17370	----	produced from images generously made available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. PREHISTORIC TEXTILE FABRICS OF THE UNITED STATES, DERIVED FROM IMPRESSIONS ON POTTERY. by WILLIAM H. HOLMES. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * CONTENTS. Page. Introductory 397 First Group 401 Second Group 404 Third Group 413 Fourth Group 416 Fifth Group 417 Sixth Group 418 Miscellaneous 420 ILLUSTRATIONS. [Transcriber's Note: In the original text, the position of illustrations was determined by available page space. For this e-text, each figure caption has been placed directly _after_ the paragraph describing the figure. Figure 88, which shared a caption with Figure 89, has been shifted down to join Figure 90. The captions are identical except for number.] Plate XXXIX.--Pottery, with impressions of textile fabrics 397 Fig. 60.--Cord-marked vessel, Great Britain 399 61.--Cord and fabric marked vessel, Pennsylvania 400 62.--Combination of threads in coffee sacking 401 63.--Section of same 401 64.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of New York 402 65.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of District of Columbia 402 66.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Arizona 402 67.--Fabric from the caves of Kentucky 403 68.--Fabric from the Swiss Lake Dwellings 403 69.--Fabric from a mound in Ohio 403 70.--Fabric from a mound in Ohio 403 71.--Section of the same 403 72.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 405 73.--Section of same 405 74.--Diagram showing method of weaving 405 75.--Device for making the twist 406 76.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 406 77.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Georgia 407 78.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 407 79.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 408 80.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 408 81.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Arkansas 408 82.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Illinois 409 83.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Illinois 410 84.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Missouri 410 85.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 410 86.--Fabric from a copper celt, Iowa 411 87.--Fabric from Vancouver's Island 412 88.--Fabric from the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland 412 89.--Fabric from the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland 412 90.--Fabric from the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland 413 91.--Section of third form of fabric 414 92.--Device for weaving same 414 93.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 414 94.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 414 95.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 414 96.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 415 97.--Fabric from the Northwest coast 415 98.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Tennessee 416 99.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Alabama 416 100.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Iowa 417 101.--Plaiting of an ancient sandal 417 102.--Braiding done by the Lake Dwellers 418 103.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of District of Columbia 419 104.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of North Carolina 419 105.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of North Carolina 420 106.--Net from the Lake Dwellings 420 107.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of New Jersey 421 108.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of New Jersey 421 109.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of New Jersey 422 110.--Fabric from the ancient pottery of Pennsylvania 422 111.--Impression on the ancient pottery of Ohio 423 112.--Impression on the ancient pottery of New Jersey 423 113.--Impression on the ancient pottery of Alabama 423 114.--Impression on the ancient pottery of Maryland 424 115.--Impression on the ancient pottery of Alabama 425 [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY ANNUAL REPORT 1882 PL. XXXIX 1. POTSHERD. 2. CLAY CAST. 3. POTSHERD. 4. CLAY CAST. 5. POTSHERD. 6. CLAY CAST. A. Hoen & Co. Litho[*illegible*], Baltimore. POTTERY WITH IMPRESSIONS OF TEXTILE FABRICS.] PREHISTORIC TEXTILE FABRICS OF THE UNITED STATES, DERIVED FROM IMPRESSIONS ON POTTERY. By W. H. Holmes. INTRODUCTORY. It is not my intention in this paper to make an exhaustive study of the art of weaving as practiced by the ancient peoples of this country. To do this would necessitate a very extended study of the materials used and of the methods of preparing them, as well as of the arts of spinning and weaving practiced by primitive peoples generally. This would be a very wide field, and one which I have no need of entering. I may state here, however, that the materials used by savages in weaving their simple fabrics consist generally of the fibre of bark, flax, hemp, nettles, and grasses, which is spun into thread of various sizes; or of splints of wood, twigs, roots, vines, porcupine quills, feathers, and a variety of animal tissues, either plaited or used in an untwisted state. The articles produced are mats, baskets, nets, bags, plain cloths, and entire garments, such as capes, hats, belts, and sandals. It has been noticed by a few authors that twisted or plaited cords, as well as a considerable variety of woven fabrics, have been used by primitive tribes in the manufacture and ornamentation of pottery. Impressions of these made in the soft clay are frequently preserved on very ancient ware, the original fabrics having long since crumbled to dust. It is to these that I propose calling attention, their restoration having been successfully accomplished in many hundreds of cases by taking impressions in clay from the ancient pottery. The perfect manner in which the fabric in all its details of plaiting, netting, and weaving can be brought out is a matter of astonishment; the cloth itself could hardly make all the particulars of its construction more manifest. The examples presented in the accompanying plate will be very instructive, as the fragment of pottery is given on the left, with its rather obscure intaglio impressions, and the clay cast on the right with the cords of the fabric in high relief. The great body of illustrations have been made in pen directly from the clay impressions, and, although details are more distinctly shown than in the specimens themselves, I believe that nothing is presented that cannot with ease be seen in the originals. Alongside of these restorations I have placed illustrations of fabrics from other primitive sources. There appears to be a pretty general impression that baskets of the ordinary rigid character have been extensively used by our ancient peoples in the manufacture of pottery to build the vessel in or upon; but my investigations tend to show that such is not the case, and that nets or sacks of pliable materials have been almost exclusively employed. These have been applied to the surface of the vessel, sometimes covering the exterior entirely, and at others only the body or a part of the body. The interior surface is sometimes partially decorated in the same manner. The nets or other fabrics used have generally been removed before the vessel was burned or even dried. Professor Wyman, in speaking casually of the cord-marked pottery of Tennessee, says: "It seems incredible that even an Indian would be so prodigal of time and labor as to make the necessary quantity of well-twisted cord or thread, and weave it into shape for the mere purpose of serving as a mold which must be destroyed in making a single copy." This remark is, however, based upon a false assumption. The fact that the net or fabric has generally been removed while the clay was still soft being susceptible of easy proof. I have observed in many cases that handles and ornaments have been added, and that impressed and incised designs have been made in the soft clay _after_ the removal of the woven fabric; besides this there would be no need of the support of a net after the vessel had been fully finished and slightly hardened. Furthermore, I have no doubt that these _textilia_ were employed as much for the purpose of enhancing the appearance of the vessel as for supporting it during the process of construction. I have observed, in relation to this point, that in a number of cases, notably the great salt vessels of Saline River, Illinois, the fabric has been applied after the vessel was finished. I arrive at this conclusion from having noticed that the loose threads of the net-like cover sag or festoon toward the rim as if applied to the inverted vessel, Fig. 82. If the net had been used to suspend the vessel while building, the threads would necessarily have hung in the opposite direction. In support of the idea that ornament was a leading consideration in the employment of these coarse fabrics, we have the well-known fact that simple cord-markings, arranged to form patterns, have been employed by many peoples for embellishment alone. This was a common practice of the ancient inhabitants of Great Britain, as shown by Jewett. The accompanying cut (Fig. 60) is copied from his work.[1] [Illustration: Fig. 60.--Ancient British vase with cord ornamentation.] [Footnote 1: Jewett, Llewellynn: Grave mounds and their contents, p. 92.] It is a remarkable fact that very few entire cord-marked vessels have been obtained in this country, although fragments of such are very plentiful. In Fig. 61 we have an ancient vase from Pennsylvania. It presents a combination of net or basket markings and of separate cord-markings. The regularity of the impressions upon the globular body indicates almost unbroken contact with the interior surface of the woven vessel. The neck and rim have apparently received finishing touches by separately impressing cords or narrow bands of some woven fabric. [Illustration: Fig. 61.--Ancient fabric marked vessel, Pennsylvania.] Many examples show very irregular markings such as might have been made by rolling the plastic vessel irregularly upon a woven surface, or by molding it in an improvised sack made by tying up the margins of a piece of cloth. It is necessary to distinguish carefully the cord and fabric markings from the stamped designs so common in southern pottery, as well as from the incised designs, some of which imitate fabric markings very closely. I shall present at once a selection from the numerous examples of the fabrics restored. For convenience of study I have arranged them in six groups, some miscellaneous examples being added in a seventh group. For comparison, a number of illustrations of both ancient and modern textiles are presented. In regard to methods of manufacture but little need be said. The appliances used have been extremely simple, the work in a vast majority of cases having been done by hand. It is probable that in many instances a simple frame has been used, the threads of the web or warp being fixed at one end and those of the woof being carried through them by the fingers or by a simple needle or shuttle. A loom with a device for carrying the alternate threads of the warp back and forth may have been used, but that form of fabric in which the threads are twisted in pairs at each crossing of the woof could only have been made by hand. The probable methods will be dwelt upon more in detail as the groups are presented. In verifying the various methods of fabrication I have been greatly assisted by Miss Kate C. Osgood, who has successfully reproduced, in cotton cord, all the varieties discovered, all the mechanism necessary being a number of pins set in a drawing board or frame, in the form of three sides of a rectangle, the warp being fixed at one end only and the woof passing back and forth between the lateral rows of pins, as shown in Fig. 74. FIRST GROUP. Fig. 62 illustrates a small fragment of an ordinary coffee sack which I take as a type of the first group. It is a loosely woven fabric of the simplest construction; the two sets of threads being interwoven at right angles to each other, alternate threads of one series passing over and under each of the opposing series as shown in the section, Fig. 63. [Illustration: Fig. 62.--Type of Group one--portion of a coffee sack.] [Illustration: Fig. 63.--Section.] It is a remarkable fact that loosely woven examples of this kind of cloth are rarely, if ever, found among the impressions upon clay or in the fabrics themselves where preserved by the salts of copper or by charring. The reason of this probably is that the combination is such that when loosely woven the threads would not remain in place under tension, and the twisted and knotted varieties were consequently preferred. It is possible that many of the very irregular impressions observed, in which it is so difficult to trace the combinations of the threads, are of distorted fabrics of this class. This stuff may be woven by hand in a simple frame, or by any of the primitive forms of the loom. In most cases, so far as the impressions upon pottery show, when this particular combination is employed, the warp is generally very heavy and the woof comparatively light. This gives a cloth differing greatly from the type in appearance; and when, as is usually the case, the woof threads are beaten down tightly, obscuring those of the web, the resemblance to the type is quite lost. Examples of this kind of weaving may be obtained from the fictile remains of nearly all the Atlantic States. The specimen presented in Fig. 64 was obtained from a small fragment of ancient pottery from the State of New York. [Illustration: Fig. 64.--Fabric impressed upon ancient pottery, New York.] It is generally quite difficult to determine which set of threads is the warp and which the woof. In most cases I have preferred to call the more closely placed threads the woof, as they are readily beaten down by a baton, whereas it would be difficult to manipulate the warp threads if so closely placed. In the specimen illustrated, only the tightly woven threads of the woof appear. The impression is not sufficiently distinct to show the exact character of the thread, but there are indications that it has been twisted. The regularity and prominence of the ridges indicate a strong, tightly drawn warp. Fig. 65 represents a form of this type of fabric very common in impressions upon the pottery of the Middle Atlantic States. This specimen was obtained from a small potsherd picked up near Washington, D.C. The woof or cross-threads are small and uniform in thickness, and pass alternately over and under the somewhat rigid fillets of the web. The apparent rigidity of these fillets may result from the tightening of the series when the fabric was applied to the plastic surface of the vessel. [Illustration: Fig. 65.--From a fragment of ancient pottery, District of Columbia.] I present in Fig. 66 the only example of the impression of a woven fabric found by the writer in two summers' work among the remains of the ancient Cliff-Dwellers. It was obtained from the banks of the San Juan River, in southeastern Utah. It is probably the imprint of the interior surface of a more or less rigid basket, such as are to be seen among many of the modern tribes of the Southwest. The character of the warp cannot be determined, as the woof, which has been of moderately heavy rushes or other untwisted, vegetable fillets, entirely hides it. [Illustration: Fig. 66.--From a fragment of ancient Cliff-house pottery.] The caves of Kentucky have furnished specimens of ancient weaving of much interest. One of these, a small fragment of a mat apparently made from the fiber of bark, or a fibrous rush, is illustrated in Fig. 67. [Illustration: Fig. 67.--Fabric from a cave in Kentucky.] This simple combination of the web and woof has been employed by all ancient weavers who have left us examples of their work. The specimen given in Fig. 68 is the work of the ancient Lake-Dwellers of Switzerland. It is a mat plaited or woven of strips of bast, and was found at Robenhausen, having been preserved in a charred state.[2] Keller gives another example of a similar fabric of much finer texture in Fig. 8, Pl. CXXXVI. [Illustration: Fig. 68.--Fabric from Swiss Lake-Dwellings.] [Footnote 2: Keller: Lake-Dwellers. Fig. 2, Pl. CXXXIV.] An illustration of this form of fabric is given by Foster,[3] and reproduced in Fig. 69. [Illustration: Fig. 69.--Cloth from a mound, Ohio.] [Footnote 3: Foster: Prehistoric Times.] In the same place this author presents another form of cloth shown in my Fig. 70. In Fig. 71 we have a section of this fabric. These cloths, with a number of other specimens, were taken from a mound on the west side of the Great Miama River, Butler County, Ohio. The fabric in both samples appears to be composed of some material allied to hemp. As his remarks on these specimens, as well as on the general subject, are quite interesting, I quote them somewhat at length. "The separation between the fibre and the wood appears to have been as thorough and effectual as at this day by the process of rotting and hackling. The thread, though coarse, is uniform in size, and regularly spun. Two modes of weaving are recognized: In one, by the alternate intersection of the warp and woof, and in the other, the weft is wound once around the warp, a process which could not be accomplished except by hand. In the illustration the interstices have been enlarged to show the method of weaving, but in the original the texture was about the same as that in coarse sail-cloth. In some of the Butler County specimens there is evidently a fringed border." [Illustration: Fig. 70.--Cloth from a mound, Ohio.] [Illustration: Fig. 71.--Section.] In regard to the second specimen described, I would remark that it is a very unusual form, no such combination of the parts having come to my notice either in the ancient fabrics themselves or in the impressions on pottery. In a very closely woven cloth it might be possible to employ such a combination, each thread of the web being turned once around each thread of the woof as shown in Fig. 71; but certainly it would work in a very unsatisfactory manner in open fabrics. I would suggest that this example may possibly belong to my second group, which, upon the surface, would have a similar appearance. The combination of this form is shown in the section, Fig. 73. SECOND GROUP. It is not impossible, as previously stated, that open fabrics of the plain type were avoided for the reason that the threads would not remain in place if subjected to tension. A very ingenious method of fixing the threads of open work, without resorting to the device of knotting has been extensively employed in the manufacture of ancient textiles. The simplest form of cloth in which this combination is used is shown in Fig. 72. This example, which was obtained from a small fragment of pottery found in Polk County, Tennessee, may be taken as a type. [Illustration: Fig. 72.--From ancient pottery, Tennessee.] [Illustration: Fig. 73.--Section.] Two series of threads are interwoven at right angles, the warp series being arranged in pairs and the woof singly. At each intersection the pairs of warp threads are twisted half around upon themselves, inclosing the woof threads and holding them quite firmly, so that the open mesh is well preserved even when much strained. Fabrics of this character have been employed by the ancient potters of a very extended region, including nearly all the Atlantic States. There are also many varieties of this form, of fabric resulting from differences in the size and spacing of the threads. These differences are well brought out in the series of illustrations that follow. In regard to the manufacture of this particular fabric, I am unable to arrive at any very definite conclusion. As demonstrated by Miss Osgood, it may be knitted by hand, the threads of the warp being fixed at one end and the woof at both by wrapping about pegs set in a drawing board or frame, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 74. [Illustration: Fig. 74.--Diagram showing the method of weaving Form 2.] The combination is extremely difficult to produce by mechanical means, and must have been beyond the reach of any primitive loom. I have prepared a diagram, Fig. 75, which, shows very clearly the arrangement of threads, and illustrates a possible method of supporting the warp while the woof is carried across. As each thread of the woof is laid in place, the threads of the warp can be thrown to the opposite support, a turn or half twist being made at each exchange. The work could be done equally well by beginning at the top and working downward. For the sake of clearness I have drawn but one pair of the warp threads. [Illustration: Fig. 75.--Theoretic device for working the twist.] Fig. 76 illustrates a characteristic example of this class obtained from a fragment of pottery from the great mound at Sevierville, Tenn. [Illustration: Fig. 76.--From fragment of mound pottery, Tennessee.] The impression is quite perfect. The cords are somewhat uneven, and seem to have been only moderately well twisted. They were probably made of some vegetable fiber. It will be observed that the threads of the woof are placed at regular intervals, while those of the web are irregularly placed. It is interesting to notice that in one case the warp has not been doubled, the single thread having, as a consequence, exactly the same relation to the opposing series as corresponding threads in the first form of fabric presented. The impression, of which this is only a part, indicates that the cloth was considerably distorted when applied to the soft clay. The slipping of one of the woof threads is well shown in the upper part of the figure. The fabric shown in Fig. 77 has been impressed upon an earthen vessel from Macon, Ga. It has been very well and neatly formed, and all the details of fiber, twist, and combination can be made out. [Illustration: Fig. 77.--From ancient pottery, Georgia.] The example given in Fig. 78 differs from the preceding in the spacing and pairing of the warp cords. It was obtained from a fragment of ancient pottery recently collected at Reel Foot Lake, Tennessee. [Illustration: Fig. 78.--From ancient pottery, Tennessee.] Fig. 79 represents another interesting specimen from the pottery of the same locality. The border is woven somewhat differently from the body of the fabric, two threads of the woof being included in each loop of the warp. [Illustration: Fig. 79.--From ancient pottery, Tennessee.] Fig. 80 is from the pottery of the same locality. The threads are much more closely woven than those already given. [Illustration: Fig. 80.--From ancient pottery, Tennessee.] The next example, Fig. 81, impressed upon a fragment of clay from Arkansas, has been made of coarse, well-twisted cords. An ornamental border has been produced by looping the cords of the woof, which seem to have been five in number, each one passing over four others before recrossing the warp. [Illustration: Fig. 81.--From a piece of clay, Arkansas.] In no locality are so many fine impressions of textiles upon clay vessels found as in the ancient salt-making districts of the Mississippi Valley. The huge bowl or tub-like vessels used by the primitive salt-makers have very generally been modeled in coarse nets, or otherwise have had many varieties of netting impressed upon them for ornament. In the accompanying plate (XXXIX) two fine examples of these impressions are given. They are somewhat more clearly defined than the majority of those from which the other illustrations are made. Fig. 82 illustrates a specimen in which every detail is perfectly preserved. Only a small portion of the original is shown in the cut. The cords are heavy and well twisted, but the spacing is somewhat irregular. I observe one interesting fact in regard to this impression. The fabric has apparently been applied to the inverted vessel, as the loose cords of the woof which run parallel with the rim droop or hang in festoons between the cords of the warp as shown in the illustration, which is here placed, as drawn from the inverted fragment. The inference to be drawn from this fact is that the fabric was applied to the exterior of the vessel, after it was completed and inverted, for the purpose of enhancing its beauty. When we recollect, however, that these vessels were probably built for service only, with thick walls and rude finish, we are at a loss to see why so much pains should have been taken in their embellishment. It seems highly probable that, generally, the inspiring idea was one of utility, and that the fabric served in some way as a support to the pliable clay, or that the network of shallow impressions was supposed to act after the manner of a _dégraissant_ to neutralize the tendency to fracture. [Illustration: Fig. 82.--From fragment of a large salt vessel, Saline River, Illinois.] Another example from the same locality is shown in Fig. 83. This is similar to that shown in the lower figure of Plate XXXIX. It is very neatly woven of evenly spun and well-twisted thread. The double series is widely spaced as shown in the drawing. [Illustration: Fig. 83.--From a salt vessel, Saline River, Illinois.] The very interesting specimen illustrated in Fig. 84 was obtained from a small fragment of pottery found in Fort Ripley County, Missouri. The combination of the two series of threads or strands clearly indicates the type of fabric under consideration, the twisted cords of the warp being placed very far apart. The remarkable feature of this example is the character of the woof, which seems to be a broad braid formed by plaiting three strands of untwisted fiber, probably bast. All the details are shown in the most satisfactory manner in the clay cast. [Illustration: Fig. 84.--From ancient pottery, Missouri.] The open character of the web in this specimen assists very much, in explaining the structure of tightly-woven examples such as that shown in Fig. 85, in which the cross cords are so closely placed that the broad bands of the opposing series are completely hidden. [Illustration: Fig. 85.--From ancient pottery, Tennessee.] I have made the drawing to show fillets of fiber appearing at the ends. These do not appear in the impression. It is highly probable, however, that these fillets are plaited bands, as in the preceding example. They are wide and flat, giving somewhat the effect of basket-work of splints or of rushes. This specimen was obtained in Carter County, Tennessee. We have a few pieces of this variety of fabric which have been preserved by contact with the salts of copper. Professor Farquharson describes an example from a mound on the banks of the Mississippi River, near the city of Davenport. It had been wrapped about a copper implement resembling a celt, and was at the time of its recovery in a very perfect state of preservation. In describing this cloth Mr. Farquharson says that "the warp is composed of four cords, that is, of _two double and twisted_ cords, and the woof of _one_ such doubled and twisted cord which passes between the two parts of the warp; the latter being twisted at each change, allowing the cords to be brought close together so as to cover the woof almost entirely." His illustration is somewhat erroneous, the artist not having had quite a clear understanding of the combination of threads. This cloth has a general resemblance to ordinary coffee-sacking. In Fig. 86 I give an illustration of this fabric derived from the opposite side of the celt. [Illustration: Fig. 86.--Fabric from a copper celt, Iowa.] Although I am not quite positive, it is my opinion, after having examined the specimen carefully, that the body of the cloth belongs to my first group and that the border only is of the second group. My section and drawing give a clear idea of the construction of this fabric. A finely-preserved bit of cloth belonging to the group under consideration was recently found fixed to the surface of a copper image from one of the Etowah mounds in Georgia. This form of weaving is very common among the productions of the modern tribes of Western America. A very good example is shown in Fig. 87, which represents the border of a cape like garment made by the Clyoquot Indians, of Vancouver's Island. It is woven, apparently, of the fiber of bark, both web and woof showing considerable diversity in the size of the cords. The border has been strengthened by sewing in a broad, thin fillet of rawhide. [Illustration: Fig. 87.--Modern work, Vancouver's Island.] The beautiful mats of the northwest coast peoples, from California to Ounalaska, are often woven in this manner, the materials being bast, grass, or rushes. The Lake Dwellers of Switzerland seem to have made a great many varieties of cloth of this type. I have reproduced four examples from the great work of Dr. Keller. Fig. 88 is copied from his Fig. 1, Plate CXXXV. It exhibits some variations from the type, double strips of bast being bound by a woof consisting of alternate strips of bast and cords. It is from Robenhausen. [Illustration: Fig. 88.--Fabric from the Lake Dwellings, Switzerland.] In Figs. 89 and 90 we have typical examples from the same locality. The woof series seems to consist of untwisted strands of bast or flax. [Illustration: Figs. 89 and 90.--Fabrics from the Lake Dwellings, Switzerland.] THIRD GROUP. A third form of fabric is distinguished from the last by marked peculiarities in the combinations of the threads. The threads of the warp are arranged in pairs as in the last form described, but are twisted in such a way as to inclose two of the opposing series instead of one, each succeeding pair of warp threads taking up alternate pairs of the woof threads, as shown in the section, Fig. 91. This is a very interesting variety, and apparently one that would possess coherence and elasticity of a very high order. [Illustration: Fig. 91.--Section.] In Fig. 92 a simple scheme of plaiting or weaving this material is suggested. It will be seen to differ from the last chiefly in the way in which the woof is taken up by the warp. [Illustration: Fig. 92.--Theoretical device for weaving third group.] The ancient pottery of the Mississippi Valley furnishes many examples of this fabric. It is made of twisted cords and threads of sizes similar to those of the other work described, varying from the weight of ordinary spool cotton to that of heavy twine. The mesh is generally quite open. In Fig. 93 we have a very well preserved example from Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee. It was obtained from a large fragment of coarse pottery. Other pieces are nearly twice as coarse, while some are much finer. [Illustration: Fig. 93.--From the ancient pottery of Tennessee.] Figs. 94 and 95 are finer specimens from the same locality. [Illustration: Fig. 94. Fig. 95. From the ancient pottery of Tennessee.] We have also good examples from Saline River, Illinois. They are obtained from fragments of the gigantic salt vessels so plentiful in that locality. The upper figure of Plate XXXIX illustrates one of these specimens. Other examples hare been obtained from Roane County, Tennessee. A piece of charred cloth from a mound in Butler County, Ohio, has been woven in this manner. Foster has described examples of the two preceding forms from the same locality. The material used is a vegetable fiber obtained from the bark of trees or from some fibrous weed. This specimen is now in the National Museum. An interesting variety of this form is given in Fig. 96. It is from a small piece of pottery exhumed from a mound on Fain's Island, Jefferson County, Tennessee. The threads of the woof are quite close together, those of the web far apart. [Illustration: Fig. 96.--From ancient pottery, Tennessee.] A very fine example of this variety of fabric was obtained by Dr. Tarrow from an ancient cemetery near Dos Pueblos, Cal. It is illustrated in Fig. 2, Plate XIV, vol. VII, of Surveys West of the 100th Meridian.[4] In describing it, Professor Putnam says that the fiber is probably obtained from a species of _yucca_. He says that "the woof is made of two strands, crossing the warp in such a manner that the strands alternate in passing, over and under it, and at the same time inclosing two alternate strands, of the latter, making a letter X figure of the warp, united at the center of the X by the double strands of the woof." It should be noticed that the series of cords called the woof by Professor Putnam are designated as warp in my own descriptions. The illustration shows a fabric identical with that given in the upper figure of Plate XXXIX, and the description quoted describes perfectly the type of fabric under consideration. [Footnote 4: Putnam, F. W., in Vol. VII of Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, page 244.] This method of weaving is still practiced by some of the western tribes, as may be seen by a visit to the national collection. A somewhat complicated arrangement of the threads may be seen in the fabric shown in Fig. 97. It is clearly only a variation of the combination just described. The manner in which the threads pass over, under, and across each other can be more easily understood by reference to the figure than by any description. It comes from one of the Northwest coast tribes. [Illustration: Fig. 97.--Modern fabric, Northwest coast.] FOURTH GROUP. A fourth form of fabric, illustrated in Fig. 98, is of very rare occurrence on our fictile remains. [Illustration: Fig. 98.--Diagonal fabric, ancient pottery of Tennessee.] It is a very neatly woven diagonal from the ancient pottery of Polk County, Tennessee. Two series of cords have been interwoven at right angles to each other, but so arranged as to produce a diagonal pattern. One series of the cords is fine and well twisted, the other coarser and very slightly twisted. The remarkable sample of matting shown in Fig. 99 is from a small piece of pottery from Alabama. It has been worked in the diagonal style, but is somewhat different from the last example. It has probably been made of rushes or heavy blades of grass. [Illustration: Fig. 99.--From the ancient pottery of Alabama.] The texture shown in Fig. 100 is from a rather indistinct impression upon a small fragment of pottery from Iowa. One series of the strands seems to have been quite rigid, while the other has been pliable, and appear in the impression only where they have crossed the rigid series. The dotted lines indicate their probable course on the under side of the cross threads. [Illustration: Fig. 100.--From ancient pottery, Iowa.] This form of fabric is very common in modern work. FIFTH GROUP. In Fig. 101 I present a variety of ancient fabric which has not to my knowledge been found upon ceramic products. This specimen shows the method of plaiting sandals practiced by the ancient inhabitants of Kentucky. Numbers of these very interesting relics have been obtained from the great caves of that State. They are beautifully woven, and well shaped to the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 101.--Plaiting of a sandal, Kentucky cave.] The fiber has the appearance of bast and is plaited in untwisted strands, after the manner shown in the illustration. Professor Putman describes a number of cast-off sandals from Salt Cave, Kentucky, as "neatly made of finely braided and twisted leaves of rushes."[5] [Footnote 5: Putnam, F. W. Eighth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, p. 49.] Fig. 102 illustrates a somewhat similar method of plaiting practiced by the Lake Dwellers of Switzerland, from one of Keller's figures.[6] [Illustration: Fig. 102.--Braiding done by the Lake-Dwellers.] [Footnote 6: Keller, Dr. F. Lake Dwellers. Fig. 3; Pl. CXXXVI.] SIXTH GROUP. The art of making nets of spun and twisted cords seems to have been practiced by many of the ancient peoples of America. Beautiful examples have been found in the _huacas_ of the Incas and in the tombs of the Aztecs. They were used by the prehistoric tribes of California and the ancient inhabitants of Alaska. Nets were in use by the Indians of Florida and Virginia at the time of the discovery, and the ancient pottery of the Atlantic States has preserved impressions of a number of varieties. It is possible that some of these impressions may be from European nets, but we have plentiful historical proof that nets of hemp were in use by the natives, and as all of this pottery is very old it is probable that the impressions upon the fragments are from nets of native manufacture. Wyman states that nets or net impressions have not been found among the antiquities of Tennessee. I have found, however, that the pottery of Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland furnish examples of netting in great numbers. In many cases the meshes have been distorted by stretching and overlapping so that the fabric cannot be examined in detail; in other cases the impressions have been so deep that casts cannot be taken, and in a majority of cases the fragments are so decayed that no details of the cords and their combinations can be made out. In Fig. 103 we have a thoroughly satisfactory restoration from a small fragment of pottery picked up in the District of Columbia. It is shown a little larger than natural size in the drawing. The impression is so perfect that the twist of the cord and the form of the knot may be seen with ease. Most of the examples from this locality are of much finer cord and have a less open mesh than the specimen illustrated. It is a noteworthy fact that in one of these specimens an incised pattern has been added to the surface of the soft clay after the removal of the net. Recent collections from the mounds of Western North Carolina have brought to light many examples of net-marked pottery. Generally the impressions are quite obscure, but enough can be seen in the cast to show clearly the character of the fabric. The restoration given in Fig. 104 represents an average mesh, others being finer and others coarser. Another specimen from the same collection is shown in Fig. 105. The impression is not very distinct, bat there is an apparent doubling of the cords, indicating a very unusual combination. It is possible that this may have come from the imperfect imprinting, but I can detect no indications of a shifting of the net upon the soft clay. [Illustration: Fig. 103.--From ancient pottery, District of Columbia.] [Illustration: Fig. 104.--Net from the pottery of North Carolina.] [Illustration: Fig. 105.--Net from the pottery of North Carolina.] Many interesting examples could be given, both from the ancient and modern work of the inhabitants of the Pacific coast, but for the present I shall content myself by presenting a single example from the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland (Fig. 106): [Illustration: Fig. 106.--Net from the Swiss Lake Dwellings. Keller, plate, CXXX.] MISCELLANEOUS FORMS. The forms of fabrics used by the ancient tribes of the Middle and Northern Atlantic States in the manufacture and ornamentation of their pottery have differed materially from those used in the South and West. As a rule the fragments are smaller and the impressions less perfectly preserved. The fabrics have been more complicated and less carefully applied to the vessel. In many cases the impressions seem to have been made from disconnected bands, belts, or strips of cloth. Single cords, or cords arranged in groups by rolling on sticks, or by other contrivances, have been extensively employed. Baskets have doubtless been used, some of which have been woven, but others have apparently been of bark or skin, with stitched designs of thread or quills. Some of the impressions suggest the use of woven vessels or fabrics filled up with clay or resin, so that the prominences only are imprinted, or otherwise cloths may have been used in which raised figures were worked. Fig. 107 is obtained from a fragment of pottery from New Jersey. The impressions are extremely puzzling, but are such as I imagine might be made by the use of a basket, the meshes of which had been filled up with clay or resin so that only the more prominent ridges or series of thongs remain uncovered to give impressions upon the clay. But the threads or thongs indicate a pliable net rather than a basket, and the appearance of the horizontal threads at the ends of the series of raised stitches suggests that possibly the material may have been bark or smooth cloth with a heavy pattern stitched into it. [Illustration: Fig. 107.--From the ancient pottery of New Jersey.] Very similar to the above is the example given in Fig. 108, also derived from the pottery of New Jersey. [Illustration: Fig. 108.--From the ancient pottery of New Jersey.] Fig. 109 illustrates an impression upon another fragment from the same state. This impression may have been made by a piece of birch bark or fine fabric with a pattern sewed into it with cords or quills. [Illustration: Fig. 109.--From the ancient pottery of New Jersey.] Fig. 110 illustrates an impression upon a large, well-made vase, with scalloped rim, from Easton, Pa. The character of the fabric is difficult to make out, the impression suggesting bead-work. That it is from a fabric, however, is evident from the fact that there is system and uniformity in the arrangement of markings, the indentations alternating as in the impressions of fabrics of the simplest type. Yet there is an appearance of patchwork in the impression that suggests separate applications of the material. [Illustration: Fig. 110.--From the ancient pottery of Pennsylvania.] In Figs. 111 and 112 we have what appear to be impressions of bands or belts. The first shown consists of six parallel cords, coarse and well twisted, with a border of short cord indentations placed at regular intervals. This is a very usual form in all parts of the country, from the Mandan towns of the Missouri to Florida. It is possible that the cords may in this case have been separately impressed, but the example given in Fig. 112 is undoubtedly from, a woven band or belt, the middle portion of which seems to have been a closely-woven cloth, with a sort of pattern produced by series of raised or knotted threads. The borders consist of single longitudinal cord impressions with an edging of short cord indentations placed at right angles to the belt. [Illustration: Fig. 111.--From the ancient pottery of Ohio.] [Illustration: Fig. 112.--From the ancient pottery of New Jersey.] Similar to the last is the very effective decorative design impressed upon a large fragment of pottery from Alabama, shown in Fig. 113. The peculiarity of this example is the use of plaited instead of twisted cords. The work is neatly done and very effective. It seems to me almost certain that single cords have been used. They have been so imprinted as to form a zone, filled with groups of lines placed at various angles. An ornamental border of short lines has been added, as in the examples previously given. [Illustration: Fig. 113.--From the ancient pottery of Alabama.] Two other examples of cord ornamentation, which may be duplicated from the pottery of almost any of the Atlantic States, are presented in Figs. 114 and 115, the first from a fragment of pottery from Charles County, Maryland, and the other from the pottery of Alabama. [Illustration: Fig. 114.--Cord-markings from ancient pottery of Maryland.] [Illustration: Fig. 115.--Cord-markings from ancient pottery of Alabama.] It will readily be seen that it is extremely difficult to draw a line between an ornamentation produced by the use of single or grouped cords and that made by the use of fabrics. It is not less difficult to say just how much of this use of cords and fabrics is to be attributed to manufacture simply and how much to ornament. Although the restorations here presented certainly throw considerable light upon the textile fabrics of the ancient inhabitants of the Atlantic States, it cannot be affirmed that anything like a complete idea of their fabrics has been gained. Impressions upon pottery represent a class of work utilized in the fictile arts. We cannot say what other fabrics were produced and used for other purposes. However this may be, attention should be called to the fact that the work described, though varied and ingenious, exhibits no characters in execution or design not wholly consonant with the art of a stone-age people. There is nothing superior to or specifically different from the work of our modern Indians. The origin of the use of fabrics and of separate cords in the ornamentation of pottery is very obscure. Baskets and nets were doubtless in use by many tribes throughout their pottery making period. The shaping of earthen vessels in or upon baskets either of plain bark or of woven splints or of fiber must frequently have occurred. The peculiar impressions left upon the clay probably came in time to be regarded as ornamental, and were applied for purposes of embellishment alone. Decorative art has thus been enriched by many elements of beauty. These now survive in incised, stamped, and painted designs. The forms as well as the ornamentation of clay vessels very naturally preserve traces of the former intimacy of the two arts. Since the stereotyping of these pages I have come upon a short paper by George E. Sellers (Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XI, p. 573), in which is given what I believe to be a correct view of the use of nets in the manufacture of the large salt vessels referred to on pages 398 and 409. The use of interior conical moulds of indurated clay makes clear the reasons for the reversed festooning of the cords to which I called attention. INDEX Cord-markings on pottery 423 Diagonal textiles 416 Fabrics, Diagonal 417 Forms of 401 from New Jersey 421 " Iowa 411 " Mississippi Valley 408-411 " Southern States 407 of lake dwellers 413 Miscellaneous 415 Farquharson, Prof., describes fabric from Iowa 411 Holmes, W. H., Catalogue of Ethnological collections 393 Jewett, L., British vase from the work of 399 Keller, Dr. F., on fabrics of Swiss lake dwellers 404, 412, 413, 418, 420 Lake dwellings, Fabrics from Swiss 403, 412, 413, 418, 420 Mississippi Valley, Prehistoric fabrics from 408-411 Nets from Atlantic coast 419 Osgood, Miss Kate C., reproduced methods of fabrication 400, 406 Putnam, F. W., on ancient fabrics 415, 418 Swiss lake dwellings, Fabrics from 403, 412, 413, 418, 420 Textiles, Diagonal 417 Forms of 401 from Mississippi Valley, Prehistoric 408-411 " New Jersey, Prehistoric 421 " Southern States, Prehistoric 407 " Swiss Lake dwellers, Prehistoric 413 Miscellaneous 415 used to support pottery 398 Vase from the work of Llewellyn Jewett, British 399 Weaving illustrated from pottery, Materials used in 397 Modes of 401, 405, 413 Wyman, Prof., on cord-marked pottery of Tennessee 398 Yarrow, Dr., H. C., obtained fabrics from pottery in California 415 
