a complete edition of the works of nancy luce, of west tisbury, dukes county, mass., containing god's words--sickness--poor little hearts--milk--no comfort--prayers--our saviour's golden rule--hen's names, etc. new bedford: mercury job press. . complete works of nancy luce. god's words. the lord has put down in the bible; he says: the sin in the world,-- it grieves him to his heart. the lord he forbiddeth all cruelty to dumb creatures, and helpless human too. he will cut the sinners asunder hereafter. god says: "ye shall not afflict any helpless or fatherless child. if thou afflict them in any wise, and they cry at all unto me, i will surely hear their cry." human, they cannot get into heaven, without they do god's commandments, in deeds, words, and thoughts, to human, and dumb creatures too. consider how you would feel yourselves to be crueled. the greatest sin is to cruel the poor harmless dumb creatures, they cannot speak, nor help themselves, the next sin is to cruel sick human, the next sin is to cruel any who cannot help themselves. the lord give human his word, to do justice to the afflicted and needy, to all poor sufferers, human and dumb creatures too, to be tender and kind to all. o may our sympathizing hearts, in generous pleasures know, kindly to share in others' joy, and weep for others' woe. o charity, thou heavenly grace, all tender, soft and kind; a friend to all the living race, to all that's good inclined. the lord takes pleasure in them, which will not hurt dumb creatures, nor human, in not any way whatever, have holy hearts, tender and kind. the wicked shall their triumph see, and gnash their teeth in agony, they and their envy, pride, and spite, sink down to everlasting punishment. the full rank of evil one wants all to be cruel, to the poor harmless dumb creatures, and cruel to sick human too, and take the advantage and cruel all. the full rank of evil one wants all to be murders, and lie, rob, cheat, and steal, and deceit, and contraryness, and so on, and plague every body they can. the good god of heaven, will cast off such sinners, to their double rank, punishment hereafter. poor thoughtless sinners, going on in sin, minding the evil one, their punishment they will have hereafter. god has given human his word, to have no evil conduct, and no evil speaking, and no evil thoughts. god wants all to be tender and kind, soft be our hearts, their misery to feel, and swift our hands to aid. this world a place of misery, some of the worst of sinners have destroyed my head, i cannot bear it up, o my misery, their heart is made of stone, to do such a thing. o lord, my god of heaven, i pray for thy holy spirit to go in all the needy hearts in the whole wide world around. o that they may be tender and kind to all the poor harmless dumb creatures, and sick human too, and others too. the sinners will have their punishment according to their sins, if they will not have the holy spirit. o lord, my god of heaven, i pray thee, enable me what to do, and what to say, and what to think, day after day. o lord, my god, be with me. love god with all your soul and strength, with all your heart and mind, be faithful, just, and kind, have tender feelings in your heart. deal with another as you'd have another deal with you, what you're unwilling to receive be sure you never do. the wicked shall see it, and grieve away, and gnash with their teeth, and melt away, the desire of the wicked shall perish away, and away they will go, to punishment great. they slay the helpless, they murder the fatherless, god will hold up the fatherless child, if it is his own. o god, the father of the fatherless, have mercy on me, deliver me from the wicked. god says, depart from evil, and good they must do. prepare ye the way of the lord, and make your paths straight. be ye therefore merciful, as your father in heaven also is merciful. thus saith the lord of hosts: turn ye now from your evil ways, and from your evil doings. thus saith the lord of hosts; consider your ways. i am cast down to the dust of the earth, with trouble, trials, and sickness, i am grieved to my heart for sin in the world, for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and for the best human too. * * * * * lines composed by nancy luce about poor little tweedle tedel beebee pinky, when she was a little chicken. and you will find more reading in the book about her. when poor little heart pinky, was about six weeks old, she was taken with the chicken distemper, chickens died off all over this island. she was catching grasshoppers, and crickets, in the forenoon smart, at twelve o'clock she was taken sick, and grew worse. at one o'clock she was past opening her eyes, and could not stand, her body felt cold and stiff to my hand. i give her a portion of epsom salts, with a little black pepper in it, i wept over her that afternoon, i prayed to the lord to save me her life. i sat up that night, with her in my lap, till eleven o'clock that night, then she seemed to be better. then i put her in a thing, a good soft bed, and lay down and spoke to her often, say how do you do, little dear, she answered me quick, then i knew she was better. the next day i gave her warm water to drink, the third day she was herself, got well and smart. she remained well four years, and laid me pretty eggs, then the lord thought best to take her from the evil to come, without being sick but a very little while. when i was raising poor little dear in my lap, and it rained on the window, she would look at the rain, and put her head under my cape. and take it out every once in a while, and look at the rain, and put it under my cape again, up most to my shoulder. poor cunning little dear, my heart is broken for her, she and i loved each other so well, and she had more than common wit. that dear little heart, remembered four years, ever since she was a little chicken, i know it by many things. her dear friend is left in trouble, and undergo sickness too. them that knew me once, know--me--no--more, her death renewed me to seek for god, to land in heaven hereafter. nancy luce west tisbury, dukes county, mass., . prayer. hear my prayer, o lord, my god of heaven, grant me i beseech thee, o lord, send thy holy spirit into all the needy hearts, in the whole wide world around, convince them of sin, give them the holy spirit, o that they may be kind and tender to the poor harmless dumb creatures, they cannot speak, nor help themselves, o lord, prepare the inhabitants of the earth to live in this world and in the world to come. o lord, i beseech thee, protect me from committing sin, o lord, help me to watch and pray, o lord, i give thee thanks for what blessings i have, o lord, can thou deliver me from sickness, trouble and trials? o lord, stand my friend in this world and in the world to come. o lord, that the professing inhabitants may not fall back and go to sinning again. o that they may be true christians, the holy spirit, love and tender kindness for dumb creatures and human too, love god and land in heaven, o lord, enable me to have the holy spirit all the days of my life, o lord, grant me i beseech thee, i pray for thy kingdom to come, to destroy all sin, for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and for sick human too. and for all the troubled in the wide world round, human and dumb creatures too, for thine is the kingdom and the glory forever. amen. sickness. sickness distressing, by trouble and trials, walk, stir, or do a little in the house, it hurts me very bad, and i cannot ride to have comfort. my head a misery place all of my time, and part of my time in great misery, and noise sets my head in a dreadful condition. most nothing hurts me, and most nothing beats me out, i am dreadful worn down with long sickness, and trials, and sometimes trouble too. sick i do feel all my whole time, and misery feelings from head to feet. a number of years, i have undergone great sickness. some of my diseases are cured a few years ago, and some of them helped some, and some of them patched along, and some of them not any better at all, but i am dreadful wore down with long sickness. a common thing in my sickness, milk my cow, take care of my hens, in such misery, i felt as if i must fall at every step, but i must do it, i must do it. oh, thou who dry'st the mourner's tear, how dark this world would be. if when deceived and wounded here, we could not fly to thee. when sore afflictions press me down, i need thy quickning powers, thy word that i have rested on, shall help my heaviest hours. poor little hearts. a sketch of two poor little banties, they died with old age, over twelve years ago, poor little ada queetie died over thirteen years ago, in . poor little beauty linna died over twelve years ago, in . o my poor deceased little ada queetie, she knew such a sight, and her love and mine, so deep in our hearts for each other, the parting of her and her undergoing sickness and death, o heart rending! she and i could never part, do consider the night i was left, what i underwent, no tongue could express, weeping the whole night through. poor little ada queetie's sickness and death, destroyed my health at an unknown rate, with my heart breaking and weeping, i kept fire going night after night, to keep poor little dear warm, i kept getting up nights to see how she was, and see what i could do for her. three her last days and nights, she breathed the breath of life here on earth, she was taken down very sick, then i was up all night long, the second night i was up till i was going to fall, then i fixed her in her box warm, close by the fire, put warm clothes under, over and around, and left fire burning and lay down, with all my clothes on, a very little while, and got up and up all the time. the third night i touched no bed at all, poor little heart, she was struck with death at half past eleven o'clock. she died in my arms at twelve o'clock at night, o heart rending! i could been heard to the road, from that time till daylight, no tongue could express my misery of mind. she had more than common wit, and more than common love, her heart was full of love for me, o do consider my poor little heart. she was my dear and nearest friend, to love and pity me, and to believe that i was sick, she spoke to me, and looked at me most all the time, and could not go from me. poor little heart, she used to jump down to the door to go out, she would look around, and call to me to go with her, she found i could not go, she would come in again, she loved her dear friendy so well she could not go out and leave me. o my dear beloved little heart, she was my own heart within me, when she was well and i was sick, and made out to sit in my chair, she knew i was sick, because i didn't say but a very little to her. she would stand close to me all the time, and speak to me, i could not take her eyes off my face, and look as grieved as it her heart must break, she was so worried for me, and if i was forced to lay down, then she was more worried than ever. when poor little heart happened to be out the room, and i was forced to lay down, she would come and peek at me, and take on, as if her heart must break, and come straight to me and lament my cause, and would not go from me, her feelings was so deeply rooted in her heart for me. they was brought from chilmark to new town, and remained there one year for me to get able to take care of them. and then they was brought to me. poor little ada queetie, she used to do everything i told her, let it be what it would, and knew every word i said to her. if she was as far off as across the room, and i made signs to her with my fingers, she knew what it was, and would spring quick and do it. if she was far off and i only spoke her name, she would be sure to run to me quick, without wanting anything to eat. she would do wonderful cunning things, poor sissy would do , they would do part of them without telling, and do all the rest of them with telling. i use to dream distressing dreams, about what was coming to pass, and awoke making a dreadful noise, and poor little ada queetie was making a mournful noise, she was so worried for me, then i would speak to her and say: little dear, nothing ails you friendy. then she would stop and speak a few pretty words to me. she use to shake my cape, with all her strength and might, every time i told her, they would both put one foot into my hand, every time i told them, they would both scratch my hand, and peck on my cap, every time i told them. when some one used to happen to shut them out the room, they would take on at a dreadful rate, i let them straight in, and as soon as the person was gone, poor little ada queetie would not keep out of my lap, squeezing me close up, talking to me, and poor little beauty linna would not keep off my shoulders, with her face squeezed close to my face, talking to me, they was so glad they got back in this room with me, and i wasn't hurt and carried away. consider those dear hearts, that loved me so well, and depended all on me to be their true friend. poor little beauty linna, departed this life, my hands around her by the fire, my heart aching, i wept steady from that time, till next day, i took the best of care of her, days and nights, i did everything could be done, i did the best i could do, i sat up nights with her, till it made me very lame, then i fixed her in her bed, warm, close by the fire, put warm clothes under, over and around, and left fire burning and lay down with all my clothes on, and got up very often with her, and sat up as long as i could. i never took off none of my clothes for days and nights. poor little heart, never can call me back no more, when i go out the room, she did it as long as she was able, for eight months after poor sissy's decease, she would not let me go out the room, called me straight back, as soon as i went out. i fed her with a teaspoon in her sickness, good milk and nutmeg, and good porridge, and so i did poor sissy. i made fire days and nights, to keep poor beauty linna warm, the day before poor little dear was taken away, she opened her eyes and looked me up into my face, for the last time, o heart melting, poor little beauty linna, she could not have the wind to blow on her, all her last summer through, she would keep out the wind. a mournful scene it was to me, to see their breath depart, consider soon my time will come, and i must follow on. anxiety of mind will keep any one up and doing, if they have a friend sick, if their own health is very miserable. no one here on earth can know, but only them that knows, how hard it is to undergo trouble and sickness. when i am taken away, i must be buried to the east side, of my poor little dears' graves. poor little beauty linna, she remembered poor sissy, for eight months after poor sissy's decease, i know it by many things. they would always have the best of good cake, and best of good wheat, brought from the west. when they was both alive, and i had fire in the north room, and it came up too cold for them, they would go in the east room, and call me to come to them, they would stand side and side, and look at the fire place, and look at me, deaning me to make fire there for them, then i would make fire there, and they and i sat down together, now they are gone and i am left broken hearted. when poor little ada queetie departed this life, that was the first cause of my seeking for god. the path of sorrow, and that path alone, leads to the land where sorrows are unknown. the sick, the troubled, god hears when they complain, and all the sons of grief, with tender heart, delights to bless, and love to give relief. it is not every one that says, lord, lord, that can enter the kingdom of heaven, it is them that doeth god's commandments, in deeds, words, and thoughts, to human and dumb creatures too, and love god and hate the evil one. milk. you needn't talk against milk, if you make your victuals of water, what you put with water won't go half so far, and awful eating and distress ailing folks, and no nourishment to it. make your victuals of milk, and what you put with milk will go twice as far, and good eating and nourishment to it. milk is cooling to health, and strengthening, other victuals distress my stomach, because i am out of health; milk agrees with me, other victuals distress me. i cannot eat bread, &c., i must have milk to live on or go without eating till i die. no comfort. you don't know how hard it is to me, because i cannot ride somewhere, i cannot ride nor walk out, impossible yet, i used to ride once in a while, on a canter, galop, and run, o what comfort that was. i have had horses to run with me, so that the ground looked all in black and white streaks. there never was a horse that ever started me from their back, now i am deprived from all comforts of life. poor, sick i, days are very dark, to undergo sickness, and no comforts of life, i hope to have comfort in heaven. o how much better to go to house of mourning, than to go to house of plays and frolicking, sorrow is better than laughter, by sadness of the countenance the heart is made better. o how i love the holy law, 'tis daily my delight, and thence my meditations draw, divine advice by night. touched with sympathy within, christ knows our feeble frame, he knows what sore temptations mean, for he has felt the same. restraining prayer we cease to fight, prayer makes the christian's armor bright, and satan trembles when he sees, the weakest saint upon his knees. afflictions, though they seem severe, in mercy oft are sent, they stopped the prodigal's career, and forced him to repent. prayer makes the darkened cloud withdraw, prayer climbs the ladder jacob saw, gives exercise to faith and love, brings every blessing from above. the lord will sustain our weakest powers, with his almighty arm, and watch our most unguarded hours, against surprising harm. poor, weak, and worthless though i am, i have a rich, almighty friend, jesus, the saviour, is his name, he freely loves and without end. human, god is love and truth, god requires human to consider dumb creatures, what a site of wit they have got, and what a site of love they have got for one another, and love for human too, if they are kind to them, if human are cruel to dumb creatures in any way, or let them suffer in any way, god will cast off such sinners, to everlasting punishment. god requires human to take it to their own case, if they was dumb creatures, could not speak, nor help themselves, and human crueled them in any way, or let them suffer in any way. consider what you would undergo to be crueled, if you could not help yourselves. god requires human to leave off all their sins, and pray to the lord with truth, to take away their heart of stone, and give them a good heart, the holy spirit, prepare them to both live, and die, without true repentance, they will go to punishment, according to their sins, the thoughts are the ground work of all sin, and ground work of all goodness too, if any one is cruel to dumb creatures, they cannot get into heaven, they have not love of god in their hearts, they will go to punishment hereafter. prayers. our father in heaven, o lord, grant me i beseech thee, send thy holy spirit to all the wicked inhabitants in this world, that they may see the evil of their ways, and have the holy spirit, true christians, love and tenderness for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and human too, love and serve the lord all their days, and land in heaven hereafter. o that the professing inhabitants may not fall back, and go to sinning again, o that they may be true christians, the holy spirit, love and tenderness for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and human too, love and serve the lord all their days, and then land in heaven, o grant me i beseech thee, enable me to have the holy spirit all my days, and not fall back, and love and serve the lord all the days of my life, then land in heaven. o lord protect me from committing sin, o lord, help me to watch, and pray, o lord, enable me to put my whole trust in thee, that i may be protected from all harm in this world, and in the world to come, o lord, i beseech thee, help me through this world of misery, and land me in heaven, where no sickness, no trouble, no trials, distress me no more, come quickly, lord jesus, come, and put a stop to all sin, thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth as it is done in heaven, for thine is the kingdom, the power and the glory forever. amen. this world a place of misery, i am grieved to my heart, for sin in the world. blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. the lord give human his word to do justice to the afflicted and needy, to all the poor sufferers, human, and dumb creatures too, to be kind, and tender to all. god forbiddeth all profaning of any thing, thereby god maketh himself known. god says, all the horns of the wicked will be cut off, but the horns of the righteous will be exalted. hear my prayer, o lord, my god of heaven, and let my cry come unto thee, grant me i beseech thee, o lord, send thy holy loving kindness into the whole wide world around, and protect all the poor harmless dumb creatures from all cruelty till the world ends, o that i may praise thee for thy holy loving kindness, as long as i have breath to breathe. o lord, i beseech thee, send thy holy loving kindness and protect me from all cruelty, from the wicked, as long as i live. o there i may praise thee as long as i live. o lord, grant me, i beseech thee, send thy holy loving kindness and protect all the good folks from cruelty from the wicked, till the world ends. o that i may praise thee as long as i live. o lord, land me in the best place in heaven. o deliver me from sickness, trouble, trials. the lord is nigh unto them that call upon him in truth. o god, my heart is fixed, i will praise thee. the lord will maintain the cause of the afflicted. the lord is righteous, he will cut asunder the cords of the wicked. amen. poor little heart. poor tweedle, tedel, bebbee, pinky. she is gone. she died june th, , at quarter past o'clock in the evening, with my hands around her, aged years. i never can see poor little dear again. poor pinky, that dear little heart, she is gone, sore broke in her, died in distress, poor little heart, o it was heart rending. o sick i do feel ever since, i am left broken hearted, she was my own heart within me, she had more than common wit. poor pinky's wit, and she loved me so well, them was the reasons, i set so much by her, and i raised her in my lap too. she is taken from the evil to come, if i had died and left her, she would mourn for me, and suffer, and die for me. i wept all that night, and by spells ever since, to god i cried, he supported me, god has held me up, through all my trials, and all i have to lean upon, in every cause. if i had died and left her, to mourn, and suffer, and could have known i should die and leave her, i should have felt a great deal worse to leave her, than i do now, that she is gone before me. i must be as reconciled as i can, to part with poor little dear, all i have to comfort me is, she is taken from the evil to come. i hope i never shall have a hen, to set so much by again, from over sea, she was brought to me, one week old, i raised her in my lap, she loved me dreadful dearly. she would jam close to me, every chance she could get, and talk to me, and want to get in my lap, and set down close. and when she was out from me, if i only spoke her name, she would be sure to run to me quick, without wanting anything to eat. she placed her whole affections on me; when she was alive, and saw me to the east window, she would put her head through the pickets, and look at me, as long as she could see my face. she had more wit than any hen i ever knew, poor, sweet little dear, down in her silent grave, turning to dust, o heart rending, i never can see her again. god is supporting me under my trouble, he took away my dear friend, he has done it for the best, it is all right and just. but o it was heart rending, for that poor little heart, to undergo death, and for me to part with her. when overwhelmed with grief, my heart within me dies, helpless, and far from all relief, to heaven i lift my eyes. this world a place of misery, o lord land me in heaven, that holy, happy place, when i bid adieu to this vain world. blessed are they, which have feelings to melt, for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and for sick human too. and for all the troubled, in the wide world around, human and dumb creatures too, great sympathy and love, they will have from the lord. i must be as reconciled as i can, to part with poor little dear, it is all for the best, from the evil to come. she was sick and died very sudden, only two hours and a quarter, about fifteen minutes dying. bloody water pouring out her mouth, and her breath agoing, poor little heart. o dreadful melancholy i do feel for my dear, she laid eggs till three days before her death, she laid the most eggs, this four years around, than any hen i have on earth. soon my turn will come, and i must follow on, i hope to land on that blest shore, where no sickness, no trouble, no trials, distress me no more. my heart is fix'd on thee, my god, i rest my hope on thee alone, christ wept so much himself, he counts, and treasures up my tears. prayer an answer will obtain, through the lord a little delay; none shall seek his name in vain, none be empty sent away. the lord takes pleasure in the just, whom sinners treat with scorn, the meek, that lie despised in dust, salvation shall adorn. blest are the meek who stand afar, from rage and passion, noise and war, god will secure their happy state, and plead their cause against the great. to god i cried when troubles rose, he heard me and subdued my foes, he did my rising fears control, and strength diffused through all my soul. consider how distressing sickness is to undergo, and how distressing in many ways, my parents' sickness, a number of years, caused them to sell cows, oxen, horses, and sheep, english meadow, clear land, and wood land, consider how distressing sickness is in many ways. our saviour's golden rule. be you to others kind and true, as you'd have others be to you, and never do nor say to them, whate'er you would not take again. hen's names. teedie lete, phebea peadeo, letoogie tickling, jaatie jafy, reanty fyfante, speackekey lepurlyo, pondy lily, kalallyphe roseiekey, tealsay mebloomie, levendy ludandy, appe kaleanyo, meleany teatolly, aterryryree roseendy, vailatee pinkoatie. * * * * * hear my prayer, o lord, my god of heaven, grant me i beseech thee o lord, i pray for thy kingdom to come, to ease this misery world, it is now a place of misery, for some human, and some poor harmless dumb creatures, thy kingdom come, be no more dying, no sickness, no crying, no misery of no kind, the sinners have their punishment for their sins. thy kingdom come. amen. nancy luce. _west tisbury, dukes co., mass.,_ . hens--their diseases and cure. human, do understand how to raise up sick hens to health. some folks do not know how to doctor hens, they doctor them wrong, it hurts them, and it is dreadful cruel to let them die. it is as distressing to dumb creatures to undergo sickness, and death, as it is for human, and as distressing to be crueled, and as distressing to suffer. god requires human to take good care of dumb creatures, and be kind to them, or not keep any. now do understand, and i will tell you exact. stoppage in stomach.--if a hen has stoppage in her stomach, her corn stops in her crop, hard and swell large, and she sick, first work with your fingers carefully, get it soft, then take a small teaspoon and measure it full of epsom salts, and dissolve it in water, and give it to her with a teaspoon; you must keep to work with your fingers often, to keep it from hardening again, and the next day, if her breath smells bad, there is a rottenness in her stomach, then give her most as much of epsom salts again. put a little flour porridge in her mouth with a teaspoon, three times a day, and a little soaked cracker, soaked in water; put a little in her mouth if she can swallow it, in five days she eat with the hens and be well. this is the way i cure them. folks bring hens to me in this disease, to the point of death, been sick a long time, i cure them in five days; they must not have any milk in this disease, it will kill them, do as i tell you and you can cure them. once in a great while one of my hens have stoppage in their stomach; i cure them with only my fingers, because i take her as soon as the corn stops. milk does not agree with hens in sickness nor health, it keeps up in their stomach, and they vomit it up. i think strange it does not agree with hens, because milk is so good for human. you must not give your hens any castor oil, nor rhubarb, in not any disease whatever; it is poison for them, my reason tells me so, and i hear of folks killing their hens by giving them such stuff. my hens all keep healthy, because i keep them clean, and keep victuals and clean water standing by them, and take good care of them. i can cure a good many diseases for hens, but i cannot cure every disease. every once in a while a sick hen is brought to me, to the point of death, been sick a great while, most dead, some ail one disease, some ail a number of diseases; i receive them into my care, i doctor them, and take care of them, i raise them up to health, i am unable to do anything, but i must take pity. froth in throat.--if a hen has froth in her throat and crop, measure a small teaspoonful of epsom salts, dissolve it, put in a little black pepper, and give it to her with a teaspoon, it will cure this disease; but if she make a screaming noise with it, and distressed with it, then a sore growing in her, then no cure. gapes.--if a hen or chicken gapes a great deal, and sick, and complains of her throat, make pills of black pepper, cream, white flour, and put a pill in her mouth and make her swallow it till she takes down enough; the black pepper kills the worms. i cure them so. bag stone.--this is a seldom case, i have known this case once in a while. if a hen has a bag of stones grow in her, hang down under her, you must give her the best of good cake to eat, the stones will consume in a few weeks, then she will eat corn and oats with the hens, and lay you eggs; but if you do not give her the best of cake she will certainly die, she cannot eat anything else then, in this disease, but best of cake. i cured them so. skin in hen.--if a hen goes on her nest, and try to lay an egg, and cannot, and there most all day, then a skin of an egg is in her, she will certainly die if the skin of egg is not took out of her; some one has a small finger, and common sense, take the skin of egg out of her, then she is all right. i cure them so. bones.--if a hen is wounded in her hips, or any of her bones, bathe freely with mcquesten's extractor a number of times every day, put on a good deal, till she gets well; i have cured a number of hens with this extractor, they could not stand nor walk, their bones was so spraint, and so wrenched, &c. if their bones stiff too, then put on dr. job sweet's sprain liniment, if any sore, then put on castile soap. i cure them so. wild.--i bought a young hen last year, she was dreadful wild, and when one week was at an end she came to me, and let me take her up, she keep still, and eat out of my hand, she remains gentle ever since, and a good hen to lay eggs. green.--if a hen has bright green come from her, look same as bright green paint, with yellow in it, give her rice water with nutmeg grated in it, and jamaica ginger, a number of times a day, till it cures this disease. i cure them in a few days. feeling.--it is your duty to take good care, and not let anything hurt your hens, consider dear little hens. birds.--when i step down to the door, the little harmless birds come fly down on the ground, only one yard off my feet, and some of them half a yard off my feet. i give them oats and dough to eat; they eat it. will they come to any one else? so few folks have feeling. diarrhoea.---if a hen has diarrhoea, and pain with it, you must be as careful about what she eats, as her medicines; she must not have not any corn, and not any corn meal dough, not till she is well. give her a little warm flour porridge, five times a day, with a teaspoon; her medicine, jamaica ginger, put in warm rice water, and grate in good deal nutmeg, give it to her three times a day, take good care of her, and she get well. i cure them so. lice.--human, some of them, have lice on their hens, it is cruel, the reason is, the hen-house above the ground, and keep dirty, that breeds lice on hens, and breeds diseases too; have a cellar for your hens, and take up the dressing every morning, be no lice, lice will not breed in a cellar, i never have any lice on my hens, and they keep healthy. folks bring sick hens to me, i cure them, and lice on them too, i put black pepper in their feathers, it kills the lice. god meant for human to take good care of dumb creatures, and be kind to them, or not keep any. do by dumb creatures as you would wish to be done by if you was dumb creatures, consider how you would feel. cows.--meal is good for cows, but it will not do for her to have it dry, it gets in her nose and lungs, and hurt her, wet it; the best way is to scald it, and cool it, does more good. cracked corn is better; boil it, put on cover, it steams it soft very soon, one quart makes two and a half. cows must not have dusty hay, it hurts their lungs, &c. cows ought not to have timothy herds grass hay, it is physic. hay ought to be wet. warped neck.--if a hen has warped neck, rub on castor oil, faithful, a number of times, and give her a little huile d'olive to take inside, a good chance, her neck come in place again. swelled head.--if a hen has swelled head and face, and blue black, put on huile d'olive, i had one so, i cured her. fever.--if a hen has a fever, and her crop swelled soft, take a small teaspoon full of epsom salts and dissolve it in warm water, and put in a little black pepper in it, and give it to her with a teaspoon, and give her as much warm water as she wants to drink in her sickness, i cure hens and chickens so in three days, and give her a little porridge with a teaspoon, five times a day, till she is able to eat. i cure them so. feeling.--if any one is cruel to dumb creatures, they will go to everlasting punishment, and have the greatest punishment. sick, i am, and very unable to do anything, but i must take pity,--dear little hens. * * * * * god is good, love and truth, merciful in all his ways. if the will of god could be done in full, it would be a great happiness among dumb creatures and human too. cruelty is of the evil one. the good god is looking down upon such folks; he will cast them off to everlasting punishment. human must do god's commandments in deeds, words and thoughts. be kind to poor hens in every way, and not let them suffer with hunger nor cold; cruelty not in any way; must not affrighten them; doctor them when they have diseases. be good and kind to them. think how good god is. act up to his will in all your ways and all your thoughts too. you must keep your hens from suffering with cold, and give them enough to eat, and keep them clean, and not affrighten them, &c., &c., or they cannot lay you eggs. if your hens or chickens have their crops swelled soft, and a fever, give them a portion of epsom salts, with a little black pepper in it, and give them as much warm water as they can drink; in their sickness take good care of them, they get well. if they have stoppage in their stomach, their crop swelled hard, take your fingers and jam carefully till their crop is soft, then give them a portion of epsom salts. i have cured them with only my fingers, they get well. if they have itching feet and scurfy, if mutton tallow will not cure it, then put their feet in a thing of warm water and wash them every morning till they get well. when they shed their feathers, their stomach is weak then, they must have soft victuals then, hard corn will distress their stomach then. if hen's body comes out, put it back in her and see to her, she be well by the next day. if it comes more than half way out, it can be put back if any one has common sense. if a string of hen's insides comes out, with a egg fast to it, break the egg, and take it off from her insides and put her insides back in her and see to her, she be well by the next day. if hen's legs chilled with cold for want of sun, and they cannot walk, take them by the fire and rub their legs and feet, faithful, half a day, then rub on black pepper mixed with warm water, they get well. if a hen is starved she must not have hard corn at first, give her flour bread soaked soft in milk, till she is able to eat corn. hens must not go in snow, it hurts them. they must not have fat meat. they must not be crowded, their room must be large enough. their roosts must not be too high, for them to fly down on hard floor, it hurts their feet and hips. i know it. hens want sun in winter and shade in summer. if hens' feet crack, bleed, and sore places, melt mutton tallow and white sugar together, rub it on faithful, they get well. if they bleed great deal, put on warm alum water first, they get well. if hens' feet swell, put on sweet apple balsam every day, they get well. if hens' head turns over, give her epsom salts and black pepper, she get over it for a while. if hens have diarrhoea, give them boiled rice, black pepper, nutmeg, mixed, they get well if you take good care of them. hens must not have fish, it physics them. hens must not have anything relaxing. if hens have rattling in their throat give them epsom salts and black pepper, they get well. if hen has her head quiver, and stagger, give her epsom salts, and keep her quiet, and her food soak cracker in milk, she get well. if hens taken lame in the afternoon without being hurt, rub on mutton tallow and black pepper, they get well. if hen's bones spraint or bruised, bathe freely with mequesten's extracter, take good care of her, she get well in time, must have little time for it. this medicine will cure burns, scalds, on human, no doubt on hens too. it will cure sores, put it on when they first begin to come. if anything ails hens' eyes, rain-water is good, new milk put on, mutton tallow put around her eyes, salve made of rose water and cream, put around her eyes. hens must not be confined in wind, it hurts them, they cannot lay you eggs. god placed us in this world to be kind to dumb creatures, or not keep any, and kind to human too. consider what a wickedness it is to go contrary from it. i keep cow and hens, i do my duty for them. if hens have watery stomachs give them black pepper, put it in their dough, if they are able to eat it, if not able, then mix the pepper with water, and give it to her with a teaspoon, be careful and not have it too strong, to take her breath. if hens have pip, give them the same medicine, it will cure pip and watery stomach. help them in season. if hen has swelled throat, put on sweet oil and black pepper, she get well. you must not give your hens salt, it will kill them. you must not give them rye, it will hurt them. if hen lays soft shell eggs, let her set two or three weeks, she lay hard shell eggs again. you must take good care of your poor hens or they cannot lay you eggs. hens must be kept clean and must not have any bad smell with them, it will poison them. you must not give them cayenne pepper, it will poison them, it drives a redness into their heads, then they fail till they die. black pepper is good for them when they need it. hens must have clean victuals and clean water to drink. take the chill off the water in winter. keep good yellow southern corn standing by them, they take a little when they want it, it does them more good, and it takes less to keep them. give them boiled oats, it is good for them to lay eggs. i give my hens boiled oats all the time, and corn standing by them. i give them some other victuals too, sometimes, and sometimes i give them some boiled potatoes. i mash it with cream for them. my hens lay me more eggs than anybody's hens anywhere, by what i hear. good flour bread is splendid to make them lay eggs, but i am not able to cook it for them. the bread must not be sour. keep fine clam shells by them, and gravel sand. they must be kept warm in winter and cool in summer. they must have clean, warm cellar room, you will have double the eggs. take up the dressing every morning certain, and oftener, if they stay down there days. when cold, keep them in the cellar, when the weather is suitable, let them out days. if cold morning, keep them in till the sun gets up warm. be clever to them. they must not be affrighted. they can never get over it. i hear what folks do all my days, and their poor hens cannot lay much and they die off. it is wicked for folks to be so cruel. be good and kind to all that breathes, act up our good saviour's laws, have tender feelings in your hearts, for all the poor, harmless dumb creatures. my hens are all in better order since i had a cellar for them, than they were before, and lay me double the eggs. hens must not suffer with the cold, nor no other sufferings, you cannot have eggs. raise your chickens on good flour bread, it will make them healthy, grow fast and smart; they must be fed often; i do not think meal is very good for hens or chickens; meal is splendid for cows. if you are forced to give your hens or chickens meal, you must sift it fine and scald it and cool it. i used to raise my chickens on flour middlings dough, it is splendid for them. flour bread is better. i do not set any hens now. you must not let young chickens go in cold nor wet ground, nor rain, &c., &c. you must boil some corn in winter, and give it to your hens warm, besides other victuals. human, those that are cruel to dumb creatures and to human too, and murder, rob, steal, cheat, contrary, spite, deceit, and take the advantage of any one, to damage them in any way, &c., &c., those will go to everlasting punishment hereafter, and have the greatest punishment. be tender hearted, be kind one to another, do your duty to those who still live. god requires human to do as they wish to be done by, in deeds, words and thoughts, to human and dumb creatures too. the greatest sin is, in the sight of god, is to cruel the poor harmless dumb creatures, they cannot speak nor help themselves. the next sin is to cruel sick human, the next sin is to cruel any who cannot help themselves, and especially the cruel to the poor, harmless dumb creatures. the lord will cut asunder the cords of such sinners. this world a place of misery, i pray for thy kingdom to come, to destroy all sin, o lord, land me in heaven, that holy, happy place, when i bid adieu to this vain world, my good god in heaven, my only true friend, has held me up with his arm, and all i have to lean upon. christ, a man of grief, he wept so much himself, on him i lean, who not in vain, he counts and treasures up my tears. nancy luce. west tisbury, dukes county, mass., . * * * * * this reading below is on my gravestones: poor little heart, ada queetie, o my heart is consumed in the coffin under ground, o how i feel for her, she and i could never part, she was my own heart within me, she had more than common love, and more than common wit. poor little heart, beauty linna, she has consumed, in the coffin under ground, o how i feel for her, she was a cunning little heart. poor tweedle, tedel, beebe, pinky, poor dear little heart, sore broke in her, i am left broken-hearted, she was my own heart within me, she had more than common wit, she is taken from the evil to come. them that knew me once, know--me--no--more, till all things have their end, and they, and i, do meet in heaven. prayers. o i pray for my lord jesus christ, to destroy all sin, and all misery, for the afflicted, for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and for all the troubled, in the wide world around, for all that breathes the breath of life, dumb creatures, and human too. o that i may leave this world of misery, o that i may see my lord jesus christ, and live with him in heaven. o that i may meet my deceased friends in heaven; o that i may rise above those earthly afflictions, sickness, trials, and trouble. amen. o lord, my god of heaven, grant me, i beseech thee, o lord, i pray for thy kingdom to come, to destroy all sin, be done on earth as it is done in heaven, for the poor harmless dumb creatures, and for all the troubled in the wide world around. o i pray for all the inhabitants of the earth to be prepared to live in this world, and in the world to come. o that they may be true children of god, tender feelings, and kind to dear little hens, and other dumb creatures. o lord, my god of heaven, i know thee will cut asunder the sinners hereafter and cast them to everlasting wo, if any one is cruel to dear little hens, and other dumb creatures. o lord, i hope there is not any one so cruel, so sinful. thy kingdom come. amen. o lord protect me from committing sin. nancy luce. pratts practical pointers on the care of livestock and poultry the pratt food company of canada, limited, maintains its established position of leadership, after nearly half a century of business service, because of the sustained good will of those whom it serves. better products than anyone else could produce, plus expert, personal, whole-hearted service, built that good will. and retained it through all these years. it was the constant aim and effort of those who founded this business, and of those who have carried out the founders' work to the present, to anticipate the needs of the industry, to co-operate with the individuals in it, to show their vital interest in the success of their customers. these principles of business practice won the good will that established this company as the authority in its important field. our future success depends upon the continuance of that good will. our appreciation of that fact is your best assurance that in the future the services of this company, as well as the superiority of its products, will justify the confidence and good will of the thousands to whom the name of _pratt_ is but another name for _quality_ and _service_. ~profitable livestock~ [illustration: farm animals] ~introduction~ animal husbandry is the sure foundation of profitable, permanent agriculture. where many animals are kept and their manure properly cared for and returned to the land, the soil becomes richer and crop-production steadily increases. and the farmer grows rich with his land. further, the keeping of live stock distributes the farm labor and the farm income over the entire year. this is true whether meat, milk or eggs are the money crops. and certainly both factors are worthy of consideration from a straight business standpoint. with labor as valuable as it is at present, lost time cuts into the profits. and when the income is regular, not concentrated in a short period or dependent upon the success of a single crop, the matter of farm finance is much simplified. consider the richest and most desirable agricultural sections of our great land. with very few exceptions, the best and most valuable farms are those which are heavily stocked with domestic animals. here, too, are found the finest farm homes, the most prosperous and contented farm families. and this fact, which is so well established that it requires no argument, plainly shows that _animal husbandry pays_. in the following pages you will find much valuable information regarding the proper care--in health and sickness--of horses, cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. we trust, and believe that you will find it most helpful in connection with your work. that it will enable you to be more successful, earn bigger profits. right at the start we wish to emphasize two facts which are really fundamental and which are recognized by the most successful stock keepers. the first is this: it does not pay to keep scrub stock, animals which cannot under any conditions give the big returns. the second: no animal, regardless of breeding, can do its best work unless it is kept in perfect physical condition. the selection of your animals is up to you. get good ones. than _keep them good_ and _make them better_. the pratt line of stock and poultry preparations, regulators, tonics, disinfectants and remedies, will help you greatly. made for nearly fifty years by america's pioneer concern in this line, each article is the best of its kind, each is backed by this square-deal guarantee--"your money back if you are not satisfied." pratt food company philadelphia chicago toronto ~the pratt guarantee~ "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" the pratt food company believes in fair play. we desire that our millions of customers _shall receive full value_ for every cent they spend in purchasing our goods. and to that end we spare no expense in making each article in the pratt line just as good, just as efficient, as is humanly possible. more than that, we wish each customer to be _completely satisfied_. if for any reason any article bearing the pratt trade-mark fails to give such satisfaction, the full purchase price will be refunded on demand by the dealer who made the sale. you can buy and use pratts stock and poultry preparations with fullest confidence because you are protected by ~the guarantee that has stood for nearly fifty years~ copyright, , by pratt food co. ~pratts practical pointers~ ~horses~ while the automobile and the tractor are now doing much of the work formerly done by horses, the "horseless era" is still far off. a good horse will always be worth good money, will always be a desirable and profitable member of the farm family. but the undersized no-breed specimen will be even less valuable in the future than in the past. the great demand for horses for army use and the high prices paid by the government, tempted horse breeders and farmers to dispose of the fine specimens which alone met the exacting requirements of army buyers. it will take years to make good this tremendous wastage of horse flesh. but this is a big opportunity for breeders of good horses and we may expect them to make the most of it. prices of really desirable horses are now high. if you have a good one, take good care of him. protect his health, lengthen his life. if you must buy, be sure that you get a sound animal which will serve you long and faithfully. see the horse in his stall. if he has a spavin he will hop on one leg when made to "get over," or jerk it up as he backs out if he is affected with chorea (st. vitus' dance). in the latter disease the tail is suddenly raised and quivers when the animal backs out of stall. watch to see if the horse "cribs" and "sucks wind": also that he is not vicious in the stall. stand him at rest on a level floor before exercise. if he is lame he will rest the sore foot. examine both sides of the horse. the dealer may stand the "bad side" next to a wall. pick up each foot in turn. suspect something wrong if he wears bar shoes, special shape shoes, leather soles or rubber pads. remove all such things and examine carefully before buying. [illustration: ~percheron horse~] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _englewood, colo. i have had many dealings with rundown horses, both in the draft and hot blood classes, and pratts goods have always brought them out on top. jas. s. kinsley, jr._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- reject for contracted feet, steep heels, shrunken frogs and bars, dropped soles, corns, quarter cracks and signs of founder. see that hoof dressing does not cover evidences of un-soundness. following bad attacks of founder the hoof grows out long at the toes, shows marked grooves and ridges, is convex at the points of the frogs, and the horse tends to thrust his forefeet out in front when standing and walks and trots on his heels. ringbones are indicated by hard bony enlargements on the pastern; side-bones, by similar enlargements at the quarters just above juncture of horn and hair. examine front of knees for scars indicating results of stumbling and falling. similar scars on the inside of knees and fetlocks indicate objectionable cutting and interfering. shoulders and hips should be smooth, well covered, and free from tumors or sores. no sores should be seen on back or top of neck under collar. examine teeth for age and soundness. see that eyes are of like color, are sound, and the eyelids whole. the horse should allow one to examine his ears, and should neither hold them absolutely still nor keep them constantly moving. still ears may indicate deafness; restless ones, poor eyesight or nervousness. see that the horse goes sound and does not "roar" when galloped. give him all the water he will drink before testing for "wind." it will bring out the characteristic symptoms of "heaves" if he has been "doped." heaves is indicated by labored bellows-like action of the abdominal muscles when breathing. examine the nostrils, as sponges or squeezed lemons may have been inserted to hide roaring. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _madison, wis. i think every man that owns horses should have pratts animal regulator on hand. i am a teamster and find it of great benefit to my horses, whether run down or not. harry e. burmeister_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [illustration: ~clydesdale horse~] a spavined horse starts out lame for a few steps or rods and then goes sound. a lame shoulder causes dragging of the toe and rolling when in motion. a ring-bone causes an extra long step and lameness increases with exercise. stifle lameness causes walking on the heels of shoe and consequent wearing of the iron. hip lameness causes outward rolling of the leg in trotting, and wasting of the muscles of stifle and hip leads to a characteristic drop. see that the horse's tail is sound, has not been joined on and is free from sores, tumors or evidences of recent docking. always remember to back the horse up as well as drive or ride him and see that he is not only sound and gentle but suitable for the special work he will be required to do. [illustration: care of the horse] ~care of the horse~ a grown work horse requires daily about one pound of grain (concentrate) for each hundred pounds of live weight. of hay he will need a slightly larger amount or about fourteen to eighteen pounds a day, according to size, weight, and character of work done. the idle horse will do well on less grain and more roughage. for a farm horse, pounds of oats, pounds of corn, and pounds of bran, divided into three equal feeds, will make a suitable ration for one day. the corn may be fed at noon to give variety. for the evening meal crushed oats, bran, and a few handfuls of cut hay, wetted and salted, will be relished. the bulk of the hay should be fed at night, and but two or three pounds of it at noon, during hot weather. avoid dusty hay. clover hay is apt to be moldy. it is suitable food for work horses, or idle drafters, if sound and not too liberally fed. increase the corn in cold weather. omit it in hot weather entirely. alfalfa is of high feeding value, but if moldy, or fed as a well-nigh exclusive ration, is apt to affect the kidneys injuriously. it is deemed unsafe food for stallions, as it is said to induce impotence or sterility. horses should drink _before_ they eat, unless they have ready access to fresh water. it is best to allow drinking water often in small quantities, even if the horse is hot. so used it will not hurt him. the horse's stomach holds three and one-half gallons. water flows through the stomach along seventy or more feet of small intestine, into the "waterbag." hay is not digested to any extent in the stomach. that organ cares for the concentrated food. theoretically, a horse should drink first, then eat hay, then grain. practically no great amount of water should be taken just after a meal as it tends to flush undigested food out of the stomach; nor should it be given soon after a meal. all stables, pens, out houses, poultry houses and yards should be regularly disinfected every week; nothing better can be used than pratts dip and disinfectant. this preparation is entirely free from all dangerous substances, arsenic, mercury, etc., but full of medicinal qualities and properties which make it most effective without the dangerous results which are experienced with many other preparations, such as carbolic acid, etc. it kills disease germs and prevents contagious diseases from spreading. farm horses do not need blanketing in the stable under ordinary circumstances. a thin sheet in the stable keeps off flies and dust and is necessary. pratts fly chaser is a proved and safe fly repellant. it does not gum the hair. its efficiency is unequalled. if a horse sweats under the blanket, uncover his rear parts. always tuck the blanket about a horse's chest when standing on the street in inclement weather or when cooling off. rubber loin covers, used on carriage horses in wet weather, should be perforated. in the spring, the amount of pratts animal regulator given should be somewhat increased. this will put the horse into condition in much less time, and be of great assistance in helping to shed readily. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _winthrop, n.y. i have used pratts animal regulator for the past three years and have found it very successful with both horses and hogs._ thos. j. o'donnell._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~insure live stock health and vigor~ | | | |don't permit your hard-working, heavy-producing or fast-growing animals | |to become run-down and out of condition. it's much easier and less | |expensive to _keep_ them right than to restore them to perfect health. | | | |the regular use of pratts animal regulator absolutely insures health and | |vigor in live stock of all kinds. it keeps healthy animals in the pink | |of condition; it quickly puts half-sick, unprofitable stock in the | |money-making class. | | | |pratts animal regulator, america's original guaranteed stock tonic and | |conditioner, is not a food. it is a combination of roots, herbs, spices | |and medicines which sharpen appetite and improves digestion, regulates | |the bowels, makes rich, red blood, and _naturally_ invigorates the | |organs of production. it promotes growth, improves health and strength, | |increases production. and all at very little cost. | | | |packed in handy cartons, pails and boxes. the larger sizes are more | |economical. | | | |[illustration: pratts animal regulator] | | | | ~if disease appears, cure it quick~ | | | |early treatment is most necessary. do not let the disorder become firmly | |seated before you attack it. keep these pratts remedies on hand and use | |them _at once_ if needed. delay may mean the loss of a valuable animal. | | | | | |~pratts colic remedy~ | | | |a quick certain cure for colic and acute indigestion in horses. has a | |record of cures out of , cases. | | | |keep a bottle in each wagon and in your stable. | | | | | |~pratts distemper and pink eye remedy~ | | | |it goes direct to the cause of the disease, purifies the blood, prevents | |weakening of the internal organs caused by impure blood or poisoned by | |absorbing the impure matter from the abscesses. | | | | | |~pratts healing ointment~ | | | |a splendid antiseptic ointment for man or beast. keep a box on hand for | |cuts, burns, sores, scratches, eczema, galls, etc. | | | | | |~pratts worm powder~ | | | |is a special preparation for the destruction of all kinds of worms in | |horses, cows, hogs and sheep. it is purely vegetable and is | |unquestionably the quickest, surest and most thorough worm destroyer | |procurable. | | | | | |~pratts liniment~ | | | |for man or beast. the best thing in the world for lameness, sprains, | |bruises, thrush, kicks, shoe boils, etc. a bottle should be kept in | |every medicine chest. | | | | | |~pratts heave remedy~ | | | |a positive guaranteed remedy for heaves, coughs and colds. it cures | |coughs and colds by strengthening the digestive and respiratory organs, | |and counteracts the inflammation and irritation. | | | |try a box on your "heavy" horse. | | | | | |~pratts healing powder~ | | | |a guaranteed remedy for harness galls, sores, grease heel, bleeding | |ulcers, etc. it will arrest hemorrhage and check blood flow. dirt and | |dust cannot get into wounds, as the powder forms a coating over them. | | | | | |~pratts fly chaser~ | | | |gives comfort to horses and cows. insures more milk and prevents | |annoyance at milking time to both the milker and the cow. guaranteed to | |satisfy. | | | | | |sold by , pratts dealers. there is one near you. | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+ always go to a horseshoer who thoroughly understands the anatomy of the horse's foot. [illustration: ~morgan horse~] the hoof is not an insensitive mass of horn, to be cut, rasped, burned, nail-pierced, and hammered without causing pain or injury. it is a thin mass of horn overlying and intimately attached to a sensitive, blood and nerve-endowed tissue called the "quick" which is capable of suffering excruciating agony. the slices should be made to fit the hoof and need to be reset once a month. the permanent teeth are forty--twenty-four grinders, twelve front teeth and four tusks, except in mares, which seldom have tusks. the age of a horse can be told more or less accurately by the teeth. the teeth are liable to disease and should be closely watched. bad teeth are often an unsuspected cause of indigestion, loss of condition, bad coat, slobbering and other troubles which puzzle the owner. horses very often have decayed teeth, and suffer with toothache. these teeth should be removed. ~horse diseases~ if horses and cattle were left free to roam as nature intended, many of their present-day ailments would be unknown. man has taken these animals from nature's broad garden, and confined them to the narrow limits of stable and stall. no longer can they seek out and instinctively find just those roots, herbs, seeds, and barks which their systems demand. this explains why pratts animal regulator has been used by successful horsemen for nearly a half century, as it is largely composed of these same vegetable ingredients from nature's garden. merit and quality count, and while hosts of imitators have sprung up, none have ever come near equalling our product. pratts animal regulator restores to the animals their natural constitutions and functions, supplying just that which they formerly had, but now lack. while not a cure for every disease, it is a positive preventive of the most common disorders. it aids digestion and insures the animal receiving full benefit of its food; purifies the blood and keeps the bowels free and regular. after you have accomplished these three things, you need not fear disease in the shape of colic, bloat, heaves, hide-bound, distemper, constipation, worms, and the like. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _i shall be pleased to recommend pratts animal regulator always, as my horse has gained in strength and weight and is looking fine, always having a glossy coat. he works hard every day in the dray business._ _h.g. amerine._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~barb-wire cuts~ clean with soap and water, and apply pratts healing ointment or pratts healing powder. these remedies heal naturally and leave no dangerous scar. ~colds~ _symptoms._--a dull appearance of the horse, rough coat; the body will be hot in parts and cold in others; running of the eyes and a discharge from the nose. _treatment._--keep the horse warm and free from draughts; use nose bag and give pratts heave, cough and cold remedy according to directions. it never fails. give nourishing feed and bran mashes and pratts animal regulator daily. ~colic~ common causes of colic are sudden changes of food; feeding too much or too seldom; feeding when the horse is hot and tired; watering or working too soon after a meal; feeding new oats, or new hay, or grass; or, in short, anything that is apt to derange digestion. there are various forms of colic. in cramp (spasmodic) colic, pains come and go and the horse rolls violently and fearlessly. in wind (flatulent) colic there is bloating of the right flank and the horse lies down, rolls without violence, breathes with difficulty, paws, looks around at his sides and finds no relief. in bloat of the stomach, gas and fluid gush back and forth from the stomach to the throat; flanks may not show bloat; pain is steady but not violent; horse sweats; nostrils flap; pulse is fast and weak; countenance is haggard and anxious. in enteritis (inflammation of the bowels) pain is constant and severe; the horse makes frequent attempts to lie down but is afraid to do so; pulse and temperature run high; membranes of eyelids, nostrils, and mouth are red; bowels and bladder do not act; horse may walk persistently in a circle. in impaction of the bowels, pains are comparatively mild or fugitive; horse is restless, paws often, strains and passes no manure, or only a few balls covered with slime and streaks of white mucus. in gut-tie, hernia, and other absolute stoppage of the bowels, symptoms of enteritis are common and the horse may, when down, strain and then sit on his haunches. the latter condition, and enteritis, usually prove fatal. wind colic may need prompt use of the trocar and cannula to puncture high up in the right flank for liberation of gas. in impaction, raw linseed oil should be freely given in repeated doses of one pint, and rectal injections of soapy warm water and glycerine will help. no irritants should be inserted in the vagina or sheath in any form of colic. stoppage of urine is a result of pain, not the cause of colic. the urine will come when the pain subsides. a good all-around colic remedy will be found in pratts veterinary colic remedy. it is compounded from the prescription of a qualified veterinarian and has a record of curing cases out of , treated. ~constipation~ all horses should be given a warm bran mash weekly and pratts animal regulator daily, and constipation will be unknown. constipation is often the cause of hide bound, rough coat and loss of flesh. give a good physic of linseed oil, aloes or cantor oil, and use the regulator mentioned above. ~coughs~ _cause._--chronic coughs are the result of distemper, sore throat, a neglected cold, catarrh or dusty hay, and frequently turn into heaves, bronchitis, etc. _treatment._--give only the best and most nourishing foods, dampened. keep horse warm, and blanketed in a well ventilated stable. if there is a swelling of the throat it should be blistered with pratts liniment, or pratts spavin paste--a blister. use pratts heave, cough and cold remedy according to directions. ~diarrhoea~ _symptoms._--at first it resembles colic, and will be followed by violent diarrhoea; the discharge soon becomes merely discolored water and smells bad; the horse is very thirsty, the pulse thick and feeble, the heart skips its beats, the position of the horse is something like colic, and he sweats freely. _cause._--from diseased condition of teeth, eating rich, juicy food, drinking impure water or from overdose of physic. _treatment._--if the diarrhoea is severe, call a veterinarian. during and after recovery pay attention to the food. avoid bran mashes. much depends on the care at this time, and the constant using of pratts animal regulator, with all feed, during his recovery. feed lightly for first two or three days. ~distemper~ distemper and pink eye are closely related and one is often mistaken for the other. it usually affects colts between the ages of three and five years. if a horse is once afflicted it is immune from a second attack. the feature of distemper is the swelling under the jaw, the size indicating the severity of the case. the animal is dull; the head has a "poked-out" appearance; coughs; no appetite; feet are cold; saliva runs from its mouth; has catarrhal symptoms and difficulty in swallowing; the name "strangles" is often applied to it. when this swelling forms on the lungs, liver, etc., the case is aggravated and difficult to cure. distemper is contagious. it may occur at any time, but is most prevalent from september to april. pratts distemper and pink eye remedy will positively relieve the disease at once. blanket the horse and keep in a well-ventilated stable, free from draughts. give cold water frequently in small quantities and feed with whatever he will eat. when an abscess forms on the outside and becomes soft, it should be opened and the soft parts surrounding it poulticed so that there will be no "bunch" left after it heals. disinfect stable with pratts dip and disinfectant. ~founder or laminitis~ _symptoms._--an inflammation of the entire foot which causes such intense pain that the animal cannot stand. the pulse is strong, thick and throbbing, and the horse lies down with legs stretched out. _cause._--over-exertion, or after-effects from chilling, inflammation of the lungs, bowels or mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes, etc. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _frankford, pa. i doctored a very lame horse with pratts liniment after trying other treatment for months. in a couple of days the lameness left and we used him every day till he died of old age._ arthur c. shimel_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- _treatment._--remove the shoe, and soak the feet in warm water for six or eight hours and repeat in two or three days. also apply pratts peerless hoof ointment at night all over the bottom of the foot and to all parts of the frog and at top of hoof joining the hair, and cover the entire wall of the foot. the horse should stand on a deep, soft bed. cover with blankets. feed bran mashes, vegetables and hay; no grain. use wide-webbed shoes two weeks after recovery. ~heaves~ the symptoms of this disease are chronic, spasmodic cough and simultaneous passage of gas from the rectum; double bellowslike action of the abdominal muscles in breathing; harsh staring coat; hide-bound skin; weakness, and ill-health in general. over-burdening of the stomach with coarse, bulky, dusty, or woody hay or other roughage, and working the horse immediately after such a meal induces heaves. the horse that has inherited a gluttonous appetite is especially subject to the disease. probably the most effective remedy for this disease is pratts heave remedy. in addition to using the remedy as directed, we would suggest wetting all food with lime water, feeding wet oat straw in winter and grass in summer in preference to hay; allowing double the customary rest period after meals and keeping the bowels freely open by feeding bran mashes containing raw linseed oil or flaxseed meal. ~itch~ this is the name given to mange, eczema and other skin diseases. it is usually prevalent in summer and from a small beginning on an animal, will rapidly spread all over the body. _treatment._--wash the parts thoroughly with a solution of one part of pratts disinfectant to parts water. let it dry and then apply pratts healing ointment or healing powder two or three times a day. ~lice~ sprinkle pratts disinfectant on an old blanket and tie it around the animal for two or three hours. this will quickly kill all vermin. spray lightly upon the legs and such places that the blanket will not cover. then spray thoroughly the stable and all poultry houses near with the disinfectant, according to directions. give pratts animal regulator to build up the animals that have been affected. ~puncture and wounds in the foot~ in all cases, the opening or puncture in the hoof must be made larger, so as to give free vent for the matter which is sure to form. if this is not done, quittor will follow. then dress with pratts peerless hoof ointment. while working the horse, a pledget of tow, covered with pratts peerless hoof ointment, may be placed in and over the puncture and confined; but it must not be allowed to remain after the horse returns to the stable. soak the feet for eight or ten hours a day for two or three days in a % solution of pratts disinfectant and apply the ointment. horse will not have proud flesh when this remedy is used. ~quarter cracks~ cut top of hoof above the crack deep enough to draw blood. soak foot in hot water, apply pratts peerless hoof ointment and cover with oakum. pare out sole and open heel--blacksmith must use care in expanding. apply pratts peerless hoof ointment daily to the coronet and frogs--this is very important. use bar shoe. ~thin flesh~ animal needs a good tonic. use pratts animal regulator daily with the feed according to directions. this is a regulator, tonic and digestive and so works upon the blood, liver, bowels and digestive organs that the animal is quickly built up, and is given strength, health and flesh. ~thrush~ _symptoms._--shown by a foul discharge issuing from the cleft of the foot, and usually attended with decay of the horn and a vile odor. the foot is hot and hard. _cause._--in the fore feet, it is generally the result of navicular disease or contraction of the feet. in the hind feet it is entirely caused by filthy stables, allowing the feet to stand in decaying manure. _treatment._--have absolute cleanliness in the stable and stalls, disinfecting with pratts disinfectant. wash the foot thoroughly with soap and water, and cut away all diseased and ragged parts as well as the white, powdery decayed horn and substance, even if the flesh is exposed and the frog much reduced. then pour pratts liniment over the affected parts. dress daily until cured. another excellent remedy is to wash out diseased portion of hoof with one part pratts disinfectant and parts of water three times a day. ~worms~ horses take in worm eggs on pasture, in hay, and in drinking water from contaminated troughs or ponds. marsh or swale hay is particularly liable to infest with worms. avoid sources of worms. cleanliness is imperative. cut down feed one-half, mix bran with feed and dampen it. give one dose of pratts specially prepared worm powder with the feed twice a day for four days. after fourth day give large, soft, well-scalded bran mash to loosen bowels freely. repeat the bran mashes if necessary, as the bowels must be moved freely. should the horse refuse to eat the bran mash, it will be necessary to give him a dose of glauber's salts, or some other purge to loosen the bowels. _pin worms._--sometimes pin worms remain just inside the rectum, and are very hard and stubborn to cure. in cases of this kind, if the desired result is not obtained by feeding pratts worm powder, dissolve one of the powders in a quart of water and inject in the rectum. repeat this once a day in the evening, and continue for four or five days. do not fail in this case, as in all other cases of worms, to feed bran mashes until the bowels are freely moved, and should the horse refuse the bran mash or should it fail to move the bowels, give the horse a dose of glauber's salts. pratts worm powder is a special preparation for the destruction of all kinds of worms in horses, hogs, and sheep. it is purely vegetable, has a strong tonic effect that builds up and helps the animal to regain strength, and is the quickest and most thorough worm destroyer on the market. +-------------------------------------------------------------+ |~every pratt preparation is sold with a positive and absolute| |guarantee--"your money back if you are not satisfied."~ | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: care of cows] ~cattle~ cows will bring large or small profits in proportion to the care they receive. if properly housed, properly fed, properly bred, and properly protected against disease they will fully repay the little extra attention required. strive intelligently to secure the greatest possible regular production. keep a sharp lookout for unfavorable symptoms and be prompt in finding a cause for poor condition and remedying it. cows kept in perfect health are the least expense, least trouble, and the greatest profit-earners. you do not need to be a veterinarian to know that the health of a cow depends on a good healthy appetite with complete digestion and perfect assimilation of the daily ration. that is just plain common sense. no cow which is not a big eater can be profitable. but appetite is not of itself sufficient to make a cow a money maker. there must be sound digestion. once establish and maintain good digestion, food performs its natural functions. bodily waste is repaired. strength and growth are noticed and the cow gives the utmost possible amount of milk. see then, that your cows have hearty, healthy appetites and good digestion. good digestion does not always follow a large appetite. a cow giving only a few quarts of milk a day will often eat as much as one giving gallons. she requires the same amount of care and attention. the trouble is that she does not have good digestion to convert food into milk. of course there are cows which will always be small milkers, but there are many many more cows which can be made to give substantial, paying increase of milk production if proper attention is given them. perhaps there are such cows in your herd. without your even realizing it, they are out of condition. a little help and they would give enough more milk to pay you a satisfactory profit. this "help" can easily be given. your own dealer has it. we mean pratts cow remedy, for cows only. we all know how, when we are well, the sight or smell of pleasant tasting food, "makes the mouth water." this is literally true because the digestive glands of the mouth and stomach pour out their secretions and are ready to begin digesting the food. when, however, the nerves fail to send their messages to the glands or the glands fail to respond, we have a diseased condition and we take medicine to assist in recovery. thus the sensation known as appetite is really at the basis of sound health. without it, it is doubtful if animals would eat enough to supply their bodily needs. the mere forcing of food into the stomach would avail little. there must be desire for food, and restoring the appetite is the first step in bringing the health back. in other words an appetizer is often required to induce us to eat. then thorough digestion builds up bodily strength. pratts cow remedy does all this for the cow, assisting nature in bringing up the appetite, stimulating digestion, restoring and maintaining health. cattle is generally divided into dairy, beef and dual purpose breeds. the names signify the advantages claimed for them. in the dairy breeds, the holstein, jersey, guernseys, french canadian and ayrshire are leaders. shorthorns, herefords, polled durhams are the best-known beef breeds. while among the dual purpose breeds, milking shorthorns, red polls, brown swiss and devons have many admirers. the indications when selecting dairy females, and important in the order given, are: ( ) much length or depth in the barrel or coupling, indicating a large possible consumption and utilization of food. ( ) refinement of form, as evidenced more particularly in the head, neck, withers, thighs, and limbs. ( ) good development of udder and milk veins. ( ) constitution, as indicated by a capacious chest, much width through the heart, a broad loin, a full, clear eye, and an active carriage. ( ) downward and yet outward spring and open-spaced ribs, covered with a soft, pliable and elastic skin. the essential indications of correct form in beef cattle are: ( ) a compact form wide and deep throughout, and but moderately long in the coupling. ( ) a good back, wide from neck to tail, well fleshed, and straight. ( ) a good front quarter, wide, deep, and full. ( ) a good hind quarter, long, wide, and deep. ( ) good handling qualities, as indicated in elastic flesh and pliant skin. [illustration: ~guernsey cow~] the important indications of good form in dual females are: ( ) medium to large size for the breed or grade. ( ) good length and depth in the coupling. ( ) good development of udder and milk veins. ( ) good constitution, as indicated by good width through the heart. ( ) head and neck inclining to long and fine. ( ) ribs of medium spring, open spaced, and covered with a good handling skin. the dual types have an absence of extreme development in the direction of either the dairy or the beef form. in males selected for breeding, the evidences of masculinity should be markedly present. these include increased strength as shown in the head, neck, breast, shoulders, back and limbs. the advantage of having pure blood stock over "scrubs" is apparent. for those, however, who want something better than scrubstock and cannot pay the high price which pure blood commands, the ownership of grade cattle offers a satisfactory solution of the problem. grading consists in mating thoroughbred sires with common females and with the female progeny for a number of generations. where the work is wisely done by the use of good sires, accompanied by the rejection of all inferior animals for future breeding, the progeny of beef sires may be brought up to the level of the pure breed for beef making from which the sires have been selected in four generations. to bring milking qualities up to the level may call for one or two more generations of such breeding. not only do these grade animals answer almost equally well, with pure breeds, but they may be bought for much less. if cows are to produce a maximum return in milk, they must be kept in comfort. in winter they are usually tied in the stall. the light should be ample and the ventilation thorough. lack of proper ventilation causes the spread of tuberculosis in cattle. cows must be allowed exercise, even in winter. they should be allowed to go out daily for an hour or more into a sheltered yard, save on days when the weather is extreme; or, better still, be given the liberty of a closed and well-ventilated shed during a portion of the day. it should be supplied with a fodder rack. in summer, cows in milk must be protected from storms, from excessive sunshine, and from flies, as far as this may be practicable. pratts fly chaser is unequalled as a fly repellant. it is perfectly safe to use, does not injure or gum the hair, and is economical. a light spray is both lasting and effective. cows in milk should be driven gently. the pasture should not be too distant from the stable, and driving during the heat of the day should be avoided. the quality of milk is easily injured by coming in direct contact with foreign substances or by imbibing odors. the milk must be drawn from clean udders, with clean hands, into clean pails, and amid clean surroundings. the stables must have attention. the udder and teats should be wiped off by using a damp cloth. milking should be done with dry hands into metal pails, kept clean by scalding. milking before feeding prevents dust particles from getting into the milk. noxious odors are kept down by the prompt removal of droppings and by strewing sand, plaster, rock phosphate, or dry earth in the manure gutters. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _elderton, pa. "i have used pratts cow remedy with best results. i fully believe it cannot be surpassed for increasing the flow of milk." jas. young._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- unless milking is done at stated times, and by the same person, there will be a loss in the production. when milking is delayed, a decreased flow is noticeable the following morning. when a change of milkers is made, some cows resent it by withholding a part of the milk. it is not easy to dry some dairy cows prior to the birth of the next calf, and yet, as a rule, it ought to be done. when they are to be dried the process should begin by milking them once a day and putting them on dry food. the food may also be reduced somewhat in quantity. later the milk is taken out at intervals which constantly increase in length until the cow is dry. the udder should be carefully watched during the later stages of the drying process. where suitable pasture may be obtained, it is usually a cheaper source of food for cows than soiling food or cured fodders, as the element of labor in giving the food is largely eliminated. the best pastures, viewed from the standpoint of production, are those grown on lands that may be irrigated during the season of growth. these consist of clover and certain grasses. permanent pastures which are grown on moist land, and which contain a number of grasses, are usually satisfactory, but the nature of the pasture must, of course, be largely determined by the attendant conditions. blue grass pastures are excellent while succulent and abundant, but in midsummer they lose their succulence for weeks in succession. brouer grass is a favorite pasture in northwestern areas, and bermuda grass in the south. in the eastern and central states, the most suitable pastures are made up of blue grass, timothy, and orchard grass, and of the common red, white and alsike clovers. there is more or less of hazard to cows when grazing on alfalfa--liability to bloating, which may result fatally. likewise second growth sorghum or the second growth of the non-saccharine sorghums is full of hazard, especially in dry seasons when it has become stunted in growth. nor should rape and rye be grazed, save for a short time after the cows have been milked, lest they give a taint to the milk. the change from winter rations to grazing should never be suddenly made, or purging caused by the fresh grass will lead to loss in weight and loss of milk, though at first there will probably be an advance in the same. the change may be made in outline as follows: ( ) the cows will not be turned out until after the food given in the morning has been sufficiently consumed. ( ) they will be kept out an hour, or two the first day, and the time increased. ( ) the time called for to effect the change should never be less than one week or more than three. ( ) as soon as the change begins, the reduction in succulent food, ensilage, and field roots should also begin. ( ) the dry fodder should be continued morning and evening as long as the cows will take it. [illustration: ~ayrshire cow~] ( ) there should be some reduction and it may be modification in the grain for a short time. after turning out a full supply may be necessary. should the pasture be composed mainly of grasses, food rich in protein, as wheat bran, should be fed, but if it is composed mainly of clover, then more carbonaceous grain, as corn, should be fed. when pasture is succulent and abundant, it is a disputed point as to whether it will pay to feed meal of any kind in addition. the following conclusion in regard to this question would seem safe: when cows are fed grain on pastures succulent and abundant, the tendency is to increase the yield in the milk and also to increase flesh. the quality of the milk is not materially influenced. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _millsboro, del. pratts cow remedy was fed to the cow from the receipt of remedy until the calf was eight weeks old and the calf weighed pounds and was acknowledged unanimously to be the nicest calf that was ever shipped from this depot. w.r. atkins._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- some saving is effected in the grazing, and the resultant fertilizer from the grain fed has a tangible value. it is certain, therefore, that full value will be obtained for a small grain ration thus fed. [illustration: pratts practical pointers] +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~get more milk money~ | | | |help your cows, every one, to give the largest possible amount of milk | |and to produce big, strong, husky calves each season. the _extra_ pounds| |of milk, the _extra_ value of the calves are all clear profit. | | | |[illustration: pratts cow remedy] | | | |it costs as much to house and care for and nearly as much to feed a poor| |producer as a good one. the first may be kept at a loss. the latter is a| |sure profit-payer. the difference is generally merely a matter of | |physical condition. and this _you_ can control. | | | |pratts cow remedy makes cows healthy and productive. it is not a | |food--it is _all medicine_, preventive and curative. it is absolutely | |safe to use because free from arsenic, antimony and other dangerous | |ingredients. | | | | ~pratts cow remedy~ | | | |is nature's able assistant. it not only improves appetite and assists | |digestion, increases milk yield and percentage of butter fat, but in | |large measure prevents and overcomes such disorders as barrenness and | |abortion, garget, milk fever, scours, indigestion, liver and kidney | |troubles. | | | |the reason is plain when you know the ingredients. here they | |are--gentian root, epsom salts, capsicum, oxide of iron, fenugreek, nux | |vomica, ginger root, charcoal, soda, salt. all of superior quality and | |properly proportioned and combined. | | | |you may _think_ your cows are doing their best when they are not. _now | |find out_. secure a supply of the original and genuine pratts cow | |remedy. use it and watch results. you will be astonished and delighted. | |but if for any reason you are not-- | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: pratts practical pointers] as soon as the supply of pasture becomes insufficient in quantity or lacking in succulence, it should be supplemented with food cut and fed in the green form, as winter rye, oats and peas, and oats and vetches grown together, millet in several varieties, grasses, perennial and italian rye, especially the latter, alfalfa, the medium red, the mammoth, alsike and crimson clovers, corn of many varieties, and the sorghums. alfalfa, where it can be freely grown, is king among soiling foods. peas and oats grown together are excellent, the bulk being peas. corn is more commonly used, and in some sections sweet sorghum is given an important place. the aim should be to grow soiling foods that will be ready for feeding in that succession that will provide food through all the summer and autumn. soiling furnished by grains, grasses, and clovers are usually fed in the stables or feed yards, and corn and sorghum are usually strewn over the pastures, as much as is needed from day to day. where much soiling food is wanted from year to year, it would seem safe to say that it can be most cheaply supplied in the form of silage. even when grass is abundant, cows will eat with avidity more or less of ensilage well made. they should not be fed in winter more than pounds per animal per day, but the quantity needed is determined largely by the condition of the pastures. because of the less quantity of the silage called for in summer, the silo that contains the silage should be of less diameter than the silo that holds food for winter use, otherwise the exposed silage will dry out too much between the times of feeding it. in autumn soiling foods may be fed with profit that are possessed of less succulence than would suffice at an earlier period, as in the autumn the pastures are usually more succulent than in the summer. corn may be fed at such a time with much advantage from the shock, and sorghum that has been harvested may likewise be fed from the shock or from the cocks. pumpkins may be thrown into the pasture and broken when fed. viewed from the standpoint of milk production, the legumes (clover, cow peas, soy beans, etc.) must be assigned first rank. after these come grain fodders, corn and sorghum fodders, and fodders from grasses, suitable in the order named. lowest of all is straw furnished by the small cereals. fodders when fed are not restricted in quantity as concentrates are. among legumes, hay furnished by alfalfa, any of the clovers, cow peas, soy beans and vetches, is excellent for producing milk when these are cut at the proper stage and properly cured. alfalfa should be cut for such feeding when only a small per cent. of blooms have been formed, clovers when in full bloom, and cow peas, soy beans, and vetches when the first forward pods are filling. proper curing means by the aid of wind stirring through the mass rather than sun bleaching it. when good leguminous fodders are fed, from to per cent. less grain will suffice than would be called for when non-leguminous fodders only are fed. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _leavenworth, kansas. when two veterinarians had given up a cow to die, i gave her pratts animal regulator with the result that she was on her feed in about a week. i am a constant user of pratt products. j.d. watson._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- fodder may usually be cheaply furnished from corn and sorghum, when grown so that the stalks are fine and leafy, and if cut when nearing completed maturity and well cured. such food is excellent for milk production when fed with suitable adjuncts, even though the fodder is grown so thickly that nubbins do not form. the aim should be to feed the sorghums in the autumn and early winter and the corn so that it may be supplemented by other hay when the winter is past, as later than the time specified these foods deteriorate. [illustration: ~jersey cow~] rye and wheat straw are of little use in making milk, oat straw is better, and good bright pea straw is still more valuable. when fodder is scarce, these may be fed to advantage if run through a cutting box and mixed with cut hay. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _thomaston, ga. since i started feeding her pratts cow remedy, my cow has shown an increase in her daily flow of milk of over one gallon and is now in better condition than she has ever been. i give all the credit for this remarkable improvement to pratts cow remedy. o.w. jones._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- the necessity for feeding succulent food in some form where maximum milk yields are to be attained has come to be recognized by all dairy-men. the plants that furnish succulence in winter are corn in all its varieties, field roots of certain kinds, and the sorghums. corn and sorghum to furnish the necessary succulence must be ensiled. corn ensilage is without a rival in providing winter succulence for cows. field roots furnish succulence that, pound for pound, is more valuable than corn, because of the more favorable influence which it exerts on the digestion. but roots cost more to grow than corn. rutabagas and turnips will give the milk an offensive taint if fed freely at any other time than just after the milk has been withdrawn, but that is not true of mangel wurtzel, sugar beets, or carrots. the necessity for giving grain feed containing high percentage of digestible matter (known as concentrates) to dairy cows is based on the inability of the cow to consume and digest enough coarse fodders to result in maximum production, even though the fodders should be in balance as to their constituents. concentrates are purchased or home grown. it matters not from which source they are obtained, but the values of those purchased are becoming so high as to force upon dairy-men the necessity of growing them at home as far as this may be practicable, and of insuring sound digestion by giving some such tonic and appetizer as pratts cow remedy. this splendid prescription should be kept on hand the year round, and should be given with every feeding, especially in winter. its value in keeping up milk production and for maintaining health is unequalled. the method of furnishing concentrates by growing certain of the small grains in combination is growing in favor. these combinations may include wheat, barley, outs, peas, and flax. frequently but two varieties are grown together. they are grown thus, in the first place, to secure better yields, and, in the second, to furnish concentrates in approximate balance. such a food, for instance, is obtained from growing wheat and oats together, and if some flax is grown in the mixture it will be further improved. when choosing concentrates for feeding cows, the aim should be to select them so that when fed along with the roughage on hand, they will be in approximate balance, that is, the elements in them will best meet the needs of the cows. if a flesh and milk-making food, like clover, is the source of the fodder, then a fat and heat-producing food, like corn, should furnish a large proportion of the grain fed. but it is not more profitable in all instances to feed foods in exact balance. some of the factors may be so high priced and others so cheap that it will pay better to feed them more or less out of balance. when good clover hay or alfalfa is being fed to cows in milk, any one of the following grain supplements will give satisfactory results. ( ) corn meal and wheat bran, equal parts by weight. ( ) corn meal, wheat bran, and ground oats in the proportions of , , and parts. ( ) corn meal, wheat bran, and cottonseed meal in the proportion of , , and parts. whether corn meal or corn and cob meals is fed is not very material. barley meal may be fed instead of corn. should corn ensilage be fed to the extent of, say, pounds per day along with clover or alfalfa, any one of the following grain supplements should suffice: ( ) corn or barley meal, wheat bran, and ground oats, fed in equal parts by weight. ( ) corn or barley meal and wheat bran, fed in the proportions of and parts. ( ) corn or barley meal, cottonseed meal, and wheat or rice bran, fed in equal proportions. ( ) ground peas and oats, also fed in equal proportions. the succotash mixture may be fed alone or in conjunction with other meal added to make the food still more in balance. it is preferable to feed meal admixed with cut fodders. the mastication that follows will then be more thorough and the digestion more complete. when ensilage is fed, admixture will result sufficiently if the meal is thrown over the ensilage where it has been put into the mangers. in order to insure the animal obtaining full benefit of all its feed, it will be found highly profitable to include pratts cow remedy with the daily ration. it acts as a digestive and at the same time insures a healthy and natural action of the bowels. bulls should be fed and managed with a view to secure good, large and robust physical development and the retention of begetting powers unimpaired to a good old age. the aim should be to avoid tying bulls in the stall continuously for any prolonged period, but to give them opportunity to take exercise in box stalls, paddocks, and pastures to the greatest extent that may be practicable. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _jacksonville, fla. have used pratts cow remedy with good success as a general tonic and for increasing milk. omitting it at intervals as a test showed a falling off of about a pint for each cow, which was always made up when the remedy was added. t.c. johnston._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- a ring should be inserted in the nose when not yet one year old. rings most commonly used are two and one-half to three inches in diameter. when inserting them the head of the animal should be drawn tightly up to a post or other firm objects, so that the muzzle points upward at a suitable angle. a hole is then made with a suitable implement through the cartilage between the nasal passages, and forward rather than backward in the cartilage. the ring is then inserted, the two parts are brought together again, and they are held in place by a small screw. when ringed, a strap or rope with a spring attached will suffice for a time when leading them, but later they should be led with a lead, which is a strong, tough circular piece of wood, four to five feet long, with a snap attached to one end. [illustration: pratts practical pointers] +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~sell the milk but grow the calves~ | | | |whole milk is too valuable to use as calf feed, even if calves--both | |veals and those kept for dairy purposes--are selling at such high | |prices. sell the milk, get all the cash out of it, but grow the calves| |just the same. merely feed the perfect milk substitute-- | | | | ~pratts calf meal | | "baby food for baby calves"~ | | | |when prepared and fed in accordance with the simple directions, pratts| |calf meal will grow calves _equal to those grown on whole or skim-milk| |and at less cost_. | | | |this truly wonderful calf feed has practically the same chemical | |composition as the solids of whole milk. it is made of superior | |materials, carefully selected and especially adapted to calf feeding. | |these are milled separately and bolted to remove hulls and coarse | |particles, which insures perfect digestion. finally, the mixture is | |thoroughly steam-cooked, in a sense pre-digested. | | | |calves fed pratts way thrive and grow rapidly and are not subject to | |scours and other calf disorders. just make a test. feed some calves | |_your_ way and some _pratts_ way. let your eye and the scales tell the| |story. learn how easy it is to grow the best of calves at less cost. | | | | "your money back if you are not satisfied" | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: pratts practical pointers] avoid using in service bulls under one year. during the one-year form they should not be allowed to serve more than a score of cows; after they have reached the age of to months they may be used with much freedom in service until the vital forces begin to weaken with age. when properly managed, waning should not begin before the age of or years. it has been found that the bull's service can be made more sure by the use of pratts cow remedy, because of its mild and safe tonic properties. bulls should he able to serve from to cows a year without injury when the times of service spread over much of the year. calves reared to be made into meat at a later period are very frequently allowed to nurse from their dams. this should never be done in the dairy. such a method of raising them is adverse to maximum milk giving, as the calves when young cannot take all the milk the cows are capable of giving; hence the stimulus is absent that would lead her to give more. at no time in the life of a dairy cow should she be allowed to suckle her calf longer than the third day of its existence. in certain parts of the country, especially where whole milk is sold for consumption in the cities, dairy-men frequently kill calves at birth because of lack of milk for feeding them. this practice is wrong and unnecessary. all strong calves should be grown, either for milking animals or veal. and this can now be done, easily and cheaply, by feeding pratts calf meal, the perfect milk substitute, the guaranteed "baby food for baby calves." when this scientific food is used, calves of really superior quality, big, sturdy, vigorous, are grown practically without milk. pratts calf meal must not be confused with coarse mixtures of mill by-products sometimes sold as "calf meal" or "calf food." pratts is as carefully made as the baby foods which are so widely used for children. it appeals to the calf's appetite, is easily and quickly digested, produces rapid growth and even development. it does not cause scours and other digestive troubles. and it is easy to prepare and feed. [illustration: ~short horn cow~] in chemical composition, pratts calf meal is practically identical with the solids of whole milk. it is made exclusively of materials especially suited to calf feeding and these are always of the highest quality obtainable. this is one secret of the great success of this truly remarkable feed. the various materials are ground very fine, milled separately, and are then bolted to remove any coarse particles. they are then combined in exact proportions and thoroughly mixed. finally, the mixture is steam-cooked, which makes the feed easy to digest and assimilate. this expensive, but most necessary process, prevents indigestion and bowel troubles which accompany the use of unbolted, uncooked meals. where milk is available for calf feeding the following plan may be used: the young calf should take milk from its dam for, say, three days. during that period the milk is only fit for feeding purposes. it is very important that the calf shall be started right, and in no way can this be done so well as by nature's method, that is, by allowing it to take milk from the dam at will. at the end of that time it should be taught to drink. this can usually be accomplished without difficulty by allowing the calf to become hungry before its first lesson in drinking. it should be given all whole milk, for say, two weeks. this given in three feeds per day, and not more in quantity, as a rule, than two quarts at a feed. the change from whole to skim-milk should be made gradually. a small amount of skim-milk should be added to the whole milk the first day, and a corresponding amount of whole milk withheld. the amount of skim-milk increased from day to day, and the whole milk fed decreased correspondingly. the time covered in making the change from all whole to all skim-milk should be from one to two weeks. any skim-milk that is sweet will answer, but it should not be fed to young calves at a lower temperature than about degrees in winter. milk obtained by cream separators, soon after drawn from the cow, is particularly suitable. [illustration: ~holstein cow~] as soon as the change from whole to skim-milk is begun, some substitute should be added to replace the fat withheld by reducing the amount of whole milk fed. ground flax or oil-meal is the best. it is generally fed in the latter form. in some instances the oil-meal is put directly into the milk beginning with a heaping teaspoonful and gradually increasing the quantity. a too lax condition of the digestion would indicate that an excessive amount was being fed. later the meal may be more conveniently fed when mixed with other meal. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _riverdale, md. very much pleased with results of pratts animal regulator during the present period of my cows breeding. an extraordinary strong calf and the mother in fine condition. wm. c. gray._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- as soon as the calves will eat meal it should be given to them. no meal is more suitable at the first than ground oats and wheat bran. a little later whole oats will answer quite well. to calves grown for dairy uses they may form the sole grain food. if the calves are to be grown for beef, some more fattening food, as ground corn, or ground barley, should be added to the meal. for such calves, equal parts of bran, oats whole or ground, and ground corn, barley, rye, or speltz are excellent. until three months old they may be allowed to take all the grain that they will eat. later it may be necessary to restrict the quantity fed. calves for the dairy must be kept in a good growing condition, but without an excess of fat. the meal should be kept in a box at all times accessible to the calves and should be frequently renewed. grain feeding may cease when the calves are put upon pasture. as soon as the calves will eat fodder it should be given to them. fodder gives the necessary distention to the digestive organs, which makes the animals capable of taking a sufficient quantity of food to result in high production. alfalfa, clover-hay, and pea and oat hay are excellent, provided they are of fine growth and cut before they are too advanced in growth. if field roots can be added to the fodder the result in development and good digestion will be excellent. any kind of field roots are good, but mangels, sugar beets, and rutabagas are the most suitable because of their good keeping qualities. they should be fed sliced, preferably with a root slicer, and the calves may be given all that they will eat without harm resulting. the duration of the milk period more commonly covers three to four months with calves that are hand fed, but it may be extended indefinitely providing skim-milk may be spared for such a use. such feeding is costly. calves reared on their dams are seldom allowed milk for more than six or seven months, save when they are reared for show purposes. ( ) the amount should be determined by the observed capacity of the calf to take milk and by the relative cost of the skim-milk and the adjuncts fed along with it. ( ) during the first weeks until it begins to eat other food freely, it should be given all the milk that it will take without disturbing the digestion. ( ) usually it would be safe to begin with six pounds of milk per day, giving eight pounds at the end of the first week, and to add one pound each week subsequently until the age of to weeks. any excess of milk given at one time usually disturbs the digestion and is followed by too lax a condition of the bowels. when milk has been the chief food, and the weaning is sudden, usually growth will be more or less arrested. when sustained largely on other foods, the change may be made without any check to the growth, even in the case of calves that suck their dams. when hand raised, the quantity of milk is gradually reduced until none is given. in the case of sucking calves they should be allowed to take milk once a day for a time before being shut entirely away from the dams. the supplementary food should be strengthened as the milk is withheld. calves should have constant access to good water, even during the milk period, and also to salt. where many are fed simultaneously, the milk should be given in pails kept scrupulously clean. the pails should be set in a manger, but not until the calves have been secured by the neck in suitable stanchions. as soon as they have taken the milk, a little meal should be thrown into each pail. eating the dry meal takes away the desire to suck one another. calves of the dairy, dual purpose, and beef breeds may be reared by hand along the same lines, but with the following points of difference: ( ) the dual types want to carry more flesh than the dairy types, and the beef types more than either. ( ) to secure this end, more and richer milk must be given to calves of the beef type, especially during the first weeks of growth. forcing calves of the beef type would be against the highest development attainable. until the milking period is reached, the food and general treatment for the three classes is the same. they should be in fair flesh until they begin to furnish milk. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _coshocton, ohio. with good care and pratts animal regulator (which i have used for two years) this jersey calf grew like a weed. i can prove what it has done for my cow and calves. mrs. ellen butz._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- when calves come in the autumn, the heifers enter the first winter strong and vigorous. they should be so fed that growth will be continuous right through the winter, but on cheap foods. it is different with animals for the block, which should have grain every winter until sold, when reared on the arable farm, unless roots are freely fed, when they may be carried through the winter in fine form on straw and cornstalks, feeding some hay toward spring. they may be fed in an open or a closed shed, and without being tied when dehorned as they ought to be when not purely bred. it is a good time to dehorn them when about one year old, as they will be more peaceful subsequently than if the horns had never been allowed to grow. the bedding should be plentiful and they should have free access to water and salt. [illustration: ~hereford bull~] to carry growing animals through the winter so that they make no increase and in some instances lose weight, to be made up the following summer, is short-sighted policy and wasteful of food. if a stunted condition is allowed at any time, increase is not only retarded, but the capacity for future increase is also lessened. the pastures for heifers should be abundant, or supplemented by soiling food where they are short. this is specially necessary because the heifers will then be pregnant, and because of the burden thus put upon them in addition to that of growth, certain evils will follow. in some instances calves are grown on whole milk and adjuncts, and are sold at the age of to months. this is practicable when two or three calves are reared on one cow. the meal adjuncts to accompany such feeding may consist of ground corn, oats, bran, and oil meal, fed in the proportions of, say , , , and parts by weight. in some instances they are kept two or three months longer, and when sold such calves well fattened bring high prices. the growing of baby beef is coming into much favor. baby beef means beef put upon the market when it can no longer be called veal and when considerably short of maturity, usually under the age of months. to grow such beef properly animals must be given a good healthy start, growth must not be interrupted and must be reasonably rapid, and the condition of flesh in which they are kept must be higher than for breeding uses. the process is in a sense a forcing one through feeding of relatively large amounts of grain. though kept in good flesh all the while, the highest condition of flesh should be sought during the latter stages of feeding. when stall feeding begins, cattle are led up gradually during preliminary feeding to full feeding. full feeding means consumption of all grain and other food the animal can take without injuring digestion. a lean animal cannot be fattened quickly. before rapid deposits of fat can occur the lean animal must be brought into a well-nourished condition. preliminary feeding should cover a period of four to eight weeks in ordinary fattening. when cattle are to be finished on grass, they are usually fed a moderate amount of grain daily the previous winter. the amount will be influenced by the character of the fodders and by the season when the cattle are to be sold. usually it is not less than three pounds per animal, daily, nor more than six pounds. steers will fatten in much shorter time when pratts cow remedy is used. it causes them to quickly put on solid flesh, due to its action on the blood, bowels, and digestive organs. ~common diseases of cattle~ the cow is generally healthy and if fed, stabled and cared for properly she will seldom be ill. when a cow is sick, provide clean, comfortable quarters, with plenty of bedding and let her lie down. if weather is cold, cover her with a blanket. a healthy cow has a good appetite, the muzzle is moist, the eye bright, coat is smooth, the horns are warm, breathing is regular, the milk is given in good quantities and the process of rumination is constant soon after eating. the sick cow has more or less fever, the muzzle is dry and hot, the breathing is rapid, no appetite, an increase in the pulse, dull eye, rough coat, a suspension of rumination, and the cow will stand alone with head down. usually all that is needed is pratts cow remedy with bran mashes and good digestible feed. give pure, clean water, and careful attention. ~preventing milk fever~ many excellent cows have been lost through milk fever within a day or two of the birth of the calf. the preventive measures include: ( ) reducing the quantity of the food fed. ( ) feeding food that is not unduly succulent, lest the milk flow should be overstimulated. ( ) giving a mild purgative a day or two before the calf is born, or within a few hours after its birth. the purgative most commonly used is epsom salts, and the dose is three-quarters of a pound to one pound. ( ) removing only a small portion of the milk at a time for the first two or three days. only moderate amounts of food are necessary until the danger of milk fever is past. where pratts cow remedy has been given, there is little, if any, danger of milk fever. the value of this splendid prescription during the calving season has been tested time and time again. ~abortion~ a germ disease highly contagious and one of the most injurious of those which affect dairy cattle. the money-making value of a herd in which the germs of contagious abortion are permitted to exist will be completely destroyed. a cow which has once aborted will do so again unless carefully treated. so contagious is the disease that the germs introduced into a perfectly healthy cow will cause her to abort, and it is no uncommon thing for the infection to spread through an entire herd in a single season. the herd bull readily becomes a source of herd infection, and service from a bull, where there are aborting cows should be refused. _cause._--by infection, the herding together of a large number of cows, high feeding, smutty corn and ergotty pastures. in a small number of cows abortion may result from accidental injuries. such cases are pure accidents and are not to be considered along with contagious abortion. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _bradford, ohio. abortion had got a hold on my herd and i was expecting to have to dispose of them, when pratts cow remedy came to my rescue. calves are all coming now at the right time. benj. loxley, jr._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- _treatment._--as in all contagious diseases, treatment should be given the infected animals and sanitary measures with treatment should be adopted to prevent its spread to healthy cows. for increasing the disease resistance of cows as well as for building up the vitality of infected and suspected animals, pratts cow remedy is most effective. it is a true remedy and tonic, which restores to health and upbuilds the cow's constitution. it is all medicine, free from harmful ingredients or mineral poisons. give one level tablespoonful of pratts cow remedy three times a day to each cow, either with the grain or separately. pratts cow remedy should be given before and after service, and when contagious abortion is only suspected, should be continued during the period when the cow is in calf. an excellent preventive practice is to douche the vagina of all pregnant cows and to wash the tails and hind quarters of the entire herd with one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts warm water. as a certain number of the cows will harbor the germ in the womb when treatment is started, it is not to be expected that abortion will cease at once, but by keeping up the treatment the trouble will probably disappear the following year. when the small cost of pratts cow remedy and pratts dip and disinfectant and their wonderful effectiveness in ridding the cow of the disease are considered, there is no question but that it ought always to be given to all cows to keep them well. to prevent the spread of contagious abortion, the entire premises should be disinfected regularly with pratts dip and disinfectant. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~comfort for cow and milker~ | | | |milking is a twice-a-day job. and if the cow has a sore, feverish and | |inflamed udder, cut, cracked or sore teats, milking time is most | |uncomfortable for both the cow and the one who does the milking. | | | |whenever a cow gives any indication of tenderness or soreness of udder | |or teats, apply | | | | ~pratts bag ointment~ | | | |and speedy improvement will follow. it quickly penetrates to the seat of| |the trouble, softens and soothes the feverish parts, and heals up the | |sores. | | | |use it for caked bags, or garget, for cuts, cracks, scratches or sores | |on udder or teats. it works wonders. better keep a package on hand for | |quick use. | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ ~retained after-birth~ _causes._--the cow, the most of all our domestic animals, is especially subject to this accident. it is most likely to occur after abortion. again, in low conditions of health and an imperfect power of contraction, we have causes for retention. the condition is common when the cow is given food insufficient in quantity or in nutriment. _treatment._--blanket the cow in a warm stable, and three times a day give hot drinks and hot mashes of wheat bran to which two tablespoonfuls of pratts cow remedy have been added. when the after-birth comes away, continue treatment giving one tablespoonful of pratts cow remedy until full recovery. the vagina and womb should be syringed with a solution of one ounce of pratts dip and disinfectant to a gallon of warm water. repeat daily until all discharge has disappeared. _prevention._--if the cow has been given pratts cow remedy during pregnancy or from two to four weeks before calving, there will be very few cases of this trouble. ~barrenness and sterility~ when a cow persistently fails to breed and bear young, she is said to be barren. that a barren cow cannot be a profit maker, goes without saying. _causes._--barrenness in many cases is due to malformation of the generative organs, tumors or other diseased conditions. very frequently it is a result of contagious abortion, and this should always be suspected. cows bred at too early an age frequently produce calves which prove to be barren, due to constitutional weakness. _treatment._--the true preventive of such conditions is to be found in sound hygiene. use pratts dip and disinfectant freely about the premises. the breeding animal should be of adult age neither overfed nor underfed, but well fed and moderately exercised. in proof of the beneficial results of exercise, it is of record that a cow pronounced barren, when driven to a new owner, living several miles distant, became fertile and for years thereafter produced healthy calves. vigorous health must be sought, not only that a strong race may be propagated but that the cow may breed with certainty. for toning up the generative organs, so that they can perform their natural functions, pratts cow remedy is safe and positive. the usual dose is a level tablespoonful twice a day in the feed. thus for less than a cent a day, you can make sure of the cow enjoying health and being productive. ~aphtha, sores on the lips and tongue~ _symptoms._--painful blisters which become sores on the lips and tongue. occurs often in sucking calves. _treatment._--wash the mouth twice a day with one ounce of borax and one fluid ounce of myrrh mixed in one quart of water or a mild solution of pratts dip and disinfectant. give pratts cow remedy daily. if the mouth is very sore give the remedies in gruel form. feed animal on regular gruel feed. if it occurs in calves, give pratts cow remedy with milk and use borax as mentioned above. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _pittsfield, ill. am using pratts bag ointment on young heifer with a very sore bag and she is doing fine. i would not do without it. f.e. storck._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~bloat~ _symptoms_.--while eating, or shortly afterward, a swelling appears on the left side, and as the swelling increases the animal appears to be in great distress, pants, strikes belly with its hind feet, the belching of gas is noticed and the animal does not chew its cud. later the breathing becomes difficult, the animal moans, its back is arched, eyes protrude, the tongue hangs out and saliva runs from the mouth. _cause._--eating damp grass, succulent grass of early spring and second crop clover in autumn when wet with dew or rain. also caused by a change of food or over filling the paunch of animal with indigestible food. _treatment._--at this stage mix one ounce aromatic spirits of ammonia in one pint of water and give the mixture as a drench. repeat in twenty minutes if necessary. in extreme cases a mechanical treatment can be successfully employed by the use of pratts cattle trocar. ~caked udder, or garget~ apply pratts bag ointment according to directions. it is very penetrating, and has great softening and cooling properties. use also for chafing and inflammation. ~cold~ _symptoms._--heated forehead, sneezing, coughing, may have diarrhoea or be constipated, fever and loss of appetite. urine deficient. _treatment._--give large doses of pratts cow remedy in gruel form and gradually reduce quantity. keep animal warm, bandage legs and rub throat and lungs with pratts liniment. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _mcdonoghville, la. pratts animal regulator can't be beat for sick calves--this is from actual experience. e.m. hubert._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~colic~ animal will be uneasy, gets up and lies down, and suffers much pain. walk the animal for a few minutes, then give one pint of glauber salts dissolved in a pint of warm water, and inject a quart of warm water, with two fluid ounces of laudanum, into the bowels. give regularly pratts cow remedy mixed with warm water as gruel until animal is relieved, then mix with the feed. in extreme cases give four drams of carbonate of ammonia, two drams of belladonna, mixed with one pint of water. blankets wrung out of hot water and applied will help to relieve the pain. another remedy is one ounce of sulphuric ether and one ounce tincture of opium in a pint of warm water. a pint of whiskey in a pint of warm water is also good. ~constipation~ _cause._--from eating dry, coarse food, lack of exercise and not enough water. _treatment._--give epsom salts or a pint of raw linseed oil and plenty of green food, linseed meal, bran mashes, roots and pratts cow remedy daily. exercise is necessary. ~cow pox~ (variola) _symptoms._--round inflamed spots appear upon the teats. they enlarge and form large scabs. the milk yield is always diminished. it is very contagious. this is the vaccine-virus used as a preventive for smallpox. _treatment._--separate the cows affected. do not break the pox. apply pratts healing ointment to the sores and give pratts cow remedy to all the cows, whether affected or not. ~closing of the milk duct~ use pratts self-retaining milking tube. never use a solid probe or needle. ~cut, cracked, injured or sore teats~ apply pratts bag ointment according to directions on box. ~diarrhoea~ (scours) _treatment._--give large doses of pratts cow remedy at first, then reduce to regular quantity. give starch gruel or flour and water. another remedy is two fluid drams of tincture of kino three times daily. ~foot and mouth disease~ _symptoms._--sore feet and blisters form in and about the mouth and on udder. animal shivers, has fever, becomes lame and teeth become loose. it is very contagious. _treatment._--separate all sick animals and wash mouths with one part pratts disinfectant to parts water, or one-half teaspoonful of tincture of aloes and myrrh. stand animals in a trough containing one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts water. repeat in five days. disinfect all stables, litter, etc. give daily pratts cow remedy with the regular feed. use pratts bag ointment on teats and udder. when recovered, sponge all over with one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts water. ~foot rot~ _treatment._--clean stalls and disinfect with one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts water. pare away all ragged portions of the foot and keep animal on clean floor until cured. make a poultice of one part disinfectant to five parts water and stir in a little flour to the proper constituency and apply to the foot. ~lice~ lousy stock cannot grow fat for the nourishment given is absorbed by the lice. _treatment._--clean stable thoroughly and spray pratts dip and disinfectant everywhere. sprinkle a small quantity on an old blanket and tie it around the animal for two or three hours. spray the legs and such places the blanket does not cover. repeat if necessary. if pratts powdered lice killer is used, dust the animals thoroughly with the powder, rubbing the hair the wrong way, then rub it thoroughly into the skin. ~lump jaw~ _cause._--a vegetable parasite. it is contagious. _treatment._--remove the tumor by surgical means or paint daily with tincture of iodine. give daily two drams of iodide of potash. give nourishing feed with pratts cow remedy daily. disinfect stable with pratts dip and disinfectant. ~milk--bloody or stringy~ _cause._--by rupture of minute vessels in the udder due to injury, irritation or inflammation and derangement of the system. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _east point, ga. please send me a box of pratts cow remedy and some pratts bag ointment. i sure do need it. i found no other that will do the work. it brings in calves easy. mrs. mattie brown._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- _treatment._--change the food and pasture. give large doses of pratts cow remedy at first, and gradually reduce to regular quantity. give good nutritious feed with bran mashes and clean fresh, water. rub udder twice daily with pratts bag ointment. four drams of hyposulphite of soda in feed twice a day has produced good results. ~milk--blue and watery~ _treatment._--keep stable perfectly clean, disinfect thoroughly with pratts disinfectant and treat same as for bloody milk. sometimes blue milk is the sign of tuberculosis. if so, have the cow killed and burned or buried deep. ~milk fever~ _symptoms._--there is a feverish condition and inflammation of the brain; a complete stoppage of milk, weakness in hind quarters, animal staggers and when down is unable to rise, throws head to one side and goes into a state of stupor. _cause._--by trouble peculiar to calving or running into rich pasture during hot weather; by lack of exercise and from costiveness. usually attacks fat cows. _treatment._--(from circular , bureau of animal industry, u.s. department of agriculture.) "of all known methods of treating milk fever, the injection of sterile atmospheric air into the udder is by far the most simple and practicable as well as the most efficacious and harmless one at our disposal." pratts milk fever outfit for air treatment should always be kept on hand. the price is $ . this treatment has cured per cent. of cases treated. _prevention._--feed pregnant cows with nutritious and laxative feed, give plenty of water and pratts cow remedy daily. keep stable clean, well ventilated and disinfected with pratts dip and disinfectant. ~milk--to increase the flow of~ _treatment._--to increase flow of milk give pratts cow remedy daily with a good nutritious ration and plenty of water. these supply just what a cow needs to make her food appetizing, to regulate the blood, bowels and digestive organs, to turn all the nutriment of the feed given into flesh and milk without waste. pratts cow remedy has been used for over years by successful and conservative feeders, and wherever used, according to directions, has produced wonderful results. ~ophthalmia--sore eyes~ _treatment._--separate affected animals at once and put them in clean, well ventilated but dark stalls as this is contagious. disinfect entire place with one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts of water. give physic of a pound and a half of epsom salts, dissolve in a pint of warm water, to which add two ounces of powdered ginger. give sloppy feed with one dram of powdered nitrate of potassia added and pratts cow remedy daily. fasten a cloth over the eyes and keep it wet with a lotion of chloride of zinc, one dram; carbolic acid, two drams; water, one gallon. apply to the cheek below each eye, to the space of about two inches, a small portion composed of spanish fly, drams; lard, two tablespoonfuls. apply in the morning and wash off with soap suds and a sponge, six hours later. apply lard. keep separated from herd for a month after recovery. ~rheumatism~ _symptoms._--hot, painful swellings at the joints, stiffness in walking and difficulty in rising. _cause._--by exposure, badly ventilated and wet stables, damp, marshy pasture and impure food. _treatment._--bathe joints with pratts liniment. give a physic of a pound of epsom salts in warm water. give two drams of salicylate of soda every three hours for two days. keep animal warm and dry. give nutritious feed of a laxative nature with pratts cow remedy daily. ~sore throat~ _symptoms._--difficulty in swallowing, pain and difficult breathing. _treatment._--place in dry, clean, well ventilated stable. use nose bag. rub throat with pratts liniment. give physic of one pound of epsom salts in warm water. give one-half ounce of tincture of belladonna every six hours. syringe throat three times a day with an ounce of following solution: one and one-half drams nitrate of silver and one pint of distilled water. ~sprains~ use pratts liniment, nothing better. ~teats--obstructed~ _treatment._--wash off with one part pratts dip and disinfectant and parts of water. use pratts teat opener. pratts self-retaining milking tube can then be inserted until teat is better. rub teats with pratts bag ointment. ~ticks~ _treatment._--all cattle infected with ticks should be sponged or dipped at once with one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts water. repeat in ten days. this will not only kill the ticks but cure mange, soften the hair and make the skin healthy. ~tuberculosis--consumption~ _symptoms._--not well marked in early stages. disease develops slowly. there is a loss of flesh, a short dry cough, irregular appetite, rapid breathing, weakness, bloating, diarrhoea, the milk is lessened and is watery and blue in color. the coat is rough and back arched. whenever an animal is suspected of having tuberculosis, have a competent person give the "tuberculosis test" at once. _cause._--poor feed and water, badly ventilated stables, dirty stables, from over-feeding and inoculation. it is hereditary. may also follow abortion and catarrhal trouble of the genital organs. _treatment._--disease is incurable. kill and burn all animals affected at once and disinfect thoroughly stables, yards, etc., with one part pratts dip and disinfectant to parts of water. disinfect every week until every germ is destroyed. use pratts dip and disinfectant in all whitewash and sponge or dip all the cattle in a solution of one part disinfectant to parts water. ~wire cuts, wounds, bites, etc.~ _treatment._--wash with one part pratts dip and disinfectant and parts water and apply pratts healing ointment or healing powder three times a day. ~worms~ give pratts specially prepared worm powder according to directions. it is quick in its action and has a strong tonic effect. [illustration: pratts practical pointers] ~sheep~ many years ago the sheep industry of america flourished. then came a period of depression in this line accompanied by a steady decrease in the number of sheep kept. but the tide turned again about and the sheep are rapidly coming back to american farms and ranges. this change is doubtless due to the steadily increasing cost of grain and labor accompanied by correspondingly high prices of lamb, mutton and wool. also to a general recognition of the economic value of sheep--both of the mutton and wool breeds--as quick producers of income, no little part of which should be profit. the latter point is due to the fact that sheep are inexpensive to maintain as they thrive upon the roughest of pastures and coarse feeds which will not sell to advantage, and their care consumes but little time. low production costs--feed and labor--and high prices for the products make a most satisfactory combination. methods of successful sheep management vary in different sections of the country. the beginner may well consult the successful sheep-growers in his section and adopt the methods which give good results under the conditions existing in his locality. at the same time he should neglect no opportunity to secure more information from all sources, in order to know and use the most advanced methods and so make the maximum profits. here are a few basic facts: sheep raising requires careful attention, but does not demand a great amount of heavy labor or expensive equipment. the best time to make a start is in the early fall when good breeding stock may be selected. while pure-bred breeders are best, a pure-bred ram and ewes of good grade will prove very satisfactory. a start may be made in a small way, but it is best to have at least twenty to forty breeders for economy of time, labor and other expenses. as a rule it is most profitable to push the lambs for growth and market them when they weigh to pounds. this weight can be secured in about four months. if a very large pasture is available the flock will thrive on this. otherwise fields must be fenced off and forage crops provided. breeding ewes must be exercised in the winter to insure strong lambs. but protect them from rain or wet snow as soaked fleeces cause colds and pneumonia. [illustration: ~shropshire sheep~] thrifty condition and vigorous health must be maintained at all costs. otherwise the lambs will be small and weak and fleeces of inferior quality. the regular use of pratts animal regulator will improve condition, insure health and vigor, increase number and quality of lambs, promote growth of flesh and wool. and in large measure, it keeps common diseases away because pratt-fed sheep are in condition to _resist_ disease. shearing should be done after lambing, usually in late spring or early summer. if lambing time is late, the shearing may be done before the lambs arrive. tie up the fleeces separately, first sorting out dung locks and tags. after lambing, the individual ewes should be carefully watched to see that they have plenty of milk and are in good condition. they should be kept in pens for about three days, when they may be permitted to run with the flock. feed lightly for two or three days, then heavily to stimulate the milk flow so lambs will be well-nourished. they may profitably receive one to two pounds of grain per day during the nursing period. inferior ewes should be marketed as rapidly as they are identified. get rid of the barren ones, producers of poor lambs, poor milkers, light shearers. sheep must be protected against blood-thirsty dogs and external and internal parasites. in many sections sheep growers have united to fight sheep-killing dogs and good results have been secured. united action against a common enemy is best, as public sentiment may thus be aroused. because of their thick fleeces and helplessness, sheep suffer greatly from the attacks of ticks, lice and other parasites. ticks are particularly injurious. they annoy and weaken the adult animals, torture the lambs and check their growth. the result is always a money loss to the sheep owner. fortunately it is a simple matter to exterminate the ticks and lice and overcome the ordinary skin diseases of sheep. merely dip the sheep in a solution of pratts disinfectant. it is non-poisonous, inexpensive--does the work! [illustration: ~merino ram~] july and august is the popular time for dipping, but the work can be done as soon after shearing as the shear cuts heal. two dippings are necessary, about twenty-four days apart. the first treatment may not kill all the eggs, but the second will kill the young ticks, thus completing the job. for successful results, it is necessary to use a dipping tank or vat large enough to hold sufficient of the solution to immerse and thoroughly saturate each animal. intestinal parasites, of which the stomach worm is perhaps the most dreaded, cause great loss to sheep owners. these worms live in the fourth stomach. they are easily identified, being from one-half to one and a quarter inches long, marked with a red stripe. their eggs are found in the droppings of the sheep, so infection is secured in the pasture. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _augusta, me. as a constant user of pratts animal regulator, for sheep, i find that it not only helps them to put on flesh but keeps their system in fine condition. i take great pleasure in recommending it, knowing its benefit to cloverdale shropshires. h.j. o'hear, samoset farm._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [illustration: care of swine] ~swine~ no other class of animals kept upon the farm brings returns so quickly as swine, with the exception of fowls. swine are specially valuable for utilizing food that would otherwise go to waste. they are an invaluable adjunct to the dairy, particularly when the whole milk is separated on the farm. you can grow big, healthy, profit-paying hogs, if you will merely meet certain clearly defined hog requirements. if you do this, and it's easy, you need never worry about profits. you are _sure_ to succeed. the world needs and will pay you well for all the hogs you can produce. aside from the pork products required for consumption in america, the hog growers of the united states must for years export to europe more pork in various forms, and more lard, than ever before. the european herds of hogs have been sadly depleted. dr. vernon kellogg, of the united states food administration, has personally investigated the situation. he reports decreases in hogs in leading countries as follows: france, per cent.; great britain, per cent.; italy, / per cent. and, of course, conditions are even worse in germany, austria and the balkan nations, all of which are big producers in normal times. properly handled, kept healthy and vigorous, the american hog is a money-maker. many farmers know this from experience: others fail to realize how useful and profitable the hog really is. the experts connected with the united states department of agriculture make the following assertions in farmers' bulletin : "no branch of live-stock farming gives better results than the raising of well-bred swine when conducted with a reasonable amount of intelligence. the hog is one of the most important animals to raise on the farm, either for meat or for profit, and no farm is complete unless some hogs are kept to aid in the modern method of farming. the farmers of the south and west, awakening to the merits of the hog, are rapidly increasing their output of pork and their bank accounts. the hog requires less labor, less equipment, less capital, and makes greater gains per hundred pounds of concentrates than any other farm animal, and reproduces himself faster and in greater numbers; and returns the money invested more quickly than any other farm animal except poultry." the university of minnesota, in extension bulletin , sums up the matter as follows: "from a business point of view, the hog is described as a great national resource, a farm mortgage lifter and debt-payer, and the most generally profitable domesticated animal in american agriculture." and this summarizes the general opinion of progressive hog growers and the experts connected with the united states department of agriculture and the various state agricultural experiment stations and colleges. breeds of hogs are divided into two general classes--bacon type and lard type. where milk is plentiful, and especially where such foods as barley and peas are grown, the bacon type will be the most profitable, as they furnish the largest litters and also make pork that brings the best price in the market. the lard type of swine are usually kept where corn is the cereal that is most grown. the large yorkshire and tamworth are the leading bacon breeds. the poland china, the duroc jersey, and the chester white are leading lard types. the berkshires, cheshires, and hampshires are intermediate between the bacon and lard types. when bacon sires are crossed upon sows of any of the other breeds, the progeny are excellent for pork. the farmer who is about to adopt a breed should be sure to select one of the standard and common breeds of his own neighborhood. many men make the mistake of introducing a breed new to the section, and when the time comes that a new boar must be secured much difficulty and expense are incurred before a satisfactory one can be found. the bulletin quoted above further says: "to the production of pork, then, in _the largest amount_, in _the shortest time_, and with _the minimum of money and labor_, all the details of the hog-raising industry are directed." here is the whole secret--pork in largest amount, in shortest time, at lowest production costs. and the very foundation is perfect health and vigorous condition of the hogs, both breeding animals and market stock. health and vigor are necessary in the breeding animals if they are to produce big litters of sturdy pigs--in the market animals if they are to consume large amounts of food and economically and quickly convert it into fat and muscle. weak, sickly, run-down hogs are a constant source of trouble and are never profitable under any conditions. disease is one of the greatest drawbacks in the hog industry. [illustration: ~poland china pig~] when selecting brood sows of any breed, the preference should be given to those which have reasonably long sides and limbs of medium length. when selecting boars make sure that vigor is present in a marked degree and also strong limbs. any weakness in the back of male or female is to be carefully shunned. during pregnancy two facts must be borne in mind. the first is that the sow is doing double duty. she is keeping up her own bodily functions, as well as developing her fetal litter. therefore, feeding should be liberal. the mistakes in feeding breeding animals are more frequently those which keep such stock thin. the importance of ample feeding at this time is a demonstrated fact, as well as one which appeals to common sense. in the second place the sow is building new tissue. hence the kind of feed is important. bran, peas, oats and barley and such forage plants as clover, alfalfa, vetches and the like. ordinary pasture grasses are of much value. all breeders lay great emphasis on the condition of the bowels during pregnancy, and particularly at farrowing. the special danger to be avoided is constipation. it is right here that pratts hog tonic shows its great worth to hog raiser. it puts the digestion organs into healthy condition and the result is safe farrowing and a healthy litter which is not apt to suffer from scours or thumps. [illustration: ~duroc-jersey boar~] good health is inherited from vigorous, healthy ancestors. it is intensified and preserved by proper management. "the time to begin fitting pigs for market is before they are farrowed. for this reason it is advisable to pay particular attention to the feed and care of the brood sow from breeding to farrowing time." and "it must be understood that it is much easier to continue an animal (hog) in a thrifty, hardy condition than to bring the animal back to his normal appetite and rate of growth, once he is out of order." (circular , new jersey agr. exp. station.) these common-sense statements must appeal to the reason of every thinking hog producer. and they make plain the wisdom of regularly supplying pratts hog tonic to the entire herd, to breeding stock, growing pigs, fattening hogs. this remarkable natural tonic and conditioners _is not_ a specific for any single disease. it is a health-builder and health-preserver. in this connection we wish to particularly mention that most dreaded and destructive of all hog diseases--hog cholera. we do not claim that pratts hog tonic will entirely prevent or cure this scourge. but it will put and keep your herd in such fine condition that the individuals will be more resistant and will not as readily contract cholera or other germ diseases. it will prevent and control such troubles as indigestion, diarrhoea, constipation and the like, which are such a source of trouble in the average herd. you may not appreciate the value of using such a conditioner, but the kentucky agr. exp. station, in bulletin , contains the following statement which deserves the careful consideration of every thoughtful hog raiser: _"general conditioners have been found to be advantageous in the maintenance of healthy conditions in hogs_." brood sows should not produce their first litter under twelve months. whether they should produce one or two litters a year will depend largely upon the conditions, especially of climate. sows should be kept for breeding as long as they will produce good, even litters. well-chosen sows should rear an average of eight to the litter. brood sows should have ample exercise. they get it in good form when they are allowed to turn over litter in the barnyard on which a little grain, as corn, has previously been sprinkled. two-thirds of the winter rations may consist of mangels or alfalfa hay--the other third being grain or swill. alfalfa for hogs should be cut before blossoming. when sows farrow they should be fed lightly for the first three days. later give all they will eat of milk-making foods. a combination of ground oats, wheat shorts, and some corn is excellent. and pratts hog tonic will be found especially valuable during the nursing period. meal is fed ground and soaked. as soon as young pigs will take skim-milk they should get it in a trough apart from the sow. they are weaned at seven or eight weeks where two litters are grown in a year, and at twelve weeks where but one is grown. when pigs are weaned, and previously, there is nothing better than shorts and skim milk. they should be grown subsequently to weaning on pasture, with one to two pounds of grain added daily. in season, winter or spring rye, clover, alfalfa, barley, and rape all make excellent pasture. the fattening period with swine covers from six to eight weeks. unground corn and water will fatten swine in good form. the same is true of barley and rye, ground and soaked. they may be fattened nicely while grazing on field peas. they may also be similarly fattened by hogging off corn or gathering it from the excrement of cattle that are being fattened on it. swine well grown should make an average gain of a pound a day. bacon swine may be best sold at to pounds in weight. lard types are usually grown to greater weights. swine breeders have long recognized the value of pratts hog tonic as a disease preventive and fattener. progressive breeders now consider it a necessity in profitable hog raising. if a second litter is wanted during a year the sows should be put to the boar during the first heat after weaning. many breeders do not like to pass periods of heat for fear that the sows may become "shy," and there is little reason why a sow should not have two litters a year. in any case, the sows should be carried on comparatively light feed until time to breed again, gaining a little in weight; and their treatment after breeding should be as already detailed for pregnant sows. when the boar arrives at the farm he should be dipped in a solution of pratts dip and disinfectant, as a matter of ordinary precaution against the introduction of vermin. as an additional precaution, a quarantine pen should be ready for him, especially if epizootics are prevalent. his feed before change of owners should be known, and either adhered to or changed gradually to suit the new conditions. if he has come from a long distance it will be well to feed lightly until he is well acclimated. [illustration: ~tamworth pig~] breeders generally advocate the practice of keeping a boar to himself during the entire year--out of sight and hearing of the sows. however, a boar is often allowed to run with the sows after they are safe in pig; but during the breeding season it is by far the best policy to keep him by himself, admitting a sow to his yard for mating, and allowing but one service. the litters will generally be larger and the pigs stronger. the boar should not serve more than two sows daily, preferably one in the morning and one in the afternoon, and can serve to in a season without difficulty. in order to keep the boar in vigorous physical condition, he should be given pratts hog tonic regularly. the beneficial results will be seen in the way of larger litters and stronger pigs. the greatest drawback to the hog industry which breeders in this country have to contend against is found in the losses which may be experienced through the infestation of the animals, especially young pigs, by parasites, through outbreaks of hog cholera or swine plague, or through the contraction of tuberculosis. [illustration: ~chester white boar~] in dealing with the diseases of hogs, preventive measures must be most relied upon. the animals must be given dry and well-ventilated quarters, which must be kept clean. contrary to common belief, hogs have some habits which raise them above other domestic animals from the standpoint of cleanliness. for example, unless compelled to do so, a hog will not sleep in its own filth. if part of the floor of the pen is raised and kept well bedded with straw, while the rest is not, all excrement will be left on the unbedded portion of the floor, and the bed itself will be always clean. in addition to cleanliness, close attention should be given to the feed which is supplied, that nothing may be fed which will convey the germs of disease, especially tuberculosis, to the herd. if the hogs are fed milk in any form obtained from cows kept upon the same farm, the cows should be subjected to the tuberculin test, as by this means all tuberculous milk may be kept from the hogs. if they run with the cattle of the farm a tuberculin test of all the cattle is none the less desirable. animals dead from any disease should not be fed to the hogs until the meat has been made safe by cooking. skim milk or refuse from a public creamery should not be fed to hogs until it has been thoroughly sterilized. feeding and drinking places should be clean and the water supply pure. unless the origin is known to be uncontaminated and there has been no possibility of infection during its course, hogs should not be allowed access to any stream. wallows should be drained out or kept filled up as much as possible. at least once a month the quarters should be disinfected with a solution of pratts dip and disinfectant. these precautions will be found valuable aids in the destruction of the various animal parasites, as well as a protection from some more serious troubles. the methods of feeding and management outlined above have been successfully followed by hog growers for many years. they are conservative and safe. but during recent years a new method of feeding has been developed and is being generally adopted, especially by specialists who make hog growing a real business. this is known as the "self-fed" plan, under which system feed is kept before the hogs at all times and they are permitted to eat at will. in poultry feeding this is called "the dry mash system." just who deserves credit for originating or developing this plan cannot be stated. that it is a good one is evidenced by the fact that it has received the endorsement of the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture; of many agricultural experiment stations; of the specialty swine journals; of practical hog breeders in all sections of the country. for this self-feed plan it is claimed that both feed and labor are saved, thus reducing production costs. that a -pound hog can be grown in thirty days less time than is possible where slop-feeding is practiced, thus getting the hogs to market earlier and avoiding danger of loss during this time. that it produces pork of highest quality, the meat being fine in flavor, firm, and with lean and fat well distributed. advocates of the self-feeding plan make the following comparison with the old-time slop-feeding method: when dry food is supplied in automatic feeders, the attendant may fill the feeders at any convenient time of day and that at intervals of several days. in slop feeding, the meals must be prepared and fed twice daily, usually when other duties are pressing and time especially valuable. when dry, ground grains are kept before the hogs at all times, they eat when they feel the need of food and are not liable to overeat at any time. because of the dry character of the feed, they eat slowly, masticating the food thoroughly and mixing it with saliva. this means more thorough digestion and an absence of indigestion and bowel troubles. and, of course, quicker growth. slop-fed hogs, on the other hand, get very hungry between meals. at feeding time they pile up around the troughs, the stronger rushing and pushing away the weaker ones, those that really need the feed the most. then they bolt the food without chewing it, taking all they can hold and leaving little for those that cannot find a place at the "first table." the quality of the dry-fed pork has been mentioned. equally important, from the standpoint of the butcher, is the loss in dressing of hogs. tests have shown that slop-fed stock loses six to eight pounds more per hundredweight than does the dry-fed. [illustration: ~berkshire boar~] another big advantage of dry-feeding lies in the fact that large numbers of swine, including those of various ages and sizes, can be safely kept in one herd. the writer has seen over two hundred head of swine, ranging in size from pigs just weaned to -pound porkers ready for market, living in peace and contentment in one building, eating and sleeping and sharing the forage pastures together. of course this means a big saving in buildings and fencing and a great reduction in the amount of necessary labor. the self-feeder may be used all through the life of the hog, beginning when the pigs are still nursing and continuing until they reach market weight. during all this time the ration should contain pratts hog tonic, the guaranteed hog conditioner, in order that at all times the herd may be maintained in vigorous condition, be kept free from disease, may avoid wasting feed through imperfect or sluggish digestion, may earn for the farmer the maximum amount of profit. we suggest that you make a test of this results-insuring, profit-producing tonic. watch results. if _you_ are not satisfied the dealer from whom you purchased the goods will refund the full amount you paid for them. the self-feeding plan of growing hogs gives best results when the animals are given access to growing forage crops. the feeders may be placed under cover out in the fields or kept in the hog house if the latter is reasonably near the pasture lots. an unlimited supply of fresh water must be available at all times because dry-fed stock drinks many times the amount of water that slop-fed hogs do. the reason is plain. there are many different systems of handling hogs under this plan, varying according to local conditions. we will give in detail the method used most successfully for many years on a pennsylvania farm which each season markets several hundred hogs of a quality which commands a premium above current quotations. on this farm, particular attention is paid to keeping the hog houses clean and sanitary, light, sunny and dry. dampness is always a fertile source of loss. further, the houses are never crowded. each animal is given plenty of room. the brood sows are placed in separate pens at farrowing time and watched carefully when giving birth to the pigs. they are fed a rich slop, a small quantity at first, but in gradually increasing amount until they are receiving enough to insure a big flow of milk. when the pigs are eight to ten days of age they are permitted to go at will to the self-feeder containing a mixture of ground grains. as a rule, several sows farrow at about the same time and the pens are so arranged that the pigs from several litters may all use one feeder. this arrangement results in the pigs taking more exercise, eating more food and making more rapid growth. it reduces the danger of thumps and gives the youngsters a wonderfully strong start in life. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~more pigs per hog--more hog per pig~ | | | |big litters of strong-boned, growthy pigs, and rapid growth of pigs from| |birth to maturity are the natural result of health and vigor of breeding| |stock and youngsters. weak, run-down boars and sows produce inferior | |pigs and usually small litters. and such pigs are not money-makers. | | | | ~pratts hog tonic~ | | | |the guaranteed conditioner for swine, overcomes most hog diseases, makes| |the breeders healthy and vigorous, insures big litters of big pigs, | |makes the youngsters grow steadily and rapidly from birth to maturity | |and fatten quickly and economically. | | | |many of the most successful hog-growers will tell you that one secret of| |their success is the regular use of pratts hog tonic. you should at | |least test it. no risk on your part because | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: care of swine] the feed mixture used at this time varies somewhat according to available supplies and current prices. a sample pig ration is made up as follows: ration for young pigs winter wheat middlings lbs. hominy meal lbs. oil meal lbs. whole oats (heavy) lbs. per cent. digester tankage lbs. fine salt / lb. mix thoroughly. when the pigs are weaned they are placed with the herd, a safe practice because of the general contentment and quietness and the entire absence of meal-time stampedes. they quickly adjust themselves to their new surroundings, and, because accustomed to the use of self-feeders, at once begin eating the regular hog ration with the rest of the herd. in the hog house, enough self-feeders are provided to permit all animals to eat at will without being crowded. one feeder to each twenty-five hogs is the rule. the hog ration, like the pig ration, varies according to conditions. but at all times it is palatable and contains feeds which build bone, muscle and fat. a favorite formula is this: ration for growing hogs winter wheat middlings lbs. wheat bran lbs. corn chop lbs. whole oats lbs. per cent. digester tankage lbs. soft coal and salt are kept before the herd at all times. the hogs eat these at will. the grazing system is used on this farm. many different forage crops are planted, in order to insure a regular succession of succulent feeds. as each field reaches proper condition for grazing, a hog fence is thrown around it and the herd admitted. the hogs do all the work of harvesting, thus securing valuable exercise and at the same time saving man labor. under this system the fields have steadily improved in fertility, due to the turning under of the uneaten green stuff and the direct application of the valuable hog manure. forage crops vary in different sections of the country. on the farm in question the earliest forage is rye, followed in rotation by the various clovers and mixtures of oats, canada field peas, vetch, soy beans, etc. dwarf essex rape is a favorite crop and one that furnishes a tremendous amount of forage per acre. when the corn crop matures, the larger individuals are given the liberty of the corn fields and the crop is "hogged down." this again saves a great amount of hand labor, a big item under existing conditions. in the winter, when grazing is out of the question, the herd receives once daily a liberal feed of second crop alfalfa or clover hay. understand, the feeders containing the dry mixture of ground grains, are available to the hogs _at all times_. they help themselves at will, day and night. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _la fontaine, ind. we have been trying to produce the largest hog in the world and we have done it! we have a big type poland china hog, that has been fed days, making a gain of pounds and at this time weighs over pounds. we fed him on pratts animal regulator. h.e. henry._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- when keeping hogs in large herds like this, it is of primary importance that the most careful attention be paid to sanitation. pratts dip and disinfectant should be used regularly and thoroughly to protect against disease germs and vermin. and pratts hog tonic used to keep the hogs in perfect condition _inside_. if sickness appears in the herd the unaffected hogs should at once be removed to clean, disinfected quarters, preferably without much range, for by running over pastures they may come in contact with contagion. their feed should be carefully regulated, and, if they have previously been on pasture, should include some green feed, roots, or an abundance of skim milk. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~banish hog vermin and diseases~ | | | |to make a success of hog raising, dipping is almost as essential as | |feeding. at least it is second only to proper feeding. | | | |lice and vermin, the comfort-destroyers and profit-reducers, and the | |germs which cause cholera and tuberculosis, are exterminated by the | |regular use of | | | | ~pratts dip and disinfectant~ | | | |put the hogs and pigs through the dipping vat and spray the quarters and| |feed receptacles occasionally with a strong solution of the original | |pratts dip and disinfectant. result--comfortable, vermin-free and | |disease-free hogs, less loss, more pork, more money. | | | |[illustration: pratts animal dip] | | | |there are other dips that look like the original pratts, but they are | |not the same in efficiency. refuse the substitutes. use pratts, the dip | |you can depend upon. it costs no more but it's worth more! you be the | |judge-- | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ the quarters in which the sickness first appeared should be thoroughly cleaned, all bedding and rubbish burned, and loose boards and old partitions torn out and burned. if the pen is old, knock it to pieces and burn it. disinfect pens and sleeping places using pratts dip and disinfectant on the floors, walls and ceilings. whitewash everything. if a hog dies from any cause, the carcass should never be exposed where it may be devoured by the other hogs or by passing birds or beasts, but should be burned at once or buried deeply and the pens thoroughly disinfected immediately. if possible, do not move the carcass from the place where it falls; but if this cannot be done the ground over which it is dragged should be disinfected. hog-cholera bacilli can live in the ground for at least three months. care must be taken to maintain an absolute quarantine between the sick and well hogs. the same attendant should not care for both lots unless he disinfects himself thoroughly after each visit to the infected hogs. dogs should be confined until the disease is stamped out. treatment of hogs suffering from cholera or swine plague is not always satisfactory. the disease runs its course so rapidly that curative measures are more or less ineffectual, and prevention of an outbreak should be relied upon rather than the cure of sick animals. pratts hog tonic has been successful in less virulent outbreaks when administered as soon as signs of sickness are shown. pratts hog tonic should be thoroughly mixed with the feed, which should be soft, made of bran and middlings, corn meal and middlings, corn meal and ground and sifted oats, or crushed wheat, mixed with hot water. if the hogs are too sick to come to the feed, the tonic should be given as a drench. pull the cheek away from the teeth and pour the mixture in slowly. care should be exercised, as hogs are easily suffocated by drenching. do not turn a hog on its back to drench it. hogs often suffer very much from vermin. lice are introduced from neighboring herds, and the losses in feeding are often severe, especially among young pigs, when death is sometimes a secondary if not an immediate result. when very numerous, lice are a very serious drain on vitality, fattening is prevented, and in case of exposure to disease the lousy hogs are much more liable to contract and succumb to it. newly purchased hogs should be carefully examined for vermin, and they should not be turned out with the herd until they are known to be free from these pests. when the herd is found to be badly infested with lice all bedding should be burned and loose boards and partitions torn out. old boards and rubbish should be burned. the quarters should then be thoroughly disinfected by spraying with pratts dip and disinfectant. vermin are most common around the ears, inside the legs, and in the folds of the skin on the jowl sides and flanks. in light and isolated cases they may be destroyed by washing the hogs with pratts dip and disinfectant, properly diluted, applied with a broom. in severe cases, however, especially where the whole herd is affected, thorough spraying or dipping should be resorted to. in this case a dipping tank will be a great convenience. whenever any animals are brought to the farm, or when animals are brought home from shows or from neighboring farms, they should be kept apart from the rest of the herd for at least three weeks. if they have been exposed to hog cholera or swine plague the diseases will be manifested within this time, and the sick animals can be treated or killed and disposed of at once. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _galway, n.y. i bought two spring pigs the th of april and began feeding them pratts animal regulator until the th of december when i butchered them. one weighed pounds, the other pounds. i know this regulator does what you claim it to do. baldwin o'brey._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- if cholera breaks out in the neighborhood the farmer should maintain a strict quarantine against the infected herds. he should refrain from visits to farms where they are located, and should insist on requiring that his neighbors stay out of his hog lots. visiting of all kinds at this time should be carefully restricted. dogs, cats, crows, and buzzards are very active carriers of infection from farm to farm, and should be guarded against as far as possible. [illustration: pratts practical pointers] ~common diseases of swine~ (symptoms and treatment) ~diarrhoea or scours~ _cause._--by milk of the dam being affected by feeding of food tainted with the elements of decay; by making a sudden change in the food; by some disordered condition in the health of the sow, and by excess of milk furnished by the dam. usually occurs before the weaning stage, as a rule in swine not yet ten days old. _symptoms._--very soft condition of the voidings which are sometimes almost watery. _treatment._--being highly contagious, spray the floor thoroughly with pratts disinfectant. keep the young swine comfortable and remove the voidings carefully two or three times a day. correct the food given the dam, mixing pratts hog tonic with her feed. also give a small tablespoonful of sulphur daily to the sow. ~hog cholera and swine plague~ hog cholera and swine plague are very much alike. both are characterized by inflammation of stomach and intestines, enlarged and inflamed lymphatic glands and sloughing of portions of the skin. the treatment and preventive measures are alike in many respects. they are germ diseases, contracted in purchasing swine which may contract the germs when in transit on cars; by exhibiting at fairs; through persons who have visited infected herds; through the feet of dogs and birds to which the germs may have adhered; through the water of an infected pond or stream. the most dangerous source of infection by far is coming in touch with diseased animals. reduced stamina and filthy quarters favor the spread of these diseases. ~hog cholera~ _symptoms._--dullness, loss of appetite or depraved appetite and a disposition to lie down; constipation or diarrhoea; stiff gait; red spots or blotches discernible about the ears and under the neck and belly; in some instances there is difficulty in breathing. _treatment._--authorities agree that there is no known cure for real hog cholera. preventive measures, therefore, are of vital importance. pratts disinfectant should be used frequently and to build up the general health of the hog, giving it full disease-resisting power, pratts hog tonic should be added to the ration. besides, it is a valuable tonic and fattener. ~swine plague~ _symptoms._--extensive inflammation of the lungs, by which it can be distinguished from hog cholera. there is coughing and labored, painful and oppressed breathing. it frequently comes as a pneumonia or an inflammation of the lungs and pleural membrane. the animal is in a sleepy and even comatose condition much of the time. if it walks it staggers. the skin reddens in a marked degree and the bowels become constipated. this disease, though not nearly so common as hog cholera is usually very fatal. preventive measures, as indicated for hog cholera, are all important. use pratts hog tonic as directed and disinfect with pratts disinfectant. ~thumps~ _cause._--too liberal feeding and lack of exercise, resulting in poor digestion. the diaphragm contracts suddenly at irregular intervals, thus giving the name to the disease. the pig becomes unthrifty and stunted. if the sow is a liberal milker, nursing pigs may be affected. treatment is usually preventive, consisting of exercise and careful feeding, pratts hog tonic being added to the feed. ~tuberculosis in swine~ the losses from this disease are beginning to assume enormous proportions. it results largely from swine drinking the milk of tuberculous cattle. _symptoms._--digestive disorders, such as diarrhoea and vomiting; a stunted condition and a staring coat and breathing more or less labored. _treatment._--there is no positive cure for this severe disease, but good sanitation is the best preventive. use pratts disinfectant freely and maintain health and vigor by regularly using pratts hog tonic. the importance of testing heads of cattle that may be affected with tuberculosis is thus further emphasized. ~worms~ there is perhaps no other animal troubled to so great an extent or with so many varieties of worms, as the hog. indeed it is almost a rule with some growers when a hog is sick and it cannot be told exactly what is the matter that they doctor for worms. there are four species of worms that live in the intestines of swine, resulting in more or less harm. the common round worm, pin worm and whip worm develop from eggs taken in in food and water. the thornheaded worm develops from a white grub which swine eat. to a great extent these are kept in check by pratts hog tonic. as preventive measures, drain stagnant pools and wet places where these eggs may be found; plough up yards and pastures; do not feed on floors not properly cleaned, or on ground that may have been much used for such feeding; do not give water from a deep well, do not allow the swine to wallow in the drinking trough. _symptoms._--frequently a gluttonous appetite without corresponding improvement in flesh. again a much impaired appetite is found; diarrhoea or constipation; excessive itching, causing the animal to rub, especially the hind parts. these symptoms will only exist when worms are present in large numbers. _treatment._--give each adult hog one heaping tablespoonful of pratts worm powder with the feed once a day for four days. after the last dose give a bran mash to loosen bowels. repeat this treatment two weeks after the first to insure killing any worms which may have hatched in the meantime. even if you are not sure that your hogs have worms--as they _probably_ have--you should use pratts worm powder as above as a matter of precaution. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _woodsboro, md. i bought four pigs, four months' old, weighing about pounds each, and, in bad condition. began to feed pratts animal regulator and at months' old they averaged a gain of one pound a day per pig. charles w. holbruner._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [illustration: care of poultry] ~poultry~ "one hundred hens on every farm" was the small number set by the united states department of agriculture in its great war drive for increased production of foods. and certainly this number of fowls, and many more, can be easily and profitably maintained on the average farm. easily, because under free range conditions, which are possible on the farm they require but little attention. profitably, because under these conditions, where they pick up much of their living, the cost of production is comparatively low, while eggs and flesh sell at good prices. further, these delicious and nutritious foods add variety to the farm table. [illustration: ~barred plymouth rocks~] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _south easton, mass. i have used pratts poultry regulator regularly. the egg record for fowls for five months the past winter was as follows: dec., %; jan., %; feb., %; march, %; april, %. the lower record of january was caused by some pullets moulting. would say that fertility of eggs averaged % in december to over % later in the spring. j.h. rankin._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- many a farmer's wife finds her poultry flock a never-failing source of pin money. many a farm girl and boy have secured their education from faithfully saving the "egg-money." and the opportunities for profit in this line are now greater than ever before. ~helps for poultrymen~ in a short chapter in a general publication of this kind it is impossible to go into the finer details of modern methods of poultry husbandry. for those who desire more information on this subject we have a big -page book, pages x inches in size, fully illustrated with photos and drawings. the title is "the poultryman's complete handbook." it's worth a dollar, but we will send you a copy, prepaid, for only ten cents in stamps or silver. address your request to pratt food co., philadelphia. [illustration: ~white wyandottes~] pratts poultry service department is maintained to give expert information and advice on poultry topics. there is no charge for this service. whenever you get puzzled, write pratts experts. they will send you a prompt personal reply containing the information you desire. no charge, no obligation. address such letters to poultry service department, pratt food co., philadelphia. [illustration: ~s.c. white leghorns~] ~breeds of poultry~ regardless of breeding and appearance, a heavy layer is a good hen to own. and laying ability is not confined to any one breed or class of fowls. there are exceptional layers, dependable profit-payers, in practically every fair-sized flock, whether made up of standard-bred stock or mongrels. as a general rule, however, standard-bred birds are best. by that term we mean those which have been bred to meet the typical breed and variety descriptions as appearing in the official standard of perfection which is published by the american poultry association. such a flock is bound to be uniform in size, appearance and general characteristics, is easier to manage properly because of its uniformity, and its products, both eggs and table poultry, will also be uniform. further the income from such a flock may be increased through the sale of eggs for hatching and of breeding stock at prices many times greater than those of table eggs and poultry. no matter what breed you select, the most important matter, the very foundation of success, is the securing of _individual birds which are strong, sturdy, vigorous and healthy_. only stock of high vitality can be depended upon to give continuously good results. it is time and money wasted to keep fowls which are weak, sickly or "run-down," the result of improper breeding or management. as a rule, it is best to select that breed which is most popular locally, because such popularity indicates that the breed in question thrives under local conditions and meets the requirements of the local markets. further, one has greater opportunities of securing good birds and a larger market for hatching eggs and stock. [illustration: ~rhode island reds~] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _clemson college, s.c. we have been using pratts baby chick food and are very well pleased with it. i think that it is the best baby chick mash on the market today. frank c. hare, prof. of poultry husbandry._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- among the farmers whose markets demand white-shelled eggs, the s.c. white leghorn is the most popular fowl. the black minorca is another favorite. it produces the largest white eggs. [illustration: tolman type house] where brown-shelled eggs are wanted, the plymouth rock, wyandotte, rhode island red and orpington lead. and for the production of the largest table carcasses the light brahma, either pure or crossed with a more active breed, is a favorite. the live weights of adult birds of these breeds are as follows: breed. cock. hen. leghorns / lbs. lbs. black minorcas lbs. / lbs. plymouth rocks / lbs. / lbs. wyandottes / lbs. / lbs. rhode island reds / lbs. / lbs. orpingtons lbs. lbs. light brahmas lbs. / lbs. most of these breeds have varieties, determined by color of plumage or shape of comb. select that one which best pleases you. [illustration: uneven span roof house] ~poultry houses~ when locating the poultry house remember that it is a great advantage to have soil which is light and naturally well drained, since such soil dries off quickly after a rain and is "much warmer," as poultrymen express it. heavy soil, even stiff clay, may be made to serve the purpose admirably if provision is made to drain off all surface water. but avoid a site on which water settles in pools, as the surface soon becomes filthy and is a menace to the health of the flock. [illustration: new jersey multiple unit house two units combined to house two hundred fowls] the birds should have the benefit of several hours of sunshine each day. so locate the poultry house where the sun can strike it freely. the shelter of tall buildings on the north, or even on the east or west, is frequently an advantage during the winter months, but the south side should be open if conditions permit. shade trees and large shrubs about the house are a source of comfort to the fowls during hot weather and may be used to screen or partially hide the poultry plant. the poultry house must be dry, well-ventilated, free from draughts, light, sunny and cheerful. and if it is planned with reference to the convenience of the poultryman, so much the better. the most simple and inexpensive form of construction should be used. in all sections of the country, excepting the extreme north, a single wall of matched boards on a light frame is perfectly satisfactory. unmatched boards with battens nailed over the cracks or a layer of lightweight roofing paper over all are equally good. in fact, in case of necessity, one may use the roughest of lumber, and by covering the entire structure with roofing paper make a building which is tight and comfortable and acceptable in appearance. the rear and end walls and roof must be _tight_ to insure dryness and prevent all draughts. windows and doors may be placed in end walls, but these should usually be located forward of the center of the building and made to fit snugly. the rear part of the house, where the roosts are located, must at all costs be protected against cross-currents of air. [illustration: roost] the south or front walls, on the other hand, should have ample openings to admit air and sunshine. the open-front or fresh-air type of house is much superior to the old tightly closed type. plenty of fresh air means comfort, health, vitality and increased production. [illustration: pratts practical pointers] +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | "~pratts makes hens lay~" | | | |~what is pratts poultry regulator?~ a positive tonic and conditioner for| |poultry of all kinds and ages. _a health-builder and health-preserver._ | |not a food. | | | |~what does it contain?~ roots, herbs, spices, mineral substances, etc. | |each ingredient performs a certain duty. the combination spells "health | |insurance." | | | |~what does it do?~ pratts poultry regulator makes and keeps poultry | |healthy, vigorous and productive. it shortens the molt, sharpens the | |appetite, improves digestion and circulation, hastens growth and | |increases egg-production. _it saves feed_ by preventing waste due to | |poor digestion. _it prevents disease by_ keeping the birds in condition | |to resist the common ailments. | | | |~has it been fully tested?~ yes! in general use for nearly fifty years. | |the _original_ poultry conditioner. imitated, but unequalled. | | | |~does it give general satisfaction?~ positively! _satisfaction | |guaranteed or money refunded._ test it at our risk. increased egg | |production will prove that "pratts makes hens lay." | | | |~how is it best used?~ daily in small quantities. for adults, | |tablespoonful daily for birds. younger stock in proportion. mix with | |dry or moist mash. | | | |~what does it cost?~ nothing, because _it pays big profits_. about a | |cent a month per hen is the investment required. | | | |~where can i get it?~ from , pratt dealers. there is one near you. | |direct from the pratt food co., prepaid, if your dealer can't supply | |you. | | | |[illustration: pratts egg producer] | |[illustration: pratts poultry regulator] | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: pratts practical pointers] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _cincinnati, o. i have been using your poultry foods and remedies with the best of satisfaction and results for the last ten years. fred o. flaherty._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [illustration: simple a-shaped house] from a quarter to a third of the front wall should be left open. cover the openings with one-inch mesh wire netting to keep the fowls in and repel all enemies and food-seeking sparrows. cloth-covered frames should be provided to close these openings and keep out driving storms. the cloth, should be open in texture, as coarse cotton or heavy cheese cloth, not "boardy" and air-tight. frames may be left loose to hook or button on inside or outside, or hinged to the top of the openings and swung up against the roof when not in use. in some cases, as in the tolman house, these openings are never closed, day or night, summer or winter. it is advisable to provide one or more glass windows in addition to the openings referred to above in order to admit light when the cloth-covered frames are closed. the windows may be placed in either the front wall or the side walls. in the latter case the sun is admitted to the building more hours each day, which is a big advantage during the fall and winter months. poultry house floors may be of cement, boards or earth. cement is best for large, permanent structures. board floors are excellent in houses of any size and are almost a necessity in small ones which may be moved frequently. earth floors seem to be favored by the fowls, but if used the earth should be filled in to bring the floor level several inches above the surrounding ground. this to insure dryness. the accompanying cuts show typical designs of satisfactory poultry houses. when building, just bear the above principles in mind and the results will be satisfactory. the tolman type is a strictly "fresh air" or "open front" house. for a flock of thirty to forty birds this house should be ten feet wide, sixteen feet front to back, seven feet to peak of roof, front wall four feet and rear wall five feet high. the highest point of roof is five feet from the rear wall. the entire south side is a wire-covered opening, save for boards placed as shown in the cut. a full-sized door is located in the east wall opposite the window in the west side. roosts are placed near the north wall, level with or slightly above the front opening. [illustration: v-shaped feed trough] [illustration: nest box] [illustration: dry mash hopper] [illustration: grit or shell hopper] [illustration: water bucket] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _port dover, canada. after a long experience i find pratts poultry regulator to be absolutely the best tonic to keep a flock of poultry in condition. just as soon as i find a pen is not doing well, i use the regulator in their mash. almost immediately i notice their appetites improve, their combs redden and they lay better. i have also made trial of your other remedies and i find them all absolutely reliable. john s. martin_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- for a flock of one hundred or more birds the new jersey multiple unit laying house is to be recommended. each unit is twenty feet square, accommodating a hundred fowls. similar units may be added for each hundred additional birds. the drawing on page shows two units. in this house the front studs are nine feet high, rear studs are four and a half feet high. simple, inexpensive furnishings are best. the cuts show home-made equipment which will meet all practical requirements. ~getting the eggs~ early-hatched, well-matured pullets are the most dependable layers during the fall and early winter months. some few yearling hens may continue to lay fairly well during their molting period, but, as a rule, egg production drops with the feathers and does not begin until the new coat of plumage is completed and the system readjusted. so yearlings, taken as a whole, do little toward filling the egg-basket until january or later. get the early-hatched pullets into winter quarters by late september or early october before they begin to lay. but be sure the house is fully prepared in advance. clean house! disinfect thoroughly with a strong solution of pratts poultry disinfectant. kill every germ. avoid possible loss. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _cherokee, iowa. i have used pratts poultry regulator for the last twenty years and always had the best of results. it is a great egg producer and the best feed to keep little chicks strong and guard off that terrible disease, bowel complaint. in fact, i cannot do without it. geo. wm. lyon._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~get fall and winter eggs~ it is most desirable that the flock begin egg production before the weather becomes severe. get the laying habit established while the season is favorable, and it is comparatively easy to maintain it. and, as production will not commence until the layers are fully matured, the pullets must be hatched early to give ample time for them to make the needed growth. as a rule, it takes about seven months to mature pullets of the general purpose breeds and six months for the egg breeds. therefore, march and april chicks of the former, and april and may chicks of the latter, are most valuable. this is a general rule. some poultrymen are experts in this matter of growing chicks and can bring them to laying maturity in less time. if disease appears take instant action to check it. delay of a day or two may permit an epidemic to get well started. in order to enable you to give proper treatment without delay you may well keep a stock of pratts poultry remedies on hand. [illustration: applying lice powder] give every bird a thorough treatment for lice. work pratts powdered lice killer all through the plumage. this will fix the lice, but will not kill the eggs. in anticipation of the latter hatching, rub pratts lice salve in the small feathers about the vent and beneath the wings. that means death to the young lice as they appear, but to make sure, apply the salve at intervals of a few weeks. don't overcrowd the house. better have a hundred hens comfortable and laying than double the number crowded and loafing. leave all ventilating openings wide open. keep them open until winter storms make more protection necessary. during the summer months the pullets have had plenty of fresh air. to bring them into a warm, tightly closed house is to invite general debility and an epidemic of colds, catarrh, roup and other allied diseases. (pratts roup remedy dissolved in the drinking water every few days, especially during changes of weather, will help to prevent such troubles.) keep the house clean. remove the litter from the floor as soon as it becomes damp or soiled and replace with new, fresh material. clean the droppings boards at frequent intervals. wash with pratts poultry disinfectant or scald the food and water dishes. disinfect the whole house every few weeks, taking advantage of sunny weather so quick drying will follow. disease causes loss--disinfection prevents disease. therefore, disinfect whether you see need of it or not. ~poultry feeding~ the more food the birds eat beyond bodily requirements the greater the amount of the salable products they create. any hen that is a natural layer will turn the surplus food into eggs. if she is naturally a meat producer she will build flesh or take on fat. and the sooner the fat producers are identified and removed from the laying flock, the better for all concerned. your birds will not "get too fat to lay"--they will get fat if they don't lay. and _the big problem is to induce the layers to eat as much food as they can digest_ in order that they may lay heavily and steadily. to overcome all possible danger of overfeeding, pratts poultry regulator should be regularly added to the mash. this natural tonic and conditioner contains appetizers, to stimulate the desire for food--digestives, to insure complete digestion and assimilation of the food consumed--laxatives, to regulate the bowels--internal antiseptics, to keep the entire digestive tract in a condition of perfect health--worm destroyers, to expel irritating and dangerous intestinal parasites. regularly used, pratts poultry regulator insures freedom from the more common poultry disorders, reduces feed bills by preventing feed waste due to sluggish digestion, hastens growth, improves the egg-yield, shortens the molt, makes the entire flock more efficient, swells the profits. pratts poultry regulator should be added to the mash at the rate of one and three-quarters pound to each hundred pounds of mash. mix thoroughly so each layer will get her share. the ideal poultry ration is a varied one. it contains mineral matter, green food, animal food and grains. the absence of any one of these groups of foodstuffs means a reduced egg yield. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _i am both selling and feeding pratts poultry regulator, and make a specialty of high-bred buff orpingtons. twelve cockerels, worth from $ to $ each, were all placed in healthy condition by use of pratts poultry regulator and their quarters disinfected with pratts disinfectant. w.h. topp, westgate, iowa._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- the staple grain feeds are corn, oats, wheat, barley and buckwheat. the grain by-products, bran, middlings and gluten feed, to which may be added corn meal, ground oats and ground barley. animal food of some kind is an essential to growth and egg-production. skim milk and butter milk, fish scrap made from oil-free fish, beef scrap, fresh cut green bone and good grades of digester tankage are all excellent. but use only feeds of this character which are of prime quality. oily fish, poor beef scrap and mouldy green bone will surely cause trouble. fowls on range during the growing season will pick up all needed green food. in the winter one may feed cabbages, mangel wurtzels, beets, carrots, etc. or, if fresh stuff is not available, heavy oats may be sprouted and fed when the sprouts are two or three inches long. dried beet pulp, a dairy food made at beet sugar factories, is a convenient green food. it must be well soaked before feeding. one saves much time, and not infrequently some money, by buying ready-mixed feeds, especially dry mash. in, making such purchases, be guided by _quality_ rather than price. adopt some brand made by a reputable concern and give it a fair trial. but do not hesitate to change if a better brand becomes available. just try pratts milk egg mash. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _kingston, r.i. i have used your baby chick food with the best success and would gladly recommend it to anyone wanting such food. i do not only use it for baby chicks, but for those - weeks' of age. c.e. brett, rhode island state college dept. of poultry service._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~feeding dry mash~ the most simple and generally satisfactory feeding method is the dry mash system. feed a certain amount of the scratch mixture--whole and cracked grains--each day and permit the fowls to complete the daily ration by eating dry mash--ground grains--at will. keep mash before them in open hoppers and let them help themselves. the mash, because of its high protein content, is the real egg-maker. and during recent years there has been a tendency toward restricting the scratch feed and inducing the layers to eat more mash. results seem to indicate that this plan is best, increasing the yield and reducing feed costs. the laying ration now recommended by the new jersey agricultural experiment station is simple and efficient. this ration is made as follows: ~dry mash~ lbs. wheat bran wheat middlings ground oats (heavy) corn meal ~high-grade fish scrap or meat~ scrap ~scratch grain~ lbs. cracked corn wheat oats (heavy) barley the same institution has perfected the following feeding table showing what amount of scratch feed should be given the layers daily each month in the year. this is a most valuable guide, especially to the inexperienced poultryman. when the birds are fed scratch grain, as indicated, they will naturally eat enough mash from the open hoppers to meet their requirements. ~amount of grain to feed layers each month in the year~ months amount per day per pounds for each birds feeding a.m. p.m. november lbs. lbs. lbs. december " " " january " " " february " " " march " " " april " " " may " " " june " " " july " " " august " " " september " " " october " " " study this question of mash and grain consumption, for if your birds are not getting enough protein mash, they cannot lay eggs in larger numbers. * * * * * ~hatching the chicks~ for layers or broilers, hatch chicks early. for late markets and home use, you may bring off hatches at intervals throughout the entire summer. the incubator and brooder are big helps where many chicks are hatched. pratts poultry service department will gladly advise you regarding makes of such machines which are giving general satisfaction. just a word of caution. operate incubators and brooders in accordance with the directions furnished by the maker. go slow in making changes. sitting hens are very satisfactory if properly handled. use only quiet, motherly sitters and place them where they will not be troubled by the rest of the flock. feed whole grain and a little green food and supply plenty of water. dust the sitting hens occasionally with pratts powdered lice killer so they won't hatch a brood of lice with the chicks. and paint the nest boxes with pratts red mite special to keep the blood-thirsty mites away. ~growing the chicks~ little chicks must be attended to no matter what else is done, because lack of intelligent care in early life will be reflected in poor performance when the chicks reach maturity. one can seldom, if ever, offset the mistakes of brooding time by the best of attention later on. protect your chicks against the weather, against their various enemies, against diseases, against lice and mites. keep them comfortable and happy. start them right, keep them growing steadily until they attain their full size. protection against unfavorable weather conditions--rain, cold winds, blazing sun--is secured by providing well-built coops and natural or artificial shade. coops should be weather-proof, but well ventilated, and so located that surface water from sudden showers cannot flood their floors. they should also be sufficiently roomy to keep the flock happy during long hours of confinement in periods of stormy weather. chick enemies include those that do their work in the coops, usually at night, as rats, weasels and skunks, and those that prey upon the flock when it is at liberty, as cats, dogs, crows and hawks. protection against the former is found in proper construction of the coops, which should have tight floors and fine wire netting over openings left open at night. a good dog will discourage these night prowlers and steel traps placed at strategic points will often put a quick end to their activities. protection against ordinary diseases lies in keeping the little birds strong and vigorous through proper feeding, exercise, etc., and by close attention to sanitation. keep the quarters and food and water dishes _clean_. use pratts poultry disinfectant at frequent intervals. [illustration: a-shaped coop] aim to _prevent_ rather than _cure_ disease. should there be any evidence of bowel trouble, give pratts white diarrhoea remedy in the drinking water. don't let the condition become chronic or general. in "sour weather," when colds may be expected to appear, use pratts roup remedy in the drinking water. lice and mites work practically unseen, but they are the source of heavy loss, both directly and indirectly. in extreme cases they actually kill many chicks. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | "~baby food for baby chicks~" | | | |~pratts~ buttermilk baby chick food raises every good chick. it won't | |prevent losses from accidents, but it does prevent death from digestive| |troubles and the more common chick disorders which are so often due to | |improper feeding. | | | |the original baby chick food--pratts--contains all the food elements | |required to build muscle, bone and feather, to nourish the whole body, | |to give that strong start in life which assures rapid growth, even | |development and profitable maturity. | | | |feed the original pratts for the first three weeks--the critical | |period--at least; it may profitably be used much longer. refuse | |substitutes and imitations. these may be slightly less in _first cost_,| |but in _results_, as measured by _number_ and _quality_ of chicks | |_reared_, pratts buttermilk baby chick food is | | | | ~the cheapest food on earth~ | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ [illustration: pratts practical pointers] ~poultry~ early in life, when two to four days old, all chicks should be treated with pratts head lice ointment. rub a little of the mild preparation on top of the head, under the throat and beneath the wings. at the same time dust with pratts powdered lice killer. treat the mother hens most thoroughly, substituting pratts lice salve for the ointment. when the youngsters are ten days old, treat them again, this time using the salve. and repeat the treatment at reasonably frequent intervals to insure complete freedom from the trouble makers. the deadly blood-sucking mites do not live on the bodies of the birds, but make their homes in cracks and crevices of walls and floors of the coops. attack them there. clean coops carefully, then spray or wash walls and floors with pratts red mite special. repeat as necessary. that will fix 'em. but you had best do the work on a bright, sunny day when the flock can be kept outside until the coop dries. ~feeding the chicks~ do not feed chicks for forty-eight hours after hatching. in fact, you may safely wait until they are seventy-two hours old before giving them their first meal. nature has provided for nourishment during this period and it is best not to upset things. if possible, start the youngsters off on their life's journey with a drink of _sour milk_. let them have sour milk to drink exclusively for the first ten days at least, and give it to them all through life, if this excellent food drink is available. the principal feed for the first three weeks and profitably for a much longer time should be pratts buttermilk baby chick food, a real "baby food for baby chicks," a mixture which is properly balanced in composition and in the right mechanical condition to insure quick digestion. as chicks eat so little during this period, as measured by pounds, one is fully justified in paying a relatively high price per pound for this special feed which will give them a strong, vigorous start and put their digestive organs in proper condition to efficiently use less expensive foods when food consumption becomes heavy. the ideal baby chick food, pratts, is made of a variety of foodstuffs so blended as to supply, in proper proportion, the nutrients required to build flesh, bone and feather. it is ground exceedingly fine so it may be consumed freely and yet not tax the digestive organs. obviously such a feed cannot satisfactorily be prepared at home, which explains the rapidly growing demand which has arisen for pratts buttermilk baby chick food during recent years. for the first day or two, feed pratts buttermilk baby chick food exclusively at intervals of two to three hours. at first, spread it upon a shingle or piece of board. later place it in little troughs or shallow dishes. let the chicks eat a reasonable amount, what they will take in twenty to thirty minutes, then remove it. supply a bit of fine, bright grit during this time. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _rohrerstown, pa. i have used the baby chick food this season and have had excellent results. i find it to meet all requirements. it makes rapid growth and at the same time maintains vigor. l.b. sprecher, director, penna. state poultry association._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- the second or third day after feeding has begun, cut out a meal or two of the baby chick food and instead sprinkle a little regulation chick feed (scratch feed) in the litter. there are many good brands of such feed on the market. if preferred, one may be made as follows: ~scratch feed for chicks~ cracked wheat lbs. fine cracked corn lbs. pinhead oats lbs. broken rice lbs. charcoal lbs. at the beginning of the second week the scratch feed may be given three times daily, just the quantity they will clean up and hunt for more, and the baby chick food left in open hoppers or dishes to which the chicks may run at will. by this time, too, grit may safely be left in open hoppers before the flock. and if milk is not given freely it is well to supply some additional animal food each day. fine fish scrap or beef scrap--always of high quality--may be fed sparingly in troughs or on pieces of board. do not feed too much of this material. if bowel trouble develops, reduce the quantity of animal food. the amount given may be increased progressively as the youngsters gain in size. while pratts baby chick food need not be fed longer than the first three weeks, it is good practice to continue its use for two to three weeks longer. but at any time after the critical twenty-one day period one may safely begin to substitute a somewhat coarser and heavier developing or growing mash for the baby chick food. we advise the use of pratts buttermilk growing mash. here is a good home-made mixture: ~growing or developing mash~ cornmeal lbs. wheat bran lbs. feeding flour lbs. fine ground oats, sifted lbs. fine fish or beef scrap lbs. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _"the regular use of pratts poultry regulator in the ration for growing chicks prevents deaths from common disease, increases the appetite and hastens growth. this means less loss, earlier laying or market maturity, bigger profits. p.g. platt, sec. delaware co. poultry assn., wallingford, pa._" ----------------------------------------------------------------- at six to eight weeks of age, or as soon as the youngsters can comfortably eat coarser grains, the fine scratch feed may be replaced by a coarser mixture. equal parts, by weight, of cracked corn and wheat, form the basis of this, with barley, heavy oats, kafir corn and buckwheat added for variety if available at reasonable prices. when the flock is weaned and well feathered, the regular laying mash may be substituted for the growing mash, though the latter may well be continued for a much longer period. above all things, see to it that nothing but feed of superior quality is supplied. moldy, chaffy, grains and weed seeds may be _cheaper to buy_ than sweet, sound materials, but the latter are _cheaper to feed_. begin giving green food when the chicks are three or four days old, cutting it up finely so they can eat it. and continue to feed greens liberally at all times. it's good for the health and cuts feed bills, too. ~care of the growing chicks~ as the chicks grow, provide larger quarters if the original coops are at all crowded. and teach the youngsters to roost early, especially where brooders are used, so they will not "pile up" in corners when the heat is removed. when the brood is five to six weeks of age place low roosts, lath tacked on six to eight-inch boards, in the coops. the sturdier individuals will soon learn to use them and educate the rest of the flock. pay special attention to the water supply. have clean water available at all times. and do not leave the water dishes in the sun, which will quickly make the water so warm that it is unfit to drink. give the growing pullets as much space, indoors and out, as you possibly can. feed them liberally. keep them clean and comfortable. in every way help them gain the health, strength and vigor which they must have in order to do full duty in the laying and breeding pens. finally, cull your flock without mercy, beginning at hatching time and continuing to the end. if any baby chicks are crippled or weak, dispose of them at once. as the flock grows, mark--by toe punching or otherwise--all individuals which show evidence of being lacking in vigor, which are stunted or do not make rapid growth, which fail to feather properly, which are ever noticeably sick. then rush them to market as soon as they reach the proper weight. thus you will save for your own use only those which are physically right, which have the health and stamina that will enable them to stand up under the strain of continuous egg-production. and such a flock, after it has undergone the further culling of a year in the laying pen, will give you breeding birds capable of producing worthwhile chicks. ~poultry diseases~ prevention of disease is most essential. and the first step consists of carefully selecting the birds which will he given a place in the flock, retaining only those which are healthy and vigorous, and rejecting the weaklings and physically unfit. the next step is to keep the birds in a high state of vitality through proper management and keep contagious and infectious diseases away by adopting the necessary sanitary measures. fresh air, wholesome food and clean water are essential. equally necessary is the use of pratts poultry regulator, which keeps the birds in perfect condition internally and so prevents such self-developed disorders as indigestion, constipation, and the like. most of the serious diseases which take heavy toll of carelessly managed flocks are due to germs of various kinds. these may be introduced in many different ways, and when present in the flock they multiply and spread with great rapidity. cleanliness and sanitation will largely overcome them, and as each fowl is worth so much money under present conditions, it is really economical to prevent loss even at the expense of some time and of germ-killing preparations. pratts poultry disinfectant costs but a trifle. a gallon, diluted with water, makes fifty gallons of a powerful disinfectant, one that is highly efficient, but both safe and pleasant to use. spray the house and furnishings and wash feed and water containers at frequent intervals with this economical germ-killer. results will surely be seen in healthier, more productive birds, less trouble and less loss from disease. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _staunton, va. i would not have tried to raise expensive poultry without pratts products in my house. while i was a boy at home we always had a supply of pratts on hand. i find that my success is due to the use of the pratts products kept constantly on the shelf. h.l. campbell._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- in this condensed book we can discuss only the more general disorders. the subject is covered thoroughly in chapter ix, the poultryman's complete handbook, including directions for equipping a hospital, administering medicine, symptom and treatment chart, diagrams of the fowl's digestive system and skeleton, control of poultry vices, etc. send a dime, in silver or stamps, for a copy, to pratt food co., philadelphia. if necessary, do not hesitate to consult the poultry experts connected with pratts poultry service dept. they will give you personal help without charge. in writing, give all symptoms and necessary facts. address such letters to our philadelphia office. it is important that diseases of all kinds be recognized as early as possible, and equally so that immediate treatment be given. watch your birds! if any show signs of being out of condition, examine them carefully to determine the trouble. then give them the care which is demanded in each case. quick treatment will often effect a speedy cure of a valuable bird that might be lost if the disease became firmly established. pratts poultry remedies include dependable preparations for most common poultry diseases. they are guaranteed to give satisfaction and are inexpensive. keep a supply on hand. use promptly as occasion demands. the saving of a single good laying or breeding fowl by instant treatment will more than pay the cost of a well-stocked poultry medicine shelf. ~poultry lice and mites~ ~body lice~--there are many different kinds of these parasites and all are serious trouble makers. they cause endless annoyance, check growth and egg production. lice-free fowls are healthier and more comfortable, therefore more productive and profitable. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~guaranteed poultry remedies~ | | | |~pratts~ line of guaranteed poultry remedies is the result of fifty | |years of experience. each preparation is positively the best of its | |kind. keep a supply on hand for instant use. | | | |~pratts roup remedy (tablets or powder)~ | | | |a sure preventive and cure for roup, colds, canker, catarrh and similar | |diseases. | | | |~pratts gape remedy~ | | | |guaranteed to bring prompt relief. use as a preventive the first four | |weeks and your chicks will not be troubled with gape-worms. | | | |~pratts sore-head chicken-pox remedy~ | | | |a guaranteed cure for this highly contagious disease. don't risk having | |your entire flock ruined. keep it on hand for quick use when the ailment| |is first noticed. | | | |~pratts bronchitis remedy~ | | | |a quick and effective remedy. fully guaranteed for a disease that is | |generally fatal unless promptly checked. | | | |~pratts white diarrhoea remedy~ | | | |will save the chicks and cure completely when used promptly. valuable in| |preventing the heavy chick losses usually experienced. | | | |~pratts cholera remedy~ | | | |a sure remedy for cholera, indigestion, sour crop, dysentery, and bowel | |trouble. guaranteed to satisfy or money refunded. | | | |~pratts scaly leg remedy~ | | | |this disease impairs the vitality of the birds and ruins their | |appearance. pratts remedy will keep the legs clean and healthy. | | | |~pratts condition tablets~ | | | |an effective remedy for "run-down" birds. keeps show birds in condition | |and prevents colds, roup and liver trouble. | | | | "~your money back if you are not satisfied~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ _treatment_--if all poultrymen would use pratts powdered lice killer on their poultry, lice would be unknown. it is different and better than many like preparations, being stronger, non-poisonous, has great disinfecting qualities, and positively kills all kinds of chicken lice. if you want to make money from your poultry you can't afford to be without it. pratts poultry disinfectant, or the more powerful pratts red mite special, should also be used in the poultry houses. lice seek crevices, cracks, openings, etc., that can only be reached by the liquid. this should be sprayed or sprinkled on perches, nest boxes, drop boards, floors and inside walls of all poultry houses. it not only kills lice, but has great disinfecting value. do not accept a substitute. pratts lice salve is a sure-fire lice killer in another form. apply to the feathers beneath the wings and around the vent and quick results will be noticed. a single application will be effective for a considerable time. ~head lice~--the big grey lice commonly found on heads of little chicks, causing great mortality. _treatment_--keep on hand all the time a box of pratts head lice ointment, and use it on your little chicks, and save their lives. two or three days before the brood should hatch, sprinkle the sitting hen thoroughly with pratts powdered lice killer. ~poultry mites (red mites)~--these tiny parasites are poultry killers. they do not live on the bodies of the birds, but in cracks and crevices of the building, coming out for their food. they suck the blood from the fowls, weakening and often killing them. _treatment_--look around roosts and in cracks in warm weather and you are apt to see hundreds of mites. every week spray perches, dropping boards, sides of houses, and roof near perches with pratts red mite special; powder birds with pratts powdered lice killer, and also add this to the dust bath. ~depluming mites~--parasites that attack the roots or base of feathers which break off leaving bare spots. will quickly spread through an entire flock. usually found in spring and summer. _treatment_--separate all affected birds from the rest of flock. rub pratts head lice ointment on and around the bare spots every few days, until the mites have all been destroyed. spray houses, roofs, runs, etc., with pratts poultry disinfectant. persistent treatment is necessary to get rid of these pests. ~the more common poultry diseases~ ~symptoms and treatment~ ~apoplexy~--_cause:_ fowls too fat, general poor condition. _symptoms:_ paralysis, sudden death. birds frequently found dead under roosts. _treatment:_ affected birds will not usually respond to treatment. flocks should be treated to prevent further loss. reduce the amount of feed, give less corn, supply pratts poultry regulator to improve general condition. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _reading, pa. have been using your poultry remedies for many years. have used your baby chick food and had wonderful results. i think it is great. i also use your disinfectant, lice powder and roup remedy. wm. faust_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~aspergilosis~--_cause:_ growth of mould in air passages. _symptoms:_ rapid breathing, rattling in throat, loss of weight, dragging wings, weakness, exhaustion. in chicks, sleepiness, diarrhoea, yellowish growth on lungs. _treatment:_ avoid mouldy grain and litter to keep flock free from infection. disinfect with pratts poultry disinfectant. put flock in condition with pratts poultry regulator. ~bacillary white diarrhoea~--_cause:_ bacteria. the disease may be inherited from hens having infected ovaries, or pass from chick to chick. _symptoms:_ chicks have diarrhoea, usually white or creamy. sleepy, chilly, thin, rough plumage, drooping wings. heaviest mortality under three weeks of age. _treatment:_ badly infected chicks should be killed. prevent epidemics by disinfecting everything with pratts poultry disinfectant. give pratts white diarrhoea remedy in drinking water. give chicks strong start by feeding pratts baby chick food. ~bronchitis~--_cause:_ development of common cold, breathing in dust. _symptoms:_ cough, rapid breathing, whistling, rattling and bubbling in throat. _treatment:_ keep patient dry, give laxative, treat with pratts bronchitis remedy. ~canker~--_cause:_ development of pus germs following injury or digestive troubles. _symptoms:_ cheesy growths in mouth and throat. _treatment:_ scrape off canker and swab with full strength pratts poultry disinfectant. improve general condition with pratts poultry regulator. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _summerville, s.c. i have used pratts white diarrhoea remedy, and i wish to say that i have had some chicks that started with the white diarrhoea and i have given them the tablets in their drinking water, and have not had any trouble since. they are growing fine. r.c. foster._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~catarrh~--_cause:_ draughts, dampness, exposure. _symptoms:_ thin discharge from eyes and nostrils, sneezing, difficult breathing, dullness. _treatment:_ pratts condition tablets to quickly tone up the system and pratts roup remedy to overcome the disease. ~chicken pox or sore head~--_cause:_ bacteria. _symptoms:_ eruption on unfeathered areas of head. at first small and gray in color, increasing until head is covered with scabs. eyes frequently closed. _treatment:_ disinfect most thoroughly with pratts poultry disinfectant. treat with pratts sore head (chicken pox) remedy. ~cholera~--_cause:_ bacteria. _symptoms:_ weakness, thirst, head drawn down, drooping wings, intense thirst, frequently full crops, yellow or green diarrhoea. _treatment:_ give pratts chicken cholera remedy to whole flock as remedy and preventive. improve general health with pratts poultry regulator. disinfect most carefully and frequently. burn all dead birds and everything taken from poultry house. a most difficult disease to control if it gets established. ~gapes~--_cause:_ small y-shaped worm, about one-half inch long. may be either pale or red in color. attaches itself to interior walls of windpipe, weakening the chick by sucking the blood, and also causing strangulation. this apparently double-headed worm is really two worms, one of each sex, joined together. _symptoms:_ usually afflicts young chicks. frequent gasping; gaping; coughing; discharge of mucus and worms from throat. _treatment:_ use pratts gape remedy. disinfect floors of coops and runs with pratts disinfectant. move to new ground and keep chicks off wet grass. ~intestinal parasites (worms)~--_symptoms:_ dullness, poor condition. worms found in droppings. _treatment:_ fowls regularly receiving pratts poultry regulator are almost invariably free from this trouble. see details of individual treatment in the poultryman's complete handbook. ~leg weakness (chicks)~--_cause:_ feed lacking in bone and animal matter; close confinement; lack of exercise; over-heating in brooders. _symptoms:_ chicks walk in a wobbly, weak-kneed fashion, often resting or hobbling along on the joints. _treatment:_ feed young chicks on pratts baby chick food. give fair amount of beef or fish scrap and bone meal. afford opportunity for exercise, especially on the ground. avoid bottom heat in brooders. feed liberally on green food. add small quantity pratts poultry regulator to the ration. ~liver disease~--_cause:_ improper food, as overfeeding of corn or animal food, lack of exercise, general inactivity of intestinal tract. _symptoms:_ no prominent ones. if flock is not doing well and birds are lazy and sluggish, kill one or more and examine the livers. if found diseased, treat the flock. _treatment:_ use pratts poultry regulator to improve general condition. feed plenty of green food. disinfect the buildings, and admit a big volume of fresh air. induce the birds to exercise. ~rheumatism~--_cause:_ exposure to dampness, and cold. _symptoms:_ swelling of joints, stiffness, lameness. _treatment:_ make house dry and sunny. use pratts poultry regulator to improve general condition. rub affected parts with pratts liniment. (this fine liniment should be in every household. it has a hundred uses.) ~roup~--_symptoms:_ bad-smelling discharge from the nostrils; sticky discharge from the eyes; feathers under wings and on back smeared and sticky, where bird has wiped its head; sometimes coughing and sneezing; eyes stuck shut; eyes closed and swollen out; mouth forced open by cheesy growth; patches of canker in mouth and throat. _treatment:_ the disease is very contagious. remove all birds showing symptoms. clean up and disinfect the quarters, using pratts disinfectant liberally. give sick and well birds pratts roup remedy. give the healthy flock pratts poultry regulator. treat the sick with pratts condition tablets in addition to the roup remedy. burn all dead birds and all material removed from the hospital. ~scaly leg~--_cause:_ a tiny mite which burrows under the scales and into the tissues of the leg. _symptoms:_ scaly, rough, crusty appearance of feet and shanks. _treatment:_ apply pratts scaly leg ointment. ~tuberculosis~--_cause:_ a minute germ. _symptoms:_ steady loss in weight; paleness of comb, wattles and face; general weakness; lameness, ruffling of feathers; frequently diarrhoea. eye bright; ravenous appetite. _treatment:_ the disease is contagious and will spread through the flock unless proper precautions are taken. remove affected birds. disinfect the poultry plant and surroundings with pratts disinfectant. kill birds in advanced stages. give the whole flock a nourishing ration, and include pratts poultry regulator. use lime freely. if disease continues to spread, dispose of entire flock, disinfect with greatest care, start anew with healthy stock. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _pleasant valley, n.y. i gave pratts roup remedy a careful test on a flock of growing white wyandotte chicks in october which were infected with bad colds, and after treating one week with your roup remedy nearly every one was well. edgar briggs_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- pratts practical pointers on the care of livestock and poultry get your pratts from laing bros. winnipeg man. flour & feed. [transcriber's note: this printing had more than its share of typographical errors. obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] the dollar hen by milo m. hastings formerly poultryman at kansas experiment station; later in charge of the commercial poultry investigation of the united states department of agriculture syracuse national poultry magazine copyright, , by national poultry publishing company why this book was written twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of a drug store. the medical professor of may have gone prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are to-day the property of every intelligent man. there are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and public libraries, scores of complete works on "poultry" and hundreds of minor writings on various phases of the industry. let the would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of which in better developed industries would be considered prime necessities for carrying on the business. as a concrete illustration of the above statement, i want to point to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in the country. this lad invested some $ , of his own and his friends' money in a poultry plant. the plant was built and the business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of the recognized poultry authorities. to-day the young man is bravely facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our poultry bookshelves. the experience just related did not prove disastrous from some single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the receipts from its sale. this poultry farm, like the surgeon's operation, "was successful, but the patient died." the writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. whether his criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any unbiased observer. i have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. the book does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry production and marketing upon which the financial success of the business depends. the reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the poultryman to make money, not to spend it. how to read this book unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, he will be one of the following individuals: . a farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry production as a portion of the work of general farming. . a poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or as breeding stock. . a person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. . a man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. to the reader of the fourth class i have no suggestions to make save such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. to the reader of the third class i wish to say that if you are a shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a brooklyn flat, drawing up plans for a poultry plant, i have only to apologize for any interference that this book may cause with your highly fascinating amusement. to the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those which would justify his entering other occupations of the semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the manufacture of washing machines, i wish to say it is for you that "the dollar hen" is primarily written. this book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. that such matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to dodge it. especially would i call your attention to the diagrams used in illustrating various statistics. such diagrams are technically called "curves." they may at first seem mere crooked lines, if so i suggest that you get a series of figures in which you are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. after you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this graphic method is used. i wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general farming in the mississippi valley, is quite a different proposition from poultry production as a regular business. poultry keeping as a part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in any section of the united states, whereas poultry keeping, a separate occupation, requires special location and special conditions to make it profitable. i would suggest the farmer first read chapter xvi, which is devoted to his special conditions. later he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more complicated methods to his own needs. chapter xvi, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. to the reader in general, i want to say, that the table of contents, a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. read it before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time particularly want to know. many people in starting to read a book find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are seeking. the conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. what is in this volume chapter i is there money in the poultry business? a big business; growing bigger less ham and more eggs who gets the hen money? chapter ii what branch of the poultry business? various poultry products the duck business squabs have been overdone turkeys not adapted to commercial growing guinea growing a new venture geese, the fame of watertown the ill-omened broiler business south shore roasters too much competition in fancy poultry egg farming the most certain and profitable chapter iii the poultry producing community established poultry communities developing poultry communities will co-operation work? co-operative egg marketing in denmark corporation or co-operation chapter iv where to locate some poultry geography chicken climate suitable soil marketing--transportation availability of water a few statistics chapter v the dollar hen farm the plan of housing the feeding system water systems out-door accommodations equipment for chick rearing twenty-five acre poultry farms five acre poultry farms chapter vi incubation fertility of eggs the wisdom of the egyptians principles of incubation moisture and evaporation ventilation--carbon dioxide turning eggs cooling eggs searching for the "open sesame" of incubation the box type of incubator in actual use the future of incubation chapter vii feeding conventional food chemistry how the hen unbalances balanced rations chapter viii diseases don't doctor chickens the causes of poultry diseases chicken cholera roup chicken-pox, gapes, limber-neck lice and mites chapter ix poultry flesh and poultry fattening crate fattening caponizing chapter x marketing poultry carcasses farm grown chickens the special poultry plant suggestions from other countries cold storage of poultry drawn or undrawn fowls poultry inspection chapter xi quality in eggs grading eggs how eggs are spoiled egg size table the loss due to carelessness requisites of producing high grade eggs chapter xii how eggs are marketed the country merchant the huckster the produce buyer the city distribution of eggs cold storage of eggs preserving eggs out of cold storage improved methods of marketing farm-grown eggs the high grade egg business buying eggs by weight the retailing of eggs by the producer the price of eggs n.y. mercantile exchange, official quotations chapter xiii breeds of chickens breed tests the hen's ancestors what breed? chapter xiv practical and scientific breeding breeding as an art scientific theories of breeding breeding for egg production chapter xv experiment station work the stations leading in poultry work the story of the "big coon" important experimental results at the illinois station experimental bias the egg breeding work at the maine station chapter xvi poultry on the general farm best breeds for the farm keep only workers hatching chicks with hens incubators on the farm rearing chicks feeding laying hens cleanliness farm chicken houses the dollar hen chapter i is there money in the poultry business? the chicken business is big. no one knows how big it is and no one can find out. the reason it is hard to find out is because so many people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not once a year, but a hundred times a year. statistics are guesses. true statistics are the sum of little guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. a big business; growing bigger the only real statistics for the poultry crop of the united states are those of the federal census. at this writing these statistics are nine years old and somewhat out of date. the value of poultry and eggs in , according to the census figures, was $ , , . is this too big or too little? i don't know. if the reader wishes to know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? from these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for later years. the secretary of agriculture, or, speaking more accurately, a clerk in the statistical bureau of the department of agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for was over $ , , . the best two sources of information known to the writer by which this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the new york market and the annual "value of poultry and eggs sold," as given by the kansas state board of agriculture. [illustration: plate i. page . graph - is there money in poultry?] in plate i the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of western first eggs in the new york market. the curve b-b gives the annual receipts of eggs at new york in millions of cases. now, since value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of increase in the value of the poultry crop. starting with the census value of $ , , for the year , we thus find that by the amount is very close to $ , , . this is represented by the lower line. the value of the poultry and eggs sold in kansas have increased as follows: year value $ , , , , , , , , , , the dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry and egg crop estimated from the kansas figures. evidently the estimate given in secretary wilson's report was not excessive. now, i want to call the reader's attention to some relations about which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. the straight line c-c in plate represents the rate of increase of population in this country. the line b-b represents the rate of increase in egg receipts at new york. as the country data backs up the new york figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than is our population. "over-production," i hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for friend pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that lays all fears to rest. when the supply of any commodity increases faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. that prices of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been shown. "but prices of all products have risen," says one. very true, but by statistics with which i will not burden the reader, i find that prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average rise in values of all commodities. this shows that poultry products are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. less ham and more eggs. certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and of hen fruit. reasons are not hard to find. poultry and eggs are the most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. our demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we can afford them. another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. the writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and less eggs. yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has increased in size; whereas john when he was johnnie ate a two-ounce drumstick, now johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three ounces. perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants are becoming more numerous. our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. who gets the hen money? seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. who gets it? there are no rockefellers or armours in the hen business. it is the people's business. why? because the nature of the business is such that it cannot be centralized. land and intelligent labor, prompted by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen business. land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. the chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries in the country. in numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken business is the biggest industry in the world--i bar none. why is this true? primarily because the hen is a natural part of the equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. it is these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and give such an immense aggregate. more than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the country are produced on the general farm. the remaining one or two per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. it is this business, relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our chief interest centers. a farmer can disregard all knowledge and all progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail altogether--hence the greater interest in this portion of the industry. the poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard of before . since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, though steady growth. many people have lost money in the business and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here to stay. the suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense of production is small. herein lies a great truth and a great error. the farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on most of the book-made poultry farms--but the inference that the poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the farmer is a different statement. the farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. it contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. one by one these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and established as independent businesses. likewise our dairy farms, our fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the general farm. this simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate establishments than upon a general farm. the general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and will always have some surplus to sell. with the surplus, the poultryman must compete. his only hope of successful competition is production at lower cost. can this be done? it is being done, and the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. the people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are frequently there only while their money lasts. they write long articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many could say, "yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in it." such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down below the farmer's level. between these two classes of poultry plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. chapter ii what branch of the poultry business? the chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary to the success of any business. that this should be more true of the poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because practically all the literature published on the subject has been written by or written in the interest of those who had something to sell to the poultryman. as a result the figures of production are generally given higher than the facts warrant. the investor, be he ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few published figures showing the results that are actually obtained under practical working conditions. in this volume i will try to give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. various poultry products. in considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of the various articles produced for sale. it is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large packer. now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could realize on them. so it is with poultry farming. for illustration: a visionary writer in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to store eggs. in reality this would be the height of folly, unless the poultryman had his own retail store. in the first place profit on cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with suspicion and do not find ready sale. so we see that cold storage eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. a second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. the principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. the chief expense of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. if the duck farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same machine-like methods. on the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of market eggs. he succeeds well in his work and is visited by the poultry editors. his picture, the picture of his chickens and of his chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. for a reasonable sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man could now double his income by going into the breeding stock business. to refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be foolish. the following classification of the sales products of the poultry industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. chickens. for food purposes: eggs. hens, after laying has been finished. cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. (sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, roasters or capons.) both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. for stock purposes: eggs for hatching. day-old chicks. mature fowls. ducks. for table--green or spring ducks. by-products, old ducks and duck feathers. for breeding-stock. geese. food, feathers, breeders. turkeys. food, breeders. pigeons. squabs, breeding stock. guineas. broilers, mature fowls. i will now discuss these products more in detail. poultry, other than chickens, i do not care to discuss at length, because it is not for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business small. the duck business. the duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present time of any branch of the poultry business. the duck is the oldest domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in china, when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of europe. the duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of the gallinaceous order. the green duck business is about twenty years old and has become an established business in every sense of the word. the largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand ducks per annum. the profits at present are not large even for the most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the production has reached such a point that cost of production and selling price bear a definite relation as in all established businesses. the green duck business is not an easy one for the novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no advantage over the old and successful firms. squab business overdone. the business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. the production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already established, or which continue to be established by those who do not stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and the prevailing prices. turkeys not a commercial success. in the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. the price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, until one would think that there would be great money in the business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate babyhood. but just as the duck is more domesticated than the chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is artificial brooding. the presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. in the south the industry has been booming. especially in tennessee and texas, i found great local pride in the turkey crop. i certainly would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. as to her advisability of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of the season will be the best judge. guinea growing a new venture. the guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. in fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's tomatoes, "folks had them around without knowing they were of any use." the new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. guinea broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, prairie chicken or pheasant. the retail price in the large cities runs as high as $ . to $ . a pair. it will probably not pay to raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as cents each. as for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise in large quantities. i would also advise this additional precaution: look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. geese--the fame of watertown. as for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't know much about it. in fact, the most of my knowledge concerning this business was acquired by a visit to watertown, wis., which is the center of the noodled goose industry the watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. they sell to the hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose weighs, and have brought as high as $ . apiece. all of this is interesting, but i hold that the reader who is willing to take instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and increasing demand. so we will leave the goose and guinea business to the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the chicken industry. the ill-omened broiler business. the broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the poultry landscape. as a rule broiler production has not and probably will not pay. i know of a few exceptions--about enough to prove the rule. most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do not pay, insert the phrase "as an exclusive business" after the word broilers. this is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will be, produced at a loss. the reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that per cent. of the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general poultry production, and as such their selling price is not determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by the demand. that the broiler business received the boom that it did, is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more profitable outlet than in broiler production. let us take an analogous case. suppose a city man should discover the fact that there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. with pencil and paper he could easily figure profits in the business. if this dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. the young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by two facts: first, every large broiler plant yet started has either failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which they sell the cockerels--a confession that it costs more to produce broilers than they will bring. the conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks had none. it was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry business--to make its profits in extreme prices. this idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern progress. one is the development of poultry fattening and crate feeding in this country. this has resulted in supplying the consumer with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically than broilers. formerly it was a case of eating old hen--rooster, age unknown, or broilers--now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied exclusively by the broiler. again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction into the central west of the american breeds, has flooded the eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens--by-products of the egg business on the farm--which are almost equal in quality to the down-eastern product. the most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the development of the cold storage industry. cold storage destroys the element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a jersey broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the iowa farms. from a summer copy of farm poultry, i quote the boston market: fresh killed northern and eastern: fowls, choice c broilers, choice to fancy - c western, ice packed: fowls, choice c broilers, choice - c western frozen: fowls, choice................. c broilers, choice.............. - c eggs: nearly fancy.................. c western choice........ - / - - / c to complete our comparison i turn to the previous winter and find that the best storage eggs are quoted at c, when the best fresh are selling at c. this was a poor storage season and a quotation of c and c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. we find the per cent, of premium on the local product to be: fowls, local over fresh western........... per cent. fowls, local over frozen western.......... per cent. broilers, local over fresh western........ per cent. broilers, local over frozen western....... per cent. eggs, local over fresh western............ per cent. eggs, local over storage western.......... per cent. i consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler production, and the logical explanations given, as far more convincing than any figures i could give concerning the detailed cost of production. nor am i capable of giving as accurate figures as i can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for i have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. the following suggestive analysis i submit for the purpose of pointing out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. we may consider the chick marketing as may, the weight as - / , and the price as cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of cents a bird. now, may broilers mean february eggs. if the reader will refer to the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. a hatchability of per cent, times a liveability of per cent, gives a net liveability of per cent. now, anyone with the ability to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about c a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about cents. the feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at cents, and this makes a cost of cents. now, let us allow a cent for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel and incidentals, we have left a margin of cents. before going farther let us look at the labor bill. suppose it is a one-man plant. suppose the owner sets a value on his services of $ , per annum. that is pretty good, but few men who set a lower value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go into the business. at cents each it will take , broilers to make $ , . that will take , eggs and at three settings will require -egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost $ , . to spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season on the other. it will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house the chicks. there is no use of going farther till we have solved these difficulties. first we have more work than one man can do; second, we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, that would make them cost double our previous figure. to produce them oneself would require a flock of , hens. when a man gets to that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for cents each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. the effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. but in the present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in quality. to produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of plenty. we will give the production of broilers no further attention save as a by-product of egg production. south shore roaster. the production of south shore soft roasters in a local section of massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the united states where pullets are profitably diverted from egg production. the process of roaster production is essentially as follows: the incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks reared in brooder houses. as soon as the tender age is past, the chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the winter and spring. they are sold from may st to july st and bring such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market save small broilers. now, the income of roasters is two to five times as much per head as that of broilers. the added expense is only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as with broilers. the great advantage of the roaster business over that of the broiler business comes in the following points: st: the initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are distributed over a much larger final valuation. nd: the incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. with pound roasters at cents, we have an expense account about as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, cents as previously given. an additional food cost of cents per pound of chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $ . , so, for an income of $ , , only about birds need be raised, a proposition not beyond the capacity of one man to handle. allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler farm. as it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good eggs and is obliged to pay cents a dozen for them, but his want is within the region of possibility. the south shore roaster district is an example of an industry built up by specialization and co-operation. but in this sense i do not mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells readily at an advanced price. to a beginner in the south shore district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help but be of great benefit. the south shore roaster district of massachusetts is the best example of specialized community production of poultry flesh that we have in the united states. it is only rivaled by the districts in the south of england and in france. in chapter iii the writer takes up fully the community production of eggs. the reason i have gone into this matter in regard to eggs rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only in a few boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized and in demand. many of the economies, especially concerning incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. i expect to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more advanced methods in many "south shore" communities. too much competition in fancy poultry. the various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made the leading sales product. this will depend wholly upon what is done with the female chicks that are hatched. if they are sold as broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other products are by-products. these by-products are to be carefully considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their production is incidental to the production of the main crop. of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in doing. just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy christmas presents and not to pay grocery bills. to enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. the fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. that every chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, goes without saying. these, indeed, together with his sales of high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of production. if the reader has received the impression from the present discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. there are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known men. there is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and artistic touch of the regular fancier. i refer to the band wagon style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the draughtsman's rule can make them. such men do a big business. they may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it under contract. the system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. these types of poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the west than in the east, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the east. there is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon poultry plants in the west and especially in the south. as adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs or shetland ponies. in this case the advantage of such additions depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. egg farming the most certain and profitable. we have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent their being conducted on a large scale. egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable branch of the poultry industries. the chief reason that this is true is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding period. now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to engage in. for each hen that passes through a laying period there is her own carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily produced and that must be marketed. now, the pullet is worth more for egg producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or roaster, and her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing the price at which cockerels must be sold. the egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been satisfied. egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens that are a by-product of egg farming. egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of time. in the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an egg farmer. we will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is a white leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial incubation. such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown poultry. chapter iii the poultry producing community the builder of air castles in poultrydom invariably starts out with a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful advances in the economy of production of the large corporate organization, compared with the individual producer. the lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted with the mills of the american steel company. the fond dreamer looks upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save agriculture. here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by applying modern business methods to agriculture. the knowing smile--the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last century's sun? alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. every farmer who has sent a son to college has known you and the hon. william jennings bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the country. but the dreamer is right in his first premise--great economies in production are the result of specialization and combination. why not then in agriculture? i'll tell you why. there is a touch of nature in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can give. why is combined and specialized production more economical? it may be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient methods and machinery. the cost of production may be lowered, by either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take this saving for granted. when it comes to labor there is a different story. the negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender in the factory work as well or better for large than for small concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. it is made up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and time. for the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the business. in other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. to have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in the brooder had found all well or all wrong. it is useless to carry the argument farther. the labor bill is one of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. with a system where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. such savings as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in the reduced efficiency of labor. the bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the weight of the egg basket. even this will not be a complete test unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. a system of renting or working on shares that will gain the advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place to work. i expect to see in the future some such system evolved. in fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman on many of our best plants. to extend such to each laborer requires more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must come. but, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. best yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a wholesale basis. just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. the ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along with the others may be largest. established poultry communities. in a previous chapter we spoke of the south shore roaster district of massachusetts. here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. while this business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a central influence at work in the person of the firm of curtis bros., who for years have bought the majority of south shore roasters, and who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. at little compton, r. i., is a very similar parallel of the south shore district in the shape of egg farms. here we find within a radius of two miles about one hundred thousand rhode island red hens owned in flocks of two thousand or less. the methods used throughout the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. there are no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens and chicks. feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. the houses are cleaned twice a year. little compton is, indeed, a community where all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church spire at little compton corners than most poultry writers have ever seen or read about. strange it is, as josh billings puts it, that "some folks know things that ain't so." an illustration published in a recent issue of the world's work tells a remarkable story. a pile of egg shells as big as a straw stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, and it is a very proud monument to mr. byce who, some twenty odd years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of petaluma. petaluma is in sonoma county, california, forty miles north of san francisco. in the census year of , sonoma county produced more eggs than any other county in the united states. to-day there are in the petaluma region close to one million hens. like the little compton district, petaluma is a one-breed community, white leghorns being the breed used. the individual flocks range larger than at little compton, chiefly because the milder climate, smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one man to take care of more birds. when i asked mr. byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of twenty-two men who keep from , down to , each, and said that to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be to take a census of the county. the methods of housing and feeding used are simple and inexpensive like those at little compton. the chief reason why petaluma shows a more advanced development in the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation (see chapter on incubation) and the consequent development of the central hatchery. outside of this, the location is not especially favorable. the temperature is milder in the winter than in the east, but the petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup to a greater extent than we have it in the east. the prices received for high grade eggs in san francisco is in the winter about equal to the top prices in new york. in the spring and summer new york will give more for fancy goods. the cost of corn on the pacific coast is about cents a hundred more than on the atlantic coast. wheat, however, is cheaper than in the east, but not cheap enough to substitute for the more staple grain. the eggs from the petaluma region are at present marketed largely through a co-operative marketing association. developing poultry communities. i have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. again, i have shown that in a few localities where the business was incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently located, could not do as well or better. this looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese factory, or a trucking community. in such a community there are many functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. these functions are: first, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in large quantities. second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by the individual holders. fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the land. fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect methods available to the small poultryman. seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings involved in large purchases. eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by an organized war on all "varments." tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration farms under the direction of the central management. eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a thermometer hovering around degrees fahrenheit. twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who attempts to sell bad eggs. thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of advertising the product. fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique industrial enterprises. in these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. is it a dream? in a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present tendency in the poultry producing world. why has not this thing been done before? because no one knew enough to do it. why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier in the south, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries which enables every city dweller in the north to have strawberries in february and fresh vegetables any day in the year? why did the california fruit trade develop? did anyone suppose forty years ago that the unsettled valley around pasadena would ever produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? these orange groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental refrigerator car and the california fruit growers' exchange paved the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable price. mr. harwood, in the world's work for may, , after describing the "city of a million hens," raises the question, "if in petaluma, why not anywhere?" i would like to answer that question by saying that while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned by hired labor. another reason has been the lack of the technical knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. the poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry fanciers of the day. the poultry papers and poultry literature has generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of incubators, patent nests and portable houses. the good folks have vied with one another in complicating the business. they have built steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with which daily to haul away the droppings. a few famous fanciers selling eggs at $ . per setting have made such business pay, but alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." a few years ago a government poultry expert paid a visit to petaluma. he came back and reported, "it is a great disappointment, the methods are very crude." the case is most pathetic. here was a man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. his carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the only community in the united states where at that time any considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he came back with the look of naamen who, when he was requested by elisha to bathe seven times in the river jordan, replied, "it is very crude." will co-operation work? that magic thing, "co-operation," while utterly lacking in the utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a decidedly bigger factor in american affairs than the average man realizes. the chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. in europe co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and better developed than in this country. perhaps the europeans are less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that the members of such associations as these have learned how to prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. that this is the true explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in europe. when the creameries were started in the west several years ago, there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter money. to-day more than half of the american creameries are co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. they are efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. but their way was first paved and the business developed by successful private concerns. co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as similar private enterprises are run. the idea that co-operation must always result in a big saving is a misconception. employes will not work any harder for an association than for a private employer, sometimes not as hard. certainly no employee will work as hard for an association as he will for himself. why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing i could never understand. but if there is some great waste that co-operation will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or co-operate, will pay. i know of no better way to impress the reader with american co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account of the california fruit growers' exchange. the exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through his association, and every association to its pro rata to the various markets of the country. this theory reduced to practice gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all markets throughout the season. another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. these broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the exchange movement. the exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. the local association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for market on a co-operative basis. they establish their own brands, make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and pooling their fruit. usually these associations own thoroughly equipped packing houses. all members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted for. every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns according to grade. any given brand is the exclusive property of the local association using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. this is of great advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is reliable. there are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit district in california, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. the several local exchanges designate one man each from their membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of the california fruit growers' exchange. by this method the policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the hands of the local exchanges. from top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the common good of all members. no corporation nor individual reaps from it either dividends or private gain. so far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. equally important is its organization in the markets. seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at home, the exchange found it quite as important to maintain the control of its own affairs in the markets. for this purpose the exchange established a system of exclusive agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit business. most of these agents are salaried, and have no other business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. these agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or in the territory covered by their districts. over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with authority to supervise and check up the various offices. these general agents maintain in their offices at chicago and omaha, a complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive every day detailed information as to sales of exchange fruit in other markets the previous day. possessing this data, the selling agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. if any agent finds his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in los angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve it and restore prices to normal level. through these agencies of its own the exchange is able to get and transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding market conditions, visible supplies, etc. this system affords a maximum of good service at a minimum cost. the volume of the business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. the annual business of the california fruit growers' exchange amounts to over ten million dollars, and the exchange handles over half the citrus fruit output of the state. yet there are people who say co-operation in america will not work. co-operative egg marketing in denmark. i have discussed at length the work of the california fruit growers' exchange, as the best example in the united states of the co-operative marketing of farm produce. we have thus far but little co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. canada has a few examples, but it is to european countries that we must go for a full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to the products of the hen. in england and in ireland co-operative efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs are quite common. it is to denmark, however, that we must go to find the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business effort. the danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. they have co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. the danish egg export society is an organization, the plan and work of which is very much like that of the california fruit growers' exchange. the local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, paying for them by weight. collectors are hired to gather them at frequent and regular intervals, and are paid in accordance with the amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach a centralizing station. there are a number of these central stations at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to england. the individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in his lot. this fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. the latter he cannot afford to do because the association has its established brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by attempting to market them himself. as a result of this strict system of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the eggs the danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the world. although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. just as a goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of california is still handled by private dealers, so in denmark we find that nearly one-half of the eggs sent to england are handled by private companies. let it be noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. before co-operation entered the orange regions of california, the fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate grower. co-operation has done away with this waste. in like manner the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is unknown to the egg trade of denmark. corporation or co-operation? the community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. will this community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? arthur brisbane says, "as individual control of the government has been superceded by collective control, so individual control of industries will be followed by collective control. that is the natural order." brisbane is right. the individual, or the corporation, which is an individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. when the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. the farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative stranger and co-operation is a success. poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the co-operative plan. private corporations will be necessary to launch these enterprises. when they have reached the stage of development now to be seen in little compton and petaluma they are ready for co-operation. i have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. whenever a community of poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any perishable form of products, who are already successful in the producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. go slow. do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about the business as your private competitors. chapter iv where to locate that poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own table does not permit of argument. when it comes to production for market, i believe there are some sections where it costs more to produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product when sold. for illustration: on a farm which is twenty miles from town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would certainly eat up all possible profits. the farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the product needs less frequent marketing. some poultry geography. when we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus unprofitable. the map on page shows the intensity of egg production and also indicates the location of the more important localities where poultry plants have succeeded. the map on page shows the quality of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely the general development of the poultry industry. these indications, however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. for purposes of discussion, i have divided the united states into seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. [illustration: plate ii. page . map: intensity of egg production in the united states] section is the north woods and too cold and remote for the poultry business. section includes the great west, of which an adequate discussion is out of the question. of course, the great majority of this area is too remote from markets for poultry production. the locations around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. california is good chicken country. the puget sound country is rather too damp. in the interior western regions the chicken business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. section is the great granary of the world. it is also the home of three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. it is a region of corn, cattle and hogs. such a country will produce poultry in a very inexpensive manner. but it is not the region for special poultry farms. in the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy housing expense and much winter labor necessary. it is a region of high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of demand for high grade poultry products. this is because they are so abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately fresh and plentiful. there are no successful poultry farms in this section west of the mississippi. it is the natural location of extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. the only type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion of this section would be a large community of producers who could ship their products out regularly in carload lots. such development could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for the housing expense is too great for the north. at best the distance from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. the added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in refrigerator cars this is not serious. after the establishment of poultry communities becomes more common, the oklahoma and texas region will become available for this purpose, but they must be established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot sell their product to advantage. section . this region, extending from the ozarks to eastern tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. the climate is such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense of housing and winter labor is reasonable. this section is still in the corn growing region. the question is almost always one of railroad facilities to get the product out. all poultry farms in this section must grow their own grain or buy it of their immediate neighbors. it will not pay to ship grain into this region. [illustration: plate iii. page . map: intensity of egg production in the united states] when near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in section have a good chance of success, especially east of the mississippi. this is the most favorable region in the country for the establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own grain. such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section where it is profitable to import the grain. section is the non-grain growing region of the south. it at present produces little poultry. the climate is all right for the purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the west are high and likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market are excessive. under these conditions poultry farming will not pay except in a few localities as in florida, where there is a high class local market due to the popular resorts. if grain could be profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming that prevails in section would be advisable. now, grain can be grown in the cotton belt of the south, and many yankee farmers are making good money doing it. but when grown it is liable to be worth more to feed mules than to feed chickens. section is the "down east" section of dense population. the land for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. the climate and nature of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. if a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into the poultry business i would by all means say, "go ahead," but i would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, for the next section has several advantages. section is the best poultry farming district in the united states, either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of poultry growers. the reasons for this are: first: the soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry farming can be had at a low price. second: the climate is much more favorable than farther north or farther inland. third: grain rates from the west are very reasonable. fourth: the best market in the country--new york city--is within easy shipping distance. the type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of section , is one in which imported grain is fed. the fertility of this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a rotation system for growing truck. it will not pay to grow any quantity of grain. section , because of its advantages over section in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, is a much better location for the poultry community. over section , which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the advantage of nearness to markets. the climatic advantage of sections and are about on a par. the chief distinction is the matter of growing grain or importing it. if you are to grow your grain, using poultry as a means of marketing it, section is the best locality. if you are to buy grain, section is the place. the boundaries of section are not arbitrary and should be noted carefully. the line runs from mattawan, new jersey, across to the main line of the pennsylvania and down this to washington. to the north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, cold, slushy and easily befouled. likewise, the line on the south is distinctly marked by the norfolk and western railway and is a matter of freight rates on grain. norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half cents from chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is about twice as much. cheaper grain rates would of course extend this belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. chicken climate. climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. every day that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased egg yield. mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed (a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in price. the american poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining why the australian egg records of eggs per hen, cannot be so, because in this country, the hens at the maine station only averaged . the maine experiment station lies buried in a snow drift for about five months of the year. the australian station has a winter climate equal to that of new orleans. the australian records do not go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the year. our new york and new england records run down anywhere from one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. the following table will show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg yield throughout the year. the records at new york are from a large number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. the kansas and arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are not very reliable. the fourth column gives the australian records with the months transferred on account of being in the southern hemisphere. the last column gives the railroad shipments from a division of the n.c. & st. l. railroad in western tennessee: column headings: ny--central new york per hen per day ks--kansas ex. station per hen per day ar--arkansas ex. station per hen per day au--australian laying contest per hen per day nh--shipments from new hampshire egg farm tn--shipments from western tennessee ny ks ar au nh tn january . . . . february . . . . march . . . . april . . . . may . . . . june . . . . july . . . . august . . . . september . . . . october . . . . november . . . . december . . . . an equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken business. the california coast is fairly equable in temperature, but its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. the atlantic coast south of new york is fairly good, probably the best the country affords. the most southern portions will be rather too hot in summer, which will result in a small august and september egg yield. probably the region around norfolk is, all considered, the best poultry climate the country affords. suitable soil. soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. rocky and uncultivated lands must not be chosen. to locate on any soil which will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. the ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. a heavy wet clay soil worth $ an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a spear of anything green within half a mile. the soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for poultry. sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. the norfolk fine sand and norfolk sandy loam of the u.s. soil survey, are types of such soil. these soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with standing water. the winter snows do not stay on them. crops will keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred miles farther south. the disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by leaching. the same principles that will cause the droppings to disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. this loss must be guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry right among growing crops or by quick rotations. land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. in practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, although, other things being equal, one should certainly not disregard this point. in heavy lands it is necessary to raise the floors and grade up around the houses. the quickly drained soil does away with this expense. timber on the land is a disadvantage. poultry farming in the woods has not been made a success. it's the same proposition of the droppings going to waste. i know a man who bought a timbered tract because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at cents a head. of course, this man failed, as does practically every man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. there is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor of the poultry business for uncleared land. a man who buys a timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. the coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings utilized. in fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement--the birds certainly enjoy the shade. but the shade of growing crops is the most profitable kind for poultry. marketing--transportation. the possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. large cities and wealthy people are essentials. other than this the principal distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. where the great bulk of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. st. louis is the smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in eggs and there it is only on a small scale. minneapolis, omaha, etc., would not pay cents premium for the best eggs produced, but cities of the same size east of the appalachians and especially in new england, will pay a good premium. the far west or the mountain districts will pay up better than the mississippi valley. the south will pay a little better than the upper mississippi valley, but has few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. the southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. the egg farmer who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of washington or west of pittsburg, unless he goes to the pacific coast. where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad transportation is practically identical with the question of marketing. it is the cost in freight service and freight rates that count. the proposition of transportation, especially for the grain buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be considered. a poultry farm in section will buy one hundred pounds of feed per year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. on this basis the grain rate from chicago or st. louis and the egg rate to new york must be balanced against each other. don't take these things for granted. look them up. jamesburg and freehold, two new jersey towns ten miles apart and equi-distant and with equal freight rates from new york, might seem to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. we will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. suppose, further, they each kept five thousand hens. jamesburg is on a philadelphia-new york line of the pennsylvania and its chicago grain rate is the same as that of new york, namely: - / cents per hundred. freehold is on a branch line; its rate is - / cents. in a year the difference amounts to $ . figured at six per cent. interest, the land at jamesburg is worth just about one hundred dollars an acre more than that at freehold. lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into consideration. whether one plans to ship his product out by express or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in deciding the location. as a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping his product, use express east of buffalo and north of norfolk. the poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as good or better service than by express. the location in relation to the railroad station is equally important to the freight rate. besides heavy hauling frequent trips will be necessary in marketing eggs. these on the larger farms will be daily or at least semi-weekly. on the heavy hauling alone, at cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up - / cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every mile of distance from the station. one of the most successful poultry farms i know is right along the railroad and has an elevator which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. the labor saving in this counts up rapidly. the poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his field with but a single loading into a wagon. availability of water. one more point to be considered in location is water. the labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or from spring-fed brooks. the more length of flowing streams on a piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value the property has for poultry. two spring-fed brooks crossing a forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. this would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in the cost of installation of a watering system. if running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. if one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. the land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over the entire surface by gravity. hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry keeping and raise the expense at every turn. a few statistics. the following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general interest in showing the poultry development of the country. it will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the southern states. this may seem at variance with my previous statements. the poor poultry keeping of the south is a fault of the industrial conditions, not of the climate. chickens on the southern farm simply live around the premises as do rats or english sparrows. no grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind and rain. in the north chickens could not exist with such treatment. the figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the general business of farming. these figures should not be confused with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more agricultural wealth is produced in iowa than in all the "down east" states. table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various states, according to the returns of the census of : no. of percentage of no. of farm value eggs per farm wealth eggs of eggs per capita earned by per hen dozen states poultry alabama . . cents arizona . . arkansas . . california . . colorado . . connecticut . . delaware . . florida . . georgia . . idaho . . indiana . . iowa . . illinois . . kansas . . kentucky . . louisiana . . maine . . maryland . . massachusetts . . michigan . . minnesota . . mississippi . . missouri . . montana . . nebraska . . nevada . . new hampshire . . new jersey . . new mexico . . new york . . north carolina . . north dakota . . ohio . . oklahoma . . oregon . . pennsylvania . . rhode island . . south carolina . . south dakota . . tennessee . . texas . . utah . . vermont . . virginia . . washington . . west virginia . . wisconsin . . wyoming . . entire u.s. . . chapter v the dollar hen farm as has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the chicken business is not to put so much in. land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, for interest at six per cent, will afford a very considerable extra investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts down the cost of operation. the plan of housing. the houses are the next consideration. on most poultry farms they are the chief items of expense. i know of a poultry farm near new york city where the house cost $ . per hen. the owner built this farm with a view of making money. people also buy stock in nevada gold mines with a view of making money. i know another poultry farm owned by a man named tillinghast at vernon, connecticut, where the houses cost thirty cents per hen. mr. tillinghast gets more eggs per hen than the new york man. incidentally, he is sending his son to yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his chicken farm. for the region of light soils and the localities which i have recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry house should be used: no floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. this house is to have no windows and no door. the roosts are in the back end; the front end is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. the feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. all watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding beyond that done in hoppers. the exact style of the house i leave to the reader's own plan. were i recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. with houses of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. the simplest form is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet high, and the walls about four. the house is made eight by sixteen, and one end--not the side--left open. for the house that man is to enter, this form cannot be improved upon. the only other points are to construct it on a couple of x runners so that it can be dragged about by a team. cypress, or other decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. the framing should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with firmness. if the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars there is something wrong in its planning. this house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. for smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never enters. a portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather eggs or spray. these small houses may be made light enough to be moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only when they are moved to a new field. not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either style of house. instead, the houses are removed from the manure, which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying soil. there have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what i have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the dollar hen man. if he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into practice, he has no business in the hen business. additional book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. if you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get dr. feather or reverend earlobe's "book of poultry house plans." it will be a good text-book for the children's drawing lessons. the feeding system. oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum and substance of feeding hens on the dollar hen farm. the dry feeds are placed in hoppers. they are built to protect the feeds from the weather. the neck must be sufficiently large to prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. these hoppers may be built any size desired. the grain compartments should, of course, be made larger than the others. weekly filling is good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be delivered directly into the hoppers. water systems. the best water system is a spring-fed brook. the man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an artificial water system is necessary, would catch mississippi drift-wood on shares. but there are plenty of such people in the world. a man once stood all day on london bridge hawking gold sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. next to natural streams are the made streams. this is the logical watering method of the community of poultry farmers. these artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. it is the problem of irrigation over again. indeed, where trucking is combined with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with irrigation. it may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply or both. in sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be substituted. the larger ones are made of the boards at right angles and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of the next lower section. the smaller, or lateral troughs may be made v-shaped. the cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. iron pipe costs twelve cents a foot. the greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under the ditch. fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. the greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid countries. it was co-operate or starve, and they learned co-operation and conquered the earth. if a man interferes with the flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. we are in the hen, not the hog business. community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. it will only pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on their own property. there is certainly little reason to consider an expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple plans may be used. on sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive sand points and pump his water by hand. in this case running water is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them full of standing water. the simplest way to arrange this will be by wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. the only difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it will retain water. a more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of three-fourths inch pipe. at each watering place the pipe is brought to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with sloping sides. this pan has an overflow through a short section of smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. the pipe line is parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. by this arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. the overflow tubes are on one side. using these tubes as a pivot the pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned with an old broom. where the ground water is deep a wind mill and storage tank would be desirable. outdoor accommodations. the hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for the feed. the hen is to live out doors. on the most successful new england poultry farms, warm houses for hens have been given up. hens fare better out of doors in virginia than they do in new england, but make more profit out of doors anywhere than they will shut up in houses. if your climate will not permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out of the hen business. there is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. the running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. rank growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform against a stake, will all help. a place out of the wind for the hens to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be provided, preferably by nature, if not by nature then by the poultryman. the hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in sheltered places among the crops or brush. they should not herd together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps well scattered over the land. these hiding places for the hens must, of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. equipment for chick rearing. just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never been established on what may be called a successful basis. by establishment on a successful basis, i mean established so that they could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market chickens. there are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the cost of production exceeds the selling price. this makes us prone to believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence last longer. the one exception i make to this is that of the south shore roaster district of massachusetts. here steam-pipe brooder houses are used quite extensively. the logical reason that pipe brooder houses have found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets is that of season and profits. when chicks are to be hatched in the dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. in this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are great enough to stand the expense and losses. for the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that have proven profitable are as follows: first: rearing with hens as practiced at little compton. for suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "poultry on the general farm." second: rearing with lamp brooder. many large book-built poultry plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows of common lamp brooders. the advantage claimed for the lamp brooder is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. as a matter of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a system. a brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or centrifugal fan would seem ideal. so far the efforts made along these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. if the continuous house is ever made practical, i believe it will be along this line, but at present i advise sticking to the methods that are known to be successful. individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry farms. they are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. in buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: a good lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. the brooder should be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. the work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. the heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but they must not fail altogether. the greatest trouble with brooders in operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. the brooder-lamp should have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. brooder-lamps are often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a fire. the chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each other as they crowd toward the source of heat. this can be accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center rather than at the side or corner. if the heat comes from above and a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same temperature, no crowding will take place. the temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and the position of the thermometer. the one reliable guide for temperature is the action of the chicks. if they are cold they will crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will sleep stretched out on the floor. the cold chicken does not sleep at all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of heat. in an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny chicks that dwindle and die. the arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be considered in a brooder. the brooder used in the early season, and especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for the daytime accommodation of the chick. in the colony house brooder such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. when operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete brooders. the lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for houses for growing young stock. the universal hover sold by the prairie state incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as can be made. the cold brooder, or philo box, as it has been popularly called, is the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely advertised. the principle of the philo box is that of holding the air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of cloth. the cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so tight as to smother the chick. this limits the space of air to be warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used to the greatest advantage. that chickens can be raised in these fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, especially in the north, to give the little fellows a few weeks' warmth. curtis bros. at ransomville, n.y., who raise some twenty thousand chicks per year, have adopted the following system: the chicks are kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until they learn to hover. then they are put in philo boxes for a week in the same building but away from the pipes. the third week the philo boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. after that they go to a large philo box in a colony house. to make a philo house of the curtis pattern, take a box in. deep and in. to in. square. cut a hole in one side for a chick door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round the corners. now take a second similar box. tack a piece of cloth rather loosely across its open face. bore a few augur holes in the sides of either box. invert box no. upon box no. . this we will call a curtis box. it costs about fifteen cents and should accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. a universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather permits, is the method i advise for rearing young chicks. the lamp problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily solved. large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way out of the difficulty. on a plant large enough to keep one man continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. there is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. little chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the first few days must needs be given largely by hand. they are to be early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the hoppers, but this takes time and patience. the feeding of chicks i will discuss in the chapter on "poultry on the general farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, i will refer the reader to that section. after chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting and the closing of the doors at night. cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should be early separated from the pullets. coops for growing chickens, especially leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them broken of the habit. all pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. they are to be kept two years. they should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as many eggs the second year as the first. they are sold the third summer to make room for the growing stock. twenty-five acre poultry farms. this section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of poultry farms best suited to section and the southerly portions of section as discussed in the previous chapter. we will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: that they are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate effort. this does not infer that they cannot be developed by individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the same in the latter case. suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has been found. the land in the original survey should be divided into long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope of the land. the farmstead should occupy the highest end of the strip. for a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips should be about forty rods in width. the object of this survey is to permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. the first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden as are desired. this stretches across the entire front end of the place. the remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. the farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the center of the strip. this fence, at frequent intervals, has removable panels. the year's season we will begin late in the fall. all layers are in field no. pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. in lot no. is growing wheat or rye. as the green feed gets short in the first lot the hens are let into lot no. . sometime in march the houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through into the wheat field. the feed hoppers are also gradually moved and the hens find themselves confined in lot no. without any serious disturbance. lot no. is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in oats, corn, kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. the oats form a little strip near the coops and watering places and the kaffir corn is on the far side. as soon as corn planting is over the farmer begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. the brooders are now placed in the corn field. the object of the corn is not green food but for a shade and a grain crop. the chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat or rye. whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number of the flock. it will be best to work the houses across to the far side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. as the old grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be broken up and sown in oats. the grain that matures will not be cut, but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. the straw may be cut with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. sometime in june or early in july a little rape vetch or cow-peas is drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the chicken coops. during july or about the first of august, after all cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are allowed to associate with the hens. after this acquaintance ripens into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be until there is room for the pullets in the houses. each coop is worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken to the houses the coops are removed. the vacant lot is now broken up and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. the flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. the kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are threshed by the hens. as soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in the corn field. the next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown in the lot that had the hens the previous year. if the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. the directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the land--the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage washing. the location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout the soil. this system with the particular crops found that do best in the locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. we have kept hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. we have a rotation of crops. we have the benefits to the ground of several green crops turned under. we have raised one grain crop per year on most of the ground. we have no labor in feeding and watering except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and the water system in order. the number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by the richness of the soil. the chief object of the entire scheme is to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the production of a reasonable amount of grain. with one hundred hens per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. this will give the flock a tract of by feet in which to pasture. the above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. in regions where grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. they may also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly fertilized land, give a good cash profit. forty acres is a good size for such uses. the cost of land when purchased in large tracts in virginia is very small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the land. twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. the cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether with the taste of the occupant. if they are constructed by a central company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the amount. the cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. if constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their work. a plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: rods of fence with -ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents a rod. my estimate of this fence put up would be $ . if the neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs and strangers may be worth while. of course, if poultry fields of different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost will be reduced one-half. the next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about eighty rods of / in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and twenty-five galvanized iron pans. the cost of installation will depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the frost line. one hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for twenty-five dollars. the source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will necessarily vary with the location. the installation of a wind mill and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too deep. the houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously discussed. the cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. at least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of this aid. this makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two thousand layers and their replenishing: acres of farm land, at $ per acre $ . rods of fence . one farmstead . one team, plow and farm implements . one watering system . hen houses, at $ . colony coops, at $ . . lamps and hovers, at $ . -------- $ . [transcriber's note: " colony coops, at $ . " is $ . , not $ . the total should therefore be $ rather than $ . this was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is used in the further calculations below.] this is a good, liberal capitalization. the business can be started with much less. figured interest at per cent. we have $ . per year. the upkeep of the plant will be about per cent. on the capital, not counting land. this equals $ , which, added to interest, gives an annual overhead expense of $ , which is our first item to be set against gross receipts. the cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. the price of chicks at the petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight cents each. we expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. the number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. this loss will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. i think a per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as i am treading on unproven ground, i will make that loss per cent., which is on a par with old style methods. to replace , hens, this will require , chicks at a cost of about two hundred and fifty dollars. green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the cost of feed. the corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one bushel per hen. the beef scrap will also be less than with yarded fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. now, of the corn we will raise on the land, at least ten acres. this should yield us five hundred bushels. this leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be purchased. at the present high rates, this will cost $ , which, added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $ , . the seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $ per annum. for expense of production we have: interest and upkeep of plant $ . chicks . purchased corn . beef scrap and grit . seed . team feed . --------- $ , . this figures out the cost of production at a little more than a dollar per hen. the income from the place should be about as follows: eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at cents each, $ . ; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at cents, $ . . the receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that determines success or failure enters. the arkansas per-hen-day figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for extras in the new york market, will be as fair as any, and certainly cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only eggs per hen per year. price per doz income for eggs per extras month from hen day in new york layers --------------------------------------------- january . $ . $ . february . . . march . . . april . . . may . . . june . . . july . . . august . . . september . . . october . . . november . . . december . . . --------- total $ , . the total income as figured will be $ , . from this subtract the cost of production, and we have still nearly $ , , which is to be combined item of wages and profit. we have entered no labor bill because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. in the rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher work. this is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's labor--it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. as a matter of fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but because the expenses are greater. under the present methods, with the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily take care of three thousand hens. indeed, practically the only work in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. but, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. for this reason i advise going into some other industry on a part of the land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. one of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. the work of caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick season. peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring labor. all these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same kind of soil recommended for chickens. young chickens may be grown around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the berries ripen. strawberries would be a very poor crop because their labor falls in the chick season. another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be always kept growing in the third field. any crop may be selected, the chief labor of which falls between july and the following march. late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is suitable for these crops. kale and spinach are staple fall crops. fall lettuce could also be grown. if the market is glutted on such crops, they can be fed out at home. whenever a field is vacant, have some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. never let sandy ground lie fallow. a modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to seed down the entire farm to grass. it is then divided into three fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. coops are entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the permanent houses. the pullets stay in these same houses in the same field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are two and a half years old. one field will always be vacant during the fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. the difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat heavier soil than by the previous plan. the houses should be moved around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. this plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of poultry keeping known. it is adapted to the cheaper ground in the region farthest from market. on the atlantic seaboard, the more enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck crop. five acre poultry farms. can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the fundamental conditions are right. this type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. no greater chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself in the business and to successfully market the product. the natural location for such projects is in the sandy soils of new jersey, delaware, maryland and virginia. we have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. we will now discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable unit. on the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be necessary. in the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. all hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one day of the week. a single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. i do not recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a team of his own. in the co-operative community the five-acre teamless farm is entirely feasible. the tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for five acres, makes it by rods, or by feet. measure off a strip one hundred feet back from the road. fence the remainder of the tract. now run a partition fence down the center until we have come to within twelve rods of the back side. here run a cross fence. this gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. the gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a single trip. where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is driven. a water line is run down the partition fence to the rear yard. the plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. of the other three yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. every inch is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. the method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by soiling. this means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw it over the fence. the above mentioned crops are all good for the purpose. rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. it is planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during the winter. in the spring the hardened stalks stand at a considerable height and the field may be used for growing young chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the busy season. a set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. they are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one of the fields. a strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young plants from the hens. in this way the fence rows can be kept provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without protection. rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months at a time. always keep every inch of ground not in use by the chickens, luxuriant in something green. if you have a crop of vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. the hens will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." by this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small lands cannot be beaten. the hens should yield better than a dollar profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a year, should easily double the income. twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. chapter vi incubation the differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals is frequently misunderstood. the laying of the bird's egg is not analogous to the birth of young in mammals. the female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. in the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. if fertilized, it passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the mother. in the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. the size of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the mother's womb. the reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. the young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. this heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother bird. fertility of eggs in a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only as many as can be covered by the female. these are laid in the spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. under domestication, the hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent intervals. the fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a period of about days. for most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he actually fertilizes within this period. the belief in the influence of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a superstition. the domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. the common rule is one male to or hens. i have had equally good results, however, with one male to hens. in the little compton and south shore districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. by infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never united with the ovum. such eggs may occur in a flock from the absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. in practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking rooster is very rare indeed. the more likely explanation is that he neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that process. the former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. the latter difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. the other factors to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. in connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, i want to point out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. the facts of the case are, that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice versa. this is to be explained by the fact that most of the unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to the naked eye. such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame probably belongs there. likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, and care after hatching. by the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. by the livability of chicks, we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate than adult chickens. by the livability of eggs, we mean the product of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks of age based upon the total number of eggs set. as before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a relation to the livability of chicks. when poor hatches occur because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger death among the hatched chicks. moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. the following table gives a rough approximation of these ratios: per cent. of per cent. of chick per cent. of egg hatchability. livability. livability. these figures are based on incubator data. eggs set under hens usually give a hatchability of per cent. to per cent., and livability of per cent. to per cent. the reason for the greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is per cent. to per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. the hatchability of eggs varies with the season. this variation is commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater fertility. while there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will be discussed in a later section of this chapter. the following table is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. this is based on may hatch of per cent: january july february august march september april october may november june december most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a hatcher. i have a number of records of hen hatching with large numbers of eggs set, and they are all between per cent. and per cent. the reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: first: actual infertile eggs--usually, running about per cent. in the best season of the year. second: mechanical breakage. third: eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or standing up on the eggs. fourth: eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus causing bacterial infection and decay. the last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. from my observation they cause a loss of per cent. of the eggs that fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. this would properly credit our hens with hatches running from per cent. to per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. the assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, i think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. not only are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. for directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the chapter on "poultry on the general farm." the wisdom of the egyptians. up to the present there have been just three types of artificial incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our attention. these are: first, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen at its best development in the united states. second, the egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires of straw. third, the chinese incubator, much on the principle of the egyptian hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. i have no accurate information on the results of the chinese method, and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to the first two processes only. i do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box incubators, but i will mention briefly the chief points in the development of our present machines. the first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that would give a uniform temperature. this now has been worked out to a point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the desired range. these are two principal types of box incubators now in use. in the earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of hot water. these machines depended for ventilation or, what is much more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. the second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces it into the egg chamber. there it is caused to spread by muslin or felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the eggs. this type is the most popular type of small incubator on the market. its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion of the principles of incubation. hazy tales of egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry papers these many years. more recently some accurate accounts from american travelers and european investigators have come to light, and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to the well-known laws of incubation." the facts about egyptian incubators are as follows: they have a capacity of to thousand eggs, and are built as a single large room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. the walls are two or three feet thick. inside, the main rooms are little clay domes with two floors. the hatching season begins the middle of january and lasts three months. a couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming the hatchery. the ashes are then taken out and little fires built in pots are set around the outside of the big room. the little clay rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. that is, one is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical changes in the temperature of the hatchery. no thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese maker or dynamite dryer. about the twelfth day the eggs are moved to the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further removed from the heated floor. the eggs are turned and tested out much as in this country. they are never cooled and the room is full of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. the ventilation provided is incidental. this is about the whole story save for results. the incubator men pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the per cent. this statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that to add that the hatch runs between per cent. and per cent. of all eggs set, and that the incubators of the nile delta hatch about , , chicks a year seems almost superfluous. as for the explanation of the results of the egyptian incubators compared with the american kerosene lamp type, i think it can best be brought about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of incubators. principles of incubation. heat.--to keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we need: first, a suitable surrounding temperature. second, a fairly constant proportion of water in the body substance. third, oxygen. fourth, food. now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants should be considered. we may at once dispose of the food problem of the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is beyond our control. in consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we should note: (a) the optimum temperature; (b) the range of temperature consistent with general good health; (c) the range at which death occurs. just to show the principle at stake, and without looking up authorities, i will state these temperatures for a number of animals. of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: external external external internal internal optimum healthful fatal optimum fatal point range range point range man to to to dog to to to monkey to to to horse to to to fowl to to to newly hatched chick to to to fertile egg at start of incubation to to to egg incubated three days to to to egg incubated eighteen days to to to this table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external temperature change. in the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than when the animal is active. after incubation begins and cell activity returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same internal range as with other warm blooded animals. in the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is regulated by a double process. if the external temperature be lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of evaporation. this occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. birds do not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased breathing. now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external temperature. the power to cool the body by breathing is not, however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. the practical points to be remembered from the above are: first: before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the substance. second: during the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the range of temperature at which the physiological process may be carried on. third: as the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. fourth: it should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new temperature. temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief effort of the early incubator inventors. a great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. the temperature of the hen's blood is about to degrees f. the eggs are not warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon the surrounding temperature. degrees f. is the temperature that has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. some of these advise running degrees the first week, degrees the second, degrees the third. as a matter of fact it is very difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box incubator. this is because the source of heat is above the eggs and the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or lowered through the egg chamber. the advice to place the bulb of the thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts of the machine. with incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in individual machines. careful experimentation will usually show this to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the heating surfaces and to the eggs. ovi-thermometers, which consists of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be used. as was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. the temperature of degrees f. as above given is, in the writer's opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. an actual temperature of degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the lower temperature. moisture and evaporation. the subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to life, is the least understood of poultry problems. the whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation hangs on the amount of evaporation. now, the rates of evaporation from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure and the rate of movement of the air past the object. as incubation is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the air as it enters the machine. thus, in order to know the evaporative power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. the reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air has led to no end of confusion. the influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it directly proportional with the rate of air movement. thus, cubic feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove twice as much moisture as would cubic feet. if the percentage of water in any living body be changed a relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological processes and ultimately death will result. the mature animal can, by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the secretion from the kidneys. but the percentage of water in the actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of not more than three or four per cent. the chick in the shell is not provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is gradually lost by evaporation. this places the water content of the chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that surrounds the egg during incubation. to assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are desirable for plant life. as the plants of a certain climate have become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average season under the natural conditions of incubation. plant life suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. this view is substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than the eggs of land birds. the per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is about per cent., or about . per cent, based on the weight, shell included. unfortunately no investigations have been made concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched chick. upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of incubation, valuable data has been collected at the utah, oregon and ontario experiment stations. in these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under hens is less than in incubators. with both hens and incubators, the rate of evaporation is greatest at the utah station, which one would naturally expect from the climate. the eggs under hens at the ontario station averaged about per cent. loss in weight, and those at the utah station about per cent. at both stations, incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation than eggs under hens. the conclusions at all stations were that the addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good hatches of livable chicks. at ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as per cent. at utah it reached as high as per cent. now as the entire loss of weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and as the original per cent, of water contained in the egg (shell included) is only . , the chicks of the two lots with the same amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of . to . . based on the weight of the chick, this would make a difference of water content of over per cent. that human beings or other animals could not exist with such differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once apparent. in fact i do not believe that the chick can live under such remarkable circumstances. as i have picked the extreme cases in the series given, it is possible that these extremes were experimental errors, and as in the utah data, no information is given as what happened to the chicks, i have no proof that they did live. but from the large number of hatches that were recorded below per cent, and above per cent., giving a variation of the actual water content in the chick's body of about per cent., it is evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological difficulties. one explanation that suggests itself is, that as there is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer the normal. by a further study from the ontario data of the relation of the evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations above per cent. hatch out extremely poor. the general averages of the machines supplied with some form of moisture was per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only per cent. of live chicks at a similar period. now, i wish to call attention to a further point in connection with evaporation. if the final measure of the loss of weight by evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show per cent., or whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be decidedly superior to those on either side. that they are better, has already been shown. but they are far from what they should be. an explanation is not hard to find. the correct content of moisture is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. under our present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to the changing evaporation of american weather conditions. the data for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. the following table gives the vapor pressure at buffalo, n. y., for twenty consecutive days in april: april .................. .................. ................... .................. .................. .................. .................. .................. .................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. ................. supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct amount of shrinkage. a man might thirst in the desert for a week, then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected with the moisture problem. the change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under hens, less marked than in incubators. this is because there are no drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. among about forty hens set at different times at the utah station and the loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of six days each, the greatest irregularity i found was as follows: st period, . per cent; d period, . per cent; d period, . per cent. compare this with a similar incubator record at the same station in which the loss for the three periods was . , . and . . i think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation with the common small incubator in our climate. it is little wonder that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly forbidden. the moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself as follows: if left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches that will prove unprofitable. in order to regulate this evaporation, he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the currents of air that strike the eggs. now he does not know the amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. the so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with variations of the out-of-door temperature. if the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much water. as to air currents he is little better off--he has no way to tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft principle. taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. the writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers but the vitality or livability of the chicks. with a view of studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, i have investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various sections of the world. the following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four points in which we are interested: buffalo, st. louis, san fran- cairo month n.y. mo. cisco. egypt january february march april may june july august september october november december a study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. as a general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal variations are also less. in cairo, however, which has a seasonal variation greater than san francisco, the daily variations during the hatching season are much less than in california. this is due to a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of rainfall, conditions for which egypt is noted. nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. as will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. the fact that both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the hatchability would disappear. the uniform humidity of the california coast is shown in the above table. this is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained at petaluma. the egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. with these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else in the world, and i do not except the natural methods. the climatic conditions of egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. mr. edward brown, who was sent over here by the english government to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our poor results in artificial incubation. compared with our acknowledged records of less than per cent. hatches, he quotes the results obtained in hatching , eggs at an english experiment station as per cent. i have not obtained any data of english humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the eastern united states. ventilation--carbon dioxide. the last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of oxygen. the chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which is dissolved in a liquid. a special breathing organ is developed for the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. the amount of this breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but increases with development. at no time, however, is it anywhere equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and little oxidation. upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding exists. be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. in breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor are given off. it is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide is a poison. both are mistakes. the amount of oxygen normally in the air is about per cent. of carbon dioxide there is normally three hundredths of one per cent. during breathing these gasses are exchanged in about equal volume. a doubling or tripling of carbon dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." now, if the carbon dioxide were increased times, we would have only three per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. this oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into the blood. we might breathe a little faster to make up for the lessened oxygen pressure. in fact such a condition of the air would not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. some investigations recently conducted at the u.s. experiment station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of the old idea of ventilation. the respiratory calorimeter is an air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy yielded by food products. it being inconvenient to analyze such an immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made without causing ill effects to the subject. this led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as . per cent. of carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity increased times. this agrees with what every chemist and physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. this does not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of per cent. of carbon dioxide. in the same series of experiments, search was made for the mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the ill effects attributed to foul air. without discussion, i will say that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given off by the body. the subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in incubator discussions. with its little understood real importance, as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should cause little wonder. a few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. the air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious gas. now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. clearly the perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be sacrificed. chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the lime of an egg shell. evidently the hen was sacrificing her own health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a little so the chicks could get out. since it could have been demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg shells, it is with some apology that i mention that quite a deal of good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment stations. the data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. at the ontario station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under a large number of hens was . of one per cent., or about ten times that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so happily in the respiratory calorimeter. with incubators, every conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. in some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the gas in question. others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize it in the fattening rations. in other machines, lamp fumes were run in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. the percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from . to . of one per cent. the results, of course, vary as any run of hatches would. the detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to the amount of carbon dioxide as given in bulletin of the ontario station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would make amusing reading for the old poultryman. speaking of a comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page of the bulletin says, "the increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it does, to . per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the higher carbon dioxide content." i cannot refrain from suggesting that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a chinese prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner demonstrate the efficacy of heavenly supplications in the hatching of chickens. the practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. the majority of such machines are probably too much ventilated. in a large and properly constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its movement, is entirely under control. nothing has yet been brought to light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. turning eggs. the subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless controversy. of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing so turns them. doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. as proof that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick to the shell if the eggs are not turned. i have candled thousands of eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg contained foreign organism or was several months old. however, i have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. whether the chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings stuck because the chicken died i know not, but i have a strong presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for i see no reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few days. in the year i saw plenty of chicks hatched out in kansas in egg cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was entirely overlooked. mr. j.p. collins, head of the produce department of swift & co., says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a pullman smoker for telling the same story. the statement is true, however, in spite of mr. collins' unpleasant experience. texas egg dealers frequently find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. in incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be balanced. when doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. but it has been abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a waste of time. cooling eggs. the belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the hen. with this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling to be necessary. a more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the eggs from necessity, not from choice. in some species of birds the male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. but there is no need to argue the question. eggs will hatch if cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. searching for the "open sesame" of incubation. the experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. some reference to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and ventilation. before leaving the subject i want to refer to two more efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given out. at the ontario station a patent disinfectant wash called "zenoleum" was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. now, for some reason, perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ in the egg, this idea of washing with zenoleum was conceived to be a possible solution of the incubator problem. in the numerous experiments at that station in zenoleum applied to the machine in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations were duly tabulated. the machine with buttermilk and zenoleum headed the list for livable chicks. for reasons explained in the chapter on "experiment station work," the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor science. feeling that the station men would hardly be guilty of expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better reason, i very carefully went over the results and compared all machines using zenoleum with all machines without it. the results in favor of zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. i was somewhat puzzled, as i could see no rational explanation of the relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability of the chick in its germ-proof cage. finally i hit upon the scheme of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once apparent. the hatching experiments had extended from march to july, but the zenoleum hatches were grouped in april and early in may, when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were running good. after allowing for this error zenoleum appeared as harmless and meaningless as would the attar of roses. the second link after the missing link of incubation to which i wish to call your attention also occurred at the ontario station. the latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was added to the world's store. the conception to be tested was an offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. you will remember at the utah station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the shell so the chick could break out easier. at the guelph station the conception was that the carbon dioxide might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' hisself." as an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, buttermilk, zenoleum, and other factors. the lime content of the contents of the fresh egg averaged about . grams. at hatching time the lime in the chick's body averaged about . grams and was always several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. certainly a remarkable and hitherto unexplained fact. the amount of lime required is not great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present under the hen is entirely irrelevant. a further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. as long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than applied science. i think that we are safe in saying that the weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short of bone material. the chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not jumping at conclusions. in the summary of this work he states: "there is apparently no connection between the amount of lime absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present during incubation." the box type of incubator in actual use. although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. in order to show this i have only to call attention briefly to two or three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air currents and with decreased vapor pressure. now, the vapor pressure undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers and the changes of prevailing winds. but there is a general tendency for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the draft principle and the greater the difference in machine temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate of evaporation. the tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor pressure. the general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to dry out the eggs too rapidly. with a view of counteracting this, water is placed in pans in the egg room. a surface of water exposed to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas is frequently far from the saturation point. the result of the moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or made uniform. inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the operator condemns the system. the subject not being clearly understood and no means being available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in confusion and disputes. when the felt diaphragm machine was brought into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. the result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and consequently reducing evaporation. this gives exactly the same results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of machine. the latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the ontario investigation. this device simply gives a greater evaporating surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor pressure. the results in practice i had given me by a man who last year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. he said: "the sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and the chickens drowned." no nicer demonstration of science in practice could be desired. in the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. for the slower changes from season to season some control by greater and less amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, but little understood and seldom practiced. it will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. by actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. the ordinary published hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion and a snare. when eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile egg is, of course, impossible. such padded and show hatching records do not interest us. where incubators are run on top of the ground i have found the results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. the reason for this is plain. in such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure of the outside air. in a good cellar the operator, though his knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him the best results. in the room more subject to outside influences, the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are wholly a product of chance. as proof of my contention i may give results of a series of full season hatches for , each involving several thousand eggs. first, a state experiment station, the name of which i do not care to publish. incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." this caused a strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition for incubation. the hatch for the season averaged per cent. and was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. second, ontario agricultural college. a room above ground, moisture used in most machines and various other efforts being made to improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. results: hatch per cent.