ã� / ", these are nailed to pieces h and i (nails are about - / inches from bottom), so that the portions r t project about - / inches. the strips r s turn freely on their nails. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] before nailing them in position, their ends should be rounded as in the figure. the posts g f and d e (which hold the bridge) are then glued to h and i. a piece of wood, v, about inches by - / inches, is glued to the lower parts of h and i, and joins them together. next the piece of wood q is cut; its width will be the distance of post f g from d e (about - / inches)--this distance should be carefully measured so that the piece fits well; its length will be about inches. the arch is cut with a fret-saw. piece q is kept in position by having the ends of the arch glued to posts f g and d e, and by a length of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) glued along the top as shown in the plate. lengths of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) may also be glued down the sides. holes must be drilled in the ends, r, for wire loops, care being taken that these holes are over the bridge; wire loops must be placed on the bridge exactly underneath, and these loops are joined by chains, which can be made of wire or else bought from an ironmonger. fig. shows the inside of the drawbridge; a, b, c and d are the lead weights for raising and lowering the beams. these weights can be cut from a piece of sheet lead or may be lead buttons. they are attached to the beams by chains and wire hooks. e f is a ledge for the defenders of the bridge to stand on. sides have been added and a platform, l. the battlements, g, h, k, etc., are made of pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", glued round the top. the ladder is made of matches as described in chapter ix. =a movable siege tower= (plate xiii). two pieces of wood (a and b in fig. ) are sawn to the shape and measurements of fig. . to the broader ends of these, pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch are glued and nailed (c in fig. ), and other pieces, d, / inch by / inch (about three on each side), are fastened at equal distances apart. d_{ } and the corresponding piece on the other side must not extend to edge of b, but a space must be left of / inch for the posts of the drawbridge. next the wood is cut for the foundation and the platforms, j, h, etc. a stands about inches from b, so this must be the width of all the platforms, except the foundation, f, which is wider and projects about / inch on each side of a and b, and the platform k, which rests on a and b. the other dimensions of the platforms will be the same as those of the pieces of stripwood on which they rest. the platform k must be about / inch narrower than tops of a and b, to leave room for posts l and m. a and b are now glued and nailed to the base by means of the pieces of stripwood, c, at their ends, and the platforms are glued in position. two pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, s and t in fig. , are now cut equal in length to distance of k from h, for the supports of bridge. place these in position between k and h, and measure distance between them; this gives width of drawbridge; its length is - / inches. this can now be sawn. fix in position as explained for previous toy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next cut two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", l and m. at the ends of these drill holes, / inch in diameter, through which passes the chain of the drawbridge. fix these in position by triangular wedges glued to sides and to platform j. on top, k, add struts to support m and l, as shown in the plate. the chains of the drawbridge are looped over nails driven into a and b, just above platform j. the base may be mounted on small wheels and strengthened with projecting beams by which the tower may be pushed into position. (these are not shown in plate.) ladders to reach the top can also be made (see chapter ix), and a battering ram may be swung from platform h, as shown in the plate. a tower of this kind was used by the crusaders in the siege of jerusalem ( ). [illustration: plate xiii mediÃ�val siege tower trapget] chapter viii war engines past and present =a war engine= (plate xiii). this piece of artillery was used at the time of the crusade of richard i. it is a simple and interesting model to make. the sides (a b c d in fig. ) are built up of pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, length about inches, or the sides may be pieces of cigar-box. if made of stripwood, grooves can be filed in the two bottom pieces to make holes, e, when these pieces are glued together. a round rod passes through these holes to form a windlass. two posts, f and g, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", are glued to the sides about - / inches from end, a c, as in figure; these must either have holes drilled through them for a rod of wood (or thick wire) or have circular grooves filed in the tops into which a rod can be glued. [illustration: fig. ] the sides _a b c d_ and a b c d should be about - / inches apart, and are kept together by pieces of stripwood glued across the bottom. make struts as in the figure to support posts f and g. the beam h k may be made from a piece of stripwood, / Ã� / Ã� ", filed to a round shape. two pieces of wire, l l, are bent to form a fork and two hooks, m and n are bound firmly to one end with thread. the other end, k, has a small screw-eye screwed into it through which passes a wooden bolt to keep the rings of lead, o, from slipping off. these rings of lead are easily made from strips cut from a piece of sheet lead and bent round the beam. (a pair of old scissors should be kept for cutting lead, or a knife and hammer may be used.) now the beam h k must be fastened to rod p q. this may be done in different ways. the simplest but least effective way is to bind the beam firmly in the middle to the rod with thread or elastic. a second way is to drill a hole through the beam, through which the thread or elastic that binds it to the rod can pass. the best way perhaps is to make the hole in the beam large enough for rod p q to pass through, and then bind it to the rod with elastic or thread or, if a large model is being made, catgut. (a jeweller is generally ready to give away a small quantity of this.) a barrel, r, can be filed or cut from a small piece of wood or cork, or it may be a small reel. to work the machine pull the beam down by means of a piece of thread looped on to the hook m and wound around the windlass. when the beam head is down, place the barrel on the fork and keep it in position by rope, s. when the beam head is released, it flies up and the barrel is shot forward. this trapget or war engine was used for casting greek fire, with which the barrel was filled. it may interest the maker of this toy to know its composition. in the words of an old writer: "you make greek fire thus: take quick-sulphur, dregs of wine, persian gum, 'baked salt,' pitch, petroleum, and common oil. boil these together. then whatever is placed therein and lighted, whether wood or iron, cannot be extinguished except with vinegar or salt." [illustration: fig. ] generally this engine had a kind of wooden hood in front to protect those working the machine (fig. ). this hood is easily made of stripwood or an old cigar-box. notice that the stripwood that forms the sides, a b c d, must be longer (extended in diagram to s t), so that strips of wood, , , , , , can be nailed and glued as in diagram. the =mangonel=, fig. (an instrument for casting great stones to beat down walls and to slay the enemy), makes an interesting toy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] first cut two pieces of wood, - / inches by - / inches (the sides of a wooden chocolate box will do when sawn the right size and filed), and shape them as in fig. . saw slits in both pieces at g, / inch wide and / inch deep. if two saw-cuts are made for each slit the wood between can be cut away with a pen-knife. these slits must be about - / inches from end, _b d_. with a round file make semicircles at _c_ and _e_ to hold the rollers on which the engine is moved into position. with a bradawl and round file make holes, f, in both pieces about - / inches from end, a (diameter of hole about / inch, or larger if a larger windlass is required). put these two pieces aside, and next saw a length of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� "; saw a slit about / inch from one end and hammer it on the metal top of a bottle of le page's liquid glue as in fig. . the corner _a_ should be cut or filed off. a small screw-eye is screwed into the wood just below the metal top. saw a piece of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", tie this firmly with elastic to the other end of the first piece of stripwood as in fig. . this elastic constitutes the propulsive force. the ancients used catgut, which formed a thick coil, stretched from h to k, the lever passing through the middle of the coil. the pulling down of the lever gave additional twist to the coil, which reacted strongly on release. now fasten the sides _a b c d_ and a b c d together by nailing and glueing them to two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". then glue h k securely into the slots g so that the beam with the stone-holder m is upright. push a round stick through the holes f, for a windlass; this can have holes drilled in the portions that project, to hold sticks for turning the rod. a piece of thread is tied to the screw-eye q, and wound round the windlass f; when this thread is tightened the beam is pulled down, then when let go it flies up, causing anything placed in the tin, m, to be shot some distance. the safest 'stones' to put in this pan are pieces of cork or small pieces of wood. the following additions can be made to the model: ( ) rr are pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ", glued to the sides and carrying a strip, t. this strip t in the olden days was covered with leather and was so placed that the beam carrying the stone-holder would abut against it. notice the struts w for supporting the posts r. ( ) n o is a rod (about / inch in diameter) passing through two small screw-eyes fixed in a piece of stripwood, s, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". a piece of strong wire, p, passes through hole in rod n o; it is bent so that it cannot work out, and the other end is bent to just catch the holder, m, when it is pulled down. a releasing handle is fastened to the rod, n o at o. the beam s is glued into slots in a b c d and _a b c d_, so that when the beam is pulled down the catch p clutches m. ( ) small screw-eyes may be screwed in at a, _a_, b, _b_, for holding ropes to fasten the machine to pegs in the ground. rollers may also be made to fit under c and e. this toy is an attractive one, because it really works successfully. it must be strongly put together, for the beam when pulled down flies up with considerable force. stone-throwers like this were used at the siege of acre. very often these engines had special names given to them. for example philip of france had a very good engine of war called 'the bad neighbour,' and inside acre the turks had one called 'the bad kinsman.' =cannons of the fourteenth century.= these are very easily made. figs. and show two that can be copied. in fig. a piece of wood is cut to the shape of a b; a groove is then filed in it, into which the cannon c is glued. the cannon may be made of a roll of brown paper (two pieces may be pasted together for greater strength) with four bands of cartridge paper painted yellow and gummed round it, or it may be a piece of wood filed to shape and circled with bands of lead. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the cannon in fig. consists of two cardboard wheels on an axle of stripwood, / inch by / inch, and the cannon is glued to a groove in the axle. it may be made of wood with a lead rim, or of two rolls of brown paper as in fig. , where the flanges of the smaller roll a are gummed to flanges of b. =cannon of the fifteenth century.= this may be made of a short mantle-box (with lids on), cardboard wheels and pieces of stripwood, / inch by / inch. fig. shows the finished cannon. the stripwood cart which the cannon rests on must be made to fit the mantle-box; the shafts _a_ may be straight or curved. round holes may be cut at _b_. this same cannon may be fitted with axles, and swing between two posts. the wheels should be painted black, and the mantle-box covered with black paper, with bands of yellow paper at , and . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] toward the end of the fifteenth century artillery was much improved. fig. shows a gun that is interesting to make. the carriage consists of two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� " (_a b_ and _c d_ in fig. ). a cannon, e, is made out of a roll of brown paper, length - / inches, diameter about / inch, and glued between _a b_ and _c d_, or it may simply rest on cross-pieces of wood joining _a b_ and _c d_. g is a piece of wood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", turning on a pin or piece of wire, h, which passes through _a b_ and _c d_. _a b_ and _c d_ are glued to a piece of stripwood f ( / inch by / inch) which has its projecting ends rounded to receive two cardboard wheels. the great fault of these earlier cannons was that though they were often of immense bore and weight, throwing balls of from one to five hundredweights, they were for the most part without carriages, and therefore very difficult to move about and very slow in their operations. the scots were the first to anticipate the modern gun-carriage by what they called 'carts of war,' which carried two guns. many of the guns of the english required fifty horses to drag them! ='mons meg'= (a fifteenth-century cannon still to be seen at edinburgh castle) is an easy model to make. [illustration: fig. ] parts a and b (fig. ) are drawn on cardboard, cut out and coloured (brown and black). they are joined together by strips of cardboard at _a b_ and _c d_. to the cardboard at _a b_ the cannon is gummed. the wheels are of cardboard, the axle of stripwood ( / inch by / inch). mons meg fired a granite ball weighing lb. =a tudor cannon= (fig. ). the sides a a may be cut out of cardboard or, better still, of three-ply wood with the fret-saw. the wheels are solid discs and may also be cut out with the fret-saw, holes being drilled in the centre for the axle. the cannon itself can be shaped out of wood with pen-knife and file, or a cardboard roll (such as is used for transmitting music or pictures) can be used, the thicker parts are then made by gumming additional pieces of cardboard round it, or glueing strips of lead. [illustration: fig. ] it is difficult to discover when gunpowder was first used. probably its use was learnt from the saracens in the fourteenth century. roger bacon (? - ) suggested that it might be used in warfare. in a florentine document of mention is made of the use of gunpowder in europe. the first use of the cannon recorded in english history is in , when edward iii was at war with scotland. in making the guns described in this chapter it is necessary to distinguish between breech-loading cannons and muzzle-loading. the breech-loader is loaded from the breech or rear end of the barrel and not at the muzzle. figs. , and are examples of this kind and therefore must have a hole at each end. figs. and are examples of muzzle-loading cannons and therefore have holes only at one end. during the sixteenth century breech-loading was gradually abandoned for muzzle-loading owing to the large escape of gas and air at the breech. it was not until that it was reverted to with great improvements. [illustration: fig. ] =a ship cannon.= a piece of wood (about / inch thick, the side of a wooden chocolate-box or any other light box will do) is first sawn out - / inches by inches (a in fig. ). another piece of wood, b, - / inches by inches, is cut and glued on the first piece. three pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, c, d, e, are cut to lengths - / inches, - / inches, inches respectively. these are glued on one side as in the figure, and similar strips are cut and glued to the other side. two pieces of stripwood, f, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", have holes drilled half way through them, to receive the pivots of the gun, but must not be glued on to e until the gun is in position. the cannon is made of a roll of brown paper inches long; one end should be narrower than the other (the widest end say inch in diameter, the narrowest end / inch to / inch). [illustration: fig. ] the roll must be securely fastened together by seccotine, two layers of brown paper make a strong cannon; black paper is then pasted over it and bands of brown paper as in fig. . a hole is pierced through the cannon about half-way along it, and a round stick, k m, passed through; this pivot should be just long enough to fit into blocks f when these are fixed and glued in position. before this is done, the wheels should be made and fastened on. this is an easy matter. two lengths of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) are cut - / inches long. the little wheels ( / inch in diameter) are cut from any round rod available, or if no rod can be obtained they may be cut out of cardboard. holes are drilled in the wheels and nails with large heads passed through and driven into the stripwood. the axles are either glued or nailed to the bottom of a. finally the pivot, k m, is fitted into its blocks, and these are glued into position. a wedge can be made to slip in under the cannon to raise and lower it. the wedge should be just wide enough to slip in between the two layers of stripwood. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a modern breech-loading field gun= (fig. ). this is a simple toy to make. a piece of stripwood, a, / " Ã� / " Ã� ", must first be cut, and the ends, b and c, rounded for about / inch (fig. ). next two pieces of stripwood, d and e, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", are cut. these must have their tops rounded as in fig. , and have holes drilled through them to receive a rounded match, g. f is a piece of wood / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". pieces f, d and e are glued or nailed to a. before the pivot g is put in position the cannon must be made. this is a roll of black paper, - / inches long, / inch in diameter at widest end, and / inch at the narrowest. holes are made through it to receive the pivot. the ends of the match sticks that project beyond d and e can be cut off. next the wheels are cut. these may be cardboard discs of diameter - / inches. a piece of wood, h, is next cut, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", and worked to the shape shown in fig. . the end l must be sawn at an angle, so that when h is glued on, d is perpendicular. the end l is glued to the piece of wood, f. k is a piece of cardboard with a hole through it for pulling the cannon along; it is glued to end m. the wheels, etc., should be painted black or grey. the cannon itself may be made of white paper and painted grey or yellow, or else made of yellow or light brown paper. a =cart= must next be made to carry ammunition for the cannon. the shells for the cannon described would be about - / inches long, so the cart must be - / inches long, and - / inches wide (fig. ). it can be made of wood or cardboard. notice the end to which the lid is attached. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the wheels must be the same size as those used for the cannon and can be made and attached in the same way to an axle, but this axle must project some distance beyond the wheel, as in fig. , and have a groove filed round it, so that short chains may be fastened on each side; ropes are attached to these chains to allow the cart to be pulled along by hand. fig. shows the shaft. it is - / times the length of the cart. it can be made of strips of cardboard or wood. matches painted black make good shells. chapter ix a fire-escape (plate xiv) to make this toy, plenty of used matches are required, and some strips of light wood (that obtained from a soap-box or chocolate-box will do) and liquid glue. two lengths of wood, q r and s t, are cut - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", and one long edge of each is rounded. these pieces are sand-papered if they are rough or uneven. twenty-three pencil dots half an inch apart are marked down the middle of the widest side of one piece. the two pieces are then clamped together (the piece with the marks on top), and holes drilled through them both together with an archimedean drill. next seventeen matches are taken, and cut exactly to the length - / inches; the ends are tapered so that they will fit in the holes drilled. beginning from one end of one long strip, hammer these matches in the first seventeen holes, place the second long strip of wood on top of these matches, so that the first seventeen holes are exactly over the seventeen matches and hammer it on. (be careful to hammer in between the holes, a file makes a good hammer.) hammer first one strip, and then the other until the matches are driven firmly in the holes, as far as they will go; file away all projecting ends of matches. through the eighteenth hole of q r and s t, a long piece of wood, a b, must pass to project - / inches on each side of the ladder (fig. ). two pieces of wood, - / " Ã� / " Ã� / " (c d and e f), are cut, and have six holes drilled in them; these six holes must be marked off from the six remaining holes in the main ladder, so that they will come exactly opposite them; these pieces are secured to the main ladder by matches, and by the cross-piece, a b. the whole ladder is then glued to a strip of wood, g h, / inch by / inch of a length equal to the total width of the ladder. this can be put aside for a time. next the shaft in fig. is made. k p is the same length as g h in fig. and about / inch by / inch; k m, l n, o j, p u are each - / inches long, they are the same distances apart as c g, q r, s t and e h in fig. . they are held together by strips, v, w, x, y, z. these strips may be matches; in this case they must be inserted first, and then the whole of k m p u is glued to k p. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this shaft is fastened to the main ladder in fig. midway between a b and g h, so that when the shaft is horizontal the main ladder makes an angle of ° with it. fig. shows the shaft m k, p u, attached to the main ladder; it is supported in its place by four struts, two on each side (_a_ and _b_ in fig. ). care must be taken to saw off the ends m, n, j, u (fig. ) so that they rest exactly against c d, r q, s t, e f (fig. ), at about an angle of °. the ends of the struts must also be carefully bevelled to fit; the main ladder can then be glued to the shaft and the struts to the main ladder and shaft. small wheels of cardboard or wood are nailed (as for ship's cannon) at each end of g h. an axle for the larger wheels must be made to be glued on k p (fig. ). care must be taken in deciding on the size of the large wheels, the diameter must be such a length that the shaft, k m p u, is parallel to the ground. [illustration: plate xiv fire-escape] next the back portion shown on the plate is made similarly to the shaft shown in fig. . it is glued to g h so as to be at right angles to the main ladder. pieces of wire bent and pushed into holes in c d and e f form railings. pieces of stout thread are attached to strengthen the whole, as shown in the plate. an extra ladder (necessarily narrower) can be made to rest on the bar, x, and lean inside a piece of bent wire as shown. the wheels can be made of cardboard or sawn from any of the materials suggested in part i, chapter xiii. _note._--in making the fire-escape it will be a help to cut out two cardboard angles of °, these help to keep the shaft k m p u in the right position while the glue is drying. chapter x castle, tournament, and fair =a castle= (plate xv). fig. is an example of a mediæval castle and is somewhat similar to the castle of chaluz, which was besieged by richard i. it is made of cardboard of medium thickness. first make the four towers, a, b, c, d fig. . cut a piece of cardboard inches by - / inches. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] divide this as in fig. , and make half cuts along the dotted lines. cut out the windows. fold and gum together. make the other towers in the same way. to make overhanging battlements, cut pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch the correct length, and glue them round the tops of the towers (fig. ). then cut out pieces of cardboard as in fig. , and gum these to the wood. it is best to cut a strip of cardboard long enough for two sides only, and to make a half cut at the bend; then to cut another strip for the other two sides. small pieces can be cut off a length of stripwood, / inch by / inch, and glued underneath, as _a_, _b_, _c_, in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next make the sides, m, n, o, p; these are about inches in width, but a / inch must be allowed on each side for flanges for fastening them to the towers; in height they just reach the battlements of the towers. make battlements as described, cut out the windows and fasten these sides to the four towers. colour this part suitably. to make a flat roof for q (fig. ), cut eight lengths of stripwood / inch by / inch just long enough to come about / inch below the battlements of the sides, m, n, o, p, and glue these into the eight corners of q. cut a piece of cardboard to fit over q, cut doors in this for access to the roof, and glue it to the tops of the pieces of stripwood. to make towers e and f. cut a piece of cardboard, inches by inches. mark it out as in fig. , and make half cuts along the dotted lines; the narrow strips at each end are flanges for fastening the tower e, to a and c. make battlements round the top, colour, mark the windows and door, and gum to a and c; make f in the same way. g and h are similar towers - / inches square and inches high. the four towers, e, f, g, h, can be covered with roofs in the way already described. g and h are fastened to e and f respectively, by pieces of cardboard inches long and about - / inches high. g is fastened to h by l, which is about - / inches long and - / inches high. a door can be made in l, leading into the courtyard, q. cut a piece of cardboard, r in fig. , about - / inches high, and gum it to the side of e to form a wall; between the latter and tower a fit a flight of steps. these are marked out as in fig. . make half cuts along the lines marked----; turn the cardboard over and make half cuts on the other side along the dotted lines; bend in alternate directions. flanges may be added to each step. a =tournament= (plate xv). fig. shows a royal tent at a tournament. the platform inside may be made of match-boxes (a, b, c, d, e, f show the six foremost ones) or of any suitable cardboard box. pieces of cardboard, g h k l and m n o p, are gummed on each side. _a b c d_ is a piece of cardboard gummed to a match-box and placed in front of the opening between h l and m o. paper steps may be made to lead from the ground to the top of the match-box, and thence to the top of the platform. the roof, s, is a piece of paper, bent along t v, to fit the triangular tops of the cardboard sides, q and r, to which it is fastened by paper hinges. a piece of cardboard is gummed at the back. flags, etc., may be added. x and z show stands at the back for the more ordinary spectators. they are simply strips of cardboard, suitably painted and gummed for support to match-boxes or strips of wood. the railings shown in the plate are made of cardboard or stripwood, and placed in suitable positions to represent the lists. if the railings are made of cardboard they should be fitted into a groove in a piece of wood to enable them to stand. [illustration: castle and tournament] [illustration: plate xv mediÃ�val fair] across the enclosed space, and parallel to the royal tent, a partition is placed to separate the combatant knights. it may be made of cardboard or wood (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] two circular tents made of cardboard and paper stand at each side; in these the knights put on their armour. in fig. a is a cardboard disc to which the paper covering c is gummed by a flange; b is a post which is glued into a hole in the middle of the cardboard disc and rests on the ground inside the tent. the horses are made of corks and matches as described in previous chapters. a piece of coloured paper (a in fig. ) is gummed over the horse's back. the saddle, b, is a piece of coloured paper, gummed to a. the bridle is cut out of paper. knights may be cut out of paper as in fig. . two pieces of paper should be cut out, of the same shape except that one arm bears a lance, the other a shield; gum the head and upper part of the body together; the knight can be fastened to the horse by gumming his legs to the trappings, a. heralds, a king and queen to sit in the royal box (for which a bench must be made), spectators, etc., may be drawn and cut out, or suitable figures can sometimes be cut from old history books or advertisements. the background may consist of trees or of a castle. in a similar way, with cork horses, etc., a procession of the canterbury pilgrims can be made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a fair in the days of henry viii= (plate xv). the plate shows the background of the fair. it is a piece of cardboard, with houses drawn upon it and coloured; behind it are fastened two cardboard supports which enable it to stand upright. this piece of cardboard should be as long as possible, to give plenty of room for many booths to be placed in front of it. fig. shows a booth at which cloth and woollen materials are sold. the covering of the booth is made of paper. the tables may be of different shapes in different stalls. in the cloth merchant's stall, rolls of coloured paper are piled up to represent bales of cloth. to the pole is tied a sheep cut out of cardboard. an apothecary's booth with its red and white pole can be made. shelves of cardboard, supported on little pieces of wood glued to the posts of the tent, may be fastened round three sides of the booth; cardboard bottles are cut out, painted and fastened to the shelves by paper hinges, or bottles can be made of plasticine. [illustration: fig. ] other booths may be added, one for 'ribbons of all the colours of the rainbow,' others for books, leather, ironmongery, pewter and silver articles for the table, etc. chapter xi an old chariot and some quaint dolls' furniture fig. shows a quaint swinging chariot of the eleventh century; it can be made of stout cartridge paper, cardboard and stripwood ( / inch by / inch). [illustration: fig. ] first draw on cartridge paper two arcs of a circle (about -inch radius), _a b c_ and _d e f_ in fig. ; join them by straight lines _a d_ and _c f_. this is for the floor of the chariot. to make the sides, draw arc g h k (fig. ) with same radius, but portions g l and m k project about inch beyond the arc _a b c_ in fig. . join g and k by the curved line, g n k. draw the flange o p. colour the side yellow and brown, cut out. bend the flange o l m p and gum it to _a b c_ in fig. . draw and cut out the other side in a similar manner and gum it on; the chariot will then appear as in fig. . two seats of paper can be gummed inside. [illustration: fig. ] two pieces of stripwood ( / inch by / inch), a and b in fig. , are then cut; their height must be determined by the size of the car. two small screw-eyes are screwed in at c and d (fig. ), from which the car is slung by pieces of thread or wire. the posts, a and b, are glued and nailed to the middle of the axles, which must be flat, the ends only being rounded for the wheels. pieces of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) or strips of cardboard, c, connect the axles on each side. [illustration: fig. ] the wheels are cardboard discs, with a pattern drawn on them as in the figure, and painted yellow and brown. fig. shows a pretty chair for a doll's house. it is a copy of a carved oak chair of the fourteenth century. it is made of wood or cardboard. if made of cardboard, a small square box may be used for the seat, a, to which the sides and back are gummed. the sides and back should be cut in one, with half-cuts down _a b_ and _c d_, where the cardboard is bent and gummed to the box. the chair should be painted a very light brown with dark brown markings. it looks well if made out of the wood of a cigar-box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. gives a pattern of a fourteenth-century bed that goes with the chair, a can be an oblong box, covered with paper suitably coloured (light brown with panels of dark brown). b and c are pieces of cardboard (painted as indicated) gummed to each end of the box; four pieces of stripwood, d ( / inch by / inch), are glued on to the cardboard. this bed is easily made of wood. a may be a cigar-box, or the bed can be made of separate pieces of wood carefully glued and nailed together. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a fire-place= (fig. ). this toy is made of wood and cardboard. its size will depend upon the doll's house for which it is made. the mantelpiece, d, is a piece of wood glued and nailed to two wooden supports, e and f. to the back of these a piece of cardboard, a, is glued. this is coloured to look like tiles, and space c is painted black. the grate is made of cardboard (fig. ). the shaded portions are cut out and half cuts are made along the dotted lines. it is coloured black, bent as in fig. and gummed to the cardboard back. the fender is of wood, and is glued to e and f and to a cardboard bottom, b, which is coloured to represent tiles. the grate may also be made of pieces of wire bent to shape and passed through holes in two pieces of wood (fig. ), which are then gummed to a. fire-dogs can be made from matches glued together as in fig. . a poker and shovel can be cut from cardboard. the most convenient sizes of stripwood from which to make this toy are lengths of / inch by / inch for supports e and f, lengths of / inch by / inch for the fender, and inch by / inch for the mantelpiece. chapter xii railway signal and signal-box [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a railway signal.= fig. shows a simple method of making this toy. a is a piece of stripwood about " Ã� / " Ã� / ", fastened to a wooden stand. holes are bored in a at f about / inch from the top and at g about - / inches from the ground. the arm, c, is a piece of cardboard inches by / inch with a red band painted across it. the lever, d, is a smaller piece of cardboard. c and d are fastened to a by pieces of wire or by rivets so that they move freely up and down. b is a narrow strip of stiff cardboard fastened by small paper-clips to c and d. when the lever, d, is pulled down, the arm, c, is pushed up. a small nail is put in at e to keep the arm from rising too high. fig. shows a railway signal which can be worked by a lever placed at any distance away. in this model the arm, f, is a piece of wood about " Ã� / " Ã� / ". into one end is fixed a screw-eye, a. about / inch from this end bore a hole. nail the arm through this hole to the post about / inches from the top, so that it moves freely on the nail. b is a piece of wood, " Ã� / " Ã� / ". make three holes in it. nail it through the middle hole to the post, inches from the ground, so that it turns freely on the nail. take a piece of fairly strong wire, fasten one end to a and the other to b. a weight (a lead button) is needed to keep the arm of the signal up. attach this weight, c, by a piece of thread to b, as in the figure. tie a piece of thread to d, pass it through a small screw-eye, e, fixed on the stand. when this string is pulled the arm is lowered. this toy may be worked entirely with thread. tie a piece of thread from a to c, taking care to keep the lever b in the position shown in the figure; then tie another piece from a small nail at f to d. a small nail should be put in at g to prevent the arm from rising too high. the stand and the shaded part of the signal post should be painted black, the rest of the post is white, the arm is white with a red band. =a signal-box= (plate viii). for the foundation of the signal-box, take a piece of wood inches by inches, a b c d (fig. ). cut two pieces of wood, - / inches by inches. glue and nail these to a b c d (e and f in fig. ). next cut four pieces of wood, g h j k, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". glue these to e and f. measure and cut two pieces of wood, m and l, to fit in between k and j, and g and h. glue these in position. next measure and cut out a piece of cardboard, n (fig. ), that will fit in between the posts, g h j k, and rest on the sides, e and f, and the ends, l and m. this forms the floor of the signal-box. measure and cut two pieces of cardboard that will fit across the space between the posts g and k. mark and cut out windows in these as shown in the plate, and glue them on each side to the posts. next cut out two pieces of cardboard, inches by inches (fig. ). measure along the sides the distances c j and k b; find the middle, o, of top, join o k and o j, and cut off the shaded portions. make half cuts along the dotted lines and bend back the flanges to which the roof is fastened. in one piece make a door, the bottom of which must be on a level with the floor. a window may be cut out in the door, or simply drawn in with pencil and painted; on the other side, mark and cut out a window similar to the window in the sides. glue these pieces in position. make the roof of cardboard as described in the case of the noah's ark, and glue it to the flanges. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _the porch._ for the platform of the porch cut a piece of wood - / inches by - / inches. cut two sides, - / inches by - / inches. glue and nail these to the platform. cut two supports as shown in the plate, and glue these to the ends just underneath the door, so that when the porch rests on them, and the door is open, the floor of the porch is level with the floor of the signal-box. next cut the two outer posts, glue them into position as shown in the plate, and glue the platform of the porch on the four posts. the roof of the porch is cut from cardboard, with flanges to be glued to the end of the signal-box. the slope of the roof should be parallel to that of the roof of the signal-box. make a ladder as described in chapter ix. bevel the ends of the ladder as in fig. so that it can be glued into position. glue two small posts on each side and glue two strips of cardboard to these and to the sides of the porch for railings. windows may be painted in the wooden sides, the rest is coloured to represent bricks; the window sashes are dark green or brown, and the roof grey. [illustration: fig. ] from this signal-box the signal shown in fig. can be worked in a very simple manner. fig. shows the arrangement. through a hole, a, in the floor fits a wooden lever, b c. pass the thread belonging to the signal through a small hole in the side of the box, then through a small screw-eye at o, and tie it to the end of the rod. when the lever, b, is pushed over the signal arm is lowered. a small nail is put through the lever just above a, to act as a fulcrum. the side f (fig. ) may have large windows which open to enable the child to insert his hand and push the lever. if the signal-post is set up some distance away from the signal-box, it may be found necessary to add another weight. chapter xiii lighthouse, transporter bridge =a lighthouse= (plate xvi). this lighthouse is similar to one called the gull island light in newfoundland. it is a hexagonal column and is therefore somewhat easier to make than a circular structure. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the main column is inches high, and each of the six faces is inches. cut out a piece of cardboard, of medium thickness, inches by - / inches (fig. ). divide it into six parts inches in width, leaving a flange / inch wide at the end for fastening the column together. make half cuts along the dotted lines. cut out a door and windows, and two holes, g and h, / inch square. fold and gum together. the hexagonal column above the first platform is - / inches high, sides inches; that above the second platform is inches high, sides - / inches. before folding and gumming the top column, or lantern, together, windows must be cut out. it is easier to cut the windows out completely and gum the bars behind the openings. a door is cut just above the first platform as shown in the plate. the top of the lantern is a hexagonal pyramid - / inches high, edges inches. to make this, the length of one of the sloping edges (as _a' d'_ in fig. ) must be found. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] draw a line _a b_ (fig. ) inches long. this is one edge of the hexagonal base. on it make an equilateral triangle _a c b_. this is the same as triangle _a' c' b'_ in fig. . at _c_ (fig. ) draw _c d_ at right angles to _a c_; make _c d_ equal to the height of the pyramid--namely, - / inches; join _a d_; this is the length of one of the sloping edges (_a' d'_ in fig. ). with radius _a d_ describe a circle (fig. ). mark along its circumference the distance _a b_, six times; join _a_ to _b_, _b_ to _c_, etc., and join each point to the centre. cut off the shaded portions, leaving a flange for fastening, and make half-cuts along the dotted lines. bend and gum together. the first platform shown in the plate is a circle of cardboard or wood, radius inches. holes are made round the edge. to this the upper column is fastened by paper hinges, unless the columns have been provided with flanges at top and bottom. glue match sticks or pieces of cane, about inch in length, into the holes in the platform for railings, round which black thread may be tied. now fasten the whole to the main column so that the sides coincide. in the same way the lantern is fastened to the upper platform and the latter to the upper column, after similar railings have been made round the upper platform. lastly the pyramidal top is fixed on the lantern, by either paper hinges or flanges. now cut a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, of the right length, so that it passes through the holes g and h in the lower column and projects about / inch over the doorway; into this projecting end screw a small screw-eye, pass a piece of string through it and bring the ends inside the door. this is the pulley by means of which goods are hauled up from the boat into the lighthouse. a ladder can be made of matches (as described in chapter ix); two wire hooks are inserted at the ends, and it is hung to the doorway. the lighthouse can be coloured grey and fastened to a piece of cardboard painted blue. [illustration: plate xvi a lighthouse] =a transporter bridge.= the supports for this bridge, a and b (fig. ), are two small wooden bovril boxes (those containing one dozen one-ounce tins); their bottoms have been knocked out and they are mounted on wooden supports or on two smaller boxes of about the same width. [illustration: fig. ] take two lengths of stripwood, c, d, ' Ã� / " Ã� / "; on to each of these glue and nail a similar length of stripwood, / inch by / inch (fig. ). next the overhead trolley should be made (fig. ). the axles g and h are about - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". the wheels are made of wood and can be cut from an old broom handle. before these are put on, the two pieces e and f, which are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", are glued to g and h. c and d are placed so that the trolley runs easily along their ledges, the distance between them is measured and two pieces of stripwood (j in fig. ) are cut, by means of which c and d are fastened together. this frame can rest on a and b. there is no need to fasten it permanently. to each end of h and g, very small screw-eyes are screwed, k in fig. , to which the strings or chains which support the car are attached--also two screw-eyes are screwed in at h and g. fig. shows part of the car and gives the necessary measurements. side r is made of stripwood, / inch by / inch. the gates at each end are made of strips of cardboard. four screw-eyes are placed in the corner posts for hanging the car to trolley (see fig. ). pieces of thread are tied to the screw-eyes at h and g, and pass through screw-eyes in the supports (t and u in fig. ). two windlasses can be made to stand on m and l, similar to the winding gear described in making the crane (chapter v), by means of which the car can be drawn backward and forward. the bridge may stand across a piece of cardboard painted to represent a river. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xiv yachts and boats; the use of the chisel for the toys described hitherto, the chisel has hardly been required, but to carve boats from a solid block of wood it becomes somewhat of a necessity, the pen-knife being but a poor substitute. the use of the chisel has been postponed owing to the dangers which attend its use. however, when children have become accustomed to handle tools properly and to respect them, they are no more likely to cut their hands with a chisel than with a knife when sharpening pencils or peeling potatoes. the following tools will be found useful in making exact models of boats, hollowing them out, etc.: ( ) a / -inch or / -inch chisel. this is a good one to start with. ( ) a smaller chisel about / inch wide. ( ) a gouge. a / inch and a / inch gouge answer most purposes. this is an indispensable tool when hollowing out a boat. ( ) a spoke-shave. this is used to smooth a curved surface after it has been roughly cut with a chisel or knife. it is not really necessary, as its work may be done with sand-paper or a file. however it is not expensive, and it leaves the wood with a 'clean' surface much superior to that obtained with sand-paper. ( ) a vice. the best wood for making the following boats is _yellow deal_ or _american white-wood_. this, though not expensive, must be bought. one does not often find a piece of waste wood suitable for boat-making. a very simple boat can be made in the following way. procure a block of wood about " Ã� - / " Ã� ". on the top surface of the block draw a plan of the boat as in fig. ; on the bottom surface draw the plan shown in fig. . take care not to make the keel too narrow, especially in first attempts at boat-making. the keel of this boat may be quite / inch thick. see that it is really in the middle. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] mark on both sides of the boat the lines shown in elevation, fig. . mark lines showing the stern elevation as in fig. , at the other end the stern, as in fig. . now saw away as much surplus wood as possible. it is well to begin by sawing along lines a b and _c d_ in fig. , to roughly shape out bow. if a very curved bow is desired, saw off the corner _e f g_ (fig. ). to make the keel, saw along lines _a h_ and _c k_, about / inch deep (fig. ), at the stern end saw down to m and n. now carefully round and model the sides and keel with gouge, chisel, spoke-shave and file, or simply with chisel and file. before finishing off with sand-paper or spoke-shave, the boat should be tried in the water, it will probably lean to one side; cut off a little wood from this side and try again. (be careful to dry your tools if they get wet.) when the boat is properly balanced, nail a strip of lead along the keel. a hole may be bored on the deck for a mast. _to make the rudder._ saw a piece of wood out about inch by - / inches (wood should be about / inch thick). draw a rudder on it as in fig. , cut out this shape with saw and file. round the top as at c for the handle. make holes with a fine bradawl and insert two pieces of bent wire at _a_ and _b_. to put them in it is best to hold them with a pair of pincers. ordinary pins with their heads cut off do just as well as wire. make two wire loops and fix them in the stern of the boat (p and q in fig. ), that the rudder may hook on to these, care must be taken that the eyes are exactly opposite the hooks. to make the tiller, drill a hole in a piece of wood, as in fig. , and file it large enough to fit tightly round the top of the rudder, then work the tiller to shape. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this boat can be hollowed out with the gouge. first draw line r r r r round the boat (fig. ) to give the thickness of side. before starting on the actual boat, it is as well for the amateur to practise cutting a few hollows. with satin walnut, pine, american white-wood, gouging is not a difficult matter. when the boat is being gouged out it should if possible be placed in a vice. (always put a piece of thin wood between the jaws of the vice and the article you wish to hold to prevent marks.) another way of hollowing the boat is to begin boring centre-bit holes as close together as possible, being careful not to bore too deep, then gouge out as much wood as you safely can, finish with file and sand-paper. when the boat is hollowed out, seats can be made for it. these should be cut the exact length of middle of boat, bevelled at the ends, and fitted into the boat by forcing them into position. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] figs. , , show elevation and plans of a common type of boat. saw off triangular pieces of wood to form the bow, cut out the stern with the tenon saw and chisel. model the sides and keel with gouge, chisel and file as before. to put a rudder on this boat, notice that a hole must be bored through the deck for the rudder to pass through. there is no need in a boat like this, or indeed in any boat (when practice has been attained), to saw out the keel, the gouge and chisel are sufficient, but the sawing sometimes helps the beginner. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a schooner= (plate iv). on a suitable piece of wood (a square prism, length - / times width) draw a line _a a_ (fig. ) on the surface through the middle from end to end. then draw a line across the middle _b b_, and divide the surface in three by lines _c c_ and _d d_. pencil out the deck as in fig. . now here is a piece of advice that it is well to follow in all boat-making. to mark off the deck make a cardboard template the shape and size of one half, taken from the middle line, _a a_. lay the template on one half of the piece of wood and pencil round the edge. then turn the template over on the other side and pencil round the edge again. in this way the shape of the deck is more accurate and both sides are symmetrical, which is very important if the boat is to float upright in the water. now on the sides draw the elevation as in fig. . cardboard templates will also be found useful in getting the cross-sections correct. now saw and file away the stern, d, and the bow, e, and chisel away the sides and keel as described before. fig. shows the appearance of the stern. having chiselled and filed the outside of the hull to correct shape and exactly equal on both sides, gouge out the inside as described before. next make the deck from deal about / inch thick, cutting it the exact size of the outline in fig. . before fastening the deck, bore a hole at a for the rudder (a corresponding hole being bored in the hull), and holes at b and c for masts (with corresponding holes, not more than / inch deep, in the hull). if need be (in large models) the under part of the deck where holes come can be strengthened by pieces of wood nailed across. with a hard pencil draw lines along the deck to give the appearance of boards. a hole for a hatch-way may be cut out with a fret-saw. the hatch-way itself for a large boat can be made of pieces of wood nailed together. now fix the deck on to the top of the hull with small nails. another way of fixing the deck is to make it just large enough to fit inside the hull, leaving an edge or bulwark all round, / inch to / inch in depth. the longer mast goes into hole b. the total length of the schooner is about - / times the height of the mast above the deck. the shorter mast goes into hole c and is very little longer than half the boat. the masts must fit firmly into the holes in the deck and hull. to ballast the boat, nail a piece of lead along the keel. if too large a piece is used at first, it can easily be reduced. the rudder f is cut out and fixed as already described. h in fig. shows where the end of the bowsprit comes. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. a. stay foresail. b. gaff foresail. c. mainsail.] fig. shows a drawing of the masts and sails for a schooner. the gaffs, _a b_ and _c d_, and the corresponding booms, are fastened to the masts by wire loops. lawn or indian muslin make good sails. it is well to wash the material before using it. chapter xv the fret-saw the =fret-saw= is a delightful tool, and very useful to the toy-maker. it can be used for making wheels and the various jointed and mechanical toys described in the following chapters. in dealing with the fret-saw we have to consider ( ) the saw-blades and ( ) the frame in which they are held. the saw-blades are about five inches in length and are made of delicate steel wire with correspondingly fine teeth. they are very cheap, being commonly sold at about three halfpence to threepence a dozen, and even less when purchased by the gross. they are supplied in ten different grades, numbered from to , proceeding from fine to coarse. for the toys described in this book, nos. , and will be found most suitable. to preserve the saw-blades from rust, keep them in a wood or metal case. upon the proper tension of the saw-blade depends its action. to keep it taut, a number of frames have been designed, the most practical being one made of steel and varying in size from inches to inches measuring from the saw-blade to the back of the frame. the handle is of wood. the -inch size is the most suitable for children. cheap frames can be obtained for sixpence halfpenny (smaller ones even for fourpence). in the cheaper kinds the necessary tension is obtained by drawing the arms slightly towards each other when clamping the blade. the spring of the steel will then keep the blade sufficiently taut. in the better-class frames (price from two shillings upward) the tension is secured by the action of a lever. notice that the saws must be inserted with the teeth pointing downward. _holding and managing the saw-frame._ the hand saw-frame requires all the steadiness possible; the bend of the frame should rest along the forearm, and against the shoulder if the frame be a long one, or under the shoulder if a short one. this prevents the frame from swinging round. the saw-blade will describe the arc of a circle as it passes through the wood, and this dip is reduced to the minimum by making _short strokes_ instead of long ones. this is important to remember. the amateur is sure to break a few saw-blades at first, they are so fragile, indeed even in the hands of an expert they have a precarious hold on life and can only be expected to last a certain time. fortunately they are cheap. the saw-blade must not be pressed on into the wood too quickly; the wood is held to the table with the fingers, and every part of the line to be cut is moved in due succession against the cutting edge of the blade. excessive energy will often cause the blade to stick fast in the wood; in this case the blade must be eased by gently working it up and down so that it does not cut but frees itself. this method can be adopted when turning a sharp corner; work the saw up and down (without cutting) until the blade points in the right direction. very often the locking of the blade in the wood is due to gummy or heavy wood, or to a twist in the saw-blade; this latter cause can be prevented by the exercise of care in fixing the saw in the frame. children should have the cheaper frames to practise with; however they soon learn to manage them and in due course find out that a saw-blade is really not so delicate as it looks. in cutting out animals, etc., leave a piece of surplus wood round the frailer parts as long as possible so that one has something to hold without fear of breakage. when an interior space has to be cut out (_e.g._ when cutting away interior portions of wheels to make the spokes) a hole must be made by means of the archimedean drill to admit the saw; the upper end of the saw is released from its clamp, passed through the hole, and again fixed in position. the hole in all cases should be bored as near as possible to a corner or point, as these are convenient starting-places. a medium-sized drill point rather than fine points should be used wherever space permits. fine points are apt to break. the drill stock must be held quite vertical and revolved both when the point is entering the wood and when it is being withdrawn. no pressure is required on the drill beyond its own weight. in making the various jointed animals, etc., in the following chapters bifurcated nickel rivets are used, small-gauge. the following are useful sizes:-- sizes no. / , / , / . (these are useful for jointed animals.) sizes no. / , / , / . (these are used for the crane, etc.) these rivets can be bought in boxes of assorted sizes. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] figs. and show how a jointed animal is riveted together. when hammering the rivet open, its head should be placed on a piece of metal (the clamp will do). fig. shows the method of opening the rivet. a represents the table, b the clamp, c the head of the rabbit and its ears, d, the rivet. chapter xvi little gymnast; dancing clown; rocking animals =little gymnast.= first the little gymnast must be drawn and cut out. he can be made of cardboard of medium thickness and paper-fasteners (size ) or better of three-ply wood and bifurcated nickel rivets (size no. - / ). first draw the body, a, fig. , - / inches long. (the measurements given are important, for unless the limbs are in proportion the figure will not work properly.) make two holes with the drill, if wood is being used, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the arms, b, are - / inches long, the hands must be large enough to contain holes to carry a wooden knitting needle ( / inch in diameter). the upper part of leg, c, is - / inches in length; the lower part, d, - / inches. make holes in these parts as in the figure. take care that the holes are large enough to hold the rivet or paper-fasteners loosely, so that the limbs swing about easily. now fasten all these parts together. (for directions how to hammer the rivets see the previous chapter.) paint the figure in water colours if it is made of cardboard, if it is made of wood it may be left unpainted, or painted in oil colours. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] push a wooden knitting needle (about / inch in diameter) through the holes in the hands, see that it fits tightly, add a little glue if there is any danger of the needle slipping round inside the holes. two pieces of stripwood, e, are next sawn about " Ã� / " Ã� / ". these posts must have holes drilled in them near the top for the knitting needle to pass through, and revolve freely. the posts are nailed and glued to a base, the size of which will depend upon the length of the bar which the gymnast turns upon. two or three gymnasts look well swinging together, or a gymnast, a monkey and a clown. in this case " Ã� " Ã� / " makes a good stand. the posts are supported by triangular supports. on turning the knitting needle the little figure will revolve in a life-like manner, and perform many of the professional exercises of the horizontal bar. the actions are made more realistic if the man's head is weighted with a piece of lead, so as to make his head more nearly the same weight as his body. =the dancing clown.= draw on cardboard or three-ply wood and cut out the head and body of the clown as in fig. . colour it, and cut out another piece exactly the same to represent the back of the clown. draw and cut out two arms as in fig. , two legs as in fig. . cut out two small discs of lead, and glue them behind the balls in his hands; glue little pieces of lead behind his boots. his arms and legs are fastened together by thread, as in fig. . the back part of the body hides the strings. this clown can be hung inside a box, and the strings passed through a hole (directly underneath the clown) in another box upon which he can then be made to dance, as in fig. . the figure works best if properly balanced; see that the arms and legs are equal in size and weight. =rocking horses and elephants.= the simplest way of making a rocking horse is shown in fig. . two rockers, a b c, are cut out of cardboard (medium thickness). next two horses, d, are drawn on cartridge paper, the distance between the fore and hind feet corresponding to the distance a c in the rockers. the horses are coloured and cut out, and their heads and tails gummed together. the four legs are then fastened with paper-fasteners (or with gum) to the ends of the two rockers. a wooden rocking horse is made in the following way. the two rockers, a b and c d, are cut out of three-ply wood with a fret-saw. the arc of a circle of inches to - / inches radius is a good size; width of rocker, h k (fig. ), / inch. three pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch are sawn, length - / inches, e, f and g. pencil-marks must be made on the two rockers to show where these strips are to go, one in the middle, the other two at the ends. before fastening them on, a slit is sawn in the middle of each end-piece, as at e and g. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] strips e, f and g are glued and nailed to one rocker, then this rocker can be laid on its side, and the second rocker glued to the upstanding strips. there is no need to nail the second rocker; indeed, if the ends of the strips are very evenly cut, there is no need for nailing at all. the horse (fig. ) can be cut out of cardboard and have one front leg and one back leg fitted into the slits. cardboard of medium thickness will just fit a saw-cut and no gluing is needed. if the horse is cut out of fret-wood or three-ply wood ( / inch thick) the saw-cuts must be enlarged with a file and the feet glued in. instead of horses, donkeys, tigers, lions, etc., can be fixed on rockers as just described. the rockers in fig. can also be built up of cardboard. =a rocking elephant.= on a piece of cardboard draw a circle - / inches in radius; on this draw an elephant as in fig. . colour the ball red and the elephant grey (both sides must be coloured) and cut out. cut out a piece of cartridge paper (fig. ), length equal to half the circumference of the circle in fig. , width, - / inches. fold in half along d e, cut out d b c e, as in diagram, the shaded portions being cut away. gum b d c e to disc h as in fig. , so that d f e g forms a rocker; make a similar rocker for the other side. two pieces of lead (a in fig. ) are cut out and glued on each side of the disc at the bottom, as in the figure. the lead must have paper suitably coloured pasted over it. the elephant will swing up and down at the slightest touch. instead of an elephant a clown can be drawn on the ball. fig. shows an elephant rolling on his back. this toy can be made in the same way as the first elephant. a circle ( - / inches radius) is drawn first, and the elephant drawn in the circle. these elephants can be cut with the fret-saw from satin walnut ( / inch thick). in this case the lead on each side must almost reach the diameter, as shown in fig. . another disc of wood ( - / inch radius) must be fret-sawed out of the satin walnut, sawn in two, and the halves glued one on each side of the lead, to make a base wide enough for the toy to rock upon without upsetting. no lead will then show, and it will look like a wooden toy. if these toys are cut out of thin wood, / inch thick, they still require at least twice as much lead as the cardboard toy. the elephant may also be drawn balancing a ball instead of a clown. children will delight in making these toys from cardboard, paper and lead for a toy circus. fig. shows a swan drawn in a circle; the shaded part represents the paper rocker on one side. this model requires no lead. a duck can be made in the same way. fig. shows a design for elephants on a see-saw. the elephants must be the same size as far as possible. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xvii moving figures fig. , "the washing day," shows a pattern that will please little english toy-makers. it can be cut from wood with the fret-saw, or with scissors from cardboard of medium thickness. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _to make the design._ first cut two lengths of three-ply wood or cardboard, / inch by inches, a b and c d. next draw on wood or cardboard, and cut out, the two little washer-women (they are about - / inches high). they look more effective if painted. these are fastened to the strips of cardboard by means of paper-fasteners (size ; one gross sixpence); the holes for the fasteners are about - / inches from the ends. the holes in the little washer-women are exactly one above the other, so that when the paper-fasteners are in and a b is exactly above c d, the figures are upright. a washing tub, e, is cut out of cartridge paper (top of tub, inches, bottom - / inches); this can be painted brown or green and have a white rim round the top to represent soap-suds. this tub is gummed to c d, exactly between the two little washers. if the part of a b that comes behind the tub is cut away as in diagram the figures will work better. when the strips of cardboard are moved backward and forward the figures put their clothes in the tub and take them out again. the toy works best if a little space is left between a b and c d, as in fig. . if it is cut out of fret-wood the figures are fastened by rivets, as explained in chapter xv. fig. shows two ducks eating out of the same bucket; strips of cardboard, a b and c d, are the same size as those in fig. . the bucket is cut out of cardboard and gummed to c d. the sailors in fig. are made in the same way, holes are made in their hands, through which yarn is passed (the thicker the yarn the more like rope it is) or oars can be cut out of cardboard and fitted in the holes in their hands, when they will appear to row. fig. shows a man driving a donkey. it is made of cardboard, except the whip, a, which is thread tied into a hole in the cardboard at c. the whip will work better if a little piece of lead or something heavy is tied at the end of the thread. the reins, b, are of thread or yarn, and pass through holes in the donkey's mouth and in the man's hand. two fishermen can be made in the same way, the whip easily becomes a fishing-rod and a lead fish can be attached to the end of the line. in the case of the donkey-driver and the fishermen the strips of cardboard should be longer than shown in the figure, to leave room for holding. the strip for the donkey-driver should be about inches, the fishermen require at least inches if their lines are not to get entangled. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] children will readily think of other designs for this simple but interesting toy. chapter xviii some old-fashioned toys--a monkey-up-a-stick, a jack-in-the-box a monkey-up-a-stick is a very easy toy to make. first cut out a cardboard or wooden monkey as in fig. . see that the legs and arms turn freely on paper-fasteners, a and b. paint the monkey grey or brown. with a pin make holes, c and d, in the feet and hands. next saw two lengths of stripwood, one ´ Ã� / " Ã� / ", the other almost twice as long. drill a hole near one end of each of these sticks. pass a pin or piece of wire through the holes in the monkey's feet and the hole in the shorter stick; bend down the pin on each side to keep the feet from slipping off. (the point of the pin should be cut off with pliers.) in the same way fasten the monkey's hands to the longer stick. see that the limbs (note that they come one on each side of the stick) revolve freely on the pins or wire. the two sticks may be kept together by pieces of elastic; this however rather prevents the one stick from moving freely up and down the other. it is better first to file the sticks (or one of the sticks) round or to use dowel rods. these round rods can then be kept together by cardboard or wooden discs. the disc must have a hole in the middle large enough for the rod to move freely up and down in it. the thicker the piece of wood or cardboard the better. the hole must be made in the wood with a brace and bit (a bradawl will make the hole in cardboard, and it can be filed to the right size with a round file). the longer rod, a, fig. , goes through the hole; the bottom of the shorter rod, b, is glued and nailed to the disc. by moving the disc c up and down the monkey performs its usual antics at the top of the stick. the monkey, or a clown if preferred, looks very effective cut out of three-ply wood and riveted together. for a small model wooden meat skewers may be used as sticks. other suggestions for c in fig. are: a reel (though rod b when glued to a reel tends to break off); half a cork. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] more interesting than the "monkey-up-a-stick" is the monkey that climbs a rope, though this little animal has sometimes an irritating manner of swinging about on the rope, and going no higher. if he is carefully made according to the following directions he ought to climb. the monkey is cut out of cardboard in the same way as the first monkey, except that his two arms are gummed firmly on in the position shown in fig. , his legs only being free to move. pins or pieces of wire are passed through the holes at a, b, c, d. in the case of pins, the point is cut off with cutting pliers and the rest doubled back to prevent its coming out on one side, the head of the pin prevents it coming out on the other. tie a piece of thin elastic round the pins, a and b, so that it is only just on the stretch when the legs are drawn up parallel with the arms, as in the figure. a piece of wire is passed through at e and is bent over out-wards, drawing the hands fairly tightly together. a piece of thread is passed through the eye so formed, down and under the pin, c, then over the pin, d by alternately slackening and tightening the line the monkey will climb up the thread in a very life-like manner. care must be taken to nip the wire well together at the hands to get enough friction to hold the thread firmly while the elastic pulls the legs up, on the other hand the thread must be just loose enough to pass through e. =a jack-in-the-box.= the simplest way of making a jack-in-the-box is the following. get some ordinary wire (quite thin wire will do) about feet long or longer if a bigger jump is required. wind this tightly round a broom handle, keeping the rings of wire close together. slip it off. take a cork, cut it so that it is about - / inches high. file it round in the shape of a head as in fig. . mark the eyes and nose in ink, the mouth with red paint; or two beads can be glued in for the eyes. to make the hair, cut several short pieces of black wool, tie them in the middle at b, and glue or pin them to the middle of the head; tie back the side ends with yellow or red wool as in the figure. fasten one end of the wire spring in the centre of bottom of cork, as at a. a piece of muslin is then gummed round the cork to hide the spring, so that it is loose and folds easily. next make a box, - / inches high, or take the cardboard box that contains a bottle of le page's liquid glue, and cut off about one-third. cut off the cover and glue it on to one side (c in the figure). make loop of wire at d, and insert a paper-fastener at e to catch the wire loop. fasten the end of the spring to the bottom of the box, by passing it through the hole in one bottom flap, bending it over and gluing over it the other flaps that form the bottom. coloured paper or scraps may be gummed to the sides and top of the box. this is a suitable toy to be hung on a small christmas tree. a larger and stronger jack-in-the-box can be made from a wooden box about - / inches square. for this a piece of no. gauge wire about feet long is required; it is wound around a rolling-pin. this spring is then nailed by means of staples to a piece of wood made to fit the inside of the box. fasten a round piece of cardboard to the top of the spring, and either sew on to it a small doll's head, or make a doll's head of part of a stocking stuffed with wool and having eyes, mouth, etc., sewn on. a cap (a fool's cap looks best) is made to fit the head, and a loose jacket is sewn on to hide the spiral body. chapter xix little swordsmen fig. shows the principle on which this toy is made; the shaded portion represents the inside of a box. a good size for a box to make this toy is " Ã� - / " Ã� - / ". slits should be cut in the long side of the box at _a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_. these slits may be made with a pen-knife, and a fret-saw file will make them wide enough for a piece of cardboard to slip up and down in. slits are then made in the short side exactly under the long slits, as _p n_ in fig. . widen these slits also with a file. next cut out the cardboard figures. draw head, body and one leg to be cut out in one piece; about inches of cardboard should be left below the foot (m and n in fig. ), the total length of figure being about inches. cut out another figure like this. make holes just below the foot as at d in fig. . next draw and cut out legs, f and h. notice that they do not project so far inside the box, their length being about - / inches. fasten these to the figures by paper-fasteners. next cut out a long strip of cardboard, a b, / inch by inches. pass this through the slits (_p n_ in fig. ) in the short sides of the box. see that it slides easily up and down in these slits. the portions marked m and n turn on pivots _h k_ and _m l_. these pivots pass through holes, d and e, in the figures and through holes made at each side of the box exactly opposite the short slits. steel knitting needles make good pivots, or pieces of cane. when the top is quite complete these pivots may be glued into the holes in the box for greater security. fasten pieces of lead at the bottom of m and n so that the figures swing easily on the pivots. when it is found that the pivots are in the right place, pass the strip of cardboard a b through the slits, and fasten the legs, f and h, to it by paper-fasteners, as at x and y. see that the needles are in the right holes and fasten up the box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] (it is a convenience in making this toy to let the cover form one side, the cover being left off until all the inside arrangements are complete; the pivots can then be put into their holes in the cover, and the cover put on.) now if the projecting ends of a b are pushed backward and forward the figures fight in a very realistic manner. notice that a b has two movements: one backward and forward, the other up and down. the lead weights in m and n keep a b up. generally speaking, the longer the slits are the better the figure works. this, however, does not apply to slits _c d_ and _g h_. the slits need not be so close together as in the figure if it is desired that the swordsmen should fight at a greater distance. the arms are cut out of cardboard and fastened by paper-fasteners on each side of the figure; the swords may be cut out with the arms, or made separately and gummed on after-wards, pieces of cane making effective swords. a more difficult but more satisfactory way of putting on the arms is this: pass a very short piece of cane through the hole in the body, where the arms are to be fastened; see that it turns very easily in the hole; next seccotine the pieces of cane that project at each side into holes in the arms; see that one arm is up, the other down. to make the arms balance well, it may be necessary to fasten a small piece of lead to one hand. this toy is most amusing if carefully made. the following hints may be useful: ( ) draw and paint the little swordsmen as carefully as possible. ( ) see that the slits are perfectly straight and wide enough for the cardboard to pass through. ( ) see that the arms, legs and feet turn easily on their pivots, whether these pivots be paper-fasteners, cane or knitting needles. ( ) see that sufficient lead is attached. ( ) cover the box neatly with paper, but _not_ the slits. a piece of green paper looks well for the top. this toy may also be cut out of wood with a fret-saw. many other amusing toys can be made on the same principle. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xx some more fret-saw toys besides the numerous models already described that can be made with the fret-saw, endless further toys might be made, among others the following. . =a zoo or wild-beast show.= the animals for this may be jointed models like the elephant and giraffe (part i, chapter xx); in this case they will stand quite well; or they may be cut in one piece and glued to an oblong strip of wood for a stand, as the lion and other beasts in figs. to . three-ply wood or satin walnut / inch thick is suitable for these animals, which however may also be cut out of cardboard and glued into slits cut in a wooden stand. [illustration: fig. ] . =forest, jungle or desert scenes, etc.= (figs. to ). these trees, which have very characteristic shapes, can easily be cut out with the fret-saw. where the branches are slender and there is danger of their breaking, use three-ply wood. they should be painted green, with the markings indicated in the drawings put in with sepia or dark green. . =a farmyard=, with trees, ducks, cows, etc. figs. to are patterns of farmyard animals. there is considerable educational value in the drawing and cutting out of the simple outlines necessary in fret-wood trees or animals. it will help children to think in lines, as it were, and to draw boldly. [illustration: fig. ] teachers will find sets of fret-wood animals and trees of use in the nature study and geography lessons. . =soldiers, sailors, boy scouts, etc.= figs. to may be cut out and glued on stands in the same way. the small files used for fret-wood are useful to finish and 'clean up' these toys. [illustration: fig. the walnut] [illustration: fig. the palm (cocoa-nut)] [illustration: fig. the palm oil tree] [illustration: fig. the spruce fir] [illustration: fig. the elm] [illustration: fig. the lombardy poplar] [illustration: fig. the scots pine] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xxi toys worked by sand for these toys a wooden box is required, a b c d (fig. ), about a foot or more square and inches deep. l is a wheel made like the overshot water-wheel in chapter vi. another way of making the buckets is shown in figs. , , and . these are glued close together between two circles of cardboard as shown in fig. . this method is somewhat easier if small wheels are required. the wheel should have ten or more buckets; the greater the number of buckets, the faster the wheel works. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the construction of the reservoir, j, through which the sand runs. the size of it will depend upon the toy made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] f is the flange for fastening it together, and e, d, c, b are flanges for fastening it to roof a b e f (fig. ). a round hole is filed out at a, after the reservoir is fastened together, through which the sand runs. the wooden side of box, a b e f, is taken off and a piece of cardboard is nailed to the box instead. this can have a hole cut in it, k in fig. , and the reservoir glued under it. g h is a bar of stripwood nailed across the front of the box, through which a hole, n, is bored. the axle of the wheel passes through this and through a corresponding hole in the back of the box. as the sand runs out of the reservoir, it falls into the boxes and so turns the wheel; hence the sails of a windmill, the hands of a clock, etc., fastened to axle, l m, can be made to turn. notice carefully that the hole at the bottom of the reservoir should be over the centre of the boxes of the sand-wheel and a little to one side of the wheel, as in fig. . part of the back of the box, p q r o, should be cut out to allow a tray to go in to receive the sand. [illustration: fig. ] =to make a bicyclist= (fig. ). cut two circles of cardboard, radius - / inches. mark on them the spokes of a bicycle. make two sand-wheels the same size as the bicycle wheels; their width should be about / inch to / inch. take a piece of stripwood / inch by / inch and the length of the box. make holes in it, inches, - / inches and inches from one end. nail the bar across the box inches from ground; make holes in the back of the box exactly opposite the holes in the bar. make wooden axles to pass right through these holes so that they turn freely in them. the sand-wheels should be glued to two of these axles. now cut out a piece of cardboard to fit over the front of the box; bore holes in it corresponding to those in the bar, g h. paint on it a suitable background, as in fig. . nail small pieces of stripwood, / inch by / inch, to the corners of the box (as at a and b in fig. ), to which the cardboard can be fastened by drawing-pins or glue. pass the axles of the sand-wheels through the first and third holes from the end of bar g h, and let them project about inch beyond the cardboard. to these ends the bicycle wheels must be glued. in making this toy it is better not to fasten pieces together too quickly, until all the various parts are ready. the figure of the cyclist should be cut out to the measurements given for the little gymnast in chapter xvi. the body and head could be cut out of thin three-ply wood, and the arms and legs of cardboard. the best method of joining limbs to the body so that there is the least possible friction is as follows. cut off a small piece of a pin, including the head, pass it through the holes, and apply to the cut end a tiny drop of sealing wax. make holes in the cyclist's feet at g (fig. ). cut a small cardboard wheel, f, about / inch in diameter: make a hole in its centre and one near the circumference. [illustration: fig. ] glue a piece of match stick into the hole near the circumference, the other end of this match stick must turn freely in the hole in cyclist's left foot. pass the axle already made through this wheel, to which it must be glued, and through the cyclist's right foot and through middle hole in the bar. make two small pulley wheels (_e.g._ slices of reels with cardboard flanges), one twice the size of the other. fig. shows how the toy is put together and how it works. a and b are the sand-wheels; axles, f g and f m, are glued into them and into the two bicycle wheels. k h is the axle passing through centre of pedal wheel. n o are pulley wheels glued to axles, f g and h k, respectively, and connected by an elastic band, e. when sand-wheel, a, turns round, wheel, n, turns and turns pedal wheel, f, in fig. , and as o is twice as big as wheel n, the pedal will revolve twice as slowly as the bicycle wheels. [illustration: fig. ] pulleys of equal size, c and d, might be added with advantage to connect the two sand-wheels, and a handle at f to start the wheels. fig. shows how the leg is fastened to the pedal wheel. to keep the cyclist's body steady cut a piece of stripwood " Ã� / " Ã� / ". glue one end to middle of cyclist's body and the other to the cardboard background. b (fig. ) is a thin piece of wood, passing over the projecting end of axle of wheel, e, its other end being glued to the bottom of the cyclist's body. a similar strip, a, is cut. this is fastened between his hands by a little piece of pin, and passes over the axle of wheel, d. c is a thin strip of wood or cardboard which passes over the axle of e and can be glued to the cyclist's right leg and pass behind wheel, f. [illustration: fig. ] make a platform as in fig. to support the cyclist. make two reservoirs as already described. cut a piece of cardboard to fit over the top of box and make holes in it, l and m in fig. . glue the reservoirs under these. make a cardboard tray to fit under the wheels for the sand to fall in. another wheel might be added to work the sails of the windmill in the distance. very fine sand must be used for working these toys, the best is silver sand and it should be kept as dry as possible. fig. shows another modification of this toy. b is a box turned upside down and placed in front of that containing the sand-wheel. a is the cardboard background, suitably coloured. the sailor's legs are cut in one piece and glued into a slit in the box. the body is fastened to them at f by a small paper-clip so that it moves very freely. the arm is fastened on at g. a small match stick passes through the hole in the hand and is glued in the hole in circumference of wheel e. the axle, m n, to which this wheel is glued passes through the cardboard or wooden standard, d, through a hole in the background, a, and through the centre of the sand-wheel. d is fixed to the box. the arm of the crane, c, made of cardboard or three-ply, is glued to d. a hole is made at g and a corresponding hole in a opposite g. pass a small stick of wood or cane, k, through these holes and glue it in. the crane should be about inch from the background. k keeps the arm of the crane steady. tie a piece of cotton to the axle of wheel e, pass it over k or over a small pulley wheel revolving on k g; tie to it a thin wire hook to which a paper box or barrel can be fastened. [illustration: fig. ] in the same way a sailor can be made to work a windlass and drag a paper boat up a sloping beach, a man can draw water from a well or turn a barrel organ, or a paper mouse gummed to a cardboard base can be drawn along until it disappears into its hole. [illustration: fig. ] chapter xxii toys worked by wheels, etc. fig. shows how a clown can be mounted on a cart so that when the cart is drawn along he dances and waves his arms. in toys of this kind, the wheels should be quite half-an-inch in thickness. they are glued on to round axles which turn freely in small screw-eyes or in holes in wooden blocks fastened under the car or cart. if any part of the axle projects beyond the wheel it gets in the way of the wires. the clown is made of cardboard or three-ply, according to design given in chapter xvi. it is then fastened securely to rod b, and the latter glued into a hole in the middle of the cart. fairly strong wire is fastened to the wheel by a nail with a broad head so that when the wire is looped round the nail it turns freely on the nail but does not come off. the wire is bent at right angles twice to bring it close to the figure, as shown at a. it must fit accurately into the holes in the figure. notice that one leg passes on each side of the post. the clown works best when cut out of wood. in this case the body e and post b may be cut out in one piece, one leg and one arm are then attached to the front of the body, and one leg and one arm behind. fig. shows a soldier on the march. he is made of three pieces of wood. head, body, arms and stand a are cut out in one piece, the legs are cut out separately and riveted loosely to the body; only two pieces of wire are needed, one on each side, to work the legs. the gun may be a piece of wire or wood fixed on after-ward. the wheels are / inch in thickness. other similar toys worked by wheels can be made by cutting a hole in the bottom of the cart. one axle of the cart must run exactly under this hole, it must be made of wire and bent as b c in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] d and e are pieces of tin nailed to the cart, through holes in which axle b c freely turns; or wooden blocks may be nailed on for the axle to turn in, if tin cannot be obtained. the ends of the axle are securely fastened into solid wooden wheels. as the wheels revolve they will push up and down a piece of wire or wooden rod, f, which is fastened to the bent part of the axle. now f can be used to work a number of simple toys, if its free end is fastened to the part which it is desired to move. for example by this means an animal's mouth may be made to open and shut as it is wheeled along, or its head to wag; a blacksmith may be made to strike his anvil, the drummer to beat his drum. the ingenious child will be able to adapt this simple piece of mechanism to many a toy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a lively dog.= cut out with a fret-saw two pieces of wood as f in fig. , which represents the body and legs of a dog in one piece. now cut out the head h (notice length of neck behind body) and the tail k from wood / inch thick. now glue the two bodies to a piece of stripwood a ( / inch by / inch) placed along the tops of bodies inside (fig. ), and bevelled so that the legs of the dog will be further apart than the upper portion. the legs are joined by pieces of stripwood, m, / inch by / inch, about - / inches long. notice that the ends of these strips are bevelled. now make hole, e, in the head-piece; notice that there is the same length of wood above e as below it. make corresponding holes e in sides f. pass a piece of wire through the hole in the dog's head and see how it hangs; the head portion will be the heavier and sink. now take the head off, saw out a piece of wood at b, insert a piece of lead and try again. it is an easy matter if too much lead has been added to cut off a little. when the head is correctly balanced, as in fig. , bend over the wire so that it cannot come off. the tail, k, is attached in the same way. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] small wheels, n, cut from some convenient round rod are then nailed to m. the dog should be suitably coloured. when drawn along he wags his tail and bends his head. the legs look rather better if cut out separately and glued to the sides. =the tumbling clown or monkey.= cut out cardboard or wooden animals similar to those in part i, chapter xx, but use no lead. now, instead of swinging them on a perch, make a hole at b where they stand; take a piece of copper wire, about / inch thick and inches long. bend it slightly as in fig. . pass the wire through the hole in the animal, so that the animal fits tightly on it exactly in the middle of wire. the animals are best cut out of thick cardboard. fig. shows a suitable animal, and the following from chapter xx--figs. , , , and --can be adapted. as no lead can be used for the purpose to which we are now going to put them, animals that balance without lead, as in fig. , are the most suitable. therefore in designing them, one must take care that the hole b is exactly at the centre of gravity, and the bend of body, d (that is widest part of body), just below b. [illustration: fig. ] =to make the monkey tumble.= cut a piece of wood inches by - / inches, and fix parallel bars to this as in fig. . file or cut notches in the ends at a, to keep the monkey from tumbling off in his zeal. now put the wire with the monkey in the middle across one end of the rails. push the monkey head over heels and he will go on solemnly turning over and over, however long the rails are, until he lands in safety in the notches at the other end. it is the bend in the wire and carefully balanced body of the monkey that makes him behave so delightfully. the longer the stand is the better, for then two or three clowns, monkeys and cockatoos can follow each other rapidly. [illustration: fig. ] the bars must be high enough to allow the monkey to turn without touching the ground-- - / inches high will just do if length of monkey from b to c (fig. ) is - / inches. fig. shows two clowns swinging together; a variety of funny figures can be made to follow each other along the bars. chapter xxiii kites, gliders, and aeroplanes =kites.= perhaps one of the easiest kites to make is one which the children of annam and tonking delight to play with. to make it, three light bamboo canes are required--about feet in length--those used for flower-sticks will do quite well. tie them strongly together as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the backbone e f should be quite rigid, but the cross-pieces a b and c d are better if they are slightly curved. a sheet of light paper must now be pasted from a b to c d underneath e f in such a way that it is quite tight under e f, but rather loose between a c and b d. fig. shows how the paper should be cut. g h is the exact distance between e and f; j k and l m are wider than distances between a c and b d in fig. , so that when the flaps on the paper are pasted over the cross-bits the paper is loose between a and c and between b and d (fig. ). the secret of the balance is to have the flutter at the edges quite equal. fig. shows how the string is fastened. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. (a)] [illustration: fig. (b)] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a box kite.= this is a very common form of kite and quite easy to make. take four laths from to inches in length and four pieces about inches in length. the smaller pieces are fastened together with nails and glue, as in fig. (_a_) and (_b_). to the ends of these the long pieces are nailed and glued, as in fig. (_b_). mark off the long pieces into thirds and over the two end thirds sew strips of light material. tie on the string as shown in fig. . this kite is said to be an american invention. a similar kite may be made triangular in form. fig. shows another form of the box kite. here the material covers a little less than / of the strip a b. cross-bars e f and c d are tied across the middle and to the four sides, and wings are sewn on to them. figs. and are modifications of the triangular form of kite. in both these kites the long strips of wood are from - / to feet in length. notice that in fig. , a b is the same length as d e, f g = d h; e h = about / of e d. [illustration: fig. ] in fig. a b = c d. c e = about / of c d. f g equal about / of a b. f c = c e. a h and j k are light frames of stripwood covered with calico. the diagrams show how these kites are put together. =a chinese kite.= the kites used in china are very light and flimsy compared to our kites, as they are made of tissue paper and bamboo. in making one it is better to use somewhat stronger paper. the paper is cut out as in fig. , the two upper sides being slightly shorter than the two lower. leave two rectangular pieces a, a, at each end of the shorter sides. a piece of split bamboo, slightly flattened, is glued firmly to the paper from b to c. a second piece of bamboo tapering at the ends is used as a cross-piece d. this is bent as in the figure so that where it crosses the backbone, b c, it is only a few inches from the apex, b. it is tied to b c at d. its tapering ends are pasted down to the paper by means of the two flaps, a, a. bamboo b c should not be more than / inch in width, piece d, / inch. to prevent the paper getting torn in a good breeze, tie fine cotton round the border of the kite--_i.e._ from b to a, to c, to a, and to b again. paste a thin margin of paper over the cotton, enclosing it, and to the kite. this must be done so that the face of the kite is perfectly flat; it must not bag in any way. =to fly the kite.= much depends on the way in which the 'belly-band' is tied on. its upper string is tied to d, and the lower to the backbone, b c, almost anywhere below a line from a to a. if the two strings are very near together, the kite behaves in a more lively manner, darting about in all directions. the kite must be coaxed into the air by a series of jerks and pulls when the apex of the kite is facing upwards. it is inclined to turn round at first and some patience is required to learn when to pull and when to jerk. if one pulls at the wrong time it will dart down and then unless sufficient string is quickly let out, it will fall to the ground. [illustration: fig. ] when once the kite is up, it does not keep stationary like an english kite, but is always darting about; a skilful flyer can make a kite dart down and almost touch the roof of a house at a great distance off, and then dart up again almost overhead. it is not an easy kite to manage, but when once the art of flying it is mastered it is never forgotten. =gliders.= the earliest type of toy flying-machine consisted of a two-bladed tin propeller spun on a frame by unwinding string, as with a top, and suddenly let go. it is easily made, as shown in fig. , where a is a tin propeller nailed by nails c and c to a large reel b. in making this toy the nails must be driven into the reel first, their heads are then cut off and they are tightly fitted into holes in propeller a. d is the axle on which the reel spins and the handle for holding it; e is a washer. this flying-machine is worked by smartly pulling a length of string wound around the reel. [illustration: fig. ] modern aeroplanes are far more difficult to make than this; they need patience, skill and experiment, and besides a knowledge of how to twist and bend wood by steaming it; plenty of cane and whalebone wire, tissue paper or fine japanese silk, and catapult elastic, which is generally the motive power used in working model aeroplanes. (messrs gamage, holborn, w.c., stock skeins of specially prepared elastic.) in this chapter only the simple and well-known types will be very briefly described, the boy who is interested must get special books on this subject from his library. in the first place the beginner must know what the three types of machines used in designing models generally are--viz. ( ) the glider or motorless model, a glider being a winged structure, which when released from a height does not fall directly to the ground, but descends gracefully at a gentle slope; ( ) the monoplane, which is constructed more or less on the lines of a bird; and ( ) the biplane or double-winged aeroplane. gliders may be either of the monoplane or biplane type. experiments with gliders will enable boys to find out some of the principles on which aeroplanes are built, and will prepare them to undertake the construction of more difficult forms. in making one's first glider one cannot do better than copy a bird. on a piece of paper draw a circle, fold it in half, draw a bird on one half, as in fig. , cut it out, when the paper is opened it will appear as in the figure. if this bird is thrown head first toward the ground, it will probably fall. if two little bits of cardboard are gummed on each side of his head, he will make a better flight and land on the ground after making a gentle curve. a still better bird may be cut from cardboard, a half cut is then made along _a b_ to bend it, and the head is weighted with sealing-wax. how well this bird flies depends on the weight, and to some extent on the shape of the bird. birds of various shapes and with different amounts of sealing-wax should be tried, until one is made that glides to the ground in a long, graceful curve. in making bird gliders the following points should be remembered: ( ) draw the bird in a circle as already explained, this ensures that the wings will be exactly balanced. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) if the head in fig. is not long enough for a graceful flight, a longer head cut from cardboard can be pasted on. ( ) if the bird dives quickly down head first, you know that the head is too heavy, or the neck too long. ( ) if the bird rises and then falls the head is too light and probably not long enough. ( ) the wings can be made larger if necessary by the addition of tissue-paper wings gummed on as a in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =another glider.= cut out a piece of paper inches by inches, a b c d in fig. . mark b e and d f each inch; make cuts along the dark lines at e and f to the depth of inch. draw the broken lines along the paper, dividing it into four equal strips. bend sides a e and c f downward along dotted lines. bend e b and f d upward along middle dotted lines, and press side c f toward side a e, part way along this line, but leaving the part near the ends a c flat; to this end plane k will be gummed (fig. ). k is inches by inch. cut tail, g, and gum on as in diagrams. it can be weighted at h by gumming several strips of cardboard across or by affixing sealing-wax. although this is not a very graceful-looking glider it works most successfully, and will describe quite a graceful curve toward the ground. the child will find it interesting to make a number of these gliders and then go one day to a window or high place and let them glide to the ground and thus find out the bird that has the longest flight. or a number of children can have glider races and see who can make a glider that alights on the ground farthest from them. other forms of gliders can be made, but they are all on the same principle, a somewhat long body, wings and weight adjusted to keep them from falling. fig. shows a glider made from a dowel rod, with slits in it at each end through which two cardboard planes are passed and fastened. the cardboard must be of light weight and yet stiff enough not to flap. the size of the planes must be found by experiment, for their size will depend naturally upon the weight of the material used. the bigger plane should be in length about twice the smaller one. it is best to fasten the large plane on first and then adjust the smaller one to give a long, graceful flight. if a split pole can be found it is an easy matter to fasten the planes in. canes (bamboo) split readily and can be used as centre pole. this glider can fairly easily be made into an aeroplane and worked with a propeller. it may be mentioned here that model aeroplanes are generally worked with the propeller in front and not in the rear. =to make propellers.= these can be made of tin or wood. a tin propeller can be cut from any old tin with a pair of shears or strong scissors kept for the purpose. cut two blades to the shape shown in fig. . next cut an oblong block of wood (fig. ); notice that width _a b_ in fig. must equal _a b_ in fig. , therefore width of _a b_ must be a little less than _a b_ in fig. . slit each end diagonally as in fig. for about / inch to hold the blades. drill a hole through centre of block for the wire axle _d c_. insert the blades in the slots, bend the ends over slightly and nail them in the wood to keep them firm. fix the wire shaft firmly in the block as in fig. . the propeller is now ready to be attached to the glider. before this is done, however, we shall consider the making of a wooden propeller. this is rather more difficult to make. cut a piece of wood to the shape shown in fig. with a sharp pen-knife. the propeller must then be given the correct twist by means of the steaming kettle. take hold of the extreme ends of the propeller and hold it over the jet of steam so that steam plays upon the blades at each side of the thick central portion. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] when the wood is supple, twist it as in fig. . this sounds easier to do than it really is, the difficulty being to get the twist on one side exactly equal to the twist on the other. for this reason the tin propellers are more satisfactory to make. however suppose the correct twist has been given, the next thing to do is to sand-paper the wooden propeller carefully and file a groove around the middle at a; now wrap a piece of wire, a c, tightly around the propeller in this central groove, and put on the head, b. the propeller is now ready to be fastened to the glider shown in fig. . =to fasten propeller to glider.= cut a piece of tin to the pattern shown in fig. , bend along the dotted line; make a hole at f for axle, b c, to go through. bend portion e round the front end of the glider, keep it in its place by bending it with thread coated with glue; portion f with the hole is bent down at right angles as shown in fig. . now pass axle, a c, through hole f, bend end c into a hook. put screw-eye d in the rod about one-third of length of rod from the other end (see fig. ). fasten strands of elastic from hook c to d. it is best really to have a hook at d so that the elastic can be slipped over. the strands should be just loose enough to remain taut when unwound. when the propeller is in position the planes will probably have to be readjusted. the tin propeller can be attached in a similar way. these propellers will do for almost any simple design of aeroplanes. when the motor is wound up for flight, the number of turns to give to the propeller will depend upon the strength and number of the elastic strands used. about a hundred turns is a usual number. throw the motor forward in a slightly downward direction; because it is a glider it will tend to follow a gentle curve to the ground at first, but the whirling propeller will tend to carry it forward and upward. the first attempts may be failures, but these models are well worth many trials. =the hawk aeroplane= (fig. ) is a common flying toy worked as the above by elastic. cut two blocks of wood, a, a´; make holes in them as shown. into the square holes fix and glue two square rods c. through a´ bore a hole for the piece of cane, b b´, to pass through. f is a wire spindle with a hook at one end for elastic; it passes through the hole in block a´, through two beads, and through a piece of cork, f, into which it must be fixed. k is a piece of cane bent as in diagram, passing through a hole in cork, h. the bend is more _permanent_ if the cane is held to the spout of a boiling kettle; the ends of k should be slightly warped in opposite directions. into block a another wire hook is fixed and bands of elastic are passed over this hook and the opposite one, as in the diagram; the more bands the better. the cane b b´ is bent round at each end and fastened to the wooden rods, c c, by thread. the cane, k k, is fastened by thread as in the diagram; the thread can pass through a hole in the cork. spaces t, t, t, t are covered with thin tissue paper gummed to thread and cane by means of overlapping edges. the model is wound up and set going like the previous one. care must be taken to have it properly balanced, and it must be made as light as possible; the blocks a, a´ may very well be cut from cork. light bamboo cane can be used for posts, c c. at its best, however, the hawk aeroplane is not so good a flyer as the first model described. [illustration: fig. ] an ambitious and clever boy who has once grasped the principles on which flying-machines are made can think out many models for himself and copy some of the more elaborate ones. the biplane makes a very effective toy, but is omitted here because it is somewhat difficult to construct. chapter xxiv more old-fashioned toys =jacob's ladder.= this is a very old and ingenious puzzle and an amusing toy. it is very simply made. a number of blocks of wood must be made, " Ã� - / " Ã� / ". any number may be used, but not less than seven; twelve is a very good number. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] round the edges of the blocks and make them smooth with sand-paper, as in fig. . cut strips of tape about / inch wide and long enough to go over the rounded ends of the blocks, _a_, _b_, _b_, etc., in fig. . there are three tapes to each block. nail and glue tape _a_ to the centre of upper end of block a; it is then brought over and downward under the middle of the lower end of block b and fastened. tapes _b b_ are now fastened to the opposite end of a about / inch from the end on either side, and are then brought round the opposite end of b, as shown in the diagram. the centre tape _c_ is fastened to b and then brought down underneath to centre of the opposite end of c. the tapes must be arranged like this throughout the whole set of blocks. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows how the blocks are held when they are all complete. top block a must be turned so as to bring the second block to the same level. the top of this block then falls, and it appears to pass rapidly down first on one side and then on the other, until it reaches the bottom. this is only what _seems_ to happen. what really happens is that the second block becomes reversed and falls back again, in its former position. this makes it come level with the third block, which at once falls over on the fourth, and so on to the end of the ladder. a very illusive effect is thus produced. the blocks might be coloured with some bright enamel paint, contrasting colours on opposite sides. =the trellis toy= (fig. ). the strips of wood for this toy should be as thin as possible. they are fastened together at points , , , , etc., by small pieces of wire, or by rivets bent down to prevent their slipping off, but not too tightly, so that the toy works easily. heads can be cut out of cardboard painted and glued to the wood. strips a and b should be wider at one end and have holes made in them for handles. =a running mouse.= this toy is made of fret-wood, two ordinary reels and elastic. choose two reels of about - / inches in length, diameter about inch. cut out a piece of wood, a, to measurements given (fig. ). with a fret-saw cut out the head (fig. ); slit b is a little wider than the thickness of the wood, so that the head wags about very easily when wired to the body (fig. ). cut out four legs as in fig. . the reels work behind these so that the shape of the leg partly hides them. nail the back legs to the body as shown in fig. . make a round axle to fit one of the reels so that it turns easily on it; cut it the exact length of the distance between the two back legs, pass it through the reel and glue its ends, c, to the legs so that the reel comes slightly below the legs and can run along easily. now make holes, d, in the front legs, and nail them to the body so that holes d are on a level with the axle c. make a hole through the body a, midway between the front legs, through which the string, e, will pass. make holes in the other reel and insert wire staples at each end as in fig. . fasten to and wind round the reel about a yard of string. pass rubber bands through each staple (f in fig. ) and through the holes d in the front legs and knot on the outside. pass the string through the hole in a (fig. ). =to fasten head on.= make two holes in the head exactly over each other, g and h in fig. . slip the head on to the body and make a hole through the body, between holes g and h, as shown in fig. . bend a piece of wire as in fig. , distance between bent ends being equal to distance between holes g and h; slip the wire through the hole in the body, pass the ends of the wire through holes g and h, then bend the ends over to the position shown by the dotted lines in fig. ; the mouse's head will then swing from side to side. make a hole in end at l (fig. ) and insert a tail of thick string. a piece of wood, m, shaped as in fig. , may be glued along part of the body, a, a little to one side so as not to interfere with string, e. the whole may be suitably coloured. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the toy works in this way. if it is placed on the floor and the string held, the weight of the toy will make the twine unwind, thus causing the elastic which supports the reel to twist. when the string is slackened, the elastic will untwist again, making the reel revolve and the toy run along the ground. figs. and show a black beetle that can be made in the same way; the antennæ may be made of wire. other suitable animals are a lizard and a crocodile. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a hygroscope.= the cottage is made of thin wood about / inch to / inch in thickness, according to measurements given in fig. . the sides are about - / inches. the platform or floor on which it stands, - / inches by inches. the sides of the roof are inches by inches, so that it projects slightly. the doors in front are - / inches wide and inches high, and are cut out with the fret-saw; about half-an-inch of the partition between the doors is cut away to allow the disc on which the figures stand to swing round. cut with fret-saw a circular disc of wood / inch thick, diameter inches. drill a hole through the centre and fit into it quite tightly a piece of wire bent into a loop as shown in fig. . drill a hole in the floor of the cottage, about an inch from the middle of the partition. the wire axle should fit into this so that it turns easily, but not too loosely, otherwise the disc on which the figures stand will wobble. just over this hole there must be another hole in the roof. this can be made by filing, with round fret-saw file, a little hollow (fig. ) in each of the top sides of the roof, so that when they come together a hole is formed. the back, sides, floor and roof may now be nailed and glued together. next cut out from three-ply wood with the fret-saw two little figures as in fig. ; they should be about inches to - / inches, and should be suitably coloured. these are glued to the wooden disc. the disc is hung from the roof by a piece of catgut; a knot is made at the end to prevent it slipping through, the other end being tied to the wire loop; the wire passes through the hole in the floor. the catgut must be long enough to allow the disc to turn round completely on its axis. four pieces of wood or four small reels are glued to the corners of the floor to prevent the wire axle from touching the ground. the front must not be put on until the model is found to work correctly. to do this, hang the disc so that it is parallel to the ground, and so that both figures are looking out of their respective doors; then tie the knot at the top and wait for a change of weather. supposing on a damp day the cricketer comes forward and the boy in mackintosh and sou'wester retires indoors, this is because the catgut is twisting the wrong way, therefore the end that is fastened to the roof must be fastened to the wire loop, and vice versa. now the front can be glued on. it can be suitably painted, showing door-posts, windows, bricks, etc. =why the hygroscope works.= catgut has the peculiar property of absorbing moisture from the air and twisting up and becoming shorter; when the air is dry it untwists to its original length; the damper the air the greater is the amount of the twist. hence in the model, as the catgut twists and untwists according to the state of the atmosphere, the little figures swing in and out of the cottage doors. chapter xxv lift, pont roulant, tower bridge [illustration: fig. ] =a lift.= there are a variety of ways of making a lift. one of the simplest is shown in this chapter. the first essential is a wooden box, oblong if possible, so that there can be many floors. the measurements given in this chapter are for quite a small model made from a shallow oblong box, - / inches by - / inches, and about - / inches in depth. sand-paper the inside and cover it with some pretty paper. mark off distances a c and b d (fig. ) equal to - / inches; rule lines a b and c d along the bottom of the box; glue pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch (a b and c d in fig. ) along the bottom of the box for the lift to run up and down between. the lift is made next. cut two pieces of wood - / inches by - / inches; nail to the corners of one piece four pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ". fasten the other piece of wood to these four posts by means of screw-eyes. now leave the lift for a while. cut two pieces of cardboard, a b e f and c d h g, to divide the box into three long divisions, as in fig. . see that they project / inch beyond the box. divide these strips into three parts and draw and cut out doors as in the diagram; the line for the floors must, of course, be well above the top of the lift, while the height of the doors must correspond to that of the lift. now glue these strips of cardboard to the pieces of stripwood a b and c d as in diagram; see that the doors open into the rooms on each side, and not into the lift. see that the lift runs easily up and down between the cardboard strips; sand-paper it if it does not. make four holes in the top of the box, _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ in fig. . tie thread or black yarn to the screw-eyes, cross it and pass it through the holes as in the figure, then pass the four cables through screw-eye k. when the lift is on the ground, pull the strings taut and tie a knot below the screw-eye. the lift can be raised by means of winding gear attached to the side as described in chapter v, on the crane; the weight of the lift will pull it down again, or if this is not enough it can be weighted with lead. fig. shows another way of working the model. screw-eyes can be fastened to the bottom of the lift and thread tied to them as before; these threads must pass through four holes in the bottom of the box, through a hole in the support l m and through screw-eye q; the bottom strings are then knotted to the top strings at r, and the lift can be lowered and raised by moving knot r up and down. the supports n p and l m are made of pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] cut a door out of cardboard as shown in fig. and glue it over the front of the lift. (in fig. the dotted lines are half cuts, the black lines are cut.) nail strips of wood / inch by / inch, e f and h g, in front of the lift and glue the pieces of cardboard to them. they keep the lift from falling forward. if the lift is moved up and down, as shown in fig. , it is best for it to fit fairly tightly so that it stays into whatever position it is pulled. cardboard floors, , , , (fig. ), are added, and kept in position by pieces of stripwood. the rooms on each side can be furnished according to taste and according to their size. the lift itself may be finished off with advertisements, directions to travellers, etc., according as it is intended for use in a railway station, a hotel, a store, etc. this toy, although so simply made, is very effective. =pont roulant at saint-malo.