41998	----	SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION----BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. POTTERY OF THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS. BY WILLIAM H. HOLMES. CONTENTS. Page. Introductory 265 Pueblo art 266 Distribution 266 Character 266 Treatment 266 The ceramic art 267 Age 267 Material 267 Tempering 267 Construction 268 Surface finish 268 Firing 268 Glaze 268 Hardness 269 Color 269 Form 269 Origin of forms 269 Handles 271 Ornament 271 Origin of ornament 272 Use 272 Classification 272 Coil-made ware 273 Coiling 273 Coiling of the Pueblos 273 Coiling of other peoples 275 Origin of the coil 277 The coil in ornamentation 278 Other varieties of ornament 282 Material 283 Color, etc. 283 Form 283 Use 283 Illustrations of vessels 284 District of the Rio San Juan 284 District of the Rio Virgen 287 District of the Little Colorado 292 Pecos and the Rio Grande 298 District of the Rio Gila 299 Imitation coiled ware 299 Plain ware 299 Painted ware 302 Preliminary remarks 302 Color of designs 302 Execution 302 Stages of ornament 303 Classification of ware 304 White ware 305 Classification by forms 306 Bowls 306 Ollas 306 Bottles 306 Handled vessels 306 Eccentric and life forms 307 Illustrations 307 District of the Rio Virgen 307 Bowls 308 Ollas 314 Handled vessels 314 District of the Rio San Juan 315 Bowls 316 Handled cups 318 Ollas 318 Handled vases 319 District of the Colorado Chiquito 321 Bowls 322 Ollas 335 Bottles 343 Handled vessels 346 Eccentric and life forms 353 Concluding remarks 358 ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 210.--Origin of forms 270 211.--Origin of forms 270 212.--Origin of forms 270 213.--Origin of forms 270 214.--Origin of forms 270 215.--Origin of handles 271 216.--Origin of handles 271 217.--Beginning of the coil 274 218.--Section of coil-made vessel 274 219.--Ordinary superposition of coils 277 220.--Coiled and plain surface 278 221.--Rib-like coil 279 222.--Rib-like coil 279 223.--Indented pattern 280 224.--Thumb-nail indentation 280 225.--Wave-like indentation 281 226.--Wave-like indentation 281 227.--Impressions of finger tips 281 228.--Implement indentations 281 229.--Nail markings 282 230.--Incised lines 282 231.--Incised pattern 282 232.--Applied fillet 283 233.--Examples of relief ornaments 283 234.--Examples of relief ornaments 283 235.--Examples of relief ornaments 283 236.--Examples of relief ornaments 283 237.--Examples of relief ornaments 283 238.--Examples of relief ornaments 283 239.--Vase from a cliff house, Mancos Cañon 285 240.--Vase from Epsom Creek 287 241.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 288 242.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 289 243.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 290 244.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 291 245.--Vase from Parowan, Utah 291 246.--Cup from central Utah 292 247.--Vase from Zuñi 293 248.--Vase from Zuñi 294 249.--Mug from Tusayan 294 250.--Vase from Tusayan 295 251.--Vase from Tusayan 296 252.--Vessel from Tusayan 296 253.--Vase from Tusayan 297 254.--Bowl from Cibola 297 255.--Bottle from tumulus at Saint George 300 256.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 301 257.--Vase from tumulus at Saint George 301 258.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 308 259.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 309 260.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 309 261.--Painted design 310 262.--Bowl from Kanab, Utah 310 263.--Painted design 311 264.--Bowl from Kanab, Utah 311 265.--Painted design 311 266.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 312 267.--Painted design 312 268.--Bowl from Tusayan 312 269.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 313 270.--Bowl from tumulus at Saint George 313 271.--Pitcher from tumulus at Saint George 314 272.--Bowl from Montezuma Cañon 316 273.--Bowl from San Juan Valley 316 274.--Bowl from San Juan Valley 317 275.--Bowl from San Juan Valley 317 276.--Painted design 318 277.--Handled cup from Montezuma Cañon 318 278.--Handled cup from Montezuma Cañon 318 279.--Vase from San Juan Valley 318 280.--Vase from San Juan Valley 319 281.--Vase lid from San Juan Valley 319 282.--Vase lid from San Juan Valley 319 283.--Handled bottle from San Juan Valley 319 284.--Handled bottle from San Juan Valley 320 285.--Handled mug from San Juan Valley 320 286.--Handled mug from San Juan Valley 320 287.--Handled mug from San Juan Valley 320 288.--Handled mug from southern Utah 320 289.--Bowl from Tusayan 322 290.--Bowl from Tusayan 323 291.--Painted design 323 292.--Bowl from Tusayan 324 293.--Painted design 325 294.--Handled bowl from Tusayan 325 295.--Painted design 326 296.--Original form of painted design 326 297.--Handled cup from Tusayan 327 298.--Handled cup from Tusayan 327 299.--Dipper from Tusayan 327 300.--Dipper from Tusayan 328 301.--Figure of bird 328 302.--Dipper from Tusayan 328 303.--Painted design 329 304.--Painted design 329 305.--Unit of the design 329 306.--Bowl from Tusayan 330 307.--Bowl from Tusayan 331 308.--Bowl from Tusayan 331 309.--Bowl from Tusayan 332 310.--Bowl from Tusayan 332 311.--Painted design 333 312.--Bowl from Tusayan 333 313.--Bowl from Tusayan 334 314.--Vase from Tusayan 334 315.--Vase from Tusayan 335 316.--Vase from Tusayan 335 317.--Vase from Tusayan 336 318.--Vase from Tusayan 336 319.--Painted design 337 320.--Vase from Tusayan 337 321.--Vase from Tusayan 338 322.--Painted design 338 323.--Unit of the design 339 324.--Vase from Tusayan 339 325.--Painted design 340 326.--Unit of the design 340 327.--Vase from Tusayan 341 328.--Painted design 342 329.--Unit of the design 342 330.--Vase from Tusayan 343 331.--Vase from Cibola 343 332.--Vase from Cibola 344 333.--Painted design 345 334.--Painted design 345 335.--Vase from Tusayan 346 336.--Handled vase from Tusayan 346 337.--Painted design 347 338.--Handled mug from Tusayan 347 339.--Painted design 348 340.--Vase from Tusayan 348 341.--Painted design 348 342.--Handled cup from Cibola 349 343.--Painted ornament 349 344.--Painted ornament 349 345.--Painted ornament 350 346.--Painted ornament 350 347.--Vase from Tusayan 350 348.--Vase from Tusayan 351 349.--Bottle from Tusayan 351 350.--Bottle from Tusayan 352 351.--Bottle from Tusayan 352 352.--Vase from eastern Arizona 353 353.--Vase from eastern Arizona 354 354.--Vase from Tusayan 354 355.--Vase from Tusayan 355 356.--Vase from Tusayan 355 357.--Vase from Tusayan 356 358.--Vase from Cibola 357 359.--Vase from Arizona 358 360.--Bird-shaped cup from Tusayan 358 POTTERY OF THE ANCIENT PUEBLOS. By WILLIAM H. HOLMES. INTRODUCTORY. A study of the pottery of the ancient Pueblo peoples is here commenced in accordance with plans formed years ago by the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology. His aim was to present to the world a monographic work upon the splendid material obtained by the Bureau, including with it the important collections made previously by himself. The preparation of this work has been postponed from time to time with the view of completing the collections, which were being enriched by annual visits to the Pueblo country. Meantime I began the study of the collection for the purpose of securing at the start a satisfactory classification of the material on hand. The present paper is the first result of that study. I have, however, taken up only the more ancient groups of ware, leaving the rest for subsequent papers. A comparative study is not attempted, for the reason that a detailed examination of all the groups to be considered is absolutely essential to satisfactory results. Conclusions drawn from partial observations lead generally to error. There were great difficulties in the way of treating satisfactorily the modern varieties of ware, as no one had sufficient familiarity with the language of the Pueblo tribes to discuss the ideographic phases of the ornamentation. Mr. F. H. Cushing's studies bid fair to supply this want, and his recent return from Zuñi has led to the preparation of the valuable paper presented in this volume. Mr. James Stevenson, who has procured a large portion of the collection of modern pottery, has published catalogues with copious illustrations. Most of the cuts have been prepared under my supervision, and have been selected with the view of securing engravings of a full series of typical examples for a final work. PUEBLO ART. DISTRIBUTION.--The ancient Pueblo peoples dwelt in a land of cañons and high plateaus. They had their greatest development in the valley of the Rio Colorado, where they delighted to haunt the shadows of the deepest gorges and build their dwellings along the loftiest cliffs. The limits of their territory are still in a measure undefined. We discover remnants of their arts in the neighboring valleys of Great Salt Lake, the Arkansas, and the Rio Grande, and southward we can trace them beyond the Rio Gila into the table-lands of Chihuahua and Sonora. Thus outlined, we have an area of more than one hundred thousand square miles, which has at times more or less remote been occupied by tribes of town-building and pottery-making Indians. CHARACTER.--High and desert-like as this land is, it has borne a noble part in fostering and maturing a culture of its own--a culture born of unusual needs, shaped by exceptional environment, and limited by the capacities of a peculiar people. Cliff houses and cavate dwellings are not new to architecture, and pottery resembling the Pueblo ware in many respects may be found wherever man has developed a corresponding degree of technical skill; yet there is an individuality in these Pueblo remains that separates them distinctly from all others and lends a keen pleasure to their investigation. TREATMENT.--The study of prehistoric art leads inevitably to inquiries into the origin of races. Solutions of these questions have generally been sought through migrations, and these have been traced in a great measure by analogies in archæologic remains; but in such investigation one important factor has been overlooked, namely, the laws that govern migrations of races do not regulate the distribution of arts. The pathways do not correspond, but very often conflict. The arts migrate in ways of their own. They pass from place to place and from people to people by a process of acculturation, so that peoples of unlike origin practice like arts, while those of like origin are found practicing unlike arts. The threads of the story are thus so entangled that we find it impossible to trace them backward to their beginnings. For the present, therefore, I do not propose to study the arts of this province with the expectation that they will furnish a key to the origin of the peoples, or to the birthplace of their arts, but I shall treat them with reference rather to their bearing upon the processes by which culture has been achieved and the stages through which it has passed, keeping always in mind that a first requisite in this work is a systematic and detailed study of the material to be employed. THE CERAMIC ART. AGE.--The ceramic art of the ancient Pueblos is practically a unit. We find in its remains few indications of distinct periods. There is nothing to carry us back to a remote past. The oldest specimens known are nearly as high in the scale as the latest. In the deposits of caves and burial-grounds we find, so far, nothing more archaic than in the ruins of once populous villages and beneath the fallen walls of hewnstone cliff houses. In methods of manufacture and in styles of ornamentation there is no specific distinction. Once introduced, there is much in the character of the country to develop this art. The people were sedentary, and thus able to practice the art continuously for a long period; and in a country so arid there was often great need of vessels suitable for the transportation and storage of water. MATERIAL.--Nature was lavish in her supply of the material needed. Suitable clay could be found in nearly every valley, both in the well-exposed strata and in the sediment of streams. I have noticed that after the passage of a sudden storm over the mesa country, and the rapid disappearance of the transient flood, the pools of the arroyos would retain a sediment of clay two or three inches thick, having a consistency perfectly suited to the hand of the potter. This I have taken without tempering and have made imitations of the handsome vases whose remnants I could pick up on all sides. In drying and burning, these vessels were liable to crack and fall to pieces; but I see no reason why, with the use of proper tempering materials, this natural paste might not be successfully employed. It would not be difficult, however, to find the native clay among the sedimentary formations of this district. Usually the clay has been very fine grained, and when used without coarse tempering the vessels have an extremely even and often a conchoidal fracture. TEMPERING.--The materials used in tempering do not often come into notice. It appears that, in a majority of cases, fine sand, probably derived from naturally disintegrated rocks, was employed. A large percentage of rather coarse sand is found in the more roughly finished coil-made ware, but vessels intended for smooth finish have little perceptible tempering material. The speckled appearance of some of the abraded surfaces suggests the use of pulverized potsherds, a practice frequently resorted to by the modern tribes. In some localities, notably in the south, we find a slight admixture of mica, which may have come from the use of pulverized micaceous rock. CONSTRUCTION.--No one can say just how the materials were manipulated, fashioned into vessels, and baked; yet many facts can be gleaned from a critical examination of the vessels themselves; and an approximate idea of the various processes employed may be formed by a study of the methods of modern potters of the same region or of corresponding grades of culture. It is evident that the vessels were built and finished by the hands alone; no wheel was used, although supports, such as shallow earthen vessels, baskets, and gourds were certainly employed to a considerable extent. Primitive processes of building have varied considerably. The simplest method perhaps was that of shaping a single mass of clay by pressure with the fingers, either with or without the assistance of a mold or support. The mold would be useful in shaping shallow vessels, such as plates, cups, and bowls. The walls of vessels of eccentric forms or having constricted apertures would be carried upward by the addition of small more or less elongated masses of clay, with no support but the hand or an implement held in the hand. Casting proper, in regularly constructed molds, was practiced only by the more cultured races, such as the Peruvians. A variety of methods may have been employed in the construction of a single piece. SURFACE FINISH.--A great deal of attention was given to surface finish. In the coiled ware the imbricate edges of the fillets were generally either smoothed down and obliterated entirely, or treated in such a way as to give a variety of pleasing effects of relief decoration. Vessels with smooth surfaces, whether built by coiling, modeling, or molding, very often received a thin coat of fine liquid clay, probably after partial drying and polishing. This took the place of the enamels used by more accomplished potters, and being usually white, it gave a beautiful surface upon which to execute designs in color. Before the color was applied the surface received a considerable degree of polish by rubbing with a suitable implement of stone or other material. Attention was given chiefly to surfaces exposed to view--the interior of bowls and the exterior of narrow-necked vases. FIRING.--The firing of the ancient ware seems to have been carefully and successfully accomplished. The methods probably did not differ greatly from those practiced by the modern Pueblo tribes. The ware is, as a rule, light in color, but is generally much clouded by the dark spots that result from imperfections in the methods of applying the fire. The heat was rarely great enough to produce anything like vitrifaction of the surface, and the paste is seldom as hard as our stone ware. GLAZE.--A great deal has been said about the glaze of native American wares, which exists, if at all, through accident. The surface of the white ware of nearly all sections received a high degree of mechanical polish, and the effect of firing was often to heighten this and give at times a slightly translucent effect; a result of the spreading or sinking of the coloring matter of the designs. HARDNESS.--The paste exposed in fractured edges can be scratched with a steel point, and often with ease. Some of the white pottery of ancient Tusayan can be carved almost as readily as chalk or sun-dried clay. At the same time all localities furnish occasionally specimens that through the accidents of firing have the ring and hardness of stoneware. The ancient pottery is generally superior in hardness to that produced by the historic tribes. COLOR.--This pottery presents a pleasing variety of color, although the light grays prevail, especially in the more archaic varieties. The general color probably depended greatly upon the natural constituents of the clay and the degree of heat applied, and these conditions varied with the locality and the people. Reds and browns result from the presence of iron, which may have been oxidized in burning, or the red oxides may have been used in rare cases as coloring matter in kneading the clay. The surface is often lighter than the mass; a condition probably resulting from the presence of vegetable matter in the clay, which is destroyed on the surface and remains unchanged within. In the south the colors of the paste are often slightly reddish or yellowish in hue. It is notable that a small percentage of the ware of all localities is red. This gives rise to the suggestion that vessels of this color probably had some especial or sacred use. Color is known to have an intimate connection with superstitious observances among many barbarian peoples. FORM.--In form the ancient ware is universally simple and pleasing. Many shapes known to both civilized and barbarian art are absent. High-necked bottles and shallow plates are of rare occurrence, and pitchers, canteens or lenticular bottles, and vessels with legs and stands are unknown. There is a notable dearth of life forms, a circumstance that would seem to indicate the rather tardy development of a taste for modeling--a condition which may have resulted from the comparatively recent origin or introduction of art in clay. Vessels with full globular bodies prevail. The bottoms are generally round or a little pointed, indicating primitive conditions of life and suggesting great simplicity in methods of manufacture and in the models copied. _Origin of Forms._--There can be no doubt that ceramic forms are to a great extent derivative, and the search for their originals will constitute a most important feature in our studies. Turning to nature for possible originals, we find them liberally supplied by both the animal and the vegetable kingdom. The shells of the sea shore were probably among the first receptacles for food and drink. We have examples of pottery from the mounds in the Mississippi Valley, representing three or four distinct varieties of shells. The shells of turtles and the horns of cattle and other animals have also served as models. [Illustration: FIG. 210.--Origin of forms.] [Illustration: FIG. 211.--Origin of forms.] The vegetable world furnishes many originals; the gourd, for example, was utilized at a very early date. Its forms are greatly varied, and must have given rise to many primitive shapes of vessels in clay, and perhaps in wicker-work and wood. One of the ordinary forms cut off midway would suggest the series of bowls outlined in Fig. 210. Simply perforated it would give rise to the series illustrated in Fig. 211. [Illustration: FIG. 212.--Origin of forms.] [Illustration: FIG. 213.--Origin of forms.] [Illustration: FIG. 214.--Origin of forms.] Wide-mouthed vases would be suggested as indicated in Fig. 212, bottles as shown in Fig. 213, and eccentric forms as seen in Fig. 214. These particular examples are presented in illustration of the manner in which forms may be derived and nothing more, as there are many possible origins of the same forms. In a separate paper I have amplified this topic, and have discussed the relative importance of the influence of natural and artificial products upon the conformation of utensils of clay. HANDLES.--In searching for the first suggestions of handles we must certainly go back to the very beginnings of art, when men and women employed leaves or vines to carry their children or their food, or to suspend them for safety from the trees of the forest. The art of basketry would naturally fall heir to this use of handles. Clay, bronze, and iron, when they came into use, would also inherit some of the forms thus developed. There are, however, other sources of equal importance, among which are animal forms, such as horns, and various forms of vegetable growth, such as the gourd. The latter may again serve as an illustration. By cutting the body of the gourd longitudinally at one side of the axis, we have dippers with straight or curved necks or handles. The primitive potter would in like manner have the suggestion of a handled vessel in clay, which, carried forward by the ever active spirit of improvement, would in time give us the series shown in Figs. 215 and 216: [Illustration: FIG. 215.--Origin of handles.] [Illustration: FIG. 216.--Origin and development of handles] ORNAMENT.--The shapes of vessels are, in a measure, ornamental, but it is difficult to say just how much the necessary or functional characters of particular forms have given way to decorative modifications. Pure ornament is a feature not essential to the vessel. Its ideas may be expressed by three principal methods: by relieved, by flat, and by intaglio figures. Relief ornament was not extensively employed by the ancient Pueblos. The forms are few and simple, and nearly all are traceable to constructional or to functional features. Thus the ornamental crenulated surface of the coiled ware is constructional, consisting as it does of ridges, resulting from the method of building. The knobs, isolated coils, and festooned fillets are probably, in some cases, atrophied forms of handles. Intaglio decoration is still more rare. It consists of incised, impressed, and punctured figures. No designs of importance are produced by this method, the most notable being the simple patterns traced by the finger or a sharp implement upon the relieved edges of fillets in the coiled ware. With these people, the highest class of decoration consisted of designs in color. This topic is fully discussed in a subsequent section. _Origin of ornament._--It is probable that before pottery came into use the decorative art had been cultivated in other fields, and we shall need to look both to nature and to antecedent arts for the originals of many decorative ideas. From a remote period man has been able to appreciate beauty. The first exercise of taste would probably be in the direction of personal adornment, and would consist in the choice of colors or articles thought to enhance attractiveness, or in the grouping and modification of objects at first functional in character. Later, taste would be exercised on a variety of subjects, and finally it would extend to all things in use. Man may have recognized the comeliness of the first simple articles employed in his humble arts, but when he came to attempt the multiplication of these articles artificially, utility was probably the only thought. In reproducing them, however, non-essential features would be copied automatically, and the work of art would through this accident inherit purely ornamental attributes. Thus it appears that the first ideas of decoration do not necessarily originate in the mind of the potter, but that, like the shapes of art products, they may be derived, unconsciously, from nature. This is an important consideration. At a later stage new forms of ornament are derived in a like manner from constructional features of the various arts. Invention of decorative motives is not to be expected of a primitive, tradition-following people. Advance is greatly by utilization of accidents. USE.--A satisfactory classification of this pottery by functional characters will be most difficult to make. In the early stages of its manufacture it was confined chiefly, if not solely, to the alimentary arts. A differentiation of use would take place when certain vessels were set aside for special departments of the domestic work. Thus we would have vessels for eating, for cooking, for carrying, and for storage. When vessels came to be used in superstitious exercises, certain forms were probably set aside for especial ceremonies. With some peoples, particular forms were dedicated to mortuary uses, but we have no clew to any such custom among the ancient Pueblos, as the same vessel served for food both before and after death, and cinerary vessels were not called for. Certain classes of the ruder and plainer ware are found to be blackened by smoke. These were evidently cooking vessels. The painted pottery rarely shows evidences of such use. Bowls were probably employed chiefly in preparing and serving food. The larger vessels were devoted to carrying and storing water, fruits, grains, and miscellaneous articles. Smaller vessels were used as receptacles for paint, grease, and the like. The ancient people had not yet devoted their ceramic art to trivial uses--there are no toys, no rattles, and no grotesque figures. CLASSIFICATION.--In treating a subject covering so wide a field, and embracing such a diversity of products, a careful classification of the material is called for. Three grand divisions of the ceramic work of this province may be made on a time basis, namely: prehistoric, transitional, and modern. At present I have to deal chiefly with the prehistoric, but must also pay some attention to the transitional, as it embraces many features common both to the archaic and to the modern art. In discussing the prehistoric pottery I find it convenient to consider it under the three heads, coiled ware, plain ware, and painted ware. This classification is unsatisfactory, as it is based upon somewhat imperfectly differentiated characters. The smooth vessel is in many cases a coil-built one with obliterated coils, and a painted vessel a smooth one with the addition of designs in color. Very little of the pottery was left plain, but the coiled and painted varieties are fully represented in every locality. I place the coiled ware first because to all appearances it is the most archaic variety and one which is rarely made at the present day. I suspect that the pieces made by modern potters serve to supply the wants of the collectors rather than to meet the requirements of traditional art. Among the collections in the National Museum are found many crude attempts to manufacture this ware by potters who did not comprehend the secrets of its construction, or who thought to produce the coiled effect by the cheap device of scarifying and indenting the surface of a plain vessel. Close relations are established between the coiled and the painted pottery, not only by the identity of materials, form, color, and time, but by the union of the two methods of finishing, the coiling and painting, in one and the same vessel, as may be seen in the examples given in in the following pages. COIL-MADE WARE. COILING.--The art of building vessels by means of coils of clay has been practiced by many widely separated communities, and is, therefore, certainly not peculiar to the ancient Pueblos. A careful study of the ceramic field shows considerable diversity in the treatment of the coil. The most striking variation, the employment of the coil as a means of embellishment, is, so far as my observation extends, peculiar to the Pueblo peoples. With others it is a feature of construction simply. The preliminary steps are with all primitive potters in a general sense the same. The first care is to secure suitable clay and to have it properly purified and tempered. After this the treatment varies greatly. _Coiling of the Pueblos._--The ancient Pueblo potter rolled out long, slender fillets or ropes of clay, varying in width and thickness to suit the size and character of the vessel to be constructed. They were usually perhaps from one-fourth to one-half of an inch in thickness. When they were properly trimmed and smoothed the potter began by taking the end of a single strip between his fingers and proceeded to coil it upon itself, gradually forming a disk, as shown in Fig. 217, which represents the base of a large vase from the San Juan Valley. [Illustration: FIG. 217.--Beginning of the coil.] [Illustration: FIG. 218.--Section of coil-made vessel.] At first the fillets overlapped only a little, but as the disk grew large and was rounded upward to form the body of the vessel, the imbrication became more pronounced. The fillet was placed obliquely, as shown in the section, Fig. 218, and was exposed on the exterior side to probably one-half of its width. Strip after strip of clay was added, the ends being carefully joined, so that the continuity might not be broken until the vessel was completed. The rim generally consisted of a broad strip, thickened a little at the lip, and somewhat recurved. The exterior imbricate edges were carefully preserved, while those on the inner surface were totally obliterated, first by pressure, and finally by smoothing down with an implement, or with the fingers, imprints of the latter being frequently visible. So thoroughly were the fillets pressed down and welded together that the vessels seldom fracture more readily along the lines of junction than in other directions. The fact that the spiral ridges of the bottom are frequently without abrasion, as shown in Fig. 217, suggests an idea in regard to the manipulation of the coil. While building the upper part of the vase the base would necessarily rest upon some sort of support and the soft ridges would suffer from abrasion. In preventing such defacement, an interior support, such as a mold or the base of another vessel, must have been used, in which case the vessel was necessarily built in an inverted position. At the same time it is clear that this would be practicable only with bowls or with very wide-mouthed vessels, as the mold, if rigid, could not be removed through a restricted aperture. In pressing the coil down, in welding it to the preceding turn, internal support would be necessary, as otherwise the strain would warp the walls. A curved trowel or a rounded pebble could be used as long as the aperture would admit the hand, but no support excepting the fingers, or an implement shaped for the purpose, could be used beyond this stage. The whole process was a most delicate one, requiring patience and skill. In this respect it contrasted strongly with the coiling of other peoples. As indicated by numerous specimens, the coil was sometimes laid on the inside of a shallow basket or bowl, the surface of the vessel showing a combination of basket-markings and nearly obliterated spiral creases. This device served a good purpose in starting the vessel, the upper part being completed by free-hand coiling. _Coiling of other peoples._--The art, as practiced by the Indians of Louisiana, is graphically described by Dumont. The following paragraph is translated from his work: "Moreover, the industry of these (savage) girls and women is admirable. I have already alluded to the skill with which, with their fingers only, and without a wheel, they make large pieces of pottery. The following is their method of work: After having collected a quantity of the proper kind of earth, and having cleaned it thoroughly, they take shells which they break up and reduce to a very fine, loose powder; they mix this fine dust with the earth which they have collected, and, moistening the whole with a little water, work it with their hands and feet into a paste, from which they make rolls six or seven feet long and as thick as they may desire. If they wish to make a dish or a vase, they take one of these rolls by the end, and marking on this lump with the thumb of the left hand the center of the vessel, they turn the roll around this center with admirable rapidity and dexterity, describing a spiral. From time to time they dip their fingers into the water, which they are always careful to have near them, and, with the right hand, they flatten the inside and the outside of the vase, which without this would be uneven. In this way they make all kinds of earthen utensils, dishes, plates, bowls, pots, and jugs, some of which hold as much as 40 or even 50 pints. This pottery does not require much preparation for baking. After having dried it in the shade, they make a large fire, and as soon as they think they have enough embers they clean a place in the middle, and, arranging the pieces of pottery, cover them with charcoal. It is thus that the pieces are given the necessary heating (cooking), after which they are as strong as our pottery. There is no doubt but that we must attribute their strength to the mixture which these women make of powdered shells with the earth which they employ."[1] Professor C. F. Hartt has furnished many facts in regard to the manufacture of pottery by the Brazilian Indians. According to his account the women of Santarem model the bottom of a vessel from a lump of clay in the usual way. Then "a piece of clay is rolled under the hand into a long, rope-like cylinder. This rope is then coiled around the edge of the bottom of the vessel, being flattened sidewise by pinching with the fingers of the left hand, and caused to adhere to the bottom. On this, coil after coil is laid in like manner, each being flattened as before. After a few have been added they are worked into shape with the fingers, which are occasionally moistened in water, and the irregularities produced by the coils are caused to disappear. The vessel is formed by the hand alone and the surface is smoothed down by means of a bit of gourd or a shell, which is from time to time dipped in water. If the vessel be large it is now set away in the shade for a while to dry a little, after which new coils are added as above, no other instrument being used except the hands and the gourd or shell, with which alone the vessel may receive not only an extremely regular form, but also a very smooth surface. * * * The coils are so worked together that from a simple inspection of the vessel it is impossible to determine how it was built up. I should never have suspected that the pottery of Pacoval had been made by coiling, were it not that I found the coils still ununited on the inner surface of the heads of idols."[2] Prof. Hartt states, also, on the authority of Dr. de Magalhaes, that the pottery of the several tribes of the Araquaya River is always made by coiling, the surface being worked down by the hand and water and the aid of a spoon-like trowel made of bamboo. Humboldt makes a similar statement in regard to the tribes of the Orinoco. Mr. E. A. Barber[3] relates, on the authority of Captain John Moss, a resident, for a long time, of southwestern Colorado, that the Ute Indians manufacture pottery at the present time, and that they probably follow the methods of the Mokis, from whom they learned the art. [1] Mémoires sur la Louisiane. Butel-Dumont. Vol. II, pp. 271-273. Paris, 1753. [2] Hartt: American Naturalist, February, 1879, pp. 83-86. [3] Barber: American Naturalist, Vol. X, p. 412. Captain Moss states that "They use marl, which they grind between two rocks to a very fine powder. They then mix this with water and knead it as we would dough. Afterwards they roll it out into a rope-like state about one inch in diameter and several yards in length. They then commence at the bottom of the jar, or whatever vessel they may be making, and coil the clay-rope layer on layer until they have the bottom and three inches of the sides laid up. The tools for smoothing and joining the layers together are a paddle made out of wood and perfectly smooth, and an oval-shaped polished stone." Both of these tools are dipped in the water (salt water is preferred), the stone is held in the left hand and on the inside of the vessel, and the paddle is applied vigorously until the surfaces are smooth. The method thus described by these authors was, probably, almost universally practiced. [Illustration: FIG. 219.--Ordinary superposition of coils. Section.] I have specimens from a number of the Eastern and Southern States that fracture along the line of junction, showing clearly the width of the fillets and the manner of their attachment. I picked up a small specimen at Avoca, North Carolina, which has broken along the line of junction, giving the section illustrated in Fig. 219. It will be seen that there is no overlapping as in the Pueblo work, the attachment being accomplished by pressure and by drawing both edges of the coil down over the convex edge of the preceding coil. I have similar specimens from the modern Pueblos, from Florida, from Mexico, and from Brazil. It will readily be seen that this method of building differs essentially from that practiced so successfully by the ancient Pueblos. ORIGIN OF THE COIL.--This use of the coil is but a refinement of the most simple possible method of construction, that of building by the addition of small masses of clay. A disk or shallow cup can be formed successfully by the fingers alone from a single lump of clay, but to carry the wall upward by pressure or by blows from a paddle would result in a weak, frayed edge. To counteract or prevent this tendency small elongated masses are used, which are laid one upon another along the growing margin. From this, in the most natural manner possible, we arrive at the use of the long, even rope or fillet. The imbrication or overlapping of the coil practiced by the Pueblos may have originated in the effort to secure a more stable union of the parts which had to be welded together by pressure. It would also almost necessarily arise from the attempt to lay the coil upon or within a mold or support. There is a possibility that it may have been suggested by features of construction observed in other arts--the overlapping parts of a roof, of a plate or scale garment, or of a coiled basket. The latter is especially suggestive, since we must generally look for the origin of features of the ceramic art in the features of closely associated arts. THE COIL IN ORNAMENTATION.--Ordinarily the coil has not been expected to contribute to the beauty of the vessel, but the Pueblo tribes made it a prominent feature in decoration. The primitive potter as he laid his rude coils noticed that the ridges thus produced served to enhance the appearance of the vessel. He also observed that the series of indentations left on the outer surface of the fillet in pressing it down gave a pleasing effect, and made use of the suggestion. Improving upon the accidents of manufacture, he worked out a variety of decorative devices. In some cases the coiled ridges are confined to particular parts of the vessel, the other parts having been worked down or originally constructed by plain modeling. Numerous examples have the body quite plain, the collar alone retaining the spiral ridges of the coil. Fig. 251 illustrates a very good example of this peculiarity. [Illustration: FIG. 220.--Coiled and plain surface. Section.] The fragment shown in Fig. 220 is from the neck of a pot-shaped vase. The surface has been plain below and the fillets of the upper part have been pressed down evenly with the thumb, leaving the extreme edge of the overlapping band in sharp relief, as shown more clearly in the section. The whole coil is sometimes left plain, as in Figs. 221 and 222, in which cases the edges have been carefully pressed down and smoothed with the fingers. [Illustration: FIG. 221.--Rib-like coil. Section.] [Illustration: FIG. 222.--Rib-like coil. Section.] A great variety of devices were resorted to to diversify and decorate the ribbed spirals, and in this the innate good taste of the Indian exhibits itself to much advantage. The coil is often indented or crimped throughout, from the center of the bottom to the rim of the vessel. At times a few turns at the beginning are left plain, as shown in Fig. 217, while again alternate bands, consisting of several turns each, are not crimped, as clearly brought out by an example from Southern Utah, illustrated in the Art Review for July, 1874, by F. W. Putnam, and also by two fine specimens recently collected by E. W. Nelson near Springerville, Arizona. The decided taste of this ancient people for ornament is still further indicated by attempts to elaborate more intricate patterns by means of thumb-nail indentations. The idea may have been borrowed from basketry. The fragment given in Fig. 223 illustrates the method of procedure. We have some very fine vessels of this class from Springerville, and others from the province of Tusayan in which the entire surface is covered with checkered or meandered patterns. An excellent example is shown in Fig. 253. We shall appreciate the cleverness of this work more fully when we remember that the separate thumb indentations forming the figures of the pattern are made in each coil as it is laid and pressed into place and before the succeeding turn is made. [Illustration: FIG. 223.--Indented pattern.] [Illustration: FIG. 224.--Nail indentations.] These curious decorative effects were still further elaborated by diversifying the character of the indentations of the coil. In Fig. 224 we have a most successful effort in this direction. The fillets are alternately crimped and plain. The thumb, in pressing down the one, has been applied with such force that the nail has cut entirely through it, indenting the plain layer below and causing the two to coalesce. This specimen was obtained from the cañon of the Rio Mancos. Certain districts are particularly rich in remains of this peculiar ware and furnish many examples of crimped ornament. The remarkable desert-like plateau lying north of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado contains many house and village sites. At intervals along the very brink of the great chasm we come upon heaps of stones and razed walls of houses about which are countless fragments of this ware. These are identical in nearly every character with the pottery of Saint George on the west, of the San Juan on the east, and of the Gila on the south. A few miles south of Kanab stands a little hill--an island in the creek bottom--which is literally covered with the ruins of an ancient village, and the great abundance of pottery fragments indicates that it was, for a long period, the home of cliff-dwelling peoples. In no other case have I found so complete an assortment of all the varieties of coil-ornamentation. All the forms already given are represented and a number of new ones are added. [Illustration: FIG. 225.--Wave-like indentation.] [Illustration: FIG. 226.--Wave-like indentation.] In the example given in Fig. 225 the fillets are deeply indented, giving a wave-like effect. Another pretty variety is seen in Fig. 226. [Illustration: FIG. 227.--Impressions of finger-tips.] [Illustration: FIG. 228.--Implement indentations.] One of the most successful of these archaic attempts at relief embellishment is illustrated in the fragment shown in Fig. 227. The raised edge of the fillet is pinched out at regular intervals, producing rows of sharp-pointed "beads." Over the entire surface impressions of the fine lines of the finger-tips are still distinctly visible. The dotted lines show the direction of the coil. The indenting was not always done with the thumb or finger-tips, but a variety of implements were used. The vase, of which Fig. 228 shows a small fragment, had a figure worked upon it by indenting the soft coils with a sharp implement. [Illustration: FIG. 229.--Nail markings.] The coil ridges were sometimes worked down into more regular forms by means of an implement and were left plain or were interrupted by transverse lines. Lines of nail marking are shown in Fig. 229. These lines are occasionally combined in rude patterns. [Illustration: FIG. 230.--Incised lines.] In the specimen illustrated in Fig. 230, incised lines are drawn across the ridges of the coil. [Illustration: FIG. 231.--Incised pattern.] OTHER VARIETIES OF ORNAMENT.--I have already remarked that certain styles of decoration are confined to somewhat definite geographic limits. In the ancient Pueblo district we find that painted designs and coil ornaments are co-extensive, while within this area there are but rare examples of incised designs, stamped figures, or cord-marking. We find basket indentations, but these are in all cases the accidents of manufacture. The coil has often been laid upon the inner surface of a basket. The fragment shown in Fig. 231 was picked up on the site of an ancient Pueblo village near Abiquiu, New Mexico. It is a portion of the neck and upper part of the body of a small vase which was covered by a simple pattern of intaglio lines, produced with a bone or wooden stylus. Ornaments in relief, aside from the coil and forms resulting directly from its use, were sparingly employed and are of comparatively little interest. They consist of straight, curved, or crimped fillets, applied to the surface of the vessel as shown in Fig. 232. Additional examples are given in Figs. 233, 234, and 235. Nodes, cones, and other forms are also used as seen in Figs. 236, 237, and 238. These are usually placed about the neck of the vessel, occupying the places of the handles. [Illustration: FIG. 232.--Applied fillet.] MATERIAL.--The clay used in this ware was in some sections tempered with a large percentage of rather coarse silicious sand, which gives to the surface a rough, granular look. In the south the paste seems to be finer grained than in the northern districts. COLOR, ETC.--The color of the paste is generally gray, but in the province of Tusayan it is frequently yellow. In some cases the surface has received a wash of fine liquid clay, and a few bowls from the Little Colorado and Gila Valleys have designs in white paint covering the exterior surface. This ware is always well baked and extremely hard. [Illustration: FIG. 233. FIG. 234. FIG. 235. FIG. 236. FIG. 237. FIG. 238. Examples of relief ornaments.] FORM.--The forms are not nearly so varied as are those of the painted ware. The leading variety is a round-bodied, wide-mouthed olla or pot, with flaring rim. Bottles are of rare occurrence, and bowls are not nearly so plentiful as in other varieties of pottery. Life and eccentric forms are occasionally found. Many small vessels of the more elongated shapes are furnished with handles, which are in most cases placed vertically upon the neck, and consist of single or double bands or ropes or of two or more strands twisted together. USE.--As a rule the forms are such as have been devoted by most peoples to culinary uses, and in many cases the entire exterior surface is coated with soot. Plain vessels of similar outlines are used by the modern tribes of this province for cooking and serving food. Examples having very neatly or elaborately finished surfaces have apparently not been used over a fire. Those of large size doubtless served for the transportation and storage of water. ILLUSTRATIONS OF VESSELS. As it is my desire to give this paper something of a monographic completeness, I shall present a typical series of the best preserved vessels of this class along with some notices of the circumstances under which they were discovered. The treatment by districts or localities is for convenience simply, and has no reference to distinctions in the character of the ware. DISTRICT OF THE RIO SAN JUAN. Our first expeditions into the land of the cliff-dwellers were full of interest. We were not, however, the first explorers. The miners of the silver-bearing mountains to the north had made occasional excursions into the sinuous cañons of the plateau district, and failing to bring back the coveted gold, told tales of the marvelous cities of the cliffs, and speculated upon discovering in the débris of ancient temples and tombs a portion of the fabled gold and jewels of the provinces of Cibola and Tusayan. Notwithstanding our entire freedom from expectations in this direction, the thought gave color to our anticipations, and it was not an uncommon occurrence to hear, about the slumbering camp fire, half jocular references to the "great pots of gold moons" that some one had whispered might be hidden away in the inaccessible cliffs that overshadowed us. I shall not soon forget the incidents connected with the discovery of a pair of fine water-jars--one of which is illustrated in Fig. 239. On the occasion of our first passage down the cañon of the Rio Mancos[4] I made the discovery of a group of fine cliff-houses on the south side, far up in the vertical walls. On our return I made it a point to camp for the night directly below these houses, although a dense growth of underbrush had to be cut away to give room for our beds by the side of the sluggish stream. [4] Tenth Annual Report U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, p. 394. The two finest houses were set in shallow, wind-worn caves, several hundred feet above the valley. One was almost directly above the other, the upper being reached by a number of notches picked in the nearly vertical rock-face. I had ascended alone and was busily engaged in studying the upper house and tracing the plans of its fallen walls, when I heard a voice echoing among the cliffs. Descending hastily to the lower house I found that one of my men had followed me and was excitedly scratching with a stick among the debris of fallen walls. He had just discovered the rim of a buried pot, and was fairly breathless from the anticipation of "piles of moons." By the aid of my geologic hammer we soon had the upper part of the neck uncovered, but hesitated a moment with bated breath before venturing to raise the rough stone lid. But there was no treasure--only a heap of dust. I was content, however, and when by a little further search we came upon a second vessel, a mate to the first, the momentary shades of disappointment vanished. [Illustration: FIG. 239.--Coiled vase from a cliff-house in the Mancos Cañon, Colorado.--1/3.] These vessels had been placed in a small recess, where the falling walls had not reached them, and were standing just as they had been left by their ancient possessors. The more perfect one, which had lost only a small chip from the rim, I determined to bring away entire. This I succeeded in doing by wrapping it in a blanket, and by means of straps, slinging it across my back. I carried it thus for a number of days over the rough trails of the cañons and plateaus. The other, which was badly cracked when found, was pulled apart and packed away in one of the mess chests. It is now with its mate in the National Museum, perfectly restored. The unbroken vessel is shown in Fig. 239 about one-third its real height. Its capacity is nearly four gallons. The clay is tempered with a large portion of sand, some grains of which are quite coarse. The color of the paste is a light gray, apparently not having been greatly changed by the baking. A few dark contact clouds appear on the sides of the body. The walls are quite thin for a vessel of its size and are of very uniform thickness. The entire weight hardly exceeds that of a common wooden pail of the same capacity. The mouth is wide and the rim, which is made of a plain rough band, is one inch wide and abruptly recurved. The vessel can hardly be said to have a neck, as the walls round gradually outward from the rim to the periphery of the body, which is full and nearly symmetrical. The narrow strands of clay have been coiled with something less than average care, the exposed surfaces being wide in places and in others very narrow. The thumb indentations have been carelessly made. Two small conical bits of clay are affixed to the neck as if to represent handles. These may have been intended for ornaments, but are as likely to owe their presence to some little superstition of the archaic artisans. The companion vessel has also a capacity of about four gallons. Its form differs from that of its mate, being considerably more elongated above and having a more pronounced neck. The material is about the same, but the color is darker and the workmanship is superior. The surface is coated with soot, indicating use over a fire in cooking food or in boiling water. The coil was laid with a good deal of care and the indentation was done in a way to produce a series of sharp points along the margin of the coil. The interior of the rim was finished with a polishing stone. A small cord of clay was neatly coiled into a double scroll and attached to the narrowest part of the vessel, corresponding in position to the knobs in the other example. This ornament, though small, is nevertheless effective. Similar scrolls are found upon vases from many parts of the Pueblo Province. It is an interesting fact that this vessel had been successfully mended by its owners. A small perforation near the base had been stopped by cementing a bit of pottery to the inside with clay paste. These vases were evidently the most important of the household utensils of the cliff-dwellers, especially as in this place water had to be carried, at least during a part of the year, from the creek five hundred feet below. It is probable that baskets and skins were sometimes used for carrying water, and that the earthen vessels were used as coolers, as are similar vessels among many primitive peoples. That they were used for carrying water up the cliffs is indicated by the fragments that lie upon the slopes and point out the location of houses invisible from the trails below. A large fragment of a similar olla was picked up in the valley of Epsom Creek, southeast Utah. This vessel was larger, neater in finish, and more elegant in shape, than either of those described. A sufficiently large fragment was discovered to show satisfactorily the character of the rim, the outline of the body, and the details of surface finish. (Fig. 240.) The rim is but slightly recurved and the neck is high and upright. The body swelled to a diameter of about eighteen inches at the greatest circumference. The paste, as usual, indicates a gray clay tempered with coarse sand. The inside is smooth and the walls are remarkably thin for so large a vessel, being about one-fourth of an inch in thickness. The coil is very neatly laid and indented, a variety to the effect being given by leaving occasional plain bands. This vessel is described by W. H. Jackson in the Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, Vol. II. [Illustration: FIG. 240.--Part of a large vase from Epsom Creek, Utah.--1/8.] Fragments of this class of ware are found throughout the cañoned region of southern Utah and for an undetermined distance into Nevada. I have already described fragmentary specimens from Kanab and therefore pass on to the west. DISTRICT OF THE RIO VIRGEN. The most notable collection of this coiled ware ever yet made in any one locality is from a dwelling-site tumulus near Saint George, Utah, nearly three hundred miles west of the Rio Mancos. About the year 1875, the curator of the National Museum obtained information of a deposit of ancient relics at the above locality, and in 1876 a collector was sent out to make an investigation. The result, so far as collections go, was most satisfactory, and the account furnished gives an insight into the customs of this ancient people not yet obtained from any other source. On the Santa Clara River, a tributary of the Rio Virgen, about three miles from the Mormon town of Saint George, a low mound, which I suppose to have been a sort of village-site tumulus, was found. The outline was irregular, but had originally been approximately circular. It was less than ten feet in height, and covered about half an acre. One side had been undermined and carried away by the stream. The work of exhumation was most successfully accomplished by means of water. A small stream was made to play upon the soft alluvium, of which the mound was chiefly composed. The sensations of the collector, as skeleton after skeleton and vase after vase appeared, must have been highly pleasurable. It is thought that the inhabitants of this place, like many other primitive peoples, buried their dead beneath their dwellings, which were then burned down or otherwise destroyed. As time passed on and the dead were forgotten, other dwellings were built upon the old sites, until quite a mound was formed in which all the less perishable remains were preserved in successive layers. Following the customs of most primitive peoples, the belongings of the deceased were buried with them. Earthen vessels were found in profusion. With a single body, there were sometimes as many as eight vases, the children having been in this respect more highly favored than the adults. There seems to have been no system in the arrangement either of the bodies or of the accompanying relics. The majority of the vases were either plain or decorated in color, but many of the larger specimens were of the coiled variety. About sixty vessels were recovered. Those of the former classes will be described under their proper headings. [Illustration: FIG. 241.