--incubator manufacturers call the experimenters names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. third, cornell university: dry ventilated basement representing typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. results: hatch per cent., results when given out commonly based on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. fourth: one of the most successful poultrymen in new york state, who has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, which maintains temperature at degrees and has a cement floor which is kept covered with water. results: hatch per cent. fifth: as a fifth in such a series i might mention again the egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. while an official in the united states department of agriculture, i gathered data from original records of private plants covering the incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. such information was furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private citizen i have no right to publish that which would mean financial profit or loss to those concerned. of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the lowest i found was per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as the fourth case above, or per cent. the great majority of these records hung very closely around the per cent. mark. the following is a fair sample of such data. it is the record of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of , at one of the largest poultry plants in america: eggs chicks per cent. month set hatched hatched january , , - february , , - march , , - april , , - may , , june , , ------ ------ ------ total , , p.c. the future method of incubation. the idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the american incubator inventor. we have long had available such methods of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to the practicability of such a dream. the past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the following simple reason: all eggs were placed in a single big room with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in temperature would be found in the room. no systematic regulation of evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the means of such regulation were unknown. the attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the proposition. meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown enormously. at the time that above effort was made no duck ranch existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand class. much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick business. the discovery that newly hatched chicks could be successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means of common incubators. still another opportunity for the use of large hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. there are other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would amply support public hatcheries. if half the poultry growers of lancaster county, pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty , egg incubators. any of the numerous trolley centers in indiana, ohio and southern michigan would likewise be profitable locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. the demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the market. the devices i now refer to consist of a row of box incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are heated by continuous hot water pipes. this scheme effects a considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to be dealt with. the writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge hitherto unavailable. the plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. the eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole and may rest on either of four sides. at hatching time the eggs are spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if weekly deliveries are desired. there are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. all temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the rate of movement of which may be varied at will. the air movement maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. so simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was not developed earlier. the reason is that air subject to the climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. moreover, no means has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate measurement of the evaporating power of the air. the hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. the range between the wet and dry bulb thermometers was found in the ontario experiments to give readings with and without fanning that varied to per cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. the sling psychrometer as used by the u.s. weather bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor pressure. in contrast with these blundering instruments we now have available an instrument with which the writer has frequently determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being constructed for even finer work. as it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. by means of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial incubation hitherto unattained. the means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. the regulation of vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. the ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. as the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the air may also be regulated at will. this results in a reduction of the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather than warming. the question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of the size of operations. where sufficient eggs may be obtained and sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be insignificant compared with the present system. the egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the american poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from to cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. a plant with a seasonable capacity of , eggs has a basis to work upon something as follows: with a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at cents each there would be a gross income of $ , annually. from this we must subtract for eggs at cents each, $ , . salary for operator $ , , wages for helper $ . fuel, supplies and repairs $ . cost of delivery and sales of chicks $ . this leaves a residue of $ , , which would pay a per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $ , . personally, i think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that would prove worth while as independent institutions. any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. upon a single poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the delivery of the product would be eliminated. the most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called centralization. the success of this scheme depends upon the fact that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively less important items of expense than plant construction and high salaries for skilled labor. a hatchery with a million capacity can be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. a portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a system of buying eggs and selling chicks. the material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. the public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless to acquire it by ordinary methods. chapter vii feeding the old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry feeding. the attempted application of the common theoretical feeding standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper feeds would have given as good or better results. the so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the maps of america drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. like these early efforts of geography the present science of food chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. in practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will find a more reliable guide in simpler things. i am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and because i state that the particular kind of science wherein the professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is comparatively useless, i fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value of science as a whole. i know of no way to prevent this except to point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses couched in scientific language. when a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot create elementary substances. when the same scientist, finding that an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. all substances of which the world is made are composed of elements which cannot be changed. when these elements are combined they form definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent of the original elements. the pure diamond is carbon. gasoline is carbon and hydrogen. several hundred other things are also carbon and hydrogen. sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. these three elements make several thousand different substances, including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. hydrocyanic acid is carbon combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison known. the failure of food science is partly because we do not know the composition of many of the substances of food and partly because these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we do not understand and cannot control. conventional food chemistry the conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. the amount of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of eggs during incubation, i confess i prefer to rely upon the chicken's judgment as to the amount required. the carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a number of other things. carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount is starch. the proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely known. the amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she makes starch into fat. the protein or nitrogen containing substances of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the theories are expounded. the hen can make egg fat from corn starch or cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. she cannot make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. the substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. they are very complex and difficult to analyze. in digestion these proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of protein. just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be utilized in building the new one. in practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as determined in the laboratory. the results of many experiments and much experience has shown that lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. i know of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable chicken food than the cheapest grains. with cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem to be in her line. of the three standard grains there is some indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the following ranks, st oats, d corn, d wheat. the false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been specially the cause of much waste of money. digestive trials and direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many poultrymen as the chief article of diet. wheat contains only per cent. more proteid than corn. the man who substitutes wheat at one and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays cents a pound for his added protein. in beef scrap he could get the protein for cents a pound and have a very superior article besides. milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and those of meat. it is preferably fed clabbered. the dried casein recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the casein can be sold more cheaply. meat scrap, to be relished by the chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles the size of wheat kernels or larger. the fine scrap gives the manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. the last and least understood of the groups of food substances is mineral substance or ash. now, the chemist determines mineral substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. in the intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those contained in the fresh food. the lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze the substances of the fresh material. the answer is that he doesn't know how. progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. at present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. in practice it is found that green feed supplies something which grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. moreover we know that such food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. this may be because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because of greater palatability. the other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with or without ground bone. recent experiments at rhode island have attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten meal. the results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that the latter is still sadly deficient. of course the burning process used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the valuable qualities of the mineral salts. practically, we do not care whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or both. in time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go through another life cycle before human consumption. by that time the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. the poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the hen may manufacture human food with niagara power and fresh eggs will come in tin cans. how the hen unbalances balanced rations. let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed try this simple experiment. place before a half dozen newly hatched chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. when they have had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science and open their crops. he will find that one chick has eaten almost exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. in short the chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it took a week to figure out. this experiment can be varied by placing hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. there is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that is to feed exclusively on wet mash. this is successfully done in the duck business, but the duck is a chinese animal and his ways are not the ways of the more fastidious hen. in dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. i know of nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of his feminine co-operators. with commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of the two-egg-per-day hen. individual feeding with the hen as sole judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet evolved. the duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. in practice this means that every hen must have access to water, grit (preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and one kind of green food. in practice it will pay to add granulated bone for growing stock. one or two extra grains for variety and as many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase palatability--hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. as corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans and bacon. the grain hopper may have two divisions. the corn never changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. the extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined by their price per pound. the proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed is about as follows: of lbs. of dry matter: to lbs. meat; to lbs. grain; to lbs. green food. the profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and cut down the use of grains. the methods we have been describing in which various dry unground grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the method of feeding assumed throughout this book. the hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has been quite a fad in the last few years. the tendency of the hens to waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. they are picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid disagreeable foods. this difficulty is relieved when the food be separated into its various components and the hen offered each separately. as a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is desirable. the use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to advantage. the great use made of these products in poultry feeding was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. the old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable method of poultry feeding. it is used in the little compton district of rhode island and was also used in the famous australian egg laying contests elsewhere described. personally i would prefer feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to feeding it dry. the scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of place in commercial poultry farming. it is used on the large poultry plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. i should recommend littered houses for section and the northern half of section (see chapter iv), but with warmer soils and climate where the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense that would very seriously handicap the business. the systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. the joke about poultry feed at cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught lots of dollars. to take a bushel of oats worth cents, add water, let them sprout and have five bushels costing cents, is certainly a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. the only reason a man couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't do a soup business by mail. sprouted oats are a good green food, however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. i should certainly recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply should run out. the points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. the discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is sufficiently covered in the chapter on "farm poultry" and the discussion of the management and economics of various types of poultry production. chapter viii diseases for the study of the classification and description of the numerous ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, i recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. some of these works are more accurate than others, but that i consider immaterial. the study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, it gives his mind exercise. when a boy in high school i studied latin for the same purpose. don't doctor chickens. for the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is improbable, i recommend a blow on the head--the hatchet spills the blood which is unwise. the usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, unless you have a furnace running. a covered pit is more convenient if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not prohibitive. a post with a tally card may be planted near by. this part of the poultry farm may be marked "exhibit a," and shown first to the visitor during the busy season. if he is one of those prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has breeding stock for sale. i have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a pullman car, "do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business precarious?" such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from poultry farmers. poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the records in answer to the question, "why do poultry farms fail?" some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup or white diarrhoea. roup is a disease of the wrong system and careless management. white diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of wrong incubation. the high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the responsibility for poultry farm failures. at the present writing the poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the conclusion of dr. morse of the bureau of animal industry to the effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. dr. morse's opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the doctor is right. practically the naming of the germs that attend the funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. the causes of poultry diseases. poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following causes, or a combination of these: first, hereditary or inborn weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. a great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of inherited weakness. to this class of troubles the only remedy is to breed from better stock. it is as much the trait of some birds to produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others to produce vigorous offspring. the second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the business. the third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. it is now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic germs known as bacteria. these germs in some manner gain entrance to the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of the disease. the ability to withstand disease germs varies with the particular animal and the kind of disease. as a general rule it may be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly vigorous and healthy animal. it is only when the vitality is at a low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that disease germs enter the body and produce disease. the bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may be killed by poisoning. such poisons are known as disinfectants. if it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. the only thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known as anti-toxin. such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in human beings and blackleg in cattle. such methods of combating poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even if successful from a scientific standpoint. the only available method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general classes: first, those highly contagious; second, those contracted only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. to the first class belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most destructive. chicken-cholera. the european fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this country. other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused with this. as the treatment should be similar the identification of the diseases is not essential. yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. the disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. the death rate is very high. the disease is spread by droppings and dead birds, and through feed and water. to stamp out the disease kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises frequently and thoroughly. a spray made of one-half gallon carbolic acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be used. corrosive sublimate, part in parts of water, should be used as drinking water. this is not to cure sick birds, but to prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot infect the food with the feet. all this work must be done thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before the disease is stamped out. if cholera has a good start in a flock of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock than to combat the disease. fortunately cholera epidemics are rare and in many localities have never been known. roup. this disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease of conditions than of contagion. roup may be caused by a number of different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. when chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal passages and roup ensues. the first symptoms of roup are those of an ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion appears in the head and throat. a wheezing or rattling sound is often produced by the breathing. the face and eyes swell, and in severe cases the chicken becomes blind. the most certain way of identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. the disease may last a week or a year. birds occasionally recover, but are generally useless after having had roup. sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the disease. such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by chickens roosting in a tight house. fall and winter are the seasons of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most commonly suffer from this disease. flocks that have become thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds secured. the open front house has proved to be the most practical scheme for the reduction of this disease. chicken-pox, gapes, limber neck. chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the south. it attacks growing chickens late in the summer. southern poultrymen who give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and that it may be readily controlled. in the first place, the animal epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks out early in the season. if the disease does develop in the flock, the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. such treatment once a week has generally been effective. this disease is an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs also kill the chicken. the explanation is that chicken-pox is an external disease. gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry diseases, but are not common in the northern and western states. gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. growing chicks are affected. the remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and cultivate the old. limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating maggots from dead carcasses. it can be prevented by not allowing dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. no practical cure is known. lice and mites. the parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and roost-mites. the first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the chicken and eat the feathers and skin. the roost-mite is similar to a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl except at night. body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on many other kinds of birds. their presence in small numbers on matured fowls is not a serious matter. when body-lice are abundant on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, and may cause the death of the chicks. the successful methods of destroying body-lice are three in number: first, dust or earth wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. such dust baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during the winter. dry earth can be stored for this purpose. sitting hens should have access to dust baths. second: the second method by which body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. the pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. tobacco dust is also used. insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially the fluff. the use of insect powder should be confined to sitting hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great for use upon the common chicken. the third method is suitable for young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the head and under the wings. do not grease the chick all over. with vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is all that is needed to combat the lice. the roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry raisers than any other pest or disease. the great difficulty in destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost in too many places. if the chicken-house proper is the only building infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. the mites in the daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place of the chickens. mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of cheapness is boiling water. give the chicken-house a thorough cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places where the mites can find lodgment. hot water destroys the eggs as well as the mites. whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot emerge. pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective lice-paint. another substance much used for destroying insects or similar pests is carbon bisulphide. this is a liquid which evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly closed. the liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. they are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of something of similar properties. chapter ix poultry flesh and poultry fattening the poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three divisions. first: poultry carcasses grown especially for market. second: poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for egg production. third: the cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg farms. the third class hardly needs our consideration in the present chapter. this stock, usually leghorns, like jersey veal, is to be disposed of at whatever price the market offers. the cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them would not pay. leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. in class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the country. this stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of plymouth rocks and wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward increasing its quantity and quality. within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as layers while in the broiler stage of from - / to pounds. since the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months of age. at this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce than at either an earlier or later stage. for such purposes only the well fleshed type of american breeds has been found desirable. the leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too soon. contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books of classifying the asiatics as meat breeds, the brahmas and cochins are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm production of poultry meat. at the age spoken of these breeds are lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. crate-fattening. the introduction of crate-fattening into the central west occurred about . the credit of this introduction belongs to the large meat packing firms. at the present time the business is not confined to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout the country. the plants of the west range from a few hundred to as high as , capacity. they are constructed for convenience and a saving of labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the european establishments where fattening has been long practiced. the room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. a good system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds and roup. the coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in height. each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve chickens. the chickens stand on slats, beneath which are dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. the dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. strict cleanliness is enforced. no droppings or feed are allowed to accumulate and decompose. as is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. with the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into useless fat. for this reason the general practice is to fatten only the best of the young chickens. the head feeder at a large and successful poultry plant gave the following information on the selection of birds for the fattening-crates: "the younger the stock the more profitable the gain. all specimens showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. the plymouth rock is the favorite breed, and the wyandotte is second. leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as the american breeds. black chickens are not fed at all. brahmas and cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are commonly sold. chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains than those that are extremely lean or very fat. but, contrary to what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom returns a profit." the idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. this is a mistaken notion. the rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the general composition of the feed is common knowledge. the feed most commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. the favorite grain for the purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. oats may be used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as suitable to be fed alone. corn is used, but not by itself. shorts, ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. beans, peas, linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. when milk products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful fattening. tallow is often used in small quantities toward the finish of the feeding period. the assumption is that it causes the deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding to the quality of the meat. the following simple rations show that there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: no. .--ground oats, parts; ground barley, part; ground corn, part; mixed with skim-milk. no. .--ground corn, parts; ground peas, part; ground oats, part; meat-meal, part; mixed with water. a ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of simply oatmeal and buttermilk. the feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. chickens are generally fed three times per day. water may or may not be given, according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. the chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. not only is the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, tender flesh. for this reason the crate-feeding process is often spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. the enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender and filled with stored nutriment. the fatness of a young chicken, crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the corn-crib. the crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great success. it is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental in its introduction lost money on the deal. the crate-fattening plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to prove a fiasco. while poultryman at the kansas experiment station, the writer made a large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one of the large fattening plants of the state. these weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits had not been realized. the birds selected for weighing were all fine, uniform looking barred rock cockerels. at the end of the first week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled a difference was easily noticed. by the end of the second week a few birds had died and many others were in a bad way. the individual changes of weight ran from - / pounds gain to / pound loss, and many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. it is simply a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with the health of the chicken if all is not just right. it is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. the reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different sources. the canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. the following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising canadian dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: how to fatten chickens for the export trade. to fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary to have proper coops to put them in. these should be two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. this size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five sections. what to feed. oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part barley. give clean drinking water twice a day, grit twice a week, and charcoal once a week. during the first week the birds are in the coops they should be fed sparingly--only about one-half of what they will eat. after that gradually increase the amount until you find out just how much they will eat up clean each time. never leave any food in the troughs, as it will sour and cause trouble. mix the food always one feed ahead. birds fed in this way will be ready for the export trade in from four to five weeks. chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing three to four pounds. we supply the coops. we have on hand a number of coops for fattening chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all chicks fattened in them to us. every farmer should have at least one of these coops, as this is the only way to fatten chicks properly. in this way you can get the highest market price. we can handle any quantity of chicks properly fatted. armstrong bros. the farmer who does not think it worth while to construct fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. to these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the fattening plants may be fed. in the east, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar from the practices in the central west, but we find a larger use of cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. the cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube inserted in the mouth. this means of feeding is much more used in europe than in this country. it requires good stock and careful workmen. the method will probably slowly gain ground in this country. the feed used in cramming is similar to that used in ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. caponizing. caponizing is the castration of male chickens. capons hold the same place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in france, and to a less degree in england and the united states. much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of the united states east of philadelphia, though increasing numbers of capons are being raised in the north central states. during the winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger eastern cities. massachusetts and new jersey are the great centers for the growing of capons, while boston, new york, and philadelphia are the great markets. in many eastern markets the prices paid for dressed capons range from to cents a pound. the highest prices usually prevail from january to may, and the larger the birds the more they bring a pound. the purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the meat. the capon fattens more readily and economically than other birds. as they do not interfere with or worry one another, large flocks may be kept together. the breeds suitable for caponizing are the asiatics and americans. brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the largest and finest capons. on the ordinary farm, where capons would be allowed to run loose, plymouth rocks would prove more profitable. plymouth rocks, brahmas, langshans, wyandottes, indian games, may all be used for capons. leghorns are not to be considered for this purpose. capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or three months old and weigh about two pounds. the operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the last two ribs. both testicles may be removed from one side or both sides may be opened. the cockerel should be starved for twenty-four hours in order to empty the intestines. asiatics are more difficult to operate on than americans, the testicles being larger and less firm. there is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is very small. loss by inflammation is still more rare. the testicle of a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce birds known as slips. some growers advise looking over the capons and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. this, however, is not necessary. a good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from $ to $ . as a complete set of instructions is furnished with each set it is unnecessary to go into details here. the beginner should, however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to operate on a live one. after caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and water. the capon begins to eat almost immediately after the operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical change had taken place in his nature. the feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other growing chickens. corn, wheat, barley and kaffir-corn would be suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the best growth. about three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the section on fattening poultry. corn meal and ground oats, equal parts by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for fattening capons. in dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to the thigh. these feathers serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market. do not cut the head off, for this is also a distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped comb and wattles. the price received for capons is greater than any other kind of poultry meat except early broilers. there may be trouble in some localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an advanced price. on several farms in massachusetts, to , capons are raised annually, and on one farm , cockerels are held for caponizing. the industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not equal the demand. it is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the west will gradually increase. those wishing to try the growing of capons will do well to secure an experienced operator. good men at this work receive five cents per bird. poor operators are dear at any price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. chapter x marketing poultry carcasses in the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the industry, we really have two systems to discuss. the one is used for the marketing of the product of the farm of the central west, and the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains in preparing his poultry for market. farm-grown chickens. at the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the central west is sold from the farm as live poultry. this farm stock is purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually one or more poultry-killing establishments. these establishments may vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and storing. the poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms operating independently and selling in the open market. the chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters or staggy cockerels. early in the season small springs are quoted as broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. if this is not done the carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in storage. the method of picking is not always the same, even in the same plant. scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer season, or with cheap-grade stuff. the greater portion of the stock is picked dry. the pickers are generally paid so much per bird. in some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. the killing is done by bleeding and sticking. the last thrust reaches the brain and paralyzes the bird. the manner of making these cuts must be learned by practical instruction. the feathers are saved, and amount to a considerable item. white feathers are worth more than others. the head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not removed. the bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, is ready for grading and packing. this, from the producer's standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. the grading is made on three considerations: ( ) the general division of cocks, springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; ( ) the grading for quality; ( ) the assortment according to size. the grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. the culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. the seconds are poor in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from overfatness. they are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest trade. those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go in this class. although a preference is generally stated for yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other points, are not underranked in this score. the skin color that is decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of diseased stock. black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a source of objection. especially is this true with young birds which show the pin-feathers. feathered legs are slightly more objectionable than smooth legs. small combs and the absence of spurs give better appearance to the carcass. the following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the farm marketed chickens. in each class there will be seconds and culls. the seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. the culls are packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. broilers--packed in two weights. st: less than two pounds; d: between and - / pounds. chickens--packed in three weights. st: between - / and pounds; d: between and - / pounds; d: between - / and pounds. roasters--packed in two weights. st: between and pounds; d: above pounds. stag roosters--cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed in two weights. st: under pounds; d: above pounds. fowls, are hens. they are packed in three sizes. st: under - / pounds; d: between - / and - / pounds; d: over - / pounds. old roosters--packed in barrels. one grade only. after packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. shipments of any importance are made in refrigerator cars. the poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up throughout the country. the live poultry shipments are chiefly made in the live poultry transportation cars. the following figures give the number of such cars that moved out of the states named in a recent year: iowa tennessee missouri michigan illinois s. dakota kentucky oklahoma nebraska indiana kansas wisconsin minnesota texas ohio arkansas the most of this live poultry goes to new york and other eastern cities and is consumed largely by the hebrew trade. the special poultry plant. the special egg farmer of the east should sell his poultry alive to the regular dealer. the exception to this advice may be taken in the case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the hotel trade. the grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his own product. as to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really demands. the dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically than the producer. i have never been able to study out why the average writer upon agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do difficult work for which special firms already exist. in the case of fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be able to do the work more successfully than the special establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment i can hardly see. if the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which to put the feathers. i do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing poultry for the various retail markets. the grower who contemplates killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in demand. suggestions from other countries. in european countries generally, and especially in france and england, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary accordingly. in these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed by the growers than in the united states where we have greater specialization of labor. in countries that have an export trade different systems have originated. in denmark and ireland co-operative societies are organized to handle perishable farm products. these, however, deal more with eggs than with poultry. in portions of england the fattening is done by private fatteners. the country being thickly settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by wagons making regular trips. this allows the rejection of the poor and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better stock. the greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is the evil of a uniform price. after chickens are dressed the difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. the packer pays a given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. the price is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. the prices paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. all farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned profits. the producer of good stock receives pay for the extra quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition whatever is given. to the deserving producer, if quality was recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of the production of good poultry. any packer, if questioned, will state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them according to quality, but that he does not do so because his competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. the man who receives an increased price would say little of it, while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly treated and use his influence against the dealer. a recognition of quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement of the poultry industry. cold storage of poultry. the growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero point. the temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from degree up to degrees. poultry is held for periods of one to six weeks at temperature above the freezing point. frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly even from a frozen body. the time frozen poultry is stored varies from a few weeks to eight or ten months. the usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its greatest production. thus, broilers are high in may and cheap in september. in such cases the goods are carried from the season of plenty to the following season of scarcity. this period is always less than a year. the idea circulated by wild writers, that cold storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. the interest on the investment alone would make the holding of storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. the fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" again. for that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to compete side by side. the quality of the frozen fowl when served is very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh killed. cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night in a tank of water. poultry prejudice prevents the practice of retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly desirable. drawn or undrawn fowls. within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. the objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. if a little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. we draw beef and mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but we eat them so. the facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: the intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. if the carcass is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain inactive and no essential change occurs. if the carcass is stored without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal walls and contaminate the flesh. now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly than through the intestinal walls. the opening of the carcass also allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. if poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical and undesirable. as far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances between the two methods seem to offer little choice. the bureau of chemistry of the u.s. department of agriculture has conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. so far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has been learned. from what has been published, the writer is of the opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the carcass. poultry inspection. the enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses similar to the federal inspection of the heavier meats. the reasons that are supposed to warrant the federal meat inspection are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food products. no doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of diseased meat. as far as it is at present known there are no diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. thorough cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, eaten without such preparation. the idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is somewhat of a sentimental proposition. in practice it amounts to nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases the demand for the product which is marked "u.s. inspected and passed." it may be interesting to some of the reformers of to know that the meat inspection bill then forced upon congress by a clamoring public was desired by the packers themselves. because congress would not listen to the packers, and the department of agriculture, the chief executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a few reporters, the results of which gave congress the needed inspiration. it cost the government three million dollars to tell the people that their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. if the people want this, it is all well and good. the tax it places upon the price of meat is less than half of one per cent. a similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered throughout the entire country. one reason that the meat packers wanted the united states inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to whom the government cannot afford to grant inspection. a few of the very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered as to render government inspection so expensive as to be quite impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a congressional committee. any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be encouraged. this can be done by the education of the consumer. poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and the entrails undrawn. by this precaution the consumer may tell whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, healthy or diseased. all cold storage poultry should be frozen and should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. i am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but i do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions would be a good thing. chapter xi quality in eggs [*] [footnote *: much of the matter in this and the following chapter is taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the united states, published as circular of the bureau of annual industry of the u.s. department of agriculture. in the present volume, however, i have inserted some additional matters which policy forbade that i discuss in a federal document.] because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. as a matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to other factors which affect the quality. an egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a warm july rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be absolutely unfit for food. another egg stored eight months in a first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. grading eggs. eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because each egg must be considered separately and because the actual substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. from external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. this is the common method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of good quality. later in the season the egg candle is used. in the technical sense any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. a sixteen candle power electric lamp is the most desirable. the light is enclosed in a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of a half dollar. the candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the contents to whirl within the shell. to the expert this process reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice can hardly realize. the art of egg candling cannot be readily taught by worded description. one who wishes to learn egg candling had best go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking many eggs learn the essential points. eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very uniform product. the purpose of the egg in nature requires that this be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a very constant chemical composition. for food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. the tint of the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food has been supplied the hens. occasionally, when hens eat unusual quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and appear dark to the candler. such eggs are called grass eggs; they are perfectly wholesome. an opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. this is true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it is laid. there are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "tape worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the membrane lining of the egg. "liver spots" or "meat spots" are detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. such abnormalities are rare and not worth worrying about. the shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. these variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy than of care or feed. the strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from breakage. the distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not one, however, which can be readily remedied. nothing more can be advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled or irregularly shaped eggs. preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well worth catering to. as is commonly stated, boston and surrounding towns want brown eggs, while new york and san francisco demand white eggs. these trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of there being large henneries in the respective localities producing the particular class of eggs. if the eggs from such farms are the best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would naturally become a selling point. only the select trade consider the color in buying. eggs of all mediterranean breeds are white. those of asiatics are brown. those of the american breeds are usually brown, but not of so uniform a tint. the size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection of layers of large eggs. in a number of experiments published by various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general development and vigor of the fowls. pullets, at the beginning of the laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a later stage in life. the egg size table below gives the size of representative classes of eggs. these figures must not be applied too rigidly, as the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. they are given as approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find in the class mentioned. egg size table. geographical breed net wt. weight relative classification classifications per ounces values dozen per per case dozen dozen southern iowa's purebred flocks of lbs. c. "two ounce eggs" american varieties of "egg farm leghorns." poorest flocks of games and lbs. - c. southern dunghills hamburgs. average tennessee poorest strains lbs. - - c. or texas eggs. of leghorns. average for the the mixed barnyard lbs. - c. united states as fowl of the western represented by farm, largely of kansas, plymouth rock origin. minnesota and southern illinois. average size of eggs american brahmas lbs. - - c. produced in denmark. and minorcas. selected brands of equaled by several lbs. - c. danish eggs. pens of leghorns in the australian laying contest. how eggs are spoiled. dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (a) plain dirties, those to which soil or dung adheres; (b) stained eggs, those caused by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (c) smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. for the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. the third class originates all along the route from the nest to consumer. the percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. in grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out as dirties. these dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per cent. the common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. blind checks are those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. they are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which consists of clicking the eggs together. dents are checks in which the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. leakers have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss themselves, but produce smeared eggs. the loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of handling in the process of marketing. a western produce house, collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to seven per cent. of checks. with properly handled eggs the loss through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as "heated" eggs. infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not been fertilized and can make no growth. that such infertile eggs cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected to all the other factors by which eggs may be spoiled. the sale of eggs tested out of the incubators has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. eggs thrown out of an incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after starting to develop. such eggs may be sold for what they are, but should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. when carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. if the egg is immediately cooled and held at a temperature below degrees, the germ will not develop. at a temperature of degrees, the development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. at this temperature the development is about as follows: twelve hours incubation: when broken in a saucer, the germ spot, visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. looked at with a candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. twenty-four hours: the germ spot mottled and about the size of a dime. this egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. such an egg is called a heavy egg or a floater. forty-eight hours: by this time the opaque white membrane, which surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. blood appears at about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of the egg. three days: the blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large as a nickel. the yolk behind the membrane has become watery. four days: the body of the chick becomes readily visible, and prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. the yolk is half covered with a water containing membrane. these stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of degrees. as the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development is retarded, but at any temperature above , this development will proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the eggs. for commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as follows: ( ) no heat shown. cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. ( ) light floats. first grade that can be separated by candling, corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. these are not objectionable to the average housewife. ( ) heavy floats. this group has no distinction from the former, except an exaggeration of the same feature. these eggs are objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. ( ) blood rings. eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the period when the chick becomes visible. ( ) chicks visible to the candle. the loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. the loss varies with the season of the year, and the climate. in new england heat loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties and checks. in texas the egg business from the th of june until cool weather in the fall is practically dead. people stop eating eggs at home and shipping out of the state nets the producer such small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. in the season of hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market eggs, throughout the trans-mississippi region, and eggs did well to net the shippers three cents per dozen. damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is inexcusable. in the first place, market eggs have no business being fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. the egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. this exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence of the atmosphere. evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. it is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air striking the egg. when the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell completely. as the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the appearance of the bubble or air cell. evaporation of water from the egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air cell. the size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the age of the egg. but when we consider that with the same relative humidity on a hot july day, evaporation would take place about ten times as fast as on a frosty november morning, and that differences in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the actual age. even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the egg. this causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. the quality is in no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are usually discriminated against by candlers. in this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of the egg white. the white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. the cause of this appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous material. by age and mechanical disturbance this network is gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. such a weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. these eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are thrown in lower grades. the weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and spoils the egg for poaching. the shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. this holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from august to december full fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. while we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased by the holding process. if the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors will cause the chief loss. the loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by those outside the trade. such ignorance is due to the fact that the shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. but the inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them without ruining their trade. the result is that shrunken eggs are constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of the year than at any other time. in the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. the term "rot" in the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food purposes. but i prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg which contains a growth of bacteria. the normal egg when laid is germ free. but the egg shell is not germ proof. the pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ proof as long as it remains dry. when this membrane becomes moist so that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten eggs. moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. the latter happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some impervious material. rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of germ that causes the decomposition. the specific kinds of egg rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in the practical work of egg candling. ( ) black rots. it is probable that many different species of bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. the prominent feature is the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes causes the equally well known explosion. ( ) sour eggs or white rots. these eggs have a characteristic sour smell. the contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. ( ) the spot rot. in this the bacterial growth has not contaminated the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. such eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. these lumps are of various colors and appearances. it is probable that these spots are caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes the distinction is immaterial. in practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the farm, both causes have been at work. dead chicks will not necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, as a physician would say, show complications. the loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one might imagine. perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten specimens are severe losses. moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp cellars and ice houses. the moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. in the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or packing materials. the absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad eggs. here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually helpless. eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. such eggs occur most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. the loss due to carelessness. the egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent, of which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste due to ignorant and careless handling. the great mass of eggs for sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the faults we have discussed. some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average prices received for all eggs sold in new york city, and the wholesale prices quoted by a prominent new york firm dealing in high grade goods. the contrasted price for the year are as follows: prices at which total goods wholesale prices for strictly moved. fresh eggs. january . january . february . february . march . march . april . april . may . may . june . june . july . july . august . august . september . september . october . october . november . november . december . december . the total values figured by multiplying these prices by the new york receipts, are as follows: amount actually received $ , , values at quotations for strictly fresh , , no one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. requisites of the production of high grade eggs. (a) hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). plymouth rocks, wyandottes, rhode island reds, orpingtons, leghorns, minorcas are the varieties which will do this. (b) good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, dry nests. (c) daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above degrees, gathering twice a day. (d) the confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. (e) the rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was not visited the previous day. (such eggs should be used at home where each may be broken separately). (f) the placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the coolest spot available. (g) the prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in contact with the egg's shell. (h) the selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the hens. also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time hatching is over until cool weather in fall. (i) the using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an entire loss. (j) keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. (k) keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to market. (l) the marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, when facilities permit. (m) the use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. chapter xii how eggs are marketed the methods by which the larger number of american eggs pass from the producer to consumer is as follows: the eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village merchant. this merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. the dealer buys the eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of quality. he then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. this dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and sells to them by wire. he usually ships in carload lots. the city receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell the car outright to a jobbing house. the jobber re-candles the eggs, sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various classes of trade. the last link in the chain is the housewife, who by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." this most frequently repeated story of the american egg applies particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the mississippi and marketed in the very large cities of the east. we will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out the reason for the existence of the present methods and their influence upon quality and consequent value. the country merchant. the country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. eggs being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity for such marketing. the merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his selling trade. the farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of trading out the amount. for these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. his competitors across the street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. the effect to the merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of eggs is financially the same. in either case it is the matter of cutting the prices under the spur of competition. now, the articles on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade are dry goods and notions. such articles are not standardized, but vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the unsophisticated. on the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, and all that run may read. suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small profit. now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. if he marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would fear his goods were cheap. but if he puts up a placard, "eleven cents paid for eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never question the quality of his goods. this move having been successful, his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "twelve cents for eggs." the farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side of the street. the rate of business at ten per cent, being insufficient to maintain two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis of twenty per cent, gross profit, but the false price of eggs will serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore maintained. as a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the general stores of the mississippi valley is frequently one to two cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. some of the effects of this system are: --the inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. --the inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. --the farmer who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. --the use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced contributions of his neighbors. the huckster. the huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from galveston to chicago through texarkana, ark., springfield, mo., and st. louis. north and west of this line the huckster is almost unknown. the huckster wagons may be of the following types: --an extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for eggs. --an independent traveling peddler. --a cash dealer who buys his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. --a representative of the local produce buyer. --a fifth style of egg wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting the eggs from country stores. as far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. this style exists chiefly in indiana and michigan, and the better settled regions of kentucky and tennessee. the writer found hucksters in southern michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, while in the mountains of tennessee he found a huckster paying ten cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in chattanooga, and twenty-three cents in new york. the huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. while it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the middle and southern states the presence of the huckster is the only factor that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of handling perishable products. he makes a week's trip in sun and rain with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his summer eggs is about as low as can be found. in the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm grown egg in the market. the second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or shipper. the produce buyer. throughout the mississippi valley there are wholesale produce houses at all important railroad junctions. a typical house will ship the produce of one to three counties. these houses, once a week or oftener, send out postal card quotations. these quotations read so much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are utterly bad. each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest city. the highest of these quotations gets the shipment. the buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness of the grading depending upon the intended destination. the loss in candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to the shipper. the egg man wants volume of business, and if he antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will be the loss of trade. so the buyer estimates his probable loss and lowers his price enough to cover it. by loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs from the number to be paid for. buying on a candled or graded basis, usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether eggs should be bought loss off or case count. loss off buying seems to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with difficulties. if the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and this is an obviously difficult commercial system. where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been robbed by the buyer. such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most of the business. the case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss off system can only succeed where there is some factor that overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set the price. this factor may be: st--an exceptional reputation of a particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. d--exceptional opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer to pay much higher rates for good stuff. d--a condition that prevails in the south in the summer, where the losses are so heavy that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count buying. th--some sort of a monopoly. a monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been brought about in some sections of the west by agreement among egg dealers. in such cases the usual experience has been that some one would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled shippers in his section. when one buyer begins quoting case count, the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly re-established. the city distribution of eggs. in name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. in the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official inspector. this gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country buyer. in the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one may know what he is getting. in many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the jobber and sells to the grocers. in larger cities the receiver sells to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, restaurants, etc. the jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. in a western city this may mean two grades--good and bad; in new york, it may mean seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. the city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. the soda fountain trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for strictly first-class eggs. many such institutions in eastern cities are supplied directly from large poultry farms. the figures at which such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number of eggs per week. this premium over common farm eggs may range from one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in new york and boston. an advance of ten cents over the quotation for extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in new york city. some of the larger chain grocers in new york city are in the market for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments in charge of expert egg men. the great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small restaurant, bakery and grocery. in the small cities of the central west the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. in the south and farther west the margin is two to seven cents, the retail price always being in the even nickel. in the large eastern city there exists the custom unknown in the west of having two or more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. all eggs offered for sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the "best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be april from fifteen cents to forty cents, or if in december from thirty cents to seventy-five cents per dozen. the new york grocers' profit is from two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as forty cents for very fancy stock. city retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of eggs. as an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of eggs might be as follows: paid the farmer in iowa $. profit of country store . gross profit of shipper . - / freight to new york . - / gross profit of receiver . - / gross profit of jobber . - / loss from candling . - / gross profit of retailer . - / ------- cost to consumer $. the cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for cooking purposes at restaurants. when cooked with other food an egg may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may be used. measures have been frequently taken by city boards of health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. the great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the case of adulterated or preserved products. that embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can prevent their use. the egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. the encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. cold storage of eggs. the supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of production centering about april and the lightest run being in november. the cold storage men begin storing eggs in march or april and continue to store heavily until june, after which time the quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. this storage stock begins to move out in september and should be cleaned up by december. great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. the effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the year. the reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a drug on the market during the season of heavy production. march and april eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the best quality of storage stock. this is accounted for by the fact that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in the best condition at this season of the year. because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a higher temperature than meat and butter. temperatures of from degrees to degrees f. are used in cold storage of eggs. at such temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. to prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is kept moderately dry. this shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly than would occur without storage. the growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to a fresh egg. the cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two in a dry room. cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is impossible. it may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, eggs placed in cold storage in april are frequently superior to the current fall and early winter receipts. cold storage eggs are generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as "eggs." the fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage product, or they may not be. the bureau of chemistry of the united states department of agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh stock. this finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. further investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. at the present writing (february, ) there has been much talk of laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. the federal pure food commission, under the general law against misbranding, have made one such prosecution. many states have agitated such laws but little or nothing has been done. i find that the idea of such a law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. contrary to popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not opposed to the law. the people that are hit are the small dealers and especially the city grocers. these fellows buy the eggs at wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the sales. this lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the wholesale price. this is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man are in favor of the law. we may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be abolished. but how are we to do it? "have state and federal branding of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do elijah's flour barrel trick to perfection. clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only method that would be effective and the consideration of what this means turns the whole matter into a joke. the official inspection now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy products. city and state laws may also be made which will taboo the sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. meanwhile, a great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by direct freezing. these eggs are broken and carefully sorted and placed in large cans and then frozen. such a product is disposed of to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large quantities. another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most nourishing food product known. the chief value of such an article lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. there is no reason, however, why this product should not become a common article of diet during the season of high prices of eggs. dried eggs can be eaten as custards, omelets, or similar dishes. preserving eggs out of cold storage. occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. such writers advise the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve them by other means. as a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during several seasons; even were the profit of egg storing many times greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would eat up all possible profit. the only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage are as follows: liming: make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid as cold as the available location will permit. water glass: this is exactly the same as liming except that the solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass or sodium silicate with water. liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. there are still two large liming plants in this country and several in canada. in europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive scale. all limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an experienced candler. they pop open when boiled. when properly preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. these eggs must be sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the producers. the farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than gain to the producers. for the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be considered for fear of hurting his trade. any scheme that would help to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great advantage. the proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's knowledge, it has not been done. improved methods of marketing farm-grown eggs. the loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling of eggs is something enormous. no great or sudden change in this state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this loss may be averted will not be out of order. numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. minnesota began this work by arresting several farmers and dealers. the parties invariably pleaded guilty. a number of other states followed the example of minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few prosecutions were made. such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as practical candlers. the present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest and prosecution. the weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. the most effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in denmark, in which every producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his eggs. with our complicated system involving five to six dealers between the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh impossible. with the introduction of co-operative buying or the community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely possible. for enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness and dishonesty of his neighbor. first: the encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. second: the buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. the greatest difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly installed egg business will repay. third: the agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to a single produce buyer. this has been successfully done in a few instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested will stick to such an agreement. the worst fault with this plan is that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own profits. fourth: a modification of the above scheme is the case in which the produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. this scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some nebraska towns. it may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in the west. it eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. the weakness of the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading for himself. other difficulties are: getting a group of merchants who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, the merchant's further realization that any fine saturday morning, with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may stick out a card "sixteen cents paid for eggs" and make more money in one day than his competitors did all week. fifth: co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. this has been discussed in a previous chapter. it is all right in localities where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. the high grade egg business. there are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital and ability in the high grade egg trade. the produce business on its present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. the chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. the proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. the little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. the large cities are full of people in search of some way to display their superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. if an ingenious dealer takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue lined box and labels them "exquisite ovarian deposital," he can sell quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. an express messenger running out of st. louis became interested in the egg trade. he arranged with a few country friends to ship him their eggs. these he candled in his house cellar and began selling them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. at first he delivered the eggs himself. this was in the world's fair year of . in he did a $ , worth of business and his type of business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the ordinary type of dealer. in chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg department and placed a young man in charge of it. the eggs in this case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce buyers whom the chicago company have encouraged to educate their farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. these people buy their eggs in tennessee in the winter and in minnesota in the summer, thus getting the best eggs the year round. they sell by wagon on regular routes. the business is growing nicely and pays good profits. other similar concerns are operating in chicago and other large cities. they are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. the reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the season of scarcity. southern winter eggs are destined to relieve this situation more and more. another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. this brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer must be dropped from the list. in order to make a success, a system of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. no fear then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs or those of his neighbor. the following extract from farmer's bulletin of the u.s. department of agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the sale of high grade eggs: "under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. it is possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either before it is laid or after. the shell is porous, and offers no greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. when the infected egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to man and may cause disease. if an egg remains in a dirty nest, defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus becomes a possible source of infection. perhaps one of the most common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are 'stale.' this often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. "in view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. clean poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. the subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too little attention." the reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. this is a copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent chicago dealer: * * * * * moore's breakfast eggs are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them and to remain so until all eaten up. if for any reason they are not satisfactory return the eggs to your dealer and get your money back. (signature.) we urge you to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with the finest eggs by being careful to keep them dry a damp "filler" will in hours make the finest fresh eggs taste like old cold storage eggs. the flavor of an egg cannot be detected even by the powerful electric lights used to inspect every egg in this package, so it might be possible for a "strong" egg to get by our inspectors, but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window sill. remember eggs are c- c per doz. retail only when fine eggs are scarce. ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make delicia pure cream butter, but in times of scarcity we often have to go as far as oklahoma, arkansas or tennessee to find the best eggs. these are not equal to our creamery eggs but are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to the old cold storage eggs that flood the market at such times. be sure this seal is unbroken when you get the eggs w. s. moore & co., chicago office-- south water street. buying eggs by weight. whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be bought of the producer by weight. as far as selling to the consumer is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. it will, in addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that are wrong in quality. for rotten or heated eggs should be deducted an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. shrunken eggs are hard to classify. in order that this may be done fairly and uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. all eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, . specific gravity should be fined. two or more grades can be made in this fashion if desired. the retailing of eggs by the producer. in poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. this sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. a man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. the poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his business. if the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make deliveries economically. the man making a specialty of the city end can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman can produce. with a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. the isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between himself and the consumer. but there is no reason why he should not know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a source of dissatisfaction and loss. there is a great opportunity here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single step from producer to consumer. some people say that farmers cannot be dealt with in this manner. such people would probably have said as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail order houses. it is all a matter of efficient organization. a system of business fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing with half cases. it is more difficult to deal in little things than in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be done. the price of eggs. we will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of western firsts in the new york market. the reason for this is evident. every egg raised east of colorado is in line for shipment to new york. if other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from going to new york. in pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of western firsts in new york and secondly the quality relation of the particular grade to western firsts and the consequent relation in price. the price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the years. as is well known, all prices in the ' 's passed through a period of depression. for eggs this reached a base in . since then there has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in , remained high till . in the spring of egg prices dropped again, but the fall prices of were exceptionally high. as this work goes to press (may, ) eggs are going into storage at the highest may price on record. the prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities because of a gradual changing relation between production and consumption. as stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry products have shown a general rise when compared with other articles. this has been most marked since . as for the future we cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. a third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the seasonal relation of production and consumption. this change is from year to year fairly constant. its normal may be seen in the scientifically smoothed curve in plate iv. this curve is based upon the new york prices for the last eighteen years. in addition to these broader influences there are disturbing tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across the line where the more general influences would place it. of those general factors, weather is the most important. storms, rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower supplies and raise the price. this is due both to the fact that laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. as long as there are storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather changes. suppose late in february storms and snows force up the price of eggs. this is followed by a warm spell which starts the march lay. the roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting snows. when they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. a drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day or two's time. this is known as the spring drop and for one to get caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. when once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the storage price for the season, the prices for april, may and june will remain fairly steady. about the last week in june the summer climb begins. this goes on very steadily with local variation of about the same as those of the spring months. the storage eggs begin to come out in august and at first sell about the same as fresh. as the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. the storage egg price will remain fairly uniform. by november the season of high prices is reached. if storage eggs are still plentiful and the weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. these are caused by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed before spring. if an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm spell in winter will make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage eggs are scarce the sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold waves. from november until spring egg prices are a creature of the weather maps and sudden jumps from to cents may occur at any time. [illustration: plate iv. page . graphs of egg prices and volume of egg sales as they vary throughout the year.] the price curve of , which is represented by the dotted line in plate iv will illustrate these general principles. in the lower portion of plate iv is given the curves for the new york receipts. the heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year . the dotted line shows the actual receipts of . a comparison week by week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of the law of supply and demand. aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly affect the receipts and price of eggs. a high price of meat will increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the receipts that reach the city. abundance of fruit in the city market will cut down the demand for eggs. a cold, wet spring will increase the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. scarcity and high price of feed will cut down the egg yield. high price of hens is said by some to cut down the egg yield, but i think this is doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the desire to "keep 'em and raise more." the following are the quotations taken from the new york price-current for november , : state, pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being mixed with held eggs--sometimes with pickled stock. the few new laid lots received direct from henneries command extreme prices--sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. we quote: selected white, fancy, @ c.; do., fair to choice, @ c.; do., lower grades, @ c.; brown and mixed, fancy, @ c.; do., fair to choice, @ c; do., lower grades, @ c. n.y. mercantile exchange official quotations. fresh gathered, extras, per dozen @ fresh gathered, firsts @ fresh gathered, seconds @ fresh gathered, thirds @ dirties, no. @ dirties, no. @ dirties, inferior @ checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime @ checks, inferior @ refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season @ - / refrigerator, firsts, on dock @ - / refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season - / @ - / refrigerator, seconds, on dock - / @ - / refrigerator, thirds @ limed, firsts - / @ limed, seconds @ the writer was in the new york market at the time and saw many cases of white leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as cents. these were commonly retailed at cents each. there were a good many brands retailing at cents and one of the largest high class groceries was selling for cents. this is practically double the official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. the above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of . it should be noted that the fall prices were relatively somewhat better than the rest of the season. the time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation in the price of the different grades. in the springtime all eggs are fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only two or three cents above quotations. there are a few retailers who hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general market. one new york firm that does a large high class egg business never lets their price at any season go below cents. this, of course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are satisfied, never bother about price. in the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs must go at very ordinary prices. in the summer months there is not so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. the coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy produce. chapter xiii breeds of chickens i do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. indeed, i consider the almost universal use of the barred rock in the most productive farm poultry regions in the united states, and the equal predominance of s.c. white leghorns on the egg farms of new york and california, as far more conclusive than any possible breed tests. breed tests. in australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth quoting. the hawkesbury agricultural college tests extend over a period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and the time one year. the results were as follows: no. of pens yield of average yield competing highest pen of all pens ... ... ... ... ... the winners and losers for five years were as follows: winning pen losing pen silver wyandotte silver wyandotte silver wyandotte partridge wyandotte s.c.w. leghorns s.c.w. leghorns black langshans golden wyandotte s.c.w. leghorns s.c.b. leghorns as a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed comparison. this is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently being of the same breed. the average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more enlightening. for the three most popular australian breeds, these grand averages are: average av. wt. eggs. no. hens egg yield oz. per doz. s.c.w. leghorns ... . . black orpingtons ... . . silver wyandottes ... . . these figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons that have ever been obtained. when we go into the other breeds, however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: r.c. brown leghorns, with birds entered, have an average of . . this does not signify that the r.c. browns are better than the s.s. whites, for if the whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the r.c. browns. as further proof, take the case of the r.c.w. leghorns with birds entered and an egg yield of . . both breeds are probably a little poorer layers than s.c. whites, but luck was with the r.c. browns and against the r.c. whites. for a discussion of this principle of the worth of averages from different sized flocks see chapter xv. all leghorns in the tests with birds entered, averaged . eggs each. all of the general purpose breeds (rocks, wyandottes, reds and orpingtons), with birds entered, averaged . . the comparison between the leghorns and the general purpose fowls as classes is undoubtedly a fair one. a study of the relations between the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these groups is worth while. it bears out the writer's statement that the best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular variety of that breed. the australian poultryman, wanting utility only, would do wise to choose out of the three great australian breeds here mentioned. the s.c.w. leghorn is the only one of the three breeds to which the advice would apply in america. barred rocks and perhaps white wyandottes, would here represent the other types. there is one more point in the australian records worthy of especial mention. the winning pen in were black langshans and, what seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from the original home of langshans in north china. other pens of langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this pen of chinese stock, with a record of - * eggs per hen for the first year and - * eggs per hen for two years, is the world's record layers beyond all quibble. this record is held by a breed and a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. this holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in an arizona gambling den. if the latter incident should occur and be heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay another eastern youth to rush out to arizona. it is probable that the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg farm with imported chinese langshans, will fare as the second tenderfoot. the year following the langshan winning, the first eleven winning pens were all s.c.w. leghorns. this is also remarkable--much more remarkable in fact than the langshans record. it is like a royal flush in a poker game. standing alone, this would be very suggestive evidence of the eminence of the breed. standing as it does, with the combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the s.c.w. leghorn hen the same reputation in australia as she has in america and denmark--that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. isolated evidence is misleading. accumulated evidence is convincing. the difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. the hen's ancestors. to one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties should have descended from one parent source. it was, however, held by darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single species of indian jungle fowl. other scientists have since disputed darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the changes that have taken place under domestication any less remarkable. the buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, frizzles with their feathers all awry, the polish with their deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been preserved under domestication. the varieties of domestic fowl form one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of inheritance. what makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. the wild chicken whom darwin credits as the parent of the modern gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored in a manner similar to the black-breasted game. the habits of this bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which belong to the same zoological family. from its natural home in india the chicken spread east and west. chinese poultry culture is ancient. in china, as well as in india, the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather legged chickens of the modern world have come. poultry is also known to have been bred in the early babylonian and egyptian periods. here, however, the progress was in a different line from that of china. artificial incubation was early developed, and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the natural manner. the egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on the mediterranean, and from southern europe our non-sitting breeds of fowls have been imported. throughout the countries of northern europe minor differences were developed. the french chickens were selected for the quality of the meat, while in poland the peculiar top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. the english dorking is one of the oldest of european breeds and is possessed of five toes. five-toed fowls were reported in rome and exist to-day in turkey and japan. the dorkings may be descended directly from the roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. the chief point to be noted in all european poultry is that it differs from asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed to become broody, and more active than the asiatic fowl. the early american hens were of european origin, but of no fixed breeds. about italian chickens began to be imported. these, with stock from spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and color, and constitute our mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the present day. soon after the importation of italian chickens a chance importation was made from southeastern asia. these asiatic chickens were quite different from anything yet seen, and further importations followed. poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. the first poultry show was held in boston in the early ' 's. the asiatic fowls imported were gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the brahmapootras, cochin-chinas and shanghais. with the rapid development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new varieties. every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. the great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the desired form and color. many of our common breeds still give us occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which the breed was formed. the exact history of the formation of the american or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both european and asiatic sources. the english have recently furnished the world with a very popular breed which was originated by the same methods. i refer to the orpingtons. the ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object is the production of human food. breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned farm-yard. the mongrel chicken is a production of chance. its ancestry represents everything available in the barn-yard of the neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. in the pure breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform appearance. the size and shape requirements of the standard, although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. ability to mature for the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier breeds into his chickens. moreover, poultry-breeders, while still keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. considering these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens offer any advantage over pure bred stock. in the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities with uniformity. in order that we may get offspring like the parent and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many generations back have been of one type. the more generations of such uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess similar quality. one strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being producers of many eggs. each of these strains might be well-bred in these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other considerations were taken into account. this explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more important than the breed. in fact, the whole series of breed classification is arbitrary. this is especially true of the american or mixed breeds. humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell white or buff rocks from wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. from the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection of rocks, wyandottes, reds and orpingtons and, i dare say, one could run in a few langshans and minorcas if it were not for their black pin feathers. what breed. the writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. he would rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, than to have been the author of "afraid to go home in the dark." but i do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. so-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged asiatics save on a few capon and roaster plants in new england, are really useless. they have given size to american chickens as a class, and in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. for commercial consideration there are really but two types: the egg breeds of mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or growers, including the rocks, wyandottes and rhode island reds. the difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the other, is quite important. which should be used depends on the location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. the choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and chance of sales of fancy stock. this one principle can, however, be laid down: the more popular the breed, the more choice there will be in selecting strains and individuals. pea comb plymouth rocks and duckwing leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make the particular choice unimportant. for commercial consideration, the writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of barred rock, white wyandottes or rhode island reds. among layers the s. c. white has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a handicap on oneself. for a description of breeds, the reader should secure an illustrated american standard of perfection, or some of the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. to take up the matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge which can be better secured elsewhere. the relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely shown by the following list. this data was compiled by adding the numbers of each breed exhibited at different poultry shows in the season of . a detailed report of the total entries of each breed is as follows: plymouth rocks, , ; wyandottes, , ; leghorns, , ; rhode island reds, , ; orpingtons, , ; langshans, , ; minorcas, , ; cochin bantams, , ; games, , ; brahmas, , ; cochins, , ; hamburgs, ; game bantams, ; polish, ; houdans, ; indians, ; anconas, ; sebright bantams, ; andalusians, ; japanese bantams, ; dorkings, ; brahma bantams, ; buckeyes, ; silkies, ; spanish, ; redcaps, ; sumatras, ; polish bantams, ; sultans, ; malays, ; frizzles, ; le fleche, ; dominiques, ; booted bantams, ; malay bantams, ; crevecoeure, . chapter xiv practical and scientific breeding science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." the man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which is inborn or is acquired by long practice. the man who works by science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by comparison with known facts and principles. the scientist not only looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly where he is going to land. breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. the science of breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will achieve his results. in a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of breeding, that i shall not do so, is for the reason that while theoretically i recognize the important part that breeding plays in all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual handicap. for the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too undeveloped to be of immediate service, or i had better say, the show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to promise results. for the commercial poultryman, i shall review what has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which contemplated work is based. the objects striven after in poultry breeding are: st: to create new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall attract attention as curiosities. d: to approach the ideals accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in competition. d: to change some particular feature or habit as, to increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. th: to improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose fowls. this classification is really unnecessary, as the most specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. breeding as an art. the method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens have been developed is essentially as follows: the wonderfully different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are brought together. crossing is then resorted to, with the result that birds of all forms and colors are produced. the breeder then selects specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. suppose a man wished to produce barred leghorns, with a fifth toe. he would secure barred rocks, white leghorns and white or gray dorkings. then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. in that case buff leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried and found more pliable material. by such methods the breeder would in three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he desired. henceforth it would be a matter of patience and selection. five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. in this style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. the first is to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most desirable of these specimens. the same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to maintain it, or to establish strains. in ordinary breeding there are two other principles that are sometimes called into play. one is prepotency, the other is inbreeding. by prepotent we mean having unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. suppose a breeder has five yards headed by five cock birds. the male in yard two he does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the offspring from yard one. the breeder should keep the prepotent sire and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to stamp his traits upon his get. normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight great-grandparents. now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents of the offspring are reduced to six. the mating of brother and sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to four. mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. inbreeding means the reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be they good or bad. inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. it does not necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the strain. for illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. now, in the original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our experiment. inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new blood" at fancy prices. unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss inbreeding. intelligent inbreeding is better still. scientific theories of breeding. the main tenet of darwin's theory of racial inheritance or evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, variations. he argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. in case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the giraffe's neck. this principle can be applied equally well, even better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. the last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly the general theories of darwin, but they have also resulted in our questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of small variations. many instances have been suggested in which the theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. the theory of mutation, of which hugo de vries, of holland, is the chief expounder, does not antagonize darwin, but simply gives more weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes commonly called sports. let us illustrate: in the giraffe of our former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. this would be a mutation. in other words, a mutation is a marked variation that may be inherited. we now believe that polled cattle, five-toed dorkings, top-knotted houdans, frizzles and black skinned chickens arose through mutations. burbank's methods--the wonderful burbank with his thornless cactus, his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher after mutations. his success is not because he uses any secret methods, but because of the size of his operations. he produces his specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal breeder is deprived. he can produce his specimens in greater number, he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with certainty by the use of cuttings. this latter is not true inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite prolongation of the life of one individual. in this sense there is only one seedless orange tree in the world. the centgenitor system--prof. hays in breeding wheat at minnesota, first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially as follows: a large variety of individual seeds are selected. these are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield observed. the offspring of one seed is kept separate for several generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly established. the advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the offspring of individuals. thus, we necessarily select the only trait really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget desirable qualities. the application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; it also necessitates large operations. of the former, breeders have generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. but the centgenitor system, combined with burbank's principle of large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the method by which the -egg hen will be ultimately established in america. much of the recent stimulus to the study of the science of breeding was occasioned by the discovery of mendel's law. briefly, the law states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one dominates in the first generation of offspring--the other remaining hidden or recessive. of the second generation, one-half the individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and one-fourth are pure recessives. in future generations the mixed or hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become ultimately pure. for illustration: if rose and single comb chickens are crossed, rose combs are dominant. the first generation will all have rose combs. the second generation will have one-fourth single combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. mendel's law works all right in cases where pure unit characteristics are to be found. for the great practical problems in inheritance, mendel's law is utterly hopeless. the trouble is that the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. thus the tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant recrossing of these types. mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. it may some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to overcome before they supplant our present methods. prof. c.b. davenport, of the carnegie institute, is working on experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. his conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. the truth of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of pure science. the scientist, enthused to find his white fowl re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a silver spangled hamburg. mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the commercial poultryman. its study is all right in its place, but its place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby a new dress. breeding for egg production. attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. the inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. the great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to hatch their stock. the eggs of the whole flock are kept together and when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general basket. it has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, rather than from the better layers. this is because hens that have not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the spring season. many breeders have attempted to pick out the good layers by the appearance of the hens. before the advent of the trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive indication of a good layer. the "egg type" hen had slender neck, small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. various "systems" founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to people who were easily separated from their money. trap-nest records show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in agricultural operations. i might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. science finds no proof of such theories. a few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth noting. the hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out foraging, is probably a drone. the excessively fat or the excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. it would naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last one to go to roost at night. at the kansas experiment station, the writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases to be correct. a still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to lay in the fall season. at the maine experiment station, such a selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one hundred and forty. trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous in the market. a trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. the more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the better for the comfort of the hens. the use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens yield him an immediate income. fanciers and experiment stations can well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. a scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it is all right. because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these and from their descendants. the tests of pullets hatched from hens are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own record. it has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not lay eggs containing vigorous germs. so far as the writer's experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs laid. when we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the former rate of production. theory says that it will not drop back. as a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. hence the necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from other selected strains. whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as breeders. those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. but traits not directly visible can likewise be changed by breeding. the number of eggs, size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of the breeder. it is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for which one selects, the slower will be progress. for illustration: if in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half as rapid. a discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the maine experiment station is taken up in the next chapter. chapter xv experiment station work our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is new. the poultry work at experiment stations is very new. ten years will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the poultry experiment station files. stations leading in poultry work. among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country were rhode island, massachusetts, connecticut and maine. rhode island conducted the first school of poultry culture. the two stations of new york state were also early in the work, and cornell now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. west virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. outside of the states east of the appalachians, the first poultry work to be heard of was that of prof. dryden at the experiment station of utah. prof. dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. his early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much to call attention to poultry work. in all this early work the great mississippi valley, where four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored the hen. the writer began his work with poultry at the kansas station in , but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. in the last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently been issued from these younger schools. a few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as follows: the utah station clearly found that hens laid about per cent. as many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied theory. the new york station at geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. the maine station was chiefly instrumental in introducing trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. the breeding work at maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this chapter. the united states department of agriculture did not take up poultry work until . the publications issued by the department before that time were written by outsiders and printed by the government. the following is the list of the addresses of the experiment stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. it is not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. maine--orono. mass.