= this is a pretty model to make. first glue four pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", together (a a a a in fig. ). nail and glue to the corners of this framework four round rods, - / inches long and / inch in diameter. dowel rods such as these are somewhat difficult to nail on; however, should the wood of the little frame split, or the hole in the dowel rod be made too large for the nail, and so make the structure unsteady, the discs of cork (c in fig. ), which have a hole filed in the middle of them and are glued to the rods and the framework, help to consolidate the whole. similar discs of cork are placed round the middle of rods, b, and at the tops of the rods. these serve to hold the black yarn which rigs the structure. the pieces of cork at the top have the additional advantage of making a steadier base for the platform to rest on. if the poles are not all cut exactly the same length, the discs of cork can be raised above the shorter poles and the platform on top made perfectly horizontal. these cork discs also give a larger surface to glue the platform to. instead of dowel rods, iron wire / inch in diameter can be used. these wire rods must have cork discs on them like the wooden rods, but they must be glued into holes in the lower framework and in the platform. having fixed the rods in position, thread is tied underneath a bottom piece of cork (c^ in diagram), passed over the top of rod b^ and kept there by the cork disc at the top, round the bottom of post b^ and under the bottom cork, over the next post and so on, so that the threads cross each other as in the diagram. thread is also tied round the middle of the rods just above corks c^ , c^ , c^ , and c^ . thread is also tied from c^ to c^ , and c^ to c^ . pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", are glued across the frame a a a a. next the platform has to be made; this is a piece of wood - / inches square and / inch in thickness. before gluing it on to the four posts it is best to make and fasten to it the cabin, railings, etc. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the cabin, e, in the middle is inches square and inches high; it is cut out of cardboard. flanges must be left for gluing it to platform, and for gluing the roof to it. doors and windows are drawn round it or cut out. the cabin is then glued in the middle of platform d. the roof is a piece of cardboard - / inches by - / inches. fig. shows how it is cut out, half cuts are made along the dotted lines, and g, k, h, m are bent up to form the ornaments g, k, h, m in fig. . the roof is glued to the top of cabin, e, and to the tops of posts, n, which are pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ". triangular pieces of cardboard are glued in the corners, as p in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the railings are inch high; they can either be made of strips of cardboard inch by - / inches supported at the corners and in the middle by pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ", with criss-cross lines drawn on them, or be made as in fig. , where a b and c d are strips of cardboard / inch wide, f is stripwood / inch by / inch, and , , , etc., are parts of match sticks glued to the cardboard strips. seats can be placed round the railings, and round the cabin where there are no doors. a piece of stripwood, r, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", is cut and filed as in fig. and glued to the middle of the roof. the platform is then glued to the tops of the posts with their surrounding corks. the frame, a a a a, is mounted on wheels - / inches in diameter and / inch in width. the axles are pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, to which the frame a a is glued. the rails on which it runs (_a b_ in fig. ) are made in a similar manner to those described in chapter xiii, for the transporter bridge. it is pulled along by thread tied to screw-eyes x and y, and wound up by winding gear similar to that described in chapter xiii. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows how high tide can be represented by means of boxes and cardboard; d, e, f are boxes which form a quay into which the car runs. a, b, c are pieces of cardboard resting on pieces of stripwood glued to boxes d, e, f, and similar boxes on the other side, or the cardboard can rest on boxes. if boxes cannot be found big enough for d, e and f, several boxes can be built up. slots _a b_ and _c d_ must be left wide enough for the supports to pass freely, and the threads must be omitted at front and back. the rails must lie exactly under slots _a b_ and _c d_. the pieces of cardboard a, b and c should be coloured blue. the thread from the car underneath the "water" can pass into box f and up through a hole in the top, where the winding gear can be placed, but, of course, it can be worked from below. sheets of cardboard a and c can be surrounded by boxes or fastened in a large box, or have cardboard walls built around it. =tower bridge.= a very simple and effective model of tower bridge can be made, which will prove a delightful plaything. the measurements given in this chapter need not be followed, but the bridge can be made larger or smaller according to taste. the whole structure can be of wood or of wood and cardboard. two small boxes are required, made of wood / inch thick, about inches in length, breadth and height. (if such small boxes cannot be found they must be made.) take off one side of box, a b c d in fig. , which shows the mechanism of the toy. into the edges d f and c e screw two small screw-eyes, g and h, about / inch from the top. [illustration: fig. ] now cut a piece of wood - / inches long for the bridge. the width of bridge _a b_ must be equal to width of interior of box. for the present model it will be - / inches. the wood used for the bridge should be about / inch thick. now rule a line - / inches from end _a b_. on this line screw in two small screw-eyes, k and l, of the same size as screw-eyes g and h. the axle, m n, may be either iron wire (in which case the bridge may work rather loosely) or, what is better, a wooden rod that just fits the screw-eyes. whichever axle is chosen cork discs should be placed at each end to prevent it slipping out. before the bridge is fastened on, screw-eyes o and p are screwed in it near the end _c d_. screw-eye p must be far enough from the edge _b d_ to clear screw-eye r when the bridge is upright. the same with screw-eye o. a piece of strong thread is tied to screw-eye p, passed through screw-eye r, and through a hole in the drawbridge above screw-eye r, but clear of axle, m n. a similar piece of thread is tied to screw-eye o, passed through q, and through a hole in the bridge. now cover up top, a b c d, with a piece of cardboard, but do not bring this quite up to b c, in order not to interfere with the working of the bridge. make holes in the cardboard for the strings to pass through. then cover up the front portion, d c f e, below the bridge with cardboard. the tower (fig. ) must next be made. this is formed of one piece of cardboard: height, _a b_, inches; width, _c d_, - / inches. in the sides facing the bridge large openings, e, are cut about - / inches high. small openings, f and g, about - / inches high and / inch broad, are cut for the overhead foot bridges. these are made of long pieces of cardboard inches broad, bent in three divisions to form the path and sides. the latter are marked to represent railings. they should be long enough to pass well inside the tower through openings f and g, and through the corresponding openings in the opposite tower. they can be glued into position by pieces of stripwood or left movable. a door, a, should be made in the top of the tower and a platform put in to make a compartment for working the bridge. the pieces of thread are brought up through holes in this platform and fastened to rod b, which passes through holes in sides of tower, and is kept from slipping out by cork discs. when this rod is turned the bridge will rise or fall. if a large model is being made a proper little windlass with a handle can be constructed inside the upper room of the tower. the threads pass up on each side of the tower so as not to interfere with the "traffic" passing under the arch of the bridge. the tower is fastened up with flanges and glued to the wooden box with the help of small blocks of wood. a square pyramid is placed on the top of the tower, and the whole is suitably coloured. a picture of the real tower bridge is a great help when finishing off the model. a similar bridge and tower are made for the other side. [illustration: fig. ] to keep the wooden boxes the right distance apart (that is, so that bridge x just touches bridge y) nail or glue them to a long strip of wood painted blue. there is, however, no need to fasten them permanently. the ingenious toy-maker will find a hundred ways of improving this toy. there are many additions that can be made if a picture of the tower bridge is consulted; cardboard paths can lead to bridge x, round the outside of the tower; railings can be added to bridges x and y (but see that they are not in the way when the bridge goes up!), and so on. the method of raising and lowering the bridges is capable of a number of modifications. it should be the pleasant business of the maker to improve this model, and not be content with too slavishly following the directions given. bridges are among the most interesting things in the world, and there are countless happy hours in front of the little toy-maker who sets to work to collect pictures and written accounts of bridges, and who tries to imitate these. chapter xxvi soldering. screw steamer. toys worked by wind and by convection currents =soldering.= a knowledge of soldering makes many more toys possible, besides being a useful acquirement in itself. the following are the materials needed: . a soldering iron (fig. ). this can be bought for sixpence at any ironmonger's. it is best to get one not too long in the stem, as otherwise it is difficult to hold it steady. . a strip of soft solder, price about three-halfpence. . soldering fluid or flux. this can be made at home from a pennyworth of spirits of salt (from an oil shop). put a little of the spirits into a separate bottle and drop a few scraps of zinc into it. when it has stopped "fizzing" it is ready for use. . a pennyworth of resin. . a piece of sheet tin. soldering is not nearly so difficult as people think. there is one thing really essential for its success, and that is unlimited patience in cleaning the metal surfaces to be joined together. solder will not adhere to dirty metal. the surfaces must be thoroughly scraped and cleaned with an old knife, then filed, rubbed with emery-cloth and protected by a coating of flux. the flux required for use should be kept in a shallow dish (_e.g._ a meat-paste jar), to prevent it being upset; it can be put on with a small brush. the copper bit of the soldering iron must be covered with a thin film of solder before any soldering is done; this is to ensure that it is perfectly free from dirt or dust. this process is called "tinning the bit." it is quite simple. heat the iron to a dull red heat, not quite red hot, as the solder would otherwise be destroyed. then quickly file the four faces of the point to remove any dirt or oxide that may have got on it and which would prevent the solder from sticking to the bit. next dip the bit for a second or two in the soldering fluid and melt off a drop of solder on to the piece of sheet tin on which is put a little piece of resin. turn the point of the bit round and round in the melted solder until it is completely coated. it is very important that the soldering iron should at no time be overheated, as this tinning would be burnt off; nor can it be repeated too often that the surfaces to be joined must be thoroughly cleaned; failure to do this is in most cases the cause of unsuccessful soldering. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to solder handle a to b (fig. ). thoroughly clean that part of b to which a is to be fastened, and handle a, rubbing the edges of a with emery-cloth. place a on b and rub a little flux with a brush along the join. dip the bit into the flux and drop a spot or two of solder on the edges by applying the heated iron to the end of the strip of solder. apply the bit to the solder and trail the solder with the point of the hot iron round the join so that it is filled up. a little practice will soon enable this to be done successfully, and the skill thus acquired makes the following toy possible. =a steamer with a screw propeller.= fig. shows the size and shape of the steamer. it should be about inches wide amidships, - / inches deep, and hollowed out as thin as possible, according to directions given in chapter xiv. fig. shows the measurements for the stern. the bows should be sharp. this boat must be fairly large to take the tube which runs through it. fasten a strip of lead / inch thick to the bottom of the keel. paint the boat a suitable colour. when it is dry place it in the water and mark on the stern-post, a b (fig. ), the height to which the water comes, for the propeller must come just below this. midway between this point and the end of the keel bore a hole, c, in the stern-post, through the boat in the direction of the top of the bow. this hole should be / inch wide and can be made with a red-hot wire. a brass tube must now be bought from a gasfitter's, / inch [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] outside measurement, and long enough to reach from c to about - / inches beyond the end of the bow. now cut a piece of tin / inch wide and inches long. bend the middle of it round the tube and the ends outward (fig. ). punch holes in each end. solder this strip round the tube about - / inches from one end. at this end file four teeth, about / inch deep, as in fig. . now push the end that is not filed through the hole in the stern from the inside of the boat, so that it is flush with the wood, and fasten the other end to the stem of the boat by driving small nails through the holes in the strip of tin into the boat. to prevent water entering the boat put some putty round the tube where it passes through the wood. before fastening the tube in the boat, round out the end of the bow slightly so that the tube will rest securely on it without projecting too much above the gunwale. make the deck and fix it as described in chapter xiv. bore a hole, d, in fig. , near the stern right through the deck so that it comes out under the counter about inch from the stern-post. it should be large enough for a piece of stout wire to pass through. this is for the rudder. =to make the rudder.= cut a piece of brass wire about / inch thick, - / inches long. cut the rudder out of tin and shape as in fig. . solder it on to the wire so that the end of the rudder is flush with the end of the wire. pass the wire through the hole, d, and bend as in fig. . cut a strip of tin about / inch in width, punch holes in it, point the ends, bend them over and fasten them into the deck so that the strip is under the bend, e, of the tiller. press the tiller over and into one of these holes; thus the rudder can be held firm in its required position for steering. in the middle of the deck cut a hole about / inch in diameter for the funnel, which is a tube of tin about inches long. =the propeller.= cut a circle of tin inches in diameter and inscribe a hexagon; cut as in fig. , the shaded portions being cut away. punch a hole in the centre and into this fix, by soldering, a piece of brass wire ( / inch thick), inches long, to form an axle. warp the fans of the propeller out of the plane of the circle about / inch. make two pieces of wood shaped as in fig. . bore a hole through each and by filing with a small round fret-saw file enlarge it to / inch. put a glass bead, f (fig. ), on wire of propeller, and put the wire through one of the pieces of wood, bend the end into a small hook. take another piece of wire, pass it through the second piece of wood and bend it as in fig. . now take a piece of strong elastic, / inch wide and about - / feet long; tie the ends together. this must be passed through the tube in the boat. to do this, tie a piece of string to the elastic, and drop the string through the tube from the stern end, and by means of the string pull the elastic through, first hooking one end of it to the hook on the propeller wire, fig. . then push the piece of wood, g, into the tube, so that the screw clears the rudder. now hook wire, h (fig. ), into the elastic, and push wood, k, into tube. the wood must be cut away so that the handle, m, can catch in the teeth of the tube. to make the boat work, hold the propeller steady with one hand and wind up the elastic by the handle, m; put the handle in one of the teeth to keep the elastic twisted; set the rudder, put the boat into the water, let go the propeller and the boat will go on until the elastic is unwound. instead of one band of elastic, several thinner bands may be used, and more motive power can thus be obtained. =toys worked by the wind.= cut out of fret-wood ( / inch thick), or three-ply wood, a man reading a paper with one foot raised and resting on a box. the man should be about - / inches and his raised foot inch from the ground, as in fig. . the shoeblack is cut out in three pieces. first the kneeling portion, a (fig. ), is cut inches high and a hole made at _b_; then the head with part of the arm to the elbow attached, as h in fig. , about - / inches high, and with holes at _d_ and _e_; then the hand (with long shoe-brush) and arm to elbow, as k in fig. ; make a hole at _f_. length of k - / inches. now join k to h by wire or a rivet through holes _f_ and _e_, so that it swings loosely, then join h to a by a wire through holes _d_ and _b_. colour these two figures suitably. the base on which the figures rest is a piece of wood about inches by inches. the next thing to be made is the mechanism that works the figures. first cut a piece of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ", a in fig. . the fan or propeller, b, is made by cutting a small circular piece of wood or cork about inch in diameter and securely fixing round it five wind flaps as shown. these flaps are best made of tin. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] now get a piece of stout copper wire (about / inch thick), d in fig. , and bend it as in diagram. the best way to effect this bend is first to make a sort of elongated =u=, as in fig. ; this can be done with pincers. then put part a in a vice and bend b c and d e out at right angles. cut it the right length so that the bend will come on a level with the shoeblack's brush and one end will come above post, a. the wire, d, should be pointed or well smoothed with a file at the lower end, so that it will turn easily on a piece of glass glued to the base. wire d is supported by two wire hoops or screw-eyes placed in post a. the holes through which it passes must not be too large or it will wobble and not turn smoothly. now all the parts are ready for putting together. glue the shoeblack on first, then opposite to him the man. see that the brush passes over the shoe. if for any reason this does not happen, a larger brush can be cut from wood or cardboard and pasted over the shoeblack's hand. now fasten post a behind the man so that the bend of the wire, d, will be in the right position; pass wire, d, through the wire loops or hooks (these are best made of copper wire); glue the top of it into the hole in the propeller. glue a piece of glass, e, under the other end. connect by a thin piece of wire the shoeblack's brush with bend in d. the figure will now work well in the wind. the shoeblack is the toy one most often sees worked in this way. a man sawing wood is another favourite model, and can be made in exactly the same way. two knights fighting can also be made; this involves, however, two propellers. =toys worked by convection currents.