--Vessel from the tumulus, at Saint George.--1/3.] The shapes of the corrugated vases are of the simplest kind. The prevailing form corresponds very closely with the Cliff House specimen illustrated in Fig. 239. One unusually large example was brought back in fragments, but has since been successfully restored. It stands nearly seventeen inches high and is sixteen inches in diameter. The plain part of the rim is one and one-half inches wide, and the lip is well rounded and strongly recurved. The lines are quite graceful, the neck expanding below into a globular body which is just a little pointed at the base. The color is dark, from use over the fire. The fillets of clay were narrow and very neatly crimped. Roughly estimated, there were at least three hundred feet of the coil used. The vessel has a capacity of about ten gallons. [Illustration: FIG. 242.--Vase from the tumulus at Saint George.--1/2.] Vases of this particular outline may be found, varying in size from these grand proportions to small cups an inch or two in height. Of a somewhat different type is the vessel shown in Fig. 241. The outline is symmetrical. The neck is comparatively high and wide and swells out gently to the widest part of the body, the base being almost hemispherical. A band about the neck is coiled and roughly indented, while the body is quite smooth. The plain band about the mouth is broad and sharply recurved. The coils are wide and deeply indented. They have been smoothed down somewhat while the clay was still soft. The vase shown in Fig. 242 is characterized by its upright rim, elongated neck, round body, and plain broad coils. The fillets are set one upon another, apparently without the usual imbrication. This latter feature occurs in a number of cases in the vessels of this locality. The bottle given in Fig. 243 is quite comely in shape. The neck expands gracefully from the rim to its junction with the body, which swells out abruptly to its greatest fullness. The coil is not neatly laid. The indentation began with the coil, but was almost obliterated on the lower part of the vessel while the clay was yet soft. The fillets are not so well smoothed down on the interior surface as usual, a ridged appearance being the result. This comes from the difficulty of operating within a much restricted aperture. The color is gray, with a few effective clouds of black, the result of firing. Another, of similar form, was taken from the collection by unknown persons. [Illustration: FIG. 243.--Vase from the tumulus at Saint George.--1/2.] The only example of coiled ware from this locality having a handle is a small mug. Its body is shaped much like the larger vessels, but it is less regular in outline. The single vertically placed handle, now partially broken away, was attached to the side of the body near the top, and consisted of a rough cord of clay less than half an inch in diameter. The Saint George tumulus furnished a number of vessels with smooth, unpainted surfaces, very similar in form and size to the coiled vessels. They are generally blackened by use over fire, and, like the large coiled pots, were evidently used for culinary purposes. A few smaller vessels of the same style of finish exhibit forms characteristic of the painted ware, as will be seen by reference to the illustrations of these two groups. From the same source we have two bowls of especial interest, as they have coiled exteriors and polished and painted interiors. One of these is illustrated in Fig. 244. They form an important link between the two varieties of ware, demonstrating the fact that both styles belong to the same age and to the same people. A similar bowl, found in possession of the Zuñi Indians, is illustrated in another part of this paper, Fig. 254. Another was obtained at Moki. Fragments of identical vessels are found occasionally throughout the whole Pueblo district. One piece from the San Juan Valley has figures painted upon the coiled exterior surface, the interior being polished and unpainted. Specimens from the vicinity of Springerville, Arizona, have designs in white painted over the coiled surface. A large number of well-made, hemispherical bowls from this locality have a coiled band about the exterior margin, but are otherwise plain and well polished. Some are brownish or reddish in color. Many of them have been used over the fire. [Illustration: FIG. 244.--Bowl with coiled exterior and painted interior: Saint George.--1/2.] [Illustration: FIG. 245.--Vase from Parowan, Utah.--1/2.] The ceramic remains of Utah present some puzzling features. As we go north from the Rio Virgen there is an apparent gradation from the typical Pueblo ware to a distinct group characteristic of Salt Lake Valley. The interesting problems suggested by this condition of things cannot be discussed in this place, and I will stop only to present a specimen of the coiled ware from Parowan, which is in some respects the finest example known. The form, so far as it is preserved, seems unusually graceful, and the laying and indenting of the coil is surprisingly perfect. This vase is in the Salt Lake Museum, and the cut, Fig. 245, is made from a photograph furnished by Prof. Marcus E. Jones. Vessels with similar finish have recently been obtained from graves at Fillmore, Utah, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow, and, singularly enough, identical work is seen in some very fine pieces obtained by Mr. Nelson from ruined pueblos in middle eastern Arizona. [Illustration: FIG. 246.--Cup from central Utah.--1/3.] An interesting little cup, said to have been found in central Utah, illustrates some of the peculiar characters of the more northern examples of this ware. The vessel has apparently been built with coils, as usual, but the surface is worked over in such a way as to obscure the spiral ridges. The rim is upright and plain. The high, wide neck has a series of narrow, vertical flutings, made with a round-pointed implement, or possibly with the finger tip. A band of four channels encircles the middle of the body, the lower part of which is covered with oblique markings. The handle is large and round, and is attached above to the top of the rim, and below to the middle of the body. This cup is now in the museum at Salt Lake. The photograph from which the engraving is made was obtained through Professor Jones. DISTRICT OF THE LITTLE COLORADO. The region now inhabited by the Pueblo tribes seems to have been a favorite residence of the ancient peoples. Ruins and remains of ceramic art may be found at every turn, and it is a common thing to find ancient vessels in possession of the Pueblo Indians. This is especially true of the Zuñis and Mokis, from whom considerable collections have been obtained. These vessels have apparently been culled from the sites of ancient ruins, from cave and cliff-houses, and possibly in some cases from burial places. Recently, since they have become valuable in trade, the country about Moki has been ransacked by both Indians and whites, and many valuable specimens have been acquired. Within recent years a number of expeditions have been sent into this region. To these the cañons and cliffs have yielded many specimens. Both Mr. Stevenson and Mr. Victor Mindeleff have brought in excellent examples, a few of which have already been illustrated in the publications of the Bureau of Ethnology. I must not fail to mention the very extensive collection of Mr. T. V. Keam and his associate, Mr. John Stephen, examples from which I am permitted to illustrate in this paper. Most of the pieces described by Mr. Stevenson are small and not at all pleasing in appearance. They comprise ollas and handled mugs of an elongated scrotoid or sack shape, the widest part of the body being, as a rule, near the base, while the upper part is elongated into a heavy neck, to which a recurved rim has been added. A number of examples, illustrated in the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, were obtained from the Zuñi Indians, and are thought by Mr. Stevenson to have come from the Cañon de Chelly. [Illustration: FIG. 247.--Vessel from Zuñi.--1/4.] A large, very badly constructed specimen is given in Fig. 247. The rim is roughly finished, the body unsymmetrical, and the bottom slightly flattened. The coils differ greatly in width, and are carelessly joined and unevenly indented. The rudeness of workmanship noticed in this case is characteristic of many of the specimens from Zuñi. [Illustration: FIG. 248.--Vessel from Zuñi.--1/2.] [Illustration: FIG. 249.--Handled mug from Tusayan.--1/2.] A rudely constructed cylindrical cup, of the wide-mouthed, narrow-bodied variety, is illustrated in Fig. 248. The bottom was flattened by contact with some hard, scarred surface before the clay hardened. Two round, tapering, serpent-like fillets of clay have been fixed in a vertical position upon opposite sides of the vessel. There are a number of handled vessels of this class. They are mostly rather rudely made and unsymmetrical. They are small in size and were probably devoted to ordinary domestic uses. A good specimen from the Keam collection is shown in Fig. 249. The handle in this case is a large loop made of three ropes of clay placed side by side. In one case there are three strands set side by side, and joined near the ends. In another case the strands have been twisted, giving a rope-like effect. These forms closely resemble wicker handles in appearance and manner of attachment, and are probably to some extent derived from them, although there is no reason why the ropes of clay, in constant use by potters, should not be joined in pairs, or even twisted, if greater strength or variety were desired. Vessels from the province of Tusayan may often be identified by their color, which, like that of the transition and modern wares of the same region, is often a rich yellow, sometimes approaching an orange. This color is probably a result of changes in the natural constituents of the clay employed. [Illustration: FIG. 250.--Yellow vase from Tusayan.--1/3.] An excellent example of the yellow coiled vases is illustrated in Fig. 250. It has a new look, and probably belongs to a later period than the light gray ware of the district. It is symmetrical, and the coil is neatly laid and indented. Portions of the sides and base were blackened in firing. There are a number of fine specimens of this class in the Keam collection, all obtained from the ancient province of Tusayan. A small, wide-necked pot is shown in Fig. 251. The surface is smooth, with the exception of a narrow band or collar about the neck, formed of a few indented coils. Other vessels closely resembling this in style are much larger and heavier. [Illustration: FIG. 251.--Yellow vase from Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 252.--Vessel from Tusayan.--1/3.] A vessel of very archaic appearance is illustrated in Fig. 252. In form, color, and finish it differs from the preceding example. The mouth is almost as wide as the body at its greatest circumference, the color is gray, and the coils are narrow and regularly indented. A minute coiled fillet is attached to the rim for ornament. The vessel illustrated in Fig. 253 is one of the most noteworthy of its class. In form and construction it does not differ essentially from specimens already described, but the decoration is superior. The coils are indented in such a way as to produce a pattern of triangular figures, which is carried over the entire surface of the vessel. It belongs to the Keam collection, and comes from the province of Tusayan. [Illustration: FIG. 253.--Large vase from Tusayan.--1/4.] [Illustration: FIG. 254.--Bowl from Cibola.--1/2.] From Cibola we have a bowl, the exterior of which is coiled and the interior polished and painted. It is undoubtedly of the most archaic variety of ware, and is almost a duplicate of the example from the Saint George tumulus, shown in Fig. 244. The interior is encircled by a series of five triangular volutes in black lines, and the exterior exhibits a very neatly laid and indented coil. Fig. 254. PECOS AND THE RIO GRANDE. In New Mexico, upwards of four hundred miles east of Saint George, in the handsome upland valley of the Rio Pecos, we have the most easterly of the ancient Pueblo remains. The site was occupied at the time of the conquest, but is now wholly deserted, a small remnant of the people having gone to dwell with their kindred at Jémez. The site of this village has been thoroughly examined by that learned gentleman, Mr. A. F. Bandelier. It is his opinion that the remains show at least two distinct periods of occupation, the first being marked chiefly by a stratum of ashes, pottery, etc., of great horizontal extent. This underlies more recent deposits which belong to the people found in possession, and whose arts are nearly identical with those of the existing Pueblos. The underlying stratum is characterized by great quantities of fragmentary coiled ware uniform with that of more western localities. At the same time there is almost a total absence of painted pottery. The conclusion reached by Mr. Bandelier is that probably the coiled pottery wherever found marks the occupancy of a people antecedent to those who made painted ware. It is my impression, as already stated, that the coiled form may be the most archaic of the ancient Pueblo pottery, yet I think it best to notice two things in regard to the conditions at Pecos. In the first place, it should be remembered that the painted pottery found by Mr. Bandelier is said to resemble that of Nambe of to-day, nothing being said of the painted ware characteristic of the ancient ruins of the west, and which is always found associated with the coiled fragments, as at Saint George, in the same graves and even in the same vessel, Fig. 244. We would not expect in Pecos, or in any other place, to find modern Pueblo ware like the more recent pottery from Pecos intimately associated with the ancient ware either painted or corrugated. The only strange feature at Pecos is that the coiled fragments are not associated with ancient painted ware as in other places. Mr. Bandelier advances the idea that this deposit of corrugated ware may represent the site of an ancient pottery, where the vessels were laid out in heaps surrounded by fuel and burned as by the modern Pueblo potters, the broken pieces being left on the ground, forming finally a considerable stratum. If this is correct, then the true explanation probably is that on this spot only the one variety of pottery was made, the painted pottery of the same locality, if such was in use, being made by potters in other parts of the village. Unless there is an actual superposition of the ancient painted ware upon deposits of the coiled variety, we learn nothing of chronological importance. The valley of the Rio Grande has furnished but few specimens of the coiled ware, although it is known to occur along nearly its entire course through New Mexico. DISTRICT OF THE RIO GILA. The broad area drained by the Gila River and its tributaries abounds in ruins and relics, but its exploration is yet very incomplete. Coiled pottery identical, in nearly every respect, with that of the more northern valleys is abundant, but it is sometimes associated with painted wares very different in style from those of the cliff-house districts. It will probably be found that the ceramic products of the Rio Gila and the Rio Grande are much less homogeneous than those of the Colorado Chiquito, the San Juan, and the Rio Virgen. IMITATION COIL-WARE. I have already mentioned the occurrence in the Pueblo towns of modern coiled pottery, and also that there are seen, occasionally, vessels in which the coiled effect is rudely imitated by means of scarifying and indenting the plastic surface. Specimens of the latter class are generally small rude bottles with wide recurved lips and slightly conical bases. They are very rudely made and clumsy and are but slightly baked, and on account of the omission of proper tempering material are extremely brittle. They are new looking, and in no case show indications of use, and I have seen no example worthy of a place upon our museum shelves save as illustrating the trickery of the makers. It is possible that they are made by the Mokis, but if so by very unskilled persons who have neither understood the methods nor employed the same materials as the professional potters. I consider it highly probable that some clever Navajo has thought, by imitating archaic types of ware, to outwit collectors and turn an honest penny. PLAIN WARE. All the groups of pottery furnish examples of plain vessels. These are generally rudely finished and heavy, as if intended for the more ordinary domestic uses, such as the cooking of food and the storing of provisions and water. The material is coarser than in the nicely finished pieces and the surface is without the usual slip and without polish or applied color. The characters of these utensils are quite uniform throughout very widely separated districts, so that it is more difficult to assign a single vessel to its proper family than in the case of decorated wares. We have from Saint George and other localities examples of plain vessels that belong, without a doubt, to the coiled variety, the resemblance in material, color, shape, and finish being quite marked. These vessels are plentiful in the province of Tusayan, and many of them, as indicated by their color, construction, and texture, belong to the yellow and orange groups of ancient coiled ware. There is in many cases an easily discernible gradation from the wholly coiled through the partially coiled to the plain ware. In some cases the coil has been so imperfectly smoothed down that obscure ribs encircle the vessel indicating its direction, and in other cases fractures extend along the junction lines, separating the vessel when broken, into its original coils. These vessels are large and heavy, with wide mouths and full bodies, which are occasionally somewhat compressed laterally, giving an oval aperture. Similar pithoi like vessels are in daily use by the Mokis and also by the Zuñis, Acomas, Yumas, and others. They are employed in cooking the messes for feasts and large gatherings, for dyeing wool, and for storing various household materials. The modern work is so like the ancient that it is difficult in many cases to distinguish the one from the other. Besides the typical pot or cask there are many varieties of plain vessels, some of which appear to be closely related to, or even identical with, the classes usually finished in color. These include bowls, pots, and bottles. I present three examples from the tumulus at Saint George, Utah. The little bottle, shown in Fig. 255, is remarkable in having a subtriangular shape, three nearly symmetrical nodes occurring about the most expanded part of the body. An interesting series of similar vessels has been obtained from Tusayan, some of which are decidedly askoidal in shape. [Illustration: FIG. 255.--Bottle from the tumulus at Saint George.--1/2.] Similar to the last in general outline is the curious vessel given in Fig. 256. It was obtained in Southern Utah, and is now in possession of the Salt Lake City Museum. The three nodes are very prominent and curve upwards at the points like horns. An upright handle is attached to the side of the neck. [Illustration: FIG. 256.--Vase from the tumulus at Saint George.--1/2.] A large bottle-shaped vessel from the same locality is illustrated in Fig. 257. The neck is short and widens rapidly below. The body is large and globular, and is furnished with two small perforated ears placed at the sides near the top. There are a number of similar examples in the collection from this place. We have also a number of handled cups, mostly with globular bodies and wide apertures. All are quite plain. [Illustration: FIG. 257.--Vase from the tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] Examples from this and other sections could be multiplied indefinitely, but since the forms are all repeated in more highly finished pieces it is needless to present them. PAINTED WARE. PRELIMINARY REMARKS.--It is with a peculiar sense of delight that we enter upon the study of a group of art products so full of new and interesting features. Every object of antiquity has its charm for us, but there is an especial fascination about the works of a people like the "cliff-dwellers," whose long forgotten history takes the form of a romance in our imaginations. In the study of these relics we have the additional charm engendered by a contemplation of new forms of beauty, and we follow the stages of their evolution from the initial steps to the end with ever increasing zest. The ceramic art of classic and oriental countries has exerted a powerful influence upon existing culture, and is therefore much nearer the heart of the general student than the work of the American races; but it will not do for science to underrate the value of a study of the latter. Its thorough examination cannot fail to furnish many illustrations of the methods by which arts grow and races advance in culture, and, supplemented by a study of the art of the modern peoples, it will serve to illustrate the interesting phenomena attending the contact of widely separated grades of art. In the introductory pages I have considered many of the technical questions of construction and ornamentation. Before entering upon detailed descriptions of the specimens, I desire to give a brief review of the subject of painted decoration. COLOR OF DESIGNS.--The colors employed are doubtless generally of a mineral character, although carbonaceous matter derived directly from vegetable sources may have been used to some extent. They comprised white, black, red, and various shades of brown, and were applied to the surfaces of the vessels by means of brushes not inferior in efficiency to those employed by the potters of more enlightened races. EXECUTION.--The technical skill of the artist has not generally been of a high order, although examples are found that indicate a trained eye and a skilled hand. The designs are painted upon the show spaces of the vessels, which have been tinted and polished with especial reference to their reception. Large apertured vessels, such as dishes, cups, and bowls, are decorated chiefly upon the inner surface. The design often occupies only a band about the rim, but not infrequently covers the entire inner surface. High or incurved rims have in some cases received figures upon the exterior margin. Vessels with constricted necks have exterior decorations only. The placing of the designs was governed, to a great extent, by the contour of the vessel, although there was no fixed rule. The grouping of the figures is possibly a little more irregular in the more archaic forms, but in nearly all cases there is a tendency toward arrangement in zones horizontally encircling the vessel. This feature is suggestive of the use of the wheel or of the influence of wheel-made decoration; but there is probably a pre-ceramic reason for this peculiarity, to be sought in the decoration of antecedent vessels of more pronounced surface or constructional characters, such as basketry. This arrangement may also be attributed in a measure to the conformation of the vessel decorated. It will be observed that generally the neck furnishes the space for one zone of devices and the body that for another, while the shoulder, where wide or particularly accentuated, suggests the introduction of a third. In vessels of irregular form the figures take such positions as happen to have been suggested to the decorator by the available spaces, by the demands of superstition, or the dictates of fancy pure and simple. It appears that the artist never worked in a hap-hazard manner, yet never by rule or by pattern. The conception of the intended design was well formed in the mind, and the decoration commenced with a thorough understanding of the requirements of the vessel under treatment and of the effect of each added line upon the complete result. The vessels, being for the most part free-hand products, are necessarily varied in form and proportion, and the mobility of method in decoration is therefore a necessary as well as a natural condition. In accommodating the ordinary geometric figures to the variously curved and uneven surfaces, there were no erasures and, apparently, no embarrassments. This feature of the art shows it to be a native and spontaneous growth--the untrammeled working out of traditional conceptions by native gifts. STAGES OF ORNAMENT.--In the transmission of a nation's art inheritance from generation to generation, all the original forms of ornament undergo changes by alterations, eliminations, or additions. At the end of a long period we find the style of decoration so modified as to be hardly recognizable as the work of the same people; yet rapid changes would not occur in the uninterrupted course of evolution, for there is a wonderful stability about the arts, institutions, and beliefs of primitive races. Change of environment has a decided tendency to modify, and contact with other peoples, especially if of a high grade of culture, is liable to revolutionize the whole character of the art. The manufactures of our modern tribes show abundant evidence of the demoralizing effect upon native art of contact with the whites. There are no such features in the prehistoric art. _First stage._--In the early stages of art the elements used in embellishment are greatly non-ideographic, and the forms of expression are chiefly geometric. The elements or motives are limited in number and are in a measure common to all archaic art. They embrace dots, straight lines, and various angular and curvilinear figures, which in their higher stages become checkers, zigzags, chevrons, complex forms of meanders, fretted figures, and scrolls, with an infinite variety of combination and detail. At the same time there is no confusion. The processes by which the parts are segregated are as well regulated as are the processes of natural growth. This phase of decoration seems to be the prevailing one in the earlier stages of Pueblo art. _Second stage._--A second phase or stage is marked by the free introduction of ideographic devices of pictorial origin into decoration. These are drawn, to a great extent, from that most prolific source of artistic conceptions, mythology. This stage is the second in Pueblo art. The period or stage of culture at which such elements are introduced varies with different peoples. It is possible that ideographic and non-ideographic devices may enter art simultaneously. This is certainly to be expected in the ceramic art, which comes into existence rather late in the course of progress. _Third stage._--In strong contrast with the preceding stages is the state of modern Pueblo decoration. Contact with the whites has led to the introduction of life forms and varied pictorial delineations. These conditions belong to a stage in advance of the position reached in the natural course of growth. Ideographic, non-ideographic, and purely pictorial characters are combined in the most heterogeneous manner in the decoration of a single vessel. The decorator has ceased to work under the guidance of his instincts as a rule unerring, and now, like the mass of his more highly civilized brethren, he must grope in darkness until culture shall come to his aid with canons of taste--the product of intellect. CLASSIFICATION OF WARE.--In the treatment of this great group, or rather collection of groups, of pottery a scheme of classification is the first thing to be considered. In glancing over the field we notice that a whitish ware, having a certain range of material, finish, form, and decoration, is very widely distributed, that, in fact, it is found over nearly the entire area known to have been occupied by the Pueblo tribes. We find, however, that within this area there are varieties of this particular group distinguished by more or less pronounced peculiarities of color, form, and ornament, resulting from dissimilarity of environment rather than from differences in time, race, or method of construction. This group is associated, in nearly every locality, with the archaic coiled ware, and together they are especially typical of the first great period of Pueblo art. Its makers were the builders of the cliff dwellings, of the round towers, and of countless stone pueblos. Distinct from the preceding, and apparently occupying an intermediate place in time and culture between the primitive and the recent wares, we have a number of pretty well defined groups. At least two of these are peculiar to the ancient province of Tusayan. The vessels of one of these groups are noticeable for their rounded symmetrical bodies, their finely textured paste, and their delicate creamy shades of color. The designs are well executed and display unusual refinement of taste. Another, and probably the more important variety, is characterized, first, by peculiarities of form, the body being doubly conical and the bottom deeply indented; second, by richness of color, orange and yellow tints prevailing; and, third, by the striking individuality and remarkable execution of the painted designs. In the valley of the Little Colorado and extending southward to the Gila, we find remnants of a group of highly colored pottery differing from the preceding and, in many respects, from the widely distributed red ware of the north, specimens of which occur in connection with the white ware. The surfaces are painted red and profusely decorated in white, black, and red lines and figures. Still another variety is obtained from this region. As indicated by collections from Saint John and Springerville, it consists greatly of bowls, the colors, forms, and decorations having decided points of resemblance to corresponding features of the cream-colored ware of ancient Tusayan. There are still other groups, probably of intermediary periods, whose limits are not yet well defined, examples of which are found in possession of the Pueblo Indians. At Pecos the art was practiced long after the advent of the conquerors, and later specimens show the archaic decorative ideas worked out in Spanish glaze. The deserted pueblos of the Rio Grande furnish antique forms that show wide distinctions from the ancient wares of the west. Another variety peculiar to the southwest shows indications of having been carried down to the present in the work of the Indians of the Lower Colorado Valley. Each of these groups and such new ones as may be discovered will be made the subject of careful study. The remainder of this paper will be devoted to a single group--the first mentioned in the preceding list. WHITE WARE. The coiled ware has already been presented in some detail. Most nearly related to it in material, form, color, and distribution is the archaic white ware, the pottery _par excellance_ of the "Cliff-Dwellers." It is easily recognized, even from small fragments, whether found in the valley of the Colorado, of the Rio Grande, or of the Gila, although each locality has its slight peculiarities of texture, tint, shape, and ornamentation. As a rule the material is a fine-grained clay, tempered with fine sand, the surfaces of the vessels being coated with a thin wash of very fine white clay. The ware is nearly always well baked and hard, breaking with a saccharoidal, rarely with a conchoidal, fracture. The surface is, as a rule, well polished, but often slightly undulating. The color of the paste is generally gray within the mass and white upon the surface. Associated with the white ware in most localities we find a small percentage of red ware nearly identical in all save color with the white ware. The forms are comparatively few and simple, a full, well-rounded body, as with the coiled ware, being a strong characteristic. The ornamentation is generally in black paint, exceptionally in red and white, and consists to a great extent of geometric figures, often rather rudely drawn. Very rarely we observe an attempt to delineate a life form--human or animal, never vegetable. CLASSIFICATION BY FORM.--The ware of each province is conveniently presented in form-groups, beginning with the more simple shapes and advancing to the more complex. BOWLS.--Bowl-shaped vessels have been in great favor with all the Pueblo peoples, and in ancient times, especially in the north and west, predominated very decidedly over all other forms. This is naturally a favorite shape with primitive peoples, as it is the most simple and probably that first developed. A long experience would be necessary for the evolution of narrow-necked or complex forms. Our collections contain many examples of ancient bowls, perfectly preserved, but if this were not the case the shapes are so simple that it would be an easy matter to make satisfactory restorations from fragments. There is considerable diversity of outline, yet all may be conveniently classed under two heads: the hemispherical and the heart-shaped. The former are much more plentiful and were probably the favorite food vessels of the people. As a rule they are plain segments of spheres. The rims are, in rare cases, oval in outline, and a few are elongated at the ends. Heart-shaped bowls are characterized by a somewhat conical base and a deeply incurved rim, sometimes much depressed about the contracted mouth. The forms are often elegant, and the painted designs are generally well executed and pleasing to the eye. OLLAS.--Between bowls and pot-shaped vases or ollas there is but a step--the addition of an upright or recurving band forming a neck. In vessels of the latter class the body is almost universally globular, often tapering a very little below. Occasionally there is a slight flattening of the bottom and very rarely a concavity. The neck is seldom high, but varies greatly in size and shape. These vessels correspond to the water vases of the modern tribes. BOTTLES.--Bottle-shaped vessels are very widely distributed. They differ from the ollas in one respect only--the necks are narrower and higher. They are rarely flattened, as are the modern Pueblo bottles known as canteens. HANDLED VESSELS.--Smaller vessels of nearly all shapes are at times furnished with handles. The origin of certain forms of these has received attention in the introductory pages. They vary in style with the shape of the vessel to which they are attached. Bowls exhibit two well-marked varieties--a cylindrical form and a simple loop. Those of the former often imitate the handle-like neck of a gourd, and archaic specimens from various parts of the Pueblo province are so literally copied that the small curved stem of the gourd is represented. This feature in some cases becomes a loop at the end of the handle, serving to suspend the vessel, like the ring attached to our dipper handles. Specimens from the headwaters of the Colorado Chiquito have the ends of the handles modeled to represent the head of a serpents or other creatures. A loop sometimes takes the place of the cylindrical handle, and is attached to the side of the bowl in a vertical or a horizontal position. It may be long or short, wide or narrow, simple or compound, and is not always evenly curved. In certain forms of cups the vertically-placed loop occupies the whole length of the vessel, suggesting well-known forms of the beer-mug. High-necked cups, vases, and bottles have rather long, vertically-placed loops, giving a pitcher-like effect. These may consist of two or more strands placed side by side or twisted together. Rarely an animal form is imitated, the fore feet of the creature resting upon the rim of the vessel and the hind feet upon the shoulder. Perforated knobs often take the place of the loops, and unperforated nodes and projections of varied shapes are not unusual. Some of these, placed upon the upper part of the neck, represent the heads of animals. A novel handle is sometimes seen in the ancient vases of Cibola and Tusayan. While the clay was still soft a deep abrupt indentation was made in the lower part of the vessel, sufficiently large to admit the ends of two or three fingers, thus giving a hold that facilitated the handling of the vessel. I have seen no looped handles arching the aperture of the vessel, as in the modern meal baskets of the Zuñis. ECCENTRIC AND LIFE FORMS.--The simple potter of early Pueblo times seems barely to have reached the period of eccentric and compound forms, and animal and grotesque shapes, so common in the pottery of the mound-builders of the Mississippi valley, the Mexicans, and the Peruvians, are of rather rare occurrence. The last section of this paper is devoted to life and eccentric forms. For convenience of treatment, the following illustrations will be presented by districts, beginning at the northwest. ILLUSTRATIONS. DISTRICT OF THE RIO VIRGEN. Under the head of coiled pottery I have given a detailed description of the remarkable dwelling-site tumulus at Saint George, Utah, which has furnished such a complete set of the fictile works of the cliff-house potter, the first collection of importance known to have been made by exhumation. I will now present the painted ware and point out its very interesting local peculiarities. All the ordinary shapes are present excepting the olla. Vessels of this form are all of the plain or coiled varieties. The paste is gray and the surface color is usually a light gray. A small percentage of the vessels are painted or stained red. The designs are all executed in black, and are for the most part nicely drawn. They differ slightly in a number of ways from those of other districts, their relationships being, with a few exceptions, more intimate with the ware of the Rio San Juan. A characteristic of this pottery is the thinness of the walls and the hardness and tenacity of the paste. In form a striking feature is the occurrence of bowls of oval form, and in one case such a bowl has sides cut down or scalloped and ends prolonged. The oval form is sometimes seen in other districts, and the elongation of portions of the rim is a feature especially characteristic of the Pima and Mojave work of to-day. BOWLS.--I have already shown in Fig. 244 a small bowl from this locality, in which a coiled exterior is combined with a polished and painted interior. This is an unusual combination, the exterior commonly being plain. The following examples are grouped, as far as possible, according to their painted designs. A usual and very widely distributed decoration consists of a belt of figures encircling the inner margin. In its simplest condition it is only a single broad line, but more frequently it is elaborated into a tasteful border so wide as to leave only a small circle of the plain surface in the bottom of the vessel. The figures present much variety of effect, but combine only a few elements or ideas, as the following figures will amply show. All are rectilinear, or as nearly so as the conformation of the vessels will permit. No example of exterior decoration occurs. As my illustrations are necessarily limited to a few pieces, those having the simpler combinations of lines are omitted, and such only are given as exhibit the decorations of this district to the best advantage. The bowl shown in Fig. 258 may be regarded as a typical example. [Illustration: FIG. 258.--Bowl: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] It is a plain hemisphere of gray clay, with roughly finished exterior and whitened and polished interior surface. It is eight inches in diameter and nearly four inches deep. The painted design occupies a band about two inches wide, and consists of two broad bordering lines inclosing meandered lines. The triangular interspaces are occupied by serrate figures, giving to the whole ornament an appearance characteristic of textile borders. Two small bowls have borders in which the meandered lines are in the natural color of the ground, the triangular spaces being filled in with black. In one case the effect of the guilloche is given in the same manner. Few vessels exhibit a more characteristic example of the ornamentation of this ware than that given in Fig. 259. It is identical in surface finish with the last, excepting that the exterior has been painted red. An exceptional feature may be noticed in the shaping of the rim, which has been brought to a sharp edge. [Illustration: FIG. 259.--Bowl: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] The design occupies the usual space, and consists of a very elaborately meandered or fretted line, which is so involved that the eye follows it with difficulty. Four units of the combination complete the circuit of the vessel. In another specimen, which also has the design divided into four parts, the lower line of each part is made straight, by which means the space left in the bottom of the vessel is square instead of round, as in the other cases. [Illustration: FIG. 260.--Bowl: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/2.] Another variety of decoration, quite characteristic of this region, consists of a band of fret-work dashed boldly across the inner surface of the bowl, giving a most striking result. These figures appear to be fragments of continuous borders, taken from their proper connections and made to do duty on a surface that had ordinarily been left without decoration. This observation has led to the proper interpretation of many enigmatic combinations at first thought to have especial application and significance. [Illustration: FIG. 261.--Painted device.] The handsome shallow bowl presented in Fig. 260 has been badly broken and carefully mended while still in the hands of its aboriginal owners. It is ten and one-half inches in diameter, and only three and three-fourths inches in depth. The surface finish is identical with that of the preceding example. The design, which consists of a single segment of a chain of fret-work, is drawn in broad, steady lines. Fig. 261. Not unlike the last in its leading features is the vessel illustrated in Fig. 262. The label indicates that it was collected at Kanab, Utah, a Mormon village ninety miles east of Saint George. The design is carried over the whole inner surface, and is somewhat difficult to analyze. There is little doubt, however, that it consists of portions of fretted or meandered patterns arbitrarily selected from basketry or other geometrically embellished articles, and applied to this use. The complete device is shown in Fig. 263. [Illustration: FIG. 262.--Bowl from Kanab.--1/4.] The following examples are unique in their styles of decoration. The first, Fig. 264, resembles the preceding save in its painted device. Like a few others, it has been badly fractured and carefully mended by its Indian owners. It was obtained also at Kanab, and is nine inches in diameter by four and one-half in height. The design is cruciform in arrangement, the four parts being joined in pairs by connecting lines. It exhibits some very unusual features (Fig. 265), and we are led to suspect that it may in some way have been significant, or at least that it is a copy of some emblematic device. [Illustration: FIG. 263.--Painted device.] The almost total absence of life forms in the art of the primitive Pueblos has often been remarked. One example only has been discovered in this region. This occurs in a subject painted on the inner surface of a rather rude, oblong, bowl, from the Saint George tumulus, Fig. 266. A checkered belt in black extends longitudinally across the bowl. At the sides of this, near the middle, are two human figures, executed in the most primitive style, as shown in Fig. 267. Their angular forms are indicative of textile influence. The middle part of the bowl is broken out, so that the feet of one figure and the head of the other are lost. [Illustration: FIG. 264.--Bowl from Kanab.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 265.--Painted device.] These figures resemble those painted upon and picked in the rocks of the pueblo region, and the triangular head is sometimes seen in the ceramic decoration of modern tribes. A bowl with similar figures was brought from Tusayan by Mr. Mindeleff. It is illustrated in Fig. 268. [Illustration: FIG. 266.--Bowl with human figures: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 267.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 268.--Bowl with human figures: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] Among the many fine things from the mound at Saint George are a few red bowls. They were made of a slightly reddish clay, or the paste has reddened uniformly in burning, and a slip or wash of bright red color has been applied to the surface. The designs are painted in black, but differ in style from any of the preceding. This work corresponds very closely indeed with the decorations of similar vessels from the Little Colorado. The marked peculiarities of the ornamentation and color of these bowls give rise to the idea that they may have been intended for some especial service of a ceremonial character. It is not impossible, however, that these vessels reached very distant localities by means of trade. A representative example is shown in Fig. 269. The broad interior band of ornament is divided into four compartments by vertical panels of reticulated lines. The compartments are occupied by groups of disconnected rectangular fret-links on a ground of oblique stripes. [Illustration: FIG. 269.--Red bowl: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] The heart-shaped bowls previously mentioned include medium sized and small vases, with slightly conical bases, distended shoulders, and much constricted, often depressed, apertures. They are of very general distribution, but like the hemispherical red bowls are rarely found in numbers. It is probable that they were devoted to ceremonial rather than to domestic uses. The shapes are generally pleasing to the eye; the finish is exceptionally fine, and the designs, though simple, are applied with more than usual care. A very good specimen from the tumulus at Saint George is illustrated in Fig. 270. [Illustration: FIG. 270.--Heart-shaped bowl of red ware: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] The bottom in this case is slightly flattened, and the incurved lip but slightly sunken. The paste is a light red and the surface has received a coat of bright red color. The design is in black, is extremely simple, and rather carelessly drawn. The principal figure seems to be a very simple form of the favorite device--the meander. A large fine bowl much like the preceding, and obtained from the same locality, is owned by the Salt Lake City Museum. The design is of the same class, but very much more elaborate. Another example from Saint George is smaller and yellowish-gray in color, with figures in red and black. At Kanab I picked up fragments of a small vessel, highly polished and of a rich, brownish-purple color, the designs being in black. Another fragment showed designs in bright red and black upon a yellowish ground. OLLAS.--I have already called attention to the fact, that the Saint George tumulus furnished no example of ollas or large-necked vases of the painted variety, vessels of this class being plain or of the coiled ware. In the vicinity, however, I collected fragments of the white painted pottery derived from large vessels of this class, very much like the large, handsome vessels of ancient Tusayan. A number of such fragments come from the vicinity of Kanab. Plain vessels of this shape were obtained from the tumulus at Saint George. They are identical in every other respect, save the presence of designs, with the painted pottery. Some have received a wash of red, while it is not improbable that others have lost their color or decorative figures by wear or weather. [Illustration: FIG. 271.--Red pitcher: Tumulus at Saint George.--1/3.] HANDLED VESSELS.--From the tumulus at Saint George we have a very excellent example of pitcher, which is shown in Fig. 271. The shape is not quite satisfactory, the neck being clumsy, but the workmanship is exceptionally good. The surface is even and well polished and the color is a strong red. The painted design in black, upon the red ground, consists of a number of meandered lines, to which are added at intervals small dentate figures, as seen in the cut. DISTRICT OF THE RIO SAN JUAN. In a number of ways the valley of the Rio San Juan possesses unusual interest to the antiquarian. Until within the latter half of the nineteenth century, it remained wholly unknown. The early Spanish expeditions are not known to have penetrated its secluded precincts, and its cliff-houses, its ruined pueblos and curious towers have been so long deserted that it is doubtful whether even a tradition of their occupation has been preserved, either by the nomadic tribes of the district or by the modern pueblos of the south. Certain it is that no foreign hand has influenced the art of this district, and no Spanish adventurer has left traces of his presence. The ceramic remains are more uniform in character and apparently more archaic in decoration than those of any other district. They belong almost exclusively to two varieties, the coiled ware and the white ware with black figures. The former has already been described, the latter must now pass under review. It is unfortunate that so few entire vessels of the painted pottery have been found in this region. The fragments, however, are very plentiful, and by proper study of these a great deal can be done to restore the various forms of vessels. In my paper upon this region, in the Annual Report of the Survey of the Territories for 1876, I gave a pretty careful review of the material then in hand. Finding that in very few cases were there whole vessels representing the achievements of the ancient potter and decorator, I presented a number of restorations from the better class of fragments. This was done in a way that could lead to no serious misapprehension, as the fragments used were always clearly indicated. The expert need never go astray in his estimate of the character of the vessel to which given pieces belonged, and his restoration from them gives a completeness of conception to the reader or student at a distance that could never be acquired by the most careful study of illustrations of the fragments. The fragments are exceedingly plentiful about camp sites and ruins, and fairly whiten the debris slopes beneath the houses in the cliffs. I found my mind so diverted by these fascinating relics that it was often difficult to keep the geologic problems of the district properly in view. No tumuli or burial places were observed, but I suspect that careful search will bring them to light, and that they will yield much richer results than the scattered fragments of the surface. The district now under consideration comprises the entire drainage of the Rio San Juan. It includes the well-known valleys of the Animas, the La Plata, the Mancos, the McElmel, and the Montezuma on the north, and the Chaco and the de Chelly on the south. On the north I include also a portion of the valley of the Rio Dolores. The center of the district will not be very far distant from the corner stone of the four political divisions of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. The collections from the valley of the Rio de Chelly, one of the richest sections of this district, are very badly scattered, and the vessels cannot be identified. Many fine things have been carried away to the south and are now in the collections from Cibola and Tusayan; while others have been brought east by the various expeditions without a proper record of the locality. This is to be regretted, as it makes it impossible to study the shades of distinction between the wares of neighboring localities. Bowls were very numerous and greatly varied in size, finish, and ornamentation. Many have received painted designs both inside and out. This occurs with those having nearly upright rims. Handled-cups of hemispherical shape are also common, but the heart-shaped bowls are of rare occurrence. Bottle-shaped vessels and ollas have not, as in the south, formed a prominent feature. For some of the latter very neat lids have been made, the rims being shaped for their reception. Upright vessels with handles are common. Eccentric or animal forms have not been found. BOWLS.