--amherst. conn.--storrs. rhode is.--kingston. new york--ithaca. new york--geneva. maryland--college park. west. va.--morgantown. iowa--ames. kansas--manhattan. utah--logan. calif.--berkeley. oregon--corvalis. u.s. gov.--washington, d.c. ontario--guelph (canada). many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement of the poultry industry. our canadian neighbors have done much more practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the stock and methods along commercial lines. as a result the canadians have built up a nice british trade with which we have thus far not been able to compete. the work by the ontario station on the subject of incubation is discussed in the chapter on incubation. australia, like canada, has given much practical assistance in marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing stations, where the poultry is packed for export. the australian laying contests are quoted in the present volume. they outclass anything else in the world along that line. in england, ireland and especially in denmark, the government, or societies encouraged by the government, have done a great deal to develop the poultry industry. depots for marketing and grading are maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from the government breeding farms. the story of the "big coon." with apologies to joel chandler harris, i will tell a little story. uncle remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." it seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but all efforts at his capture had failed. one night they saw the "big coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. all hands and the dogs were summoned. to be sure of bagging the game, the tree was cut down. the dogs rushed in but there was no coon. "but, uncle remus," said the little boy, "i thought you said you saw the big coon in the tree." "laws, chile," replied uncle remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are lookin' fer it?" when scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. for everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. the first duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas that lead to no practical results. for illustration round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long ones cockerels. eggs will not hatch if it thunders. shipped eggs must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. these things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. in clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. many, indeed, are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they were being looked for. as a partial explanation it should be said that men available for scientific poultry work are very scarce. poultry keepers schooled in the university of the poultry yard have no conception of scientific methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that would fail to fit elsewhere. the available scientists on the other hand are seldom poultrymen. among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, were the veterinarians. for years the only poultry publications put out by the u.s. government were by veterinarians. these dust covered volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were useless. the first general law that all experimenters should know and the ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the "law of chance." let the reader who is not familiar with such things take two pennies and toss them upon the table. they are both heads up. he tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. the third time repeats the second. the fourth both come tails. the law of chance says this is correct. heads should appear per cent., tails per cent., and mixed per cent. of the time. now let the reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. does it prove the law? try it again. are all lots alike? now pitch a hundred times, then pitch pennies all day. by night the law will be so near proven that the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve hens, one plymouth rocks, the other wyandottes, or one fed corn and the other wheat. the law of chance clearly proves that the larger number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the experimental results. note, however, that small lots may by chance be as near the truth as large lots. in practice two grave errors are made: first, conclusions are drawn from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are drawn from large lots compared with small lots. in the first case both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early days of poultry research. the second error is exemplified in the ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already been made. here is a further example of this error. from the fifth egg laying competition at the hawkesbury agricultural college in australia, i copy the following: no. of hens. variety. ave. egg yield. cuckoo leghorn . s.c. brown leghorn . s.c. white leghorn . r.c. brown leghorn . r.c. white leghorn . buff leghorn . black leghorn . the ranking of cuckoo leghorns as first is a chance happening due to the small number; likewise the black leghorns had a streak of bad luck and received lowest place. to one not familiar with such work, the real significance of the table is that the s.c.w. leghorns did the best work. a totaling of all other varieties gives fowls with an average egg production of . , which bears out the conclusion. as these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find the highest single pen to be white leghorns, because, when compared with all other leghorns, they have both the highest average and the greatest number. this accords with the fact that as the highest single pen is found to be white leghorns with an egg yield of eggs. the above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that the individual extremes will be more removed. important experimental results at the illinois station. from an illinois experiment station report, the following is quoted: "the stock used was barred plymouth rock pullets. these pullets were a very uniform barred rock stock that had been bred as an individual strain for many years. they were practically the same age, and except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as possible. first year's results. no. hens. diet. ave. egg yield. nitrogenous diet . carbonaceous diet . wet wash . dry wash . "the results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying hens. the difference indicated in the first year's results was so light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. "as the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. second year's result. no. hens. diet. ave. egg yield. nitrogenous . carbonaceous . meat meal . green cut bone . "the results of the second year clearly indicate the great superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable meat meal. the comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. "some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a better poultry food than commonly supposed. considering this fact and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large number of birds on each ration. no. hens. diet. ave. egg yield. nitrogenous . carbonaceous . " i will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a hoax. the illinois experiment station has never owned a chicken. these "illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few minutes of the writer's spare time. the basis of the experiments was a pack of cards containing the individual records of the maine experiment station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the distinction between the various diets. experimental bias. pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. a bias toward an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. an illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the west virginia station (bulletin ). with the preconceived notion that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned and conducted as follows: one lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. a contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, corn meal and fresh cut bone. the results were in favor of the latter ration by a doubled egg yield. to any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. the variety of the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. about the same time the massachusetts station planned a similar experiment. the bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. the hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. the bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the nitrogenous ration. the results were in favor of the corn. this astonished the experimenter. he tried it again and again tests came out in favor of corn. at last the old theory was revoked, and the fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. if by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more or less saturated. a reading of the chapter on incubation will illustrate this. a common error of this kind is the omission of facts necessary to fully explain results. items of costs are invariably omitted or minimized. food cost alone is usually mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face of many a "has-been" poultryman. the writer remembers an incident from his college days which illustrates the point in hand. let it first be remarked that this was on the new lands of the trans-missouri country, where manure had no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those who will haul it away. the professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. the figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense item--that of labor--was omitted. one of the students held up his hand and inquired after the labor bill. "oh," said the smiling professor, "the manure will pay for the labor." when the class adjourned, the student remarked: "they say figures won't lie, but a liar will figure." the third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the introduction of factors other than the one being tested. this may be done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally under the belief that they are negligible. of the first case an instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. these factors that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of chance. in fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. for this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the contrasted methods. the criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an experiment. the egg breeding work at the maine station. as is well known the maine station was for years considered by all poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for increased egg production. up until the fall of , the poultrymen of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of their fowls. when early in bulletin of the maine experiment station was published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the decline. in bulletin , the statement was made that "arithmetical mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised data. the further explanation that "the experiment was a success as an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure of the entire work. the unfortunate death of professor gowell, together with the fact that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors were about equally divided between those who were casting insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. after going over the publications of professor gowell, visiting the station and meeting the present force, i came to the following conclusions regarding the matter: professor gowell's work is open to severe criticism. errors have been made in conducting the work at maine which have made it possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly prove that selection, as practiced by professor gowell, actually resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of plymouth rock hens under experimentation. had professor gowell's successor been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public would have been given a radically different explanation of the results. professor gowell is the author of the following statement: "the small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for hatching." this opinion is not in accord with that of the majority of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. the opinion has been expressed by professor graham and others, that the particular results at the maine station may have been due to the decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. this view may be wholly without foundation. nevertheless, as the common type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished by natural means. for the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. the last few years of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. that the cool house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense and less profit. in the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a time-honored one, and included a warm mash. about the middle of the experimental period professor gowell brought out the system of feeding dry mash from hoppers. this custom became a great fad and professor gowell and director woods have preached it far and wide. perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular with novices than with established egg farms. many old line poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to high egg yields. whether these changes in housing and feeding have been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in the factors of production is at best unfortunate. a much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space per fowl. i have gone over carefully the published records of professor gowell, and the review of dr. pearl, and the following table represents, as near as i can determine, these factors for the series of years. in the year i find no clear statement as to the manner in which the birds were housed, and i may be in error in this case. otherwise the table gives the facts. year hens in flock per hen egg yield . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . . sq. ft. . certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different size flocks formed a prominent part of the maine station work during the last three years of the breeding test. the results of the work at the maine station on testing flock size, conducted without relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: no. of hens sq. ft. per hen egg yield . . . . . . no comparisons of and bird flocks in the same year are available, but by extending the comparisons of the , and flocks into the flock size, we can get some idea of the error that has been here introduced. the result of the australian egg laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the maine records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here brought out. it is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased to as many thousands. when the breeding experiments under discussion were started, professor gowell had under his supervision about three hundred hens. when the work was closed the experiment station plant had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and professor gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. it is interesting to note in this connection that the last four years of the records are explained by professor gowell as being low, due to various "accidents" (?) it is unreasonable to suppose the true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. the breeding stock sent out by professor gowell has given general satisfaction, and was found by professor graham of the ontario station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of superior laying quality to that of the average barred rock. clearly there is only one way to prove whether professor gowell's work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of miscellaneous origin. that much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the recent upheaval at the maine station, i believe to be the case, but that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future be of great value to the poultry interests. they are, however, in the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or others can apply to the benefit of the industry. upon the whole, i think that the present case of the trap-nest method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at experiment stations. on a large commercial scale the system of selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring would probably get the quickest results. the best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good principles and practices as are already known. the greatest opportunity for government effort lies in the development demonstration farm work in poultry just as it is doing with the corn and cotton in the south. chapter xvi poultry on the general farm this chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the profitable keeping of chickens on the typical american farm. by typical american farm i mean the farm west of ohio, north of tennessee and east of colorado. farms outside this section present different problems. in the region mentioned about three-quarters of the american poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of general farm operations than as an exclusive business. there is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. likewise, i do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those herein advised, using incubators and keeping leghorns. of these exceptions the farmer himself must judge. the rules i lay down are for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. the advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the advice given to farmers by poultry writers. the average poultry editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. the reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy impractical variety or method. best breeds for the farm. keep only one variety of chickens. do not bother with other varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. whether it will pay to raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, and on the freedom of the community from the disease called black-head. the kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three following breeds: barred plymouth rock, white wyandotte, rhode island reds. if you go outside of these three breeds be sure you have a very good reason for doing so. then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of eggs in a single season, paying not over $ . per sitting. keep all the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. the next spring pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs from this pen for hatching. that fall sell all of the young cockerels and all the old scrub hens. the second spring the two old roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general flock. from this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should remain so. each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. mark these by clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. from those so marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later selected. when you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. these runts are later to be eaten or sold. the more surplus chicks raised, the more strictly can the selection be made. this system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. when we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up before the selection is made it is impossible to select intelligently. every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock than your own. swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. if your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. keep only workers. on many farms few eggs are gathered from october to january. this is a season when eggs bring the best prices. to secure eggs at this season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between the first of march and the middle of may, or, in the case of leghorns, between the first of april and the first of june. pullets hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the fall and early winter. on the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the same as old hens. pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the time allowed. as they begin to show signs of maturity they should be gotten into permanent quarters. if allowed to begin laying while roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when changed to new quarters. if possible the coops should be gradually moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters without excitement or confinement. the poultry-house should have an ample circulation of fresh air. young stock that have been roosting in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. a common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to overrun the premises in the early fall. not only is money lost in the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg production is a source of loss. as soon as the hatching season is over old roosters should be sent to market. through june and august egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the hens should be made. market all hens two years or more of age. send with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. by the time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters--the latter part of august--these hens should be reduced to about one-half the original number. some time during september a final culling of the old stock should be made. those that have not yet begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again before the warm days of the following february. this system of culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable flock of layers. hatching chicks with hens. the eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a temperature between forty and seventy degrees fahrenheit. a good rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. the two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and interference of other hens. the practice of setting hens in the chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. almost all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. the most convenient arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. they may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the boxes used as a cover. the nests should be made by throwing a shovel of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. make the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. when a hen shows signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. this should be done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her position by daylight. place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine her to the nest. if all is well the next evening give her a full setting of eggs. a practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. these nests may be built by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of small runways about one by six feet. in one end are built the nests, which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the arrangement is covered with lath or netting. the food, grit and water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. care should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. a contrivance of this kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, and if no separate building is available would be the best method to use. incubators on the farm. my candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy an incubator or not, is to let it alone. if the farmer reads the chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success are not very great. in order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman at the kansas experiment station. replies received from kansas farmers, report as having tried incubators. of these, reported the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than hens, while the remaining declared the incubator to be a failure. the results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of kansas had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded with artificial hatching. the argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the farm incubator. the argument is this: hens will not set early enough and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks as the farmer may desire. now, each hen will not hatch over chicks, but is capable of caring for at least . here the incubator comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. this is the method i recommend where an incubator is to be used. the development of the public hatchery would supply these other chicks more economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry raisers are justified in trying an incubator. the best known incubators in the market are the cyphers, the model and the prairie state. cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. the following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. the person to run the incubator is the first condition of its success. a good incubator requires attention twice a day. one person should give this attention, and must give it regularly and carefully. the farmer's wife or some younger member of the family can often give more time and interest to this work than can the farmer. the likelihood of a person's success with artificial hatchers can best be determined by himself. the best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. the next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from windows. drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be avoided. not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. the objects in view in building an incubator are: ( ) to keep the eggs at a proper temperature ( degrees on a level with the top of the eggs). ( ) to cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at a normal rate. ( ) to prevent the eggs from resting too long in one position. the case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, to withstand variation in the outside temperature. the doors should fit neatly and be made of double glass. the lamp should be made of the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. the most satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, outside the case. regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are best. wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive but weaker in action. hard-rubber bars are frequently used. the most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by ventilators in the bottom of the machine. with the outside air cold and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. it is not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and regularity. an elaborate device for this work is useless. the trays will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side of the tray and rolling the others over. two other points to be considered in the incubator are: a suitable nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good thermometer. rearing chicks. if it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is best to put the hen and her brood in some building. during the most of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. the first consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is rain-proof and rat-tight. the next thing to look for is that the coop is not air-tight. let the front be of rat-tight netting or heavy screen. the same general plan may be used for small coops for hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing chickens. the essentials are: a movable floor raided on cleats, a sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the front to keep the rain from beating in. if used late in the fall or early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding front. the chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over as much ground as is convenient. neither should they remain long in one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. at first water should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they may be required to come to a few central water pans. as before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable method for general farm practice. the brooder on the farm is an expensive nuisance. for brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the little chick to exercise. but in the season when the great majority of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them especially in the wet grass. this is properly prevented by keeping the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her readily. the chick should not be fed until to hours old. it may then be started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after life. the hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly unnecessary and are only a waste of time. i recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as is used on commercial plants, and i especially insist that it will pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing chicks. the amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent food, and meat food. water should be provided in shallow dishes. this can best be arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for grit. chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. the common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. there is no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are several disadvantages. the feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to health. some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this into a bread. the better way is to feed all of the grain in a natural dry condition. there are foods in the market known as chick foods. the commercial foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. for those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following suggestions are given: oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. oats cannot be suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. the hulled oats are what is wanted. they can be purchased as the common rolled oats, or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. the latter form would be preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. oats in these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in packages. if too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. cracked corn is the best and cheapest chick food. flaxseed could be used in small quantities. kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas--in fact any wholesome grain--may be used, the more variety the better. farmers possessing feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind of grain. if there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. at about one week of age whole kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to replace the more expensive feeds. green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth of young chickens. chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa will pick up many bits of leaves. this answers the purpose fairly well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or lettuce. the chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as soon as possible. chickens are not by nature vegetarians. they require some meat to thrive. it has been proven in several experiments that young chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the same. very few farmers feed any meat whatever. they rely on insects to supply the deficiency. this would be all right if the insects were plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the commercial meat foods. fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. if one is handy to a butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to be depended upon. the best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so the chickens may help themselves. in case meat food is given, bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to their ration. infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of the ration. chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. it is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. feeding laying hens. the food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a growing chicken. one addition to the list is, however, required for egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is formed. in the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient lime to supply their needs. in the winter-time they should be supplied with more lime than the food contains. crushed oyster shell answers the purpose admirably. a supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter feeding. every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his chicken-house. vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. vegetables may be grown for this purpose. mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven in the wall. clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in regions where winter crops will not keep green. the leaves that shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. hens will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. the feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green food is available. oats may be prepared for this purpose by thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp place for a few days. feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches long. almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. corn, on account of its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. the general prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. if hens are supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount of corn, need not be feared. as has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more essential than the kind. do not feed one grain all the time. the more variety fed the better. corn and kaffir-corn, being cheap grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. cleanliness. the advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as in the cleaning of a kitchen. such advice may be suitable for the city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the farmer. poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry writer. the ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. the handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. in this the houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. if the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, rye or rape. the ground should be well sloped, so that the water draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on level ground would accumulate. cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. first, the house must be dry. poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source of danger if kept out of the feed. they should be removed often enough to prevent foul odors. drinking vessels should be rinsed out when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. if a mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. the advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details of poultry therapeutics. farm chicken houses. the following notes on poultry houses apply to iowa and nebraska, where the winters are severe, and similar climates. farther south and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as recommended for egg farms. a chicken house just high enough for a man to walk erectly and a floor space of about square feet per hen is advisable. this requires a house by for hens, or by for . lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. a gumbo patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. hogs and hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and other outbuildings. grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is necessary in heavy soils. the ground-level may be raised with a plow and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled with dirt. a stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be replaced by cedar, hemlock or osage orange posts, deeply set in the ground. small houses can be built on runners as described for colony houses for an egg farm. floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. cement floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. the objections to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. cheaply constructed floors will not last. board floors are very common and are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. all things considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. this should be made by filling in above the outside ground-level. the drainage will be facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small rocks or other coarse material. above this layer should be placed a layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. the walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. this may be attained in several ways. upright boards with cracks battened is the cheapest method. various kinds of lap-siding give similar results. the single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining with building-paper. this should be put on between the studding and siding. lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out from the wall. the double-board wall is the best where a warm house is desired. it should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap lumber. on this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the ordinary siding. the windows of a chicken-house should furnish sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on cloudy days. too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold at night, and it is a needless expenditure. the subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this advice: use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; if not, use shingles. shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do roofs of prepared roofing. a shingle roof can be made much warmer by using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. especial care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are tightly fitted. the object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. direct drafts of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the greatest when the least needed. schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and unnecessary. the latest, best and cheapest plan for providing ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open front house for the more southerly sections. the curtain front house is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in sections, as far north as connecticut. make all roosts on the same level. the ladder arrangement is a nuisance and offers no advantage. arrange the roosts so that they may be readily removed for cleaning. do not fill the chicken-house full of roosts. put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let these be on one side of the house. the floor under the roosts should be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. for laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow the hen to enter from the rear side. nests should be constructed so that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. the less contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. the farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. it will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small yard is attached to the chicken-house. the house should be arranged to open either into the yard or out into the range. this yard may be used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry crop. the end. file was produced from images produced by core historical literature in agriculture (chla), cornell university) +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's notes: | | | | [oe] and [oe] represent the oe ligature. text printed in italics | | and boldface in the original are represented here between under- | | scores (as in _italics_) and equal signs (as in =boldface=), res- | | pectively. text printed in small capitals in the original have been| | transcribed as all capitals. | | | | more transcriber's notes will be found at the end of this text. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ sheep, swine, and poultry; embracing the history and varieties of each; the best modes of breeding; their feeding and management; together with the diseases to which they are respectively subject, and the appropriate remedies for each. by robert jennings, v. s., professor of pathology and operative surgery in the veterinary college of philadelphia; late professor of veterinary medicine in the agricultural college of ohio; secretary of the american veterinary association of philadelphia; author of "the horse and his diseases," "cattle and their diseases," etc., etc. [illustration] with numerous illustrations. philadelphia: john e. potter and company. sansom street entered according to act of congress, in the year , by john e. potter, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states, in and for the eastern district of pennsylvania. preface. encouraged by the favorable reception of his former works, the author presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a popular compendium relative to sheep, swine, and poultry. it would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bearing upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the present size. indeed, the main trouble experienced has been the selecting of such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of paramount practical importance. he has not deemed it advisable to cumber his work with items of information which could be of service to particular sections and localities only; but has rather endeavored to present, in a concise, yet comprehensible shape, whatever is essential to be understood concerning the animals in question. the amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will, of course, call to their aid all the works, no matter how expensive or voluminous, which are to be found bearing upon the subject in which they are for the time interested. the present volume can scarcely be expected to fill the niche which such might desire to see occupied. the author's experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great body of our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in the premises is a treatise, of convenient size, containing the essential features of the treatment and management of each, couched in language free from technicality or rarely scientific expressions, and fortified by the results of actual experience upon the farm. such a place the author trusts this work may occupy. he hopes that, while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any, it will prove acceptable, in a peculiar degree, to that numerous and thrifty class of citizens to which allusion has already been made. the importance of such a work cannot be overrated. take the subject of sheep for example: the steadily growing demand for woollen goods of every description is producing a great and lucrative development of the wool trade. even light fabrics of wool are now extensively preferred throughout the country to those of cotton. our imports of wool from england during the past six years have increased at an almost incredible rate, while our productions of the article during the past few years greatly exceed that of the same period in any portion of our history. relative to swine, moreover, it may be said that they form so considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information as to the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable; while our domestic poultry contribute so much, directly and indirectly, to the comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of thousands, that sensible views touching that division will be of service in almost every household. to those who are familiar with the author's previous works upon the horse and cattle, it is needless to say any thing as to the method adopted by him in discussing the subject of diseases. to others he would say, that only such diseases are described as are likely to be actually encountered, and such curatives recommended as his own personal experience, or that of others upon whose judgment he relies, has satisfied him are rational and valuable. the following works, among others, have been consulted: randall's sheep husbandry; youatt on sheep; goodale's breeding of domestic animals; allen's domestic animals; stephens's book of the farm; youatt on the hog; richardson on the hog; dixon and kerr's ornamental and domestic poultry; bennett's poultry book; and browne's american poultry yard. to those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished him with valuable information, growing out of their own observation and practice, he acknowledges himself especially indebted; and were he certain that they would not take offence, he would be pleased to mention them here by name. should the work prove of service to our intelligent american farmers and stock-breeders as a body, the author's end will have been attained. contents. sheep and their diseases. page history and varieties american sheep native sheep the spanish merino the saxon merino the new leicester the south-down the cotswold the cheviot the lincoln natural history of the sheep formation of the teeth structure of the skin anatomy of the wool long wool middle wool short wool crossing and breeding breeding points of the merino breeding merinos general principles of breeding use of rams lambing management of lambs castration and docking feeding and management feeding shade fences hoppling dangerous rams prairie feeding fall feeding winter feeding feeding with other stock division of flocks regularity in feeding effect of food yards feeding-racks troughs barns and sheds sheds hay-holder tagging washing cutting the hoofs shearing cold storms sun-scald ticks marking or branding maggots shortening the horns selection and division the crook driving and slaughtering driving points of fat sheep slaughtering cutting up relative qualities contributions to manufactures diseases and their remedies administering medicine bleeding feeling the pulse apoplexy braxy bronchitis catarrh malignant epizoötic catarrh colic costiveness diarrh[oe]a disease of the biflex canal dysentery flies fouls fractures garget goitre grub in the head hoof-ail hoove hydatid on the brain obstruction of the gullet ophthalmia palsy pelt-rot pneumonia poison rot scab small-pox sore face sore mouth ticks illustrations. a leicester ram rocky mountain sheep a merino ram a spanish sheep-dog out at pasture a country scene a south-down ram the cotswold a cheviot ewe skeleton of the sheep as covered by the muscles the wallachian sheep the happy trio the scotch sheep-dog or colley ewe and lambs feeding and management a covered salting-box a convenient box-rack a hole-rack the hopper-rack an economical sheep-trough sheep-barn with sheds a shed of rails washing apparatus toe-nippers fleece shepherd's crook the shepherd and his flock drover's or butcher's dog quiet enjoyment an english rack for feeding sheep a barrack for storing sheep fodder the broad-tailed sheep swine and their diseases. contents. history and breeds ( ) american swine ( ) the byefield ( ) the bedford ( ) the leicester ( ) the yorkshire ( ) the chinese ( ) the suffolk ( ) the berkshire ( ) natural history of the hog ( ) formation of the teeth ( ) breeding and management ( ) breeding ( ) points of a good hog ( ) treatment during pregnancy ( ) abortion ( ) parturition ( ) treatment while suckling ( ) treatment of young pigs ( ) castration ( ) spaying ( ) weaning ( ) ringing ( ) feeding and fattening ( ) piggeries ( ) slaughtering ( ) pickling and curing ( ) value of the carcass ( ) diseases and their remedies ( ) catching the pig ( ) bleeding ( ) drenching ( ) catarrh ( ) cholera ( ) crackings ( ) diarrh[oe]a ( ) fever ( ) foul skin ( ) inflammation of the lungs ( ) jaundice ( ) leprosy ( ) lethargy ( ) mange ( ) measles ( ) murrain ( ) quinsy ( ) staggers ( ) swelling of the spleen ( ) surfeit ( ) tumors ( ) illustrations. the wild boar ( ) the wild boar at bay ( ) the chinese hog ( ) the suffolk ( ) a berkshire boar ( ) skeleton of the hog as covered by the muscles ( ) the old country well ( ) wild hogs ( ) the old english hog ( ) a wicked-looking specimen ( ) hunting the wild boar ( ) poultry and their diseases. contents. history and varieties ( ) the domestic fowl ( ) the bantam ( ) the african bantam ( ) the bolton gray ( ) the blue dun ( ) the chittagong ( ) the cochin china ( ) the cuckoo ( ) the dominique ( ) the dorking ( ) the fawn-colored dorking ( ) the black dorking ( ) the dunghill fowl ( ) the frizzled fowl ( ) the game fowl ( ) the mexican hen-cock ( ) the wild indian game ( ) the spanish game ( ) the guelderland ( ) the spangled hamburgh ( ) the golden spangled ( ) the silver spangled ( ) the java ( ) the jersey-blue ( ) the lark-crested fowl ( ) the malay ( ) the pheasant-malay ( ) the plymouth rock ( ) the poland ( ) the black polish ( ) the golden polands ( ) the silver polands ( ) the black-topped white ( ) the shanghae ( ) the white shanghae ( ) the silver pheasant ( ) the spanish ( ) natural history of domestic fowls ( ) the guinea fowl ( ) the pea fowl ( ) the turkey ( ) the wild turkey ( ) the domestic turkey ( ) the duck ( ) the wild duck ( ) the domestic duck ( ) the goose ( ) the wild goose ( ) the domestic goose ( ) the bernacle goose ( ) the bremen goose ( ) the brent goose ( ) the china goose ( ) the white china ( ) the egyptian goose ( ) the java goose ( ) the toulouse goose ( ) the white-fronted goose ( ) the anatomy of the egg ( ) breeding and management ( ) breeding ( ) high breeding ( ) selection of stock ( ) feeding ( ) bran ( ) millet ( ) rice ( ) potatoes ( ) green food ( ) earth-worms ( ) animal food ( ) insects ( ) laying ( ) preservation of eggs ( ) choice of eggs for setting ( ) incubation ( ) incubation of turkeys ( ) incubation of geese ( ) rearing of the young ( ) rearing of guinea fowls ( ) rearing of turkeys ( ) rearing of ducklings ( ) rearing of goslings ( ) caponizing ( ) fattening and slaughtering ( ) slaughtering and dressing ( ) poultry-houses ( ) diseases and their remedies ( ) asthma ( ) costiveness ( ) diarrh[oe]a ( ) fever ( ) indigestion ( ) lice ( ) loss of feathers ( ) pip ( ) roup ( ) wounds and sores ( ) illustrations. varieties of fowl ( ) the bantam ( ) bantam ( ) bolton grays or creole fowl ( ) cochin chinas ( ) white dorkings ( ) gray game fowls ( ) guelderlands ( ) hamburgh fowls ( ) malays ( ) poland fowls ( ) shanghaes ( ) white shanghaes ( ) spanish fowls ( ) the guinea fowl ( ) the pea fowl ( ) the wild turkey ( ) the domestic turkey ( ) the eider duck ( ) wild duck ( ) rouen duck ( ) wild or canada goose ( ) a bremen goose ( ) china or hong kong goose ( ) barnyard scene ( ) fighting cocks ( ) on the watch ( ) marquee or tent-shaped coops ( ) duck-pond and houses ( ) a bad style of slaughtering ( ) rustic poultry-house ( ) a fancy coop in chinese or gothic style ( ) among the straw ( ) prairie hens ( ) swans ( ) [illustration: a leicester ram.] history and varieties with a single exception--that of the dog--there is no member of the beast family which presents so great a diversity of size, color, form, covering, and general appearance, as characterizes the sheep; and none occupy a wider range of climate, or subsist on a greater variety of food. this animal is found in every latitude between the equator and the arctic circle, ranging over barren mountains and through fertile valleys, feeding upon almost every species of edible forage--the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots--browsing on aromatic and bitter herbs alike, cropping the leaves and barks from stunted forest shrubs and the pungent, resinous evergreens. in some parts of norway and sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh during the long, rigorous winter, and, if reduced to necessity, even devours his own wool. in size, he is diminutive or massive; he has many horns, or but two large or small spiral horns, or is polled or hornless. his tail may be broad, or long, or a mere button, discoverable only by the touch. his covering is long and coarse, or short and hairy, or soft and furry, or fine and spiral. his color varies from white or black to every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue, and gray. this wide diversity results from long domestication under almost every conceivable variety of condition. among the antediluvians, sheep were used for sacrificial offerings, and their fleeces, in all probability, furnished them with clothing. since the deluge their flesh has been a favorite food among many nations. many of the rude, wandering tribes of the east employ them as beasts of burden. the uncivilized--and, to some extent, the refined--inhabitants of europe use their milk, not only as a beverage, but for making into cheese, butter, and curds--an appropriation of it which is also noticed by job, isaiah, and other old testament writers, as well as most of the greek and roman authors. the ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow, though it is generally thicker, and yields a pale, yellowish butter, which is always soft and soon becomes rancid. in dairy regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump water, churn milk, or perform other light domestic work. the calling of the shepherd has, from time immemorial, been conspicuous, and not wanting in dignity and importance. abel was a keeper of sheep; as were abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs. job possessed fourteen thousand sheep. rachel, the favored mother of the jewish race, "came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." the seven daughters of the priest of midian "came and drew water for their father's flocks." moses, the statesman and lawgiver, "learned in all the wisdom of the egyptians," busied himself in tending "the flocks of jethro, his father-in-law." david, too, that sweet singer of israel and its destined monarch--the jewish hero, poet, and divine--was a keeper of sheep. to shepherds, "abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night," came the glad tidings of a saviour's birth. the hebrew term for sheep signifies, in its etymology, fruitfulness, abundance, plenty--indicative of the blessings which they were destined to confer upon the human family. in the holy scriptures, this animal is the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues, the victim of propitiatory sacrifices, and the type of redemption to fallen man. among profane writers, homer and hesiod, virgil and theocritus, introduce them in their pastoral themes; while their heroes and demi-gods--hercules and ulysses, eneas and numa--carefully perpetuate them in their domains. in modern times, they have engaged the attention of the most enlightened nations, whose prosperity has been intimately linked with them, wherever wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. spain and portugal, during the two centuries in which they figured as the most enterprising european countries, excelled in the production and manufacture of wool. flanders, for a time, took precedence of england in the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life; and the latter country then sent what little wool she raised to the former to be manufactured. this being soon found highly impolitic, large bounties were offered by england for the importation of artists and machinery; and by a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to the utmost protection and increase of wool and woollens, she gradually carried their production beyond any thing the world had ever seen. of the original breed of this invaluable animal, nothing certain is known; four varieties having been deemed by naturalists entitled to that distinction. these are, . the _musimon_, inhabiting corsica, sardinia, and other islands of the mediterranean, the mountainous parts of spain and greece, and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea. these have been frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. . the _argali_ ranges over the steppes, or inland plains of central asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. they are larger and hardier than the musimon and not so easily tamed. . the _rocky mountain sheep_--frequently called the _bighorn_ by our western hunters--is found on the prairies west of the mississippi, and throughout the wild, mountainous regions extending through california and oregon to the pacific. they are larger than the argali--which in other respects they resemble--and are probably descended from them, since they could easily cross upon the ice at behring's straits, from the north-eastern coast of asia. like the argali, when caught young they are readily tamed; but it is not known that they have ever been bred with the domestic sheep. before the country was overrun by the white ram, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the mississippi. father hennepin--a french jesuit, who wrote some two hundred years ago--often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through the territory which is now embraced by illinois, wisconsin, and a portion of minnesota. the wild, clambering propensities of these animals--occupying, as they do, the giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller--and their outer coating of hair--supplied underneath, however, with a thick coating of soft wool--give them much the appearance of goats. in summer they are generally found single; but when they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders. [illustration: rocky mountain sheep.] . the _bearded sheep of africa_ inhabit the mountains of barbary and egypt. they are covered with a soft, reddish hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck, and large, locks of hair at the ankle. many varieties of the domesticated sheep--that is, all the subjugated species--apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each other. the _fat-rumped_ and the _broad-tailed sheep_ are much more extensively diffused than any other, and occupy nearly all the south-eastern part of europe, western and central asia, and northern africa. they are supposed, from various passages in the pentateuch in which "the fat and the rump" are spoken of in connection with offerings, to be the varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, the jewish race. they certainly give indisputable evidence of remote and continued subjugation. their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or recently domesticated race. this breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, etc., with quite as many and marked shades of distinction as the modern european varieties. in madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of africa, with coarse wool; in the levant, and along the mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of thibet the exquisite cashmere shawls of commerce are manufactured. both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they exhibit a great diversity of color. some yield a carcass of scarcely thirty pounds, while others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed. the tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of breeding; some are less than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third of the entire dressed weight. the fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a great delicacy; in hot climates resembling oil, and in colder, suet. it is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to great britain; but they are mentioned as existing there at very early periods. american sheep. in north america, there are none, strictly speaking, except the rocky mountain breed, already mentioned. the broad-tailed sheep of asia and africa were brought into the united states about seventy years ago, under the name of the tunisian mountain sheep, and bred with the native flocks. some of them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were highly prized as prolific, and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large weight, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. the principal objection made to them was the difficulty of propagation, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. the lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black; but all, excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes having the entire head tawny or black. the few which descended from the original importations have become blended with american flocks, and have long ceased to be distinguishable from them. the common sheep of holland were early imported by the dutch emigrants, who originally colonized new york; but they, in like manner, have long since ceased to exist as a distinct variety. improved european breeds have been so largely introduced during the present century, that the united states at present possesses every known breed which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. by the census of , there were nearly twenty-three and a half millions of sheep in this country, yielding upwards of sixty and a half million pounds of wool. an almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place between the spanish, english, and "native" families; carried, indeed, to such an extent that there are, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the united states that preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of any one breed, or that can lay claim to unmixed purity of blood. the principal breeds in the united states are the so-called "natives;" the spanish and saxon merinos, introduced from the countries whose names they bear: the new leicester, or bakewell; the south-down; the cotswold; the cheviot; and the lincoln--all from england. native sheep. this name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled sheep of the country, which existed here previously to the importation of the improved breeds. these were of foreign and mostly of english origin, and could probably claim a common descent from no one stock. the early settlers, emigrating from different sections of the british empire, and a portion of them from other parts of europe, brought with them, in all probability, each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighborhood, and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family now under consideration. amid the perils of war and the incursions of beasts of prey, they were carefully preserved. as early as , new england was spoken of as "abounding with sheep." these common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the coarsest fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from three to three and a half pounds of wool to the fleece. they were slow in arriving at maturity, compared with the improved english breeds, and yielded, when fully grown, from ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton to the quarter. they were usually long-legged, light in the fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back; although some rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, and some approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. they were excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely destitute of care, and without shelter, one hundred per cent. of lambs; and in small flocks, a still larger proportion. these, too, were usually dropped in march, or the earlier part of april. restless in their disposition, their impatience of restraint almost equalled that of the untamed argali, from which they were descended; and in many sections of the country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with little regard to enclosures, over the possessions of their owner and his neighbors, leaving a large portion of their wool adhering to bushes and thorns, and the remainder placed nearly beyond the possibility of carding, by the tory-weed and burdock, so common on new lands. to this general character of the native flocks, there was but one exception--a considerably numerous and probably accidental variety, known as the _otter breed_, or _creepers_. these were excessively duck-legged, with well-formed bodies, full chests, broad backs, yielding a close, heavy fleece, of medium quality of wool. they were deserved favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed, since their power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by a fence not less than two feet high. the quality of their mutton equalled, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior to, their longer-legged contemporaries. the race is now quite extinct. an excellent variety, called the arlington sheep, was produced by general washington, from a cross of a persian ram upon the bakewell, which bore wool fourteen inches in length, soft, silky, and admirably suited to combing. these, likewise, have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of the country. the old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly or quite disappeared, owing to universal crossing, to a greater or less extent, with the foreign breeds of later introduction. the first and second cross with the merino resulted in a decided improvement, and produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool solely for domestic purposes. the fleeces are of uneven fineness, being hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc.; but the general quality is much improved, the quantity is considerably augmented, the carcass is more compact and nearer the ground, and they have lost their unquiet and roving propensities. the cross with the saxon, for reasons hereafter to be given, has not generally been so successful. with the leicester and downs, the improvement, so far as form size, and a propensity to take on fat are concerned, is manifest. the spanish merino. [illustration: a merino ram.] the spanish sheep, in different countries, has, either directly or indirectly, effected a complete revolution in the character of the fleece. the race is unquestionably one of the most ancient extant. the early writers on agriculture and the veterinary art describe various breeds of sheep as existing in spain, of different colors--black, red, and tawny. the black sheep yielded a fine fleece, the finest of that color which was then known; but the red fleece of bætica--a considerable part of the spanish coast on the mediterranean, comprising the modern spanish provinces of gaen, cordova, seville, andalusia, and granada, which was early colonized by the enterprising greeks--was, according to pliny, of still superior quality, and "had no fellow." these sheep were probably imported from italy, and of the tarentine breed, which had gradually spread from the coast of syria, and of the black sea, and had then reached the western extremity of europe. many of them mingled with and improved the native breeds of spain, while others continued to exist as a distinct race, and, meeting with a climate and an herbage suited to them, retained their original character and value, and were the progenitors of the merinos of the present day. columella, a colonist from italy, and uncle of the writer of an excellent work on agriculture, introduced more of the tarentine sheep into bætica, where he resided in the reign of the emperor claudius, in the year , and otherwise improved on the native breed; for, struck with the beauty of some african rams which had been brought to rome to be exhibited at the public games, he purchased them, and conveyed them to his farm in spain, whence, probably, originated the better varieties of the long-woolled breeds of that country. before his time, however, spain possessed a valuable breed; since strabo, who flourished under tiberius, speaking of the beautiful woollen cloths that were worn by the romans, says that the wool was brought from truditania, in spain. the limited region of italy--overrun, as it repeatedly was, by hordes of barbarians during and after the times of the latest emperors--soon lost her pampered flocks; while the extended regions of spain--intersected in every direction by almost impassable mountains--could maintain their more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change. to what extent the improvements which have been noticed were carried is unknown; but as spain was at that time highly civilized, and as agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the greater part of the colonists that spread over the vast territory, which then acknowledged the roman power, it is highly probable that columella's experiments laid the foundation for a general improvement in the spanish sheep--an improvement, moreover, which was not lost, nor even materially impaired, during the darker ages that succeeded. the merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent surpassed by no others. they have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of rambouillet; in the uniformity and excessive fineness of the fibre, as in the saxons; and in their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but there has never yet been deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass, wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable food and attention. most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped; while the merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding among themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently established; and this property is transmitted to a great extent, even among the crosses, thus marking the merino as an ancient and peculiar race. the remains of the ancient varieties of color, also, as noticed by pliny, solinus, and columella, may still be discovered in the modern merino. the plain and indeed the only reason that can be assigned for the union of black and gray faces with white bodies, in the same breed, is the frequent intermixture of black and white sheep, until the white prevails in the fleece, and the black is confined to the face and legs. it is still apt to break out occasionally in the individual, unless it is fixed and concentrated in the face and legs, by repeated crosses and a careful selection; and, on the contrary, in the merino south-down the black may be reduced by a few crosses to small spots about the legs, while the merino hue overspreads the countenance. this hue--variously described as a velvet, a buff, a fawn, or a satin-colored countenance, but in which a red tinge not infrequently predominates, still indicates the original colors of the indigenous breeds of spain; and the black wool, for which spain was formerly so much distinguished, is still inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the merino. in some flocks half the ear is invariably brown, and a coarse black hair is often discernible in the finest pile. [illustration: a spanish sheep dog.] the conquest, in the eighth century, by the moors of those fine provinces in the south of spain, so far from checking, served rather to encourage the production of fine wool. the conquerors were not only enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to different countries. the luxury of the moorish sovereigns has been the theme of many writers; and in the thirteenth century, when the woollen manufacture flourished in but few places, there were found in seville no less than sixteen thousand looms. a century later, barcelona, perpignan, and tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of their cloths, which became staple articles of trade throughout the greater part of europe, as well as on the coast of africa. after the expulsion of the moors, in the fifteenth century, by ferdinand and isabella, the woollen manufacture languished, and was, in a great degree, lost to spain, owing to the rigorous banishment of nearly one million industrious moors, most of whom were weavers. as a consequence, the sixteen thousand looms of seville dwindled down to sixty. the spanish government perceived its fatal mistake too late, and subsequent efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this manufacture proved fruitless. during all that time, however, the spanish sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence of almost total neglect; and although the merino flocks and merino wool have improved under the more careful management of other countries, the world is originally indebted to spain for the most valuable material in the manufacture of cloth. the perpetuation of the merino sheep in all its purity, amid the convulsions which changed the entire political framework of spain and destroyed every other national improvement, strikingly illustrates the primary determining power of blood or breeding, as well as the agency of soil and climate--possibly too much underrated in modern times. these spanish sheep are divided into two classes: the _stationary_, or those that remain during the whole of the year on a certain farm, or in a certain district, there being a sufficient provision for them in winter and in summer; and the _migratory_, or those which wander some hundreds of miles twice in the year, in quest of pasturage. the principal breed of stationary sheep consists of true merinos; but the breeds most sought for, and with which so many countries have been enriched, are the merinos of the migratory description, which pass the summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter on the plains toward the south of spain. the first impression made by the merino sheep on one unacquainted with its value would be unfavorable. the wool lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds, and being abundant in yolk--or a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool and causes it to mat closely together--is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. the legs are long, yet small in the bone; the breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat flat; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. the horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, and with more or less of a spiral form; the head is large, but the forehead rather low. a few of the females are horned; but, generally speaking, they are without horns. both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shearing-time; the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the neck. the pile or hair, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, owing to the thickness into which it grows on the pelf, and the abundance of the yolk, retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls upon it; but, upon examination, the fibre exceeds, in fineness and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. the average weight of the fleece in spain is eight pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. the staple differs in length in different provinces. when fatted, these sheep will weigh from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter. the excellence of the merinos consist in the unexampled fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight of it yielded by each individual sheep; the closeness of that wool, and the luxuriance of the yolk, which enable them to support extremes of cold and wet quite as well as any other breed; the readiness with which they adapt themselves to every change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their fineness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, and in the frozen regions of the north; an appetite which renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food; a quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are turned; and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled in any other breed. their defects--partly attributable to the breed, but more to the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally subjected--are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form; a tendency to abortion, or barrenness; a difficulty of yeaning, or giving birth to their young; a paucity of milk; and a too frequent neglect of their lambs. they are likewise said, notwithstanding the fineness of their wool, and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. man, however, is far more responsible for this than nature. every thing was sacrificed in spain to fineness and quantity of wool. these were supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, or, at least, with freedom from exposure to cold; and, therefore, twice in the year, a journey of four hundred miles was undertaken, at the rate of eighty or a hundred miles per week--the spring journey commencing when the lambs were scarcely four months old. it is difficult to say in what way the wool of the migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these periodical journeys. although among them is found the finest and most valuable wool in spain, yet the stationary sheep, in certain provinces--segovia, leon, and estremadura--are more valuable than the migratory flocks of others. moreover, the fleece of some of the german merinos--which do not travel at all, and are housed all the winter--greatly exceeds that obtained from the best migratory breed--the leonese--in fineness and felting property; and the wool of the migratory sheep has been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by that from sheep which never travel. with respect to the carcass, these harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the year, tend to destroy all possibility of fattening, or any tendency toward it, and the form and the constitution of the flock are deteriorated, and the lives of many sacrificed. the first importation of merinos into the united states took place in ; a banker of paris, mr. delessert, having shipped four, of which but one arrived in safety at his farm near kingston, in new york; the others perished on the passage. the same year, mr. seth adams, of massachusetts, imported a pair from france. in , chancellor livingston, then american minister at the court of versailles, sent two choice pairs from the rambouillet flock--which was started, in , by placing four hundred ewes and rams, selected from the choicest spanish flocks, on the royal farm of that name, in france--to claremont, his country-seat, on the hudson river. in the latter part of the same year, colonel humphreys, american minister to spain, shipped two hundred, on his departure from that country. the largest importations, however, were made through hon. william jarvis, of vermont, then american consul at lisbon, portugal, in , , and , who succeeded in obtaining the choicest sheep of that country. various subsequent importations took place, which need not be particularized. the cessation of all commercial intercourse with england, in and , growing out of difficulties with that country, directed attention, in an especial manner, toward manufacturing and wool-growing. the merino, consequently, rose into importance, and so great was the interest aroused, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a head was paid for them. some of the later importations, unfortunately, arrived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the sheep family, the scab and the foot-rot; which evils, together with increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part of their former price. when, however, it was established, by actual experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate in this country, as had been feared by many, and that they became readily acclimated, they again rose into favor. the prostration of the manufacturing interests of the country, which ensued soon afterwards, rendered the merino of comparatively little value, and ruined many who had purchased them at their previous high prices. since that period, the valuation of the sheep which bear the particular wool has, as a matter of course, kept pace with the fluctuations in the price of the wool. the term merino, it must be remembered, is but the general appellation of a breed, comprising several varieties, presenting essential points of difference in size, form, quality and quantity of wool. these families have generally been merged, by interbreeding, in the united states and other countries which have received the race from spain. purity of _merino_ blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors, form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. families have, indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting wider points of difference than did those of spain. this is owing, in some cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breeding; but more often, probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. the question, which has been at times raised, whether there are any merinos in the united states, descendants of the early importations, of unquestionable purity of blood, has been conclusively settled in the affirmative. the minor distinctions among the various families into which, as has already been intimated, the american merino has diverged, are numerous, but may all, perhaps, be classed under three general heads. the _first_ is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, free from hair in properly bred flocks; somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much so as the rambouillets; bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some flocks, but not commonly so; their wool rather long on back and belly, and exceedingly dense; wool whiter within than the rambouillets; skin the same rich rose-color. sheep of this class are larger and stronger than those originally imported, carry much heavier fleeces, and in well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece is of a decidedly better quality. the _second_ class embraces smaller animals than the preceding; less hardy; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered with a black, pitchy gum on its extremities; fleece about one-fourth lighter than in the former class. the _third_ class, bred at the south, mostly, includes animals still smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter fleeces. the fleece is destitute of external gum. the sheep and wool have a close resemblance to the saxon; and, if not actually mixed with that blood, they have been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. [illustration: out at pasture.] the mutton of the merino, notwithstanding the prejudices existing on the subject, is short-grained, and of good flavor, when killed at a proper age, and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to the quarter. it is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth, and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep, and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved english breeds. it should, however, be remarked, in this connection, that it is correspondingly slow in arriving at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth before three years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age. the merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woolled sheep, and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed to be hardier than the bakewell, and equally so with the high-bred south-down. the ewe, as has been intimated, is not so good a nurse, and will not usually do full justice to more than one lamb. eighty or ninety per cent. is about the ordinary number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred per cent., in carefully managed or small flocks. allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the merino and the native sheep. on the introduction of the saxon family of the merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the cross was continued until the spanish blood was nearly bred out. when the admixture took place with judiciously selected saxons, the results were not unfavorable for certain purposes. these instances of judicious crossing were, unfortunately, rare. fineness of wool was made the only tests of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, or how diminutive or miserable the carcass. the consequence was, as might be supposed, the ruin of most of the merino flocks. the saxon merino. the indigenous breed of sheep in saxony resembled that of the neighboring states, and consisted of two distinct varieties--one bearing a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. at the close of the seven years war, augustus frederic, the elector of saxony, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from the most improved spanish flocks, and placed a part of them on one of his own farms, in the neighborhood of dresden, which he kept unmixed, as he desired to ascertain how far the pure spanish breed could be naturalized in that country the other part of the flock was distributed on other farms, and devoted to the improvement of the saxon sheep. it was soon sufficiently apparent that the merinos did not degenerate in saxony. many parcels of their wool were not inferior to the choicest leonese fleeces. the best breed of the native saxons was also materially improved: the majority of the shepherds were, however, obstinately prejudiced against the innovation; but the elector, resolutely bent upon accomplishing his object, imported an additional number, and compelled the crown-tenants, then occupying lands under him, to purchase a certain number of the sheep. compulsion was not long necessary; the true interest of the shepherds was discovered; pure merinos rapidly increased in saxony, and became perfectly naturalized. indeed, after a considerable lapse of years, the fleece of the saxon sheep began, not only to equal the spanish, but to exceed it in fineness and manufacturing value. to this result the government very materially contributed, by the establishment of an agricultural school, and other minor schools for shepherds, and by distributing various publications, which plainly and intelligibly showed the value and proper management of the merino. the breeders were selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece. great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year, and they were housed on every slight emergency. by this course of breeding and treatment the size and weight of the fleece were reduced, and that hardiness and vigor of constitution, which had universally characterized the migratory spanish breed, were partially impaired. in numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the character of the flocks. the first importation of saxons into this country was made in , by samuel heustan, a merchant of boston, massachusetts, and consisted of four good rams, of which two went to boston, and the others to philadelphia. the following year, seventy-seven--about two-thirds of which number only were pure-blooded--were brought to boston, sold at public auction at brooklyn, n.y., as "pure-blooded electoral saxons," and thus scattered over the country. another lot, composed of grade sheep and pure-bloods, was disposed of, not long afterwards, by public sale, at brighton, near boston, and brought increased prices, some of them realizing from four hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars. these prices gave rise to speculation, and many animals, of a decidedly inferior grade, were imported, which were thrown upon the market for the most they could command. the sales in many instances not half covering the cost of importation, the speculation was soon abandoned. in , henry d. grove, of hoosic, n.y., a native of germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, who had accompanied some of the early importations, imported one hundred and fifteen choice animals for his own breeding, and, in the following year, eighty more. these formed the flock from which mr. grove bred, to the time of his decease, in . the average weight of fleece from his entire flock, nearly all of which were ewes and lambs, was ten pounds and fourteen ounces, thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. this was realized after a short summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed one and a half pounds, by actual weight, per day, except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just before and after lambing. this treatment was attended with no disease or loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for every ewe. the saxon merino differs materially in frame from the spanish; there is more roundness of carcass and fineness of bone, together with a general form and appearance indicative of a disposition to fatten. two distinct breeds are noticed. one variety has stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck comparatively short and broad, and body round; the wool grows most on the face and legs; the grease in the wool is almost pitchy. the other breed, called escurial, has longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head; very little wool on the latter; and a finer, shorter, and softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. from what has just been stated it will be seen that there are few saxon flocks in the united states that have not been reduced to the quality of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported together; all of them being sold to our breeders as pure stock. besides, there are very few flocks which have not been again crossed with the native or the merino sheep of our country, or with both. those who early purchased the merino crossed them with the native; and when the saxons arrived those mongrels were bred to saxon rams. this is the history of three-quarters, probably, of the saxon flocks of the united states. as these sheep have now so long been bred toward the saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it may well be questioned whether they are any worse for the admixture; when crossed only with the merino, it is, undoubtedly, to their advantage. the american saxon, with these early crosses in its pedigree, is, by general admission, a hardier and more easily kept animal than the pure escurial or electoral saxon. climate, feed, and other causes have, doubtless, conspired, as in the case of the merino, to add to their size and vigor; but, after every necessary allowance has been made, they generally owe these qualities to those early crosses. the fleeces of the american saxons weigh, on the average, from two or two and a quarter to three pounds. they are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds; but they are evidently hardier than the parent german stock. in docility and patience under confinement, in late maturity and longevity, they resemble the merinos, from which they are descended; though they do not mature so early as the merino, nor do they ordinarily live so long. they are poorer nurses; their lambs are smaller, fatter, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched; they do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food considerably less. taken together, the american saxons bear a much finer wool than the american merinos; though this is not always the case, and many breeders of saxons cross with the merino, for the purpose of increasing the weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality. our saxon wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of germany; though individual specimens from saxons in connecticut and ohio compare well with the highest german grades. this inferiority is not attributable to climate or other natural causes, or to a want of skill on the part of our breeders; but to the fact that but a very few of our manufacturers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which produce this exquisite quality of wool. the new leicester. the unimproved leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-woolled breed of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of england. it was a slow feeder, its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor. the breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of fleece. [illustration: a country scene.] about the middle of the last century, robert bakewell, of dishley, in leicestershire, first applied himself to the improvement of the sheep in that country. before his improvements, aptitude to fatten and symmetry of shape--that is, such shape as should increase as much as possible the most valuable parts of the animal, and diminish the offal in the same proportion--were entirely disregarded. perceiving that smaller animals increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones, that they consumed less food, that the same quantity of herbage, applied to feeding a large number of small sheep, would produce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep, which alone it would support, and that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more moderate weight, he selected from the different flocks in his neighborhood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him to have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape possessed the peculiarities which, in his judgment, would produce the largest proportion of valuable meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and offal. he was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to in breeding sheep is the value of the carcass, and that the fleece ought always to be a secondary consideration; and this for the obvious reason that, while the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep's fleece is a difference of great amount, yet if this increase is obtained at the expense of the animal's propensity to fatten, the farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. the sort of sheep, therefore, which he selected were those possessed of the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest aptitude to fatten, and rather smaller in size than the sheep generally bred at that time. having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred, and, so far as can be ascertained--for all of mr. bakewell's measures were kept secret, even from his most intimate friends, and he died without throwing, voluntarily, the least light on the subject--did not object to breeding from near relations, when, by so doing, he brought together animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics which he wished to obtain. having thus established his flock, he adopted the practice--which has since been constantly followed by the most eminent breeders of sheep--of letting rams for the season, instead of selling them to those who wished for their use. by this means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much larger number of rams in his possession; and, consequently, his power of selecting those most suitable to his flock, or which may be required to correct any faults in shape or quality which may occur in it, is greatly increased. by cautiously using a ram for one season, or by observing the produce of a ram let to some other breeder, he can ascertain the probable qualities of the lambs which such ram will get, and thus avoid the danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value of his stock. the farmers, likewise, who hire the rams, have an opportunity of varying the rams from which they breed much more than they otherwise could do; and they are also enabled to select from sheep of the best quality, and from those best calculated to effect the greatest improvement in their flocks. the idea, when first introduced by him, was so novel that he had great difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it; and his first ram was let for sixteen shillings. so eminent, however, was his success, that, in , he let three rams, for a single season, for twelve hundred and fifty pounds (about six thousand two hundred dollars), and was offered ten hundred and fifty pounds (about five thousand two hundred dollars) for twenty ewes. soon afterwards he received the enormous price of eight hundred guineas (or four thousand dollars) for two-thirds of the services of a ram for a single season, reserving the other third for himself. the improved leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser varieties of cotswold, lincoln, etc. where there is a sufficiency of feed, the new leicester is unrivalled for its fattening propensities; but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food. it is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. in its appropriate situation--on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands of england--it possesses unequalled earliness of maturity; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and comparatively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. the wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the succeeding february or march, and weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. the wool of the new leicester is long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the fleece of the american animal weighs about six pounds. it is of coarse quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account of its length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater or less extent, to all english breeds. as a combing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, and the like textures. the high-bred leicesters of mr. bakewell's stock became shy breeders and poor nurses; but crosses subsequently adopted have, to some extent, obviated these defects. the lambs are not, however, generally regarded as very hardy, and they require considerable attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy. the grown sheep, too, are much affected by sudden changes in the weather; an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or "snuffles." in england, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent return which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make renders it a general favorite with the breeder. instances are recorded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals. they have spread into all parts of the british dominions, and been imported into the other countries of europe and into the united states. they were first introduced into our own country, some forty years since, by christopher dunn, of albany, n.y. subsequent importations have been made by mr. powel, of philadelphia, and various other gentlemen. the breed, however, has never proved a favorite with any large class of american farmers. our long, cold winters--but, more especially, our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the leicester delights--together with the general deprivation of green feed in the winter, rob it of its early maturity, and even of the ultimate size which it attains in england. its mutton is too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit american taste. its wool is not very salable, owing to the dearth of worsted manufactures in our country. its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. but, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinity of considerable markets, it will always in all probability make a profitable return. the head of the new leicester should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward; the eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long, and directed backward; the neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll; the breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the back--particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones; the arm fleshy throughout its whole extent, and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small, standing wide apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively void of wool; the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as, in some cases--and especially when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed well home; no irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; the quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full; the legs of a moderate length; and the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer. the south-down. [illustration: a south-down ram.] a long range of chalky hills, diverging from the chalky stratum which intersects england from norfolk to dorchester, is termed the south-downs. they enter the county of sussex on the west side, and are continued almost in a direct line, as far as east bourne, where they reach the sea. they may be regarded as occupying a space of more than sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a succession of open downs, with few enclosures, and distinguished by their situation and name from a more northern tract of similar elevation and soil, passing through surrey and kent, and terminating in the cliffs of dover, and of the forelands. on these downs a certain breed of sheep has been produced for many centuries, in greater perfection than elsewhere; and hence have sprung those successive colonies which have found their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of short-woolled sheep wherever they have gone. it is only, however, within a comparatively recent period that they have been brought to their present perfection. as recently as they were small in size, and of a form not superior to the common woolled sheep of the united states; they were far from possessing a good shape, being long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on the loins, down on the rump, the tail set on very low, perpendicular from the hip-bones, sharp on the back; the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow in the fore-quarters, but good in the leg, although having big bones. since that period a course of judicious breeding, pursued by mr. john ellman, of glynde, in sussex, has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present value; and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood. this pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is spoken of in the present connection; inasmuch as the original stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited seventy-five years ago, are yet to be found in england; and the intermediate space between these two classes is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede from the improved blood. the south-down sheep are polled, but it is probable that the original breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find among the male south-down lambs some with small horns. the dusky, or at times, black hue of the head and legs fully establishes the original color of the sheep, and, perhaps of all sheep; while the later period at which it was seriously attempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only confirms this view. many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black. it is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool--which in point of length belongs to the middle class, and differs essentially from merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces maybe of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood merino--is deficient in felting properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no longer used in england, unless largely mixed with foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths. as it has deteriorated, however, it has increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an extent that improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing-wool, for the manufacture of worsteds. where this has taken place it is quite as profitable as when it was finer and shorter. in the united states, where the demand for combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, the same result would not probably follow. indeed, it may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased length in england. the average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is three pounds; on rich lowlands, a little more. the south-down, however, is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all other--from sheep of good size--in the english markets. its early maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. it is turned off at the age of two years, and its weight at that age is, in england, from eighty to one hundred pounds. high-fed wethers have reached from thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter. notwithstanding its weight, it has a patience of occasional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. this gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier leicesters and lincolns, as a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. it is hardy and healthy, though, in common with the other english varieties, much subject to catarrh, and no sheep better withstands our american winters. the ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses. the down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an industrious feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. like the leicester, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. it crosses better with short and middle-woolled breeds than the leicester. a sheep possessing such qualities, must, of necessity, be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of markets. the emperor of russia paid mr. ellman three hundred guineas (fifteen hundred dollars) for two rams; and, in , a ram belonging to the duke of bedford was let for one season at eighty guineas (four hundred dollars), two others at forty guineas (two hundred dollars) each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas (one hundred and forty dollars) each. the first importation into the united states was made by col. j. h. powell, of philadelphia. a subsequent importation, in , cost sixty dollars a head. the desirable characteristics of the south-down may be thus summed up: the head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and neither too long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the under-jaw or chap fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide and well-covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly; the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing; the neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoulders, where it should be broad and high and straight in its whole course above and below. the breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive; corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than others; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine. the hips should be wide; the space between them and the last rib on each side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like a barrel; the belly as straight as the back; the legs neither too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot, not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and they twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color; the belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and to the hock; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiny projecting fibres. the cotswold. [illustration: the cotswold.] the cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter, and shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. they were formerly bred only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the severn and the thames; but with the enclosures of the cotswold hills, and the improvement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fatted in the same district. they were hardy, prolific breeders, and capital nurses; deficient in early maturity, and not possessing feeding properties equalling those of the south-down or new leicester. they have been extensively crossed with the leicester sheep--producing thus the modern or improved cotswold--by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses have been materially improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. the wethers are sometimes fattened at fourteen months old, when they weigh from fifteen to twenty-four pounds to a quarter; and at two years old, increase to twenty or thirty pounds. the wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, six to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight pounds per fleece. the superior hardihood of the improved cotswold over the leicester, and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the new leicester, and have obtained for them, of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which management still farther improvement has been made. they have also been used in crossing other breeds, and have been mixed with the hampshire downs. indeed, the improved cotswold, under the name of new, or improved oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in england. the quality of their mutton is considered superior to that of the leicester; the tallow being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. the degree to which the cross between the cotswold and leicester may be carried, must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. in exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. on a more sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the leicester. another circumstance that should guide the farmer is the object which he has principally in view. if he expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the primitive cotswolds; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will use the leicester ram more freely. sheep of this breed, now of established reputation, have been imported into the united states by messrs. corning and gotham, of albany, and bred by the latter. the cheviot. [illustration: a cheviot ewe.] on the steep, storm-lashed cheviot hills, in the extreme north of england, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting cold, and for feeding on coarse, heathery herbage. a cross with the leicester, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. the cheviot readily amalgamates with the leicester--the rams employed in the system of breeding, which has been extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent, being of the pure leicester breed--and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency to fatten, to the native cheviot. the benefit, however, may be said to end with the first cross; and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure leicester in form and fattening properties, and to the pure cheviot in