= these are less interesting toys because they do not admit of much variety. the toy is worked over a gas burner, where it acts as a ceiling protector. as the power available from convection currents is very slight, every care must be taken that the figure will work smoothly. as the toy is exposed to heat, the soldering must be well done. fig. shows how the toy is made. the little sailor is cut out of sheet metal (tinned plate); his limbs are fixed by means of rivets or eyelets (the latter are obtainable at a boot repairer's). take care that they move freely. they will do so if the holes are very smooth. the wire used is steel wire about / inch; this is fairly easy to bend. wire a b is bent as already described in the shoeblack. it passes through loops in the wire at a and d. it is kept from slipping through at a by a ring of wire soldered on the top. [illustration: fig. ] the propeller at b is simply a tin disc with radial cuts, each sector being twisted at an angle by a pair of pliers. the propeller is held by a turn in the wire and by a touch of solder. notice that the feet of the figure are turned round the wire on which it stands. they can be soldered for greater security. the hand is also curled round the crank pin, but it must be free to turn on it. the wire framework, e, is soldered to a circle of tin, c, which fits on the top of the lamp. as the figure has to be small it should be as long as possible. a pair of scissors should be kept for cutting tin, or tinman's snips can be used; cutting pliers and centre punches will also be needed. holes, however, can be punched in tin with strong round nails and a hammer. round files are needed for making holes smooth. empty tin canisters form a supply of tin plate. adjustable cycle spanners are useful for bending wire at right angles; a hide mallet is a great convenience. before making a toy like one of those described it is well to practise bending wire with vice, hammer and mallet. in the last toy, if tinned plate and tinned steel wire are used, the soldering is a fairly easy matter, because the tinning has already been done. chapter xxvii buildings at home and abroad =a farmhouse.= young children, having cut out of cardboard or fret-wood the animals and trees described in chapter xx, having constructed a bridge, a well, a dove-cot, and other small models scattered through this volume, take considerable pleasure in arranging their toys into pretty groups and attractive combinations. at this stage the lack is often felt of some object of central interest, of something to 'pull the composition together,' as an art critic would put it: the farm scene requires a farm, the domestic scene a villa, the eastern animals and trees an indian temple, or some such building, to complete the picture. with regard to home scenes, children may be advised at this stage to make for themselves any house or building that suits their fancy. the basis of the toy will always be the four walls plus a roof described in the noah's ark (part i, chapter x); more complicated cardboard work has already been studied in the castle (part ii, chapter x), so children who are ambitious to achieve something more picturesque than the noah's ark may be advised to go out into the suburbs or the country, and sketch any simple building, or set of buildings, which they would like to reproduce. such work, once attempted, becomes extremely fascinating, and leads to very picturesque and delightful results. to do really good work, however, children must accustom themselves to _plan_ very carefully what they propose to do, and to convert their sketches into a set of drawings to scale, which, in the case of a building, should include at least a ground plan and a couple of elevations. figs. and show how to lay down the plan and elevations of a simple building of the 'noah's ark' type, to which have been added a front and a back door, with porches, bay and storm windows, chimney-stacks, and an outhouse at the back. fig. is the front elevation to half scale. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the addition of another entirely detached outhouse with wide door at one end, for a cowshed, to face the back of the main building and form the third side of a square, will give the nucleus of quite an attractive farm. when once the plans have been drawn, a scale is plotted below to suit any size to which it is intended to build; all the dimensions shown in plan and elevation are then taken as required with dividers, read off on the scale, taken anew on a foot-rule, and transferred to the wood or cardboard. the scale given on the figure is for quite a large house, the ground plan of the main building measuring inches by inches, and that of the outhouse inches by inches. these two buildings had best be constructed on separate bases, and need not be permanently joined; the roof of the outhouse can be carried rather further into that of the main building than is indicated by the line c h e, and the main roof alone cut carefully to the line c h e. if the main roof is made detachable, building a b c d will form a receptacle for the outhouses and the whole farm stock. the broken line surrounding a b c d and c e f g indicates the dimensions. a house of this size is best built with a base and walls of wood obtained from some grocers' boxes.[ ] if the scale be marked so that points , , read , - / , , giving a reduction to three quarters, the main building will measure - / inches by - / inches, and may be built entirely of cardboard. if the scale be marked so that points , , read , , , a b and a d measuring respectively - / inches and inches, we shall have a small model that can be built of very light materials, such as stout cartridge paper on a cardboard base. [ ] an excellent and very strong material for model-building is manufactured by messrs james spicer and sons limited, under the name of rough cast building board. it has a most realistic white 'rough-cast' surface. it is obtainable in the size - / inches Ã� inches from messrs richardson and co., stationers, charing cross road. the bay window will, of course, be made separately, and gummed into position by means of flanges. the porches may be detachable, like the outhouse; the front-door porch is built of eight pillars of stripwood, nailed and glued to a wood or cardboard base and to cross-beams above; between the pillars may be fixed a couple of seats, one on each side of the door. the back-door porch is supported by four pillars. the roofs are of cardboard. the ground-floor windows, indicated at w, may be either painted or cut out; in the latter case they may be made to open or may be fitted with celluloid window-panes; these you can beg from any amateur photographer of your acquaintance; he is sure to have plenty of 'waster' films. the doors should, of course, be made to open. the storm windows are easily made; the sides, k l m, are cut with angle l k m = half the angle k o p, the latter being in the present instance °. the shape of the window roofs can be arrived at by experimenting with a paper template, but more accurately by plotting them out to scale. thus: draw q' r' v' = q r v, r' t' = r t, q' s' and v' s" = q s; join s' t' and s" t'; then q' v' s" t' s' (fig. ) is the exact shape (leaving the flanges out of account) to which the storm-window roofs should be cut. the roofs over the front porch and the bay window, the chimney stacks, etc., are thought out and plotted in the same manner, the solving of these little problems being excellent practice, which may be turned to good account in after life. the village church, the village inn, if it is old and picturesque, should form good subjects for study and reproduction on the lines indicated above. for young people who have exhausted the possibilities of their immediate surroundings we give a few models from lands more remote. =the taj mahal, agra.= this is one of the most famous buildings in india, and was erected by the emperor shah jehan over the body of his favourite wife. a very pretty model which closely resembles it can be made as follows:-- in fig. the dome, a, is a plain india-rubber ball, circumference about inches. four india-rubber balls, circumference about inches, are needed as b b, and four, circumference about - / inches, for the four columns (c in fig. ) which surround the temple. cut a piece of fairly thick cardboard, inches square, for the roof of the temple. cut off the corners as in fig. . in the centre describe a circle with radius - / inches, and round it four smaller circles of radius / inch. cut a strip of thin cardboard inches by inches. cut as in fig. , leaving flanges of / inch. roll round and fasten together with seccotine and two small paper-clips, size . this forms the part of the temple marked d in fig. . it is glued to the roof by the flanges, etc., and ball, a, is glued into it. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] before fastening it together, mark on it in ink the pattern indicated in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] cut four strips of thin cardboard - / inches by - / inches; mark off / inch for flanges; cut each as in fig. ; bend them round and fasten together; glue the smaller balls, b, b, into them and glue them on the roof just over the smaller circles. cut four strips of cardboard inches by inch; cut and mark as in fig. , and glue this round the smallest balls, c. measure distances _ha_, _ab_, _bc_, _cd_, etc. (fig. ), on a piece of cardboard, and mark out as in fig. . make half cuts along the dotted lines and leave flanges as shown. distance _ak_ = _ah_ and _lb_ = _bc_ = _cm_ = _nd_. make and cut out the windows and arch. cut another piece of cardboard similar to this. these two bent round and joined together form the sides of the temple. now cut a piece of cardboard as in fig. , leaving flanges all round. bend it round and gum it together. this is gummed underneath the roof, before fastening on the outer walls, and serves a double purpose; it helps to support the roof on which the domes rest, and prevents the temple from looking too hollow when the windows are cut out. =to make tower=, c e (fig. ). it consists of three rolls of thin cardboard, e f g, each about inches high, circumference - / inches. circular pieces of cardboard, big enough to project about / inch beyond the columns, form the platforms, h, j, k. underneath each platform triangular pieces of cardboard are glued, as in fig. . four of these columns stand round the central building. it is a great improvement if rings of cardboard, / inch wide, are made and glued round all the smaller domes, as shown in fig. . round the sides of the building strips of paper, l, m, n, o (fig. ), are gummed, rising about / inch from the roof, with patterns drawn on them as in fig. . little cardboard turrets (fig. ) are cut out and gummed in each corner, p and q (fig. ). little cones of paper, made by rolling together a circle cut as in fig. , may be glued to the tops of the domes. the whole should be mounted on a platform made of a piece of stout cardboard, x y, about a foot square or a little larger, supported on match-boxes placed two together. a row of these across the middle will prevent the platform from sagging. trees can be cut out as in chapter xx, figs. and , to stand round the temple. =a pagoda=, or memorial tower, in the province of quei chow in china (fig. ). this is made of nine hexagonal prisms. the bottom one is inches high, the sides being also two inches; the dimensions of the next are / inch less, the next another / inch less, and so on. the last prism has side / inch, height / inch. an ornament for the top can be filed from a cork or piece of round wood. the platforms project about / inch beyond the prisms; the supports may be cardboard or pieces of thin wood. the prisms are fastened together as described in the case of the lighthouse (chapter xiii). the whole should be painted to represent stones, and doors marked on as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows a =mosque= in an oasis in the sahara desert. here the dome, a, an india-rubber ball, is let into a circular hole in the roof. the towers or minarets are prisms of cardboard on top of each other, surmounted by a piece of dowel rod, one end being rounded to a point. trees can be cut out as in the figure to form a background. fig. shows a =japanese pagoda=. this is built up in a similar manner to the chinese pagoda. parts a b c d are square prisms about inch high; e f g are truncated square prisms. they are made like the reservoir described in the models worked by sand (chapter xxi), but the upper parts have been cut off; they are glued to the squares of cardboard which rest upon the tops of a, b, c and d. a piece of cardboard is glued over the top of e so that b can rest upon it, and so on with the others; pieces of paper cut out as at h j are gummed round the edges. there are many interesting models that can be made in this way. almost any good illustrated geography book will provide plenty of material from which pretty and interesting foreign scenes can be built up. [illustration: fig. ] chapter xxviii a theatre this is a toy that will provide hours of happy play. there are many effective ways of making a toy theatre, and the planning and designing of one is a pleasant piece of work. this chapter gives a few suggestions to future theatre builders, who must adopt those that appeal most to them. a large stage is the most necessary part, so that there is plenty of room to set up the scenes and room for the actors. a small stage limits the choice of plays considerably. a pretty and useful theatre can be made thus. get a wooden box - / inches wide, about foot long and - / inches deep. (the theatre described in this chapter was made from a wooden box containing fry's nut milk chocolate--this box is exactly the right size.) this box forms the basis of the platform; stand it bottom upward, nail to the back of it a piece of wood, g h c d, which is foot square (see fig. ). the platform, a b l m, is a piece of stiff cardboard or wood, a b is length of box, l m is feet. this makes a fine large platform for arranging scenes. pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch are glued across the platform, a l b m, each strip a little over a / inch from the other (the / inch side is glued to platform). about eleven strips can be thus glued across; their ends should project about / inch beyond the platform. the grooves thus formed are for running the actors up and down in. a piece of wood, _a b c d_, is now cut feet by - / inches. holes are drilled along the top of it about / inch in diameter, and red paper gummed at the back of them for the footlights. panels or a pretty design of some kind should be painted on it, or it may have coloured paper pasted on it. this piece of wood is glued to k j e f so that its ends project equally on each side. [illustration: fig. ] now cut two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / " (_e b_ and _f d_ in fig. ). bevel the top ends to hold up cardboard roof _e f_ g h (the measurements for which can be easily found). the roof is secured by a flap glued behind a g h b, the roof is also glued to the tops of the strips _eb_ and _fd_. these posts are glued to sides of _abcd_. before they are glued on, however, they must have holes drilled near their upper ends for pole, n o, to pass through. the curtain must be made of fairly thin stuff glued to pole, n o. it can be pulled up and down by means of pulley wheels attached on each side. (for making pulley see part i, chapter xiv.) pieces of lead can be sewn in the corners to make the curtain run down more easily. saw cuts are made across the strips of wood that cover the platform along lines b m and a l. into these slits the side scenes fit. these side scenes are cut out of cardboard and have drawings and painting on them according to the story that is being acted. they must have slits cut in them (corresponding to the grooves in the platform), the number of slits depending on the number of actors. for example in fig. side scene h _f_ b m has an open door through which red riding hood can be pushed. she is cut out of either cardboard or wood, and glued to the end of a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, by means of which she is pushed from the side along the groove in the stage and so off through the corresponding slit in scene g _e_ l a. (in fig. the wolf is looking through this slot.) the window in scene h _f_ b m can be made to open and show the grandmother inside. the cardboard scene, g h a b, is kept in its place by pieces of wire (_h_, _h_, _h_, _h_) fastened at the back and bent over. almost any story can be acted in this theatre. all the actors are fastened to lengths of stripwood by means of which they are passed in and out. sometimes two, three or more may be fastened to one length. the number of openings in the side scenes will, of course, depend on the story being acted. trees, etc., can also be cut out as described in chapter xx (part ii), and stood about. [illustration: figs. and ] [illustration: fig. ] a sea scene looks very effective. waves can be cut out of cardboard and placed in every groove, as in fig. , and a ship drawn across. a shipwreck forms an exciting scene. indeed, there is no end to the scenes--soldiers marching past, stories and scenes from history and literature, etc., etc. the ingenious owner of the theatre will think of many, and add many improvements. it must not be forgotten that the stage is large enough to hold small objects--trees, etc.--to make the scenes look more realistic. also holes or slits can be made in the roof if it is necessary to pull anything up or hang anything. fig. shows how a fringe of paper, a, can be fastened to the roof and bent over to hide the pole on which the curtain is wound. fig. shows how the scenes are worked; as the witch is pushed on from one side, the weeping cinderella is pushed off; when she has quite gone and only the witch remains, a radiant cinderella comes on, followed by a coach, etc. lastly, fig. shows a proscenium, which may be built up of either cardboard or wood, and fixed to the front of the theatre. the sides should project sufficiently to hide the working of the strips by means of which the actors are moved on the stage. * * * * * here, for the present, we take leave of the reader, having given him or her some insight into a subject both pleasant and profitable. the preceding pages are no more than an introduction to the art of making toys, and of making the most of simple tools and simple materials, and their real purpose is to encourage our young people not only to copy but also to create, or at any rate to copy not only from our book but from the world around them. dolls' houses and furniture, railways, boats and other vehicles offer endless possibilities of original and attractive design, and mechanical toys, whether driven by wind, water, elastic or the works of an old clock, offer an equally wide field for invention. at a later age girls will no doubt be ambitious to devise useful articles for the home, while boys may become interested in engineering and electrical models, optical toys, etc.; the deftness of hand, acquaintance with elementary principles, and self-confidence acquired through the simple work which we have described, should stand them in good stead. self-reliance and ingenuity are valuable assets with which to start upon the more serious tasks of life, and if our hints on toy-making contribute in any way to the development of these qualities this book will not have been written in vain. * * * * * transcriber's note: punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. simple typographical and spelling errors were corrected. p. added "or" between "bridges," & "picture". seemed to make more sense than "and" which could also have been used.