--The arrangement of the designs upon the bowls is far from uniform. In a great majority of cases, however, they occupy belts encircling the inner and outer margin. The fragmentary condition of the remains makes it impossible to restore designs that covered the entire surface of the vessels. The decorations comprise nearly all the usual elements and motives. In Fig. 272 we have a small bowl from Montezuma Cañon, Utah. In form it is a deep hemisphere. The design is upon the interior surface, and consists of a broad band bordered by heavy lines and filled in with vertical lines. The rim is ornamented with seven pairs of dots. Fig. 273 is restored from a fragment obtained in southwest Colorado. It shows an interior ornament consisting of a well-drawn chain of volutes. [Illustration: FIG. 272.--Bowl: Montezuma Cañon.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 273.--Bowl: Rio San Juan--1/3.] Many of the bowls were large and handsomely finished, both surfaces being whitened and polished. A superior example is given in Fig. 274. Neat borders have been applied to both interior and exterior surfaces. They are suggestive of patterns produced through the technique of textile products, and consist of interrupted forms of the meander. I have restored from small fragments in this and other cases, for the reason that no large fragments of the finer vessels are preserved. [Illustration: FIG. 274.--Bowl: Rio San Juan.] [Illustration: FIG. 275.--Bowl: Rio San Juan.] Fig. 275 illustrates a very pleasing vessel. It is hemispherical, and about eleven inches in diameter. A narrow zone of ornament based upon the meander encircles the exterior margin of the rim, and a broad, carefully drawn design, consisting of two parallel meanders, Fig. 276, occupies the interior. It will be seen that the meandered fillets are in white, and the bordering stripes and the upper and lower rows of triangular interspaces are in solid black, while the median band and its connecting triangles are obliquely striped. It should be noticed that the oblique portions of the meanders are indented or stepped. This is a very usual occurrence in these decorations, and may be taken as a pretty decided indication that they were copied, more or less directly, from textile ornamentation in which all oblique lines are necessarily stepped. [Illustration: FIG. 276.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIGS. 277 and 278.--Handled cups: Montezuma Cañon.--1/3.] HANDLED CUPS.--Small cups were generally furnished with handles and probably served as ladles and spoons. An entire specimen is rarely found. Two are illustrated in Figs. 277 and 278. They were obtained by W. H. Jackson from the ruins of Montezuma Cañon. The handles of these vessels vary a great deal; some are flat, while others are round, consisting either of a single or a looped roll of clay; some are hollow, resembling the handles of gourds, and a few are made of twisted fillets. This latter form belongs generally to upright cups. [Illustration: FIG. 279.--Vase: Rio San Juan.] OLLAS.--It is quite impossible to make satisfactory restorations of the vases or ollas from the small fragments recovered. The evidence is sufficient, however, to show that vessels of this class were numerous, and often large. I have made two restorations of small examples belonging to this class, of which there are fragments showing the neck and upper part of the bodies. The bottoms are so universally rounded that I have drawn full globular shapes; Figs. 279 and 280. The most striking character of Fig. 279 is the shape of the rim, which is fashioned for the reception of a lid. The same feature is noticed in a small vessel obtained at Zuñi. [Illustration: FIG. 280.--Vase: Rio San Juan.] Examples of lids from the San Juan Valley are shown in Figs. 281 and 282. They were evidently designed for vessels of the class just described. The specimen given in Fig. 281 is neatly finished and embellished, and the quality of the ware is very superior. [Illustration: FIG. 281.--Vase lid: Rio San Juan.] [Illustration: FIG. 282.--Vase lid: Rio San Juan.] HANDLED VASES.--Many small vessels were furnished with handles, some horizontal and others vertical. Of the first variety is the example shown in Fig. 283. The fragment was obtained from the great ruin at "Aztec Springs," Colorado. It shows a small, symmetrical vessel, with black lines and devices. The handle, which probably had a companion on the opposite side, is strong and neatly made. Figure 284 represents a very pretty little vessel, brought by Mr. W. H. Jackson from the Cañon de Chelly. It is of the usual gray polished ware, the base being somewhat roughened by use. The design consists of encircling lines combined with a belt of disconnected triangular hooks or fret-links. [Illustration: FIG. 283.--Handled bottle: Rio San Juan.] Handled mugs with round bodies and wide high necks were in great favor with the San Juan potter. There are but two entire specimens in the collection. These were obtained by Capt. Moss, of Parrott, who stated that they, with other relics, had been exhumed from a grave in the San Juan Valley. Both are comparatively rude in construction, and seem to be considerably weathered. The one shown in Fig. 285 is decorated with a classic meander which encircles the body of the vessel. The other, illustrated in Fig. 286, has the upper part covered with simple figures resembling bird tracks. Among the most novel works of the ancient potter are the flat-bottomed mugs with upright sides, and with vertical handles which extend the whole length of the vessel, giving very much the appearance of a German beer mug. For a long time it was thought improbable that a vessel of this character should be the _bona fide_ work of the cliff-dweller, for his status of culture seemed to call for globular bodies and rounded bases. But so many examples have been found that there is no longer room for doubt. [Illustration: FIG. 284.--Small bottle: Rio San Juan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 285.--Handled mug: Rio San Juan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 286.--Handled mug: Rio San Juan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 287.--Handled mug: Rio San Juan.--1/2.] [Illustration: FIG. 288.--Handled mug: Southern Utah.--1/2.] Fig. 287 is restored from a large fragment brought from the San Juan Valley. Its walls widen a little below, and the very pretty ornament is somewhat unevenly applied. The handle is made of a double rope of clay, and extends from the lip to the base. The example shown in Fig. 288 was obtained in the vicinity of Provo, Utah, by Capt. G. M. Wheeler's expedition. It is so like those from the San Juan that I place it here for comparison. It is a little wider toward the base, and is nearly symmetrical. It is four inches in height and the same in diameter. A very similar vessel, probably from the Province of Tusayan, is found in the Keam collection. DISTRICT OF THE COLORADO CHIQUITO. The collection from this district, which includes the ancient provinces of Cibola and Tusayan, is already very large, and much more material will yet accrue, for pottery fanciers have taken up the search, and both whites and Indians are on the _qui vive_ for additional examples of the artistic and showy specimens. The National Museum has procured many fine pieces through the agents of the Bureau of Ethnology, and the collection of Mr. Keam is especially rich in the pottery of Tusayan. Some of the finer examples of the latter collection are selected for illustration. It seems unaccountable that such a large number of the ancient vessels should be preserved, and that too in a country where vessels are constantly in demand. Many have been picked up by the Pueblo tribes and laid away for especial uses or possibly as heirlooms; but many of those secured by recent collectors were obtained from the sites of ancient settlements, from burial places, and from caves, and brought directly to the market so recently made for them. There can be no doubt that many of the specimens accredited to this district have come from neighboring or distant provinces; yet within the valley of the Little Colorado there are such wide variations from predominant types that foreign pieces cannot be readily detected. Many of the finer pieces of the white ware are rather new looking and show very superior taste and skill. The indications are that the manufacture of this white ware was kept up in portions of this district down to a comparatively recent date, possibly until the coming of the Europeans. It will probably be impossible to determine just why and how the archaic types gave way to the transitional and modern. It may be found, however, that the influence of the Spaniard was a factor in the change. Beside the archaic white ware and its closely associated red ware the province of Tusayan furnishes two or three distinct varieties, all of which, unlike that ware, are apparently confined to very limited districts. These have been briefly described on a preceding page. Many pieces of the white ware are of large size and of elegant shape and finish. Some of the ollas and bottles are masterpieces of the art. The texture of the paste is fine and the color is often quite white. The designs are uniformly in black and are superior in execution and conception to those of the north. BOWLS.--The bowls are very generally hemispherical. The finish, like that of the pottery of the San Juan and the Rio Virgen, is rather rough on the exterior, and whitened and polished on the inner surface. The painted figures are confined to the interior, and are highly elaborated combinations of the usual geometric motives. They are generally made up of four sections of double-zoned borders such as occur on the exterior of vases, cut out, as it were, and fitted into the bowl in a cruciform arrangement, a plain square remaining in the bottom of the vessel. See Fig. 291. There are, however, many examples which consist of two encircling zones of ornament identical in style and arrangement with examples from the Rio Virgen, Figs. 230 and 231, and from the Rio San Juan, Figs. 248, 259, and 274. In Fig. 289 we have a representative example of the bowls of ancient Tusayan. The outer surface is rudely trowel-finished, but the inside is well polished. The painted design consists of four parts arranged about a central square. Each part comprises a number of alternate bands of straight and zigzag lines. [Illustration: FIG. 289.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] The superb bowl presented in Fig. 290 is nearly fifteen inches in diameter and seven inches deep. It is hemispherical but not quite symmetrical. Having been broken, it was mended by its owners after their aboriginal fashion. Two pairs of holes have been bored on opposite sides of a long fracture for the insertion of thongs. Other perforations have been commenced but do not penetrate the vessel. The walls are upwards of one-eighth of an inch in thickness near the rim, but are less than that throughout the body of the bowl. The paste is of a dark gray color, speckled with ashy-white particles, which may be pulverized potsherds. The interior surface is finished with a slip of white clay and has received a fair degree of polish. The exterior is only trowel-finished and is much scarified by use. The interior is embellished with a very elaborate design, which is given with all possible accuracy in a plain projection, in Fig. 291. The work does not exhibit a great deal of skill or neatness in execution, but the whole design is carefully made out and well adjusted to the deeply concave surface. An analysis of this figure is easily given. It is a cruciform arrangement of four portions of rather elaborate double borders. Each part consists of two parallel bands, a principal and a subordinate, separated by parallel lines and taking the relation to each other always noticed in the two belts of designs painted upon the exterior of vases. Two of the sections are alike. The others differ from these and from each other. [Illustration: FIG. 290.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 291.--Painted design.] One figure, consisting of three linked volutes, is defined in white by painting around it a black ground. The artist in painting this vessel has probably not thought of achieving anything beyond the filling up neatly of the four spaces, and has followed the usual practice of borrowing his motives from other objects; yet it will not be wise to conclude that these figures are really meaningless combinations of lines. The persistency and individuality of certain motives makes it almost certain that they are not the result of aimless elaboration, and that the potter understood their significance. They are too purely geometric, however, to furnish any clew to us through internal evidence. We have no resource beyond the analogies of historic art. Modern tribes use the current meander to symbolize water, and a leading motive in many of these designs--the linked scroll running through a field of serrate lines--is wonderfully like some forms of the Aztec symbol for water, as may be seen by reference to the Mexican codices. [Illustration: FIG. 292.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] Another very excellent example of these bowls is presented in Fig. 292. It is small and shallow, measuring six and a half inches in diameter and two and a half in depth. The material is somewhat soft and chalky. The walls are thick and the surface is well finished. The painted design is cruciform, like the preceding, but is much more simple and satisfactory. It is interesting to note the changes rung upon the few simple motives employed in these designs. Again apparently each of the four parts is a fragment of a double border, cut up and fitted into the concave surface. The bands with oblique, dotted, or stepped lines, Fig. 293, are repetitions of the neck belt of a bottle-shaped vase or basket, and the other bands with their chaste fret-work repeat a section of the body zone. [Illustration: FIG. 293.--Painted design.] Bowls and cups of the hemispherical model are very often supplied with handles. Like other bowls, they are embellished with painted designs derived from vases or from textile sources. In order of evolution, they probably follow the plain form--the handles being added to facilitate use. [Illustration: FIG. 294.--Handled bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] The principal varieties of handles have already been described. The bowl illustrated in Fig. 294 is furnished with a single semicircular loop. In form, finish, and color it is the same as that of the other bowls, and the painted design has a similar derivation and arrangement. In the collection we have a fine large red bowl, now in a fragmentary state. It is eleven inches in diameter and six inches deep. A small loop is attached to the outside near the margin. It has a very decided resemblance in color, finish, and ornamentation to the red bowls of the Rio Virgen. The color of both the surface and the mass is a dull red. A broad band of bright red paint encircles the exterior, leaving a plain marginal band of the ground color and a plain area of the same upon the bottom. The painted design, which covers the inner surface is shown in Fig. 295. We discover in it at first sight a type to all appearances totally distinct from the usual devices of this locality, but a closer study reveals the existence of the favorite motive--the meander--doubled up across the middle in a way to challenge detection, with the ever-present auxiliary band above and below. The curiously complex and very pleasing ornament is amplified in Fig. 296. [Illustration: FIG. 295.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 296.--Original form of painted design.] One small cup or bowl has two ears, not semicircular, but rectangular, which are placed horizontally and project in sharp points at the corners. The neat little vessel given in Fig. 297 has a much elongated horizontal loop, carelessly made and rudely attached. The bowl is handsomely finished. The margin is ornamented with a series of closely placed transverse lines or dots, a character appearing more frequently in the northern ware. The interior design is made up of four independent parts as usual. The cup presented in Fig. 298 serves to illustrate another variety of handle--a large vertical loop, extending from rim to base, like those on the upright cups given in Figs. 287 and 288. The paste is very fine grained, and breaks with a conchoidal fracture. The color is gray and the paint reddish from the firing. The bottom is flat, a rare occurrence in the more archaic, pottery. The painted design is based upon the meander, and occupies nearly the entire exterior surface of the cup. The handle has two bird-track shaped figures on its outer surface. [Illustration: FIG. 297.--Handled cup: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 298.--Handled cup: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 299.--Dipper: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] Vessels with long cylindrical handles are distributed over a very extended district, but in Tusayan they are of a better class of ware than elsewhere. Here the handles are long and stout and frequently terminate in a loop, probably intended for the attachment of a cord. The bowl is often graceful in form and tasteful in ornament. One of the finer examples is illustrated in Fig. 299. It is of the chalky ware, and has a very good surface finish. The handle is one inch in diameter and five inches long. It is hollow and terminates in a narrow loop. It is decorated with two groups of spirally inclined lines. The interior decoration of the bowl furnishes a most excellent example of the crucifrm designs previously described. This is well shown in Fig. 300. The exterior surface is embellished with a most primitive drawing of a bird, Fig. 301--a striking illustration of the pictorial accomplishments of these classic decorators. Subjects of this class are of rare occurrence upon the ancient white ware. [Illustration: FIG. 300.--Dipper: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 301.--Figure of bird from exterior of dipper.] [Illustration: FIG. 302.--Dipper: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] The dipper presented in Fig. 302 is somewhat inferior in workmanship to the preceding example. The handle is plain and terminates in a horizontal loop. The painted design is not arranged about a square, as in the examples given, but leaves a space in the center of the bowl resembling a four-cornered star. This shape is, however, the result of accident. The four parts are units of an elaborate border, not severed from their original connection, but contorted from crowding into the circular space. The design drawn upon a plain surface is shown in Fig. 303. Projected in a straight line, as in Fig. 304, it is readily recognized as the lower three-fourths of a zone of scroll ornamentation. A unit of the design drawn in black is shown in Fig. 305. The meander is developed in the white color of the ground, and consists of two charmingly varied threads running side by side through a field of black, bordered by heavy black lines. The involute ends of the units are connected by two minute auxiliary scrolls. [Illustration: FIG. 303.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 304.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 305.--Unit of the design drawn in black.] Bowls heretofore referred to as heart-shaped are of frequent occurrence in the valley of the Little Colorado. A number have been obtained by the Bureau of Ethnology directly from the Pueblo Indians, while a few very superior specimens are in the collection of Mr. Keam. A somewhat globular example is represented in Fig. 306. [Illustration: FIG. 306.--Heart-shaped bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] It is remarkable in having four zones of devices. The narrow belt next the lip contains a single line of bird-track figures. The others exhibit simple forms of the meander. It is interesting to notice the variety of treatment. In the upper band we have a chain of units imperfectly connected. In the others there are series of triangular links quite disconnected from each other. All are defined in white by painting in a ground of black. This district has furnished few vessels of more exquisite form and decoration than that shown in Fig. 307. It is from the Keam collection. The outlines are exceptionally symmetrical, and the design, developed in the white of the ground, is drawn with more than usual care. The figures are severely simple, however, and comprise but one motive--the typical scroll, which is arranged in three zones, separated by parallel lines. The spaces are filled in with serrate lines, parallel with the connecting fillets or stems of the volutes, as in the case given in Fig. 290. Another smaller vessel from the same collection is simple and unpretentious, but so thoroughly satisfactory in every respect that one could hardly suggest an improvement. The surface is well polished. The ground color is whitish, and the design--a chain of classic scrolls--is produced in white by filling up the interstices with black. It is a noteworthy fact that the base of this cup has been perforated, apparently for use as a strainer. Nearly a hundred small round holes have been made while the clay was still soft. A pottery ladle from this region, now in the National collection, exhibits the same feature. [Illustration: FIG. 307.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] I add another example from the Keam collection, Fig. 309. The margins of the figures are serrate and the volutes, which are in white, have clumsy, disconnected stems. [Illustration: FIG. 308.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] The vessel presented in Fig. 310 has a flattened upper surface, an angular shoulder, and a high body, slightly conical below. The painted design is nearly obliterated in places by abrasion or weathering, but is correctly presented in Fig. 311, which gives the three zones in horizontal projection. This brings out a very marked feature, the cruciform arrangement of the parts, which would not be apparent in a vertical projection. [Illustration: FIG. 309.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] [Illustration: FIG. 310.--Bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] The two inner circles occupy the upper surface of the vessel and the outer one the most expanded portion of the body. The inner belt is separated into four panels or compartments by as many series of transverse lines, the panels being filled in with longitudinal, broken lines. The second band is also divided by four series of straight lines, but the compartments are occupied by scrolls in white, bordered by serrate wings in black. The outer band exhibits a very curious combination of features, the whole figure, however, being based upon the meander. It is probable that the grouping in fours is accidental, the division of a surface into four being much more readily accomplished than into any other number above two. [Illustration: FIG. 311.--Painted design.] There are few better examples of the skill and good taste of the ancient potter than the bowl illustrated in Fig. 312. The body is much flattened and the incurved margin considerably depressed. The color is reddish, both on the surface and in the mass, while the upper part is painted a bright red. Upon this color, encircling the shoulder and extending inward toward the lip, is a handsome design in black and white lines. This is nearly obliterated, but enough is left to show that it consists of a highly elaborated rectilinear meander pattern, the idea being developed apparently in the light ground color. The painted lines are in black bordered with fine white stripes--a common occurrence in the south. [Illustration: FIG. 312.--Red bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] We have in the Museum an exquisitely shaped vessel of this class obtained from the Zuñi Indians. The material and color are identical with the red specimen from Saint George. The whole surface is painted red and a neat border design in black is worked over this. The lip is not so much depressed as in the preceding examples. Two perforations occur near the margin, through which the Zuñis have passed a buckskin thong. Another plain bowl is very much compressed vertically. [Illustration: FIG. 313.--Oblong bowl: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] Oblong bowls are not a prominent feature in Pueblo pottery. A few examples were found at Saint George, Utah, but these are of the shallow variety. The only oblong bowl with incurved rim yet sent in is shown in Fig. 313. It is six inches long and four inches wide. The ornamentation consists of three lines of meanders, that upon the flat upper surface being irregular and not continuous. [Illustration: FIG. 314.--Globular vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] In Fig. 314 we see another variation from the two usual forms of bowls. This vessel is globular, and the aperture quite large. Two small nodes attached to the sides and vertically perforated serve as handles. The ornamentation consists of a number of disconnected and greatly varied bands of meandered lines and figures, obliquely placed. The ornamented surface is separated into two parts by vertical panels at the handles. This affords a suggestion, of an adventitious or mechanical origin for the vertical bands which are so prominent a feature in modern Pueblo pottery. One of these is partially visible at the right side in the cut. [Illustration: FIG. 315.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] OLLAS.--A typical example of the chalky ware of Tusayan is illustrated in Fig. 315. It is a wide, low vase of symmetrical form. The body is flattened above and hemispherical below. The material is almost as white and as soft as chalk. The design comprises two zones of devices. One occupies the upright neck, and consists of encircling lines interrupted by vertical bands. The other, upon the flattened shoulder, is based upon the meander. Both are bordered by wide bands in the dark color and an additional band encircles the body. [Illustration: FIG. 316.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] Another handsome little vase is presented in Fig. 316. The two meanders show very diverse styles of treatment. In the upper the lines are all oblique, while in the lower they are chiefly rectangular and much prolonged horizontally. Corresponding treatment of the two bands occurs in other vessels. The vessel shown in Fig. 317 is very different in appearance from the two preceding, and is much larger and ruder in finish. The surface has been finished with the trowel or hand without polishing. It is ten inches high and the same in width. The whole decoration consists of interlinked meander-units not arranged in belts, but thrown together in a careless manner across the body of the vase. In the Keam collection there is a water bottle nearly twice as large as this, similar in shape and finish, but having a very different though equally rude painted design. This collection contains also the large pot-like vessel or cauldron shown in Fig. 318. The walls are heavy, the lip is rounded, and the form is such as to be very serviceable for ordinary domestic use. The ornamentation consists of two bands of figures, the upper, as usual, being very simple. The figures of the body zone are in black upon the light ground. Two sets, or pairs, of the triangular links make the circuit of the vessel, the entire ornament appearing in Fig. 319. [Illustration: FIG. 317.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 318.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/4.] [Illustration: FIG. 319.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 320.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] There is, however, something less simple and consistent in the ornament seen in Fig. 320. The connecting stems of the units are heavy dark lines. The ends of the links are but imperfectly developed or are obscured by elaboration giving a suggestion of degeneracy, but the whole result is highly pleasing. The shape is an exceptional one, the body being flattened to a greater degree than usual. The ground color and the paste are quite white, yet there is in the design and its treatment a suggestion of the decoration of the cream colored ware of Tusayan. This suggestion is emphasized by the occurrence of the two pairs of dark strokes on the neck--a feature more usual in the yellow wares. [Illustration: FIG. 321.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 322.--Painted design.] In 1883 Mr. Mindeleff brought in two superb examples of ancient water vases. They are excellent illustrations of the skill and taste of the ancient Pueblo potter. The example illustrated in Fig. 321 is ten and a half inches in height and twelve inches in diameter. Its form is symmetrical and graceful. The surface has been whitened, but is somewhat uneven and not highly polished. The painted design is well preserved, and consists of two broad belts of devices. The upper, occupying the sloping neck, is a very simple combination of lines, based upon a single white meandered line, and the lower is quite complex and encircles the widest part of the body. The latter appears at first sight to be rather complicated, but is easily resolved into its elements. [Illustration: FIG. 323.--Unit of the design.] [Illustration: FIG. 324.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] The zone is five and a half inches in width and consists of two lines of highly elaborated meanders combined in a most ingenious and pleasing manner. The design is projected in Fig. 322 and compares favorably with the exquisite diaper patterns of oriental decorators. A single unit of its structure is given in Fig. 323. The triangular spaces along the border are filled in with fragments of designs harmonious in style with the principal figures. Certain spaces of the expanded connecting fillets of the units, are filled in with serrate or dotted lines. Some portion of the design seem to be developed in the white ground, as, for instance, the figures in the lateral triangles. [Illustration: FIG. 325.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 326.--Unit of the design.] The boldness of the primitive decorator is well shown in the manipulation of these large vases. Simplicity and breadth were not sacrificed when it became necessary to carry the oft-repeated figures over the broad surface of such a vessel as that shown in Fig. 324, whose height and width measure fourteen inches each. In shape, in surface treatment, and in the arrangement of the broad belts of decoration this vessel corresponds very closely with the preceding, but the favorite motives are executed in the white color of the ground, and are thrown across the surface of the vessel with charming freedom and boldness. The upper zone encircling the neck is occupied by a large, rather rudely drawn chain of scrolls developed in the white ground by painting the interspaces black. The broad belt of figures encircling the body of the vase is not filled out as in the preceding case, the lower series of triangular spaces being plain. The principal feature consists of a single line of the fret-work developed in the white ground. This is shown in Fig. 325. A unit of the design is given in black in Fig. 326. The connecting curve or stem of the unit incloses a rectangular space, through which the fillet returns in a series of fine scrolls. The interlocked ends of the units of the principal chain have terminations or hooks angular in two cases and curved in another, demonstrating the identity of the curvilinear and the rectilinear forms of this ornament. The small isolated stepped figure between the hooks tells, I imagine, of a textile ancestry. [Illustration: FIG. 327.--Large vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/9.] In Fig. 327 we have another vase of still higher grade--a very masterpiece of fictile work. It is next to the largest piece of the ancient ware yet described, being twenty-four inches in diameter and upward of twenty inches in height. The form is not quite symmetrical, but the outline is highly satisfactory. The body is full and slightly conical at the base, and above joins the neck with a graceful convex curve. The surface is even and well polished, and the painted design is executed with great precision. The motives employed are identical with the preceding. Scrolls and fretted figures are carried around the neck, shoulder, and body in three bands suited exactly in width and in size of parts to the conformation of the vessel. The simple scrolls of the upper part need no explanation, and a careful analysis of the broader band, as projected in Fig. 328, furnishes a key to its rather extraordinary construction. The dark lines are drawn with mechanical exactness, and the delicate white lines, in which many of the finer details are worked out, are _left_ with a nicety of handling worthy of the most skilled decorator. By a reference to the outline given in Fig. 329 it will be seen that the whole ornament hangs upon a single thread woven into a chain of delicate fret-work running through the middle of the design. The long connecting band of each unit consists of two lines (taking the black lines as representative of the idea or motive), which separate in the middle part, inclosing a wide rectangular space. This is filled with geometric ornamentation in white lines upon a black ground, as shown in Fig. 328. The triangular spaces above are occupied by checker-work of light and heavy lines. The very marked rectangular character of this handsome design indicates familiarity with the textile embodiment of the motive. [Illustration: FIG. 328.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 329.--Unit of the design.] [Illustration: FIG. 330.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 331.--Vase: Province of Cibola.--1/3.] BOTTLES.--Under this head I desire to present a number of vases having high, narrow necks. Few examples of the pottery of any people show bolder and more successful treatment than the specimen illustrated in Fig. 330. It is a large, full-bodied bottle, the neck and lip of which unfortunately are lost. The restored outline can profess to be approximate only. The surface is well polished, though gray from age. Two masterly scrolls, formed each of a broad black line bordered by white lines, are thrown across opposite sides of the vase. The ground upon which they are drawn is filled in with series of lines which accommodate themselves very gracefully to the surface of the vessel and to the scrolls. A number of ancient vessels, found in the hands of the Zuñi Indians, were probably obtained by them from some of the neighboring ruins, although in a few cases they may have been carried from distant places in the north or west. The finer examples correspond very closely to the ware of which multitudes of fragments are found at old Zuñi, San Antonio Springs, Nutria, and other places in or near the province of Cibola. They seem to be identical also in many respects with the better class of the white ware of Tusayan. The forms are very much the same and the ornaments exhibit similar arrangements of identical motives. [Illustration: FIG. 332.--Vase: Province of Cibola.--1/3.] The superb vessel illustrated in Fig. 331, is a typical example of the work of the ancient potters of Cibola. In form it falls but little short of perfect symmetry. The body is nearly globular, being slightly compressed vertically. The neck is small and the lip slightly recurved. The surface, originally white, now darkened from use, is well polished excepting where roughened by age. In Fig. 333 we have a partial projection of the painted design obtained by viewing the vase vertically. This may be described as a rosette of spiral rays which consist of gracefully meandered lines alternating with groups of plain stripes. These are developed in the light color of the vase by painting in a black ground. Viewed from the side the decoration is seen to consist of the two usual zones--a narrow one about the neck, occupied by a meander, and a broad one covering the greater part of the body, crossed obliquely by a number of bands of ornament. A similar vase, also from Zuñi, is illustrated in Fig. 332. It is much darkened by use and age and has suffered considerably from wear and tear. The ornament consists of three zones, a band of stepped figures about the neck, a handsome meander-chain with terraced links upon the rounded collar, and a broad belt of radiating meanders encircling the body. A vertical view showing the two outer lines of decoration is given in Fig. 334. A peculiar feature in this vessel is the indented finger-hold seen in the lower part of the body, Fig. 332. In both form and ornament these bottles exhibit decided resemblances to wicker vessels. The introduction of stepped figures and spiral rays sufficiently demonstrates the textile origin of the painted designs. [Illustration: FIG. 333.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 334.--Painted design.] A few bottles are larger than the examples given. One having a high narrow neck is seventeen inches high and sixteen in diameter of body. Generally vases of this shape are below medium size, and they are very often supplied with handles or perforated knobs, either upon the shoulder or the neck. In a few cases only the necks are high and slender like the bottles of the mound-builders of the middle Mississippi region. The vessel illustrated in Fig. 335 is not properly classified either with the preceding or with the following group, but I place it here on account of its peculiar painted device, which appears in other forms and connections in the two succeeding figures. The ornament as usual occupies two zones, each of which has three groups of vertical lines alternating with as many star-like figures resembling somewhat the Maltese cross. The latter device may possibly have been introduced to represent some idea, and I have no doubt that almost any member of the modern tribes could be induced to give a full explanation of its significance. It would, however, be his idea only and not necessarily that of the ancient potter. [Illustration: FIG. 335.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 336.--Handled vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] HANDLED VESSELS.--Handled vessels of this province are greatly varied. Examples of the dippers have already been given. Besides them there is a long series of vessels with more or less constricted necks; the handles of which are of three or four pretty distinct varieties, including the long vertical loop connecting the rim with the shoulder or body, the strong horizontal loop set at the base of the neck, and the perforated knob placed upon the shoulder. There are also a few examples of cup-shaped projections, Fig. 351, and heads of animals, Fig. 352, which are set upon the neck near the rim and seem to be survivals of handles or ornaments merely. [Illustration: FIG. 337.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 338.--Handled mug: Province of Tusayan--1/2.] The vessel shown in Fig. 336 has an interesting combination of decorative features. I present it here, although a little out of place in my classification by form, in order to point out the similarity between its decoration and that of Fig. 335. It is a handsome mug of hard gray ware, finished with a white slip, and decorated with painted designs in the prevailing arrangement. Four equidistant nodes of large size are placed about the shoulder of the vessel. These occur along the middle of the lower zone of painted devices, the notable feature being that the volutes of the painted scroll-work encircle the nodes and inclose, between their interlinked points, cross-like devices, resembling those found upon the preceding specimen. These crosses occupy the apices of the nodes, as shown in the illustration. The painted design is given in Fig. 337. The design proper--the interlinked scrolls--is in white, the dark color being used as a ground to develop it. This is true of a great majority of the examples presented. The same device, with a slightly different combination, is seen in Fig. 338, which illustrates a small jug from the Keam collection. The design is well shown in Fig. 339, and in this case it will readily be seen that the motive proper is in white, while the black hooks and the connecting lozenge-shaped figures, forming the cross, represent the ground. This association of the cross with the linking of the scrolls is suggestive of a possible origin of the device as used independently in the instance given in Fig. 335. [Illustration: FIG. 339.--Painted design.] [Illustration: FIG. 340.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 341.--Painted design.] I shall now present a small group of handled vessels of varying characters upon which we have some illustrations of a peculiar treatment of meander motives. [Illustration: FIG. 342.--Handled cup: Province of Cibola.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 343.--Painted ornament.] The vessel illustrated in Fig. 340 belongs to the Keam collection. The decoration is very simple and consists of a novel combination of running scrolls. The design is produced by filling in the space between two separate chains of scrolls in black with fine oblique lines, Fig. 341. Identical treatment of the meander is found upon a mug brought from Zuñi and illustrated by Mr. Stevenson in the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Fig. 342. This will be apparent when the design, Fig. 343, is placed by the side of the preceding. The first is drawn in curved black lines, the ground remaining white, the second is in rectilinear white lines, the ground being black. [Illustration: FIG. 344.--Painted ornament.] Two others of like character, one angular and the other curvilinear, are found upon small red vessels from Tusayan, Figs. 344 and 345. Still another noteworthy example is found upon the interior surface of a red bowl from Cibola, which, when projected in a straight line, gives the handsome ornament illustrated in Fig. 346. [Illustration: FIG. 345.--Painted ornament.] [Illustration: FIG. 346.--Painted ornament.] There is in the Keam collection a very interesting vessel, having two heavy horizontal loops attached to opposite sides of the body. The painted figure consists chiefly of a rectangular meander in white bordered by black and forming a wide zone about the body of the vessel. The spaces are filled in with fine parallel oblique lines. With the addition of a foot this vessel would be found to resemble, in both form and ornament, some early varieties of the Greek kylix. [Illustration: FIG. 347.--Handled vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] The wide-mouthed vase shown in Fig. 348 differs very decidedly in style from the last. It is finer in texture and much more carefully finished. The form is decidedly antique. The painted design is quite indistinct, the color having rubbed off or faded out. The work has been neatly done with a fine brush and exhibits some new features in point of detail. If we trace out the figures, however, we will see that there are no new motives, the meander forming the basis of all. There is a double line of figures, the upper one being the more simple, as usual. [Illustration: FIG. 348.--Vase: Province of Tusayan.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 349.--Bottle: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] In the bottle illustrated in Fig. 349 the usual motives have been employed. A few heavy lines serve to give emphasis to the lip, while a band of linked scrolls is carried around the shoulder, bordered by simple parallel lines. Unpretentious as the work is, it has a very pleasing effect. The shape is repeated in modern Pueblo pottery. It is the original of the canteen, which has acquired the flattened form through accident, or change in the habits of the people employing it. A very superior example of these bottles is given in Fig. 350. The body is somewhat flattened and the sides are nearly perpendicular, giving two well defined spaces for decoration, the one above and the other about the middle of the body. The latter space is occupied by a very slender, meandered line in white, the interspaces being filled in with black. Four links encircle the vessel, two oblong ones occurring upon the sides and two short ones beneath the handles. The upper surface is decorated with a band of scrolls, four in number, partially defined in white by painting the space on one side black. There are two low, knob-like, vertically perforated handles on the shoulder of the vessel. [Illustration: FIG. 350.--Bottle: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] [Illustration: FIG. 351.--Bottle: Province of Tusayan.--1/2.] The vessel shown in Fig. 351 is interesting on account of the peculiar knobs or ears placed on the sides of the neck, near the lip. They rudely resemble the corolla of a flower, but suggest as well the wheel-like coils of hair gathered up at the sides of the head by the women of Moki. They were probably associated with some superstition of the ancients. The neck of the bottle is unusually high. The shape is quite graceful and the painted decoration is simple and effective. [Illustration: FIG. 352.--Vase: Eastern Arizona.--1/2.] In a collection recently sent from the vicinity of Springerville, Arizona, by E. W. Nelson, there are a number of vessels similar in appearance to the preceding, but with shorter necks and rounder bodies. They are small, well-finished, and in some cases quite new looking. The designs in black are nicely executed and exhibit considerable refinement of taste. One having a small animal head attached to the side of the neck is illustrated in Fig. 352. A broad meandered border encircles the neck, and a superb pattern, consisting of four ingeniously combined horizontal chains of meanders in white covers the upper three fourths of the body. _Eccentric and life forms._--In the collection made by Mr. Nelson there are several eccentric forms. One, a two-storied vessel of good proportion, neat finish and ornamentation, is illustrated in Fig. 353. The form is an exceptional one in the ancient ware, but is frequently seen in modern work of the Pueblos and other tribes. It had its origin perhaps in a double-lobed form of the gourd, or possibly the idea was suggested by the superposition of one vessel upon another. As previously observed, the Pueblo ware is characterized, in a general way, by great simplicity of form. There is, however, one small group of eccentric forms within which we find a pretty wide range of outline, a few specimens exhibiting undoubted resemblances to life forms. Nearly all are bottles with handles and lobed bodies, often unsymmetrical. The handle in each case connects the lip with the shoulder or body of the vessel. The lobes are generally three in number and are rarely of equal dimensions, one being more or less prolonged. [Illustration: FIG. 353.--Vase of eccentric form: Eastern Arizona.--1/3.] It is very difficult to say where these curious forms originated, or in what direction they were developing. Did the archaic potter, by exaggerating the accidental eccentricities of early and simple forms, arrive at these grotesque shapes, did use determine their conformation, or must we look for their originals in antecedent utensils derived from, or made in direct imitation of, life forms? [Illustration: FIG. 354.--Vase of eccentric form: Tusayan.--1/2.] It is manifestly useless to seek for their antecedents within the limits of the ceramic art. A few are of such a shape as to suggest the skin vessels so often used by primitive peoples, and their origin in this manner would be entirely consistent with the laws of art growth. One variety is shaped somewhat like a shoe or moccasin. Another takes the form of a bird. In regard to their origin it would indeed be a marvel if they should be found to represent an intermediate step between the skin vessels of primitive peoples and the conventional pitcher of civilization, as corresponding shapes are thought to do in Eastern countries. [Illustration: FIG. 355.--Vase of eccentric form: Tusayan.--1/3.] Within the Pueblo province these vessels are widely but not very generally distributed, so far as specimens at hand show. I have already described two examples, Figs. 255 and 256, from Saint George, Utah, which are of the simplest type, having three nodes with no suggestion of life form. [Illustration: FIG. 356.--Vase of eccentric form: Tusayan.--1/2.] In Fig. 354 we have a small, well-finished cup of white ware, from Tusayan, similar in outline to the Saint George specimens. One of the three somewhat pointed nodes is considerably more prominent than the others. The handle is unique, being modeled apparently after the curved neck of a gourd, the pointed tip touching but not uniting with the body of the vessel. This vessel is handsomely decorated with two bands of scrolls. That upon the neck is of a usual form consisting of three sets of linked scrolls with zigzag or stepped connecting fillets. The scrolls of the lower bands interlock upon the three nodes and are connected by broad Z-shaped stems also stepped or notched. This specimen is from the Keam collection. Another smaller vessel, still more unique in character, is illustrated in Fig. 355. One of the nodes is very much prolonged, giving, with the upright neck, a form rudely suggestive of a bird. The ornament, like the last, consists of two bands. The upper is of diamond-shaped figures in white upon a black ground, and the lower of a cleverly managed meander, which is made to conform neatly to the eccentricities of the body. The hooks encircle the nodes as in the preceding case. A smaller specimen is given in Fig. 356. The node next the handle being prolonged resembles the tail of a bird, while the other nodes, which would occupy the place of the two prominences of the breast, are barely suggested. The decoration is extremely simple. [Illustration: FIG. 357.--Vase of eccentric form: Tusayan.--1/2.] A fine specimen of these novel vessels is illustrated in Fig. 357. The body is much prolonged on one side and has no prominence whatever at the breast points. The handle is but slightly arched and connects the rim with the extreme point of the projecting lobe. There is here a rather decided suggestion of a skin or intestine vessel. It is but a step from this form to the well-known shoe or moccasin shape of a later period of Pueblo art, a form known in nearly all centers of ancient American culture. The decoration is simple and unique, consisting of a meandered figure in white upon a black ground, with parallel bordering lines in black. It connects opposite sides of the rim passing beneath the projecting lobe. A number of the best examples are in the National collection. One of these, Fig. 358, is figured by Mr. Stevenson in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. It might be described as shoe-shaped, yet we are forcibly reminded of the headless body of a bird, the rather square projecting breast being a marked feature. The painted ornament consists of broad zigzag, meandered bands filled in with fine oblique stripes. [Illustration: FIG. 358.