hardiness of constitution. the improved cheviot has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of scotland, and in many instances supplanted the black-faced breed; but the change, though often advantageous, has in some cases been otherwise--the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on heathy pasturage. they are a hardy race, however, well suited for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. the purest specimens are to be found on the scotch side of the cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources of the teviot. these sheep are a capital mountain stock, provided the pasture resembles those hills, in containing a good proportion of rich herbage. though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making it more quickly. they have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, and are without horns; the ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space between the ears and eyes; the carcass is long; the back straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the quarters good. the legs are small in the bone, and covered with wool, as well as the body, with the exception of the face. the wether is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages from twelve to eighteen pounds a quarter; the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to the south-down, and of less flavor than the black-faced. the cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and easily managed. the wool is about the quality of leicester, coarse and long, suitable only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings. it closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from the effects of wet and cold. the fleece averages about three and a half pounds. formerly, the wool was extensively employed in making cloths; but having given place to the finer saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined to combing purposes. it has thus become altogether a secondary consideration. the cheviots have become an american sheep by their repeated importations into this country. the wool on several choice sheep, imported by mr. carmichael, of new york, was from five to seven inches long, coarse, but well suited to combing. the lincoln. the old breed of lincolnshire sheep was hornless, had white faces, and long, thin, and weak carcasses; the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty pounds a quarter; the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty pounds; legs thick, rough and white; pelts thick; wool long--from ten to eighteen inches--and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained carcass of mutton. a judicious system of breeding, which avoided bakewell's errors, has wrought a decided improvement in this breed. the improved lincolns possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, in some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest leicesters; but they are more hardy, and less liable to disease. they attain as large a size, and yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value. this breed, indeed, scarcely differs more from the cotswold than do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for several generations, from each other. they are prolific, and when well-fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for which they provide liberally from their udders till the time for weaning. the weight of the fleece varies from four to eight pounds per head. having alluded to the principal points of interest connected with the various breeds of sheep in the united states, our next business is with the natural history of the sheep. [illustration: skeleton of the sheep as covered by the muscles. . the intermaxillary bone. . the nasal bones. . the upper jaw. . the union of the nasal and upper jaw-bones. . the union of the molar and lachrymal bones. . the orbits of the eye. . the frontal bone. . the lower jaw. . the incisor teeth, or nippers. . the molars or grinders. . the ligament of the neck supporting the head. . the seven vertebræ, or the bones of the neck. . the thirteen vertebræ, or bones of the back. . the six vertebræ of the loins. . the sacral bone. . the bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from twelve to twenty-one. . the haunch and pelvis. . the eight true ribs, with their cartilages. . the five false ribs, or those that are not attached to the breast-bone. . the breast-bone. . the scapula, or shoulder-blade. . the humerus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the shoulder. . the radius, or bone of the fore-arm. . the ulna or elbow. . the knee with its different bones. . the metacarpal or shank-bones--the larger bones of the leg. . a rudiment of the smaller metacarpal. . one of the sessamoid bones. . the first two bones of the foot--the pasterns. . the proper bones of the foot. . the thigh-bone. . the stifle-joint and its bone--the patella. . the tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. . the point of the hock. . the other bones of the hock. . the metatarsal bones, or bone of the hind-leg. . rudiment of the small metatarsal. . a sessamoid bone. . the first two bones of the foot--the pasterns. . the proper bones of the foot.] division. _vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. class. _mammalia_--such as give suck. order. _ruminantia_--chewing the cud. family. _capridæ_--the goat kind. genus. _oris_--the sheep family. of this _genus_ there are three varieties: oris, ammon, or argali. _oris musmon._ _oris aries_, or domestic sheep. of the latter--with which alone this treatise is concerned--there are about forty well known varieties. between the _oris_, or sheep, and the _capra_, or goat, another _genus_ of the same family, the distinctions are well marked, although considerable resemblance exists between them. the horns of the sheep have a spiral direction, while those of the goat have a direction upward and backward; the sheep, except in a single wild variety, has no beard, while the goat is bearded; the goat, in his highest state of improvement, when he is made to produce wool of a fineness unequalled by the sheep--as in the cashmere breed--is mainly, and always, externally covered with hair, while the hair on the sheep may, by domestication, be reduced to a few coarse hairs, or got rid of altogether; and, finally, the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness very far exceeding that of the sheep. the age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from the time that they are dropped, but from the first shearing; although the first year may thus include fifteen or sixteen months, and sometimes more. when doubt exists relative to the age, recourse is had to the teeth, since there is more uncertainty about the horn in this animal than in cattle; ewes that have been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on the horn, a year older than others that have been longer kept from the ram. formation of the teeth. sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or ridges of the palate thicken as they approach the forepart of the mouth; there also the dense, fibrous, elastic matter, of which they are constituted, becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed, which covers the converse extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, or cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. the herbage is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, and thus partly bitten and partly torn asunder. of this, the rolling motion of the head is sufficient proof. the teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. there are eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the lower jaw, and six molars in each jaw above and below, and on either side. the incisors are more admirably formed for grazing than in the ox. the sheep lives closer, and is destined to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where that animal would be unable to crop a single blade. this close life not only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by cutting off the short suckers and sproutings--a wise provision of nature--causes the plants to throw out fresh, and more numerous, and stronger ones, and thus is instrumental in improving and increasing the value of the crop. nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually make a thick, permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely eaten down by sheep. in order to enable the sheep to bite this close, the upper lip is deeply divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. the part of the tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with enamel, to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quarter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, and a concave within, forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful execution. the mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without incisor teeth or it has two. the teeth rapidly succeed to each other, and before the animal is a month old he has the whole of the eight. they continue to grow with his growth until he is about fourteen or sixteen months old. then, with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle, or carried to a still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and attain their full growth when the sheep is two years old. in examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be very considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not been sheared, or those that have been once sheared; in some measure to be accounted for by a difference in the time of lambing, and likewise by the general health and vigor of the animal. there will also be a material difference in different animals, attributable to the good or bad keep which they have had. those fed on good land, or otherwise well kept, will generally take the start of others that have been half starved, and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. there are also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be accounted for by either of these circumstances; in fact, not to be explained by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of the sheep. the want of improvement in sheep, which is occasionally observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change of food, may sometimes be justly attributed to the tenderness of the mouth when the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums. between two and three years old the next two incisors are shed; and when the sheep is actually three years old, the four central teeth are fully grown; at four years old, he has six teeth fully grown; and at five years old--one year before the horse or the ox can be said to be full-mouthed--all the teeth are perfectly developed. the sheep is a much shorter-lived animal than the horse, and does not often attain the usual age of the ox. their natural age is about ten years, to which age they will breed and thrive well; though there are recorded instances of their breeding at the age of fifteen, and of living twenty years. the careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with regard to the four-year-old mouth. he will see the teeth perfectly developed, no diminutive ones at the sides, and the mouth apparently full; and then, without giving himself the trouble of counting the teeth, he will conclude that the animal is five years old. a process of displacement, as well as of diminution, has taken place here; the remaining outside milk-teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before them and perfectly conceal them, unless the mouth is completely opened. after the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully grown, there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. in most cases, the teeth remain sound for one or two years, and then, at uncertain intervals--either on account of the hard work in which they have been employed, or from the natural effect of age--they begin to loosen and fall out; or, by reason of their natural slenderness, they are broken off. when favorite ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose condition, at six or seven years old, their mouths should be carefully examined. if any of the teeth are loose, they should be extracted, and a chance given to the animal to show how far, by browsing early and late, she may be able to make up for the diminished number of her incisors. it frequently happens that ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the incisors gone, will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock; but they must be well taken care of in the winter, and, indeed, nursed to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer's purpose to adopt as a general rule, in order to prevent them from declining to such a degree as would make it very difficult afterward to fatten them for the butcher. it may certainly be taken as a general rule, that when sheep become broken-mouthed they begin to decline. causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has no control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth. one thing, however, is certain--that close feeding, causing additional exercise, does wear them down; and that the sheep of farmers who stock unusually and unseasonably hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do. the structure of the skin. the skin of the sheep, in common with that of most animals, is composed of three textures. externally is the cuticle, or scarf-skin, which is thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, through which pass the fibres of the wool and the insensible perspiration. it seems to be of a scaly texture; although is not so evident as in many other animals, on account of a peculiar substance--the yolk--which is placed on it, to protect and nourish the roots of the wool. it is, however, sufficiently evident in the scab and other cutaneous eruptions to which this animal is liable. below this cuticle is the _rete mucosum_, a soft structure; its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and being with great difficulty separated from the skin beneath. this appears to be placed as a defence to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the skin, which latter are, in a manner, enveloped and covered by it. the color of the skin, and probably that of the hair or wool also, is determined by the _rete mucosum_; or, at least, the hair and wool are of the same color as this substance. beneath the _rete mucosum_ is the _cutis_, or true skin, composed of numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every direction; highly elastic, in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to the various motions of the body; and dense and firm in its structure, that it may resist external injury. blood-vessels and nerves innumerable pierce it, and appear on its surface in the form of _papillæ_, or minute eminences; while, through thousands of little orifices, the exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. the true skin is composed, principally or almost entirely, of gelatine; so that, although it may be dissolved by long-continued boiling, it is insoluble in water at the common temperature. this organization seems to have been given to it, not only for the sake of its preservation while on the living animal, but that it may afterwards become useful to man. the substance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle, is converted into leather. the anatomy of the wool. [illustration: the wallachian sheep.] on the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers, fur, hair, or wool. these are all essentially the same in composition, being composed of an animal substance resembling coagulated albumen, together with sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate of lime, and oxides of iron and manganese. wool is not confined to the sheep. the under-hair of some goats is not only finer than the fleece of any sheep, but it occasionally has the crisped appearance of wool; being, in fact, wool of different qualities in different breeds--in some, rivalling or excelling that of the sheep, but in others very coarse. a portion of wool is also found on many other animals; as the deer, elk, the oxen of tartary and hudson's bay, the gnu, the camel, many of the fur-clad animals, the sable, the polecat, and several species of the dog. judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals, and the relative situation of these materials, it is not improbable that such was the character of the fleece of the primitive sheep. it has, indeed, been asserted that the primitive sheep was entirely covered with hair; but this is, doubtless, incorrect. there exists, at the present day, varieties of the sheep occupying extensive districts, that are clothed outwardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and sleekness; and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and closer one, that answers to the description of fur--according to most travellers--but which really possesses all the characteristics of wool. it is, therefore, highly improbable that the sheep--which has now become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing animal in a pre-eminent degree--should, in any country, at any time, have ever been entirely destitute of wool. sheep of almost every variety have at times been in the gardens of the london (eng.) zoölogical society; but there has not been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceedingly small, has not been discovered beneath the hair. in all the regions over which the patriarchs wandered, and extending northward through the greater part of europe and asia, the sheep is externally covered with hair; but underneath is a fine, short, downy wool, from which the hair is easily separated. this is the case with the sheep at the cape of good hope, and also in south america. the change from hair to wool, though much influenced by temperature, has been chiefly effected by cultivation. wherever hairy sheep are now found the management of the animal is in a most disgraceful state; and among the cultivated sheep the remains of this ancient hairy covering only exists, to any great extent, among those that are comparatively neglected or abandoned. the filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pore of the skin, when it has to penetrate through another and singular substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called _the yolk_. this is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders--the very parts that produce the best, and healthiest, and most abundant wool--and in proportion as it extends, in any considerable degree, over other parts, the wool is then improved. it differs in quantity in different breeds. it is very abundant on the merinos; it is sufficiently plentiful on most of the southern breeds, either to assist in the production of the wool, or to defend the sheep from the inclemency of the weather; but in the northern districts, where the cold is more intense and the yolk of wool is deficient, a substitute for it is sometimes sought by smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar, oil, or butter. where there is a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is dry, harsh, and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy; where the natural quantity of it is found, the wool is soft, oily, plentiful and strong. this yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of the animal; it is not composed of matter which has been accidentally picked up, and which has lodged in the wool; but it is a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, destined to be one of the agents in the nourishment of the wool, and at the same time, by its adhesiveness, to mat the wool together, and form a secure defence from the wet and cold. chemical experiments have established its composition, as follows: first, of a soapy matter with a basis of potash, which forms the greater part of it; second, a small quantity of carbonate of potash; third, a perceptible quantity of acetate of potash; fourth, lime, in a peculiar and unknown state of combination; fifth, an atom of muriate of potash; sixth, an animal oil, to which its peculiar odor is attributable. all these materials are believed to be essential to the yolk, and not found in it by mere accident, since the yolk of a great number of samples--spanish, french, english, and american--has been subjected to repeated analyses, with the same result. the yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, it is not difficult to account for the comparative ease with which sheep that have the natural proportion of it are washed in a running stream. there is, however, a small quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is not in combination with the alkali, and which, remaining attached to the wool, keeps it a little glutinous, notwithstanding the most careful washing. the fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from the yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the extremity, and also toward the root, and in some instances very considerably so. the filaments of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are semi-transparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner. when viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering appearance. minute filaments, placed very regularly, are sometimes seen branching from the main trunk, like boughs from the principal stem. this exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the same breed of sheep at different times. when the animal is in good condition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really brilliant; but when the state of the constitution is bad, the fibre has a dull appearance, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely any, is reflected. as a general rule, the filament is most transparent in the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. it increases with the improvement of the breed, and the fineness and healthiness of the fleece; yet it must be admitted that some wools have different degrees of the transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect their value and utility. it is, however, the difference of transparency in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is chiefly to be noticed as improving the value of the wool. as to the size of the fibre, the terms "fine" and "coarse," as commonly used, are but vague and general descriptions of wool. all fine fleeces have some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine. the most accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool in the order in which they are esteemed and preferred by the manufacturer--as the following: first, fineness with close ground, that is, thick-matted ground; second, pureness; third, straight-haired, when broken by drawing; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression in the hand; fifth, staple not too long; sixth, color; seventh, what coarse exists to be very coarse; eighth, tenacity; and ninth, not much pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in scouring. the bad or disagreeable properties are--thin, grounded, tossy, curly-haired, and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is very fine; a tender staple, as elasticity, many dead white hairs, very yolky. those who buy wool for combing and other light goods that do not need milling, wish to find length of staple, fineness of hair, whiteness, tenacity, pureness, elasticity, and not too many pitch-marks. the property first attracting attention, and being of greater importance than any other, is _the fineness_ of the pile--the quantity of fine wool which a fleece yields, and the degree of that fineness. of the absolute fineness, little can be said, varying, as it does, in different parts of the same fleece to a very considerable degree, and the diameter of the same fibre often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the centre. the micrometer has sometimes indicated that the diameter of the former is five times as much as that of the latter; and, consequently, that a given length of yield taken from the extremity would weigh twenty-five times as much as the same length taken from the centre and cleansed from all yolk and grease. that fibre may be considered as coarse whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an inch; in some of the most valuable samples of saxony wool it has not exceeded the nine-hundredth part; yet in some animals, whose wool has not been used for manufacturing purposes, it is less than one twelve-hundredth part. the extremities of the wool, and frequently those portions which are near to the root, are larger than the intermediate parts. the extremity of the fibre has, generally, the greatest bulk of all. it is the product of summer, soon after shearing-time, when the secretion of the matter of the wool is increased, and when the pores of the skin are relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre to protrude. the portion near the root is the growth of spring, when the weather is getting warm; and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter, when under the influence of the cold the pores of the skin contract, and permit only a finer hair to escape. if, however, the animal is well fed, the diminution of the bulk of the fibre will not be followed by weakness or decay, but, in proportion as the pile becomes fine, the value of the fleece will be increased; whereas, if cold and starvation should go hand-in-hand, the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk, but in health, strength, and worth. the variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts of the fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time the respective portions were produced. the fibre of the wool and the record of the meteorologist will singularly agree, if the variations in temperature are sufficiently distinct from each other for any appreciable part of the fibre to form. it follows from this, that--the natural tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the same--sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool, and those in a cold climate will carry a finer, but at the same time a closer and a warmer fleece. in proportion to the coarseness of a fleece will generally be its openness, and its inability to resist either cold or wet; while the coat of softer, smaller, more pliable wool will admit of no interstices between its fibres, and will bid defiance to frost and storms. the natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the wool-grower the advantage of attending to the influence of temperature upon the animal. he is evidently impatient of heat. in the open districts, and where no shelter is near, he climbs to the highest parts of his walk, that, if the rays of the sun must still fall on him, he may nevertheless be cooled by the breeze; but, if shelter is near, of whatever kind, every shaded spot is crowded with sheep. the wool of the merinos after shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it very difficult to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in quality, compared with that which had been clipped from it in the course of the same season. as the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover their soft quality. pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. the staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. when little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has scarcely been checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier. when the frost has been severe, and the ground long covered with snow, if the flock has been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, and a proportional increase of value. should, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during this continued cold weather, the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner, and although it may have preserved its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and strength, and usefulness. connected with fineness is _trueness of staple_--as equal in growth as possible over the animals--a freedom from those shaggy portions, here and there, which are occasionally observed on poor and neglected sheep. these portions are always coarse and comparatively worthless, and they indicate an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased in other parts. included in trueness of fibre is another circumstance to which allusion has already been made--a freedom from coarse hairs which project above the general level of the wool in various parts, or, if they are not externally seen, mingle with the wool and debase its qualities. _soundness_ is closely associated with trueness. it means, generally speaking, strength of the fibre, and also a freedom from those breaches or withered portions of which something has previously been said. the eye will readily detect the breaches; but the hair generally may not possess a degree of strength proportioned to its bulk. this is ascertained by drawing a few hairs out of the staple, and grasping each of them singly by both ends, and pulling them until they break. the wool often becomes injured by felting while it is on the sheep's back. this is principally seen in the heavy breeds, especially those that are neglected and half-starved, and generally begins in the winter season, when the coat has been completely saturated with water, and it increases until shearing-time, unless the cob separates from the wool beneath, and drops off. wool is generally injured by keeping. it will probably increase a little in weight for a few months, especially if kept in a damp place; but after that it will somewhat rapidly become lighter, until a very considerable loss will often be sustained. this, however, is not the moral of the case; for, except very great care is taken, the moth will get into the bundles and injure and destroy the staple; and that which remains untouched by them will become considerably harsh and less pliable. if to this the loss of the interest of money is added, it will be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool, when he can obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating price for it. _softness_ of the wool is evidently connected with the presence and quality of the yolk. this substance is undoubtedly designed not only to nourish the hair, but to give it richness and pliability. the growth of the yolk ought to be promoted, and agriculturists ought to pay more attention to the quantity and quality of yolk possessed by the animals selected for the purpose of breeding. bad management impairs the pliability of the wool, by arresting the secretion of the yolk. the softness of the wool is also much influenced by the chemical elements of the soil. a chalky soil notoriously deteriorates it; minute particles of the chalk being necessarily brought into contact with the fleece and mixing with it, have a corrosive effect on the fibre, and harden it and render it less pliable. the particles of chalk come in contact with the yolk--there being a chemical affinity between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk--immediately unite, and a true soap is formed. the first storm washes a portion of it; and the wool, deprived of its natural pabulum and unguent, loses some of its vital properties--its pliability among the rest. the slight degree of harshness which has been attributed to the english south-down has been explained in this way. _the felting property_ of wool is a tendency of the fibres to entangle themselves together, and to form a mass more or less difficult to unravel. by moisture and pressure, the fibres of the wool may become matted or felted together into a species of cloth. the manufacture of felt was the first mode in which wool was applied to clothing, and felt has long been in universal use for hats. the fulling of flannels and broadcloths is effected by the felting principle. by the joint influence of the moisture and the pressure, certain of the fibres are brought into more intimate contact with each other; they adhere--not only the fibres, but; in a manner, the threads--and the cloth is taken from the mill shortened in all its dimensions; it has become a kind of felt, for the threads have disappeared, and it can be cut in every direction with very little or no unravelling; it is altogether a thicker, warmer, softer fibre. this felting property is one of the most valuable qualities possessed by wool, and on this property are the finer kinds of wool especially valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths. this naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the structure on which it depends. the most evident distinction between the qualities of hair and wool is the comparative straightness of the former, and _the crisped or spirally-curling form_ which the latter assumes. if a little lock of wool is held up to the light, every fibre of it is twisted into numerous minute corkscrew-like ringlets. this is especially seen in the fleece of the short-woolled sheeps; but, although less striking, it is obvious even in wool of the largest staple. the spirally-curving form of wool used, erroneously, to be considered as the chief distinction between the covering of the goat and the sheep; but the under-coat of some of the former is finer than that of any sheep, and it is now acknowledged frequently to have the crisped and curled appearance of wool. in some breeds of cattle, particularly in one variety of the devons, the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance, and a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen. it is the same with many of the highlands; but there is no determination to take on the true crisped character, and throughout its whole extent, and it is still nothing but hair. on some foreign breeds, however, as the yak of tartary, and the ox of hudson's bay, some fine and valuable wool is produced. there is an intimate connection between the fineness of the wool and the number of the curves, at least in sheep yielding wool of nearly the same length; so that, whether the wool of different sheep is examined, or that from different parts of the same sheep, it is enough for the observer to take advice of the number of curves in a given space, in order to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre. to this curled form of the wool not enough attention is, as a general thing, paid by the breeder. it is, however, that on which its most valuable uses depend. it is that which is essential to it in the manufactory of cloths. the object of the carder is to break the wool in pieces at the curves--the principle of the thread is the adhesion of the particles together by their curves; and the fineness of the thread, and consequent fineness of the cloth, will depend on the minuteness of these curves, or the number of them found in a given length of fibre. it will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do with the felting property of wool; it materially contributes to that disposition in the fibres which enables them to attach and intwine themselves together; it multiplies the opportunities for this interlacing, and it increases the difficulty of unravelling the felt. the felting property of wool is the most important, as well as the distinguishing one; but it varies essentially in different breeds, and the usefulness and the consequent value of the fleece, for clothing purposes, at least, depend on the degree to which it is pursued. _the serrated_--notched, like the teeth of a saw--_edge_ of wool, which has been discovered by means of the microscope, is also, as well as the spiral curl, deemed an important quality in the felting property. repeated microscopic observations have removed all doubts as to the general outline of the woolly fibre. it consists of a central stem or stalk, probably hollow, or, at least, porous, possessing a semi-transparency, not found in the fibre of hair. from this central stalk there springs, at different distances, on different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. long wool. the most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of british origin. a considerable quantity is produced in france and belgium; but the manufacturers in those countries acknowledge the superiority of the british wool. long wool is distinguished, as its name would import, by the length of its staple, the average of which is about eight inches. it was much improved, of late years, both in england and in other countries. its staple has, without detriment to its manufacturing qualities, become shorter; but it has also become finer, truer, and sounder. the long-woolled sheep has been improved more than any other breed; and the principal error which bakewell committed having been repaired since his death, the long wool has progressively risen in value, at least for curling purposes. some of the breeds have staples of double the length that has been mentioned as the average one. pasture and breeding are the powerful agents here. probably because the leicester blood prevails in, or, at least, mingles with, every other long-woolled breed, a great similarity in the appearance and quality of this fleece has become apparent, of late years, in every district of england. the short-woolled fleeces are, to a very considerable degree, unlike in fineness, elasticity, and felting property; the sheep themselves are still more unlike; but the long-wools have, in a great degree, lost their distinctive points--the lincoln, for example, has not all of his former gaunt carcass, and coarse, entangled wool--the cotswold has become a variety of the leicester--in fact, all the long-woolled sheep, both in appearance and fleece, have almost become of one variety; and rarely, except from culpable neglect in the breeder, has the fleece been injuriously weakened, or too much shortened, for the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted. in addition to its length, this wool is characterized by its strength, its transparency, its comparative stoutness, and the slight degree in which it possesses the felting property. since the extension of the process of combing to wools of a shorter staple, the application of this wool to manufacturing purposes has undergone considerable change. in some respects, the range of its use has been limited; but its demand has, on the whole, increased, and its value is more highly appreciated. indeed, there are certain important branches of the woollen manufacture, such as worsted stuffs, bombazines, muslin-delaines, etc., in which it can never be superseded; and its rapid extension in the united states, within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. this long wool is classed under two divisions, distinguished both by length and the fineness of the fibre. the first--_the long-combing wool_--is used for the manufacture of hard yarn, and the worsted goods for which that thread is adapted, and requires the staple to be long, firm, and little disposed to felt. _the short-combing wool_ has, as its name implies, a shorter staple, and is finer and more felty; the felt is also closer and softer, and is chiefly used for hosiery goods. middle wool. this article is of more recent origin than the former, but has rapidly increased in quantity and value. it can never supersede, but will only stand next in estimation to, the native english long fleece. it is yielded by the half-bred sheep--a race that becomes more numerous every year--being a cross of the leicester ram with the south-down, or some other short-woolled ewe; retaining the fattening property and the early maturity of the leicester, or of both; and the wool deriving length and straightness of fibre from the one, and fineness and feltiness from the other. the average length of staple is about five inches. there is no description of the finer stuff-goods in which this wool is not most extensively and advantageously employed; and the nails, or portions which are broken off by the comb, and left in, whether belonging to this description of wool or to the long wool, are used in the manufacture of several species of cloth of no inferior quality or value. under the breed of middle wools must be classed those which, when there were but two divisions, were known by the name of short wools; and if english productions were alone treated of, would still retain the same distinctive appellation. to this class belong the south-down and cheviot; together with the fleece of several other breeds, not so numerous, nor occupying so great an extent of country. from the change, however, which insensibly took place in them all--the lengthening, and the increased thickness of the fibre, and, more especially, from the gradual introduction of other wools possessing delicacy of fibre, pliability, and felting qualities beyond what these could claim, and at the same time, being cheaper in the market--they lost ground in the manufacture of the finer cloths, and have for some time ceased to be used in the production of them. on the other hand, the changes which have taken place in the construction of machinery have multiplied the purposes to which they may be devoted, and very considerably enhanced their value. these wools, of late, rank among the combing wools; they are prepared as much by the comb as by the card, and in some places more. on this account they meet with a readier sale, at fair, remunerating prices, considering the increased weight of each individual fleece, and the increased weight and earlier maturity of the carcass. the south-downs yield about seven-tenths of the pure short wools grown in the british kingdoms; but the half-bred sheep has, as has been remarked, encroached on the pure short-woolled one. the average staple of middle-woolled sheep is three and a half inches. these wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels, army and navy cloths, coatings, heavy cloths for calico printers and paper manufacturers, woollen cords, coarse woollens, and blankets; besides being partially used in cassinettes, baizes, bockings, carpets, druggets, etc. short wool. from this division every wool of english production is excluded. these wools, yielded by the merinos, are employed, unmixed, in the manufacture of the finer cloths, and, combined with a small proportion of wool from the english breeds, in others of an inferior value. the average length of staple is about two and a half inches. these wools even may be submitted to the action of the comb. there may be fibres only one inch in length; but if there are others from two and a half to three inches, so that the average of the staple shall be two inches, a thread sufficiently tenacious may, from the improved state of machinery, be spun, and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily woven, which were unknown not many years ago. [illustration] crossing and breeding no one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those points which give value to this race of animals. one is remarkable for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another, which is valuable for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. some varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food and climate; while others are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of verdure. in selecting a breed for any given locality, reference should be had, _first_, to the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circumstances; and, _second_, to the market facilities and demand. choice should then be made of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of the marketable product. rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of large carcasses. if convenient to a market where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which calls for a mutton-producing, as contradistinguished from a wool-yielding, sheep. under such circumstances, the choice should undoubtedly be made from the improved english varieties--the south-down, the new leicester, and the improved cotswolds or new oxfordshire sheep. in deciding between these, minor and more specific circumstances must be taken into account. if large numbers are to be kept, the downs will herd--remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large numbers--much better than the two larger breeds; if the feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to be somewhat short during the droughts of summer, and there is not a certain supply of the most nutritious winter feed, the downs will better endure occasional short keep; if the market demands a choice and high-flavored mutton, the downs possess a decided superiority. if, on the other hand, but few are to be kept in the same enclosure, the large breeds will be as healthy as the downs; if the pastures are somewhat wet or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situations; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they--particularly the leicester--possess an earlier maturity, and give more meat for the amount of food consumed, as well as yield more tallow. the next point of comparison between the long and the middle woolled families, is the value of their wool. though not the first or principal object aimed at in the cultivation of any of these breeds, it is, in this country, an important item of incident in determining their relative profitableness. the american leicester yields about six pounds of long, coarse, combing wool; the cotswold, somewhat more; but this perhaps counterbalanced by these considerations; the downs grow three to four pounds of a low quality of carding wool. none of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in the american markets. both, however, will appreciate in proportion to the increase of manufactures of worsted, flannels, baizes, and the like. the difference in the weight of the fleeces between the breeds is, of itself, a less important consideration than it would at first appear, for reasons which will be given when the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food consumed by the sheep is noticed. the cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds above named, except in a capacity to endure a vigorous winter and to subsist on healthy herbage. used in the natural and artificial circumstances which surround sheep-husbandry in many parts of england--where the fattest and finest quality of mutton is consumed, as almost the only animal food of the laboring classes--the heavy, early-maturing new leicester, and the still heavier new oxfordshire sheep seem exactly adapted to the wants of producers and consumers, and are of unrivalled value. to depasture poorer soils, sustain a folding system, and furnish the mutton which supplies the tables of the wealthy, the south-down meets an equal requirement. sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions of the country to the profit which could be made to result from the cultivation of the sheep. one of the most serious defects in the prevalent husbandry of new england, for example, is the neglect of sheep. ten times the present number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, wool, and progeny, more direct profit than any other domestic animal, while the food which they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than an equal amount consumed by any other animal. it is notorious that the pastures of that section of the country have seriously deteriorated in fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the exclusion of nutritious grasses. with sheep--as well as with all other animals--much or prolonged exercise in pursuit of food, or otherwise, is unfavorable to taking on fat. some seem to forget, in their earnest advocacy of the merits of the different breeds, that the general physical laws which control the development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. better organs will, doubtless, make a better appropriation of animal food; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular directions: in one breed, more especially to the production of fat; in another, of muck, or lean meat; in yet another, of wool. but, these things being equal, large animals will always require more food than small ones. animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutritious food, and they must exercise but little, in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion in the lungs of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of their fat. no art of breeding can counteract these established laws of nature. in instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for _wool-growing_ purposes, it is undeniable that the question is not, what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleece, irrespective of the cost of production. cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, in order to fairly test the profits of an animal. if a large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give but once and a-half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable--other things being equal--to keep two of the smaller sheep. the next question, then, is,--_from what breed_--with the same expense in other particulars--_will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of wool_? and, first, as to the comparative amount of food consumed by the several breeds. there are no satisfactory experiments which show that _breed_, in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of food consumed. it is found, with all varieties, that the consumption is in proportion to the live weight of the grown animal. of course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application; but its general soundness has been satisfactorily established. grown sheep take up between two and a half and three and a third per cent. of their weight, in what is equivalent to dry hay, to keep themselves in store condition. the consumption of food, then, being proportioned to the weight, it follows that, if one acre is capable of sustaining three merinos, weighing one hundred pounds each, it will sustain two leicesters, weighing one hundred and fifty each, and two and two-fifth south-downs, weighing one hundred and twenty-five each. merinos of this weight often shear five pounds per fleece, taking flocks through. the herbage of an acre, then, would give fifteen pounds of merino wool, twelve of leicester, and but nine and three-fifths of south-down--estimating the latter as high as four pounds to the fleece. even the finest and lightest-fleeced sheep known as merinos average about four pounds to the fleece; so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of merino as it would of new leicester, and more than it would of south-down, while the former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either of the latter. nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as in the foregoing estimate the live weight of the english breeds is placed low, and that of the merinos high. the live weight of the five-pound fine-fleeced merino does not exceed ninety pounds; it ranges, in fact, from eighty to ninety; so that three hundred pounds of live weight--it being understood that all of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what is called store, condition--would give a still greater product of wool to the acre. it is perfectly safe, therefore, to say that the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of merino that it will of any of the english long or middle wools. what are the other relative expenses of these breeds? the full-blooded leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the merino, though some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure-bred sheep: indeed, it is less hardy, under the most favorable circumstances. it is more subject to colds; its constitution more readily gives way under disease; the lambs are more liable to perish from exposure to cold, when newly dropped. under unfavorable circumstances--herded in large flocks, famished for feed, or subjected to long journeys--its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from sad drawbacks, do not compare, with those of the merino. the high-bred south-down, though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal; it is, in fact, about on a pace with the merino, though it will not bear as hard stocking, without a rapid diminution in size and quality. if the peculiar merits of the animal are to be considered in determining the expenses, as they surely should be, the superior fecundity of the south-down is a point in its favor, as well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. the ewe not only frequently produces twin lambs--as do both the merino and leicester--but, unlike the latter, she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them. this advantage, however, is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the merino. all the english mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and general vigor, at about five years old; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in an animal kept for wool-growing purposes. this early decay requires earlier and more rapid slaughter than is always economically convenient, or even possible. it is well, on properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding stock; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece for several years longer. breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the downs and leicester at five or six. instances are known of merino ewes breeding uniformly until fifteen years old. the improved cotswold is said to be hardier than the leicester; but this variety, from their great size, and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, together with the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of such large animals, is incapacitated from being generally introduced as a wool-growing sheep. all the coarse races have one advantage over the merino: they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail, and when untreated, this disease spreads with less violence and malignity among them. this has been explained by the fact that their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the merino, and thus retain dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot. taking into account all the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each race, together with all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each, it may be confidently asserted that the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per head, or even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the english breeds above referred to, than in the merino. indeed, it may well be doubted whether any of those english breeds, except the south-down, is on an equality, even, with the merino, in these respects. for wool-growing purposes, the merino, then, possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep. as a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds; although not so much as is popularly supposed. many persons, who have never tasted merino mutton, and who have, consequently, an unfavorable impression of it, would, if required to consume the fat and lean together, find it more palatable than the luscious and over-fat new leicester. the mutton of the cross between the merino and the native would certainly be preferred to the leicester, by anybody but an english laborer, accustomed to the latter, since it is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. the same is true of the crosses with the english varieties, which will hereafter be treated of more particularly. grade merino wethers, half-bloods, for example, are favorites with the drover and butcher, being of good size, extraordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk, by reason of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds, making good mutton, tallowing well, and their pelts, from the greater weight of wool on them, commanding an extra price. in speaking of the merino in this connection, no reference is made to the saxons, though they are, as is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the former. assuming it, then, as settled, that it is to the merino race that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, a few considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of the widely diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and circumstances of different portions of the country. upon the first introduction of the saxons, they were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the country, consisting at that time of pure or grade merinos. under the decisive encouragement offered both to the wool-grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of , a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, and the saxon everywhere superseded, or bred out by crossing, the spanish merinos. in new york and new england, the latter almost entirely disappeared. in the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. then came the tariff of , which, as well as that of , gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer, into whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly rushed. skill without capital, capital without skill, and in some cases, probably, thirst for gain without either, laid hold of these favored avocations. the natural and inevitable result followed. in the financial crisis of , manufacturing, and all other monetary enterprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not based on an adequate and vast capital, were involved in a common destruction; and even the most solid and best conducted institutions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. wool suddenly fell almost fifty per cent. the grower began to be discouraged. the breeder of the delicate saxons--and they comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country, at that time--could not obtain for his wool its actual first cost per pound. when the saxon growers found that the tariff of brought them no relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. the example once set, it became contagious; and then was a period when it seemed as if all the saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this reaction. many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep; others crossed with coarse-woolled breeds; and, rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed with the english mutton breeds; or some, with more judgment, went back to the parent merino stock, but usually selected the heaviest and coarsest-woolled merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of their wool. this period became distinguished by a mania for heavy fleeces. the english crosses were, however, speedily abandoned. the merino regained his supremacy, lost for nearly a quarter of a century, and again became the popular favorite. it was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new western states, and gives its type to the sheep of those regions. the supply of fine wool, then, proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased. wools, for convenience, may be classified as follows: _superfine_, the choicest quality grown in the united states, and never grown here excepting in comparatively small quantities; _fine_, good ordinary saxon; _good medium_, the highest quality of wool usually known in the market as merino; _medium_, ordinary merino; _ordinary_, grade merino and selected south-down fleeces; and, _coarse_, the english long-wools, etc. this subdivision is, perhaps, minute enough for all practical purposes here. it soon became apparent that, to sustain our manufacturing interest--that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths--the diminution of fine wools should not only be at once arrested, but that the growth of them should be immediately and largely increased. an increased attention was accordingly bestowed upon this branch of industry, and sections of the country which had previously held aloof from wool-growing, embarked in that calling with commendable enterprise. the climate north of forty-one degrees, or, beyond all dispute, north of forty-two degrees, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly known, which bear either superfine or fine wools. in fact, the only such variety in any thing like general use is the saxon; and this, as has been remarked, is a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our northern winters, without good shelter, good and regularly-administered food, and careful and skilful management in all other particulars. when the season is a little more than usually back-hand, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes; the young ewes will, in many instances, disown their lambs, or, if they own them, not have a drop of milk for them; and if, under such circumstances, as often happens, a northeast or a northwest storm comes driving down, bearing snow or sleet in its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temperature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from perishing. if the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred, for the purpose of escaping these evils, they will not attain size and strength sufficient to enable them to pass safely through their first winter. north of the latitude last named, it is necessary, as a general rule, that they be dropped in the first half of may, to give them this requisite size and strength; and occasional cold storms come, nearly every season, up to that period, and, not unfrequently, up to the first of june. these considerations have had their weight even with the few large sheep-holders in that section, whose farms and buildings have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep; many of whom have adopted a merino cross. with the ordinary farmers--the small sheep-owners, who, in the aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of the northern wools--the saxon sheep is, for these reasons, in marked disrepute. they have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection, and are unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on them. besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with this class, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. above all, they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their cattle. the strong, compact, medium-woolled merino, or, more generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool classed as ordinary, is the common favorite. in the northwest, this is especially the case, where the climate is still worse for delicate sheep. at the south, on the contrary--where these disadvantages do not exist to so great an extent, certainly--wool varying from good medium upward are more profitable staples for cultivation than the lower classes; and in that section a high degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in breeding the merino--the four-pound fine-fleeced merino having received marked attention. this is a far more profitable animal than the saxon, other things being equal--which is not the case, since the former is every way a hardier animal and a better nurse; and, although about twenty pounds heavier, and therefore consuming more feed, this additional expense is more than counterbalanced by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the saxon. points of the merino. for breeding purposes, the shape and general appearance of the merino should be as follows:--the head should be well carried up, and in the ewe hornless. it would be better, on many accounts, to have the ram also hornless, but, as horns are usually characteristic of the merino ram, many prefer to see them. the face should be rather short, broad between the eyes, the nose pointed, and, in the ewe, fine and free from wrinkles. the eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and gentle in its expression. the neck should be straight--not curving downward--short, round, and stout--particularly so at its junction with the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink below the level of the back. the points of the shoulder should not rise to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. the back, to the hips, should be straight; the crops--that portion of the body immediately back of the shoulder-blades--full; the ribs well arched; the body large and capacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters full and round--the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, or in the "twists." the bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well apart, and perpendicular--that is, not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is standing. viewed as a whole, the merino should present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and--though differing essentially from the english mutton-sheep model--a highly symmetrical sheep. the skin is an important point. it should be loose, singularly mellow, and of a rich, delicate pink color. a colorless skin, or one of a tawny, approaching to a butternut, hue, indicates bad breeding. on the subject of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. as they are rather characteristic of the merino--like the black color in a berkshire hog, or the absence of all color in durham cattle--these wrinkles have been more regarded, by novices, than those points which give actual value to the animal; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint. many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin; and this view of the case has led both the spanish and french breeders to cultivate them largely--the latter, to a monstrosity. an exceedingly wrinkled neck, however, adds but little to the weight of the fleece--not enough, in fact, to compensate for the deformity, and the great impediment thus placed in the way of the shearer. a smoothly drawn skin, and the absence of all dead lap, would not, on the other hand, perhaps be desirable. the wool should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly grow--from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. short wool may show, particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks; but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose, below the eyes, is unsightly, without value; while on the face it frequently impedes the sight of the animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, and disqualifying it to escape real danger. neither is this useless wool the slightest indication of a heavy fleece--contrary to what seems to be thought by some. it is very often seen in saxons shearing scarcely two pounds of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced merinos. the amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is another mooted point. merino wool should be yolky, or oily, prior to washing--though not to the extreme extent, occasionally witnessed, of giving it the appearance of being saturated with grease. the extreme tips may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast, particularly in the ram; but a black, pitchy gum, resembling half-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which cannot be removed by ordinary washing, is decidedly objectionable. there is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, which appears in the interior of some fleeces, and is equally objectionable. the weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, since it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the animal from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall. the wool should be, as nearly as possible, of even length and thickness over the entire body. shortness on the flank, and shortness or thickness on the belly, are serious defects. evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance. many sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and even hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc. rams of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-woolled flock; and all such ewes should gradually be excluded from those selected for breeding. the style of the wool is a point of as much importance as mere fineness. some very fine wool is stiff, and the fibres almost straight, like hair. it has a dry, cottony look; and is a poor, unsalable article, however fine the fibre. softness of wool--a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to be regarded. this is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities; so much so, indeed, that an experienced judge can decide, with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, in the dark. wool should be finely serrated, or crimped from one extremity to the other: that is, it should present a regular series of minute curves; and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given length, the higher the quality of the wool in all other particulars. the wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is pressed open each way with the hands, it should be close enough to conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. the interior of the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and liveliness of appearance not surpassed in the best silk. the points in the form of the merino which the breeder is called upon particularly to avoid are, a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes; a thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders; narrow loins; flat ribs; steep, narrow hind-quarters; long legs; thighs scarcely meeting at all; and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach of cold. all these points were, separately or conjointly, illustrated in many of the saxon flocks which have been swept from the country. sufficient attention has already been paid to the points to be avoided in the fleece. breeding merinos. the first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is, that "like will beget like." if the sire and ewe are perfect in any given points, the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the offspring--subject to a law which will possibly be noticed--will be half-way between the two; if both are defective in the same points, the progeny will be more so than either of its parents--it will inherit the amount of defect in both parents added together. there are exceedingly few perfect animals. breeding, therefore, is a system of counterbalancing--breeding out--in the offspring, the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in the same points. the highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny; but, blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater degree than the female. we may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impropriety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose; but, where a high standard of quality is aimed at, all ewes possessing even considerable defects should gradually be thrown out from breeding. every year should add to the vigor of the selection. but, from the beginning--and at the beginning, more than at any other time--the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. if he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock; if it is a material one--as, for example, a hollow back, bad cross, or thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece--the flock will be one of low quality and little value. if, on the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the female will be lessened, and gradually bred out. it being, however, difficult to find perfect rams, those should be taken which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of these material, like those just enumerated. these defects are to be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence--sometimes, indeed, running into a fault--of the ewe, in the same points. if the ram, then, is a little too long-legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him; if gummy, the dryest-woolled; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard of fineness--but he has been retained, as often happens, for weight of fleece and general excellence--he is to be put to the finest and lightest-fleeced ewes, and so on. with a selection of rams, this system of counterbalancing would require but little skill, if each parent possessed only a single fault. if the ewe be a trifle too thin-fleeced, and good in all other particulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. but most animals possess, to a greater or less degree, several defects. to select so that every one of these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and the contrary, requires not only plentiful materials from which to select, but the keenest discrimination. after the breeder has successfully established his flock, and given them an excellent character, he soon encounters a serious evil. he must "breed in-and-in," as it is called--that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood--or he must seek rams from other flocks, at the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto so carefully sought, and built up with so much painstaking. the opponents of in-and-in breeding contend that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease of size, debility, and a general breaking up of the constitution. its defenders, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly healthy, this mode does not, of itself, tend to any diminution of healthfulness in the offspring; and they likewise claim--which must be conceded--that it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to bring his flock to a particular standard or model, and to keep it there much more easily--unless it be true that, in course of time, they will dwindle and grow feeble. [illustration: the scotch sheep-dog, or colley.] so far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, both positions may be, to a certain extent, true. but it is, perhaps, difficult always to decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, but from all tendency or predisposition towards it. a brother or sister may be apparently healthy--may be actually so--but may still possess a peculiarity of individual conformation which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itself. if these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live until old age, apparently possessing a robust constitution. if tried together, their offspring--by a rule already laid down--will possess this individual tendency in a double degree. if the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, granddaughters, etc., for several generations, the predisposition toward a particular disease--in the first place slight, now strong, and constantly growing stronger--will pervade, and become radically incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. the first time the requisite exciting causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. if it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring intervals. the same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. they are rapidly increased until, almost before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. that such are the common effects of in-and-in breeding, with such skill as it is commonly conducted, all know who have given attention to the subject; and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers. the sheep-breeder can, however, avoid the effects of in-and-in breeding, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock, by seeking rams of the same breed, possessing, as nearly as possible, _the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock_. if this rule is neglected--if he draws indiscriminately from all the different varieties or families of a breed--some large, and some small--some long-woolled, and some short-woolled--some medium, and some superfine in quality--some tall, and some squatty--some crusted over with black gum, and some entirely free from it--breeding will become a mere matter of hap-hazard, and no certain or uniform results can be expected. so many varieties cannot be fused into one for a number of generations--as is evidenced by the want of uniformity in the rambouillet flock, which was commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the spanish families; and it not merely happens, as between certain classes of saxons, that particular families can never be successfully amalgamated. if, however, the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard--if his sheep are deficient in the requisites which he desires--he is still to adhere to the breed--_provided the desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses_--and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. if he has, for instance, an inferior flock of south-downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best down dams, he should seek for the best rams of that breed. but if he wishes to obtain qualities _not characteristic of the breed he possesses_, he must cross with a breed which does possess them. if the possessor of south-downs wishes to convert them into a fine-woolled sheep similar to the merino, he should cross his flock steadily with merino rams--constantly increasing the amount of merino, and diminishing the amount of south-down blood. to effect the same result, he would take the same course with the common sheep of the country, or with any other coarse race. there are those, who, forgetting that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of crosses--bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. it is, it must be admitted, an unqualified absurdity, as frequently conducted--as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a merino and the carcass of a leicester, by crosses between those breeds; but, under the limitations already laid down, and with the objects specified as legitimate ones, this objection to crossing savors of the most profound prejudice, or the most unblushing quackery. it is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to commence exclusively with full-bloods. with a few to breed rams from, and to begin a full-blood stock, the breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with merino rams. in selecting the ewes, good shape, fair size, and a robust constitution, are the main points--the little difference in the quality of the common sheep's wool being of no consequence. for their wool, they are to look to the merino; but good form and constitution they can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely unnecessary evils on their progeny. satisfactory results have followed crossing a down ram--small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even fleeced--with large-sized merino ewes. the half-blood ewes were then bred to a merino ram, and also their female progeny, and so on. the south-downs, from a disposition to take on fat, manifested themselves, to a perceptible extent, in every generation, and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation--seven-eighths blood merino, and one-eighth blood down--was very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium merino. their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood merinos, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. the mutton of the first, and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor, and retained, to the last, some of the superiority of south-down mutton. results are also noted of breeding leicester ewes--taking one cross of the blood, as in the preceding case--toward the merino. the mongrels, to the second generation--beyond which they were not bred--were about midway between the parent stock in size--with wool shorter, but far more fine and compact than the leicester--their fleeces about the same weight, five pounds--and, altogether, they were a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. their fleeces, however, lacked evenness, their thighs remaining disproportionately coarser and heavy. a difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram. some high authorities assert that it does not admit of the slightest doubt that a merino, in the fourth generation, from even the worst-woolled ones, is in every respect equal to the stock of the sire--that no difference need to be made in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood, or a fifteen-sixteenths--and that, however coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show it. others, however--while admitting that the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring, and that, as soon as a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on the progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal--contend that this cannot be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the fourth merino cross. they assert that the offspring of such crosses invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. the sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last, perhaps, almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams; yet pure blood is a fixed standard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it in his rams, each one more or less, according to his judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. no man, assuredly, can be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, whether the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. it is of the utmost importance for those _commencing_ flocks, either of full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. a grown ram may, by methods which will hereafter be described, be made to serve from one hundred to one hundred and fifty ewes in a season. a good merino ram will, moderately speaking, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of the dam, or every lamb got by it, from a common-woolled ewe--that is, if the ewe at three years old sheared three pounds of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear four. this would give one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season; and every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. many a ram gets, during his life, eight hundred or one thousand lambs. nor is the extra amount of wool all. he gets from eight hundred to one thousand half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the basis of another and higher stride in improvement. a good ram, then, is as important and, it may be, quite as valuable an animal as a good farm-horse stallion. when the number of a ram's progeny are taken into consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior animal is sufficiently obvious. it will be found the best economy in starting a flock, where the proper flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient, to purchase several of the same breed, of course, but _of different strains of blood_. thus ram no. can be put on the offspring of no. , and the reverse; no. can be put on the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of no. . the changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable danger, are innumerable. the brother and sister, it will be born in mind, are of the same blood; the father and daughter, half; the father and granddaughter, one-fourth; the father and great-granddaughter, one-eighth; and so on. breeding between animals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding; and it is not unusual, in rugged, well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the same blood. if, however, these rams of different strains are brought promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and probably will, be difference between them; and it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from them a proper uniformity of character. those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains of blood, with the necessary individual and family uniformity. general principles of breeding. some few suggestions upon the general principles to be observed in breeding may not be superfluous here, referring the reader, who is disposed to investigate this subject in detail, to its full discussion in the author's treatise upon "cattle and their diseases." as illustrative of the importance of _breeding only from the best_, taking care to avoid structural defects, and especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_, since both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities, it may be remarked that scrofula is not uncommon among sheep, and presents itself in various forms. sometimes it is connected with consumption; sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the mesenteric glands, in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. the scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the f[oe]tus, and lambs have occasionally been dropped with it; but much oftener they show it at an early age, and any affected in this way are liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevalent disease, which develops in such with unusual severity. sheep are also liable to several diseases of the brain, and of the respiratory and digestive organs. epilepsy, or "fits," and rheumatism sometimes occur. the breeder's aim should be to grasp and _render permanent_, and increase so far as practicable, _every variation for the better_, and to reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency. a remarkable instance of the success which has often attended the well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders, is furnished in the new mauchamp-merino sheep, which originated in a single animal--a product of the law of variation--and which, by skilful breeding and selection, has become an established breed of a peculiar type, and possessing valuable properties. samples of the wool of these sheep were shown at the great exhibition in london, in , as well as at the subsequent great agricultural exhibition at paris, and attracted much attention. this breed was originated by mons. j. l. graux. in , a merino ewe produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different shape from the ordinary merino, and possessing wool singularly long, straight, and silky. two years afterward, mr. graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, having the silky character of wool. among the produce of the ensuing year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and in , there were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes. in each subsequent year, the lambs were of two kinds; one possessing the curled, elastic wool of the old merinos, only a little longer and finer, and the other like the new breed. at last, the skilful breeder obtained a flock containing the fine, silky fleece with a smaller breed, broader flanks, and more capacious chest; and several flocks being crossed with the mauchamp variety, the mauchamp-merino breed is the result. the pure mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length and fineness of the fibre. it is found of great value by the manufacturers of cashmere shawls, and similar goods, being second only to the true cashmere fleece, in the fine, flexible delicacy of the fibre; and when in combination with cashmere wool, imparting strength and consistency. the quantity of this wool has since become as great as that from ordinary merinos, or greater, while its quality commands twenty-five per cent. higher price in the french market. breeders, certainly, cannot watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or characteristic in their flocks. _the apparent influence of the male_ first having fruitful intercourse with a female, _upon her subsequent offspring by other males_, has been noticed by various writers. the following well-authenticated instances are in point: a small flock of ewes, belonging to dr. w. wells, in the island of granada, was served by a ram procured for the purpose. the ewes were all white and woolly; the ram was quite different, being of a chocolate color, and hairy like a goat. the progeny were, of course, crosses, but bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. the next season, dr. wells obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes; but the progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram, in color and covering. the same thing occurred on neighboring estates, under like circumstances. six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, belonging to mr. h. shaw, of leochel, cushnie, were served by a white-faced hornless leicester ram. the lambs were crosses. the next year they were served by a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves, and their lambs were, without an exception, hornless and brownish in the face, instead of being black and horned. the third year they were again served by a superior ram of their own breed; and again the lambs were mongrels, but showed less of the leicester characteristics than before; and mr. shaw at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred lamb. to account for this result--seemingly regarded by most physiologists as inexplicable--mr. james mcgillivray, v. s., of huntley, has offered an explanation, which has received the sanction of a number of competent writers. his theory is, that when a pure animal of any breed has been pregnant by an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal _is a cross ever after_, the purity of her blood being lost, in consequence of her connection with the foreign animal, and herself becoming a cross forever, incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed. to cross, _merely for the sake of crossing_, to do so without that care and vigilance which are highly essential, is a practice which cannot be too much condemned, being, in fact, a national evil, if pushed to such an extent as to do away with a useful breed of animals, and establish a generation of mongrels in their place--a result which has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals. the principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the butcher. the male, being generally an animal of a superior breed, and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size, and muscular development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to him; while their internal nature, derived from the dam, well adapts them to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed. with sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil, as regards the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable; and the weight of mutton is thereby materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. it involves, however, more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a native ram, for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed, and a foreign ram, to raise the improved cross-bred animals for felting, either as lambs or sheep. this plan is adopted by many breeders of leicester sheep, who thus employ south-down rams to improve the quality of the mutton. one inconvenience attending this plan is the necessity of fattening the maiden ewes as well as the wethers. they may, however, be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spaying (fully explained in "cattle and their diseases") might be adopted, so as to increase the felting disposition of the animal. crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill, where the object is to improve the breed of animals. it should never be practised carelessly or capriciously, but it may be advantageously pursued, with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher. for the latter purpose, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance that the _pelvis_ of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no injury may arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs. the shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason. in crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which is sought to be improved. thus, the south-downs have vastly improved the larger hampshires, and the leicester, the huge lincolns and the cotswolds. use of rams. merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and even longer. the lambs of very old rams are commonly supposed not to be as those of middle-aged ones; though where rams have not been overtasked, and have been properly fed, little if any difference is discoverable in their progeny by reason of their sire's age. a ram lamb should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, in many instances, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. a yearling may run with thirty ewes, a two-year-old with from forty to fifty, and a three-year-old with from fifty to sixty; while some very powerful, mature rams will serve seventy or eighty. fifty, however, is enough, where they _run with_ the ewes. it is well settled that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his individual properties so decidedly to his offspring as does one in full vigor. rams, of course, are not to be selected for ewes by mere chance, but according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. it may not be superfluous, though seemingly a repetition, to state that a good ewe flock should exhibit these characteristics: _strong bone_, supporting a roomy frame, affording space for a large development of flesh; _abundance of wool of a good quality_, keeping the ewes warm in inclement weather, and insuring profit to the breeder; _a disposition to fatten early_, enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep selected for the butcher; and _a prolific tendency_, increasing the flock rapidly, and being also a source of profit. every one of these properties is advantageous in itself; but when all are combined in the same individuals of a flock, that flock is in a high state of perfection. in selecting rams, it should be observed whether or not they possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be deficient, in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes themselves, and such a result will improve the state of the future ewe-flock; but, on the contrary, if the ewes are superior in all points to the rams, then, of course, the use of such will only serve to deteriorate the future ewe-flock. several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnatural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. it is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be avoided, and, as customarily managed, is destructive to every thing like careful and judicious breeding. the nice adaptation which the male should possess to the female is out of the question where half a dozen or more rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes. before the rams are let out, the breeding ewes should all be brought together in one yard; the form of each noted, together with the length, thickness, quality and style of her wool--ascertained by opening the wool on the shoulder, thigh, and belly. when every point is thus determined, that ram should be selected which, on the whole, is best calculated to perpetuate the excellencies of each, both of fleece and carcass, and to best counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring. every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a distinct mark, which will continue visible until the next shearing. for this purpose, nothing is better than venetian red and hog's lard, well incorporated, and marked on with a cob. the ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, as noted in the sheep-book. thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tapped, any time before the next shearing. the ewes selected for each ram are placed in different enclosures, and the chosen ram placed with them. rams require but little preparation on being put among ewes. if their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they are ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. most of the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is among them, and in the third, all. it is better, however, not to withdraw the rams until the expiration of four weeks, when the flocks can be doubled, or otherwise re-arranged for winter, as may be necessary. the trouble thus taken is, in reality, slight--nothing, indeed, when the beneficial results are considered. with two assistants, several hundred ewes may be properly classified and divided in a single day. where choice rams are scarce, so that it is desirable to make the services of one go a great way, or where it is impossible to have separate enclosures--as on farms where there are a great number of breeding ewes, or where the shepherd system is adopted, to the exclusion of fences--resort may be had to another method. a hut should be built, containing as many apartments as the ram is desired to be used, with an alley between them, each apartment to be furnished with a feeding-box and trough in one corner, and gates or bars opening from each into the alley, and at each end of the alley. adjoining these apartments, a yard should be inclosed, of size just sufficient to hold the flock of breeding ewes. a couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hundred ewes, are then aproned, their briskets rubbed with venetian red and hog's lard, and let loose among the ewes. _aproning_ is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs, loosely but strongly around the body. to prevent its slipping forward or back, straps are carried round the breast and back of the breech. it should be made _perfectly secure_, or all the labor of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. the pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days; and it will be necessary to change the "teasers"--as these aproned rams are called--about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural circumstances. twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of the hut. those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the alley. each is admitted _once_ to the ram for which she is marked, and then goes out _at the opposite end of the alley_ from which they entered, into a field separate from that containing the flock from which she was taken. a powerful and vigorous ram, from three to seven years old, and properly fed, can thus be made to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred ewes, with no greater injury than from running loose with fifty or sixty. the labor here required is likewise more apparent than real, when the operation is conducted in a systematic manner. rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years longer, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is better to continue it. in all cases, they should, after serving, be put on good pasture, as they will have lost a good deal of condition, being indisposed to settle during the tapping season. a ram should receive the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats daily, when worked hard. they are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. if suffered to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by the shepherd. careful breeders thus train their stock-rams, from the time they are lambs. it is very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without dragging or lifting them. an iron ring attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a cord can be fastened for leading, confining, etc., is very useful and convenient. if rams are wild, it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. some breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks each night, shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. to this practice there is no objection, and it greatly saves their strength. rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least in the northern states. it is much better that a ewe go dry than that she have a lamb later than the first of june. besides, after the rutting season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes dangerous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. it is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation and the first period of gestation take place in cold weather, the f[oe]tus will be fitted for the climate which rules during the early stages of its existence. if this be so--and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of nature--fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement of cold weather; and, in the northern states, this is done about the first of december, thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of april, or the first of may, when the early grass affords a large supply and good quality of food. lambing. [illustration: ewe and lambs.] the ewe goes with young about five months, varying from one hundred and forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days. pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times. until two or three weeks preceding lambing, it is only necessary that they, like other store-sheep, be kept in good, plump, ordinary condition; nor are any separate arrangements necessary for them after that period, in a climate where they obtain sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk. in backward seasons in the north, where the grass does not start prior to the lambing-time, careful farmers feed their ewes on chopped roots, or roots mixed with oat and pea-meal, which is excellent economy. caution is, however, necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is often the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. the first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored health and generous food. sudden frights, as from dogs or strange objects; long or severe journeys, great exertions, unwholesome food, blows in the region of the f[oe]tus, and some other causes, produce abortion. lambs are usually dropped, in the north, from the first to the fifteenth of may; in the south, they can safely come earlier. it is not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold or boisterous, as they require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of milk. it is customary, in the north, to have fields of clover, or the earliest grasses, reserved for the early spring-feed of the breeding-ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their stables, it is a great convenience--for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. if the weather be warm and pleasant, and the nights moderately warm, it is better to have the lambing take place in the pasture; since sheep are then more disposed to own their lambs, and take kindly to them, than in the confusion of a small inclosure. in the latter, sheep, unless particularly docile, crowd from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs, pressing them severely, etc.; ewes become separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them about; young and timid ewes, when so separated, will frequently neglect their lambs for an hour or more before they will again approach them, while, if the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, is in danger of perishing. lambs, too, when first dropped in a _dirty_ inclosure, tumble about, in their first efforts to rise, and the membrane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung; and the ewe's refusing to lick them dry much increases the hazard of freezing. in cold storms, however, and in sudden and severe weather, all this must be encountered; and, therefore, every shepherd should teach his sheep docility. it requires but a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born saxon lamb, which--the pure blood--is dropped nearly as naked as a child. during a severely cold period, of several days continuance, it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. the merino, south-down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity. where inclosures are used for yeaning, they should be kept clean by frequent litterings of straw--not enough, however, to be thrown on at any one time, to embarrass the lamb about rising. the predisposing symptoms of lambing are, enlargement and reddening of the parts under the tail, and drooping of the flanks. the more immediate are, when the ewe stretches herself frequently; separating herself from her companions; exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place for any length of time; lying down and rising up again, as if dissatisfied with the place; pawing the ground with a forefoot; bleating, as if in quest of a lamb; and appearing fond of the lambs of other ewes. in a very few hours, or even shorter time after the exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate symptom of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the _vagina_. when this is observed, the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be expected to come on immediately. when these are felt by her, the ewe presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or position for another, as if desirous of relief. the ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition. her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain. sometimes she will go about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and nose of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the _vagina_. if let alone, however, nature will generally relieve her. in case of a false parturition of the f[oe]tus--which is comparatively rare--the shepherd may apply his thumb and finger, after oiling, to push back the lamb, and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear. where feebleness in expelling the f[oe]tus exists, only the slightest aid should be rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. the objection to interfering--except as a last resort--is, that the ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. when aided, in any case, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. the clearing, or _placenta_, generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time--in many cases, within a few minutes--after lambing. it should be carried away, and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound. common kale, or curly-greens, is excellent food for ewes that have lambed, as its nutritive matter, being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble in water, and beneficial in encouraging the necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing. in these respects, it is a better food than swedish turnips--upon which sheep are sometimes fed--which become rather too fibrous and astringent, in spring, for the secretion of milk. in the absence of kale or cabbage, a little oil-cake will aid the discharges and purify the body. new grass also operates medicinally upon the system. management of lambs. while the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise--the ewe, meanwhile, licking it dry--it is well to be in no haste to interfere. a lamb that gets at the teat without help, and procures even a small quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. if helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for two or three days. the same is true where lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle. but if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise--especially if the ewe has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly--it is time to render assistance. it is not advisable to throw the ewe down--as is frequently practised--in order to suckle the lamb; because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose _upward_ in search of the teats. it is, therefore, doubly difficult to teach it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe; and when it is taught to do this, by being so suckled several times, it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural position, when it begins to stand and help itself. carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions, with his crook--which useful article will be hereafter described--the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and then, pressing her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and still, so that she will not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd, who should set the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible; if not, supporting it _on its feet_ by placing one hand under its body; put its mouth to the teat, and encourage it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, etc., with a finger. the lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will redouble its efforts to suck. sometimes it will manifest great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding backward, etc.