--Vase of eccentric form: Cibola.--1/3.] One of the finest specimens is presented in Fig. 359. The triangular or three-lobed form of body is still noticeable, two of the points forming the breast, and the other, much prolonged, standing for the tail of the bird. The meaning of the latter feature is made plain by the painted figure. A conventional design, consisting of concentric, plain and zigzag lines, occupies the back, and terminates behind in a row of pinnate marks, evidently a conventional drawing of the tail. The wings are indicated at the sides by a design like that upon the back. The breast is embellished with a series of oblong dots probably intended for feathers. In this case the neck, which is high and narrow, has three prominences near the top; one at the front represents the bill of the bird, and others at the sides are meant for eyes. A handle has connected the head with the middle of the back. This is nearly all broken away and the stumps have been perforated for the insertion of cords. A serrate collar in black encircles the neck. The original of this vase was obtained in the Pueblo country and belongs to Dr. Sheldon Jackson. A specimen recently acquired by the National Museum is superior to this in its decorative treatment. The body has four lobes, one for the breast, another for the tail, and one for each of the wings. Each of these lobes is made the center about which the volutes of the very elaborate scroll-work are turned. I shall give one more illustration, Fig. 360. This is taken from the Keam collection and represents a bird. The vessel is quite distinct in shape from those previously given, being much like the bird vessels of the mound-builders. It is a cup with constricted rim, the head, tail, and wings of the bird projecting horizontally from the outer margin of the rim. It is of the white ware and has had a painted design in black lines, now nearly obliterated. [Illustration: FIG. 359.--Bird-shaped vase: Arizona.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 360.--Bird-shaped cup: Tusayan.--1/2.] CONCLUDING REMARKS. Two great groups of ceramic products have now been presented--the coiled ware and the white decorated ware. These groups belong to the first great period of pueblo art in clay. Their chronological identity is sometimes questioned, the coiled ware to all appearances being the more archaic. It is simple in form and rude in finish, is without painted ornament, and was relegated to the more ordinary uses. These and other features give countenance to the theory of greater antiquity; but the intimate association of the two groups in nearly every locality indicates close identity in time. It cannot be said that the other classes of ware found within the same province belong to different times or to distinct races, but they are widely separated in many important characters from the two leading groups. They exhibit greater variety of form, less constraint in decoration, and greatly improved technique, points tending to prove advance in culture, and, presumably, in time. The more closely the ceramic art of the ancient peoples is studied the more decidedly it appears that it was profoundly influenced by the textile arts, and especially by basketry. The latter art was practiced from remote antiquity, and within historic times the manufacture of baskets has been the most important industry of the tribes of the Pacific slope of temperate North America. Ceramic shapes, wherever found within this region, coincide closely with textile outlines, and the geometric ornamentation can be traced to textile prototypes originating in the technical peculiarities of construction. Another point brought out by the preceding studies follows naturally the foregoing statement. There are in the pueblo country no primitive forms of earthenware. This may lead to the inference that the pueblo tribes migrated from other regions in which the earlier stages of the art had existed, but taken in connection with the lack of individuality in the potter's art, and its evident dependence upon the textile art, it leads decidedly to the conclusion that art in clay was acquired by these tribes in comparatively recent times. The ancient pueblos practised the art of basketry, but clearly remained ignorant of the plastic art, until by some accident of environment it was introduced or discovered. Under the influence of the sister art, pottery at once took a high stand. During the first stages, however, it was a servile art, reproducing the forms and decorations of basketry. The true plastic characters of clay remained practically undiscovered, and is only now, under the influence of the European, dawning upon the conservative mind of the inhabitant of the plateaus. Besides basketry, it is probable that the early pueblos made use of gourds and of tissue vessels, traces of their influence occurring quite frequently, but there is no indication whatever of the presence of carvings in shell, wood, and stone. I do not wish in this place to dwell upon the details of pueblo ornament. A single example will serve to illustrate the origin and character of the leading decorative conceptions. Glancing through the series of vases illustrated under painted ware, we find that ninety-four out of one hundred designs are meanders, or are based upon the meander. Beginning with the simple waved or broken line we pass up through all grades of increasing complexity to chains of curvilinear and rectilinear meanders in which the links are highly individualized, being composed of a sigmoid line, terminating in reversed hooks; but in no case do we reach a loop in the curved forms or an intersection in the angular forms. The typical intersecting Greek fret does not therefore occur, nor, I may add, is it found anywhere in native American art. The constructional characters of the art in which these linear forms developed, although they encouraged geometrical elaboration, forbade intersections or crossings of a line upon itself, and the genius of the decorator had never freed itself from this bondage. The forms imposed upon decoration by the textile art are _necessarily_ geometric and rectilinear, and their employment in other and less conventional arts, has been too limited to destroy or even greatly modify these characters. The study of Pueblo art embodied in the preceding pages tells the simple story of the evolution of art--and especially of decorative art--in a period when the expanding mind of primitive man, still held in the firm grasp of instinctive and traditional methods--the bonds of nature--was steadily working out its æsthetic destiny. INDEX. PAGE Abiquin, N. Mex., Pottery of 282 Acoma pottery 300 Age of pueblo ceramic art 267 American Naturalist on pottery 276 Animas Valley 315 Antiquity of coiled ware and white ware, Relative 358-359 Araqnaya coiled pottery 276 Arizona, Coiled ware from 279 pottery 291, 353-358 Art, Pueblo 266 Review, cited on coiled ware 279 Artist in ancient pottery, Freedom of 303 Avoca, N. C., Coiled pottery from 277 Aztec Springs ruin 319 Bandelier, A. F., on pueblo pottery 298 Barber, E. A., on Ute pottery 276-277 Basket marked pottery 282 Basketry a primitive art 359 Bottles 283, 301, 306, 320, 343, 345, 351, 352 Bowls 283, 306, 308-314, 316, 322-334 Brazilian Indian coiled pottery 276, 277 Burial of dead under dwellings 288 Burial of property with the dead 288 Cañon de Chelly, Pottery of 293, 319 Cave-houses 284-286, 293 Ceramic art, The 267 forms, Origin of 269 Chaco Valley 315 Character of Pueblo art 266 Chiquito, Colorado 306 Cihola pottery 297, 307, 316, 321, 343, 344, 356 Classification of pottery 272, 304, 306 Cliff-dwellers 304, 305 Cliff-dwellings 284-286, 293 Coil in ornamentation, The 278-282 Coiled ware and white ware, Relative antiquity of 358-359 imitated 299 Coiling of the Pueblos 273-275 Coil-made pottery 273-299 Color of coiled pottery 283 of designs in pottery 302 of Pueblo pottery 269 Colorado Chiquito 306 pottery 321-357 Indian pottery 276 plateau house sites 281 pottery 281, 305 ruin 319 Construction, Pueblo ceramic 268 Cooking, Pottery for 272, 283 Crimped coil on pottery 279, 280, 282 Cross, Ideographic 345 Cups 349 Distribution of Pueblo art 266 Domestic pottery 272, 283, 306 Dumont describes pottery 275, 276 Eccentric forms of pottery 283, 307, 353 Epsom Creek pottery, Utah 286-287 Execution of design in painted pottery 302 Fillmore, Utah, Pottery from grave at 292 Firing of Pueblo pottery 268 Flat heads 340 ornaments 271 Florida coiled pottery 277 Form in pottery, Origin of 269 Gila pottery 281, 283 Glaze of Pueblo pottery 268 Gourds copied in pottery 270, 306, 353 Guilloche 309 Handled vessels 271, 300, 314, 319, 325, 340 Hartt, Prof. C. F., on Indian pottery in Brazil 276 Humboldt, W. O., on coiled pottery of the Orinoco 276 Indented pottery patterns 280 Indian coiled pottery of Brazil 276 Individuality of pottery designs 305 Intaglio ornament 271 Jackson, Dr. Sheldon; Indian vases 357 Jackson, W.H., on pottery 287, 318, 319 Jones, Prof. Marcus E., on pottery of Utah 292 Kanab, Pottery from 281, 287, 310, 314 Keam, T. V., Pottery collection of 293, 296, 321, 330, 336, 348, 355 La Plata Valley 315 Life forms in pottery 283, 307, 353 Little Colorado, Pottery of the 283, 292, 321, 330 Louisiana, Coiled Indian ware in 275-276 McElmel Valley 315 Magalhaes, Dr., on coiled pottery of the Araguaya River 276 Mancos Valley 315 Material used in pottery 267, 283 Meander in ornament 359 Mended Pueblo pottery 286 Mexico, Coiled pottery from 277 Mindeleff, Victor, collected pottery 293, 311, 338 Miscellaneous ornamentation of pottery 283 Moki pottery 277, 290, 293, 299 Monteztuna Cañon 315, 318 Mormon town 287, 310 Mortuary pottery 272 Moss, Capt. John, on Ute pottery 276, 319 Mound village, Utah 287-288 Muge 307, 320, 347 National Museum, Pottery in 285, 287, 321, 331, 333, 357 Navajo pottery 299 Nelson, E. W., obtained pottery 279, 292, 353 Nevada, Pueblo pottery in 287 New Mexico pottery 282, 298 North Carolina coiled pottery 277 Nutria pottery 344 Ollas 283-287, 293, 306, 314, 318, 335 Origin of ceramic forms 269, 272 the coil 277 Orinoco, Coiled pottery of the 276 Ornament, Ceramic 271, 278-282, 303, 305, 337, 359 Painted pottery 302-307 Parowan pottery 292 Pitcher forms 307 Plain pottery 299-301 Pottery Catalogue of Jaines Stevenson 265 developed from basketry 359 mended by Pueblos 286 Property buried with the dead 288 Provo, Utah, Pottery from 321 Pueblo art 266 coiled ware 273-275 Putnam, Prof. F. W., cited 279 Relief ornament 271, 282 Rio de Chelley Valley 316 Dolores Valley 316 Gila pottery 281, 283, 299 Grande pottery 298, 305 Mancos cliff-houses 284-286 , Pottery of the 281, 284-286 Pecos, Pottery of the 298, 305 San Juan, Pottery of the 315-321 Virgen, Pottery of the 287-292, 307-315 Saint George tumulus, Utah, Pottery from 281, 287-291, 300, 307, 312, 334 Saint John, Pottery from 305 Salt Lake City Museum, Pottery in 292, 300 Salt Lake Valley, Pottery of 292 San Antonio Springs, Pottery at 344 Juan pottery 274, 281, 284-287, 291 Santa Clara River, Pottery on 287 Santarem, Brazil, Coiled pottery at 276 Springerville, Ariz., Pottery at 279, 291, 305, 353 Stages of ornament for painted pottery 303-304 Stephen, John, on pottery 293 Stevenson, James, on pottery 265, 293, 357 Storage of water, Pottery for 284 Surface finish of Pueblo pottery 268 Tempering materials in pottery 267 Transportation, of water, Pottery for 284 Tusayan pottery 269, 279, 283, 294, 300, 304, 307, 311, 316, 321, 358 Utah pottery. (_See_ Saint George and Springerville) 279, 286-291, 300 Ute pottery 276-277 Vases 301, 335-351 Vegetable forms copied in pottery 270 Village site mound or tumulus 287 Water, Pottery for transportation and storage of 284 White ware 269, 304, 305-358 and coiled ware, Relative antiquity of 358-359 Yarrow, Dr. H. C., obtained pottery in Utah 292 Yuma, Pottery of 300 Zuñi pottery 290, 293, 300, 333, 344 * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Italics denoted by underscores. Alternative spellings retained. Punctuation normalized without comment. Minor typos corrected without comment. Image scaling factors (1/2 etc.) only usful for comparing relative sizes between objects, not actual sizes. 
18703	----	[Transcriber's Note: Punctuation in catalog entries has been silently regularized. Other errors are noted at the end of the text.] * * * * * SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTIONS OBTAINED FROM THE INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO IN 1880. BY JAMES STEVENSON. * * * * * CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION 429 Collections from Cuyamunque 435 Articles of stone 435 Rubbing stones 435 Articles of clay 436 Collections from Nambé 436 Articles of stone 436 Articles of clay 437 Collections from Pojuaque 438 Articles of stone 438 Articles of clay 439 Articles of bone and horn 440 Collections from Old Pojuaque 441 Articles of stone 441 Articles of clay 441 Collections from Santa Clara 441 Articles of stone 441 Articles of clay 443 Polished black ware 443 Black or brown ware 447 Whitened ware with colored decorations 449 Vegetal substances 449 Collections from Tesuque 450 Articles of stone 450 Articles of clay 450 Collections from Turquoise Mine 450 Collections from Santo Domingo 450 Articles of stone 450 Articles of clay 451 Collections from Jémez 452 Articles of stone 452 Articles of clay 452 Miscellaneous articles 454 Collections from Silla 454 Articles of stone 454 Articles of clay 454 Miscellaneous 455 Collections from San Juan 456 Articles of stone 456 Articles of clay 456 Polished black ware 456 Brown and black ware 457 White ware with decorations 457 Miscellaneous articles 458 Collection from Santa Ana 458 Articles of stone 458 Articles of clay 458 Collection from Sandia, N. Mex. 458 Collection from Cochití 459 Articles of stone 459 Articles of clay 459 Miscellaneous articles 460 Collections from San Ildefonso 460 Articles of stone 460 Articles of clay 461 Red ware with decorations in black 462 Red and brown ware without decorations 463 Black polished ware 463 Black ware not polished 463 Miscellaneous articles 464 Collections from Taos 464 Articles of stone 464 Articles of clay 464 White and red ware with decorations 465 ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 698.--Pojuaque pitcher 440 699.--Santa Clara polished black ware 443 700.--Santa Clara polished black ware 444 701.--Santa Clara bowl 445 702.--Santa Clara image 445 703.--Santa Clara meal basket 446 704.--Santa Clara pipe 446 705.--Santa Clara canteen 447 706.--Santa Clara canteen 449 707.--Santo Domingo tinaja 451 708.--Jémez water vase 453 709.--Silla water vessel 455 710.--The blanket weaver 454 711.--San Juan water vessel 457 712.--San Ildefonso water vessel 461 713.--Taos polishing stone 464 714.--Taos vessel 465 [Illustration: MAP OF THE PROVINCE OF TUSAYAN, ARIZONA Surveyed by A. L. WEBSTER 1881] * * * * * ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTIONS OBTAINED FROM THE INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO IN 1880. By James Stevenson. * * * * * INTRODUCTION. It is thought best that I should give, in connection with the catalogue of collections made by the party under my charge in 1880-'81, a brief statement in relation to the collections described in the catalogues, and the information obtained in regard to the Pueblo tribes. Our explorations during the field season of 1880 and 1881 were restricted to the Pueblo tribes located along the Rio Grande and its tributaries in New Mexico. The chief object in view was to secure as soon as possible all the ethnological and archaeological data obtainable before it should be lost to science by the influx of civilized population which is being rapidly thrown into this region by the extension of railroads into and through it. Not only are the architectural remains being rapidly destroyed and archaeological specimens collected and carried away by travelers, excursionists, and curiosity hunters, but the ancient habits and customs of these tribes are rapidly giving way and falling into disuse before the influence of eastern civilization. Our party, consisting, besides myself, of Mr. Galbraith, archaeologist, Mr. Morancy, assistant, and Mr. J. K. Hillers, photographer, proceeded to Santa Fé, N. Mex., where an outfit was secured for the season's work. From here we proceeded to Taos, one of the most extensive pueblos in the Rio Grande region. This village is situated on the Rio Taos a few miles from the Rio Grande, and just under the shadow of the Taos Mountains. It comprises two large sections, one on each side of the Rio Taos. These are compactly built and each six stories high. The industrial pursuits of these Indians are principally pastoral and agricultural, they having a good market for their products in the Mexican village of Fernandez de Taos, containing a population of about 4,000 Mexicans and eastern people. The party spent several days here making investigations and collections. The collection made was small but quite varied and novel, though few of the articles obtained were of their own manufacture. Quite a number of stone implements were secured, among which were some stone knives, pipes, a number of rude stone axes and hammers, arrow smoothers, &c. The pottery obtained here is chiefly of the common type and resembles that from San Juan, from whence in all probability it was received by exchange and barter. Earthenware, so far as I can learn, is not now made in Taos, except by a few families where a Taos Indian has married a woman from San Juan or some other tribe where the manufacture of pottery is carried on. If this industry was ever, practiced by the Taos Indians it must have been at a remote period; in fact there seems to be no tradition of it now among them. From here we went next to the pueblo of San Juan, situated on the left bank of the Rio Grande, about 50 miles south of Taos. At this pueblo a collection was made of stone implements, articles of clay, &c. These specimens are not quite so representative as those from some of the more southern pueblos, the village being situated on one of the military wagon roads, over which many Europeans pass, and hence frequently visited; many of the most valuable specimens of implements and pottery have been bartered away; however, those we obtained display quite fully all the industries of the people of this pueblo. This collection consists of a number of fine stone mortars, pestles, arrow and spear heads, also several polishing stones. Quite a number of small animal forms carved out of stone were also secured. At this pueblo many specimens of the black polished ware peculiar to a few of the tribes in the Rio Grande Valley were collected. From San Juan we proceeded to Santa Clara, situated a few miles below on the right bank of the Rio Grande. This pueblo proved to be so interesting in its surroundings that some time was spent here in making investigations. We found the people extensively engaged in the manufacture of that black polished pottery of which so little has been known heretofore, especially in regard to the process of baking and coloring it, which is fully described in the text accompanying the catalogue of last year in this volume. The larger portion of the specimens of earthenware obtained here was of this kind, though several specimens of the red and some few of the ornamented class were also secured. Most of the pottery manufactured at this village is the black polished ware. That of the decorated class is ornamented with the juice of _Cleome integrifolia_, which is fixed in the ware in the process of burning. Mineral substances, so far as I could learn, are not used by the Indians of Santa Clara in decorating their pottery. Among the specimens are a number of interesting stone implements, nearly all of an older kind than any made by this people at the present day. During our stay at this pueblo some interesting archaeological discoveries were made of which a brief mention in this connection may not be out of place, and which will certainly prove of great interest to future investigators. Between the Rio Grande and Valle Mountains, commencing about 12 miles below, or south, of Santa Clara, and extending south, to within ten miles of Cochití, a distance of about 65 miles, is an extensive area, the intermediate elevated portion of which is composed of a yellowish volcanic tufa, of coarse texture and sufficiently soft and yielding to be readily worked or carved with rude stone implements. Over this entire area there are irregular elevations, somewhat circular in outline, from 50 to 200 feet in height, the faces of which have been worn away by the elements, and are in nearly all instances perpendicular. These consecutive elevations extend back from the Rio Grande from five to fifteen miles. Over this whole expanse of country, in the faces of these cliffs, we found an immense number of cavate dwellings, cut out by the hand of man. We made no attempt to count the number of these curious dwellings, dug like hermit cells out of the rock, but they may be estimated with safety among the thousands. I made many inquiries of the neighboring tribes in regard to the history of these dwellings, but could elicit no information from any of them. The response was invariably, "they are very old and the people who occupied them are gone." An inspection of a portion of this area revealed a condition of things which I have no doubt prevails throughout. The dwellings were found in the faces of the cliffs, about 20 feet apart in many instances, but the distances are irregular. A careful examination satisfied me that they were excavated with rude stone implements resembling adzes, numbers of which were found here, and which were probably used by fastening one end to a handle. The doorways, which are square, were first cut into the face of the wall to a depth of about one foot, and then the work of enlarging the room began. The interiors of the rooms are oval in shape, about 12 feet in diameter, and only of sufficient height to enable one to stand upright. The process, from the evidences shown inside, of carving out the interior of the dwelling was by scraping grooves several inches deep and apart, and breaking out the intermediate portion; in this way the work progressed until the room reached the desired size. Inside of these rooms were found many little niches and excavated recesses used for storing household ornaments, the larger ones probably supplying the place of cupboards. Near the roofs of many of the caves are mortises, projecting from which, in many instances, were found the decayed ends of wooden beams or sleepers, which were probably used, as they are now in the modern Pueblo dwellings, as poles over which to hang blankets and clothing, or to dry meat. These dwellings were without fireplaces; but the evidences of fire were plainly visible at the side of each cave, and in none of those visited did we find any orifice for the egress of the smoke but the small doorway. On the outside or in front of these singular habitations are rows of holes mortised into the face of the cliffs about the doors. It is quite evident that these were for the insertion of beams of wood (for forming booths or shelters in the front), as ends of beams were found sticking there, which, in their sheltered position and in this dry climate, may have been preserved for centuries. Upon the top of the mesa of which these cliffs are the exposed sides we found the ruins of large circular buildings made of square stones 8 by 12 inches in size. The walls of some of these structures remain standing to the height of ten or twelve feet, and show that from four to five hundred people can find room within each inclosure. One of these buildings was rectangular and two were round structures. The latter were about 100 and 150 feet in diameter, the rectangular one about 300 feet square. Many small square rooms were constructed in the interior from large cut bricks of the tufa of which the bluffs are composed. These rooms all opened toward the center of the large inclosure, which has but one general doorway. From these ruins we secured great quantities of pottery, arrow and spear heads, knives, grinding-stones, arrow-smoothers, and many of the small flint adzes, which were undoubtedly used for making the blocks for the structures on the mesa and for excavating the cave dwellings. Among the débris in the dwellings are found corncobs and other evidences of the food used by the inhabitants. This certainly indicates that the people who occupied these singular dwellings were agricultural. The faces of some of the more prominent cliffs contained as many as three rows of chambers one above the other; the débris at the foot, sometimes 200 feet deep, covered up at least two rows of these chambers. Along the edges of the cliffs and over the rocky surface of the mesa are winding footpaths from 3 to 10 inches deep, worn by the feet of the inhabitants. Some of these paths showed perceptible foot-prints where it was inconvenient for those following the path to do otherwise than tread in the footsteps of their predecessors. In our limited investigations we were unable to discover any evidence of burial customs. No graves could be found, and nothing of human remains. The southern portion of this area seems to have been most densely populated. Some of the protected walls in the neighborhood retain hieroglyphics in abundance. These resemble the picture writing of the present Indians of that region. Many interesting specimens of the art of this ancient people can be seen in the images of wild animals scattered over various spots. Many of them are cut in full relief out of the tufa and are always in some natural attitude, and can always be identified where the weather has not destroyed the original form. The most prominent are two mountain lions, side by side and life size. Further examinations will reveal much more of value and interest in connection with this very inviting locality. Mr. Galbraith, who accompanied my party, spent some time examining this region and made collections here. The next pueblo visited was San Ildefonso, about five miles below Santa Clara, on the opposite bank of the Rio Grande. But few specimens were obtained here. The people of this pueblo devote their time chiefly to agricultural and pastoral pursuits, and have almost abandoned the manufacture of pottery, that in use by them at the present time being mostly obtained from neighboring tribes. From San Ildefonso we proceeded to Nambé, a pueblo which has become almost extinct. The remnant of this people is situated about 25 miles above Ildefonso, on Nambé Creek, and not far from the base of the mountains. The people of Nambé have several times in years past moved their pueblo higher up the stream, the valley of which furnishes them fine agricultural and grazing grounds. They make very little pottery, but we found stored in many of the houses of the village great quantities of stone implements, principally large metates and grinding-stones. We also found many specimens of interest among the ruins of old Nambé and Pojuaque, as well as the remains of pottery in such quantities as to show that in the past the manufacture of pottery had been carried on quite extensively. In this vicinity I made arrangements with one of the employés of the party, who had resided many years at Santa Fé, to make excavations and collections from the old sites of Nambé, Pojuaque, and Cuyamunque, in which he was quite successful. From the pueblos north of Santa Fé we traveled direct to Cochití, 27 miles southwest of Santa Fé. This village is situated on the right bank of the Rio Grande and about three miles from Peña Blanca, a small Mexican town opposite. Here a very interesting collection was secured consisting mostly of pottery, many of the vessels simulating animal forms, variously ornamented with representations of some varieties of the flora of the locality. A few stone implements were also obtained here. We next visited Jémez, situated on the Rio Jémez. From thence we went to Silla and Santa Ana. At each of these villages representative collections were made, all of which are referred to in detail in the catalogue. The next villages visited were Santo Domingo and Sandia, on the Rio Grande. Some characteristic specimens were obtained at each of these pueblos. The method of their manufacture and the manner of using them are generally the same as in most of the other pueblos. A small collection of rude stone hammers was obtained from the turquois mine in the Cerrillo Mountains, about 25 miles from Santa Fé. The products of this celebrated mine, which were objects of traffic all over New Mexico, as well as contiguous countries, probably formed one inducement which led to the Spanish conquest of this region. The turquoises from this mine have always been valued as ornaments by the Indians of New Mexico, and carried far and wide for sale by them. The mine was worked in a most primitive manner with these rude stone hammers, a number of which were secured. The collections are all now in the National Museum for study and inspection. The following sketch is introduced here to show the method of using the batten stick represented in Fig. 546. There is not a family among the Pueblos or Navajos that does not possess the necessary implements for weaving blankets, belts and garters. Figs. 500-502 will convey an idea of the variety in design and coloring which prevails in this class of Indian fabrics, while Fig. 710 represents a blanket weaver at work. The picture is taken from a photograph made on the spot by Mr. Hillers, and is colored in accordance with the actual colors of the yarns and threads used in its manufacture. The particular class of blankets represented in this illustration is woven in the estufas, and is used almost exclusively in sacred dances and ceremonies of the tribe, all other garments being made in the houses or in the open air. The Navajos are celebrated for their skill as blanket weavers, and the Mokis are equally skilled in the manufacture of a finer class of the same article, which is much sought after by the surrounding tribes for ornamental purposes in sacred and other dances. The vertical threads, as shown in the figure, are the warp threads; the coarser thread which is inserted transversely between these is the yarn or weft. The three rods in the center of the blanket are lease rods, which are introduced among the threads of the warp to separate them and thus facilitate the insertion of the weft thread. These rods are each passed in front of one warp thread and behind another, alternately, across the whole warp, and between each rod the threads are brought from the back of one to the front of the next, and _vice versa_. The bar held in hands of the weaver serves as a batten for driving or beating the weft thread into the angle formed by the crossed warp threads. This loom resembles in principle the ancient Egyptian, Grecian, and French looms which are described on pages 55 to 62 of "The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and Power," by A. Barlow, London, 1878, and on pages 41 to 45 of the "Treatise on Weaving and Designing of Textile Fabrics," by Thomas E. Ashenhurst, Bradford, England, 1881. See also pp. 200 to 208, Vol. II, of the "Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain," by A. Ure, London, 1861. COLLECTIONS FROM CUYAMUNQUE. ARTICLES OF STONE. _RUBBING STONES._ (Used as rubbers in grinding corn on metates.) 1-3. 1, (46506); 2, (46507); 3, (46517). Basalt. 4, (46510). Sandstone. 5, (46512). Conglomerate. 6-9. 6, (46513); 7, (46514); 8, (46515); 9, (46516). Mica schist. 10-11. 10, (46518); 11, (46529). Of hornblende schist; these are elongate and intended to be used with both hands. 12-13. 12, (46508); 13, (46567). Quartzite metates. 14-15. 14, (46509); 15, (46511). Sandstone metates, the latter but little used and almost flat. 16, (46551). Rubbing stone of andesite. 17-24. 17, (46555); 18, (46556); 19, (46557); 20, (46558); 21, (46561); 22, (46563); 23, (46569); 24, (46559). Small smoothing stone mostly of quartzite, one or two only of basalt. These are bowlders weighing from one to three pounds, rounded by natural agencies, and selected by the natives to be used for smoothing and polishing purposes. When much used they are worn down flat on one side, the side used being worn off, just as the rubbing stone in the old process of preparing paint. 25-26. 25, (46519); 26, (46520). Unfinished celts of basalt. 27, (46521). Crude hoe or adze of mica schist. 28, (46522). Schist stone with groove for smoothing arrow shaft, and hole for rounding point. 29-31. 29, (46523); 30, (46524); 31, (46525). Crude stone implements, supposed to be used for digging. 32-34. 32, (46526); 33, (46527); 34, (46528). Very crude stone implements, probably used for pounding. 35, (46530). Double-handled baking stone; basalt. The use of stones of this kind will be more particularly noticed hereafter. 36, (46531). Broken rounded mortar; basalt. 37, (47532). A small, oblong, mortar-shaped vessel of lava. The width three inches, length when unbroken was probably four and a half inches; width of inside two inches, length probably three and one-fourth inches, depth of cavity three-fourths of an inch. On the portion remaining there are four feet; originally there were doubtless six. On one side is a projection or handle similar in form and size to the feet. 38-54. 38, (46533); 39, (46534); 40, (46535); 41, (46536); 42, (46537); 43, (46538); 44, (46539); 45, (46550); 46, (46552); 47, (46553); 48, (46554); 49, (46560); 50, (46562); 51, (46565); 52, (46566); 53, (46568); 54, (47571). Pounding or hammer stones, some of them simple cobble stones, others with marks of slight preparation for use by chipping off or rubbing down prominences. 55, (46540). Sandstone with smoothed surface and groove for smoothing arrow shafts. 56-64. 56, (46541); 57, (46542); 58, (46543); 59, (46544); 60, (46545); 61, (46546); 62, (46547); 63, (46548); 64, (46564). Small stones, chiefly quartz, basalt, and agate, used for smoothing and polishing pottery. 65-68. 65, (46570); 66, (46572); 67, (46573); 68, (46574). Broken rubbers for metates. 69, (46988). Spear head. Basalt. 70, (46989). Arrow head. Obsidian. ARTICLES OF CLAY. (Only one perfect specimen obtained.) 71, (46575). A bowl. 72, (46718). Fragments of ancient pottery. COLLECTIONS FROM NAMBÉ. ARTICLES OF STONE. 73-78. 73, (46577); 74, (46578); 75, (46579); 76, (46580); 77, (46581); 78, (46583). Quartzite rubbing stones of an elongate form. 79, (46582). Similar to the last group, but appears to have been used as a pestle as well as a rubber. 80-85. 80, (46584); 81, (46585); 82, (49586); 83, (46587); 84, (46588); 85, (46589). Pounding stones, chiefly of quartzite. These are quite regularly formed, cylindrical or spindle-shaped, with blunt or squarely docked ends, from four to seven inches long and two to three inches in diameter, used chiefly in pounding mesquite beans. 86-89. 86, (46590); 87, (46591); 88, (46592); 89, (46593). Round, flattened, or disk-shaped quartzite pounders, medium and small sizes. 90-91. 90, (46596); and 91, (46597). Pounders similar to the preceding group, but smaller. 92, (46594). A flat or disk-shaped polishing stone of quartzite. 93, (46595). An oblong rectangular quartzite pounding stone. 94-105. 94, (46598); 95, (46599); 96, (46600); 97, (46601); 98, (46602); 99, (46603); 100, (46604); 101, (46605); 102, (46606); 103, (46607); 104, (46608); 105, (46609). Small irregular stones of jasper and basalt used in shaping and polishing pottery. 106, (46610). Elongate, well-worn, sandstone meal rubber or rubber for metate. 107, (46611). A stone bowl or basin made from an oblong, somewhat oval-shaped quartzite slab, and used for pounding and grinding mesquite beans. The length is 19 inches, greatest width 10 inches, depth of depression 2 inches. 108, (46612). Rather large disk-shaped smoothing stone of basalt. 109-114. 109, (46719); 110, (46720); 111, (46721); 112, (46722); 113, (46723); and 114, (46724). Rubbers for metates of the usual form, mostly of basalt, well worn, and most of them broken. 115-131. 115, (46725); 116, (46726); 117, (46728); 118, (46729); 119, (46732); 120, (46733); 121, (46734); 122, (46735); 123, (46739); 124, (46740); 125, (46741); 126, (46742); 127, (46743); 128, (46744); 129, (46749); 130, (46750); 131, (46761). Crude pounding stones, mostly simple cobble stones, more or less worn by use. 132-150. 132, (46727); 133, (46730); 134, (46731); 135, (46736); 136, (46737); 137, (46738); 138, (46745); 139, (46746); 140, (46747); 141, (46748); 142, (46751); 143, (46752); 144, (46753); 145, (46754); 146, (46755); 147, (46756); 148, (46757); 149, (46758); 150, (46759). Small and mostly polished smoothing stones, used chiefly in polishing pottery; all well worn; of jasper, quartzite; or basalt. 151, (46760). A broken grooved ax of basalt. 152, (47051). A very large metate, twenty-four inches long and fifteen inches wide, much worn, the middle of the curve being three and one-half inches below the surface. 153, (47048). Ax with groove on one edge. 154, (47049). Hammer with broad annular groove. 155, (47050). Hammer with lateral notches. 156, (47051). Ax, broken. 157, (48052). Grooved hammer. 158, (47056). Half of a large mortar, much worn. 159, (47058). Metate. 160, (47059). A small mortar, probably used for grinding and pounding chili (pepper). ARTICLES OF CLAY. Articles of clay from this pueblo, which are but few in number, are either of polished black ware or unpolished of the natural _tierra amarilla_ or yellow earth, color, but more or less blackened by use. This ware is of precisely the same character and quality as the black pottery from Santa Clara. The pitchers, cups, and basins are evidently modeled after introduced patterns from civilized nations. All are without ornamentation. 161, (47033). Tinaja or olla, with narrow neck; _tierra amarilla_, blackened. 162, (47032). Tinaja or olla, rather small, polished black ware. 163-164. 163, (47034); 164, (47035). Pitchers of the ordinary form with handle and spout, about half-gallon size, polished black ware. 165, (47036). Small olla, yellow ware. 166, (47037). Small olla-shaped bowl; yellow ware. 167, (47038). A cup without handle. 168-171. 168, (47039); 169, (47040); 170, (47041); 171, (47042). Cups with handle similar in form and size to the ordinary white stone-china coffee cups; yellow-ware. 172, (47043). Cup similar in form and size to the preceding, but of polished black ware. 173, (47044). Small cup without handle; polished black ware. 174, (47045). Small cooking pot with handle; polished black ware. 175, (47046). A pear-shaped water vessel with two loop handles placed opposite each other near the mouth. 176, (47047). A large, polished black ware basin of the usual washbasin form, but with undulate border. 177, (47060). Small bowl, black polished ware. COLLECTIONS FROM POJUAQUE. ARTICLES OF STONE. 178-189. 178, (46613); 179, (46614); 180, (46615); 181, (46616); 182, (46617); 183, (46618); 184, (46619); 185, (46620); 186, (46621); 187, (46622); 188, (46657); 189, (46658). Hammers with groove around the middle. In 46618 the groove is double. They are of quartzite, lava, greenstone, metamorphic rock and basalt. 190-202. 190, (46623); 191, (46624); 192, (46625); 193, (46627); 194, (46639); 195, (46640); 196, (46641); 197, (46642); 198, (46644); 199, (45645); 200, (46646); 201, (46647); 202, (46648). Small smoothing-stones. 203, (46626). A triangular pounding stone. 204-212. 204, (46628); 205, (46629); 206, (46630); 207, (46631); 208, (46632); 209, (46633); 210, (46634); 211, (46650); 212, (46632). Oval pounding-stones made out of rolled pebbles or bowlders. 213, (46635). Elongate slender implements of basalt, probably used in molding pottery, especially the larger flaring bowls. 214, (46636). A smaller implement of similar form used as a polisher for particular vessels. 215-216. 215, (46637); 216, (46638). Flat stones with straight groove for smoothing arrow-shafts. 217, (46643). An unfinished ax of basalt. 218, (46651). A mortar for pounding and grinding mesquite beans. 219, (46653). Rude, partially grooved ax. 220, (46654). Small quartzite pestle. 221, (46659). A very regular, much-worn basaltic metate. 222, (47926). A large, well-worn metate. 223-226. 223, (46660); 224, (47927); 225, (47928); 226, (47929). Rubbing stones for metate. 227-228. 227, (47930); 228, (47931). Broken hatchets with annular groove near the hammer end. 229-232. 229, (47932); 230, (47933); 231, (47934); 232, (47935). Rude hatchets or digging implements notched on the side. 233-234. 233, (47936); 234, (47937). Hammers or pounding-stones with groove around the middle. 235-248. 235, (47938); 236, (47939); 237, (47944); 238, (47951); 239, (47952); 240, (47953); 241, (47954); 242, (47955); 243, (47956); 244, (47958); 245, (47959); 246, (47963); 247, (47964); 248, (47965). Pounding-stones. 249-255. 249, (47940); 250, (47941); 251, (47942); 252, (47943); 253, (47960); 254, (47961); 255, (47962). Small smoothing-stones. 256, (47945). Quartz pestle. 257, (47946). Stone for crushing and grinding mesquite beans. 258-261. 258, (47947); 259, (47948); 260, (47949); 261, (47950). Small disk-shaped hammer-stones with finger pits or depressions usually on both sides. 262-265. 262, (47966); 263, (47967); 264, (47968); 265, (47969). Stones with flat surface and a single straight groove for polishing or straightening arrow-shafts. 266-267. 266, (47971); 267, (47972). Similar stones, with two and three grooves, used for same purpose. 268, (47970). Piece of soap-stone used for moulding bullets. 269, (47974). Rude mortar for grinding paint. 270, (47973). Muller for grinding paint in the paint mortar. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These are few and simple and chiefly of the yellow micaceous ware, some of it blackened by use so that the original color cannot now be observed. Some of the pieces are of red ware with ornamentations. 273-274. 273, (47431); 274, (47432). Pottery moulds for bottoms of vessels. 275, (47434). A pitcher-shaped teapot of red micaceous ware, with handle; a row of projecting points around the middle, one-half of these (those on one side) having the tips notched. There is a triangular spout in front, the opening to it being through numerous small round holes forming a strainer. Capacity about three pints. (Fig. 698.) [Illustration: Fig. 698. 47434] 276, (47435). Small pitcher-shaped cooking pot with handle and crenulate margin. 277-278. 277, (47436); 278, (47437). Small plain bowls used in cooking. 279, (47438). A small boat-shaped bowl resembling a pickle dish. 280, (47439). A small, polished black olla. 281, (47440). A small flat flaring bowl of red ware, with simple, narrow, inner marginal black band and an inner sub-marginal line of triangular points with dots between them. 282, (47441). Small image of a quadruped, very rude; impossible to determine the animal intended; white ware with undulate black lines. 283, (47442). Image of a small bird with wings spread; white ware with black lines. 284, (47443). Small bowl of white ware, ornamented with red triangles and squares bordered by black lines. 285, (47444). Specimen of the paint used by the Indians to ornament themselves in their dances. ARTICLES OF BONE AND HORN. 271, (46656). Corn-husker; handle of antelope-horn and point of iron. 272, (48047). Implement of horn, perforated for straightening arrow-shafts. COLLECTIONS FROM OLD POJUAQUE. ARTICLES OF STONE. 286-288. 286, (46661); 287, (46662); 288, (46714). Fragments of metates. 289, (46663). Large, very regularly shaped and much worn metate. 290-296. 290, (46664); 291, (46665); 292, (46666); 293, (46667); 294, (46668); 295, (46669); 296, (46670). Rubbing stones for metates, mostly broken. 297-319. 297, (46671); 298, (46672); 299, (46673); 300, (46674); 301, (46675); 302, (46676); 303, (46677); 304, (46678); 305, (46679); 306, (46683); 307, (46684); 308, (46695); 309, (46690); 310, (46680); 311, (46701); 312, (46702); 313, (46705); 314, (46709); 315, (46710); 316, (46711); 317, (46712); 318, (46713); 319, (46715). Smoothing stones. 320-335. 320, (46681); 321, (46682); 322, (46685); 323, (46686); 324, (46687); 325, (46688); 326, (46689); 327, (46690); 328, (46691); 329, (46692); 330, (46693); 331, (46694); 332, (46699); 333, (46704); 334, (46706); 335, (46707). Hammers or pounding stones, mostly rude and simple, showing but little preparation. 336-338. 336, (46697); 337, (46698); 338, (46700). Rude unpolished celts. 339, (46703). A sharpening stone. Slate. 340, (46708). Grooved stones for polishing arrow-shafts. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These consist of only a few fragments of ancient ornamented pottery. 341-342. 341, (46716); 342, (46717). Fragments of pottery from the ruins of the old pueblo. COLLECTIONS FROM SANTA CLARA. ARTICLES OF STONE. 343-349. 343, (46762); 344, (46763); 345, (46764); 346, (47535); 347, (47552); 348, (47563); 349, (47564). Metates or grinding stones. 350, (46765). Blocks of stone from the walls of a ruined pueblo, (Liparito or Mesa.) 351-352. 351, (46767); 352, (46780). Rude hatchets or digging stones, notched at the sides and one end, more or less chipped. 353, (46781). Stone hammer, regular in form, grooved, and more than usually slender and pointed. 354-355. 354, (46782); 355, (46787). Pounding stones, chipped and notched at the sides. 356-357. 356, (46792); 357, (46793). Rounded pounding stones with finger pits. 358-359. 358, (46794); 359, (46799). Spherical stones used for casse-têtes, or in common parlance, slung-shot. 300-378. 360, (46800); 361, (46801); 362, (46802); 363, (46815); 364, (46828); 365, (46830); 366, (46832); 367, (46834); 368, (46841); 369, (46873); 370, (46881); 371, (46896); 372, (46965); 373, (47565); 374, (47679); 375, (47689); 376, (47693); 377, (47701); 378, (47707). Rude hammer-stones, some with notches at the sides, others without; none grooved. 379-381. 379, (46803); 380, (46812); 381, (46814). Rubbing stones for metate; mostly broken. 382, (46813). A rude, broken axe. 383-384. 383, (46824); 384, (46825). Smoothing stones used in making and polishing pottery. 385, (46826). Grooved stone for polishing arrow-shafts. 386, (46827). Fragments of pestles. 387-392. 387, (46831); 388, (46833); 389, (46842); 390, (46843); 391, (46963); 392, (46982). Smoothing stones. 393-396. 393, (46844); 394, (46864); 395, (47694); 396, (47700). Rubbing or smoothing stones. 397-398. 397, (46865); 398, (46868). Stone balls used as slung-shot. 399-400. 399, (46869); 400, (46871). Small, round hammer stones. 401, (47714). A rudely carved stone, probably intended to represent some animal. 402-404. 402, (46872); 403, (46882); 404, (46895). Grooved hammers. 405, (46983). Large pounding stone. 406-407. 406, (46985); 407, (46986). Bottles containing chips and flakes of obsidian and agate, from ancient pueblo on mesa. 408, (47987). Collection of 10 stones used in smoothing pottery. 409, (47536). Collection of 67 stones used in smoothing pottery. 410, (47537). Twenty-one stone chips and flakes. 411, (47538). Eight hammer stones and chips. 412-413. 412, (47539); 413, (47549). Grinding or rubbing stones for metate. 414, (47551). Stone mortar. 415-416. 415, (47553); 416, (47559). Rubbing stones for metate. 417-418. 417, (47560); 418, (47562). Pounding stones. 419, (47680). Large metate. 420-421. 420, (47681); 421, (47688). Rubbing stones for metate. 422, (46990). Grooved hammer. 423, (47709). Round pounding stone. 424, (47710). Chips and flakes of agate and jasper (one box). 425, (47711). Smoothing stones for pottery. 426, (47713). Chips and flakes of obsidian (one box). 427, (47715). Flakes and arrow heads of obsidian. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These consist of vessels of pottery, a few clay images, and two or three clay pipes. The pottery (with the exception of one or two pieces obtained from other pueblos) is all black ware, some of which is quite well polished. Some of the ollas are quite large, the form shown in fig. 699 (46993), predominating; others with rather high neck which is marked with sharp, oblique ridges, as shown in fig. 700 (47023). [Illustration: Fig. 699. 46993] _POLISHED BLACK WARE._ 428, (46993). Olla shown in fig. 699. The somewhat peculiar form of the body, the sharp curve at the shoulder and straight line in the lower half, is the point to which attention is more particularly called, as this appears to be the principal type form of these vessels, with this pueblo. 429, (46994). A jar-shaped olla. 430-433. 430, (46995); 431, (47023); Fig. 700. 432, (47024); 433, (47147). These are well shown in fig. 700. The oblique lines on the neck indicate sharp external ridges. The lip is also usually undulate or crenate. The size is from medium to large, varying in capacity from one to three or four gallons. 434, (46996). A large pitcher, lower part of the body much inflated, neck rather narrow and encircled by a sharp undulate ridge, handle and spout of the usual form; capacity about two gallons. Coarse brown micaceous ware blackened by fire. 435-437. 435, (46997); 436, (46999); 437, (47008). Small flat olla-shaped bowls. 438, 439. 438, (47002); 439, (47014). Small tinajas with angular shoulders. [Illustration: Fig. 700. 47023] 440, (47019). A rather small flaring bowl with flat bottom, ornamented with oval depressions on the inner surface; the margin is distinctly and somewhat regularly heptagonal. 441-448. 441, (47029); 442, (47123); 443, (47137); 444, (47141); 445, (47142); 446, (47143); 447, (47143a); 448, (47150). Large tinajas most of which are similar in form to that shown in figure 699 (46993); Nos. (47133) and (46137) being the only exception; they are more jar-shaped. 449, (47030). A broken tinaja. 450, (47085). A flaring, flat-bottomed, bowl or dish, similar to number (47019) except that the inner ornamental depressions are spirally arranged. 451, (47109.) A jar or tinaja similar in form to (46993) fig. 699, except that the neck is longer and the lip flaring and undulate. [Illustration: Fig. 701. 47120] 452-454. 452, (47112); 453, (47127); 454, (47494). Small pitcher, probably a toy, with handle and a long lip projecting backwards as well as in front. 455-457. 455, (47517); 456, (47115); 457, (47132). Flat-bottomed flaring bowls or dishes similar in form to 450, (47019), but without the inner indentation. [Illustration: Fig. 702. 47123] 458, (47120). A flat-bottomed flaring bowl ornamented internally with spiral ridges and undulated margin shown in fig. 701. 459, (47123). An image of a person in a worshiping attitude, probably intended to represent a Catholic priest chanting. See fig. 702. 460-461. 460, (47134); 461, (47504). Flat-bottomed fan-shaped dishes. 462, (47088). Tea-pot with ordinary handle and spout, copied after the ordinary tea-pot of civilized life. 463, (47116). Basin-like dish, with numerous slightly elevated lines internally. 464, (47136). A duck, small and rude. 465, (47481). An urn-shaped vase with long neck, and without handles. Quite small, scarcely above toy size. 466, (47482). A pottery meal basket used in religious ceremonies and dances; shown in fig. 703. Although differing materially from the Zuñi sacred meal baskets, yet, as is shown in the figure, the pyramidal elevations on the margin are retained. [Illustration: Fig. 703. 47482] [Illustration: Fig. 704. 47492] 467-468. 467, (47483); 468, (47487). Tinajas, usually with the lip margin undulate. 469, (47492). Pipe, ornamented on the side with an indented line terminating in an arrow-point, probably denoting lightning; fig. 704. 470, (47493). Pipe, small, cylindrical, slightly hexagonal. 471, (47496). A singular canteen or water vessel shown in fig. 705. 472-477. 472, (47497); 473, (47500); 474, (47506); 475, (47507); 476, (47519); 477, (47516). Pottery moccasins, small toy size. 478, (47498). A squat-shaped olla used as a bowl. 479-480. 