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink himself to the level of brute, by resenting the stupidity of a brute, will generally carry the point by perseverance. sometimes milking a little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will induce it to take hold. if the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed, until the natural supply commences, with small quantities of the milk of a _new-milch_ cow. this should be mixed, say half and half, with water, with enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of the first milk, gently warmed to the natural heat--not scalded and suffered to cool--and then fed through a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should _suck_, if it can be induced so to do. if the milk is poured in its mouth from a spoon or bottle, it is frequently difficult, as before stated, to induce it to suck. moreover, unless milk is poured into the mouth slowly and with care--no faster than the lamb can swallow--a speedy wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid has been forced into the lungs. lambs have been frequently killed in this way. if a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped in a woollen blanket, placed in a warm room, and given a little milk as soon as it will swallow. a trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and with good effect, for the purpose of rousing the cold and torpid stomach into action. in new england, under such circumstances, the lamb is sometimes "baked," as it is called--that is, put in a blanket in a moderately-heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored; others immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry, which is said to be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. a good blanket however, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction will generally suffice. if a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chance to lose her lamb, she should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's twins, or the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. her own lamb should be skinned as soon as possible after death, and the skin sewed over the lamb which she is to foster. she will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day or two; and if so, she should be kept in a small pen with the lamb, and occasionally looked to. after she has taken well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. if no lamb is placed on a ewe which lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may ensue; even if this is not the result, permanent indurations, or other results of inflammatory action, will take place, injuring the subsequent nursing properties of the animal. when milked, it is well to wash the bag for some time in cold water, since it checks the subsequent secretions of milk, as well as allays inflammation. sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her lamb, will not stand for it to suck; and in this case, if the lamb is not very strong and persevering, and particularly if the weather is cold, it soon grows weak, and perishes. the conduct of the dam, in such instances, is occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats, and perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position. in this case, the sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted her bag, and there will not often be any trouble afterward; though it may be well enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined. such pens--necessary in a variety of cases other than those mentioned--need not exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so that they can be readily moved by one man, or, at the most, two, from place to place, where they are wanted. their position should be daily shifted, when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. light pine poles laid up like a fence, and each nailed and pegged to the lower ones at the corners, or laid on, are quite serviceable. two or three sides of a few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered, in order to shield feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, and the like. young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as "pinning"--that is, their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. the adhering matter, in such cases, should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry clay, to prevent subsequent adhesion. lambs will frequently perish from this cause, if not looked to for the first few days. the ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. some careful shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs, allowing them to suck two or three times a day. by this method they suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. it is, however, troublesome as well as injurious, since the exercise is essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing. it is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market; and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a common practice. where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, the deserted lambs must be brought up by hand. such animals, called pet lambs, are supported on cow's milk, which they receive warm from the cows each time they are milked, and as much as they can drink. in the intervals of meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover; in good weather they are put into a grass enclosure during the day, and sheltered at night until the nights become warm. they are fed by hand out of a small vessel, which should contain as much milk as it is known each can drink. they are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers, like a calf, and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in the mouth, a small tin tube, about three inches in length, and of the thickness of a goose-quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed tightly on, to use as a substitute for a teat, by means of which they will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and quickness. a goose-quill would answer the same purpose, were it not easily squeezed together by the mouth. when the same person feeds the lambs--and this should be the dairy-maid--they soon become attached to her, and desire to follow her everywhere; but to prevent their bleating, and to make them contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in the inclosure, will keep them together. it is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they be _weaned_ from three and a half to four months old. when taken away, they should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may not hear each other's bleatings, as the lambs, when in hearing of their dams, continue restless much longer, and make constant and, frequently, successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. one or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat out of troughs when winter approaches. when weaned, the lambs should be put on the freshest and tenderest grass--rich, sweet food, but not too luxuriant. the grass and clover, sown the preceding spring, on grain-fields seeded down, is often reserved for them. the dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. they should be looked to after a day or two, and if the bags of any are found much distended, the milk should be drawn away, and the bags washed for a little time in cold water. on short feed, they rarely give much trouble in this respect. when thoroughly dried off, they should have the best fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and wintering. the fall is a critical period in which to lose flesh, either for sheep or lambs; and if any are found deficient, they should at once be provided with extra feed and attention. if cold weather overtake them, poor or in ill health, they will scarcely outlive it; or if by chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, and scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost. castration and docking. some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while others will not allow the operation to be performed until the lamb is a month old. the weight of authority, however, is in favor of any time between two and six weeks after birth, when the creature has attained some strength, and the parts have not become too rigid. in such circumstances, the best english breeders recommend from ten to fifteen days old as the proper time. a lamb of a day old cannot be confirmed in all the functions of its body, and, indeed, in many instances, the testicles can then scarcely be found. at a month old, on the other hand, the lamb may be so fat, and the weather so warm, that the operation may be attended with febrile action. dry, pleasant weather should be selected for this: a cool day, if possible; if warm, it should be done early in the morning. castration is a simple and safe process. let a man hold a lamb with its back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in his hands. cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with a knife if it does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle. some shepherds draw both testicles at once with their teeth. it is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch. where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the pouch with an ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. as a general thing, however, the animal will do as well without any application. the object of _docking_ is to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and vermin; since the tail, if left on, is apt to collect filth, and, if the animal purges, becomes an intolerable nuisance. the tail, however, should not be docked too short, since it is a protection against cold in winter. this operation is by many deferred till a late period, from apprehension of too much loss of blood; but, if the weather be favorable and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at the same time as castration with the least trouble and without injury. the tail should be laid upon a plank, the animal being held in the same position as before. with one hand the skin is drawn toward the body, while another person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a blow, between the bone-joints, leaving it from one and a half to two inches long. the skin immediately slips back over the wound, which is soon healed. should bleeding continue--as, however, rarely happens--so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord should be tied firmly round the end of the tail; but this must not be allowed to remain on above twenty-four hours, as the points of the tail would slough off. ewe lambs should be docked closer than rams. to prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one quart of the latter. the lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they are perfectly well. [illustration] feeding and management feeding. as soon as the warm weather approaches and the grass appears, sheep become restive and impatient for the pasture. this instinct should be repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has acquired substance. they ought, moreover, to be provided for the change of food by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. the tendency to excessive purging which is induced by the first spring-feed, may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. they must be provided with pure water and salt; for, though they may do tolerably well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention. as to _water_, it may be said that it is not indispensable in the summer pastures, since the dews and the succulence of the feed answer as a substitute; but a wide experience having demonstrated that free access to it is advantageous, particularly to those having lambs, it should be considered a matter of importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the pastures, if possible, as to bring water into each of them. [illustration: a covered salting box.] salt is indispensable to the health, especially in the summer. it is common to give it once a week, while they are at grass. it is still better to give them free access to it, at all times, by keeping it in a covered box, open on one side, as in the engraving annexed. a large hollow log, with holes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads of the animals, answers very well. a sheep having free access to salt at all times will never eat too much of it; and it will take its supply at such times and in such quantities as nature demands, instead of eating of it voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it to do. when salt is fed but once a week, it is better to have a stated day, so that it will not be forgotten; and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones--though if laid in little handfuls on the grass, very little of it will be lost. tar. this is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for sheep, and they smear the nose with it, which is licked and swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it to trickle down over the nostrils and lips. others, suffering the flock to get unusually salt-hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and then scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together. applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, it may be advantageous in catarrhs; and in the same place, at the proper periods, its odor may, perhaps, repel the fly, the eggs of which produce the "gout in the head," as it is termed. however valuable it may be as a medicine, and even as a debergent in the case specified, there is but slight ground for confidence in it merely as a condiment. _dry_, _sweet pastures_, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. no animal, with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. they eat many which are rejected by the horse and the ox, which are even essential to their own wants. in this respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdock, thistles, marsh-mallows, milk-weed, and various other offending plants; and the merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the range of his selections. in pastures, however, where the dry stalks of the burdock, or the hound's-tongue, or tory-weed have remained standing over the winter, the burs are caught in the now long wool, and, if they are numerous, the wool is rendered entirely unmarketable and almost valueless. even the dry prickles of the common and canada thistles, where they are very numerous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the northern spring; and, independently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and otherwise handle the sheep. indeed, it is a matter of the soundest policy to keep sheep on the cleanest pastures, those free from these and similar plants; and in a region where they are pastured the year round, they should be kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing. many prepare _artificial pastures_ for their flocks, which may be done with a number of plants. winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without injury to the crop; and, in the following spring, the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. this affords an early and nutritious food. corn may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. white mustard is also a valuable crop for this purpose. to give sheep sufficient variety, it is better _to divide their range_ into several smaller ones, and change them as often, at least, as once a week. they seek a favorite resting-place, on a dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. by removing them from this for a few days, rain will cleanse or the sun dry it, so as to make it again suitable for them. more sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same pasture. shade. no one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down upon their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot summer-months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail-fence. forest trees are the most natural and the best shades, and it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep-walks. a strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, forms a tolerable substitute for trees. but in the absence of all these and of buildings of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, which will be hereafter described. fences. poor _fences_ will teach ewes and wethers, as well as rams, to jump; and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high fences, or extirpation. one jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole flock; and if one by chance is brought in, it should be immediately hoppled or killed. the last is by far the surest and safest remedy. hoppling is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap, broad at the extremities, so that it will not cut into the flesh, to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints, leaving the legs at about the natural distance apart. _clogging_ is fastening a billet of wood to the fore leg by a leather strap. _yoking_ is fastening two rams two or three feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of timber, some two or three inches in size. _poking_ is done by inserting a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit--worn on the under side of the neck--a rod is inserted, which projects a couple of feet in front of the sheep. these and similar devices, to prevent rams from scaling fences, may be employed as a last resort by those improvident farmers who prefer, by such troublesome, injurious, and, at best, insecure means, to guard against that viciousness which they might so much more easily have prevented from being acquired. dangerous rams. from being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and played with when young, and sometimes without any other stimulant than a naturally vicious temper, rams occasionally become very troublesome by their propensity to attack men or cattle. some will allow no man to enter the field where they are without making an immediate onset upon him; while others will knock down the ox or horse which presumes to dispute a lock of hay with them. a ram which is known to have acquired this propensity should at once be _hooded_, and, if not valuable, at the proper season converted into a wether. but the courage thus manifested is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution, and of a powerfully developed frame. if good in other particulars, it is a pity to lose the services of so valuable an animal. in such cases, they may be hooded, by covering their faces with leather in such a manner that they can only see a little backward and forward. they must then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. it sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram will suddenly exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or feeding the flock. if such a person turns to run, he is immediately knocked down, and the ram learns, from that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to exercise it. as the ram gives his blow from the summit of the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on _the top_ of his head, and not from the forehead, he is obliged to crouch his head so low when he makes his onset that he does not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the right and left enable one to escape him. run in upon him, as he dashes by, with pitch-fork, club, or boot-heel, and punish him severely by blows about the head, if the club is used, giving him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed. this may be deemed harsh treatment, and likely to increase the viciousness of the animal. repeated instances have, however, proved the contrary; and if the animal once is forced to acknowledge that he is overcome, he never forgets the lesson. prairie feeding. sheep, when destined for the prairies, ought to commence their journey as early after the shearing as possible, since they are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and retain as much dust as when driven later; feed is also generally better, and the roads are dry and hard. young and healthy sheep should be selected, with early lambs; or, if the latter are too young, and the distance great, they should be left, and the ewes dried off. a large wagon ought to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. with good care, a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day. constant watchfulness is requisite, in order to keep them healthy and in good plight. one-half the expense of driving may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-dogs. when arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases which they may have contracted, that these may be promptly removed. a variety of suitable food and good shelter must be provided for the autumn, winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given to them. this would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country; but it is much more so when they have just undergone a campaign to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed. sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, and proper attention; and losses have often occurred, by reason of a false system of economy attempted by many, from disease and mortality in the flocks, amply sufficient to have made a generous provision for the comfort and security of twice the number lost. more especially do they require proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in, which wither and kill the natural grasses. by nibbling at the bog--the frostbitten, dead grass--they are inevitably subject to constipation, which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, etc., is alone sufficient to remove. roots, grain, good hay, straw, corn-stalks, and pea or bean-vines are essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the winter, everywhere north of thirty-nine degrees. in summer, the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shall have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses. the prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced into the united states; and of such are the flocks made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners. shepherd dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in these unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a defence against the small prairie wolves, which prowl around the sheep, but have been rapidly thinned off by the settlers, and also as assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the open ground. fall feeding. in the north, the grass often gets very short by the tenth or fifteenth of november, and it has lost most of its nutritiousness from repeated freezing and thawing. at this time, although no snow may have fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily foddering of bright hay, and a few oats in the bundle. given thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. it is well to feed oats in the bundle, or threshed oats, about a gill to the head, in the feeding-troughs, carried to the field for that purpose. winter feeding. the time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend on the state of the weather and food. severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, and they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals. the only safe rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad. there is no better food for sheep than well-ripened, sound timothy hay; though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses may be advantageously fed. hundreds and thousands of northern flocks receive, during the entire winter, nothing but ordinary hay, consisting mainly of timothy, some red and white clover, and frequently a sprinkling of gum, or spear grass. bean and pea straw are valuable, especially the former, which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well adapted to the production of wool. where hay is the principal feed, it may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day; or the daily feed, not of hay, might alternate between stalks, pea-straw, straws of the cereal grains, etc. it is mainly a question of convenience with the farmer, provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is given. it would not, however, be entirely safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains, unless it were some of those little hardy varieties of animals which would be of no use in this country. the expediency of feeding _grain_ to store-sheep in winter depends much on circumstances. if in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply of grass or other green esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary; nor is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for weeks or months, provided the sheep be plentifully supplied with good dry fodder. near markets where the coarser grains find a quick sale at fair prices, it is not usual, in the north, to feed grain. remote from markets it is generally fed by the holders of large flocks. oats are commonly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day. some feed half the same amount of yellow corn. fewer sheep, particularly lambs and yearlings, get thin and perish where they receive a daily feed of grain; they consume less hay, and their fleeces are increased in weight. on the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy. where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay are given. the smaller sizes of the saxon may be well sustained on two pounds of hay; but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to four or even five pounds per day. sheep, in common with all other animals, when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well protected, or during a warmer season. it is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in the bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay, one at morning and one at night. some feed greenish cut peas in the same way. in warm, thawing weather, when sheep get to the ground and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition. when the feed is shortest in winter, in the south, there are many localities where sheep can get enough grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, but not quite enough to keep them in prime order. a moderate daily feed of oats or pease, placed in the depository racks, would keep them strong and in good plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of wool. few northern farmers feed _indian corn_ to store-sheep, as it is considered too hot and stimulating, and sheep are thought to become more liable to become "cloyed" on it than on oats, pease, etc. yellow corn is not generally judged a very safe feed for lambs and yearlings. store-sheep should be kept in good, fair, plump condition. lambs and yearlings may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. it is stated that sheep will eat _cotton-seed_, and thrive on it. it must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to get thin during the winter, with the idea that their condition can at any time be readily raised by better feed, as with the horse or ox. it is always difficult, and, unless properly managed, expensive and hazardous, to attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter, especially if they have reached that point where they manifest weakness. if the feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, fatal diarrh[oe]a will often supervene. all extra feeding, therefore, must be begun very gradually; and it does not appear, in any case, to produce proportionable results. _roots_, such as ruta-bagas, irish potatoes, and the like, make a good substitute for grain, or as extra feed for grown sheep. the ruta-baga is preferable to the potato in its equivalents of nutriment. no root, however, is as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent of grain. sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots. this is done by withholding salt from them, and then feeding the chopped roots a few times, rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root to obtain it; but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before they have acquired a taste for the roots. it is customary with some farmers to cut down, from time to time in the winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the _hemlock_, whose foliage is greedily eaten by the sheep, after being confined for some time to dry feed. this browse is commonly used, like tar, for some supposed medicinal virtues. it is pronounced "healthy" for sheep. much the same remarks might be made about this as have been already made concerning tar. no tonics and stimulants are needed for a healthy animal. if the foliage of the hemlock were constantly accessible to them, there would be no possible objection to their eating it, since their instincts, in that case, would teach them whether, and in what quantities, to devour it; but when entirely confined to dry feed for a protracted period, sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous succulents, and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities. as a mere _laxative_, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial; though, in this point of view, a day's run at grass, in a thaw, or a feed of roots, would produce the same result. in a climate where grass is procurable most of the time, browse for medicinal purposes is entirely unnecessary. sheep undoubtedly require _salt_ in winter. some salt their hay when it is stored in the barn or stack. this is objectionable, since the appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide in the premises. it may be left accessible to them in the salt-box, as in summer; or an occasional feed of grined hay or straw may be given them in warm, thawing weather, when their appetite is poor. this last is an excellent plan, and serves a double purpose. with a wisp of straw, sprinkle a thin layer of straw with brine, then another layer of straw, and another sprinkling, and so on. let this lie until the next day, for the brine to be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to all the grazing animals on the farm which need salting. _water_ is indispensable, unless sheep have access to succulent food, or clean snow. constant access to a brook or spring is best; but, in default of this, they should be watered at least _once a day_ in some other way. feeding with other stock. sheep should not run, or be fed, _in yards_, with any other stock. cattle hook them, often mortally; and colts tease and frequently injure them. it is often said that "colts will pick up what sheep leave." but well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing; and, if they chance so to do, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts' yard, than to feed them together. if sheep are not required to eat their food pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large quantities. if, however, they are over-fed with either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them, by starvation, to come back and eat it. this they will not do, unless sorely pinched. clean out the troughs, or rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. division of flocks. if flocks are shut up in small inclosures during winter, according to the northern custom, it is necessary to divide them into flocks of about one hundred each, consisting of sheep of about the same size and strength; otherwise, the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rapidly decline. this is not so important where the sheep roam at large; but, even in that case, some division and classification are best. it is best, indeed, even in summer. the poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better shelter in winter. by those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and wethers, are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter; and it is best to keep yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes. old and feeble or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., should be placed by themselves, even if the number be small, as they require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, however, it is better to sell them off in the fall at any price, or to give them to some poor neighbor who has time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. regularity in feeding. if any one principle in sheep husbandry deserves careful attention more than others, it is, that _the utmost regularity must be preserved in feeding_. first, there should be regularity as to _the times_ of feeding. however abundantly provided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour and sometimes at another--sometimes three times a day, and sometimes twice--some days grain, and some days none--they cannot be made to thrive. they will do far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict regularity. in a climate where they require hay three times a day, the best times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an hour before dark at night. unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not feed well in the dark; and, therefore, they should have time to consume their food before night sets in. noon is the common time for feeding grain or roots, and is the best time, if but two fodderings of hay are given. if the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a matter of much consequence with which feeding grain is given, only that the practice be uniform. secondly, it is highly essential that there should be regularity in _the amount_ fed. the consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon the weather; the keener the cold, the more the sheep will eat. in the south, much depends upon the amount of grass obtained. in many places, a light, daily foddering supplies; in others, a light foddering placed in the depository racks once in two days, answers the purpose. in the steady cold weather of the north, the shepherd readily learns to determine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering time. and this amount should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. in feeding grain or roots, there is no difficulty in preserving entire regularity; and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. of the latter, a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the former, it will. even if it be not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, it will expect a like amount, however over-plenteous, at the next feeding; failing to receive which, it will pine for it, and manifest uneasiness. the effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal is bad; and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal. it is much better that the flock receive no grain at all, than that they receive it without regard to regularity in the amount. the shepherd should _measure_ out the grain to the sheep in all instances, instead of _guessing_ it out, and measure it to each separate flock. effect of food. well-fed sheep, as has been previously remarked, produce more wool than poorly fed ones. no doctrine is more clearly recognized in agricultural chemistry than that animal tissues derive their chemical components from the same components existing in their food. various analyses show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, hoofs, nails, horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, nerves, etc., are nearly identical. the organic part of wool, according to standard authorities, consists of carbon, . ; hydrogen, . ; nitrogen, . ; oxygen and sulphur, . . the inorganic constituents are small. when burned, it leaves but a trifling per cent. of ash. the large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that its production is increased by highly azotized food; and from various experiments made, a striking correspondence has been found to exist between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in food. _pease_ rank first in increasing the wool, and very high in the average comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues. the increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of the food. it is not very common, in the north, for wool-growers to fatten their wethers for market by extra winter feeding. some give them a little more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, and then salt them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the succeeding fall. stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty animal. the perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition which characterizes the thrifty one, indicate, too plainly to be misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their owner. the selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fattening will inevitably be attended with loss. such ought to be got rid of, when first brought from the pasture, for the wool they will bring. when winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shelters, and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice a day in troughs--or meal once and chopped roots once. the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is about as much as ordinary stocks of merino wethers will profitably consume; though in selected flocks, consisting of large animals, this amount is frequently exceeded. yards. experience has amply demonstrated that--in the climate of the northern and eastern states, where no grass grows from four to four and a half months in the winter, and where, therefore, all that can be obtained from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, unnutritious herbage left in the fall--it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where the ground is covered with snow. if suffered to roam over the fields at other times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry hay, but not enough to sustain them; they fall away, and toward spring they become weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. flocks of some size are here, of course, alluded to, and on properly stocked farms. a few sheep would do better with a boundless range. some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw; others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the spring. the former course is preferable where the sheep ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. it affords a healthy laxative, and a single day's grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one succeeding dry feed. it is necessary, in the north, to keep sheep in the yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they will get off from their feed--particularly the breeding ewes--and get weak at the most critical time for them in the year. yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, and, in the northern climate, kept well littered with straw. the yarding system is not practised to any great extent in the south; nor should it be, where sheep can get their living from the fields. feeding-racks. when the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the sheep eats hay well on the ground; but when the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarcely touch hay placed on it--or, if they do, will tread much of it into the mud, in their restlessness while feeding. it should then be fed in racks, which are more economical, even in the first-named case; since, when the hay is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost wholly lost. [illustration: a convenient box-rack.] to make an economical _box-rack_--the one in most general use in the north--take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. boards of pine or hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet long, and twelve or fourteen inches wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends, two and a half feet long. boards twelve inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space of from nine to twelve inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which completes the rack. the edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. the largest dimensions given are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for the saxon; and still smaller are proper for the lambs. these should be set on dry ground, or under the sheds; and they can be easily removed wherever necessary. unless over-fed, sheep waste very little hay in them. some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the form of the common horse-rack. this kind should always be accompanied by a broad trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding. these racks may be attached to the side of a building, or used double. a small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding; and this amount of room, at least, should be provided around the racks for every sheep. [illustration: a hole-rack.] with what is termed a _hole-rack_, sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other so much as with log-racks; but they are too heavy and unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. this rack is box-shaped, with the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, or, more commonly, by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. the holes should be at least eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen inches from centre to centre. in the south, racks are not so necessary for that constant use to which they are put in colder sections, as they are for depositories of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. in soft, warm weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder; though the little they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. but in a sudden freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the racks, and fill themselves with dry food. they anticipate the coming storm by instinct, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat during the succeeding depression of temperature. they should always have racks of dry fodder for resort in such emergencies. these racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled before but a small portion of it would be consumed. hay or straw, saturated with water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of absolute necessity. the common box-rack would answer the purpose very well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof, formed of a couple of boards, one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges, so that it could be lifted up like a lid; making the ends tight; drawing in the lower edges of the sides, so that it should not be more than a foot wide on the bottom; inserting a flow; and then mounting it on, and making it fast to, two cross-sills, four or five inches square, to keep the floor off from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturned. the lower side-board should be narrow, on account of the increased height given its upper edge by the sills. a rack of the same construction, with the sides like those described for the hole-rack, would be still better, though somewhat more expensive; or the sides might consist of rundles, the top being nailed down in either case, and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends. [illustration: the hopper-rack.] what is termed the _hopper-rack_, serving both for a rack and a feeding-trough, is a favorite with many sheep-owners. the accompanying cut represents a section of such a rack. a piece of durable wood, about four and a half feet long, six or eight inches deep, and four inches thick, having two notches, _a a_, cut into it, and two troughs, made of inch boards, _b b b b_, placed in these notches, and nailed fast, constitute the formation. if the rack is to be fourteen feet long, three sills are required. the ends of the rack are made by nailing against the side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have the rack; and nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the side-boards, _f f_, secure them. the sides may be further strengthened by pieces of board on the outside of them, fitted into the trough. a roof may be put over all, if desired, by means of which the fodder is kept entirely from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the wool. troughs. threshed grain, chopped roots, etc., when fed to sheep, should be placed in troughs. with either of the racks which have been described, except the last, a separate trough would be required. the most economical are made of two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both into a two or three-inch plank, fifteen inches long, and a foot wide, notched in its upper edge in the form required. in snowy sections they are turned over after feeding, and when falls of snow are anticipated one end is laid on the yard-fence. [illustration: an economical sheep-trough.] various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping grain where sheep can feed on it at will, a description of which is omitted, since it is not thought best, by the most successful stock-raisers, in feeding or fattening any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will, stated feeds being preferred by them; and the same is true of fodder. if this system is departed from in using depository racks, as recommended, it is because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. a merino store-sheep, allowed as much grain as it chose to consume, would be likely to inflict injury on itself; and grain so fed would, generally speaking, be productive of more damage than benefit. barns and sheds. shelters, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable sheep-raising; and in every latitude north of the gulf of mexico, they would probably be found advantageous. an animal eats much less when thus protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure is richer and more abundant. the feeding may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under cover in severe storms: for, even in the vigorous climate of the north, none but the breeders of saxons make a regular practice of feeding under cover. [illustration: sheep-barn with sheds.] humanity and economy alike dictate that, in the north, sheep should be provided with shelters under which to lie nights, and to which they can resort at will. it is not an uncommon circumstance in new york and new england for snow to fall to the depth of from twenty to thirty inches within twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several days continuance, which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, etc. a flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their backs to the storm, constantly stepping, and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them. strong, close-coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. it is, however, almost impossible to feed them enough, or half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay--entirely impossible, indeed, without racks. the hay is whirled away in an instant by the wind; and, even if racks are used, the sheep, leaving their huddle, where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting snow in their wool, soon get chilled, and are disposed to return to their huddle. imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is lowered, and, at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones sink down hopelessly, the yearlings, and those somewhat old, receive a shock from which nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them to rally, and even the strongest suffer an injurious loss in condition. few persons, therefore, who own as many as forty or fifty sheep, attempt to get along without some kind of shelters, which are variously constructed, to suit their tastes or circumstances. a sheep-barn, built upon a side-hill, will afford two floors: one underneath, surrounded by three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the urine; and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds overhead. they may also be constructed with twelve or fifteen-feet posts on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored above. in all cases, however, _thorough ventilation should be provided_; for of the two evils, of exposure to cold or of too great privation of air, the former is to be preferred. sheep cannot long endure close confinement without injury. in all ordinary weather, a shed, closely boarded on three sides, with a light roof, is sufficient protection; especially if the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-inclosed yard. if the floors above are used for storage, they should be made tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece. the sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled, but are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the ground. the roofs are formed of boards battened with slats. the barn has generally no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay. there are many situations in which open sheds are very liable to have snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all severe gales to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and are very inconvenient, particularly when they thaw. for these reasons, many prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide doorway for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for the necessary ventilation. they are convenient for yarding sheep, and the various processes for which this is required; as for shearing, marking, sorting, etc., and especially so for lambing-places, or the confinement of newly-shorn sheep in cold storms. they should have so much space that, in addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily through the middle when required. the facts must not be overlooked--as bearing upon the question of shelter, even in the warmer regions of the country--that cold rains, or rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow-storms; and that, consequently, sheep must be adequately guarded against them. [illustration: a shed of rails.] sheds. the simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles or rails, the upper end resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. it may be rendered rain-proof by pea-vines, straw, or pine boughs. in a region where timber is very cheap, planks or boards, of a sufficient thickness not to spring downward, and thus open the roof, battened with slats, may take the place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more durable roof. if the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed will shelter more sheep. these movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns--"hay-barracks"--or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle. in the latter case, the yard should be square, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which a round form would render necessary. sheds of this description are frequently made between two stacks. the end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed on the stack-pens when the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by crotched posts. the supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two hay-barracks; or two such sheds, at angles with each other, might form wings to this structure. on all large sheep-farms, convenience requires that there be one barn of considerable size, to contain the shearing-floor, and the necessary conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, etc. this should also, for the sake of economy, be a hay-barn, where hay is used. it may be constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, without racking flocks of improper size. at this barn it would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number does not exceed four hundred. the shepherd would thus be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be under his almost constant supervision. the size of this barn is a question to be determined entirely by the climate. for large flocks of sheep, the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter is an indispensable precautionary measure, at least in any part of the united states; and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more elevated the land, the greater would be the amount necessary to be stored. hay-holder. where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper door of a barn into the sheep-yard--as it always must necessarily be in any mere hay-barn--or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding forkfuls fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust, seed, and chaff. this is obviated by hay-holders--yards ten feet square--either portable, by being made of posts and boards, or simply a pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or barrack. the hay is pitched into this holder in fair weather, enough for a day's foddering at a time, and is taken from it by the fork and placed in the racks. the poles or rails for stack-pens or hay-holders should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads in them after hay. a sheep will often insert his head where the opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it along, or get crowded, to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd. if, as often happens, it is thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its footing in its struggles, and will soon choke to death. tagging. tagging, or clatting, is the removal from the sheep of such wool as is liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to the fresh pastures. if sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually purge, more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. the wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. whether this take place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of washing; and it forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and straining the shears to cut through it, when in a dry state, and it is often impracticable so to do. besides, it is difficult to force the shears between it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to shearing; and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death. before the animals are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs; it should likewise be sheared from off the entire bag of the ewe, that the newly-dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually kept wet. if the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the urine. an assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. the latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off; while, on the other hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing. the wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the operation. it answers well for stockings and other domestic purposes, or it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool. care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep, especially ewes heavy with lamb. it is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and handle them roughly; for, even if abortion, the worst consequence of such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, rendering it difficult to catch them or render them assistance at the lambing period, and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes, in which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, etc. if a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool on her running, or is lifted by the wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the points where it is thus seized; and, if killed a day or two afterward, blood will be found settled about those parts. when sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being crowded, so that they shall have no chance to run and dash about. the catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind-leg just above the hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw its right arm over and about immediately back of the shoulders, place his hand on the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. if the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. he should then set it carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table, which should be eighteen or twenty inches high, support its back with his legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. two men should not be allowed to lift the same sheep together, as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. a good shearer and assistant will tag two hundred sheep per day. when sheep receive green feed all the year round--as they do in many parts of the south--and no purging ensues from eating the newly-starting grasses in the spring, tagging is unnecessary. washing. many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, on account of its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which this animal is particularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the wool is always rendered more salable; and if the operation is carefully done, it need not be attended with injury. mr. randall, the extensive sheep-breeder of texas, states that he does not wash his sheep at all, for what he deems good reasons. about the middle of april, or at the time when one-half of the ewes have young lambs at their sides, and the balance about to drop, would be the only time in that region when he could wash them. at this period he would not race or worry his ewes at all, on any account; as they should be troubled as little as possible, and no advantage to the fleece from washing could compensate for the injury to the animal. in his high mountain-region, lambing-time could not prudently come before the latter part of march or april--the very period when washing and shearing must be commenced--since in february, and even up to the fifteenth or twentieth of march, there is much bad weather, and a single cold, rainy or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the lambs dropped during its continuance. in most of that portion of the united states lying north of forty degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of may till the first of june, according to the season and climate. when the streams are hard, which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it is better to attend to it immediately after an abundant rain, which proportionately lessens the lime derived from the springs. the climate of the southern states would admit of an earlier time. the rule should be to wait until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be expected. the practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their sheep to the watering-ground early in the morning, on a warm day, leaving the lambs behind. the sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure, from which they are taken, and, if not too heavy, carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. they are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down. by the best flock-masters, sheep are usually washed in vats. a small stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct, formed by nailing boards together, and carried till a sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. the body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be some twenty-four inches wide, and five or six deep; and the swifter the current the better. the vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large enough for four sheep to swim in it. a yard is built near the vat, from the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses the vat on three sides. this keeps the washer from standing in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and out. the yard is built opposite the corners of two fields--to take advantage of the angle of one of them to drive the sheep more readily into the yard, which should be large enough to contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two hundred; and the bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, unless well sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid becoming muddy. if the same establishment is used by a number of flock-masters, gravelling will always be necessary. [illustration: washing apparatus.] as soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the lambs are all immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into the yard to the left, to prevent their being trampled down, as often happens, by the old sheep, or straying off, if let loose. as many sheep are then driven out of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the right, as it will conveniently hold. a boy stands by the gate next to the vat, to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain and weight, and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head of "tagging," commence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of "wetting." as soon as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an instant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose. where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more readily performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to compel the sheep to swim; but _swimming_ the compact-fleeced, fine-woolled sheep for any length of time--as is practised with the long-wools in england--will not properly cleanse the wool for steaming. the vat should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. the whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through the field into the middle yard, where they should stand for about an hour before washing commences. there is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, which acts upon the dirt independent of the favorable effect which would result from thus soaking it with water alone for some time. if washed soon after a good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with; and it is not, perhaps, absolutely necessary in any case. if the water is warm enough to allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they may be got clean by washing without any previous wetting; though the snowy whiteness of fleece, which has such an influence on the purchaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. but little time is saved by dispensing with "wetting," as it takes proportionably longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept so long in the water at once. when the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged in the vat. when four are put in, two soak while two are washed. this should not, however, be done, unless the water is very warm, and the washers are uncommonly quick and expert; and it is, upon the whole, rather an objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much from the effects of a chill as the sheep; and, if they have been previously wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. when the sheep are in the water, the two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the dirtier parts--the breech, belly, etc.--and they continue to turn the sheep so that the descending current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. as soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running entirely clear, each washer seizes his own animal by the foreparts, plunges it deep in the vats, and, taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently down on its breech upon the platform. he then--if the sheep is old and weak, and it is well in all cases--presses out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be mentioned, lets it go. there should be no mud about the vat, the earth not covered with sod, being gravelled. sheep should be kept on clean pastures, from washing to shearing--not where they can come in contact with the ground, burnt logs, and the like--and they should not be driven over dusty roads. the washers should be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are from any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can labor several hours without inconvenience. two hundred sheep will employ two experienced men not over half a day, and this rate is at times much exceeded. it is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, and of a snowy whiteness, in which condition it will always sell for more than enough extra to offset the increased labor and the diminution in weight. the average loss in american saxon wool in scouring, after being washed on the back, is estimated at thirty-six per cent.; and in american merino forty-two and a half per cent. cutting the hoofs. as the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly, turning up in front and under at the sides, they must be clipped as often as once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the animal, and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural movement of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the hoof in its proper place. this greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and renders the curing of it more difficult; and it is thought by many to be the exciting cause of the disease. it is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the time of shearing. some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs; but the animal must afterward be turned upon its back, to pare off the crust which projects and turns under. if the weather be dry, or the sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, as at shearing, the hoofs are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty; and this is increased by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole, which immediately takes the edge off from the knife. these periods are ill-chosen, and the method slow and bungling. it is particularly improper to submit heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary handling at the time of tagging. when the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its rump upon the platform, the gate-keeper should advance with a pair of toe-nippers, and the washer present each foot separately, pressing the toes together so that they can be severed at a single clip. the nippers--which can be made by any blacksmith who can temper an axe or a chisel--must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot long, the rivet being of half-inch iron, and confined with a nut, so that they may be taken apart for sharpening. the cutting-edge should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from being dulled. with this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are severed by a moderate compression of the hand. two well-sharpened knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to each foot, the side-crust, being free from dirt, and soaked almost as soft as a cucumber, is reduced to the level of the sole. two expert men will go through these processes in a very short space of time. the closer the paring and clipping the better, if blood be not drawn. an occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall. [illustration: toe-nippers.] shearing. the time which should elapse between washing and shearing depends altogether on circumstances. from four to six days of bright, warm weather is sufficient; if cold, or rainy, or cloudy, more time must intervene. sometimes the wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing for a fortnight after washing. the rule to be observed is, that the water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling, and a lively, glittering look. if it is sheared when dry, like cotton, and before the oil has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the shears through, the umer is checked, and the wool will not keep so well for long periods. if it is left until it gets too oily, either the manufacturer is cheated, or, what more frequently happens, the owner loses on the price. [illustration: fleece.] shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing-floors of the barns--sometimes upon low platforms, some eighteen or twenty inches high, but more commonly on the floor itself. the place where the sheep remain should be well littered down with straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. no chaff or other substance which will stick in the wool should be used for this purpose. the shearing should not commence until the dew, if any, has dried off from the sheep. all loose straws sticking to the wool should be picked off, and whatever dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed off. the floor or tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, so that they will not hold dirt, or catch the wool. they should all be thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to the process. if there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging, or other causes, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from contaminating others. the manner of shearing varies with almost every district; and it is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skilfully shearing a sheep. practice is requisite. the following directions are as plain, perhaps, as can be made: the shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture with his right knee on a cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh. he grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along the blades, which gives him better command of the points. he may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the edges of the flanks; then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, and also the poll, or forepart, and top of the head. then "the jacket is opened" of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, is changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. he then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the head. thus one side is complete. the sheep is then turned on the other side--in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn--and the shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. he must then take the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as a lodging-place for ticks. it is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece-wool. in the use of the shears, the blades should be laid as flat to the skin as possible, the points not lowered too much, nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and frequently not so much, depending on the part, and the compactness of the wool. the wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and even. it may, indeed, be cut too close, so that the sheep can scarcely avoid sun-scald; but this is very unusual. if the wool is left in ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of workmanship very distasteful to the really good farmer. great care should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a great damage to the wool. this results from cutting too far from the points of the shears, and suffering them to get too elevated. in such cases, every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before, cut off by the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed. to keep the fleece entire, which is of great importance to its good appearance when done up, and, therefore, to its salableness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for itself, so that it will not struggle violently. no man can hold it still by main strength, and shear it well. the posture of the shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece; but it should not be confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be continually kicking and struggling. clumsy, careless men, therefore, always complain of getting the most troublesome sheep. the neck, for example, may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg on which the shearer kneels; but the lazy or brutal shearer who suffers his leg to rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even, perhaps, to draw its breath. good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five merinos per day; but a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one-half of that number. it is the last process in the world which should be hurried, as the shearer will, in that case, soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day's wages. wool ought not to be sheared, and must not be done up with any water in it. if wounds are made, as sometimes happens with unskilful operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied. shearing lambs is, in the northern climate, at least, an unprofitable practice; since the lamb, at a year old, will give the same amount of wool, and it is thus stripped of its natural protection from cold when it is young and tender, for the mere pittance of the interest on a pound, or a pound and a half of wool for six months, not more than two or three cents, and this all consumed by the expense of shearing. much the same may be said of the custom, which obtains in some places, of shearing from sheep twice a year. there may be a reason for it, where they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes, thorns, etc., if left for a long period; but when sheep are inclosed, and treated as domestic animals, although there may be less barbarity in shearing them in the fall also, than in the case of the tender lambs, there is no ground for it on the score of utility; since any gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which it occasions. cold storms occurring soon after shearing sometimes destroy sheep, in the northern portions of the country, especially the delicate saxons; forty or fifty of which have, at times, perished out of a single flock, from one night's exposure. sheep, in such cases, should be housed; or, where this is impracticable, driven into dense forests. sun-scald. when they are sheared close in very hot weather, have no shade in their pastures, and especially where they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty roads, their backs are sometimes so scorched by the sun that their wool comes off. if let alone, the matter is not a serious one; but the application of refuse lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the starting of the wool. ticks. these vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble the sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. after shearing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon drive off the tick, and it takes refuge in the wool of the lamb. let a fortnight elapse after shearing, to allow all to make this change of residence. then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure, which may be ascertained by experiment. five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, and the like, may be made to answer for a hundred lambs. this decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for the purpose, which has an inclined shelf on one side, covered with a wooden grate. one man holds the lamb by its hind legs, while another clasps the fore legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the liquid from entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. it is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the water squeezed out of its wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on the other side. the grate conducts the fluid back into the box. if the lambs are regularly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. marking or branding. the sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes may occur. every sheep-owner should be provided with a marking instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small circle, an oval, a triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, and with uniformity, on the sheep. it is customary to have the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminating in wood; but one made by cutting a type, or raised letter, or character, on the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. if the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as it does from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and spoil the appearance of the mark; and, if the pigment be applied hot, the former will not get heated, like the latter, and increase the danger of burning the hide. various pigments are used for marking. many boil tar until it assumes a glazed, hard consistency when cold, and give it a brilliant, black color by stirring in a little lampblack during the boiling. this is applied when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright, conspicuous mark all the year round. the manufacturer, however, prefers the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. it should be boiled in an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from taking fire, on a small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is to be used. when cool enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. it is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. paint, made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, is also used. the rump is a better place to mark than the side, since it is there about as conspicuous under any circumstances, and more so when the sheep are huddled in a pen, or running away from one. besides, should any wool be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on the side. ewes are commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them on different sides of the rump. many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer; but it consumes much less time to do it at a single job, after the shearing is completed; and it is necessary to take the latter course if a hot pigment is used. maggots. rams with horns growing closely to their heads are very liable to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the surrounding parts becomes broken by fighting; and these, unless removed, soon destroy the animal. boiled tar, or the marking substance first described, is both remedy and preventive. if it is put under the horns at the time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this cause. sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes miserably. as a preventive, the dung should be removed; as a remedy, the dung and maggots should be removed--the latter by touching them with a little turpentine--and sulphur and grease afterward applied to the excoriated surface. maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long, open-woolled english sheep, and the maggots, during the few days before they assume the _pupa_ state, so tease and irritate the animal, that fever and death ensue. tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, smeared over the parts, are admirable preventives. the merino and saxon are exempt from these attacks. shortening the horns. a convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal effects. the point of the horn of both ram and ewe both frequently turn in so that they will grow into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, unless shortened. the toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a horn; if not, a fine saw must be used. the marking-time affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation. selection and division. the necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and the points which should be regarded in fixing that standard, have already been brought to notice in connection with the principles of breeding. the time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for the flock-master to make his selection. he should be present on the shearing-floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off; since, if there are faults about it, he will then discover it better than at any other time. a glance will likewise reveal to him every defect in form, previously concealed, wholly, or in part, by the wool, as soon as the newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its feet. a remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of old age; a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the slightest fault, and so on. whatever animals are to be excluded, may be marked on the shoulder with venetian red and hog's lard, conveniently applied with a brush or cob. such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it, should be provided with the best feed, and fitted for the butcher. if they have been properly pushed on grass, they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it; and, if not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they are then disposed of the better. those _divisions_, also, in large flocks, which utility demands, are generally made at or soon after shearing. not more than two hundred sheep should be allowed to run together in the pastures; although the number might, perhaps, be safely increased to three hundred, if the range is extensive. wethers and dry ewes to be turned off should be kept separate from the nursing-ewes; and if the flock is large enough to require a third division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-old ewes and wethers, and the old, feeble sheep together. it is better, in all cases, to separate the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing, and to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced. if they are put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome; and when cool nights arrive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride the wethers. the merino ram, although a quiet animal compared with the common-woolled one, will be tempted to jump, by poor fences, or fences half the time down; and if he is once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or poking is resorted to, either of which causes him to waste his strength, besides being the occasion of frequent accidents. the crook. this convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form represented in the cut accompanying, of three-eighths inch round iron, drawn smaller toward the point, which is made safe by a knot. the other end is furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet long. [illustration: shepherd's crook.] in using it, the hind leg is hooked in from behind the sheep, and it fills up the narrow part beyond that point, while passing along it until it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hook, and when secured, its foot easily slips through the loop. some caution is required in its use; for, should the animal give a sudden start forward to get away, the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lameness for some days. on first embracing the leg, the crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break off; and being secure, its struggles will cease the moment the hand seizes the leg. no shepherd should be without this implement, as it saves much yarding and running, and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or suspicious appearance, and a seasonable application of remedy or preventive, which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be driven to a distant yard to effect the catching of a single sheep. dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one; and if a flock are properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it at salting-time, or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the flock are familiar. it is, however, at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly serviceable. for this purpose, at that time alone, it will pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving time, to say nothing of the advantage of the sheep. driving and slaughtering. driving. mutton can be grown cheaper than any other kind of meat. it is fast becoming better appreciated; and, strange as it may seem, good mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality does in england. its substitution in a large measure for pork would contribute materially to the health of the community. winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable and deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an object; and the instances are few, indeed, where it is not. in england, it is considered good policy to fatten sheep, if the increase of weight will pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed; the manure being deemed a fair equivalent for the other food--that is, as much straw and turnips as they will eat. lean sheep there usually command as high a price per pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring; while, in this country, the latter usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a great advantage. the difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation. suppose a wether of a good mutton breed, weighing eighty pounds in the fall, to cost six cents per pound, amounting to four dollars and eighty cents, and to require twenty pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other food, and to gain a pound and a half each week; the gain in weight in four months would be about twenty-five pounds, which, at six cents per pound, would be one dollar and fifty cents, or less than ten dollars per ton for the hay consumed; but if the same sheep could be bought in the fall for three cents per pound, and sold in the spring for six cents, the gain would amount to three dollars and ninety cents, or upwards of twenty dollars per ton for the hay--the manure being the same in either case. for fattening, it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty, and in as good condition as can be had at fair prices; and to feed liberally, so as to secure the most rapid increase that can be had without waste of food. the fattening of sheep by the aid of oil-cake, or grain purchased for the purpose, may often be made a cheaper mode of obtaining manure than by the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as guano, super-phosphate of lime, and the like; and it is altogether preferable. it is practised extensively and advantageously abroad, and deserves at least a fair trial among us. [illustration: the shepherd and his flock.] sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin their journey either when too full or too hungry; in the former state, they are apt to purge while on the road, and in the latter, they will lose strength at once. the sheep selected for market should be those in the best condition at the time; and to ascertain this, it is necessary to examine the whole lot, and separate the fattest from the rest, which is best done at about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the afternoon. the selected ones are placed in a field by themselves, where they remain until the time for starting. if there be rough pasture to give them, they should be allowed to use it, in order to rid themselves of some of the food which might be productive of inconvenience on the journey. if there is no such pasture, a few cut turnips will answer. all their hoofs should be carefully examined, and every unnecessary appendage removed, though the firm portion of the horn should not be touched. every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears, and the animals properly marked. being thus prepared, they should have feed early in the morning, and be started, in the cold season, about mid-day. let them walk quietly away; and as the road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to prevent which, the drover should go before them, and let his dog bring up the rear. in a short time they will assume the proper speed--about one mile an hour. should the road they travel be a green one, they will proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass along both sides; but if it is a narrow turnpike, the drover will require all his attention in meeting and being passed by various vehicles, to avoid injury to his charge. in this part of their business, drovers generally make too much ado; and the consequence is, that the sheep are driven more from side to side of the road than is requisite. upon meeting a carriage, it would be much better for the sheep, were the drover to go forward, instead of sending his dog, and point off with his stick the leading sheep to the nearest side of the road; and the rest will follow, as a matter of course, while the dog walks behind the flock and brings up the stragglers. open gates to fields are sources of great annoyance to drovers, the stock invariably making an endeavor to go through them. on observing an open gate ahead, the drover should send his dog behind him over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep at the gate. when the sheep incline to rest, they should be allowed to lie down. when the animals are lodged for the night, a few turnips or a little hay should be furnished to them, if the road-sides are bare. if these are placed near the gate of the field which they occupy, they will be ready to take the road again in the morning. as a precaution against worrying dogs, the drover should go frequently through the flock with a light, retire to rest late, and rise up early in the morning. these precautions are necessary; since, when sheep have once been disturbed by dogs, they will not settle again upon the road. the first day's journey should be a short one, not exceeding four or five miles. the whole journey should be so marked out as that, allowance being made for unforeseen delays, the animals may have one day's rest near the market. points of fat sheep. the formation of fat, in a sheep destined to be fattened, commences in the inside, the web of fat which envelopes the intestines being first formed, and a little deposited around the kidneys. after that, fat is seen on the outside; and first upon the end of the rump at the tail-head, continuing to move on along the back, on both sides of the spine, or back-bone, to the bend of the ribs to the neck. then it is deposited between the muscles, parallel with the cellular tissue. meanwhile, it is covering the lower round of the ribs descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet under the belly, whence it proceeds to the brisket, or breast, in front, and the sham or cod behind, filling up the inside of the arm-pits and thighs. while all these depositions are proceeding on the outside, the progress in the inside is not checked, but rather increased, by the fattening disposition encouraged by the acquired condition; and, hence, simultaneously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space between the intestines and the lumbar region, or loin, gradually filled up by the web and kidney fat. by this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle are receiving their share; and when fat is deposited there in quantity, it gives to the meat the term _marbled_. these inter-fibrous spaces are the last to receive a deposition of fat; but after this has begun, every other part at the same time receives its due share, the back and kidneys securing the most, so much so that the former literally becomes _nicked_, as it is termed--that is, the fat is felt through the skin to be divided into two portions, from the tail-head along the back to the top of the shoulder; and the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck toward the breasts full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and the inside of the fore legs, and between the cod and the inside of the hind thighs, filled up. when all this has been accomplished, the sheep is said to be _fat_, or _ripe_. when the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, it is in the most valuable state as mutton. few sheep, however, lay on fat entirely over their body; one laying the largest proportion on the rump, another on the back; one on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter, another on those of the hind-quarter; and one more on the inside, and another more on the outside. taking so many parts, and combining any two or more of them together, a considerable variety of condition will be found in any lot of fat sheep, while any one is as ripe in its way as any other. with these data for guides, the state of a sheep in its progress toward ripeness may be readily detected by handling. a fat sheep, however, is easily known by the eye, from the fullness exhibited by all the external parts of the particular animal. it may exhibit want in some parts when compared with others; but those parts, it may easily be seen, would never become so ripe as the others; and this arises from some constitutional defect in the animal itself; since, if this were so, there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe. the state of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained by the eye. it must be handled, or subjected to the scrutiny of the hand. even in so palpable an act as handling, discretion is requisite. a full-looking sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump; for he would not seem so full, unless fat had first been deposited there. a thin-looking sheep, on the other hand, should be handled on the rump; and if there be no fat there, it is useless to handle the rest of the body, for certainly there will not be so much as to deserve the name of fat. between these two extremes of condition, every variety exists; and on that account examination by the hand is the rule, and by the eye alone the exception. the hand is, however, much assisted by the eye, whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once. in handling sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly employed; and the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, through practice, of the exact state of the condition, is truly surprising, and establishes a conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between the external and internal state of an animal. hence originates this practical maxim in judging stock of all kinds--that no animal will appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat had previously been acquired in the inside as constitutional habit will allow. the application of this rule is easy. when the rump is found nicked, on handling, fat is to be found on the back; when the back is found nicked, fat is to be expected on the top of the shoulder and over the ribs; and when the top of the shoulder proves to be nicked, fat may be anticipated on the under side of the belly, to ascertain its existence below, the animal must be _turned up_, as it is termed; that is, the sheep is set upon his rump, with his back down, and his hind feet pointing upward and outward. in this position, it can be seen whether the breast and thighs are filled up. still, all these alone would not disclose the state of the inside of the sheep, which should, moreover, be looked for in the thickness of the flank; in the fullness of the breast, that is, the space in front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck; in the stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail; and in the breadth of the back of the neck. all these latter parts, especially with the fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of fat in the inside; that is, largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys, thickness of net, and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles. hence, the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips and the like seems to be to lay fat upon all the bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are capable of acquiring that substance; for, as to bone and muscle, these increase in weight and extent independently of fat, and fat only increases in their magnitude. slaughtering. sheep are easily slaughtered, and the operation is unattended with cruelty. they require some preparation before being deprived of life, which consists in food being withheld from them for not less than twenty-four hours, according to the season. the reason for fasting sheep before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and intestines to empty themselves entirely of food, as it is found that, when an animal is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more liable to putrefy, and it not so well flavored; and, as ruminating animals always retain a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is reasonable that they should fast somewhat longer to get rid of it, than animals with single stomachs. sheep are placed on their side--sometimes upon a stool, called a killing-stool--to be slaughtered, and, requiring no fastening with cords, are deprived of life by the use of a straight knife through the neck, between its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein of both sides, from which the blood flows freely out, and the animal soon dies. [illustration: drover's or butcher's dog.] the skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving that on the legs and head, which are covered with hair, the legs being disjointed by the knee. the entrails are removed by an incision along the belly, after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the boughs. the net is carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up by itself; but the kidney fat is not then extracted. the intestines are placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the _pluck_, containing the heart, lungs, and liver; the bag, containing the stomach; and the _puddings_, consisting of the viscera, or guts. the latter are usually thrown away; though the scotch, however, clean them and work them up into their favorite _haggis_. the skin is hung over a rope or pole under cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to dry in an airy place. the carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean, cool, airy, dry apartment before it is cut down. it should be cool and dry; for, if warm, the meat will not become firm; and, if damp, a clamminess will cover it, and it will never feel dry, and present a fresh, clean appearance. the carcass is divided in two, by being sawed right down the back-bone. the kidney-fat is then taken out, being only attached to the peritoneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted from the _suet_, the name given to sheep-tallow in an independent state. cutting up. of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of mutton, the english and the scotch--of the former, the practice in london being taken as the standard, and of the latter, that of edinburgh, since more care is exercised in this respect in these two cities--the english is, perhaps, preferable; although the scotch accomplish the task in a cleanly and workmanlike manner. the _jigot_ is the most handsome and valuable part of the carcass, bringing the highest price, and is either a roasting or a boiling piece. a jigot of leicester, cheviot, or south-down mutton makes a beautiful boiled leg of mutton, which is prized the more the fatter it is--this part of the carcass being never overloaded with fat. the _loin_ is almost always roasted, the flap of the flank being skewered up, and it is a juicy piece. many consider this piece of leicester mutton, roasted, as too rich; and when warm this is, probably, the case; but a cold roast loin is an excellent summer dish. the _back-rib_ is divided into two, and used for very different purposes. the forepart--the neck--is boiled, and makes sweet barley-broth; and the meat, when boiled, or rather the whole simmered for a considerable time beside the fire, eats tenderly. the back-ribs make an excellent roast; indeed, there is not a sweeter or more varied one in the whole carcass, having both ribs and shoulder. the shoulder-blade eats best cold, and the ribs, warm. the ribs make excellent chops, the leicester and south-down affording the best. the _breast_ is mostly a roasting-piece, consisting of rib and shoulder, and is particularly good when cold. when the piece is large, as of the south-down or cheviot, the gristly parts of the ribs may be divided from the true ribs, and helped separately. this piece also boils well; or, when corned for eight days, and served with onion sauce, with mashed turnips in it, there are few more savory dishes at a farmer's table. the _shoulder_ is separated before being dressed, and makes an excellent roast for family use, being eaten warm or cold, or carved and dressed as the breast mentioned above. the shoulder is best from a large carcass of south-down, cheviot, or leicester. the _neck-piece_ is partly laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the forepart being fitted for boiling and making into broth, and the best part for roasting or broiling into chops. on this account, it is a good family piece, and generally preferred to any part of the hind-quarter. heavy sheep, such as the leicester, south-down, and cheviot, supply the most thrifty neck-piece. relative qualities. the different sorts of mutton in common use differ as well in quality as in quantity. the flesh of the _leicester_ is large, though not coarse-grained, of a lively red color, and the cellular tissue between the fibres contains a considerable quantity of fat. when cooked, it is tender and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and having a sweet, rich taste; but the fat is rather too much and too rich for some people's tastes, and can be put aside. it must be allowed that the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never been fat. _cheviot_ mutton is smaller in the grain, not so bright of color, with less fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet; but the flavor is higher, and the fat not so luscious. the mutton of _south-downs_ is of medium fineness in grain, color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with the meat, juicy, and tenderer than cheviot. the mutton of rams of any breed is always hard, of disagreeable flavor, and, in autumn, not eatable; that of old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless; of young ones, well enough flavored, but still rather dry; while wether-mutton is the meat in perfection, according to its kind. the want of relish, perhaps the distaste, for mutton has served as an obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in the united states. the common mistake in the management of mutton among us is, that it is eaten, as a general thing, at exactly the wrong time after it is killed. it should be eaten immediately after being killed, and, if possible, before the meat has time to get cold; or, if not, then it should be kept a week or more--in the ice-house, if the weather require--until the time is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of toughness which it takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or preliminary point in its process toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way, and the meat becomes tender. an opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not attain perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five years. if this be so, that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable which takes five years to attain its full state; and there is no breed of sheep in this country which requires five years to bring it to perfection. this being the case, it must be folly to restrain sheep from coming to perfection until they have reached that age. lovers of five-year-old mutton do not pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer, but only insist on its being best at that age. were this the fact, one of two absurd conditions must exist in this department of agriculture: namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, or that should not be allowed to, attain to perfection before it is five years old; either of which conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot be in its _best_ state at five years. the truth is, the idea of mutton of this age being especially excellent, is founded on a prejudice, arising, probably, from this circumstance: before winter food was discovered, which could maintain the condition of stock which had been acquired in summer, sheep lost much of their summer condition in winter, and, of course, an oscillation of condition occurred, year after year, until they attained the age of five years; when their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose their condition the more rapidly. hence, it was expedient to slaughter them at not exceeding five years of age; and, no doubt, mutton would be high-flavored at that age, that had been exclusively fed on natural pasture and natural hay. such treatment of sheep cannot, however, be justified on the principles of modern practice; because both reason and taste concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their perfect state of growth and condition, not their largest and heaviest; and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier age than another, its mutton attains its best before another breed attains what is its best state, although its sheep may be older; but taste alone prefers one kind of mutton to another, even when both are in their best state, from some peculiar property. the cry for five-year-old mutton is thus based on very untenable grounds; the truth being that well-fed and fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth in its second year; and the farmer cannot afford to keep it longer, unless the wool would pay for the keep, since we have not the epicures and men of wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price, which he must have, to enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his sheep two or three years over. all writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most valuable of the articles of human food. pork may be more stimulating, beef perhaps more nutritious, when the digestive powers are strong; but, while there is in mutton sufficient nutriment, there is also that degree of consistency and readiness of assimilation which renders it most congenial to the human stomach, most easy of digestion, and most promotive of human health. of it, almost alone, can it be said that it is our food in sickness, as well as in health; its broth is the first thing, generally, that an invalid is permitted to taste, the first thing that he relishes, and is a natural preparation for his return to his natural aliment. in the same circumstances, it appears that fresh mutton, broiled or boiled, requires three hours for digestion; fresh mutton, roasted, three and one-fourth hours; and mutton-suet, boiled, four and one-half hours. good _ham_ may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, though the leg is preferable; and for this purpose it is cut in the english fashion. it should be rubbed all over with good salt, and a little saltpetre, for ten minutes, and then laid in a dish and covered with a cloth for eight or ten days. after that, it should be slightly rubbed again, for about five minutes, and then hung up in a dry place, say the roof of the kitchen, until used. wether mutton is used for hams, because it is fat, and it may be cured any time from november to may; but ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham, provided it be cured in spring, because it is out of season in autumn. there is an infallible rule for ascertaining the _age_ of mutton by certain marks on the carcass. observe the color of the breast-bone, when a sheep is dressed--that is, where the breast-bone is separated--which, in a lamb, or before it is one year old, will be quite red; from one to two years old, the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red; at three years old, a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the four middle bones, and the others will be white; and at four years, all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color. contributions to manufactures. the products of sheep are not merely useful to man; they provide his luxuries as well. the skin of sheep is made into _leather_, and, when so manufactured with the fleece on, makes comfortable mats for the doors of rooms, and rugs for carriages. for this purpose, the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with the longest and most beautiful fleece. _tanned sheep-skin_ is used in coarse book-binding. _white sheep-skin_, which is not tanned, but so manufactured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by many classes of workmen, and, in agriculture, as gloves in the harvest; and, when cut into strips, as twine for sewing together the leather coverings and stuffings of horse-collars. _morocco leather_ is made of sheep-skins, as well as of goat-skins, and the bright red color is given to it by cochineal. _russia leather_ is also made of sheep-skins, the peculiar odor of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould arising from damp, the odor being imparted to it in currying, by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree. besides soft leather, sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the name of _parchment_; and, though the skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and the she-goat are used for parchment. the finer quality of the substance, called _vellum_, is made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs; and for its manufacture the town of strasburgh has long been celebrated. mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common _candles_, with a proportion of ox-tallow. minced suet, subjected to the action of high-pressure steam in a digester, at two hundred and fifty or two hundred and sixty degrees of fahrenheit, becomes so hard as to be sonorous when struck, whiter, and capable, when made into candles, of giving very superior light. _stearic candles_, the invention of the celebrated guy lussac, are manufactured solely from mutton-suet. besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various articles of luxury and utility, which pass under the absurd name of _catgut_. all the intestines of sheep are composed of four layers, as in the horse and cattle. the outer, or _peritoneal_ one, is formed of that membrane, by which every portion of the belly and its contents is invested, and confined in its natural and proper situation. it is highly smooth and polished, and secretes a watery fluid which contributes to preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all friction and concussion during the different motions of the animal. the second is the _muscular_ coat, by means of which the contents of the intestines are gradually propelled from the stomach to the rectum, thence to be expelled when all the useful nutriment is extracted. the muscles, as in all the other intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the outer coat taking a longitudinal direction, and the inner layer being circular--an arrangement different from that of the muscles of the [oe]sophagus, and in both beautifully adapted to the respective functions of the tube. the _submucous_ coat comes next. it is composed of numerous glands, surrounded by cellular tissue, and by which the inner coat is lubricated, so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the food. the _mucous_ coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal cavity. in its healthy state, it is always covered with mucus; and when the glands beneath are stimulated, as under the action of physic, the quantity of mucus is increased; it becomes of a more watery character; the contents of the intestines are softened and dissolved by it; and by means of the increased action of the muscular coat, which, as well as the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the fæces are hurried on more rapidly and discharged. in the manufacture of some sorts of _cords_ from the intestines of sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets and battledores. future washings cleanse the guts, which are then twisted into different-sized cords for various purposes; some of the best known of which are whip-cords, hatter's cords for bow-strings, clock-maker's cords, bands for spinning-wheels, now almost obsolete, and fiddle and harp-strings. of the last class, the cords manufactured in italy are superior in goodness and strength; and the reason assigned is, that the sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the breeds most in vogue in england and in this country. the difficulty in manufacturing from other breeds of sheep lies, it seems, in making the treble strings from the fine peritoneal coat, their chief fault being weakness; by reason of which the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch required for the higher notes in concert-pitch, maintaining, at the same time, in their form and construction, that tenuity or smallness of diameter which is required in order to produce a brilliant and clear tone. [illustration] diseases and their remedies. the dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the united states, insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless they are peculiarly exposed to disease. no country is better suited to sheep than most of the northern and some of the southern portions of our own. in europe, and especially in england, where the system of management is, necessarily, in the highest degree artificial, consisting, frequently, in an early and continued forcing of the system, folding on wet, ploughed ground, and the excessive use of that watery food, the swedish turnip, there are numerous and fatal diseases, a long list of which invariably cumbers the pages of foreign writers on this animal. the diseases incident to our flocks, on the contrary, may generally be considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising from the quality of food, or from local causes. it may be safely asserted that, with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream; sufficient shade and protection against severe storms; a constant supply of salt, tar, and sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in winter--young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never become diseased on american soil. the comparatively few diseases, which it may be necessary here to mention, are arranged in alphabetical order--as in the author's "cattle and their diseases"--for convenience of reference, and treated in the simplest manner. remedies of general application, to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application. a sheep, which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its owner. the wool and felt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcass of other animals will be worthless, except for manure. the loss of sheep, from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle. humanity, however, alike with interest, dictates the use of such simple remedies, for the removal of suffering and disease, as may be within reach. administering medicine. the stomach into which medicines are to be administered is the fourth, or digesting stomach. the comparatively insensible walls of the rumen, or paunch, are but slightly acted upon, except by doses of very improper magnitude. medicine, to reach the fourth stomach, should be given in a state as nearly approaching fluidity as may be. even then it may be given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view. if the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the gullet with considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, and enter the rumen; if they are drunk more slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle down the throat, glide over these pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach. bleeding. bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is indicated. to bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended, in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. this tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein, which is placed below. the shepherd takes the sheep between his legs; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in that place, for the purpose of making it swell; he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him, and also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle; he then makes the incision from below upward, half a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle. when the vein is no longer pressed upon, the bleeding will commonly cease; if not, a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round them. for thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. the sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. some of the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein, and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. the vein will soon rise. the orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as before described. the good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the _rapidity_ with which the blood is abstracted, as the _amount_ taken. this is especially true in acute diseases. _either bleed rapidly or do not bleed at all._ the orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, and made lengthwise with the vein. a lancet is by far the best implement; and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling gleam. bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when it is indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the _commencement_ of the malady. the amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasurement, but by constitutional effect--the lowering of the pulse, and indications of weakness. in urgent cases--apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for example--it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. the quantity of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in the horse or ox. the blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth part of his weight; and that of the ox at least one-twentieth; while that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. for this reason, more caution should be exercised in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resorting to it; otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. many a sheep has been destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage had passed. feeling the pulse. the number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side. the femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. the pulsations per minute, in a healthy adult sheep, are sixty-five in number; though they have been stated at seventy, and even seventy-five. apoplexy. soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. the symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. the sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself on the ground, and suddenly rises, and dies in a few minutes. where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather forced forward for the purpose of raising their condition, it sometimes happens that they become suddenly blind and motionless; they will not follow their companions; when approached, they run about, knocking their heads against fences, etc.; the head is drawn round toward one side; they fall, grind their teeth, and their mouths are covered with a frothy mucus. such cases are, unquestionably, referable to a determination of blood to the brain. _treatment._ if the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the respiration labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which require immediate and energetic treatment. recourse should at once be had to the jugular vein, and the animal bled until an obvious constitutional effect is produced--the pulse lowered, and the rigidity of the muscles relaxed. an aperient should at once follow bleeding; and if the animal is strong and plathoric, a sheep of the size of the merino would require at least two ounces of epsom salts, and one of the large mutton sheep, more. if this should fail to open the bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be given, say twice a day. braxy. this is manifested by uneasiness; loathing of food; frequent drinking; carrying the head down; drawing the back up; swollen belly; feverish symptoms; and avoidance of the flock. it appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be induced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when hot, and especially by constipation, brought on by feeding on frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. many sheep die on the prairies from this disease, induced by exposure and miserable forage. entire prevention is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, dry food. _treatment._ remedies, to be successful, must be promptly applied. bleed freely; and to effect this, immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood. then give two ounces of epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of common salt. if this is unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a pipeful of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. administer half; and if this is not effectual, follow with the remainder. then bed the animal in dry straw, and cover with blankets; assisting the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative provender till well. bronchitis. where sheep are subject to pneumonia, they are liable to bronchitis as well, which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the bronchial tubes, or the air-passages of the lungs. the _symptoms_ are those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever, and a tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon. _treatment._ administer salt in doses of from one and a half to two ounces, with six or eight ounces of lime-water, given in some other part of the day. catarrh. this is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the nasal passages, and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pharynx. in the first instance--where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not very violently affected--it is merely accompanied by an increased discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. in this form, it is usually termed _snuffles_; and high-bred english mutton-sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after every sudden change of weather. when the inflammation extends to the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx, some degree of fever usually supervenes, accompanied by cough, and some loss of appetite. at this point, bleeding and purging are serviceable. catarrh rarely attacks the american fine-woolled sheep with sufficient violence in summer to require the application of remedies. depletion, in catarrh, in our severe winter months, however, rapidly produces that fatal prostration, from which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep back, without bestowing an amount of time and care upon it, costing far more than the worth of an ordinary animal. the best course is to _prevent_ the disease by judicious precaution. with that amount of attention which every prudent farmer should bestow on his sheep, the american merino is but little subject to it. good, comfortable, and well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, are usually a sufficient safeguard. malignant epizoÖtic catarrh. [illustration: an english rack for feeding sheep.] essentially differing, in type and virulence, from the preceding, is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizoötic malady, which, as often as once in every eight or ten years, sweeps over extended sections of the northern states, destroying more sheep than all other diseases combined. it commonly makes its appearance in winters characterized by rapid and violent changes of temperature, which are spoken of by the farmers as "bad winters" for sheep. the disease is sometimes termed the "distemper," and also, but erroneously, "grub in the head." the winter of - proved peculiarly destructive to sheep in new york, and some of the adjoining states; some owners losing one-half, others three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths, of their flocks. one person lost five hundred out of eight hundred; another, nine hundred out of a thousand. these severe losses, however, mainly fell on the holders of the delicate saxons, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. _symptoms._ the primary and main disease, in such instances, is a species of catarrh; differing, however, from ordinary catarrh in its diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the primary and the symptomatic diseases. the animals affected do not, necessarily, at first show any signs of violent colds, as coughing, sneezing, or labored respiration; the only indications of catarrh noticed, oftentimes, being a nasal discharge. animals having this discharge appear dull and drooping; their eyes run a little, and are partially closed; the caruncle and lids look pale; their movements are languid, and there is an indisposition to eat; the pulse is nearly natural, though at times somewhat too languid. in a few days these symptoms are evidently aggravated; there is rapid emaciation, accompanied with debility; the countenance is exceedingly dull and drooping; the eye is kept more than half closed; the caruncle, lids, etc., are almost bloodless; a gummy, yellow secretion about the eye; thick, glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils; appetite feeble; pulse languid; and muscular energy greatly prostrated. they rapidly grow weaker, stumble, and fall as they walk, and soon become unable to rise; the appetite grows feebler; the mucus at the nose is, in some instances, tinged with dark, grumous blood; the respiration becomes oppressed; and the animals die within a day or two after they become unable to rise. upon a _post-mortem_ examination, the mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and thickened throughout its entire extent, accompanied with the most intense inflammation; slight ulcers are found on the membranous lining, at the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribriform plate, in the ethmoidal cells; and the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of the pharynx, and some inches, from two to four, of the upper portion of the [oe]sophagus. no sheep, affected with this disease, recovers after emaciation and debility have proceeded to any great extent. in the generality of instances, the time, from the first observed symptoms until death, varies from ten to fifteen days; although death, in some cases, results more speedily. _treatment._ nothing has been found so serviceable as mercury, which, from its action on the entire secretory system, powerfully tends to relieve the congested membranes of the head. dissolve one grain of bi-chloride of mercury--corrosive sublimate--in two ounces of water; and give one-half ounce of the water, or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate, daily, in two doses. to stimulate and open the bowels, give, also, rhubarb in a decoction, the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose, accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian in infusion. colic. sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. they appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, unless relieved. this disease, popularly known as the "stretches," is erroneously attributed to an involution of the part of the intestine within another; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent colic, induced by costiveness. _treatment._ half an ounce of epsom salts, a drachm of jamaica ginger, and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. the salts alone, however, will effect the cure; as will, also, an equivalent dose of linseed oil, or even hog's lard. costiveness. this difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours, till the trouble ceases; or give one ounce of epsom salts. this may be assisted by an injection of warm weak suds and molasses. diarrh[oe]a. common diarrh[oe]a--purging, or scours--manifests itself simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. it is generally owing to improper food, as bad hay, or noxious weeds; to a sudden change, as from dry food to fresh grass; to an excess, as from overloading the stomach; and sometimes to cold and wet. it is important to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. in diarrh[oe]a, there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime, or mucus, and blood; odor of the fæces is far less offensive than in dysentery; and the general condition of the animal is but little changed. when it is light, and not of long continuance, no remedy is called for, since it is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expulsion of some offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to disease. _treatment._ confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual return to it, often suffices, in the case of grown sheep. with lambs, especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. if the purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the fæces, the feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic; half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half an ounce of epsom salts to a lamb. this should be followed by an astringent; and, in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. give one quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days; at the end of which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated, or entirely ceased. "sheep's cordial" is also a safe and excellent remedy--in severe cases, better than simple chalk and milk. take of prepared chalk, one ounce; powdered catechu, half an ounce; powdered jamaica ginger, two drachms; and powdered opium, half a drachm; mix with half a pint of peppermint water; give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. disease of the biflex canal. from the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. this canal is a small orifice, opening externally on the point of each pastern, immediately above the cleft between the toes. it bifurcates within, a tube passing down on each side of the inner face of the pastern, winding round and ending in a _cul de sac_. inflammation of this canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. the toes are thrown wide apart by the tumor. it rarely attacks more than one foot, and should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration which it will do, if neglected. there is none of that soreness and disorganization between the back part of the toes, and none of that peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail, with which disease it is sometimes confounded. _treatment._ scarify the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal; and cover the foot with tar. dysentery. this is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or inner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, and a morbid alteration in their character. it is frequently consequent on that form of diarrh[oe]a, which is caused by an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. the inflammation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in virulence, and becomes dysentery, a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its character, but, fortunately, not common among sheep, generally, in the united states. its diagnosis differs from that of diarrh[oe]a, in several readily observed particulars. there is evident fever; the appetite is capricious, commonly very feeble; the stools are as thin as in diarrh[oe]a, or even thinner, but much more adhesive, in consequence of the presence of large quantities of mucus. as the erosion of the intestines advances, the fæces are tinged with blood; their odor is intolerably offensive; and the animal rapidly wastes away, the course of the disease extending from a few days to several weeks. _treatment._ moderate bleeding should be resorted to, in the first or inflammatory shape, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be present. two doses of physic having been administered, astringents are serviceable. the "sheep's cordial," already described, is as good as any; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added; an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary. with this, as an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the inner surface of the intestines, a half grain of strychnine may be combined. smaller doses should be given for three or four days. flies. the proper treatment, upon the appearance of flies or maggots, has already been detailed under the head of "feeding and management," to which the reader is referred. fouls. sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are; but encounter it, if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. it is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly resembling incipient hoof-ail, and producing lameness. it occasions, however, no serious structural disorganization, disappears without treatment, is not contagious, and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall, instead of in the dry, hot period of summer, when the hoof-ail rages most. a little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of turpentine--either followed by a coating of warm tar--promptly cures it. for foul noses, dip a small swab in tar, then roll it in salt; put some on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. fractures. if there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone simply being broken, the treatment is extremely easy. apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. when the swelling is considerable, and fever present, the best course is to open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms. purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. if the broken bones are kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone protrude, recovery is very uncertain; and it will become a question whether it would not be better to convert the animal at once into mutton. garget. this is an inflammation of the udder, sometimes known as "caked bag," with or without general inflammation. where it is simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usually caused by too great an accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lambing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. _treatment._ drawing the milk partly from the bag, so that the hungry lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, and bathing it a few times in _cold_ water, usually suffices. if the lamb is dead, the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each milking. in cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed with iodine ointment. if there is general fever in the system, an ounce of epsom salts may be given. if suppuration forms, the part affected should be opened with the lancet. goitre. the "swelled neck" in lambs is, like the goitre, or bronchocele, an enlargement of the thyroid glands, and is strikingly analogous to that disease, if not identical with it. it is congenital. the glands at birth are from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a hen's _egg_, though more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form. the lamb is exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. it is rare, indeed, that one lives. a considerable number of lambs annually perish from this disease, which does not appear to be an epizoötic, though it is more prevalent in some seasons than in others. it does not seem to depend upon the water, or any other natural circumstances of a region, as goitre is generally supposed to, since it may not prevail in the same flock, or on the same farm, once in ten years; nor can it be readily traced to any particular kind of food. when it does appear, however, its attacks are rarely isolated; from which circumstance some have inferred that it is induced by some local or elimentary cause. losses from this disease have ranged from ten per cent. to twenty, thirty, and even fifty per cent. of the whole number of lambs. possibly, high condition in the ewes may be one of the inducing causes. _treatment._ none is known which will reach the case. should one having the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be worth while to attempt reducing the entanglement of the glands. perhaps keeping the breeding-ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not _high_ condition, would be as effectual a preventive as any. grub in the head. what is popularly known as the "grub" is the larva of the _[oe]strus oris_, or gad-fly of the sheep. it is composed of five rings; is tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of brown; its wings are striped. the sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nostrils of the sheep. its attempts to do this--most common in july, august, and september--are always indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps, with their heads inward, and their noses thrust close to the ground, and into it, if any loose dirt or sand is within reach. if the fly succeeds in depositing its egg, the latter is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or larvæ, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentaculæ, or feelers, they attach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. during