479, (47501); 480, (47138). A water vessel precisely of the form and ornamentation shown in fig. 700, but with a handle on each side. 481, (47503). Pitcher without spout. 482, (47502). Earth used for whitening in the manufacture of pottery. 483, (47510). Plain bowl. 484, (47512). Plain bowl. 485, (47527). Well formed bowl with foot or pedestal. [Illustration: Fig. 705. 47496] 486-489. 486, (47001); 487, (47716); 488, (47028); 489, (47717). Flaring bowls with undulate margins. 490, (47718). Bowl similar in form to the preceding one, but much larger. _BLACK OR BROWN WARE._ (Blackened by use on the fire; not polished.) This ware, when first made and before use, varies in shade from dark earth color to reddish-brown, but the soot, smoke, and fire, when in use, soon darken it; hence it is usually described as black ware. The articles are used for cooking purposes, such as pots--which are usually pot-shaped--some without handles and some with a handle on one side, bowls, &c. The pots vary in capacity from a pint to a little over a gallon. 491-517. 491, (46998); 492, (47000); 493, (47003); 494, (47004); 495, (47010); 496, (47011); 497, (47015); 498, (47021); 499, (47026); 500, (47089); 501, (47100); 502, (47104); 503, (47108); 504, (47119); 505, (47126); 506, (47128); 507, (47488); 508, (47489); 509, (47499); 510, (47505); 511, (47508); 512, (47511); 513, (47521); 514, (47523); 515, (47528); 516, (47529); 517, (47531). Cooking vessels shaped much like the ordinary pot, without handles and without legs. 518-533. 518, (47007); 519, (47012); 520, (47017); 521, (47018); 522, (47020); 523, (47022); 524, (47025); 525, (47092); 526, (47096); 527, (47101); 528, (47111); 529, (47117); 530, (47121); 531, (47124); 532, (47515); 533, (47522). Cooking vessels with handle on one side resembling pitchers. 534-540. 534, (47005); 535, (47009); 536, (47016); 537, (47107); 538, (47129); 539, (47148); 540, (47006). Toy bowls. 541, (47013). A double-mouthed canteen. 542, (47027). A bowl with handle on one side used for cooking purposes. 543-544. 543, (47086); 544, (47090). Globular paint cups, small. 545-546. 545, (47087); 546, (47091). Pipes of the ordinary form, _Tierra amarilla_. 547-549. 547, (47093); 548, (47097); 549, (47098). Images similar to that shown in fig. 702. 550, (47094). Double paint-cup. 551, (47095). Imitation in pottery of a Derby, or some round-crowned, straight-rimmed hat. 552-555. 552, (47099); 553, (47102); 554, (47118); 555, (47122). Small, somewhat boat-shaped dishes; that is, dishes slightly oval with the margin flared at the ends: used as soap dishes. 556, (47103). Small image of a person bearing something on each arm. 557, (47105). A gourd-shaped pipe. 558-559. 558, (47106); 559, (47490). Bowls with legs; margin undulate. 560, (47110). Pottery basket with handle, with smooth margin and without ornamentation. 561, (47113). Globular cooking-pot. 562, (47114). Skillet with handle and feet. 563, (47130). Toy cooking vessels. 564-565. 564, (47131); 565, (47139). Sitting images wearing something like a crown on the head. 566. Sitting image with representations of feathers on the head. 567-568. 567, (47145); 568, (47146). Images. 569-570. 569, (47151); 570, (47300). Fragments of pottery from the mesa. 571-572. 571, (47479); 572, (47532). Doubled-bellied bottles used as water vessels. 573, (47491). Small cup with handle. 574, (47495). Image with horns. 575, (47507). Bowl with straight side and flat bottom. 576-577. 576, (47509); 577, (47533). Toy bowls. 578, (47514). Plain bowl with foot or pedestal. 579, (47513). Small pitcher with handle and spout; ordinary form in civilized life. 580, (47520). Tinaja. 581-583. 581, (47525); 582, (47526); 583, (47530). Potter's clay of the kind used in making the preceding vessels. _WHITENED WARE WITH COLORED DECORATIONS._ There are but few specimens of this ware, which are chiefly important from the fact that the material is of that firm, close, and superior quality that characterizes the ancient pottery of that region. The decorations and general appearance also ally it to the ancient ware. 584, (47476). A turnip-shaped canteen; the only opening being a small hole in the top of the handle, which arises from the top in the form of a semicircular loop. Decorations consist of three bands around the upper half, the first alternate white and black squares, the second a plain red band, and the third or lower like the first. Capacity about three quarts. (Fig. 706.) [Illustration: Fig. 706. 47476] 585, (47477). A bowl decorated internally with a submarginal band consisting of a vine and leaf; externally with a band of small pear-shaped figures; all in black. 586, (47478). Canteen of the usual form. 587, (47480). Turnip-shaped canteens; small, circular mouth at the center on top; on each side a knob. VEGETAL SUBSTANCES. 587½, (46829). Spinning top copied from the ordinary top of civilized life. COLLECTIONS FROM TESUQUE. ARTICLES OF STONE. 588, (47061). Large regular metate, not much worn. 589, (47063). Metate with legs, regularly oblong, not much worn. 590, (47062). Stone axe and chisel combined. ARTICLES OF CLAY. 691, (47064). Medium-sized tinaja of the usual form, quite regular and symmetrical, white ware with decorations; zigzag band around the neck; body divided into compartments with a large three-leaved figure in each. 592, (47065). Tinaja similar in form and size to the preceding; black polished ware. COLLECTIONS FROM TURQUOISE MINE. This collection, which is a small one, consists, with the exception of some bows, arrows and quivers, of stone hammers only, which were used for mining purposes. 593-594. 593, (47066); 594, (47082). Mining stone-hammers; are large and roughly hewn, usually with an imperfect groove around the middle. 595, (47083). Bows, arrows and beaded quiver. 596, (47084). Bows, arrows and plain quiver. 597, (48048). Bird snares. COLLECTIONS FROM SANTO DOMINGO. The collection from this pueblo consists chiefly of pottery belonging to the white decorated variety with ornamentation in black. But few articles of stone were obtained. ARTICLES OF STONE. 598-599. 598, (47182); 599, (47185). Stone hatchets with broad annular groove near the blunt end. ARTICLES OF CLAY. 600, (47154). Medium-sized tinaja, much, ornamented with vines and birds; body with a broad belt of Greek frets with leaf ornaments above and below. 601, (47155). Similar in every respect to the preceding except that the neck has on it only figures of the cactus leaf. 602, (47157). Tinaja, medium size; zigzag band around the neck, body ornamented with triangles and curved twigs with pinnate leaves. 603, (47156). Large tinaja with scalloped band around the neck; a broad belt of straight lines and crescents on the body. 604, (47158). Large tinaja shown in Fig. 707. [Illustration: Fig. 707. 47158] 605, (47159). Water vessel somewhat in the form of a teapot, with short, straight, cylindrical spout, open on the top, and a transverse loop handle. Ornamented with bands of small triangles. 606, (47223). Similar to preceding, except that the handle is not transverse and the figures are chiefly large stars. 607, (47160). A cup-shaped ladle with handle like ordinary teapot; birds and triangles internally, zigzag lines externally. 608, (47161). Bowl; a double-scalloped, ornamental, broad marginal band and a cross ornament internally. No external ornamentation. 609, (47162). Bowl; crenate marginal band and square central figure internally; external surface plain. 610-617 610, (47163); 611, (47164); 612, (47165); 613, (47166); 614, (47167); 615, (47168); 616, (47169); 617, (47170). Small saucer-shaped bowls ornamented on the inside only, chiefly with crenate marginal bands and leaf figures. In one 615, (47168), there is the figure of a deer and of a long-billed bird. 618, (47171). Pitcher with handle and lip usual form, undulate margin, ornamentation as on the neck of (47158), Fig. 707. 619, (47222). Similar in every respect to 618, (47171), except that the handle is twisted. 620, (47172). Basket-shaped water vessel with handle, three-leaved figures. 621, (47173). Small jar with handle on the side, leaf figures. 622-623. 622, (47174); 623, (47175). Small barrel-shaped jars with diamond figures. 624-626. 624, (47176); 625, (47178); 626, (47179). Double-bellied water bottles, the first with birds and triangles, the second with triangles and diamonds, and the third with flower and leaf ornaments. 627, (47177). Pottery moccasins with leaf and flower ornamentation. 628-629. 628, (47180); 629, (47181). Small bowl-shaped cups with handle; ornamentation chiefly triangles. COLLECTIONS FROM JÉMEZ. ARTICLES OF STONE. 630-635. 630, (47209); 631, (47211); 632, (47212); 633, (47279); 634, (47280); 635, (47281). Stone hatchets with imperfect grooves. 636, (42282). Square block of stone with grooves lengthwise and crosswise on one face, used to polish arrow shafts. 637-638. 637, (47051); 638, (47053). Broken rubbers for metates. 639, (48034). Rude stone pounders. 640, (48038). Pestle. 641, (48059). A celt of jasper. 642-643. 642, (48060); 643, (48061). Smoothing stones. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These are mostly white ware with ornamentation in black and red; there are a few black specimens. 644-646. 644, (47186); 645, (47187); 646, (47188). Specimens of clay used in making pottery. 647-648. 647, (47216); 648, (47220). Bricks from an old Spanish wall. 649-655. 649, (47189); 650, (47190); 651, (47191); 652, (47193); 653, (47194); 654, (47195); 655, (47198). Small jar-shaped tinajas. The ornamentation consists of heavy waved lines on the body and interrupted straight lines, triangles and narrow simple or scalloped bands on the neck. 656, (47192). A medium-sized tinaja, swollen at the shoulder and of the form shown in Fig. 372. The upper part is ornamented with a broad belt of animal figures, deer and birds, separated from each other by a triangle between each, two, with the elongate point directed upwards. Middle surrounded by a belt of oblique broken lines. 657, (47196). Olla of the usual form; ornamentation, a vine, leaves and birds. 658, (47197). Medium-sized, jar-shaped olla, with undulate margin and ornamentation as shown in Fig. 708. [Illustration: Fig. 708. 47197] 659, (47199). Olla with zigzag band around the neck and four dentate bands around the body. 660-665. 660, (47200); 661, (47201); 662, (47202); 663, (47203); 664, (47204); 665, (47215). Canteens of the usual form with two loop handles; upper half ornamented. Chief figures, triangles, stars, and birds. 666, (47205). Tinaja with handle on the side, ornamentation delicate and decidedly neat; zigzag and dotted lines, long pinnate leaf, flowers, &c. 667, (48062). Fragments of pottery from ruins (7 pieces.) 668, (47206). Water vessel resembling in form a tinaja, but with small orifice; ornamented with slender vines and leaves. 669, (47207). Biscuit-shaped bowl; triangular figures on external surface similar to those so common on Zuñi bowls. 670, (47208). Small regularly-shaped bowl; triangular figures. 671, (47213). Tinaja with handle; resembling in form and ornamentation, the pitchers found at Cañon de Chelley. 672, (47214). Olla with crenate margin; external decorations elks and birds. 673, (47278). Small tinaja with a kind of scroll figure around the body. 674-675. 674, (47276); 675, (47277). Small unburned and unadorned tinajas. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 676, (48050). Wooden image decorated with feathers (presented by Mrs. T. Stevenson). 677, (47221). Specimen of the matting used in building. COLLECTIONS FROM SILLA. ARTICLES OF STONE. 678, (47224). Small square mortar of lava. 679-680. 679, (47242); 680, (47255). Stone hatchets rather well formed with blunt poll, distinct annular groove, and tapering blade; chiefly of basalt, three of metamorphic rock. 681-682. 681, (47256); 682, (47258). Smoothing stones. 683-684. 683, (47259); 684, (47260). Stone hammers with groove. 685-686. 685, (47261); 686, (47263). Pounding stones. 687, (47262). Small oval mortar (lava.) ARTICLES OF CLAY. (White ware with red and black decorations.) 688, (47225). Small toy tinaja, a narrow scalloped band at the margin and near the bottom, crescents between. 689, (47227). Tinaja with small orifice, duck figure in red. 690, Water vessel in form of a duck; orifice on the back, wings formed into loop handles. Red and black decorations. 691, (47228). Water vessel in form of a duck; orifice over the neck, loop handle on the back. 692-693. 692, (47237); 693, (47239). Water vessels in form of a duck, without handles. [Illustration: Fig. 710. THE BLANKET WEAVER.] 694-696. 694, (47229); 695, (47230); 696, (47232). Animal images; first probably a Rocky Mountain sheep; the other two probably dogs. Very rude ornamentation without design. 697, (47236). Water vessel of the form and ornamentation shown in Fig. 709. [Illustration: Fig. 709. 47236] 698, (47238). Medium-sized tinaja with leaf ornaments. 699, (47294). Tinaja with figures like those common on the Zuñi ollas. 700, (47818). Water vessel in the form of a horse, white ware ornamented. 701, (47820). Dog's head, plain. MISCELLANEOUS. 702, (47264). Specimens of mineral paint. (Ochre or clay-stone.) 703-705. 703, (47265); 704, (47267); 705, (47268). Turquoise drills. 706, (47266). Block of wood to be used in connection with the turquoise drill. Has a simple pit in the center in which the apex of the drill turns. 707, (47269). Wooden war-club of hard oak with serpentine line and arrow point (as on pipe, Fig. 704), cut on one side. 708, (47270). Bow, arrows, and quiver. 709, (47819). Leather bag adorned with feathers, with pebbles inside, used as a rattle in dances. 710, (47234). Tortoise shell with pendent rattles, used us a dance ornament. 711, (47235). A gourd with pebbles inside, used as a rattle. COLLECTIONS FROM SAN JUAN. ARTICLES OF STONE. 712, (47760). Flat rubbing or smoothing stone of slate. 713-714. 713, (47762); 714, (47763). Stone hatchets notched at the sides. 715, (47764). Small hammer notched at the sides. 716-717. 716, (47765); 717, (47766). Stone candlesticks, the former with circular base, body hemispherical, with hole in the top. The other (from the altar of the Catholic Church) with square base, the stand short, circular, with moldings. 718, (47767). Square, flat mortar. 719-724. 719, (47768); 720, (47769); 721, (47770); 722, (47799); 723, (47783); 724, (47776.) Pounding stones. 725-733. 725, (47771); 726, (47774); 727, (47777); 728, (47778); 729, (47782); 730, (47785); 731, (47787); 732, (47790); 733, (47792). Stones with grooves or notches. 734-742. 734, (47772); 735, (47775); 736, (47779); 737, (47781); 738, (47784); 739, (47786); 740, (47789); 741, (47793); 742, (47796). Stone hammers, some grooved, others not. 743-747. 743, (47773); 744, (47788); 745, (47797); 746, (47798); 747, (47808). Smoothing or polishing stones. 748, (47800). A collection of fifty smoothing stones used in polishing pottery. 749-750. 749, (47803); 750, (47804). Small paint mortars. 751, (47805). Scraper and polisher. 752, (47806). Rude animal image, (quadruped). 753, (47807). Hammer. 754, (47809). Hornstone triangular knife. 755, (47810). Collection Of nine stone implements. ARTICLES OF CLAY. The collection of pottery made at this pueblo presents quite a variety of articles, such as the ordinary clay vessels, bowls, tinajas, water vessels, &c., of black, polished black, brown, mostly without ornamentation, and white ornamented ware, images, pipes, moccasins, &c. _POLISHED BLACK WARE._ 756, (47720). A bowl with indented lines and areas internally. 757-758. 757, (47732); 758, (47742). Globular water vessels with loop handles. 759-761. 759, (47733); 760, (47745); 761, (47750). Small tinajas. 762-764. 762, (47735); 763, (47748); 764, (47749). Flat dish-shaped bowls. 765, (47737). A canteen made upon the same plan as that shown in fig. 706, (47476); that is, with opening only at the top of the loop-handle. The body is crock-shaped with top flat. 766, (47752). Small image. 767-768. 767, (47753); 768, (47759). Straight cylindrical pipes. 769-770. 769, (47754); 770, (47755). Moccasins. 771, (47757). Small dish. 772, (47758). Pipe precisely the same in ornamentation as that shown in fig. 704. _BROWN AND BLACK WARE._ The black are only cooking vessels, not polished, but colored chiefly by use in cooking; the rest are brown. 773, (47726). A very regularly formed teapot with handle and spout, similar to, and evidently modeled after, those used in civilized life. 774, (47728). Sugar bowl with lid, ordinary form. 775-777. 775, (47772); 776, (47739); 777, (47741). Bowls with feet. 778, (47731). Water vessel in the form of a ring, orifice on the outer surface. 779-781. 779, (47734); 780, (47736); 781, (47744). Cooking pots without handles. 782, (47738). Cooking pot with handle, regular pitcher form. 783, (47740). Canteen without handles. 784-785. 784, (47746); 785, (47747.) Small (toy) bowls. 786-787. 786, (47751); 787, (47756). Small (toy) tinajas. _WHITE WARE WITH DECORATIONS._ But few specimens; ornamentation simple and in black. 788, (47721). Bowl; internally an undulate marginal band, externally a middle band of diamonds and ovals. [Illustration: Fig. 711. 47723] 789, (47730). Bowl; broad inner marginal band of outline blocks alternating with snake-like figures, external marginal band of outline leaves. 790, (47722). Canteen of the usual form with knobs at the sides. 791, (47723). Small tinaja shown in Fig. 711. 792, (47725). Small tinaja with cross on the neck and a double scalloped middle band. 793, (47724). Water vessel in the form of a duck, loop-handle on the back; plain. 794, (47719). Small tinaja. 795, (47727). Canteen of usual form, knob handles, with circle and square. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 796, (47811). Head mats of corn-husks, ring-shaped and painted. 797, (47812). Arrow-points, chips, flakes, &c. 798, (47813). Young otter skin. 799, (47814). A scarf to be worn over the shoulder while dancing; with long beaded streamers and tassels. 800, (47815). Medicine bag. 801, (47801). Pottery spindle whirl, simple small disk with hole in the middle. COLLECTION FROM SANTA ANA. ARTICLES OF STONE. 802-804. 802, (47284); 803, (47285); 804, (47286). Stone hatchets with groove. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These consist of white ornamented ware. 805, (47287). Animal image, probably a fawn, handle on the back. 806-809. 806, (47290); 807, (47291); 808, (47292); 809, (47293). Small tinajas with decorations in black. The figures are the same as those found on Zuñi pottery--scrolls, triangles, scalloped lines and birds, but no antelopes or deer. COLLECTION FROM SANDIA, N. MEX. 810-811. 810, (47240); 811, (47241). Biscuit-shaped unburnt bowls. COLLECTION FROM COCHITI. ARTICLES OF STONE. 812-815. 812, (47901); 813, (47905); 814, (47474); 815, (47475). Hat-shaped lava stones used in cooking bread; they are heated and placed on top of the cake. This is an old custom almost entirely abandoned, and now practiced only by a few families of this pueblo. 816-818. 816, (47906); 817, (47907); 818, (47909). Regularly formed pestles. 819-820. 819, (47908); 820, (47910). Pounding stones with groove. 821-822. 821, (47911); 822, (47919). Grooved hatchets or axes. 823-824. 823, (47920); 824, (47923). Smoothing stones. 825, (47924). A collection of 20 smoothing stones. 826, (47925). Seven oval segments or disks of gourd, regularly cut and edged for scraping and smoothing pottery. 827-828. 827, (47470); 828, (47471). Hatchets or pounders (for it is doubtful to which class they belong), with handle yet attached. The second was probably used as a hatchet, the first more likely as a pounder. 829, (47472). Well-shaped hatchets. 830, (47473). Lava mortar. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These, with only one or two exceptions, consist of white decorated ware; the bottoms are polished red as usual, but the decorations are in black. 831-832. 831, (47273); 832, (47274). Canteens with loop handles on the side, the first with a star or rosette ornament in the top and scalloped line around the middle, second with triangular figures. 833, (47275). Plain unburnt tinaja. 834, (47288). Image, duck's body with cow's head. 835, (47289). Duck image. This and also the preceding with loop handle on the back and trident figures on the sides. 836, (47295). Pitcher-shaped cup, with handle, ornamentation, oblique dashes. 837, (47296). Deep, olla-shaped bowl; anvil-shaped figures on the outside. 838, (47297). Small canteen, loop-handles at the sides, central star ornament. 839-840. 839, (47445); 840, (47446). Bowls adorned with sprigs and flowers internally and stars externally; quite neat. 841-844. 841, (47447); 842, (47448); 843, (47449); 844, (47460). Bowls; most of them with a narrow dotted marginal band externally and internally. 841, (47447) has a central star inside and a band of triangles on the outside. 842, (47448) with no other ornamentation. 843, (47449) and 844, (47460) with animal figures on the inner face. 845, (47461). A biscuit-shaped bowl, with vertical ridges on the external surface. 845½, (47462). Water vessels, the body shaped as the ordinary tinaja, surmounted with outstretched arms and human head, the orifice through the mouth. Scroll ornaments. 846, (47463). Canteen of the usual form with loop handles and leaf ornaments. 847-848. 847, (47464); 848, (47466). Duck images used as water vessels. 849, (47465). Water vessel; animal image somewhat resembling a fish, but was probably intended for a duck; loop handle on the back and at each side. 850, (47468). Gourd-shaped water vessel with animal head at the apex, as in Fig. 709. 851, (47467). Toy cooking vessel of unadorned brown ware. 852, (47816). Large tinaja of white painted ware, with lid much like Fig. 651, (39533), plate 81. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 853, (47301). Specimen of dried melon; is twisted like a rope. 854, (47392). Fox skin. 855, (47303). Brick from a wall. 856, (47304). Copper cannon ball scarcely one inch in diameter. 857, (47305). Copper kettle with handle. 858, (48049). A musical instrument. COLLECTIONS FROM SAN ILDEFONSO. The collections from this pueblo were the largest made during the year 1880, consisting of pottery of different kinds, black and brown painted ware, stone implements and wooden utensils. ARTICLES OF STONE. 858½-861. 858½, (47976); 859, (47977); 860, (48031); 861, (48044). Lava mortars. 862, (48032). Mortar with three cavities. 863, (47978). Pestle and rubber combined. 864-867. 864, (47979); 865, (47985); 866, (47017); 867, (48025). Rubbers for metates, of regular form. 868-877. 868, (47986); 869, (47999); 870, (48000); 871, (48010); 872, (48013); 873, (48015); 874, (48016); 875, (48026); 876, (48033); 877, (48039). Pounding stones. 878, (47987). Paint muller. 879-880. 879, (47988); 880, (48045). Pestles. 881-883. 881, (47989); 882, (48028); 883, (48029). Grooved hammers. 884-887. 884, (47990); 885, (47996); 886, (47998); 887, (48030). Hatchets with grooves or notches. 888-892. 888, (47997); 889, (48001); 890, (48009); 891, (48040); 892, (48043). Smoothing stones. 893, (48014). Round stone used as slung shot. 894, (48027). Chisel. ARTICLES OF CLAY. These consist of painted white ware with decorations in black; polished black ware and black and brown ware. The white pottery resembles very closely, in the forms, color, and ornamentation, that from Taos and Cochiti, the white in all these being of a creamy color. [Illustration: Fig. 712. 47326] 895-897. 895, (47319); 896, (47321); 897, (47325). Medium-sized hemispherical bowls, ornamented, on the inside only, with star figures or rosettes and triangles. 898-899. 898, (47320); 899, (47324). Similar bowls with similar ornamentation both internally and externally. 900, (47323). Bowl of similar form and size; only decoration a broad external marginal band with oval spaces in it. 901, (47322). Small bowl with decorations on the inner surface only. 902-903. 902, (47326); 903, (47327). Medium-sized olla-shaped bowls not adorned internally; marginal line of dots externally. Latter with zigzag belt; former with serpents, crosses, and figure of bottle on a stand; Fig. 712. 904, (47329). Large tinaja with cover. Vines and leaves on the neck, and around the body a broad belt of figures resembling fringed medicine bags. 905-906. 905, (47334); 906, (47336). Canteens of the usual form, with loop handles at the sides; the first ornamented with the common central star and triangles, the second has no central figure. Posterior Half with interlaced figure. 907, (47335). Globular canteens; side handles; cactus leaves and simple broad bands. 905, (47337). Flower-pot precisely of the usual form, with hole in the bottom, grooved outline, dentate bands. 909-916. 909, (47351); 910, (47354); 911, (47359); 912, (47360); 913, (47361); 914, (47362); 915, (47363); 916, (47364.) Small bowls with decorations on the inner face. 917, (47373). Small pitcher; handle broken off. 918, (47387). A bowl of peculiar and significant ornamentation. 919-920. 919, (47389); 920, (47390). Bowls ornamented on the inner face only. 921-922. 921, (47391); 922, (47392). Straight-sided or crock-shaped, deep bowls, with foot. First with a zigzag submarginal band on the inner side and a zigzag line and dots around the body on the outside. The latter with a dotted inner marginal band, a vine and leaves around the outside. 923-925. 923, (47399); 924, (47400); 925, (47401). Pear-shaped or conical water-vessels, with animal heads at the apex; decorations simple. 926-927. 926, (47414); 927, (47415). Olla-shaped bowls, of medium size, ornamented internally and externally. 928, (47416). Basin-shaped bowl, with foot, ornamented internally and externally. 929, (47426). Bird image. _RED WARE WITH DECORATIONS IN BLACK._ 930, (47328). Medium-sized tinaja, bead figures or necklace around the neck, zigzag band on the shoulders, sprig, double looped and serrate triangular figures on the body. 931, (47331). Small tinaja; undulate marginal band, tear-drops on the neck, large band divided into triangles pointing alternately up and down, fitting into the spaces, each with two oval, red spaces. 932, (47333). Small tinaja, with alternating triangles base to base on both neck and body, those on the body with circular spaces. 933, (47338). Flower-pot of the ordinary form, with undulate margin, zigzag submarginal band, belt of flower ornaments on the body. 934, (47340). Bowl with a belt of anvil-shaped figures on the outside. 935, (47352). Bowl decorated on the inside, outside plain. 936, (47355). Bowl with vine externally and internally. _RED AND BROWN WARE WITHOUT DECORATIONS._ 937-939. 937, (47339); 938, (47358); 939, (47379). Plain bowls. 940, (47353). Olla-shaped bowl with undulate margin. 941-942. 941, (47370); 942, (47375). Small tinajas. 943, (47372). Bottle with square groove around the middle. 944, (47376). Oval dish. 945-946. 945, (47377); 946, (47378). Flat circular dishes. 947, (47397). A rather large, regular-shaped fruit jar with margin expanded horizontally. 948-953. 948, (47404); 949, (47405); 950, (47406); 951, (47409); 952, (47410); 953, (47411). Bird images. 954-956. 954, (47407); 955, (57408); 956, (47413). Images of the human form, first with hat on, second apparently praying, third with arms extended and sash crossing in front from each shoulder. 957, (47424). Images of the human form. 958, (47403). Basket-shaped, toy water-vessel with loop handle. _BLACK POLISHED WARE._ 959-961. 959, (47341); 960, (47350); 961, (47417). Bowls. 962-963. 962, (47356); 963, (47357). Dishes with undulate edge. 964-965. 964, (47365); 965, (47366). Toy bowls. 966-967. 966, (47380); 967, (47386). Small basket-shaped vessels with handles across the top. 968, (47388). Oblong dish. 969, (47393). Basin with foot and undulate margin. 970, (47394). Toy jar. 971-972. 971, (47395); 972, (47396). Toy pottery kegs, the latter with a handle. 973, (47402). Duck-shaped water-vessel. 974, (47412). Two-headed bird image. 975, (47418). Small paint cup. 976-977. 976, (47419); 977, (47420). Bowls with arched handle. 978-979. 978, (47427); 979, (47430). Toy dishes. _BLACK WARE NOT POLISHED._ 980-982. 980, (47367); 981, (47369); 982, (47371). Cooking pots. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 983, (47318). Ox cart, "_carreta_." 984, (47425). Arrow straightener of bone; (a piece of bone with round holes in it). COLLECTIONS FROM TAOS. The collections made from this pueblo were quite extensive and varied. ARTICLES OF STONE. 985-997. 985, (47846); 986, (47848); 987, (47852); 988, (47854); 989, (47856); 990, (47858); 991, (47863); 992, (47873); 993, (47875); 994, (47879); 995, (47880); 996, (47883); 997, (47887). Stone hatchets grooved. 998-1004. 998, (47847); 999, (47853); 1000, (47861); 1001, (47864); 1002, (47876); 1003, (47878); 1004, (47882). Rounding stones. 1005-1014 1005, (47855); 1006, (47860); 1007, (47866); 1008, (47869); 1009, (47880); 1010, (47871); 1011, (47872); 1012, (47877); 1013, (47881); 1014, (47884). Stone hammers very rude, sometimes with a groove, but generally with simply a notch at each side. 1015, (47859). Rude stone knife. 1016-1021. 1016, (47862); 1017, (47865); 1018, (47867); 1019, (47868); 1020, (47885); 1021, (47886). Rubbing and polishing stones. 1022, (47874). Grooved stone for polishing arrow-shafts (Fig. 713). [Illustration: Fig. 713.] ARTICLES OF CLAY. These are chiefly vessels of brown and black ware, some two or three pieces only being ornamented ware. 1023-1027. 1023, (47821); 1024, (47822); 1025, (47828); 1026, (47829); 1027, (47833). Brown ware, pitcher shaped vessels with handle, used as cooking vessels. 1028-1032. 1028, (47823); 1029, (47824); 1030, (47825); 1031, (47826); 1032, (47827). Cooking pots, brown ware, smoke stained. 1033, (47830). Olla of unburned ware. 1034, (47831). Bowl with handle, black ware. 1035, (47832). Teapot of the ordinary form, polished black ware. 1036, (47834). Small globular olla with undulate margin, of polished black ware. 1037, (47835). Water bottle with four loop handles, brown ware. 1038-1041. 1038, (47836); 1039, (47839); 1040, (47839); 1041, (47845). Small spherical ollas of brown ware. 1042, (47840). Small bowl of black polished ware. 1043, (47841). A globular water vessel with a ridge around the middle; polished black ware. 1044, (47842). Dish of polished black ware. _WHITE AND RED WARE WITH DECORATIONS._ 1045, (47844). A singular-shaped bowl shown in Fig. 714. The outside is red but the inside is painted white; ornamentation in black. [Illustration: Fig. 714. 47844] 1046, (47843). A bottle-shaped canteen with animal head, flower and serrated ornamentation. Red ware. 1047, (47838). Large tinaja, white ware with black ornamentation, sprigs and triangles. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Errata noted by transcriber: [List of Illustrations] 710.--The blanket weaver 454 _text reads "434"_ turquois _normal spelling for this publication_ short, circular, with moldings. _text reads ".?"_ 
31907	----	SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. ANCIENT POTTERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. BY WILLIAM H. HOLMES. * * * * * CONTENTS. Page. Introductory 367 Ceramic groups 369 Middle Mississippi province 369 Distribution 369 How found 370 Age 371 Use 371 Construction 372 Material 372 Color 373 Form 373 Finish 373 Ornament 373 Modification of shape 373 Relief ornament 374 Intaglio designs 374 Designs in color 374 Classification of forms 375 Origin of form 376 Bowls 376 Form 376 Ornament 377 Illustrations 378 Ordinary forms 378 Eccentric forms 380 Life forms 383 Pot-shaped vessels 392 Material 393 Form 393 Handles 393 Origin of handles 393 Ornament 394 Illustrations 394 Wide-mouthed bottles or jars 398 Form 399 Ornament 399 Illustrations 399 Ordinary forms 399 Eccentric forms 403 Life forms 404 High-necked bottles 411 Form 411 Ornament 412 Illustrations 413 Ordinary forms 413 Eccentric forms 420 Life forms 422 Upper Mississippi province 426 Gulf province 431 Résumé 434 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. FIG. 361.--Scale of forms 376 362.--Forms of bowls 376 363.--Rim modification 377 364.--Bowl: Arkansas 378 365.--Bowl: Arkansas 378 366.--Cup: Arkansas 379 367.--Bowl: Arkansas 379 368.--Bowl: Arkansas 380 369.--Cup: Arkansas 380 370.--Cup: Arkansas 380 371.--Rectangular bowl: Arkansas 381 372.--Burial casket: Tennessee 381 373.--Trough-shaped vessel: Arkansas 382 374.--Clay vessels imitating shell 384 375.--Bowl imitating a conch shell 384 376.--Frog-shaped bowl: Arkansas 385 377.--Frog-shaped bowl: Arkansas 385 378.--Animal-shaped bowl: Arkansas 385 379.--Bird-shaped bowl: Arkansas 386 380.--Bird-shaped bowl: Arkansas 386 381.--Bird-shaped bowl: Arkansas 387 382.--Bowl with grotesque heads: Arkansas 387 383.--Heads of birds 388 384.--Grotesque heads 388 385.--Bowl with grotesque head: Arkansas 389 386.--Bowl with grotesque head: Arkansas 389 387.--Bowl with grotesque handle: Arkansas 390 388.--Animal-shaped bowl: Arkansas 390 389.--Animal-shaped bowl: Arkansas 391 390.--Bowl with bat's head: Arkansas 392 391.--Bowl: Arkansas 392 392.--Forms of pots 393 393.--Handles 393 394.--Pot: Arkansas 394 395.--Pot: Arkansas 395 396.--Pot: Tennessee 395 397.--Pot: Arkansas 395 398.--Pot: Arkansas 395 399.--Pot: Alabama 396 400.--Pot: Arkansas 396 401.--Pot: Arkansas 396 402.--Pot: Arkansas 396 403.--Pot: Arkansas 397 404.--Pot: Tennessee 397 405.--Pot: Arkansas 398 406.--Forms of jar-shaped bottles 399 407.--Bottle: Arkansas 399 408.--Bottle: Arkansas 400 409.--Bottle: Arkansas 400 410.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas 401 411.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas 401 412.--Engraved design 402 413.--Teapot-shaped vessel: Arkansas 403 414.--Vessel of eccentric form: Arkansas 403 415.--Vessel of eccentric form: Arkansas 404 416.--Animal-shaped vase: Arkansas 404 417.--Sun-fish vase: Arkansas 405 418.--Opossum vase: Arkansas 405 419.--Animal-shaped vase: Arkansas 406 420.--Head-shaped vase: Arkansas 407 421.--Engraved figures 408 422.--Head covering 408 423.--Head-shaped vase: Arkansas 409 424.--Head-shaped vase: Arkansas 410 425.--Scale of forms 411 426.--Tripods 411 427.--Stands 412 428.--Compound forms of vessels 412 429.--Adaptation of the human form 412 430.--Bottle: Tennessee 413 431.--Gourd-shaped vessel: Tennessee 413 432.--Bottle: Arkansas 414 433.--Bottle: Arkansas 414 434.--Bottle: Arkansas 415 435.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas 416 436.--Bottle: Arkansas 417 437.--Bottle: Arkansas 417 438.--Bottle: Arkansas 418 439.--Fluted bottle: Arkansas 419 440.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas 419 441.--Tripod bottle: Arkansas 420 442.--Tripod bottle: Arkansas 421 443.--Tripod bottle: Arkansas 421 444.--Bottle of eccentric form: Arkansas 422 445.--Owl-shaped bottle: Arkansas 422 446.--Bear-shaped bottle: Tennessee 423 447.--Bear-shaped bottle: Arkansas 423 448.--Bottle with human head: Arkansas 424 449.--Bottle with human head: Arkansas 424 450.--Bottle with human head: Arkansas 424 451.--Bottle with human head: Arkansas 424 452.--Bottle with human head: Arkansas 425 453.--Position of feet 425 454.--Bottle with human form: Arkansas 426 455.--Bottle with human form: Arkansas 426 456.--Vase: Iowa 428 457.--Vase: Wisconsin 429 458.--Vase: Illinois 430 459.--Cup: Alabama 431 460.--Bowl: Alabama 432 461.--Bottle: Mississippi 432 462.--Bottle: Alabama 433 463.--Painted design 434 ANCIENT POTTERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. By WILLIAM H. HOLMES. INTRODUCTORY. This paper is the third of a series of preliminary studies of aboriginal ceramic art which are intended to be absorbed into a final work of a comprehensive character. The groups of relics selected for these studies are in all cases of limited extent, and are such as can lay claim to a considerable degree of completeness. It is true that no series of archæologic objects can ever be considered complete, but in exceptional cases the sources of supply may be so thoroughly explored that the development of new features of importance cannot reasonably be expected. If any series of American ceramic products has reached such a condition, it is that of the middle portions of the Mississippi Valley; yet, even in this case, I consider it unwise to attempt a monographic study, and prefer to single out a particular collection, making it the subject of a thorough investigation. When the idea of preparing such a paper was first conceived, the collection presenting the greatest advantages was that of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Davenport, Iowa, which was, therefore, chosen. Other museums, especially those at Cambridge, Saint Louis, and Washington, were rich in material from this region, but none of these collections were so homogeneous and satisfactory. The National Museum has recently received important accessions from the Mississippi Valley, through the agency of the Bureau of Ethnology, and ere the publication of this paper will probably excel all others in the number and variety of its mound relics. Some of its material has already been published by Dr. Charles Rau, Prof. C. C. Jones, Dr. Joseph Jones, and myself, and several additional examples are given in this paper. Professor F. W. Putnam has described and illustrated many pieces belonging to the Peabody Museum, and Professor W. B. Potter and Dr. Edward Evers have issued an important work on the Saint Louis collections, in Contributions to the Archæology of Missouri. This study is intended to pave the way to a thorough classification of the multitude of relics, and to the discovery of a method of procedure suited to a broad and exhaustive treatment of the ceramic art. I do not expect to discuss ethnical questions, although ceramic studies will eventually be of assistance in determining the distribution and migrations of peoples, and in fixing the chronology of very remote events in the history of pottery-making races. Some of the results of my studies of the evolutionary phase of the subject are embodied in an accompanying paper upon the "Origin and Development of Form and Ornament," and a second paper will soon follow. Before the final work is issued I hope to make close studies of all the principal collections, public and private. In such a work the importance of great numbers of examples cannot be overestimated. Facts can be learned from a few specimens, but relationships and principles can only be derived from the study of multitudes. I shall probably have occasion to modify many of the views advanced in these preliminary papers, but it is only by pushing out such advance guards that the final goal can be reached. Since the original issue of this paper in the Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, a careful revision of the text has been made and much additional matter and a number of illustrations have been added. I wish in this place to express my obligations to the officers and members of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, and especially to Mrs. M. L. D. Putnam and Prof. W. H. Pratt, whose generous aid has been of the greatest service to me. CERAMIC GROUPS. In studying the collections from the Mississippi Valley, I find it convenient to classify the ceramic products in three great groups, which belong to as many pretty well-defined districts; these I have named, for convenience of treatment, the Upper Mississippi, the Middle Mississippi, and the Lower Mississippi or Gulf provinces. Other pottery occurs within the limits of these areas, but the examples found in the museums are so few that very little of importance can be learned from them. The three groups enumerated are not equally represented. The great body of our collections is from the middle province. The ware of the Lower Mississippi or Gulf district, of which we have but a small number of pieces, has many features in common with the pottery of the middle district, and at the same time is identical in most respects with that of the Gulf coast to the east. No well-defined line can be drawn between them; but the ware of the north is wholly distinct and need never be confounded with the other groups. MIDDLE MISSISSIPPI PROVINCE. DISTRIBUTION.--It must not be inferred that there is perfect uniformity in the pottery of this, or any other, extended region; local peculiarities are always to be found. The products of contiguous districts, such, for example, as those of Mississippi County, Arkansas, and New Madrid County, Missouri, have much in common, and will at once be recognized as belonging to the same family, yet the differences are so marked that the unskilled observer could point them out with ease. As indicated by decided family resemblances, the wares of this group extend over the greater part of the States of Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee, cover large portions of Mississippi, Kentucky, and Illinois, and reach somewhat into Iowa, Indiana, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. The types are better marked and the products more abundant about the center of this area, which may be defined roughly as including contiguous parts of Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee, with a pretty decided focal center, at least in the abundance of relics, at Pecan Point, Arkansas. The borders of the district are necessarily not clearly defined. The characters of the art products blend more or less with those of neighboring sections. This is a usual phenomenon, and is probably due to a variety of causes. The mere contact of peoples leads to the exchange of ideas, and, consequently, to similarities in the products of industry. A change of habitat, with its consequent change of environment, is capable of modifying art to a great extent. Groups of relics and remains attributed by archæologists to distinct stocks of people, may, in cases, be the work of one and the same people executed under the influence of different environments and at widely separated periods of time. Mixed conditions in the remains of a locality are often due to the presence of different peoples, synchronously or otherwise. This occurs in many places on the outskirts of this district, a good illustration being found in East Tennessee, where three or four distinct groups of ware are intermingled. As would naturally be expected, the distribution is governed somewhat by the great water-ways, and pottery of this province is found far up the Ohio, Tennessee, and Arkansas Rivers. HOW FOUND.--All peoples have resorted, at some period of their history, to the practice of burying articles of use or value with the dead. It is to this custom that we owe the preservation of so many entire pieces of these fragile utensils. They are exhumed from burial mounds in great numbers, and to an equal extent, perhaps, from simple, unmarked graves which are constantly being brought to light by the plowshare. Fragmentary ware is found also in refuse heaps, on house and village sites, and scattered broadcast over the face of the land. This pottery, at its best, was probably not greatly superior in hardness to our own soft earthenware, and the disintegrating agencies of the soil have often reduced it to a very fragile state. Some writer has expressed the belief that a considerable portion of the ware of this province was sun-baked merely. This view is hardly a safe one, however, as clay, unmixed with lime or other like indurating ingredient, no matter how long exposed to the rays of the sun, would, from ages of contact with the moist earth, certainly return to its original condition. I have seen but few pieces that, even after the bleaching of centuries, did not show traces of the dark mottlings that result from imperfect firing. There probably was a period of unbaked clay preceding the terra-cotta epoch, but we cannot expect to find definite traces of its existence except, perhaps, in cases where large masses, such as mounds or fortifications, were employed. The relations of the various articles of pottery to the bodies with which they were associated seem to be quite varied. The position of each vessel was determined by its contents, by its symbolic use, or by the pleasure of the depositor. Uniformity cannot be expected in this more than in other features of burial. In other sections of the country the pieces of pottery are said to have been broken before final inhumation took place, but such was certainly not the practice in this province. AGE.--There can be no reasonable doubt that the manufacture of this ware began many centuries before the advent of the white race, but it is equally certain that the art was extensively practiced until quite recent times. The early explorers of Louisiana saw it in use, and the processes of manufacture are described by Dumont and others. Possibly Du Pratz had in mind some of the identical vessels now upon our museum shelves when he said that "the women make pots of an extraordinary size, jars with a medium-sized opening, bowls, two-pint bottles with long necks, pots or jugs for containing bear's oil, which hold as much as forty pints, and finally plates and dishes in the French fashion."[1] Vessels were certainly made in great numbers by the Natchez and other tribes within our period, and it is reasonable to suppose that they belonged to the great group under discussion. If not, it will be necessary to seek the cause of their total disappearance, since, as I have already said, the pottery of this district, as shown by the relics, is practically a unit. The introduction of metal utensils was a death-blow to the native industry, although some of the southern tribes, the Cherokees, for example, seem to have practiced the art continuously, in a very limited way, down to the present time. There is but little evidence of the influence of the art of the whites upon the ceramic products of this province, although the forms are sometimes thought to be suggestive of European models. It is certain, however, that the art had reached its highest stage without the aid of civilized hands, and in the study of its many interesting features we can feel assured that we are dealing with purely aboriginal ideas. The pottery of this province is remarkably homogeneous in character, and we are warranted in assigning it to a single period of culture, and, in concluding, that the peoples who developed and practiced the art belonged to a group of closely-allied tribes. We can also state without fear of precipitating a controversy that the people who made this pottery were "mound-builders." At the same time, they were not necessarily of the same people as the builders of the mounds of Wisconsin, Ohio, or Georgia or contemporaneous with them. [Footnote 1: Du Pratz: Histoire de la Louisiane, Vol. II, p. 179.] USE.--It is difficult to determine the functions of the various forms of vessels. We are safe in stating that in very primitive times nearly all were intended for use in the domestic arts, and that as time went on uses were differentiated--form, as a consequence, undergoing many changes. Early writers on the Southern States mention a number of ordinary uses, such as cooking, the carrying and boiling of water, the manufacture of sugar and salt, and the preservation of honey, oil, and paint. Only a small percentage of the vessels, and these generally of the pot-shaped variety, show indications of use over fire. It is well known that with most peoples particular forms were devoted to especial ceremonial uses. The construction of vases exclusively for mortuary purposes was probably not generally practiced, although a few examples, notably those illustrated in Figs. 372 and 420, point decidedly in this direction. The simple conditions of life with these people are indicated by the absence of certain forms. Lamps, whistles, toys, bricks, tiles, and other articles in common use with many barbaric nations, are not found in this province. Pipes, so neatly shaped by other mound-building peoples, are here of a very rude character, a point indicating decided distinctions between the tribes of this province and those of neighboring sections. CONSTRUCTION.--The methods of manufacture have evidently been of a primitive character. The wheel or lathe has not been used. At the advent of the whites, the natives were observed to build their vessels by a process known as "coiling," and by modeling over gourds, and over blocks of wood and masses of indurated clay shaped for the purpose. It is probable that in many cases the support was not a mold in the ordinary sense, but was simply a rounded object of small size held in one hand while the base of the vessel was formed over it by the other. Rounded pebbles, or the mushroom-shaped objects of clay sometimes found in the mounds, would have served the purpose perfectly. Trowels, paddles, stamps, polishing-stones, and other implements were used in finishing. Baskets were also used as molds, and pliable fabrics, such as nets and coarse cloths, were employed in some sections. The methods of baking have apparently not been described in much detail by early writers, but the ware itself bears the marks of those simple processes known to our modern tribes. It is highly probable that the work was done by the women, and that each community had its skilled potters, who built and baked the ware in the open air, going through those simple mummeries that accompany the work among most primitive peoples. MATERIAL.--The material employed was usually a moderately fine-grained clay, tempered, in a great majority of cases, with pulverized shells. The shells used were doubtless obtained from the neighboring rivers. In many of the vessels the particles are large, measuring as much as one-fourth or even one-half of an inch in width, but in the more elegant vases the shell has been reduced to a fine powder. Powdered potsherds were also used. The clay was, apparently, often impure or loamy. It was, probably, at times, obtained from recent alluvial deposits of the bayous--the sediment of overflows--as was the potter's clay of the Nile. There is no reason for believing that the finer processes of powdering and levigation were known. A slip or wash of very finely comminuted clay was sometimes applied to the surface of the vessel. The walls of the vessels are often thick and uneven, and are always quite porous, a feature of no little importance in the storage of drinking-water, but one resulting from accident rather than from design. COLOR.--The paste of this ware presents two marked varieties of color, a dark and a light hue. In a majority of cases it is dark, ranging from a rich black to all shades of brown and gray. The lighter tints are usually warm ochrey grays, rarely approaching reddish or terra-cotta hues. It is highly probable that the differences of color were, to some extent, intentionally produced, and that the material or methods of firing were regulated in a way to produce one tint or another at pleasure. This theory is confirmed by the fact that certain forms of vases are pretty generally dark, while certain other forms are as uniformly light--the latter in nearly all cases being used for the application of color, or of designs in color. FORM.--This ware exhibits a great variety of forms, many of which are extremely pleasing. In this respect it is far superior to the other prehistoric groups of the eastern United States. The shapes are as varied and elegant as those of the ancient Pueblo pottery, but are inferior to those of Mexico, Central America, and Peru. They take a higher rank than the prehistoric wares of central and northern Europe, but as a matter of course lack the symmetry and refinement of outline that characterize the wheel-made wares of Mediterranean countries. As I classify by form farther on, and discuss the origin of form as each form-group is presented, I shall not make further reference to this topic here. FINISH.--The finish, as compared with the work of civilized nations, is rude. The surface is often simply hand or trowel smoothed. Generally, however, it was more or less carefully polished by rubbing with an implement of stone, shell, bone, or other suitable substance, the markings of these tools being distinctly visible. Nothing resembling a glaze has been found on pieces known to be ancient. The surface was sometimes washed or coated with a slip or film of fine clay which facilitated the polishing, and in very many cases a coat of thick red ocher was applied. ORNAMENT.--The ancient potter of the middle province has taken especial delight in the embellishment of his wares, and the devices used are varied and interesting. They include, first, fanciful modifications of form; second, relief ornament; third, intaglio figures; and, fourth, designs in color. _Modification of shape_.--It can hardly be claimed that the ancient peoples of this region had a very refined appreciation of elegance of outline, yet the simple, essential forms of cups and pots were by no means satisfactory to them. There are many modifications of shape that indicate a taste for higher types of beauty, and a constant attempt to realize them. The æsthetic sentiment was considerably developed. There is also a decided tendency toward the grotesque. To such an extreme have the dictates of fancy been followed, in this respect, that utility, the true office of the utensil, has often taken a secondary place, although it is never lost sight of entirely. Bowls have been fashioned into the shapes of birds, fishes, and reptiles, and vases and bottles into a multitude of animal and vegetable forms without apparent regard to convenience. All of these modifications of essential forms were doubtless looked upon as, in a sense, ornamental. So far as I can determine they were in no case intended to be humorous. _Relief ornament._--Decorative ideas of a purely conventional character are often worked out in both low and salient relief. This is generally accomplished by the addition of nodes and fillets of clay to the plain surfaces of the vessel. Fillets are applied in various ways over the body, forming horizontal, oblique, and vertical bands or ribs. When placed about the rim or base, these fillets are often indented with the finger or an implement in a way to imitate, rudely, a heavy twisted cord--a feature evidently borrowed from basketry. Nodes are likewise attached in various ways to the neck and body of the vessel. In some cases the entire surface of the larger vessels is varied by pinching up small bits of the clay between the nails of the fingers and thumb. An implement is sometimes used to produce a similar result. _Intaglio designs._--The æsthetic tendencies of these potters are well shown by their essays in engraving. They worked with points upon both the plastic and the sun-dried clay, as well as at times upon the fire-baked surface. Figures thus produced exhibit a wide range of artistic achievement. They illustrate all stages of progress from the most archaic type of ornament--the use of dots and straight lines--to the most elegant combinations of curves; and, finally, to the delineation of life forms and fanciful conceptions. Generally, when a blunt implement is employed, the line is produced by a movement that I shall call _trailing_, in contradistinction to _incision_, in which a sharp point is used, and _excision_ or _excavation_, which is more easily accomplished with the end of a hollow reed or bone. _Impressed_ or _stamped_ ornament is of rare occurrence, and anything like _repoussée_ work is practically unknown. The practice of impressing cords and fabrics was common among many of the northern tribes, and nets have been used in the manufacture and ornamentation of vases at many points within this province. The use of stamps, especially prepared, was in vogue in most of the Gulf States, and to a limited extent in northern localities. _Designs in color._--The colors used in painting are white, red, brown, and black, and have generally consisted of thick, opaque, clayey paste, white or colored with ochers. Occasionally the colors used seem to have been mere stains. All were probably laid on with coarse brushes of hair, feathers, or vegetable fiber. The figures are in most cases simple, and are applied in broad, bold lines, indicative of a strong talent for decoration. The forms are, to a great extent, curvilinear, and embrace meanders, scrolls, circles, and combinations and groupings of curved lines in great variety. Of rectilinear forms, lozenges, guilloches, zigzags, and checkers are best known. The decided prevalence of curved forms is worthy of remark. With all their fertility of invention, the inhabitants of this valley seem never to have achieved the rectangular linked meander, or anything more nearly approaching it than the current scroll or the angular guilloche, while other peoples, such as the Pueblos of the Southwest and the ancient nations of Mexico and Peru found in it a chief resource. The reasons for this, as well as for other peculiarities of the decorative art of the mound-builders as embodied in pottery, must be sought for in the antecedent and coëxistent arts of these tribes. These peoples were certainly not highly accomplished in the textile arts, nor had they felt the influence of advanced architecture such as that of Mexico. The influence of such arts inevitably gives rise to angular geometric figures. Taken as a whole, the remains of the mound-builders would seem to point to a hyperborean origin for both the people and their arts. The origin of decorative ideas, the processes by which they are acquired by the various arts, and their subsequent mutations of form and significance are matters of the greatest interest, and a separate paper will be devoted to their consideration. CLASSIFICATION OF FORMS.--Form cannot be made a satisfactory basis of classification, yet within a given group of products, defined by general characters, a classification by shape will be found to facilitate description. In making such a classification we must distinguish essential from non-essential features, that is to say, for example, that bowls must be placed with bowls, bottles with bottles, etc., disregarding the various fanciful modifications given to rims, necks, and bodies for the sake of embellishment. To recognize these adventitious features, which are almost infinite in variety, would be to greatly embarrass form classification. There is also another difficulty in the employment of form in classification--the nomenclature is very imperfect. We cannot use Greek names, as our forms correspond in a very few instances only with the highly developed forms known to classic art. Our own plain terms, although defective, are better and far more appropriate. All necessary correlations of form can readily be made when the comparative study of the pottery of the world is undertaken. If we take a full set of these primitive vessels and arrange them in the order of increasing complexity we have an unbroken series ranging from the simplest cup to the high-necked bottle with perforated foot or with tripod. A partial series is shown in the upper line, Fig 361. A multitude of variations from these outlines are found, a few of which are suggested in the lower line. [Illustration: FIG. 361.--Scale of forms.] Compound, eccentric, and life forms are given elsewhere. In deciding upon the order of arrangement for the various form groups, I shall be governed by what appears to be the natural order of evolution--a progress from simple to complex. First then we have basin-like vessels, such as _dishes_, _cups_, and _bowls_. Second, vases with wide mouths and somewhat globular bodies, the larger of which would be very generally recognized as _pots_. Third, vases with full bodies and narrow mouths, such as are often termed _jars_, but which are as properly called bottles. Fourth, vessels with high, narrow necks, universally denominated _bottles_. Vessels that cannot be grouped with either of these classes will have to be described in sub-groups, arranged in the order of their complexity or importance. ORIGIN OF FORM.--The derivation and subsequent mutations of form will be treated somewhat in detail as the various forms come up, and a subsequent paper will dwell upon the topic at considerable length. BOWLS. Basin or bowl-shaped vessels exhibit great diversity of shape and ornament. In size they range from less than one inch in diameter and depth to more than twenty inches in diameter and a foot in depth. In color and finish they are uniform with vessels of the other classes. Their uses were doubtless chiefly domestic. [Illustration: FIG. 362.--Forms of bowls.] FORM.--The forms are greatly varied, as will be seen in Fig. 362. Many are simply segments of spheres and vary from a shallow saucer to a hollow perforated globe. Others have elongated, compressed, or conical bodies, with round or flattened bases. Rectangular and irregular forms are sometimes found. Stands and legs are but rarely attached, and handles, excepting those of a grotesque character, are exceptional. It will probably be safe to assume that some form of shallow vessel--a dish, cup, or bowl, was the first artificial form produced. Such a vessel would be most easily fashioned in clay and may have been suggested by accident, or by natural or artificial vessels. Whatever the origin or whichever the method of construction, the difficulties encountered would at first prevent the manufacture of other than the simplest forms. ORNAMENT.--The ornamentation of bowls was accomplished in a variety of ways. These have been already described in a general way, under the head of ornament. Rim modifications constitute an important feature. The margin or lip may be square, oblique, round, or grooved, as indicated in Fig. 363 _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_. The scallop may be employed as in _e_ and _f_, and relief ornament may be added, such as fillets and nodes, and various horizontal projections, as shown in the second line, Fig. 363, to say nothing of incised lines and indentations, which are the heritage of wicker-work. [Illustration: FIG. 363.--Modification of rims.] Not satisfied with these simple ideas of decoration, the fancy of the potter led him to add embellishments of most varied and often of extraordinary character. The nodes and ridges have been enlarged and prolonged, and fashioned into a thousand natural and fanciful forms. Shells, fish, birds, beasts, human and impossible creatures have been utilized in a multitude of ways. Many illustrations of these are given on subsequent pages. The body of the bowl is somewhat less profusely ornamented than the rim. The interior, as well as the exterior, has received painted, relieved, and intaglio designs. In the painted ones the favorite idea for the interior is a series of volutes, in broad lines, radiating from the center of the basin. Groups of festooned lines, either painted or engraved, and arranged to give the effect of imbricate scales, form also a favorite motive. The exterior surface of the incurved rims of globular vessels offers a tempting surface to the artist and is often tastefully decorated in all the styles. ILLUSTRATIONS.--_Ordinary forms._--I have not thought it necessary to present many cuts of simple undecorated vessels, as their shapes are repeated numberless times in elaborated forms. The crude examples teach nothing as to stage of culture. They are of the same time and people as the finer specimens. [Illustration: FIG. 364.--Bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] The small bowl given in Fig. 364 is unusually well made, and is peculiar in having its interior surface decorated with a rather chaste incised design consisting of festooned lines. This was a favorite idea with the ancient potters and may be seen on both exterior and interior surfaces of a variety of vessels. The rim is beveled on the inner edge and has a beaded or indented fillet encircling the outer margin. The bottom is somewhat flattened. This specimen is from Arkansas. [Illustration: FIG. 365.--Bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] In Fig. 365 we have a good example of the dark, nicely-finished ware of Arkansas. The widely expanding rim is neatly scalloped on the margin and is finished on the inside with a pattern of incised lines. These lines appear to have been engraved in the hardened clay. The form is rendered graceful by a shallow encircling depression or groove at the base of the rim. The bottom is somewhat flattened. Occasionally we find very deep bowls with sloping sides and flat bottoms resembling our common flower pots. One example from Arkansas is seven inches in diameter at the top and four at the base, and five inches deep. A heavy band of clay has been added to the outer margin of the rim, leaving a channel above and beneath. A number of perforations occur in this rim, as if made for the passage of thongs or filaments. A similar specimen of larger dimensions may be seen in the National Museum. We have a number of bowls with incurved rims. This form is more characteristic of the south and is common along the Gulf coast. A very small example is shown in Fig. 366. The lower part of the body is nearly hemispherical while the rim contracts slightly, giving a rather graceful outline. The exterior is embellished with a simple figure consisting of four linked scrolls which have been traced with a blunt point in the moist clay. [Illustration: FIG. 366.--Cup: Arkansas.--1/3.] A much larger vessel resembling the above in shape is given in Fig. 367. It is of the dark brownish shell-tempered ware, characteristic of Arkansas. The lip is much incurved and the base considerably flattened, so that the form is that of a greatly compressed oblate spheroid. The outer surface has been moderately well polished, and is ornamented in a very effective manner by a series of figures, outlined by incised lines, alternate spaces being filled in with minute punctures. [Illustration: FIG. 367.--Bowl: Arkansas. (?)--1/3.] A favorite form is a bowl with full deep body and incurved lip. A vessel of this class is illustrated in Fig. 368. The rim is but slightly incurved, while the body is considerably constricted below the greatest circumference. It is a unique and handsome specimen. The color of the slip is a pale, reddish-gray, a little darker than an ordinary flesh tint. The paste is seen to be yellowish where the surface has been injured. The ornament is a simple meander, consisting of three incised lines. It is said to have been found in Arkansas. Other bowls of like form and of elegant finish are found in the collection. They are generally dark in color, and have large apertures, low walls and flattened bases. The meander, mostly in its more simple forms, is the favorite decoration. [Illustration: FIG. 368.--Bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] There are many red vessels of the class under consideration, but the majority are less contracted at the aperture and thus are somewhat pot-shaped. They are rather rudely constructed and finished, and but for the color, would seem to be intended for ordinary cooking purposes. I observe in a number of cases that circular medallion-like ornaments have been set around the rim. These are from one-half to one inch in diameter, and are generally perforated or punctured in two or three places, apparently with the idea of representing a face. The effect is very much like that of the small perforated disks, riveted upon the exterior of copper or tin kettles for the purpose of attaching handles. Occasionally a tail-like appendage is added to the under side of these discoidal heads, suggesting the tadpole figures upon the sacred water vessels of the Pueblo Indians. One large basin with slightly incurved rim has a series of triangular figures in red and brown upon both the inner and the outer surfaces. It is rudely finished and of large size, being eleven inches in diameter and seven and a half in height. _Eccentric forms._--Before proceeding with the discussion of life-forms as exhibited in bowls, I must present a few unique shapes. [Illustration: FIG. 369. FIG. 370. Cups: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] These consist of ladle-shaped vessels, and of bowls or basins with rectangular, oval, or unsymmetrical outlines. Ladles are of rare occurrence. In the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology I have illustrated the best example that has come to my notice. The Davenport collection contains but one specimen--a rude shallow cup with a short thick handle. The form suggests the wooden and horn spoons of the modern tribes and may have originated in their archaic prototypes. Fig. 369 illustrates a minute cup rudely made of coarse clay. The outline is oval and slightly pointed at one end, as if intended for pouring liquids. In Fig. 370 we have another small vessel of rude finish with two pointed lips. A much larger vessel of similar shape may be seen in the Davenport collection. The projecting pointed lip is rarely found in aboriginal pottery, although I see no reason why such a feature may not readily have been suggested to the savage by the prolonged margins of his vessels of shell. Rectangular vessels are of the rude shell-tempered ware, and, although rare, are widely distributed. Fig. 371 illustrates a specimen from Pecan Point, Arkansas. The surface is rudely finished and without polish. The color is a dark gray, much flecked with large particles of white shell. Another example has a square rim but a rounded bottom, and is covered with a coat or slip of dark red clay. [Illustration: FIG. 371.--Rectangular bowl: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] A small vessel from the same region as the preceding has the rim pressed in on the four sides, leaving sharp, projecting corners. One of the most notable vessels in the collection is illustrated in Fig. 372. It is a heavy casket consisting of two parts, body and lid, and is made as usual of clay and coarsely pulverized shell. It is brownish gray in color and bears some marks of the baking. It was obtained by Captain W. P. Hall from a low mound at Hale's Point, Tennessee, and is described by Mr. W. H. Pratt, in the following language: "It is of rude, irregular, quadrangular form, made in two parts. The lower, or case proper, is 12 inches long, 7 inches wide, and 5 inches deep, inside measure, the upper edge being slightly bent inward all around. The upper part or lid is of similar form and dimensions, being very slightly larger, so as to close down over the other part, about one and a half inches, and is somewhat more shallow. As the lid does not fit very perfectly, the joint around the edge had been plastered up with clay. When found, it contained the remains of a very small child reduced to dust, except that some of the bones of the skull, jaws, and limbs retained their form, crumbling rapidly, however, upon removal and exposure to the air. There were also found two or three dozen small shell beads. Excepting the remains described, the case was entirely empty. The case weighs six and a quarter, and the lid just six pounds." This is one of the very few vessels that would seem to have been constructed especially for mortuary purposes. [Illustration: FIG. 372.--Burial casket: Hale's Point, Tennessee.--1/4.] I wish to add to the list of eccentric forms a singular example from the collection of J. R. Thibault, of Little Rock, Arkansas. As shown in Fig. 373 it is an oblong, trough-like vessel with flat projecting wings at the ends. It is extremely well-finished, with thin walls, symmetrical form, and high polish. The color is quite dark and the material is as usual. The engraved design consists of incised lines, which form a number of rectangular compartments extending around the exterior surface of the body. The wings are perforated. The form of this vessel suggests the wooden trays of some modern tribes. A similar example, which is illustrated in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, is of much inferior interest, being plain and rude. _Life forms._--A very large percentage of the bowls of this district are modified in such a way as to resemble, more or less closely, the form of some living creature--bird, beast, or reptile. Especial attention has been given to the heads. These are modeled in the round and attached to the rim or side, while other parts of the animal appear upon different portions of the vessel. [Illustration: FIG. 373.--Trough-shaped vessel: Arkansas.--1/3. [_National Museum._]] It will be difficult to determine the origin of this curious practice. We shall not be able to say that it came from the elaboration of handles, simply to please fancy, for the reason that vessels of this class are rarely known to have had simple handles; nor from the modification of simple ornaments, as such were but little used. It is still less probable that animal forms were first modeled independently, and afterwards changed in such a way as to serve as vessels. There are no examples of animal forms in clay independent of vessels. It would not be consistent with primitive methods of procedure to copy nature direct, at least until some mystic significance had become attached to the form employed. It is possible, however, that the origin of this practice is not to be found within the plastic art itself, but in the shapes of antecedent and co-existent vessels of other materials in which life forms had been employed; or in the use of natural objects themselves as utensils, the original forms not having been lost sight of and having in time suggested the employment of other natural forms. Examples of the latter class may be cited. Shells were primitive vessels. The hard cases of seeds and fruits were also much used. These were doubtless antecedent to vessels of clay. They were the natural models for the potter, the carver in wood or stone, and their employment as such served to lead up gradually to a more realistic and general use of natural shapes in works of art to which they were not essential features. The importance of the various animal forms was increased by their association with religious ideas. Nearly all the vessels of this class presented in the following illustrations come from the vicinity of Pecan Point, Arkansas. Clay vessels imitating both marine and fresh-water shells are occasionally obtained from the mounds and graves of the Mississippi Valley. The conch shell appears to have been a favorite model, especially in its modified form, Fig. 374, _a_ and _b_. The clam shell is also imitated in _c_ and _d_. The more conventional forms of these vessels are exceedingly interesting, as they point out the tendencies and possibilities of modification. An instructive example illustrated in _e_ has four groups of nodes, each, consisting of a large central node with four or five smaller ones, surrounding it, set about the rim, the conception being that of four shells joined in one vessel, with the noded apexes turned outward and the bases inward. A still more highly conventionalized form is shown in _f_. The cup is unsymmetrical in outline, and has a few imperfect nodes near one corner, but its resemblance to a shell would hardly be recognized by one unacquainted with more realistic renderings of like subjects. In _g_ we have an imitation of a shell cup placed within a plain cup. [Illustrations: FIG. 374.--Clay vessels imitating shells.] A very good illustration of this class of vessel is given in Fig. 375. It is evidently intended to imitate a trimmed conch shell. The apex and a few of the surrounding nodes are shown at the right, while the base or spine forms a projecting lip at the left. A coil of clay forms the apex. This is carried outward in a sinistral spiral to the noded shoulder. We have here a suggestion of the origin of a favorite decorative motive, the scroll, a clew, however, which the paucity of examples makes it difficult to follow up satisfactorily. [Illustration: FIG. 375.--Bowl imitating a modified conch shell.--1/3.] Although we may not be able to arrive at any definite conclusion in regard to the origin and significance of the practice of modeling life forms in clay, we are certain of one thing, that it became an important feature in the potter's art, and that in due course of time the practice broke loose from the restraints of birth and tradition and asserted its freedom in the production of any form that superstition or fancy happened to select. The artist probably did not follow nature with great accuracy in all the details of species and varieties, but some definite model must have been in view, in nearly all cases, and such characters as came to be regarded as essential to that creature were never lost sight of, consistency being a most notable characteristic of the art of a savage or barbaric people. [Illustration: FIG. 376.--Frog-shaped bowl: Craigshead Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 377.--Frog-shaped bowl: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 378.--Animal-shaped bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] The sun-fish was a favorite model, but its form was generally employed in vessels with upright necks. A number of examples occur in the next section. Of reptilian forms the frog seems to have been the favorite. [Illustration: FIG. 379.--Bird-shaped bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 380.--Bird-shaped bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] Few examples occur, however, in the shallower vessels. In the bowl illustrated in Fig. 376, the various members of the body are boldly modeled, and appear about the most expanded portion of the vessel. The rim is ornamented with a series of notches, and two small loops connect the rim with the head and tail of the creature. The legs are characteristic, and the long toes extend beneath the body. The bottom of the vessel is flat. The make and finish are as usual, but the surface has been painted red. A similar vessel is shown in Fig. 377, the view being taken from the front. It is well polished and has a rounded bottom. The color is dark. [Illustration: FIG. 381.--Bird-shaped bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 382.--Bowl with grotesque heads: Arkansas.--1/3.] Another remarkable example of this use of animal forms is seen in the vessel presented in Fig. 378. A deep globular bowl of dark, well-polished ware is made to represent the head of an animal. A long snout, with teeth and nostrils and accompanied by a pair of knobs for eyes, embellishes the right side--as seen in the cut--ears appear at the front and back, and a circular node standing, perhaps, for the severed neck, is placed at the left. The head has a decidedly porcine look, yet it may have been intended for a raccoon or an opossum. Fig. 379 illustrates a large shallow bowl or pan of ordinary form and finish. The head of a bird resembling a turkey is attached to one side, with the bill turned inward. On the opposite side there is a small handle-like projection that represents the bird's tail. A vessel of somewhat extraordinary form is shown in Fig. 380. The bowl is smaller and deeper than the last, and serves as the body of a bird, the head and tail of which are of unusual proportions. The neck is very long and thick and is gracefully curved, but the head is not modeled with sufficient care to make apparent the species intended. The vessel shown in Fig. 381 is also finished in imitation of a bird. In this case the bird is placed upon its back, the neck and head being looped up to form a sort of handle on one side, while the legs answer a like purpose on the opposite side. The wings are represented by a number of lines rudely engraved upon the sides of the vessel. The resemblance of this bowl to the wooden basins made by Northwest Coast Indians is very striking. The vessel shown in Fig. 382 is one of the most unique yet brought to light. It is a heavy, rather rudely finished bowl, to the rim of which two grotesque heads, apparently of nondescript character, have been attached. One resembles the oft-occurring plumed serpent of aboriginal American art in a number of its characters. The other has a double comb somewhat resembling that of a domestic fowl. No description can convey as clear a conception of these monstrosities as the accompanying illustration. [Illustration: FIG. 383.--Heads of birds.] [Illustration: FIG. 384.--Grotesque heads.] A good degree of skill is shown in the modeling of varieties of birds. A fair idea of the accuracy of these potters in this direction will be conveyed by the series of heads shown in Fig. 383. Several species of ducks are apparently differentiated, one of which, resembling the summer duck closely, is given in _a_, while the head given in _b_, although possibly also intended for a duck, is much like a grouse or partridge. The pigeon or dove is seen in _c_, the vulture or eagle in _d_, and the owl in _e_. [Illustration: FIG. 385.--Bowl with grotesque head: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 386.--Bowl with grotesque head: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/2.] It would be difficult to imagine more grotesque and outlandish heads than those attached to the bowls illustrated in Figs. 385 and 386. The vessels themselves are of the usual type, rudely modeled and finished and very heavy. The first is dark in color, the other red. The strange animal here represented is certainly not a close copy of anything in nature. It is characterized by upright ears, a high bulbous snout and a grinning mouth. The teeth in some cases resemble the fangs of a serpent. The eyes consist of rounded nodes; and often curved lines, incised or in relief, extend from them or the mouth down the sides of the neck. The tail at the opposite end of the vessel is turned upward and coiled. The type specimens of this form are from Pecan Point, Arkansas. [Illustration: FIG. 387.--Bowl with grotesque handle: Scanlon's Landing, Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 388.--Animal-shaped bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] The peculiar character of this class of heads is well shown in the series given in Fig. 384. My observations have led me to suspect that they may be the result of attempts to model in clay the mythical plumed serpent which is so graphically delineated in the engraving upon the little vase shown in Fig. 407. The fact that in one case legs have been added to the base of the body militates against this theory. Their resemblance to the gargoyle heads of mediæval architecture suggests the possibility of early European influence. If possible, a still more novel conceit is embodied in the handle of the vessel shown in Fig. 387. It can be likened to nothing in nature more readily than to the antler of an elk. This vessel is of a dark brownish color, and is but slightly polished. A duplicate specimen of inferior size and finish has recently been added to the National Museum from a grave at Pecan Point. Similar to the preceding in general appearance are a number of bowls or deep pans, embellished with the heads of animals. A very good example is given in Fig. 388. The head has a decided resemblance to that of a female deer or fawn. The tail appears upon the opposite side of the basin, and is pendant, as in nature. Legs have been added to the base of the bowl; these terminate beneath the body in cloven hoofs. The small bowl, shown in Fig. 389, is nearly hemispherical in shape. [Illustration: FIG. 389.--Animal-shaped bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] A small head, representing some animal, has been attached to the rim. The exterior surface is covered with a number of groups of roughly-worked concentric ridges, which may be meant to imitate hair. These ridges have apparently been made by pinching up the clay between the nails of the fingers and thumb. Figures of similar form are generally incised. This vessel is probably from the vicinity of Pecan Point. The creature represented by the head, shown in Fig. 390, would not be recognized from the cut, or perhaps not even with certainty from any single specimen, but with a number of examples in view, there need be no hesitation. The animal intended is a bat. In a number of features the likeness is striking. The high top head, the angular ears, and the small eyes crowded down upon the mouth are characteristic. The tail is flat, curved a little upward, and ridged along the middle in imitation of the attenuated caudal column. The general consistency of this work is demonstrated by the fact that this particular form of tail accompanies this form of head in all cases, and is not associated with any other. The face of the bat is always turned toward the vessel; in imitation of other varieties of animals, it is nearly always turned out. [Illustration: FIG. 390.--Bowl with bat's head: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] In one case, Fig. 391, we have, what appears to be, a human head attached to the side of the bowl. This head is furnished with a triangular crest, notched on the edges, and enlarged at the top. The case is a perplexing one, especially as a tail like that attached to the bird bowls occurs on the side opposite the head. [Illustration: FIG. 391.--Bowl: Arkansas.--1/3.] POT-SHAPED VESSELS. There is no hard line of demarcation between the class of vessels now to be considered and those already described. The distinction is made chiefly for convenience of treatment. MATERIAL, ETC.--As a rule, pot-shaped vessels are of coarser materials and of ruder finish than other forms, indicating, perhaps, their exclusive relegation to the culinary arts, where nice finish was not essential. In many cases they show use over fire. In size, they have a wide range. The larger are often as much as fifteen inches in diameter, and twenty in height. There are a score or more of very large size in the Davenport museum. FORM.--The form characteristics are a full globular body--sometimes elongated, sometimes compressed vertically--a low neck, and a wide aperture. The bottom is very generally rounded. A few of the form modifications are shown in Fig. 392. The rim or neck is always short, and is upright or slightly recurved. Many vessels resembling the shapes here presented are placed with the succeeding group, as they appear to be functionally distinct from this. There are no examples with legs or stands. [Illustration: FIG. 392.--Forms of pots.] HANDLES.--Looped handles are confined almost wholly to this class of vessels. They are generally ranged about the rim or neck. In a majority of cases there are four handles to a vessel. We rarely find less than that number, but often more. It is a usual thing to see fifteen or twenty handles set about the rim. Originally the handles may have been exclusively functional in character; they were so at least in antecedent forms. These potters have certainly, at times, employed them for purposes of embellishment. In some cases they are too fragile for use, in others they are flattened out against the neck of the vessel and united with it throughout their whole length. Again, they have degenerated into mere ridges, notched and otherwise modified to suit the fancy. In many instances their place is taken by incised lines or indentations which form effective and appropriate ornamental figures. A series of vessels showing gradations from perfect handles to their atrophied representatives is shown in Fig. 393. [Illustration: FIG. 393.--Handles.] ORIGIN OF HANDLES.--Handles were doubtless originally attached to facilitate the suspension and handling of vessels and other articles. They probably had their typical development in basketry, and there are good reasons for supposing that certain forms of the handles upon pottery owe their existence to contact with the sister art. This idea is confirmed by their shapes, and by the fact that a large percentage of the pottery handles are useless as aids to suspension or transportation. ORNAMENT.--Rim margins are modified for decorative purposes, very much as they are in bowls. See Fig. 363. The bodies of these vessels are often elaborately ornamented, mostly by incised figures, but often by punctures, nodes and ribs. The incised lines are arranged principally in groups of straight lines forming angular figures--a very archaic style--and in groups of festooned lines so placed as to resemble scales. The punctures are made with a sharp point, and form encircling lines and various carelessly executed patterns. A rude sort of ornamentation is produced by pinching up the soft clay of the surface between the nails of the fingers and thumb. Relief ornament consists chiefly of applied fillets of clay, arranged to form vertical ribs. Rows of nodes are sometimes seen, and in a few cases the whole body is covered with rude nodes. ILLUSTRATIONS.--The specimens selected for illustration are intended to epitomize the forms and decorations of a very great number of vessels, and are not always the most showy examples to be found. A vessel of rather exceptional shape is given in Fig. 394. It could as well be classed with bowls as with pots. The ware is of the rude kind generally used over the fire. The body is high and cylindrical, the rim flaring, and the bottom quite flat. The form is suggestive of our domestic crockery. [Illustration: FIG. 394.--Pot: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] Another bowl-like pot is illustrated in Fig. 395. It is of the dark, rudely hand-polished variety. The body is globular, the neck is very short and is ornamented with a dentate band. Below this are two pairs of perforations, probably used for suspending the vessel. There are a number of vessels of this variety, mostly smaller than the example given. The vessel shown in Fig. 396 is still more pot-like. The neck is higher than the preceding and is slightly constricted. It is of very rude construction and finish. The rim is furnished with two small horizontal projections, and the body is somewhat obscurely lobed. It represents a very numerous class, especially plentiful in Southeast Missouri. [Illustration: FIG. 395.--Pot: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 396.--Pot: Waverly, Tennessee.--1/3.] The little pot presented in Fig. 397 has the body covered with rude nodes. The neck is surrounded by a heavy fillet, notched obliquely in imitation of a twisted cord. Four rude handles have also been attached. [Illustration: FIG. 397.--Pot: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 398.--Pot: Arkansas.--1/3.] In Fig. 398 we have one of the rudest examples in the collection. The neck is furnished with four handles, which alternate with four vertical ribs. The body is misshapen and rough, and is ornamented with a series of nearly vertical ridges, a rather usual device, and one which is sometimes very neatly executed. The body of the nicely finished pot shown in Fig. 399 is embellished with short, incised markings, arranged in vertical lines. The neck is furnished with a heavy indented band and four strong handles. The locality given is "Four-Mile Bayou, Alabama." The specimen given in Fig. 400 illustrates the use of great numbers of handles. In this case there are sixteen. They are gracefully formed and add much to the appearance of the vessel, which is really a bowl with wide, flaring rim. In most of its characters it resembles the pots. [Illustration: FIG. 399.--Pot: Alabama (?).--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 400.--Pot: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] Another curious variation in the shape of handles is shown in the little cup given in Fig. 401. This can hardly be called a usual feature, although occurring in vessels of various localities. I have seen an example from the Missouri Valley in which a great number of perforated handles were set about the rim, and another in which there was a continuous, partially free, collar perforated at intervals. There is a specimen of this class in the Davenport Academy collection in which the flattened handles are so placed about the neck as to form a series of arches. These, I take it, are partially atrophied forms. The body is ornamented by a scale-like pattern of incised lines--a favorite method of decoration with the ancient potter. [Illustration: FIG. 401.--Pot: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 402.--Pot: Arkansas (?).--1/3.] In Fig. 402 we have an illustration of total atrophy. The handles are represented by simple incised lines. There is no relief whatever. In many cases the form of the handles is shown in low relief, the outer surface being plain or ornamented with incised lines or punctures. The body of the vessel last mentioned is covered with rudely incised scroll designs. Another good illustration of this class of vessels is shown in Fig. 403. The cut is taken from my paper in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. The handles are indicated by incised lines. The body was ornamented by pinching up the clay between the nails of the thumb and forefinger. Locality: Pecan Point, Arkansas. [Illustration: FIG. 403.--Pot: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3. [_National Museum_]] [Illustration: FIG. 404.--Pot: Hale's Point, Tennessee.--1/3.] A good example of the larger pots is illustrated in Fig. 404. It is engraved a little less than one-fourth the dimensions of the original. The height is seventeen inches and the greatest diameter eighteen inches. It is very well made. The walls are even and only moderately thick. The dark, unpolished surface is profusely speckled with fragments of white shell. There are four wide, strong handles. The rim and neck are ornamented with encircling lines of finger-nail indentations. [Illustration: FIG. 405.--Pot: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] A masterpiece of this class of work is shown in Fig. 405. It was obtained at Pecan Point. It is not quite symmetrical in form but is carefully finished. The color is gray, with mottlings of dark spots, the result of firing. The height is eleven inches, and the aperture is ten inches in diameter. There are ten strong, well-proportioned handles, each having a knob resembling a rivet head, near the upper end. The margin of the rim has a circle of indentations. There are a few red vessels of this shape which have figures of reptiles attached to the neck. WIDE-MOUTHED BOTTLES OR JARS. Vessels of this class were probably not devoted to the ordinary uses of cooking and serving food. They are handsome in shape, tasteful in decoration, and generally of small dimensions. They are found, as are all other forms, buried with the dead, placed by the head or feet, or within reach of the hands. Their appearance is not suggestive of their original office, as there is no indication of wear, or of use over fire. FORM.--I include under this head a series of forms reaching from the wide-mouthed pot to the well-developed bottle. They really correspond closely to the high-necked bottles in all respects save in height of neck, and the separation is therefore for convenience of treatment only. The following illustration (Fig. 406) will give a good idea of the forms included. [Illustration: FIG. 406.--Forms of jar-shaped bottles.] There are also many eccentric and many extremely interesting life forms included in this group. A number of vases, modeled after the human head, are, by their general outline, properly included. ORNAMENTATION.--The rims, bodies, and bases are embellished much after the fashion of the vessels already described, with the exception that handles or handle-like appendages or ornaments seldom appear. The painted designs are in one, two, or three colors, and the incised figures have been executed both in the soft and in the thoroughly dried clay. The style of execution is often of a very high order, especially in some of the more southerly examples, a number of which are from the mounds of Mississippi and Louisiana. We note the fact that in a few of the designs there is a slight suggestion of Mexican forms. In illustrating this group, I am compelled, for the want of space to omit many interesting examples. I present only such as seem to me especially instructive. [Illustration: FIG. 407.--Bottle: Pecan Point, Arkansas.] ILLUSTRATIONS.--_Ordinary forms._--The vessel shown in Fig. 407 may be taken as a type of a very large class. It is most readily described as a short-necked, wide-mouthed bottle. It is symmetrical in shape and very nicely finished. The lip is supplied with a narrow, horizontal rim. The body expands somewhat abruptly from the base of the upright neck to the squarish shoulder, and contracts below in an even curve, giving a hemispherical base. There are a multitude of variations from this outline, a few of which are suggested in Fig. 406. These vessels are nearly all of the dark, grayish-brown, fire-mottled ware. A few are yellowish, and such are often painted red or decorated with designs in red and white. [Illustration: FIG. 408.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 409.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] Two charming vases are shown in Figs. 408 and 409. The surface finish is in both cases very superior. The lines of the figures are carefully drawn, and seem to have been produced by the trailing, under even pressure, of a smooth rather blunt point. It is difficult to get so nicely finished and even a line by simple incision, or by excavating the clay. The design in Fig. 408 consists of eight groups of curved lines arranged in pairs, which are separated by plain vertical bands. It might be considered an interrupted or imperfectly connected form of the running scroll. This grouping of lines is frequently met with in the decorative designs of the Southern States. The design upon the other vase, Fig. 409, is still more characteristic of the South. It consists of an encircling row of round, shallow indentations, about which series of incised scrolls are linked, and of two additional rows of depressions, one above and the other below, through which parallel lines are drawn. Many other interesting illustrations of the simpler forms could be given, but nearly all are very similar in their more important features to the examples that precede or follow. As skilled as these peoples were in modeling life forms, and in engraving geometric devices, they seem rarely to have attempted the linear representation of life forms. We have, however, two very good examples. [Illustration: FIG. 410.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas.] The first of these is shown in outline in Fig. 410. It is a large bottle embellished with four rude drawings of the human figure, executed with a sharp point in the soft clay. Height of vessel, eight inches. The work is characteristic of a very early stage of art. The figures could be duplicated in the work of the ancient Pueblos, and in the pictographic art of many of our savage tribes. They are probably derived from symbolic art, and possibly relate to the guardians of the four points of the compass, or to some similar mythical characters. [Illustration: FIG. 411.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas.--3/4.] The work upon the neat little bottle, presented in Fig. 411, is of the same class as the above but of a much higher grade, both in execution and conception. The engraved design is one of the most remarkable ever obtained from the mounds. It consists of two winged and crested rattlesnakes, which encircle the most expanded part of the vessel, and of two sunflower-like figures, alternating with them. These designs are very carefully engraved with a needle-like point, and are adjusted to the form of the vase in a way that suggests forethought and an appreciation of the decorative value of the figures. By dint of rubbings, photographs and sketches, I have obtained the complete drawing of the various figures which are given in Fig. 412 on a scale of one-half the original. [Illustration: FIG. 412.--Engraved design.--1/2.] The serpent, especially the rattlesnake, has always taken a leading place in the mythology and the art of the more cultured American races, and crest-plumes, and wings have often been considered its proper attributes. The conventional method of representation is also characteristically aboriginal. The plumes, the figure connected with the eye, the bands upon the neck, the stepped figures of the body, and the semi-circular patches on the wings are all characters that appear again and again in the ancient art of the United States. The peculiar emblematic treatment of the heart is almost universal in temperate North America. And just here I may be permitted to suggest that the remarkable feature of the great earth-work serpent of Adams county, Ohio, which has been regarded as the "symbolic egg," and which in its latest phase has become the issue of a frog and the prey of the serpent, is possibly intended for the heart of the serpent, the so-called frog being the head. The rosette figures are not often duplicated in Indian art. There can be little doubt that the figures of this design are derived from mythology. _Eccentric forms._--A form of vessel of which civilized men make peculiar use is depicted in Fig. 413. There is a marked resemblance to a common tea-pot. A very few examples have been found, two of which are illustrated in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. The specimen here given is well made and carefully finished. The neck is low and wide, and the body is a compressed sphere. The spout is placed upon one side and a low knob upon the other. The absence of a handle for grasping indicates that the vessel was probably not intended for boiling water. These characters are uniform in all the specimens that have come to my notice. Two small circular depressions occur on the sides of the vessel alternating with the spout and the knob and with these features form centers for four rosettes of involute incised lines. The origin of this form of vessel is suggested by a fine red piece from "Mississippi," now in the national collection. The knob is the head of a turtle or other full-bodied reptile, and the spout takes the place of the creature's tail. Many of the animal-shaped vases would resemble this form closely if an opening were made through the top of the body and through the tail. [Illustration: FIG. 413.--Teapot-shaped vessel: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 414.--Vessel of eccentric form: Arkansas.--1/3.] In connection with the teapot-like vessels it will be well to describe another novel form not wholly unlike them in appearance, an example being shown in Fig. 414. The shoulder is elongated on opposite sides into two curved, horn-like cones, which give to the body a somewhat crescent-shaped outline. It is of the ordinary plain, dark ware, and has had a low stand or base which is now broken away. The specimen given in Fig. 415 has been considerably mutilated, but evidently belongs to the same class as the preceding. It probably also resembled the vessel which follows; it serves at least as a link between the two. The body is ornamented with carelessly drawn, deeply incised, involute designs. [Illustration: FIG. 415.--Vessel of eccentric form: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 416.--Animal-shaped vase: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] _Life forms._--A further elaboration of the preceding forms is illustrated in Fig. 416. On one side the conical projection is greatly elongated and fashioned to resemble the head of some grotesque beast, with horns, expanded nostrils, and grinning mouth. The opposite point is elongated and looped, forming a tail, while the base of the body is furnished with four feet. On the sides of the vessel are engraved figures, consisting of clusters of involute lines, as in the specimen just given. It is of the ordinary dark pottery, and was obtained at Pecan Point. Equally noteworthy as plastic representations are the two examples that follow. The vessel shown in Fig. 417 is modeled in imitation of a sunfish. The body is much flattened and is neatly polished. The head is well modeled, as are also the fins and tail. Many examples of this form are found, some of which are elaborately treated, the scales being minutely shown. The body of the fish is sometimes placed in the natural upright position, the neck of the vessel rising from the back, producing a lenticular shape. [Illustration: FIG. 417.--Sunfish vase: Arkansas.--1/3.] The animal so carefully modeled in the vessel given in Fig. 418 resembles a raccoon or an opossum. The mouth of the vessel is wide and the neck upright and short. The body is ornamented with a pattern made up of triangular groups of incised lines, which may or may not be meant for hair. [Illustration: FIG. 418.--Opossum vase: Arkansas.--2/3.] The love of modeling life forms shows itself again in the little vase illustrated in Fig. 419. The head of some animal, rudely suggested, projects from one side, while a curved tail on the other carries out the idea of the complete creature. The round body is decorated with broad vertical lines in dark red. A red line encircles the rim. [Illustration: FIG. 419.--Animal-shaped vase: Arkansas.--1/3.] It is not strange that a people who had successfully engaged in the modeling of life forms, and especially the heads of animals, should attempt the human head. Their remarkable success in this direction is shown in a number of vases, one of which is given in Fig. 420. This and kindred peoples had made considerable progress in carving in stone and other materials, evincing a decided talent for sculpture; but clay is so much more readily manipulated than either wood, stone, or shell, that we are not surprised to find their best work in that material. It is an interesting fact that with all this cleverness in the handling of clay, and in the delineation of varied models, the art had not freed itself from the parent stem--the vessel--and launched out into an independent field. In a few cases such an end seems to have been achieved by certain groups of mound builders, notably those whose works at Madisonville, Ohio, have recently been explored by Professor Putnam. Modeling in clay was probably confined to vessels for the reason that, through their humble agency, the art was developed. Up to the present time I have met with but eight of these curious head-shaped vases. All were obtained from the vicinity of Pecan Point, Arkansas, and, like other vessels, have been associated with human remains in graves or mounds. It is true that in all cases the bones of the dead have not been found, but this only indicates their complete decay. The question as to whether or not these vases were made exclusively for sepulchral purposes must remain unanswered; there is no source of information upon the subject. Such a purpose is, however, suggested in this case by the semblance of death given to the faces. The finest example yet found is shown in Fig. 420. In form it is a simple head, five inches in height and five inches wide from ear to ear. The aperture of the vase is in the crown, and is surrounded by a low, upright rim, slightly recurved. The cavity is roughly finished, and follows pretty closely the contour of the exterior surface, excepting in projecting features such as the ears, lips, and nose. The walls are generally from one-eighth, to one-fourth of an inch in thickness, the base being about three-eighths. The bottom is flat, and takes the level of the chin and jaws. The material does not differ from that of the other vessels of the same locality. There is a large percentage of shell, some particles of which are quite large. The paste is yellowish gray in color and rather coarse in texture. The vase was modeled in the plain clay and permitted to harden before the devices were engraved. After this a thick film of fine yellowish-gray clay was applied to the face, partially filling up the engraved lines. The remainder of the surface, including the lips, received a thick coat of dark red paint. The whole surface was then highly polished. [Illustration: FIG. 420.--Head-shaped vase: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/2.] The illustration will convey a more vivid conception of this striking head than any description that can be given. The face cannot be said to have a single feature strongly characteristic of Indian physiognomy. We have instead the round forehead and the projecting mouth of the African. The nose, however, is small and the nostrils are narrow. The face would seem to be that of a youngish person, perhaps a female. The features are all well modeled, and are so decidedly individual in character that the artist must have had in his mind a pretty definite conception of the face to be produced as well as of the expression appropriate to it, before beginning his work. It will be impossible, however, to prove that the portrait of a particular personage was intended. The closed eyes, the rather sunken nose, and the parted lips were certainly intended to give the effect of death. The ears are large, correctly placed, and well modeled; they are perforated all along the margin, thus revealing a practice of the people to whom they referred. The septum of the nose appears to have been pierced, and the horizontal depression across the upper lip may indicate the former presence of a suspended ornament. [Illustration: FIG. 421.--The engraved figures.] [Illustration: FIG. 422.--Head covering.] Perhaps the most unique and striking feature is the pattern of incised lines that covers the greater part of the face. The lines are deeply engraved and somewhat "scratchy," and were apparently executed in the hardened clay before the slip was applied. The left side of the face is plain, with the exception of a figure somewhat resembling a grappling hook in outline which partially surrounds the eye. The right side is covered with a comb-like pattern, placed vertically, with the teeth upwards. The middle of the forehead has a series of vertical lines and a few short horizontal ones just above the root of the nose. There are also three curved lines near the corner of the mouth not shown in the cut. The diagram presented herewith (Fig. 421) gives in dotted lines the correct outline of the front face, and shows projected in solid lines the engraved figures. The significance of these markings can only be surmised in the most general way. Their function is probably the same as that of the tattooed and painted figures upon the faces of living races. It will be well to observe that upon the forehead, at the top, there is a small perforated knob or loop. Similar appendages may be seen upon many of the clay human heads from this valley. A Mexican terra-cotta head now in the museum at Mexico has a like feature, and, at the same time, has closed eyes and an open mouth. The head dress should be noticed. It seems to have been modeled after a cloth or skin cap. It extends over the forehead, falls back over the back of the head, and terminates in points behind, as seen in Fig. 422. Two layers of the material are represented, the one broad, the other narrow and pointed, both being raised a little above the surface upon which they rest. This vase head is somewhat smaller than the average human head. [Illustration: FIG. 423.--Head-shaped vase: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/2. [_National Museum._]] Another of a very similar character now in the Davenport Museum is about one-half the size of this. The face is much mutilated. A third is somewhat larger than the one illustrated, but is nearly the same in finish and color. The face also has the semblance of death, but the features are different, possessing very decided Indian characteristics. There is no tattooing. All of these heads, including also some of those in the National Museum, are much alike in conception and execution. This fact will be forcibly impressed upon the mind by a study of Fig. 423, which represents a specimen recently exhumed at Pecan Point by agents of the Bureau of Ethnology. In size, form, color, finish, modeling of features, and expression, this head closely resembles the one first described. The work is not quite so carefully executed and the head has probably not such pronounced individuality. The curious device that in the other example appeared near the left eye here occurs on both sides. The lower part of the face is elaborately engraved. Three lines cross the upper lip and cheeks, reaching to the ear; a band of fret-like devices extends across the mouth to the base of the ears, and another band filled in with oblique reticulated lines passes around the chin and along the jaws. The ears are perforated as in the other case and the septum of the nose is partially broken away as if it had once held a ring. A perforated knob has occupied the top of the forehead as in the other case. The face is coated with a light yellowish gray slip, and the remainder of the surface is red. [Illustration: FIG. 424.--Head-shaped vase: Arkansas.--1/3. [_Thibault Collection._]] Fig. 424 illustrates a very interesting specimen of the red pottery of Arkansas. It belongs to the collection of Mr. Thibault, of Little Rock, and was obtained from a mound in the vicinity of that city. The body is slightly lenticular and the human face, which is modeled upon one side, interferes but little with the outline. The face is slightly relieved and extends from the neck of the vase to the widest part of the body, and laterally occupies about one-third of the circumference. The middle portion of the face is finished with a light flesh-colored slip, the remainder of the surface of the vessel being painted a bright rich red. Like the preceding example, the countenance is made to give the appearance of death or sleep. Other face-vessels of scarcely less interest are found in the Thibault collection. HIGH-NECKED BOTTLES. High-necked, full-bodied bottles form a decided feature in the pottery of this province. Similar vessels are rarely found in other sections of the United States, but occur in Mexico and South America. The forms are nowhere else so pronounced. They suggest the well-known water bottles of eastern countries. In material, finish, and decorative treatment they do not differ greatly from the vases described in the preceding section. FORM.--Their forms are greatly and often happily varied as will be seen from the series of outlines given in Fig. 425. [Illustration: FIG. 425.--Scale of forms.] [Illustration: FIG. 426.--Tripods.] A striking feature is found in the presence of legs and stands. The former exhibit globular, conical, cylindrical, and terraced forms, Fig. 426. No example has any striking resemblance to European forms. All are tripods, and are attached to ordinary forms of vessels in a way to suggest that they are superadded features probably rather recently acquired; at the same time legs were doubtless employed by the precolumbian peoples. This is known to be true of Mexico, and Central and South America. There is no reason why the mound-builders of the Mississippi should not have discovered the use of such a device, readily suggested by the use of supports in building, in baking, or in using the vessels, and it would necessarily follow the modeling of life forms. It is true that quadrupeds would not directly suggest the tripod, but birds modeled in clay were made to rest upon the feet and tail, thus giving three supports; besides it would readily be discovered that more than three supports are unnecessary. The stands attached to these bottles are not essentially different from those described in the preceding section. They take the form of simple bands, as seen at _a_, Fig. 427; double bands, as shown in _b_ and _c_; or perforated feet, as seen in _d_. [Illustration: FIG. 427.--Stands.] Compound vessels are rather rare, nearly all of the varieties being outlined in Fig. 428. Some of these are formed by uniting two or even three simple forms in one. Others are only partially compound and resemble the askoidal shapes of Greek art. Attention will be called to the probable origin of all these shapes elsewhere. [Illustration: FIG. 428.--Compound forms.] Life forms are found in all the groups of ware, but differ in the manner in which they are employed. Fig. 429 shows the usual methods of adapting the human form to high-necked bottles. Quadrupeds, fishes, and birds are treated in somewhat similar ways. The vessels represented in this and the four preceding illustrations belong to the various museums of the country. [Illustration: FIG. 429.--Adaptation of the human form.] ORNAMENT.--The styles of decoration are not distinct from those of other classes of vessels. The incised scroll patterns are sometimes very elaborate, and the designs in color are perhaps executed with greater care than in other groups. [Illustration: FIG. 430.--Bottle: Tennessee.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 431.--Gourd-shaped vessel: Arkansas.--1/3. [_National Museum._]] ILLUSTRATIONS.--_Ordinary forms._--I have not thought it advisable to figure many specimens of plain bottles, as all the varieties of outline are repeated in the more highly elaborated or embellished pieces. Fig. 430 represents a plain bottle of the ordinary dark porous ware. The neck is narrow above and expands abruptly below. The body is globular. Looking at this vessel with reference to a possible origin, we observe its resemblance to a common form of gourd. By a review of the collection, we find that there are many similar vessels actually modeled in imitation of gourds. Good examples are given in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, from which Fig. 431 is taken, and in a paper by Edward Evers in Contributions to the Archæology of Missouri. The markings of the original are often shown with a great deal of truthfulness in the earthenware reproductions. [Illustration: FIG. 432.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 433.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3. [_National Museum._]] Quite distinct in outline from the preceding forms is the bottle shown in Fig. 432. The neck is high and cylindrical and the body resembles a slightly-flattened globe. Set about the shoulder are four medallion-like faces, the features of which are modeled roughly in low relief. The ware is of the ordinary dark, slightly polished variety. We have in Fig. 433 a good example of bottle-shaped vessels, the neck of which is wide and short, and the body much compressed vertically. There are a number of duplicates of it in the Museum. The specimen illustrated is in the national collection, and was obtained in Arkansas. It is a handsome vase, symmetrical in form, quite dark in color, and highly polished. The upper surface of the body is ornamented with a collar formed of a broad fillet of clay, or rather of two fillets, the pointed ends of which unite on opposite sides of the vase. [Illustration: FIG. 434.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/2. [_National Museum._]] The handsome vase shown in Fig. 434 is of a somewhat different type from the preceding. It was obtained, along with many other fine specimens, from mounds near Little Rock, Arkansas. It is of the dark polished ware with the usual fire mottlings. The form is symmetrical and graceful. The neck is ornamented with a band of incised chevrons and the sloping upper surface of the body, viewed from above, has a cruciform arrangement of stepped figures engraved in the plastic clay. One of the most striking of the bottle-shaped vases is shown in Fig. 435. It is symmetrical in shape, well proportioned and well finished. The color is now quite dark and the surface is roughened by a multitude of pits which have resulted from the decay of shell particles. The paste crumbles into a brownish dust when struck or pressed forcibly. [Illustration: FIG. 435.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas.--1/3. [_National Museum._]] By far the most remarkable feature of the piece is the broad, convex hood-like collar that encircles the neck and spreads out over the body like an inverted saucer. This collar is curiously wrought in incised lines and low ridges by means of which two grotesque faces are produced. The eyes are readily detected, being indicated by low knobs with central pits surrounded each by three concentric circles. They are arranged in pairs on opposite sides. Between the eyes of each pair an incipient nose and mouth may be made out. The face is outlined below by the lower edge of the collar and above, by a low indented ridge crossing the collar tangent to the base of the neck. The most expanded part of the body is encircled by an incised pattern consisting of five sets of partially interlocked scrolls--an ornament characteristic of the pottery of Arkansas. Modifications of the simple outlines of bottles exhibit many interesting peculiarities. Compound forms are not unusual and consist generally of imitations of two vessels, the one superimposed upon or set in the mouth of another. A good example in the ordinary plain dark ware is given in Fig. 436. Similar shapes are suggested by lobed forms of the gourd. [Illustration: FIG. 436.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] Other specimens may be seen in which there is only a gentle swelling of the neck, but all gradations occur between this condition and that in which forms of two vessels distinctly appear. [Illustration: FIG. 437.--Bottle: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] A very usual form is illustrated in Fig. 437. Below the overhanging lip the neck contracts and then expands until quite full, and at the base contracts again. This feature corresponds to the upper vessel suggested in the preceding case. Four flattened handles are placed about the upper part of the neck and three rows of small conical pits encircle the most expanded portion. The body is plain and much compressed vertically. A low wide stand is attached to the base. A number of good examples, now in the National Museum, were found in Arkansas. The vase shown in Fig. 438 has also the double body, the vessels copied having been somewhat more elaborately modeled than in the preceding cases. A bottle is set within the mouth of a pot. The neck is high, wide, and flaring and rests upon the back of a rudely modeled frog, which lies extended upon the upper surface of the body. The notched encircling ridge beneath the feet of the reptile represents the rim of the lower vessel, which is a pot with compressed globular body and short, wide neck. This vase is of the dark, dead-surfaced ware and is quite plain. Four vertical ridges take the place of handles. I have observed other examples in which two vessels, combined in this way, served as models for the potter; one, a shell set within a cup, is illustrated in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology; another is given in Contributions to the Archæology of Missouri. [Illustration: FIG. 438.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] Fig. 439 illustrates a rather graceful form of bottle. It is furnished with a rather high perforated stand or foot, and the body is fluted vertically with narrow, widely separated channels. The neck is high and flaring and has a narrow notched collar at the base. [Illustration: FIG. 439.--Fluted bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 440.--Engraved bottle: Arkansas.(?)--1/3.] There are many good examples of engraved geometric designs upon bottle-shaped vessels. One of the most elaborate is presented in Fig. 440. This vessel has a full, wide neck, a heavy, flattened body, and a broad rudimentary foot. The color is quite dark, and the surface well polished. The engraved design consists of four elaborate, interlinked scrolls, comprising a number of lines, and bordered by wing-like, triangular figures, filled in with reticulated lines. This latter feature is often associated with native delineations of mythic reptiles, and it is not impossible that this scroll work is a highly conventionalized form of some such conception. The four volute centers are slightly concave. Three excellent examples of tripod bottles are illustrated in the accompanying figures. The first, Fig. 441, is a large-necked, rather clumsy vessel of ordinary workmanship, which rests upon three globular legs. These are hollow and the cavities connect with that of the body of the vessel. The whole surface is well polished and very dark. [Illustration: FIG. 441.--Tripod bottle: Arkansas.(?)--1/3.] The vessel depicted in Fig. 442 has a number of noteworthy features. In shape, it resembles the preceding with the exception of the legs, which are flat and have stepped or terraced margins. The whole surface of the vessel is decorated with characteristic designs in red and white upon a warm gray ground. A stepped figure, resembling the Pueblo emblematic "rim of the sky," encircles the neck, and semicircular figures in white appear on opposite sides at the top and base. The body is covered with scroll work in broad red lines, the spaces being filled in with white in the form of a thick earthy paste. Each of the legs has one-half red and the other white. The vessel illustrated in Fig. 443 is of ordinary, dark, polished ware, and is entirely plain. It is peculiar in the shape of its extremities. The neck resembles a long truncated cone, and the legs are heavy and conical, being not unlike those of a common iron pot. _Eccentric forms._--In this place I am able to give but one example of what I have denominated eccentric forms. Others have been indicated on preceding pages. The vase given in Fig. 444 has a flattish, ovoidal body from the opposite ends of which springs a hollow arch--a sort of double neck. This has been perforated at the highest point, and a low recurving rim, which serves as the mouth of the vessel, has been attached. [Illustration: FIG. 442.--Tripod bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 443.--Tripod bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 444.--Bottle of eccentric form: Pecan Point, Arkansas.--1/3.] Another example of this form has recently been received at the Davenport Museum. It is in fragments, but was originally nicely finished and painted. Illustrations of others may be seen in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, and in Contributions to the Archæology of Missouri. The specimen illustrated was found at the foot of a skeleton in a grave at Pecan Point. This shape is common to the art of many countries, and was a great favorite in ancient Peru. [Illustration: FIG. 445.--Owl-shaped bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] _Life forms._--In the introduction to this section, I have indicated the many ways in which the human form is employed in the embellishment or the elaboration of bottles. Birds, beasts, fishes, and reptiles are treated in a similar manner. The owl was a favorite subject with the potter, probably on account of the upright, compact figure of the body, or possibly because of some especial regard in which this bird was held. A rather handsome specimen is shown in Fig. 445. The modeling is more than usually successful, and the surface is carefully finished. The wings are treated in a pleasing but highly conventional manner. The plumage is indicated by alternate bands of pale-red and yellow-gray, the latter being the ground color. These bands are outlined by fine incised lines. The remainder of the body is painted red. The vessel rests upon the feet and tail--a natural tripod. In many cases the head of the bird forms the top of the neck of the bottle--the body of the vessel itself being plain and globular. [Illustration: FIG. 446.--Hale's Point, Tennessee.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 447.--Arkansas (?).--1/3.] The heads of animals are treated in the same manner, as may be seen by reference to Figs. 446 and 447. The head shown in Fig. 446 is clearly that of a bear. The whole vessel is painted red. Fig. 447 illustrates a small dark bottle, surmounted by a head of nondescript character. The aperture in these vessels is generally at the back of the head. Fish and reptiles appear somewhat more rarely in connection with high-necked bottles. The Davenport Museum has recently acquired a fine example, painted in red and white, which has the head and other features of a fish, modeled in relief upon the sides and bottom of the body. A small, dark vessel of like character is illustrated in the Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. In the example given in Figs. 448 and 449 the upper part of the neck has been modified in such a way as to accommodate a curious, medallion-like relievo of the human face, while in Figs. 450 and 451 the neck is replaced by grotesque heads, the latter being intended apparently for an owl. These potters dealt with the human figure in a very bold manner for savages. They were evidently capable of representing many creatures with accuracy, but preferred grotesque or conventional forms. A man or a woman is generally modeled with a large body and a curious hunched back, the vertebræ appearing along the prominent ridge. The shoulder blades are usually shown with anatomical distinctness, if not with precision; the arms are long and slender and the hands rest upon the knees or the sides. The position assumed is mostly that of kneeling or squatting, the feet being doubled up beneath and uniting with the bottom of the vessel. [Illustration: FIG. 448.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 449.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 450.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 451.--Bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] These effigy vases are numerous, and greatly varied in size and color. They are mostly of the dark ware, but are found painted plain red or in red and white figures, some of which represent parts of the costume, others, emblematic devices. The largest specimen with which I am acquainted is illustrated in Fig. 452. It is well modeled, a good deal of attention having been given to the details of anatomy. The back is very much humped, and the vertebræ are represented by a series of knobs. The position of the feet beneath the body is, perhaps, worthy of notice. This is shown in Fig. 453_b_. It will be seen that the knees, calves, ankles, and the various parts of the feet are indicated with an approach to accuracy. The projecting back is seen below. The bottom of the vessel is nearly flat, and the legs are modeled in low relief upon it. Other positions are shown in Fig. 453. [Illustration: FIG. 452.--Effigy bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] Fig. 454 illustrates a characteristic profile. [Illustration: FIG. 453.--Positions of feet.] One of these vases has a cross painted upon the breast of the personage represented. The kneeling position, taken in connection with the cross, leads to the thought that perhaps the potter lived in the period of the French missionary, and attempted to model him in clay. There is, however, no indication of costume, and the painting, with the exception of the cross, is in a purely aboriginal style of design. The ground color of the vase is, as usual, a moderately dark gray brown, and the painted figures are laid on in thick, blackish paint. Lines partially encircle the eyes, and extend down over the cheek to the neck, and a line passes around the mouth and extends down over the chin, neck, and chest to the base of the body. The horizontal bar of the cross connects the nipples. The shoulder blades and the hands are also painted black. The back is very curiously modeled and painted. [Illustration: FIG. 454.--Effigy bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] [Illustration: FIG. 455.--Effigy bottle: Arkansas.--1/3.] There are in the collection a number of specimens that do not come under either of the preceding heads. Of these I may mention three small figures from Paducah, Kentucky, which represent a snake, a man, and a deer. They are very rudely done, and are possibly modern work. Attention should be called to some small specimens resembling toadstools or mushrooms in shape, some of which may have been stoppers for bottles, while others could have served as implements in some of the arts. One of these pieces has a distinctly vitrified surface. Its age, however, cannot be determined. There are a few rude pipes of usual forms and of no special interest. The comparative scarcity of these articles, so plentiful in some of the mound districts, is certainly worthy of the attention of archæologists. UPPER MISSISSIPPI PROVINCE: I have already pointed out the fact that most of the pottery of the Upper Mississippi region belongs to a distinct family. It has never been as abundant as the pottery of the more southern sections of the country and is not well represented in our museums. There are only a few pieces in the Davenport collection and these are all in a more or less fragmentary state. A majority are from a mound near the city of Davenport, but a limited number came from Wisconsin. At this time it is impossible to define, with any degree of precision, the geographical limits of this class of ware. The tribes by whom it was manufactured have evidently, at one time or another, occupied the greater part of the Mississippi basin north of the mouth of the Missouri River. Similarities of material, shape, methods of manufacture, and ornamentation, tend to show that we must include the greater parts of the States of Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, in the area covered by this or closely related ceramic groups, and indications of its presence are discovered far beyond these limits. The mounds of Manitoba have recently furnished examples of this class of ware, and it has decided relationships with the ware of the Eastern and Northeastern States. It is not yet time to draw close distinctions, as sufficiently detailed studies of the products of the various districts have not been made. On the shelves of our museums the difference between the two great families of the middle and Upper Mississippi are strikingly manifest. The ware of the former district, as already shown, exhibits variously tinted pastes tempered with coarsely pulverized shells or potsherds; the vases, as a rule, having full bodies, well rounded bases, and in very many cases, narrow necks. They exhibit great variety of decoration and no little care in finish. The northern family shows a dark paste tempered with sand, often apparently granitic; a rough fracture, and generally a rude finish. The shapes are comparatively simple, often long, tapering below, and flat bottomed. The ornamentation is totally unlike that of the southern variety. It consists of cord impressions, incised lines, and implement indentations arranged in figures peculiar to the district. There are many other features that, like the subtile characters of human physiognomy, cannot easily be described, but which are of first importance as indices of relationship or the lack of it. The best preserved of the Davenport specimens was described and illustrated in the first volume of the proceedings of the Davenport Academy. This vessel, Fig. 456, was found in a mound near Davenport along with human remains, and closely associated with other relics, among which were several copper implements covered with coarse woven fabrics. Its height is eleven inches, width of aperture seven and a half inches, and diameter of base four inches. It is estimated to contain a little over one gallon. There is a broad, shallow constriction at the neck. The walls are from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch thick, and the margin of the rim is squared off, showing the full thickness--a strong characteristic of the northern pottery. The form is nearly symmetrical, and the surface is hand-smoothed but not polished. The paste is now dark and crumbling, and shows a rough fracture. A large percentage of sand was used in tempering. The color is a dark gray-brown. The entire surface, with the exception of a narrow band about the base, has been covered with ornamentation. This is executed with considerable care, and shows a great deal of ingenuity and some taste. There is apparently no feature copied from nature or from ideographic art. Two or three distinct implements have been used. A part of the neck ornament was made by rolling back and forth a circular tool, a _roulette_, the edge of which was notched. A row of indented nodes has been produced upon the exterior surface of the neck by impressing upon the inside the end of a reed or hollow bone about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Patterns of bold, rather carelessly drawn lines cover the body and seem to have been made by trailing, under pretty strong pressure, the smooth point of a stylus--probably the bone or reed already suggested. Some of the larger indentations upon the lower part of the neck may have been made by the same implement held in an oblique position. The use to which this vessel was applied can hardly be guessed. It was found with the remains of its owner, and probably contained food or drink. [Illustration: FIG. 456.--Vase: Davenport, Iowa.--1/3.] Another smaller vessel from the same locality and found under similar conditions shows the same characteristics of material, form, and ornament. There are also a few other fragments of the same ware from this group of mounds. One of these shows that decoration by the indentation of twisted cords was practiced here as elsewhere. A similar vase tastefully decorated with indented lines about the neck, and a band of decoration consisting of broad, plain, sinuous bands upon the body, comes from a mound in Scott County, Iowa. Height six inches, diameter the same. The rims of all these vessels are square on the edge, showing the full thickness of the walls. [Illustration: FIG. 457.--Vase: Wisconsin.--1/2. [_National Museum._]] A very interesting vessel obtained by Captain Hall from a mound in Wisconsin is represented by a number of large fragments, probably comprising about one-half of the walls. It must have been somewhat larger than the vase given in Fig. 456, and in a general way resembles it closely. It appears to be more pointed below than the other, and has a slightly flaring rim. The walls are one-fourth of an inch thick. The paste is coarse and is tempered with sand, as in the cases already described. The lower part of the body is covered with nearly vertical cord marks. The upper part was smoothed, rather rudely, for the reception of additional decoration, which consists of several bands of indented figures. The principal implement used was apparently a stiff cord, or a slender osier wrapped with fine thread, which has been laid on and impressed with the fingers, forming nearly continuous encircling lines. Bands of short oblique lines made in the same manner also occur. Just below the margin there is a line of annular indentations made from the exterior, leaving nodes on the inside--the reverse of the treatment noticed in the vessel already illustrated. Fragments of identically marked ware from the vicinity of Prairie du Chien may be seen in the National Museum. A large fragment from Baraboo County, Wisconsin, shows a full body and a slightly flaring rim. The upper part is ornamented with horizontal lines of annular indentations, and the body is covered with rather rude patterns made by rolling a notched wheel or _roulette_ back and forth in zigzag lines. Two handsome pieces of this ware were recently obtained by the Bureau of Ethnology from a mound in Vernon County, Wisconsin. The finest of these, which is shown in Fig. 457, is six and a half inches in height, and in symmetry and finish rivals the best work of the south. The paste is dark, compact, and fine grained, and tempered apparently with sand. The color of the surface is a rich, mottled brown. The most striking feature of the decoration consists of a number of polished bands, extending in divers directions over the surface, the interstices being filled in with indented figures. The lip is smooth and the margin rounded. The exterior surface of the narrow collar is ornamented with oblique lines made by a _roulette_, and crossed at intervals with fine incised lines. The neck is slightly constricted, and is encircled by a polished zone one and one-fourth inches wide, having a line of indentations along the upper edge. The body is separated into four lobes by four vertical, depressed, polished bands about one inch wide. Two of these lobes are crossed obliquely by similar polished bands. These bands were all finished with a polishing implement, and are somewhat depressed, probably the result of strong pressure with this tool. They are bordered by wide incised lines. The intervening spaces are indented with a _roulette_. [Illustration: FIG. 458.--Vase; Illinois.--3/4.] A handsome little vessel, obtained from a mound at Albany, Whitesides County, Illinois, is illustrated in Fig. 458. It apparently belongs to the silicious ware of the north. The shape and ornamentation are somewhat novel. Four large flattish lobes occur about the body, on each of which a figure somewhat resembling a Maltese cross has been made by incising or impressing broad, shallow lines. The remainder of the body is covered with marks that resemble impressions of a coarse osier basket. This specimen was collected by Mr. C. A. Dodge, and a short description was published by Prof. W. H. Pratt in the third volume of the proceedings of the Davenport Academy. GULF PROVINCE. Our museums contain but few pieces of pottery from the Lower Mississippi, and in the Davenport Academy collection there are probably not more than a dozen typical examples of the leading varieties of ware of the Gulf States. Louisiana and Mississippi have furnished some very fine specimens of the pottery of the middle province, more refined, perhaps, in form, material, and finish than the ware of Arkansas and Missouri, but still differing decidedly from the typical pottery of Alabama and Georgia. Not wishing at present to enter upon the detailed study of the latter class of ware, I shall present only the few examples contained in the Davenport collection. The southern ware is characterized by refinement of outline, color, finish and ornament, and is distinguished from that of the Middle Mississippi by its material, which is a fine-grained paste, tempered with very fine silicious matter instead of pulverized shells. [Illustration: FIG. 459.--Cup: Alabama.--1/3.] The little cup given in Fig. 459 is from Mobile, Alabama. It is pointed at opposite ends and was probably modeled after or within some basket or fruit shell, the impressions from which are seen on the surface. The paste contains no perceptible tempering material. The largest and most pleasing vessel of this class is from Alabama, and is shown in Fig. 460. The aperture is ten and a half inches in diameter, and the height nine and one-half inches. The form is full above and somewhat conical below. The walls are thin and even and the surface well polished. The color is dark and shows the usual fire mottlings. There is no admixture of shell material, finely pulverized micaceous matter appearing in its place. The ornamentation is simple, but is applied in a way to greatly enhance the beauty of the vessel. It consists of a single broad zone of incised figures. Three zigzag lines meander the middle of the band and the intervening triangles are filled in with groups of straight lines. All the lines are well drawn and appear to have been cut with a sharp point in the dry clay. [Illustration: FIG. 460.--Bowl: Alabama.--1/3.] Bottle-shaped vases are not found to any great extent outside of the Mississippi Valley, and are quite rare in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. [Illustration: FIG. 461.--Bottle: Mississippi.--1/3.] The piece illustrated in Fig. 461 is from Mississippi, and in most respects is identical with the ware of the Gulf Province. The paste is silicious, fine-grained, and quite hard. The color is slightly ferruginous and clouded with fire stains from the baking. The body is ornamented with the engraved figure of a bird apparently intended for an eagle. The head, with its notched and strongly curved beak and conventionalized crest, occupies one side. The wings may be seen at the right and left, while the tail appears on the side opposite the head. The flattened base of the vessel occupies the place of the body. The lines have been scratched with a sharp point in the hardened clay. Certain spaces in the plumes, wings, and tail are filled in with reticulated lines. [Illustration: FIG. 462.--Bottle: Alabama.--1/3.] The bottle presented in Fig. 462 is embellished with a rather remarkable design in color. The material is fine grained and without admixture of shell. The color of the paste is a pale, salmon gray. The surface is coated with a thick slip or enamel of whitish clay, very fine grained and smooth; upon this the design was painted, not in the thick earthy color employed farther north, but in what appears to be a dark purplish-gray stain. The design upon the body is wholly unlike anything yet described. It is developed in the light ground tint by filling in the interstices with the dark color. The peculiar character of this design inclines me to the view that it probably had an ideographic origin, although possibly treated here as pure decoration. The open hand is sometimes seen, in both the decorative and the symbolic work of the Gulf coast tribes, and is not unknown elsewhere. The figures alternating with the hands are suggestive of a highly conventionalized face, the eyes being indicated by the volutes and the mouth and teeth by the lower part of the figure, as will be seen in the fully projected design, Fig. 463. The neck has two indistinct bands of triangular dentate figures apparently painted in the dark color. The bottom is flattish and without the coating of light clay. Both paste and slip can be readily scratched with the finger nail. This vase was found in Franklin County, Alabama, near the Mississippi line. [Illustration: FIG. 462.--Painted design.] RÉSUMÉ. Attention has been called to the great numbers of pieces of earthenware recovered from the mounds and graves of the middle province of the Mississippi Valley. In certain districts--as remarked by one of our collectors--we have but to dig to fill museums. Such districts must have been occupied for a long period by a numerous people who recognized the claims of the dead upon their worldly treasures. The burial grounds of many other sections of the American continent are correspondingly rich in ceramic remains. The vessels were not to any extent cinerary, and probably not even mortuary in the sense of having been constructed especially for inhumation with the dead. They were receptacles for food, drink, paint, and the like, placed in the grave along with other possessions of the departed in obedience to the demands of an almost universal custom. The material employed in manufacture embraced clay in all grades of refinement, from coarse loamy earths to the refined slips used in surface finish. The tempering materials--used in greater or lesser quantity according to the character of the vessel to be made--consisted of shell, sand, and potsherds reduced to various degrees of pulverulence. The stage of the art represented by this ware is one of hand building purely. No lathe or other revolving device was known, although varieties of improvised molds--baskets, gourds, and the like, such as are known to nearly all pottery-making peoples--were frequently employed. The highest degree of finish known was attained by the application of a slip or wash of fine clay which was given a good degree of mechanical polish by means of a smooth implement held in the hand. Ornament was produced by both flat and plastic methods. The colors used in painting were white, black, and red earths. The plastic subjects were incised, stamped, relieved, and modeled in the round. The period was one of open-air baking, a moderate degree of hardness being secured. The texture was porous and the vessels were without resonance. The paste exhibits two distinct varieties of color which may be described roughly as light and dark. A certain range of dark hues--blacks, browns, and grays--were probably produced by "smother baking." Another set of colors embracing light reddish and yellowish grays resulted from changes in the clay produced by simple open air baking. A feature worthy of especial note is the great diversity of form--indicating a long practice of the art, a high specialization of uses, and a considerable variety in the originals copied. The manual skill exhibited is of no mean order. Symmetry of form combined with considerable grace of outline has been achieved without the wheel--a result attained in still greater perfection by other American races. Notwithstanding the great diversity of the forms of vessels, the very primitive condition of the art is indicated by the absence of bricks, tiles, whistles, lamps, spindle-whorls, toys, and statuettes. The models from which the vessels were copied must have been quite varied, comprising shells of mollusks--marine and fresh-water--gourd shells of varying shapes, and vessels of wicker, bark, horn, and wood, such as are in common use with our western and northern tribes. The execution of the ornamental designs indicates a rather low grade of skill. This is especially true of work in color, which has the appearance of a newly acquired art. Intaglio and relief work evinces much greater skill--the incised forms especially giving evidence of long experience. In subject-matter the ornament employed bespeaks nothing higher perhaps than could be expected of our historic tribes. The great body of the devices are geometric, and comprise such motives as could have developed within the art or that might have been borrowed from closely associated arts. A small percentage of incised linear designs come, apparently, from mythologic sources, and delineate, in a rude way, both men and animals. The modeling of life forms in connection with earthen vessels constitutes a feature of considerable interest, the highest known achievement being represented by a series of vases imitating human heads. Animal forms are generally rudely modeled, the imitation of nature having been apparently a secondary consideration--the associated idea or the fancy for the grotesque being the stronger motive. The animal forms are inferior to those carved in stone by some of the mound-building peoples. That any of these images were idols in the ordinary acceptation of the term is an idea that cannot be entertained. They are always associated directly with vessels, and could not be more than representations of the tutelary deities supposed to be interested in the uses or ceremonies to which the vessels were assigned. In form there are many suggestions of the characteristic utensils of the north, in ornament there are occasional hints of the south--of Caribbean and Mexican art. With the Pueblo peoples, notwithstanding their proximity, there is hardly a hint of relationship of any kind. Unlike the Pueblos, the ethnical environment of the Mississippi Valley races would seem to have been considerably diversified; there was less isolation; yet there are strong indications that the art is mainly of indigenous growth, as there is unity and consistency in all its features. In reference to the period of culture represented by this ware, a few words may be added. There is no feature in it that could not reasonably be expected of the more advanced historic tribes of the Valley. It indicates a culture differing in many ways from that of the Pueblos, ancient and modern, but on the whole rather inferior to it. The work of Mexico, Central and South America is decidedly superior in every essential feature. There are many difficulties in the way of instituting a comparison of this work with that of the primitive work of the Old World. These I shall not stop to present in this place. In the most general way, I may say that the ceramic art of the Middle Mississippi is apparently superior to that of the stone age in Europe, but little can be inferred in regard to relative grades of culture. In classic countries it is difficult to find its true equivalent. To reach a stage of art correspondingly low we shall have to go behind the heroic age--to pass down through more than the five prehistoric cities of the hill of Hissarlik and descend into the lowest archæologic substratum. Even this, unless it represent the first achievement of that grade of art upon the continent, would afford uncertain data for comparative study. A given grade of ceramic achievement runs so freely up and down the scale of culture that alone its evidence is of little value in determining culture status. Index Adams County, Ohio, Serpent earthwork in 402 Age of pottery in Mississippi Valley 371 Alabama, Pottery from 395, 396, 431, 434 Albany, Illinois, Pottery from 430 Ancient pottery of the Mississippi Valley, William H. Holmes 361-436 Animal forms in pottery 383-392 Arkansas, Pottery from 378-392, 394-398, 399-410, 413-426 Baraboo County, Wisconsin, Pottery from 430 Basket molds for pottery 372 Bottles or jars, Wide-mouthed 398-411 Burial grounds, Pottery in 434 mounds, Pottery in 370 Burning pottery 434-435 Ceramic art groups 369 Change of habitat modifies ideas 370 Cherokee pottery 371 Color in Mississippi Valley pottery 373, 374 Classification of form Mississippi Valley pottery 375 Compound vessels 412 Contact of people modifies ideas 370 Construction of pottery in Mississippi Valley 372 Contributions to the Archæology of Missouri 367, 414, 418, 422 Culture represented in pottery 430 Curved forms 375 Davenport, Iowa, Pottery from vicinity of 427, 428 Differences in pottery of different regions 427, 431 Dodge, C. A., collected pottery 431 Du Pratz describes pottery 371 Evers, Dr. Edward, Publication by 367, 414 Finish of Mississippi Valley pottery 373 Form in Mississippi Valley pottery 373 Franklin County, Alabama, Pottery in 434 Gulf Province in pottery 431 Habitat modifies ideas, Change of 370 Hall, Captain, Pottery obtained by 381, 429 Holmes, W. H.; Ancient pottery of the Mississippi Valley 361-436 Ideas modified by certain influences 370 Illinois, Pottery from 430 Iowa, Pottery from 427, 428, 429 Jars, Wide-mouthed bottles or 398-411 Jones, Dr. Joseph, Publication by 367 Kentucky, Pottery from 426 Little Rock, Ark., Collection of pottery at (_See_ Thibault). Pottery from mound near 415 Louisiana, Pottery from 399, 431 Madisonville, Ohio, Mounds at 406 Mexican pottery head 409, 411 Middle Mississippi province in pottery 369-426 Mississippi, Pottery from 399, 403, 431, 432 province in pottery, Middle 369-426 [province in pottery], Upper 426-431 Valley, Ancient pottery of the (W. H. Holmes) 361-436 Missouri, Pottery from 395, 396 Mobile, Pottery from 431 Modification of form in pottery 373 Mound-builders 406, 435 Mounds, Pottery from 370, 415, 429, 431 Natchez pottery 371 Ohio, Mounds at Madisonville 406 Serpent earthwork in Adams County 402 Paducah, Pottery from 426 Peabody Museum collections 367 Pecan Point, Pottery from 369, 381, 390, 391, 392, 396, 397, 398, 399, 404, 408-409, 410, 417, 422 Pot-shaped vessels 392-398 Potter, Prof. W. B., Publication by 367 Pottery buried with the dead 370, 434 from Arkansas 394-398 of the Mississippi Valley, Ancient 361-436 Pratt, Prof. W. H., Aid of 368, 381, 431 Prairie du Chien, Pottery from vicinity of 430 Putnam, Mrs. M. L. D., Aid of 368 Scott County, Iowa, Pottery from. (_See_ Davenport). Serpent in pottery 402 Shells as primitive vessels 383 used in pottery 372 South American pottery 411 Storage vessels of pottery 371 Technique modifies ornament 400-465 Tennessee, Pottery from 381-382, 395, 397, 413, 423 Thibault, J. H., Pottery collection of 382, 410 Tripod bottles 420, 421 Upper Mississippi province in pottery 426-430 Vernon County, Wisconsin, Pottery from 430 Whitesides County, Illinois, Pottery from 430 Wisconsin, Pottery from 429, 430 * * * * * Transcriber's Note Errata Missing and illegible/damaged punctuation has been repaired. Page 366: '420' corrected to '422': "445.--Owl-shaped bottle: Arkansas." (Page) 422 Page 434: 'enployed' corrected to 'employed': "known to nearly all pottery-making peoples--were frequently employed." Sundry page numbers in the Index have also been corrected.