the ascent of the larvæ, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and often dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. the larvæ remain on the sinuses, feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently creating no further annoyance, until ready to assume their _pupa_ form in the succeeding spring. having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter, they abandon them as the warm weather approaches in the latter part of spring. they crawl down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement than when they originally ascended, drop on the ground, and rapidly burrow into it. in a few hours, the skin of the larvæ has contracted, become of a dark-brown color, and it has assumed the form of chrysalis. this fly never eats; the male, after impregnating two or three females, dies; and the latter, having deposited their _ova_ in the nostrils of the sheep, also soon perish. the larvæ in the heads of sheep may, and probably do, add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack the membranous lining of the nasal cavities; and they are a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to, and descending from, their lodging-place in the head. but in the interval between these events, extending over a period of several months, not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoyance at their presence. they are, moreover, found in the heads of nearly all sheep, the healthy as well as the diseased, at the proper season. _treatment._ though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. one simple way of effecting this is, by turning up with a plough a furrow of earth in the sheep-pasture, into which the sheep will thrust their noses on the approach of the _[oe]strus_, and thus many of them escape its attacks. some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occasionally with tar, the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. another plan, deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvæ from the sinuses, is as follows: take half a pound of good scotch snuff, and two quarts of boiling water; stir, and let it stand till cold. inject about a table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril, with a syringe; repeat this three or four times, at intervals, from the middle of october till january. the efficacy of the snuff will be increased by adding half an ounce of asaf[oe]tida, pounded in a little water. the effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent death; but they will soon recover. a decoction of tobacco affords a substitute for snuff; and some recommend blowing tobacco smoke through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. hoof-ail. the first symptom of this troublesome malady, known, likewise, as foot-ail, which is ordinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore-feet. on daily examining, however, the feet of a flock which have the disease among them, it will readily be seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with lameness. the horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradually thinning out, some way between the toes and divisions of the hoof, and above these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin. when the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered with short, soft hair. the back part of the toes, or the heels, can be separated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is naked. in a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, dry, and uneroded as on any other part of the animal. the first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the _back parts_ of the clefts, immediately above the heels. the skin assumes a macerated appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated surface. as the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain, and the sheep limps. at this stage, the foot, _externally_, in a great majority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind. the ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. the thin upper edges of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is established between the hoof and the fleshy sole. a purulent fetid matter is discharged from the cavity. the extent of the separation increases daily, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. the bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, entirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coronet. the whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration; or, as more commonly happens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface, and burrow in every cavity. the fore-feet are generally first attacked; and, most usually but one of them. the animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturbance, and eats as usual. by the time that any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot, and sometimes sooner, the other forefoot is attacked. that becoming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its knees; and, if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. there is a bare spot under the brisket, of the size of a man's hand, which looks red and inflamed. there is a degree of general fever, and the appetite is dull. the animal rapidly loses condition. the appearance of the maggot soon closes the scene. where the rotten foot is brought in contact with the side, in lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter adheres to, and saturates the short wool--it being but a month and a half, or two months, after shearing--and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. a black crust is speedily formed round the spot, which is the decomposition of the surrounding structures; and innumerable maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and muscles, and eating up the wretched animal alive. the black, festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, apparently in tortures the most excruciating. sometimes but one forefoot is attacked, and subsequently one or both hind ones. there is no uniformity in this particular; and it is a singular fact that, when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. so, also, one foot may be cured, while every other one is laboring under the malady. the highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly characteristic of the disease, and would reveal its character, to one familiar with it, in the darkest night. hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively by inoculation--the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. that it is propagated in some of the ways classed under the ordinary designation of _contagion_, is certain. that it may be propagated by inoculation, has been established by experiment. the matter of diseased feet has been placed on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of circumstances--sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural state, sometimes after a very slight scorification, sometimes when macerated by moisture; and under each of these circumstances the disease has been communicated. the same inference may be drawn, also, from the manner in which the disease attacks flocks. the whole, or any considerable number, though sometimes rapidly, are never _simultaneously_ attacked, as would be expected, among animals so gregarious, if the disease could be transmitted by simple contact, inhaling the breath, or other effluvium. the matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of healthy feet. sheep, therefore, contract the disease from being driven over the pastures, yarded on the straw, etc., where diseased sheep have been, perhaps even days, before. the matter would probably continue to inoculate, until dried up by the air and heat, or washed away by the rains. the stiff, upright stems of closely mown grass, as on meadows, are almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet, and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which could be artificially devised. it is not entirely safe to drive healthy sheep over roads, and especially into washing-yards, or sheep houses, where diseased sheep have been, until rain has fallen, or sufficient time has elapsed for the matter to dry up. on the moist bottom of a washing-yard, and particularly in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind and rain, this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to inoculate. when the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and it does not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. it then assumes a mitigated form; the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked; there seems to be less inflammatory action constitutionally, and in the diseased parts; the course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. if well kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third. a sheep will occasionally be seen to limp; but its condition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely supervene. one or two applications made during the summer, in a manner presently to be described, will suffice to keep the disease under. at this point, a little vigor in the treatment will rapidly extinguish the disease. _treatment._ the preparation of the foot, where any separate individual treatment is resolved upon, is always necessary, at least in bad cases. sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if practicable, as the hoofs can then be readily cut. in a dry time, and after a night which left no dew upon the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough as horn. they must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet. the yard should be small, so that they can be easily caught, and it must be kept well littered down, to prevent their filling their feet with their own excrement. if the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not, of course, dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. if the yard could be built over a shallow, gravelly-bottomed brook, it would be an admirable arrangement; for this purpose, a portion of any little brook might be prepared, by planking the bottom, and widening it, if desirable. by such means the hoofs would be kept so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that dung which, by any other arrangement, will, more or less, get into their clefts. the principal operator seats himself on a chair, having within his reach a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers already described, a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, together with such medicines as may be deemed necessary. the assistant catches a sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. the assistant then kneels on some straw, or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. if the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assistant presents each foot to the operator who shortens the hoof with the toe-nippers. if there is any filth between the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes, and rinses it, until the filth is removed. each then takes a knife, and the process of paring away the horn commences, _upon the effectual performance of which_ all else depends. a glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. the least experience cannot fail in properly settling this question. an experienced finger, even, placed upon the back of the pastern close above the heel, will at once detect the local inflammation, in the dark, _by its heat_. if the disease is in the first stage--that is, if there are merely erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft _above_ the walls of the hoof--no paring is necessary. but if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, _the ulcerated parts_, however extensive, _must be entirely stripped of their horny covering_, no matter what amount of time and care it may require. it is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent application; but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule laid down above. at the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, during which time no application needs to be made to the foot. if the foot is in the third stage--a mass of rottenness, and filled with maggots--pour, in the first place, a little spirits of turpentine--a bottle of which, with a quill through the cork, should be always ready--on the maggots, and most of them will immediately decamp, and the others can be removed with a probe or small stick. then _remove every particle of loose horn_, though it should take the entire hoof, as it generally will in such cases. the foot should next be cleansed with a solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one gallon of water. if this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in hot water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. the great object is _to clean the foot thoroughly_. if there is any considerable "proud flesh," it should be removed with a pair of scissors, or by the actual cautery--hot iron. the following are some of the most popular remedies: take two ounces of blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris, to a junk-bottle of wine; or spirits of turpentine, tar, and verdigris in equal parts; or three quarts of alcohol, one pint of spirits of turpentine, one pint of strong vinegar, one pound of blue vitriol, one pound of copperas, one and a half pounds of verdigris, one pound of alum, and one pound of saltpetre, pounded fine; mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight days before using; also mix two pounds of honey and two quarts of tar, which must be applied after the preceding compound. or apply diluted aquafortis--nitric acid--with a feather to the ulcerated surface; or diluted oil of vitriol--sulphuric acid--in the same way; or the same of muriatic acid; or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling point. in the first and second stages of the disease, before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its structure, the best application is a saturated solution of blue vitriol--sulphate of copper. in the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy granulations--the dead muscular structures--and to restore healthy action. lunar caustic, which is preferable to any other application, is too expensive; chloride of antimony is excellent, but frequently unattainable in the country drug-stores; and muriatic acid, or even nitric or sulphuric acids, may be used instead. the diseased surface is touched with the caustic, applied with a swab, formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick, until the objects above pointed out are attained. the foot is then treated with the solution of blue vitriol, and subsequently coated over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly cooled, for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from dirt, flies, etc. sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three days. with this degree of attention, their cure will be rapid, and the obliterated structures of the foot will be restored with astonishing rapidity. the common method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies on its back between the operators, as already described. in this way a few cents' worth of vitriol will answer for a large number of sheep. the method is, however, imperfect; since, without extraordinary care, there will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife, which the solution will not reach, the passages to them being devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed. the disease will thus be only temporarily suppressed, not cured. a flock of sheep which were in the second season of the disease, had been but little looked to during the summer, and as cold weather set in, many of them became considerably lame, and some of them quite so. their feet were thoroughly pared; and into a large washing-tub, in which two sheep could conveniently stand, a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water, _as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment_, was poured. the liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. as soon as a sheep's feet were pared, it was placed in the tub, and held there by the neck. a second one was then prepared, and placed beside it; when the third was ready, the first was taken out; and so on. two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, each remaining some five minutes. the cure was perfect; there was not a lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer. the hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot; and doubtless had a far more decisive effect, even on the uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. the expense attending the operation was about _four cents_ per sheep. three such applications, at intervals of a week, would effectually cure the disease, since every new case would thus be arrested and cured before it would have time to inoculate others. it would, undoubtedly, accomplish this at any time of year, and even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion, _provided the paring was sufficiently thorough_. the second and third parings would be a mere trifle; and the liquid left at the first and second applications could again be used. thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head, which is much cheaper, in the long run, than any ordinary temporizing method, where the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol is counted, but not the time consumed; and the disease is thus kept lingering in the flock for years. some northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for this disease; and in cases of ordinary virulence, especially where the disease is chronic, it seems to dry up the ulcers, and keep the malady under. sheep are also sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface, and driving them over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with quick-lime. it may sometimes, and under peculiar circumstances, be cured by dryness, and repeated washing with soap-suds. many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring their sheep. their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, _provided_ they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any kind, until the rain is over, and the grass again dry. if immediately let out in wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is measurably washed away. this is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in more tar--an admirable plan under such circumstances. a flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, is considered more valuable than one which has never had it. they are far less liable to contract the disease from any casual exposure; and its ravages are far less violent and general among them. this ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the cause; or, if it continues, white paint or tar may be applied, after a thorough washing. hoove. this is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep; but, if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will sometimes ensue. hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions of the stomach. when the distention is great, the blood is prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the head. the diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordinary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult and imperfect. death, in such cases, soon supervenes. _treatment._ in ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect a cure. when the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to open the paunch at once. at the most protruberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and dull on the edge, into the stomach. the gas will rapidly escape, carrying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. if no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of the former will escape into the cavity of the latter. however perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation. to prevent this, a canula, or little tube, should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the puncture is made. where the case is not imminent, alkalies have sometimes been successfully administered, which combine with the carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. a flexible probang, or in default of it, a rattan, or grape-vine, with a knot on the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and the gas thus permitted to escape. hydatid on the brain. the symptoms of this disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, water in the head, etc., are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating from the flock, a wandering and blue appearance of the eye, and sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop across the field, and, after the disease has existed for some time, will almost constantly move round in a circle--there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of the animal. these symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent any mistake as to the nature of the disease. on examining the brain of sheep thus affected, what appears to be a watery bladder, called a hydatid, is found, which may be either small or of the size of a hen's egg. this hydatid, one of the class of entozoöns, has been termed by naturalists the _hydatis polycephalus cerebralis_, or many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly distributed on the surface of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of sucking disks. these disks serve as the means of attachment, by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus, by the aid of the hooks, the parasite is nourished. the coats of the hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. these facts are developed by the microscope, which also discloses numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. the fluid in the bladder is usually clear but occasionally turbid, and then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. _treatment._ this is deemed an almost incurable disorder. where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield under the pressure of the finger. when such a spot is discovered, the english veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole; or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. the membranes and integuments are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. the french veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the cyst with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, allow the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. a common awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture; and the puncture is the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. an instance is, indeed, recorded of a cure having been effected, where the animal had been given up, by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. when, however, the hazard and cruelty attending the operation, under the most favorable circumstances, are considered, as well as the conceded liability of a return of the malady--the growth of new hydatids--it is evident that in this country, it would not be worth while, except in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to adopt any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life. obstruction of the gullet. [illustration: a barrack for storing sheep-fodder.] after pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance which occasions the "choking," can frequently be removed up or down by external manipulation. if not, it may usually be forced down with the flexible probang, described in "cattle and their diseases," or a flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knot, or a little bag of flax-seed. the latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through the cloth, and protects the [oe]sophagus, or gullet, from laceration. but little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care and gentleness; or the [oe]sophagus will be so far lacerated as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed. ophthalmia. ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eyes, is not uncommon in this country; but it is little noticed, as, in most cases, it disappears in a few days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract, which, being usually confined to one eye, does not appreciably effect the value of the animal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. _treatment._ some recommend blowing pulverized red chalk in the inflamed eye; others squirt into it tobacco juice. as a matter of humanity, blood may be drawn from under the eye, and the eye bathed in tepid water, and occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with tincture of opium. these latter applications diminish the pain, and hasten the cure. palsy. paralysis, or palsy, is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of motion in some parts of the body. in the winter, poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the spring, occasionally lose the power of walking or standing rather too suddenly to have it referable to increasing debility. the animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are powerless; it makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if placed upon its feet. _treatment._ warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing may raise the patient; but, in the vast majority of cases, it is more economical and equally humane, to deprive it of life at once. pelt-rot. this is often mistaken for the scab, but it is, in fact, a different and less dangerous disease. the wool falls off, and leaves the sheep nearly naked; but it is attended with no soreness, though a reddish crust will cover the skin, from the wool which has dropped. it generally arises from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet; and, in fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on account of the loss of its coat. the _remedy_ is full feeding, a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter. some, however, do nothing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. such say that if the condition of a poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, the wool is very apt to drop off; and, if yet cold, the sheep will require warm shelter. pneumonia. pneumonia--or inflammation of the lungs--is not a common disease in the northern states; but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur, after sheep have been exposed to sudden cold, particularly when recently shorn. the adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this disease in the animal--though, in many instances, it was so slight as to be mistaken, at the time, for a hard cold. _symptoms._ the animal is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is rapid and laborious; the eye is clouded; the nose discharges a tenacious, fetid matter; the teeth are ground frequently, so that the sound is audible at some distance; the pulse is at first hard and rapid, sometimes intermits, but before death it becomes weak. during the height of the fever, the flanks heave violently; there is a hard, painful cough during the first stages, which becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied with more pain as death approaches. after death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized--that is, permanently condensed and engorged with blood, so that their structure resembles that of the _hepar_, or liver--and they have so far lost their integrity that they are torn asunder by the slightest force. it may here be remarked that when sheep die from any cause, _with their blood in them_, the lungs have a dark, hepatized appearance. whether they are actually hepatized or not, can readily be decided by compressing the windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then between such compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting orifice, inserting a goose-quill, or other tube, and continuing to blow until the lungs are inflated as far as they can be. as they inflate, they will become of a lighter color, and plainly manifest their cellular structure. if any portions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their dark, liver-like consistence, and color, they exhibit hepatization--the result of high inflammatory action--and a state utterly incompatible, in the living animal, with the discharge of the natural functions of the viscus. _treatment._ in the first, or inflammatory stages, bleeding and aperients are clearly called for. some recommend early and copious bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours; this followed by aperient medicines, such as two ounces of epsom salts, which may be repeated in smaller doses, if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. the following sedative may also be given with gruel, twice a day: nitrate of potash, one drachm; powdered digitalis, one scruple; and tartarized antimony, one scruple. while depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance--the short continuance--of the febrile state, yet excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding exhaustion, when the bleeding and purging would be murderous expedients; and gentian, ginger, and the spirits of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure. poison. sheep will often, in the winter or spring, eat greedily of the low laurel. the animal appears afterward to be dull and stupid, swells a little, and is constantly gulping up a feverish fluid, which it swallows again; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its lips. the plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stomach, and nature endeavors to throw off the poisonous herb by retching or vomiting. _treatment._ in the early stages, if the greenish fluid be allowed to escape from the stomach, the animal generally recovers. to effect this, gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner: take a stick of the size of the wrist, six inches long--place it in the animal's mouth--tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other end, and there make it fast. the fluid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach. in addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely. a better plan, however, is to force a gill of melted lard down the throat; or, boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash, and give one-half to one gill of the strong liquor immediately; to be repeated, if not successful. drenchers of milk and castor-oil are also recommended. rot. this disease, which sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep, in england, in a single year, is comparatively unknown in this country. it prevails somewhat in the western states, from allowing sheep to pasture on land that is overflowed with water. even a crop of green oats, early in the fall, before a frost comes; has been known to rot young sheep. _symptoms._ the first are by no means strongly marked; there is no loss of condition, but rather the contrary, to all appearance. a paleness and want of liveliness of the membranes, generally, may be considered as the first symptoms, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the eye. when in warm, sultry, or rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands, feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is ground for fearing that they have contracted the rot. this suspicion will be farther increased if, a few days afterward, the sheep begin to shrink and grow flaccid about the loins. by pressure about the hips at this time, a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece, the skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the wool is easily separated from the felt; and as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots. to these symptoms succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, and greater paleness of the mucous membranes, the eye-lids becoming almost white, and afterward yellow. this yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a watery fluid appears under the skin, the latter becoming loose and flabby, and the wool coming off readily. the symptoms of dropsy often extend over the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes _chockered_, as it is termed; a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearance of the fluid which it contains, is sometimes called the _watery poke_. the duration of the disease is uncertain; the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected, but more frequently it extends to from three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes. _post-mortem._ the whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. the muscles are soft and flabby, having the appearance of being macerated. the kidneys are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. the mesenteric glands are enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid. the belly is frequently filled with water, or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. the heart is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. the principal alterations of structure are in the liver, which is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure; and on being boiled, it will almost dissolve away. when the liver is not pale, it is often curiously spotted; in some cases it is speckled, like the back of a toad; some parts of it, however, are hard and schirrous; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. the malady is, unquestionably, inflammation of the liver. this fluke is from three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third to one-half an inch in its greatest breadth. these fluke-worms undoubtedly aggravate the disease, and perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal. _treatment._ this must, to a considerable extent, be very unsatisfactory. after the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the best _preventives_ is the abundant use of pure salt. in violent attacks, take eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood, according to the circumstances of the case; to this, let a dose of physic succeed--two or three ounces of epsom salts; and to these means add a change of diet, good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the yard. after the operation of the physic--an additional dose having been administered, oftentimes, in order to quicken the action of the first--two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, mixed with half the quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious effects on the ruminant. to this should be added common salt, which acts as a purgative and a tonic. a mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. the doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. when the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; from one to two drachms of each, finely pounded, may be added to each dose of the salt. the sheep having a little recovered from the disease, should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt within their reach. the rot is not infectious. scab. this is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the itch in man, and is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the _acarus_. [illustration: the broad-tailed sheep.] if one or more female _acari_ are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, the place at which they penetrate being scarcely visible, or only distinguishable by a minute red point. on the tenth or twelfth day, a little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has a greenish blue tint. the pustule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, when the mothers again appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. these little ones immediately set to work, penetrate the neighboring skin, bury themselves beneath it, find their proper nourishment, and grow and propagate, until the poor creature has myriads of them preying upon him. it is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, he should speedily sink. the male _acari_, when placed on the sound skin of a sheep, will likewise burrow their way and disappear for a while, the pustule rising in due time; but the itching and the scab soon disappear without the employment of any remedy. the female brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a time. in the united states, this disease is comparatively little known, and never originates spontaneously. the fact, that short-woolled sheep--like the merino--are much less subject to its attacks, is probably one reason for this slight comparative prevalence. the disease spreads from individual to individual, and from flock to flock, not only by means of direct contact, but by the _acari_ left on posts, stones, and other substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. healthy sheep are, therefore, liable to contract the malady, if turned on pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep, although some considerable time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. the sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. it rubs itself with violence against trees, stones, fences, etc.; scratches itself with its feet, bites its sores, and tears off its wool with its teeth; as the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs, causing red, inflamed sores, which constantly extend, increasing the misery of the tortured animal; if unrelieved, he pines away, and soon perishes. the _post-mortem_ appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. there is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a great number of worms. the liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged; and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. there has been evident sympathy between the digestive and the cutaneous systems. _treatment._ first, separate the sheep; then cut off the wool as far as the skin feels hard to the finger; the scab is then washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard with a shoe-brush, so that it may be cleansed and broken. for this use take a decoction of tobacco, to which add one-third, by measure, of the lye of wood-ashes, as much hog's lard as will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket, which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, of spirits of turpentine. this liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and spread to a little distance around it, in three washings, with an interval of three days each. this will invariably effect a cure, when the disorder is only partial. or, the following: dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. the sheep should be previously washed in soap and water. the infusion must not be permitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. or, take common mercurial ointment; for bad cases, rub it down with three times its weight of lard--for ordinary cases, five times its weight. rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. part the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. make a similar furrow and application on each side, four inches from the first; and so on, over the whole body. the quantity of ointment after composition with the lard, should not exceed two ounces; and, generally, less will suffice. a lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown sheep. this will generally cure; but, if the animal should continue to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days. or, take two pounds of lard or palm oil; half a pound of oil of tar; and one pound of sulphur; gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first. apply as before. or, take of corrosive sublimate, one half a pound; white hellabore, powdered, three-fourths of a pound; whale or other oil, six gallons; rosin, two pounds; and tallow, two pounds. the first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed. this is a powerful preparation, and must not be applied too freely. an erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable itching, sometimes troubles sheep. this is a febrile disease, and is treated with a cooling purgative, bleeding, and oil or lard applied to the sores. small-pox. the author acknowledges himself indebted for what follows under this head to r. mcclure, v. s., of philadelphia, author of a prize essay on diseases of sheep, read before the u. s. agricultural society, in , for which a medal and diploma were awarded. although the small-pox in domestic animals has, fortunately, been as yet confined to the european continent--where it has been chiefly limited to england--no good reason can ever be assigned why it should not at some future time make its appearance among us, especially when we remember how long a period elapsed, during which we escaped the cattle plague, although the continent had long been suffering from it. the small-pox in sheep--_variola overia_--is, at times, epizoötic in the flocks of france and italy, but was unknown in england until , when it was communicated to a flock at datchett and another at pinnier by some merinos from spain. it soon found its way into hampshire and norfolk, but was shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated. in , however, it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the flocks of wiltshire; for which reappearance neither any traceable infection nor contagion could be assigned. with the present light upon the subject, it would seem to be an instance of the origination _anew_ of a malignant type of varioloid disease. such an origin is, in fact, assigned to this disease in africa, it being well established that certain devitalizing atmospheric influences produce skin diseases, and facilitate the appearance of pustular eruptions. the disease once rooted soon becomes epizoötic, and causes a greater mortality than any other malady affecting this animal. out of a flock numbering , were attacked in a natural way, of which per cent. died. of inoculated cases, but per cent. died. numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that this disease in sheep is both infectious and contagious; its period of incubation varies from seven to fourteen days. the mortality is never less than per cent., and not unfrequently whole flocks have been swept away, death taking place in the early stages of the eruption, or in the stages of suppuration and ulceration. the _symptoms_ may be mapped out as follows: the animal is seized with a shivering fit, succeeded by a dull stupidity, which remains until death or recovery results; on the second or third day, pimples are seen on the thighs and arm-pits, accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes, complete loss of appetite, etc., etc. it is needless to enumerate other symptoms which exist in common with those of other disorders. _prevention._ at present, but two modes are resorted to, for the purpose of preventing the spread of the disease, which promise any degree of certainty of success. the first is by _inoculation_, which was recommended by professor simonds, of london. this distinguished pathologist appears to have overlooked the fact that he was thereby only enlarging the sphere of mischief, by imparting the disease to animals that, in all probability, would otherwise have escaped it. by inoculation, moreover, a form of the disease is given, not of a modified character, but with all the virulence of the original affection which is to be arrested, and equally as potent for further destruction of others. by such teaching, inoculation and vaccination would be made one and the same thing, notwithstanding their dissimilarity. even vaccination will not protect the animal, as has been already shown by the experiments of hurbrel d'arboval. the second and best plan of prevention is _isolation and destruction_, as recommended by professor gamgee, of the edinburgh veterinary college. this proved a great protection to the sheep-farmers of wiltshire, in . in all epizoötic diseases, individual cases occur, which, when pointed out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early eruptions appear, should be slaughtered at once and buried, and the rest of the flock isolated. by this means the disease has been confined to but two or three in a large flock. _treatment._ in treating this disease, resort has of late been had to a plant, known as _sarracenia purpura_--indian cup, or pitcher plant--used for this purpose by the micmacs, a tribe of indians in british north america. this plant is indigenous, perennial, and is found from the coast of labrador to the shores of the gulf of mexico, growing in great abundance on wet, marshy ground. the use of this plant is becoming quite general, and good results have almost uniformly attended it. take from one to two ounces of the dried root, and slice in thin pieces; place in an earthen pot; add a quart of cold water, and allow the liquid to simmer gently over a steady fire for two or three hours, so as to lose one-fourth of the quantity. give of this decoction three wine-glassfuls at once, and the same quantity from four to six hours afterwards, when a cure will generally be affected. weaker and smaller doses are certain preventives of the disease. the public are indebted to dr. morris, physician to the halifax (nova scotia) dispensary, for the manner of preparing this eminently useful article. sore face. sheep feeding on pastures infested with john's wort, frequently exhibit an irritation of skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to drop off from the parts. the irritation sometimes extends over the entire body. if this plant is eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes to adults. _treatment._ rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. if there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, this should be put into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick. abundance of salt is deemed a _preventive_. sore mouth. the lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and swell to the thickness of a man's hand. the malady occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. it is usually attributed to noxious weeds cut with the hay. _treatment._ daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar. ticks. the treatment necessary as a preventive against these insects, and a remedy for them, has already been indicated under the head of "feeding and management," to which the reader is referred. swine and their diseases. [illustration] history and breeds. the hog is a cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every climate; though its natural haunts--like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals--are in warm countries. they are most abundant in china, the east indies, and the immense range of islands extending throughout the whole southern and pacific oceans; but they are also numerous throughout europe, from its southern coast to the russian dominions within the arctic. as far back as the records of history extend, this animal appears to have been known, and his flesh made use of as food. nearly fifteen hundred years before christ, moses gave those laws to the israelites which have given rise to so much discussion; and it is evident that, had not pork been the prevailing food of that nation at the time, such stringent commandments and prohibitions would not have been necessary. the various allusions to this kind of meat, which repeatedly occur in the writings of the old greek authors, show the esteem in which it was held among that nation; and it appears that the romans made the art of breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study. in fact, the hog was very highly prized among the early nations of europe; and some of the ancients even paid it divine honors. the jews, the egyptians, and the mohammedans alone appear to have abstained from the flesh of swine. the former were expressly denied its use by the laws of moses. "and the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean unto you." lev. xi. . upon this prohibition, mohammed, probably, founded his own. for the mosaic prohibition, various reasons have been assigned: the alleged extreme filthiness of the animal; it being afflicted with a leprosy; the great indigestibility of its flesh in hot climates; the intent to make the jews "a peculiar people;" a preventive of gluttony; and an admonition of abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits. at what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild state, and by what nation, cannot be stated. from the earliest times, in england, the hog has been regarded as a very important animal, and vast herds were tended by swineherds, who watched over their safety in the woods, and collected them under shelter at night. its flesh was the staple article of consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the rich and free portion of the community consisted in these animals. hence bequests of swine, with land for their support, were often made; rights and privileges connected with their feeding, and the extent of woodland to be occupied by a given number, were granted according to established rules. long after the end of the saxon dynasty, the practice of feeding swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued till the forests were cut down, and the land laid open for the plough. nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a forest country. by his burrowing after roots and the like, he turns up and destroys the larvæ of innumerable insects, which would otherwise injure the trees as well as their fruit. he destroys the slug-snail and adder, and thus not only rids the forests of these injurious and unpleasant inhabitants, but also makes them subservient to his own nourishment, and therefore to the benefit of mankind. the fruits which he eats are such as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment to vermin; and his diggings for earth-nuts and the like, loosens the soil, and benefits the roots of the trees. hogs in forest land may, therefore, be regarded as eminently beneficial; and it is only the abuse which is to be feared. the hog is popularly regarded as a stupid, brutal, rapacious, and filthy animal, grovelling and disgusting in all his habits, intractable and obstinate in temper. the most offensive epithets among men are borrowed from him, or his peculiarities. in their native state, however, swine seem by no means destitute of natural affections; they are gregarious, assemble together in defence of each other, herd together for warmth, and appear to have feelings in common; no mother is more tender to her young than the sow, or more resolute in their defence. neglected as this animal has ever been by authors, recorded instances are not wanting of their sagacity, tractability, and susceptibility of affection. among the european peasantry, where the hog is, so to speak, one of the family, he may often be seen following his master from place to place, and grunting his recognition of his protectors. the hog, in point of actual fact, is also a much more cleanly animal than he has the credit of being. he is fond of a good, cleanly bed; and when this is not provided for him, it is oftentimes interesting to note the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for himself. it is, however, so much the vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state of neglect, that the terms "pig," and "pig-sty" are usually regarded as synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting. his rolling in the mud is cited as a proof of his filthy habits. this practice, which he shares in common with all the pachydermatous animals, is undoubtedly the teaching of instinct, and for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping off flies. pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently to secure the warmest berth. they are likewise peculiarly sensitive of approaching changes in the weather, and may often be observed suddenly leaving the places in which they had been quietly feeding, and running off to their styes at full speed, making loud outcries. when storms are overhanging, they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if inviting their companions to do the same; and if there is a shed or shelter near at hand, they will carry it there and deposit it, as if for the purpose of preparing a bed. in their domesticated state, they are, undeniably, very greedy animals; eating is the business of their lives; nor do they appear to be very delicate as to the kind or quality of food which is placed before them. although naturally herbivorous animals, they have been known to devour carrion with all the voracity of beasts of prey, to eat and mangle infants, and even gorge their appetites with their own young. it is not, however, unreasonable to believe that the last revolting act--rarely if ever happening in a state of nature--arises more from the pain and irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often filth, in which the animal is kept, and the disturbances to which it is subjected, than from any actual ferocity; for it is well known that a sow is always unusually irritable at this period, snapping at all animals that approach her. if she is gently treated, properly supplied with sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger of this practice ever happening. all the offences which swine commit are attributed to a disposition innately bad; whereas they too often arise from bad management, or total neglect. they are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted with curs, pelted with stones, often neglected and obliged to find a meal for themselves, or wander about half-starved. made thus the ishmaelites of our domestic animals, is it a matter of wonder that they should, under such circumstances, incline to display ishmaelitish traits? in any well-regulated farm-yard, the swine are as tractable and as little disposed to wander or trespass as any of the animals that it contains. the wild boar is generally admitted to be the parent of the stock from which all our domesticated breeds and varieties have sprung. this animal is generally of a dusky brown or iron-gray color, inclining to black, and diversified with black spots or streaks. the body is covered with coarse hairs, intermixed with a downy wool; these hairs become bristles as they approach the neck and shoulders, and are in those places so long as to form a mane, which the animal erects when irritated. the head is short, the forehead broad and flat, the ears short, rounded at the tips, and inclined toward the neck, the jaw armed with sharp, crooked tusks, which curve slightly upward, and are capable of inflicting fearful wounds, the eye full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, the loins broad, the tail stiff, and finished off with a tuft of bristles at the tip, the haunch well turned, and the leg strong. a full-grown wild boar in india averages from thirty to forty inches in height at the shoulder; the african wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty inches high. the wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes fiercer as he grows older. when existing in a state of nature, he is generally found in moist, shady, and well-wooded situations, not far remote from streams or water. in india, they are found in the thick jungles, in plantations of sugar-cane or rice, or in the thick patches of high, long grass. in england, france, germany, italy, and spain, their resorts have been in the woods and forests. this animal is naturally herbivorous, and appears to feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots. he will, however, eat the worms and larvæ which he finds in the ground, also snakes and other such reptiles, and the eggs of birds. they seldom quit their coverts during the day, but prowl about in search of food during twilight and the night. their acute sense of smell enables them to detect the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in search of them, particularly as they do not, like the common hog, root up a little spot here and there, but plough long, continuous, furrows. the wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a gregarious animal. for the first two or three years, the whole herd follows the sow, and all unite in defence against any enemies, calling upon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming in regular line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear. when arrived at maturity, the animals wander alone, as if in perfect consciousness of their strength, and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any living creature. they are reputed to live about thirty years; as they grow old, the hair becomes gray, and the tusks begin to show symptoms of decay. old boars rarely associate with a herd, but seem to keep apart from the rest, and from each other. the female produces but one litter in the year, much smaller in number than those of the domestic pig; she carries her young sixteen or twenty weeks, and generally is only seen with the male during the rutting season. she suckles her young for several months, and continues to protect them for some time afterward; if attacked at that time, she will defend herself and them with exceeding courage and fierceness. many sows will often be found herding together, each followed by her litter of young; and in such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and beast. neither they nor the boar, however, seem desirous of attacking any thing; and only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their retreat, do they turn upon their enemies and manifest the mighty strength with which nature has endowed them. when attacked by dogs, the wild boar at first sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to time and menacing them with his tusks; but gradually his anger rises, and at length he stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears and rends his persecutors. he has even been observed to single out the most tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him. hunting this animal has been a favorite sport, in almost all countries in which it has been found, from the earliest ages. [illustration: the wild boar at bay.] wild boars lingered in the forests of england and scotland for several centuries after the norman conquest, and many tracts of land in those countries derived their name from this circumstance; while instances of valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic devices of many of their noble families. the precise period at which the animal became exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained. they had, however, evidently been long extinct in the time of charles i., since he endeavored to re-introduce them, and was at considerable expense to procure a wild boar and his mate from germany. they still exist in upper austria, on the syrian alps, in many parts of hungary, and in the forests of poland, spain, russia, and sweden; and the inhabitants of those countries hunt them with hounds, or attack them with fire-arms, or with the proper boar-spear. all the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the wild boar; the period of gestation is the same in the wild and the tame sow; their anatomical structure is identical; their general form bears the same characters; and their habits, so far as they are not changed by domestication, remain the same. where individuals of the pure wild race have been caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they have become more social and less nocturnal in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to eat. in the course of one or two generations, even the form undergoes certain modifications; the body becomes larger and heavier; the legs shorter, and less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the boar, being no longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear; the shape of the head and neck alters; and in character as well as in form, the animal adapts itself to its situation. nor does it appear that a return to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance; for, in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and bred in the wilderness and woods, not a single instance is on record in which they have resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. they, indeed, become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; but they are, notwithstanding, merely degenerated swine, and they still associate together in herds, and do not walk solitary and alone, like their grim ancestors. american swine. in the united states, swine have been an object of attention since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market has been found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. swine are not, however, indigenous to this country, but were doubtless originally brought hither by the early english settlers; and the breed thus introduced may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of their parent stock. france, also, as well as spain, and, during the existence of the slave-trade, africa, have also combined to furnish varieties of this animal, so much esteemed throughout the whole of the country, as furnishing a valuable article of food. for nearly twenty years following the commencement of the general european wars, soon after the organization of our national government, pork was a comparatively large article of commerce; but exports for a time diminished, and it was not until within a more recent period that this staple has been brought up to its former standard as an article of exportation to that country. the recent use which has been made of its carcass in converting it into lard oil, has tended to still further increase its consumption. by the census of , there were upward of thirty-two and a half millions of these animals in the united states. they are reared in every part of the union, and, when properly managed, always at a fair profit. at the extreme north, in the neighborhood of large markets, and on such of the southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced. swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard; since, with little additional food besides what is thus afforded, they can be put in good condition for the butcher. on the rich bottoms and other lands of the west, however, where indian corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. the scioto, miami, wabash, illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in kentucky, tennessee, missouri, and some adjoining states, have for many years taken the lead in the production of swine; and it is probable that the climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them to hold their position as the leading pork-producers of the north american continent. the breeds cultivated in this country are numerous; and, like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst, to be found among the species. great attention has been paid, for many years, to their improvement in the eastern states; and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards. this spirit has rapidly extended west and south; and among most of the intelligent farmers, who make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn-grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. this does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. the byefield. this breed was formerly in high repute in the eastern states, and did much good among the species generally. they are white, with fine curly hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three hundred and fifty pounds net. the bedford. the bedford or woburn is a breed originating with the duke of bedford, on his estate at woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the chinese hog on some of the best english swine. a pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to general washington; but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, in maryland, in which state, and in pennsylvania, they were productive of much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through different states. several other importations of this breed have been made at various times, and especially by the enterprising masters of the liverpool packets, in the neighborhood of new york. they are a large, spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. this is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, both in england and in this country, as a breed. the leicester. the old leicestershire breed, in england, was a perfect type of the original hogs of the midland counties; large, ungainly, slab-sided animals, of a light color, and spotted with brown or black. the only good parts about them were their heads and ears, which showed greater traces of breeding than any other portions. these have been materially improved by various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all its peculiarities and defects. they may now be characterized as a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. some varieties differ essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate amount of food. the crosses with small compact breeds are generally thrifty, desirable animals. the yorkshire. the old yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and one of the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy feeders, difficult to fatten, and unsound in constitution. they were of a dirty white or yellow color, spotted with black, had long legs, flat sides, narrow backs, weak loins, and large bones. their hair was short and wirey, and intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and neck, and their ears long. when full grown and fat, they seldom weighed more than from three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds. these have been crossed with pigs of the improved leicester breed; and where the crossings have been judiciously managed, and not carried too far, a fine race of deep-sided, short-legged, thin-haired animals has been obtained, fattening kindly, and rising to a weight of from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, when killed between one and two years old; and when kept over two years, reaching even from five hundred to seven hundred pounds. they have also been crossed with the chinese, neapolitan, and berkshire breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned animals thereby obtained. the original breed, in its purity, size, and defectiveness, is now hardly to be met with, having shared the fate of the other large old breeds, and given place to smaller and more symmetrical animals. the _yorkshire white_ is among the large breeds deserving commendation among us. to the same class belong also the large _miami white_, and the _kenilworth_; each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of from six hundred to eight hundred pounds. the chinese. this hog is to be found in the south-eastern countries of asia, as siam, cochin china, the burman empire, cambodia, malacca, sumatra, and in batavia, and other eastern islands; and is, without doubt, the parent stock of the best european and american swine. there are two distinct varieties, the _white_ and the _black_; both fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no great weight. they are small in limb, round in body, short in the head, wide in the cheek, and high in the chime; covered with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly thin skin; and not peculiarly symmetrical, since, when fat, the head is so buried in the neck that little more than the tip of the snout is visible. the pure chinese is too delicate and susceptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this country; it is difficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses; but one or two judicious crosses have, in a manner, naturalized it. this breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quantity of food; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not make good bacon, and is often too fat and oily to be generally esteemed as pork. they are chiefly kept by those who rear sucking-pigs for the market, as they make excellent roasters at three weeks or a month old. five, and even seven, varieties of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubtless the results of different crosses with our native kinds; among these are black, white, black and white, spotted, blue and white, and sandy. [illustration: the chinese hog.] many valuable crosses have been made with these animals; for the prevalent fault of the old english breeds having been coarseness of flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude to fatten, an admixture of the chinese breed has materially corrected these defects. most of our smaller breeds are more or less indebted to the asiatic swine for their present compactness of form, the readiness with which they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their early maturity; but these advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the litters. the best cross is between the berkshire and chinese. the suffolk. the old suffolks are white in color, long-legged, long-bodied, with narrow backs, broad foreheads, short hams, and an abundance of bristles. they are by no means profitable animals. a cross between the suffolk and lincoln has produced a hardy animal, which fattens kindly, and attains the weight of from four hundred to five hundred and fifty, and even seven hundred pounds. another cross, much approved by farmers, is that of the suffolk and berkshire. [illustration: the suffolk pig.] there are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved suffolk--that is, the suffolk crossed with the chinese. the greater part of the pigs on the late prince albert's farm, near windsor, were of this breed. they are well-formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs, small heads, and fat cheeks. many, at a year or fifteen months old, weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds; at which age they make fine bacon hogs. the sucking-pigs are also very delicate and delicious. those arising from berkshire and suffolk are not so well shaped as the latter, being coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about the hips. they are mostly white, with thin, fine hair; some few are spotted, and are easily kept in fine condition; they have a decided aptitude to fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs. the berkshire. [illustration: a berkshire boar.] the berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished by their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly with dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles. the hair is long, thin, somewhat curly, and looks rough; the ears are fringed with long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a ragged or feathery appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well formed; the legs short, the sides broad, the head well set on, the snout short, the jowl thick, the ears erect, skin exceedingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and well flavored, and the bacon very superior. this breed has generally been considered one of the best in england, on account of its smallness of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, and the females being good breeders. hogs of the pure original breed have been known to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty pounds. numerous crosses have been made from this breed; the principal foreign ones are those with the chinese and neapolitan swine, made with the view of decreasing the size of the animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, and rendering it more delicate; and the animals thus attained are superior to almost any others in their aptitude to fatten; but are very susceptible to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. a cross with the suffolk and norfolk also is much improved, which produces a hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the butcher; although, under most circumstances, the pure berkshire is the best. no other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the united states, within comparatively so brief a period, as the berkshires, and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. they weigh variously, from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at sixteen months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred pounds. they particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. none of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are obliged to import most of what they use from russia and northern europe. this improvement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. the natural history of the hog. [illustration: skeleton of the hog as covered by the muscles. . the lower jaw. . the teeth. . the nasal bones. . the upper jaw. . the frontal bone. . the orbit or socket of the eye. . the occipital bone. . the first vertebræ of the neck. . the vertebræ of the neck. . the vertebræ of the back. . the vertebræ of the loins. . the bones of the tail. , . the true and false ribs. . the shoulder-blade. . the round shoulder-bone . the breast-bone. . the elbow. . the bone of the fore-arm. . the navicular bone. . the first and second bones of the foot. . the bones of the hoof. . the haunch bones. . the thigh bone. . the stifle bone. . the upper bone of the leg. . the hock bones. . the navicular bone. . the first digits of the foot. . the second digits of the foot.] division. _vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. class. _mammalia_--such as give suck. order. _pachydermata_--thick-skinned. family. _suidæ_--the swine kind. genus. _sus_--the hog. of this genus there are five varieties. _sus scropa_, or domestic hog. _sus papuensis_, or bene. _sus guineensis_, or guinea hog. _sus africanus_, or masked boar. _sus babirussa_, or babirussa. a very slight comparison of the face of this animal with that of any other will prove that strength is the object in view--strength toward the inferior part of the bone. in point of fact, the snout of the hog is his spade, with which, in his natural state, he digs and ruts in the ground for roots, earth-nuts, worms, etc. to render this implement more nearly perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone, being connected with it by strong ligaments, cartilages, and muscles, and termed the snout-bone, or spade-bone, or ploughshare. by it and its cartilaginous attachment, the snout is rendered strong as well as flexible, and far more efficient than it otherwise could be; and the hog often continues to give both farmers and gardeners very unpleasant proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-sown fields, and grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living and dead food. as roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of the hog, his face terminates in this strong, muscular snout, insensible at the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil. there is a large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding down each side of the nose; and in these, doubtless, resides that peculiar power which enables the hog to select his food, though buried some inches below the surface of the ground. the olfactory nerve is likewise large, and occupies a middle rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals; it is comparatively larger than that of the ox; indeed, few animals--with the exception of the dog, none--are gifted with a more acute sense of smell than the hog. to it epicures are indebted for the truffles which form such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual finders. a pig is turned into a field, allowed to pursue his own course, and watched. he stops, and begins to grub up the earth; the man hurries up, drives him away, and secures the truffle, which is invariably growing under that spot; and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another, and another, only now and then being permitted, by way of encouragement, to reap the fruits of his research. formation of the teeth. the hog has fourteen _molar_ teeth in each jaw, six _incisors_, and two _canines_; these latter are curved upward, and commonly denominated _tushes_. the molar teeth are all slightly different in structure, and increase in size from first to last; they bear no slight resemblance to those of the human being. the incisors are so fantastic in form that they cannot well be described, and their destined functions are by no means clear. those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly straight; of those in the upper jaw, four closely resemble the corresponding teeth in the horse; while the two corner incisors bear something of the shape of those of the dog. these latter are placed so near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, and it is sometimes necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the animal and enable him to feed. the hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw; by the time he is three or four months old, he is provided with his incisive milk-teeth and the tushes; the supernumerary molars protrude between the fifth and seventh month, as does the first back molar; the second back molar is cut at about the age of ten months; and the third, generally, not until the animal is three years old. the upper corner teeth are shed at about the age of six or eight months; and the lower ones at about seven, nine, or ten months old, and replaced by the permanent ones. the milk tushes are also shed and replaced between six and ten months old. the age of twenty months, and from that to two years, is denoted by the shedding and replacement of the middle incisors, or _pincers_, in both jaws, and the formation of a black circle at the base of each of the tushes. at about two years and a half or three years of age, the adult middle teeth in both jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at the ends. after three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the tushes; at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin to raise the lip; at five, they protrude through the lips; and at six years, the tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out of the mouth, and assume a spiral form. these acquire a prodigious length in old animals, and particularly in uncastrated boars; and as they increase in size, they become curved backward and outward, and at length are so crooked as to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree that it is necessary to cut off those projecting teeth, which is done with the file, or with nippers. [illustration] breeding and management breeding in the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much more attention and consideration are requisite than is generally imagined. it is as easy, with a very little judgment and management, to procure a good as an inferior breed; and the former is much more remunerative, in proportion to the outlay, than the latter can possibly ever be. the object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such an animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view, whether that is the consumption of certain things which could not otherwise be so well disposed of, the converting into hams, bacon, and pork, or the raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market. almost all farmers keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse, which would otherwise be wasted. this is, however, a matter totally distinct from breeding swine. in the former case, the animal or animals are purchased young for a small price, each person buying as many as he considers he shall have food enough for, and then sold to the butcher, or killed, when in proper condition; and thus a certain degree of profit is realized. in the latter, many contingencies must be taken into account: the available means of feeding them; whether or not the food may be more profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by railroads, the vicinity of towns, or large markets, etc., for disposing of them. in the breeding of swine, as much as that of any other livestock, it is important to pay great attention, not only to the breed, but also to the choice of individuals. the sow should produce a great number of young ones, and she must be well fed to enable her to support them. some sows bring forth ten, twelve, or even fifteen pigs at a birth; but eight or nine is the usual number; and sows which produce fewer than this must be rejected. it is, however, probable that fecundity depends also on the boar; he should, therefore, be chosen from a race which multiplies quickly. if a bacon and a late market be objects, the large and heavy varieties should be selected, care being taken that the breed has the character of possessing those qualities most likely to insure a heavy return--growth, and facility of taking fat. good one-year bacon-hogs being in great demand, they may be known by their long bodies, low bellies, and short legs. with these qualities are usually coupled long, pendulous ears, which attract purchasers. if, however, hogs are to be sold at all seasons to the butchers, the animals must attain their full growth and be ready for killing before they are a year old. this quality is particularly prominent in the chinese breed; but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are often met with better adapted for this purpose than for producing large quantities of bacon and lard. the berkshire crossed with chinese is an excellent porker. the sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, sound and free from blemishes and defects. in every case--whether the object be pork or bacon--the _points_ to be looked for in the _sow_ are a small, lively head; a broad and deep chest; round ribs; capacious barrel; a haunch falling almost to the hough; deep and broad loin; ample hips; and considerable length of body, in proportion to its height. one qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the first point to which the attention should be directed--that is, smallness of bone. she should have at least twelve teats; for it is observed that each pig selects a teat for himself and keeps to it, so that a pig not having one belonging to him would be starved. a good sow should produce a great number of pigs, all of equal vigor. she must be very careful of them, and not crush them by her weight; above all, she must not be addicted to eating the after-birth, and, what may often follow, her own young. if a sow is tainted with those bad habits, or if she has difficult labors, or brings forth dead pigs, she must be spayed forthwith. it is, therefore, well to bring up several young sows at once, so as to keep those only which are free from defects. breeding sows and boars should never be raised from defective animals. sows that have very low bellies, almost touching the ground, seldom produce large or fine litters. a good-sized sow is generally considered more likely to prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more easily and safely than a small, delicate animal. the ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good _boar_ to be a small head, short legs, a long body, large thighs and neck, and this latter part thickly covered with strong, erect bristles. the most experienced modern breeders prefer an animal with a long, cylindrical body; small bones; well-developed muscles; a wide chest, which denotes strength of constitution; a broad, straight back; short head and fine snout; brilliant eyes; a short, thick neck; broad, well-developed shoulders; a loose, mellow skin; fine, bright, long hair, and few bristles; and small legs and hips. some give the preference to long, flapping ears; but experience seems to demonstrate that those animals are best which have short, erect, fine ears. the boar should always be vigorous and masculine in appearance. few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in breeding as swine. where this system is pursued, the number of young ones is decreased at every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren. this practice also undoubtedly contributes to their liability to hereditary diseases, such as scrofula, epilepsy, and rheumatism; and when those possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the flock is easily and speedily effected, since they are propagated by either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggravated form, when occurring in both. as soon as the slightest degeneracy is observed, the breed should be crossed from time to time, keeping sight, however, while so doing, of the end in view. the chinese will generally be found the best which can be used for this purpose; since a single cross, and even two, with one of these animals, will seldom do harm, but often effect considerable improvements. the best formed of the progeny resulting from this cross must be selected as breeders, and with them the old original stock crossed back again. selection, with judicious and cautious admixture, is the true secret of forming and improving the breed. repeated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an obstinate adherence to one particular breed, and as much to be avoided. the following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs will apply to all breeds: _fertility._ in a breeding sow, this quality is essential, and it is one which is inherited. besides this, she should be a careful mother. a young, untried sow will generally display in her tendencies those which have predominated in the race from which she has descended. both boar and sow should be sound, healthy, and in fair, but not over fat, condition. _form._ where a farmer has an excellent breed, but with certain defects, or too long in the limb, or too heavy in the bone, the sire to be chosen, whether of a pure or of a cross breed, should exhibit the opposite qualities, even to an extreme; and be, moreover, one of a strain noted for early and rapid fattening. if in perfect health, young stock selected for breeding will be lively, animated, hold up the head, and move freely and nimbly. _bristles._ these should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin smooth and glossy; coarse, wirey, rough bristles usually accompany heavy bones, large, spreading hoofs, and flapping ears, and thus become one of the indications of a thick-skinned and low breed. _color._ different breeds of high excellence have their own colors; white, black, parti-colored, black and white, sandy, mottled with large marks of black, are the most prevalent. a black skin, with short, scanty bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the prevalence of the neapolitan strain, or the black chinese, or, perhaps, an admixture of both. many prefer white; and in sucking-pigs, destined for the table, and for porkers, this color has its advantages, and the skin looks more attractive; it is, however, generally thought that the skin of black hogs is thinner than that of white, and less subject to eruptive diseases. the influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other males is at times curiously illustrated. this has been noticed in respect of the sow. a sow of the black and white breed, in one instance, became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. the pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar being very predominant in some. the sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained or marked with the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter; and the same occurred after a third impregnation, the boar being then of the same kind as herself. what adds to the force of this case is, that in the course of many years' observation, the breed in question was never known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color. a sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven months; but it is always better not to let her commence breeding too early, as it tends to weaken her. from ten to twelve months--and the latter is preferable--is about the best age. the boar should be, at least, a twelvemonth old--some even recommend eighteen months, at least--before he is employed for the purpose of propagating his species. if, however, the sow has attained her second year, and the boar his third, a vigorous and numerous offspring is more likely to result. the boar and sow retain their ability to breed for almost five years; that is, until the former is upward of eight years old, and the latter seven. it is not advisable, however, to use a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow after her fourth, unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable breeder--in which case she might produce two or three more litters. a boar left on the pasture, at liberty with the sows, might suffice for thirty or forty of them; but as he is commonly shut up, and allowed access at stated times only, so that the young ones may be born at nearly the same time, it is usual to allow him to serve from six to ten--on no account should he serve more. the best plan is, to shut up the boar and sow in a sty together; for, when turned in among several females, he is apt to ride them so often that he exhausts himself without effect. the breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high condition, but not fat. full grown boars being often savage and difficult to tame, and prone to attack men and animals, should be deprived of their tusks. whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged that the animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of summer, or quite the beginning of autumn. in the former case, the young pigs will have the run of the early pastures, which will be a benefit to them, and a saving to their owners; and there will also be more whey, milk, and other dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time they are ready to be weaned. in the second case, there will be sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired strength before the cold weather comes on, which is always very injurious to sucking-pigs. points of a good hog. it may be not amiss to group together what is deemed desirable under this head. no one should be led away by mere name in his selection of a hog. it may be called a berkshire, or a suffolk, or any other breed most in estimation, and yet, in reality, may possess none of this valuable blood. the only sure way to avoid imposition is, to make _name_ always secondary to _points_. if a hog is found possessing such points of form as are calculated to insure early maturity and faculty of taking on flesh, one needs to care but little by what name he is called; since no mere name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities already indicated. the true berkshire--that possessing a dash of the chinese and neapolitan varieties--comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired standard than any other. the chief points which characterize such a hog are the following:--in the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such an elongation of body as will insure a sufficient lateral expansion. the loin and breast should be broad. the breadth of the former denotes good room for the play of the lungs, and, as a consequence, a free and healthy circulation, essential to the thriving or fattening of any animal. the bone should be small, and the joints fine--nothing is more indicative of high breeding than this; and the legs should be no longer than, when fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly from trailing upon the ground. the leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and no more of it is required than is absolutely necessary for the support of the rest. the feet should be firm and sound; the toes should lie well together, and press straightly upon the ground; the claws, also, should be even, upright and healthy. the form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no consequence, it being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good hog may have an ugly head; but the head of all animals is one of the very principal points in which pure or impure breeding will be most obviously indicated. a high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at maturity, to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, and, altogether, to turn out more profitably than one of questionable or impure stock. such being the case, the head of the hog is a point by no means to be overlooked. the description of head most likely to promise--or, rather to be the accompaniment of--high breeding, is one not carrying heavy bones, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a snout too elongated; the snout should be short, and the forehead rather convex, curving upward; and the ear, while pendulous, should incline somewhat forward, and at the same time be light and thin. the carriage of the pig should also be noticed. if this be dull, heavy, and dejected, one may reasonably suspect ill health, if not some concealed disorder actually existing, or just about to break forth; and there cannot be a more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. of course, a fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with young, have not much sprightliness of deportment. color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. those colors are preferable which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. if the hair is scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection with the neapolitan; if too bare of hair, a too intimate alliance with that variety may be apprehended, and a consequent want of hardihood, which--however unimportant, if pork be the object--renders such animals a hazardous speculation for store purposes, on account of their extreme susceptibility of cold, and consequent liability to disease. if white, and not too small, they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the chinese. if light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the favorite berkshire is detected; and so on, with reference to every possible variety of hue. treatment during pregnancy. sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed; that is to say, they should have a sufficiency of wholesome, nutritious food to maintain their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by no means be allowed to get fat; as when they are in high condition, the dangers of parturition are enhanced, the animal is more awkward and liable to smother and crush her young, and, moreover, never has as much or as good milk as a leaner sow. she should also have a separate sty; for swine are prone to lie so close together that, if she is even among others, her young would be in great danger; and this sty should be perfectly clean and comfortably littered, but not so thickly as to admit of the young being able to bury themselves in the straw. as the time of her farrowing approaches, she should be well supplied with food, especially if she be a young sow, and this her first litter, and also carefully watched, in order to prevent her devouring the after-birth, and thus engendering a morbid appetite which will next induce her to fall upon her own young. a sow that has once done this can never afterward be depended upon. hunger, thirst, or irritation of any kind, will often induce this unnatural conduct, which is another reason why a sow about to farrow should have a sty to herself, and be carefully attended to, and have all her wants supplied. abortion. this is by no means of so common occurrence in the case of the sow as in many other of the domesticated animals. various causes tend to produce it: insufficiency of food, eating too much succulent vegetable food, or unwholesome, unsubstantial diet; blows and falls; and the animal's habit of rubbing itself against hard bodies, for the purpose of allaying the irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous eruptions to which it is subject. reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in the sow; at least to the extent it does in other animals. the symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to those of parturition, but more intense. there are, generally, restlessness, irritation, and shivering; and the cries of the animal evince the presence of severe labor-pains. sometimes the rectum, vagina, or uterus, becomes relaxed, and one or the other protrudes, and often becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the f[oe]tus, preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost. nothing can be done, at the last hour, to prevent abortion; but, from the first, every predisposing cause should be removed. the treatment will depend upon circumstances. where the animal is young, vigorous, and in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial--not a copious blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different times; purgatives may also be administered. if, when abortion has taken place, the whole of the litter was not born, emollient injections may be resorted to with considerable benefit; otherwise, the after treatment should be made the same as in parturition, and the animal should be kept warm, quiet, and clean, and allowed a certain degree of liberty. whenever one sow has aborted, the causes likely to have produced this accident should be sought, and an endeavor made, by removing them, to secure the rest of the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap. in cases of abortion, the f[oe]tus is seldom born alive, and often has been dead for some days; where this is the case--which may be readily detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid exhalation, and the discharge of a fetid liquid from the vagina--the parts should be washed with a diluted solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one part of chloride to three parts of water, and a portion of this lotion gently injected into the uterus, if the animal will submit to it. mild doses of epsom salts, tincture of gentian, and jamaica ginger, will also act beneficially in such cases, and, with attention to diet, soon restores the animal. parturition. the period of gestation varies according to age, constitution, food, and the peculiarities of the individual breed. the most usual period during which the sow carries her young is, according to some, three months, three weeks, and three days, or one hundred and eight days; according to others, four lunar months, or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and thirteen days. it may safely be said to range from one hundred and nine to one hundred and forty-three days. [illustration: wild hogs.] the sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter, and sometimes even more. young and weakly sows not only produce fewer pigs, but farrow earlier than those of maturer age and sounder condition; and besides, as might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, oftentimes, indeed, puny and feeble. extraordinary fecundity is not however, desirable, for nourishment cannot be afforded to more than twelve, the sow's number of teats. the supernumerary pigs must therefore suffer; if but one, it is, of course, the smallest and weakest; a too numerous litter are all, indeed, generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or never prove profitable; a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found to turn out most advantageously. on account of the discrepancy between the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in order that the number to be suckled by each may be equalized. the sow seldom recognizes the presence of a strange little one, if it has been introduced among the others during her absence, and has lain for half an hour or so among her own offspring in their sty. the approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the immense size of the belly, by a depression of the back, and by the distention of the teats. the animal manifests symptoms of acute suffering, and wanders restlessly about, collecting straw, and carrying it to her sty, grunting piteously meanwhile. as soon as this is observed, she should be persuaded into a separate sty, and carefully watched. on no account should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place at the same time, as they will inevitably irritate each other, or devour their own or one another's young. the young ones should be taken away as soon as they are born, and deposited in a warm spot; for the sow being a clumsy animal, is not unlikely in her struggles to overlie them; nor should they be returned to her, until all is over, and the after-birth has been removed, which should always be done the moment it passes from her; for young sows, especially, will invariably devour it, if permitted, and then, as the young are wet with a similar fluid, and smell the same they will eat them also, one after another. some advise washing the backs of young pigs with a decoction of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous substance, as a remedy for this; but the simplest and easiest one is to remove the little ones until all is over, and the mother begins to recover herself and seek about for them, when they should be put near her. some also recommend strapping up the sow's mouth for the first three or four days, only releasing it to admit of her taking her meals. some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young. this may best be avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy, and by not leaving too many young upon her. the straw forming the bed should likewise be short, and not in too great quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and the sow unconsciously overlie them in that condition. it does not always happen that the parturition is effected with ease. cases of false presentation, of enlarged f[oe]tus, and of debility in the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. the womb will occasionally become protruded and inverted, in consequence of the forcing pains of difficult parturition, and even the bladder has been known to come away. these parts must be returned as soon as may be; and if the womb has come in contact with the dung or litter, and acquired any dirt, it must first be washed in lukewarm water, and then returned, and confined in its place by means of a suture passed through the lips of the orifice. the easiest and perhaps the best way, however, is not to return the protruded parts at all, but merely tie a ligature round them and leave them to slough off, which they will do in the course of a few days, without effusion of blood, or farther injury to the animal. no sow that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be allowed to breed again. treatment while suckling. much depends upon this; as many a fine sow and promising litter have been ruined for want of proper and judicious care at this period. immediately after farrowing, many sows incline to be feverish; where this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given them for the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal porridge, whey, and the like. others, again, are very much debilitated, and require strengthening; for them, strong soup, bread steeped in wine, or in a mixture of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small quantities, will often prove highly beneficial. the rations must gradually be increased and given more frequently; and they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and succulent substances. all kinds of roots--carrots, turnips, potatoes, and beet-roots--well steamed or boiled, but never raw, may be given; bran, barley, and oatmeal, bran-flour, indian corn, whey, sour, skim, and butter-milk, are all well adapted for this period; and, should the animal appear to require it, grain well bruised and macerated may be added. whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an hour each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh air, exercise, and herbage, will do her immense good. the young pigs must be shut up for the first ten days or fortnight, after which they will be able to follow her, and take their share of the benefit. the food should be given regularly at certain hours; small and often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, since indigestion, or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach vitiates the milk, and produces diarrh[oe]a and other similar affections in the young. the mother should always be well fed, but not over-fed; the better and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and nutritious will her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, and the less will she be reduced by suckling them. when a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, the young pigs must be taught to feed as early as possible. a kind of gruel, made of skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, is a good thing for this purpose, or potatoes, boiled and then mashed in milk or whey, with or without the addition of a little bran or oatmeal. toward the period when the pigs are to be weaned, the sow must be less plentifully fed, otherwise the secretion of milk will be as great as ever; it will, besides, accumulate, and there will be hardness, and perhaps inflammation of the teats. if necessary, a dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying off the milk; but, in general, a little judicious management in the feeding and weaning will be all that is required. treatment of young pigs. for the first ten days, or a fortnight, the mother will generally be able to support her litter without assistance, unless, as has been already observed, she is weakly, or her young are too numerous; in either of which cases they must be fed from the first. when the young pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to them. in another week, this may be thickened with some species of farina; and afterward, as they gain strength and increase in size, boiled roots and vegetables may be added. as soon as they begin to eat, an open frame or railing should be placed in the sty under which the little pigs can run, and on the other side of this should be the small troughs containing their food; for it never answers to let them eat out of the same trough with their mother, because the food set before her is generally too strong and stimulating for them, even if they should secure any of it, which is, to say the least, extremely doubtful. those intended to be killed for sucking-pigs should not be above four weeks old; most kill them for this purpose on the twenty-first or twenty-second day. the others, excepting those kept for breeding, should be castrated at the same time. castration and spaying. pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them; and, doubtless, this operation has the desired effect--for at the same time that it increases the quiescent qualities of the animal, it diminishes also his courage, spirits, and nobler attributes, and even affects his form. the tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the natural animal, but always have a dwarfed, stunted appearance. the operation, if possible, should be performed in the spring or autumn, as the temperature is the more uniform, and care should be taken that the animal is in perfect health. those which are fat and plethoric should be prepared by bleeding, cooling diet and quiet. pigs are castrated at all ages, from a fortnight to three, six and eight weeks, and even four months old. there are various modes of performing this operation. if the pig is not more than six weeks old, an incision is made at the bottom of the scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the cord cut, without any precautionary means whatever. when the animal is older, there is reason to fear that hemorrhage, to a greater or less extent, will supervene; consequently, it will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a little above the spot where the division is to take place. by another mode--to be practised only on very young animals--a portion of the base of the scrotum is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the cord sawn through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument. if there is any hemorrhage, it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound. the animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him. on animals two and three years old, the operation is some times performed in the following manner: an assistant holds the pig, pressing the back of the animal against his chest and belly, keeping the head elevated, and grasping all the four legs together; or, which is the preferable way, one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while another kneels down and secures the four legs. the operator then grasps the scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across its base, opening both divisions of the bag at the same time. the testicles are then pressed out with his finger and thumb, and removed with a blunt knife, which lacerates the part without bruising it and rendering it painful. laceration only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent hemorrhage which would occur, if the cord were simply severed by a sharp instrument. the wound is then closed by pushing the edges gently together with the fingers, and it speedily heals. some break the spermatic cord without tearing it; they twist it, and then pull it gently and finally until it gives way. in other cases, a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible round the scrotum, above the epididymus, which completely stops the circulation, and in a few days the scrotum and testicles will drop off. this operation should never be performed on pigs of more than six weeks of age, and the spermatic should always, first of all, be measured. it, moreover requires great nicety and skill; otherwise, accidents will occur, and considerable pain and inflammation be caused. too thick a cord, a knot not tied sufficiently tight, or a portion of the testicle included in the ligature, will prevent its success. the most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, or lockjaw, induced by the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of the operation. spaying. this operation consists in removing the ovaries, and sometimes a portion of the uterus, more or less considerable, of the female. the animal is laid upon its left side, and firmly held by one or two assistants; an incision is then made into the flank, the forefinger of the right hand introduced into it, and gently moved about until it encounters and hooks hold of the right ovary, which it draws through the opening; a ligature is then passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like manner. the operator then severs these two ovaries, either by cutting or tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their proper position. this being done, he closes the wound with two or three stitches, sometimes rubs a little oil over it, and releases the animal. all goes on well, for the healing power of the pig is very great. the after-treatment is very simple. the animals should be well littered with clean straw, in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ventilated; their diet should be cared for; some milk or whey, with barley-meal is an excellent article; it is well to confine them for a few days, as they should be prevented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound is perfectly healed, and also from creeping through fences. the best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks; indeed, as a general rule, the younger the animal is when either operation is performed the quicker it recovers. some persons, however, have two or three litters from their sows before they operate upon them; where this is the case, the result is more to be feared, as the parts have become more susceptible, and are, consequently, more liable to take on inflammation. weaning. some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth, and turn the sow at once to the boar. the best mode, however, is to turn the boar into the hog-yard about a week after parturition, at which time the sow should be removed a few hours daily from her young. it does not injure either the sow or her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling; but some sows will not do so until the drying of their milk. the age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest advantage is when they are about eight or ten weeks old; many, however, wean them as early as six weeks, but they seldom turn out as well. they should not be taken from the sow at once, but gradually weaned. at first they should be removed from her for a certain number of hours each day, and accustomed to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough; then they may be turned out for an hour without her, and afterwards shut up while she also is turned out by herself. subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck a certain number of times in twenty-four hours; perhaps six times at first, then four, then three, and, at last, only once; and meanwhile they must be proportionably better and more plentifully fed, and the mother's diet in a like manner diminished. some advise that the whole litter should be weaned at once; this is not best, unless one or two of the pigs are much weaker and smaller than the others; in such case, if the sow remain in tolerable condition, they might be suffered to suck for a week longer; but this should be the exception, and not a general rule. pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals, because they learn to feed sooner; but attention must, nevertheless, be paid to them, if they are to grow up strong, healthy animals. their styes must be warm, dry, clean, well-ventilated, and weather-tight. they should have the run of a grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine day, in spring and summer, or be turned into the farm-yard among the cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exercise tend to prevent them from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs. the most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances will permit should be furnished them. newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in the twenty-four hours. in about ten days, one may be omitted; in another week, a second; and then they should do with three _regular_ meals each day. a little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of epsom or glauber salts dissolved in the water, will frequently prove beneficial. a plentiful supply of clear, cold water should always be within their reach; the food left in the trough after the animals have finished eating should be removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out before any more is put into it. strict attention should also be paid to cleanliness. the boars and sows should be kept apart from the period of weaning. the question, which is more profitable, to breed swine, or to buy young pigs and fatten them, can best be determined by those interested; since they know best what resources they can command, and what chance of profits each of these separate branches offers. ringing. this operation is performed to counteract the propensity which swine have of digging and furrowing up the earth. the ring is passed through what appears to be a prolongation of the septum, between the supplemental, or snout-bone, and the nasal. the animal is thus unable to obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout with any effect, without causing the ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced to desist. the ring, however, is apt to break, or it wears out in process of time, and has to be replaced. the snout should be perforated at weaning-time, after the animal has recovered from castration or spaying; and it will be necessary to renew the operation as it becomes of large growth. it is too generally neglected at first; but no pigs, young or old, should be suffered to run at large without this precaution. the sow's ring should be ascertained to be of sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar, on account of the risk of abortion, if the operation is renewed while she is with pig. care must be taken by the operator not to go too close to the bone, and that the ring turn easily. a far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, to cut through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations, by which the supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals. the divided edges of the cartilage will never re-unite, and the snout always remains powerless. feeding and fattening. roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as in a domesticated state; and it is evident that, however omnivorous it may occasionally appear, its palate is by no means insensible to the difference in eatables, since, whenever it finds variety, it will select the best with as much cleverness as other quadrupeds. indeed, the hog is more nice in the selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other domesticated herbivorous animals. to a certain extent he is omnivorous, and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses; but such food is not wholesome, nor is it natural; for, though he is omnivorous, he is not essentially carnivorous. the refuse of the dairy-farm is more congenial to his health, to say nothing of the quality of its flesh. swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months old; and for bacon, at from a year to two years. eighteen months is generally considered the proper age for a good bacon hog. the feeding will always, in a great measure, depend upon the circumstances of the owner--upon the kind of food which he has at his disposal, and can best spare--and the purpose for which the animal is intended. it will also, in some degree, be regulated by the season; it being possible to feed pigs very differently in the summer from what they are fed in the winter. the refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and distilleries, may be given to swine with advantage, and seem to induce a tendency to lay on flesh. they should not, however, be given in too large quantities, nor unmixed with other and more substantial food; since, although they give flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not firm, and never makes good bacon. hogs eat acorns and beech-mast greedily, and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to fatten them afterwards. apples and pumpkins are likewise valuable for this purpose. there is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every way adapted for the purpose of fattening, as are the various kinds of grain--nothing that tends more to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. indian corn is equal, if not superior, to any kind of grain for fattening purposes, and can be given in its natural state, as pigs are so fond of it that they will eat up every kernel. the pork and bacon of animals that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. animal food tends to make swine savage and feverish, and often lays the foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. weekly washing with soap and a brush adds wonderfully to the thriving condition of a hog. in the rich corn regions of our states, upon that grain beginning to ripen, as it does in august, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the grain at their leisure. they waste nothing except the stalks, which in that land of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by them, leaner droves which follow will readily glean. peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. there is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and the cost of storage. if fattened early in the season, hogs will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will require less attention; and, generally, early pork will command the highest price in market. it is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover pasture, to run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. they should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, and let it sour in large tubs or barrels. not less than one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to hogs, is saved by grinding and cooking, or souring. care must, however, be taken that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. a mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel, and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and seventy-seven degrees fahrenheit, will produce immediate fermentation. in this process there are five stages: the _saccharine_, by which the starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are converted into sugar; the _vinous_, which changes the sugar into alcohol; the _mucilaginous_, sometimes taking the place of the vinous, and occurring where the sugar solution, or fermenting principle, is weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the _acetic_, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the _putrefactive_, which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. the precise points in fermentation, when the food becomes most profitable for feeding, has not as yet been satisfactorily determined; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. the roots for fattening ought to be washed, and steamed or boiled; and when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded with the roots. a small quantity of salt should be added. potatoes are the best roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or belgian; sugar-beets; mangel-wurtzels; ruta-bagas; and then white turnips, in the order mentioned. the nutritive properties of turnips are diffused through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain life when fed to them uncooked. there is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without cooking. when unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. it is better, indeed, to have it always before them. the animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion; and it should be the object of the farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate conversion into fat and muscle. the following injunctions should be rigidly observed, if one would secure the greatest results: . avoid _foul feeding_. . do not omit adding _salt_ in moderate quantities to the mess given. . feed at _regular intervals_. . _cleanse_ the troughs previous to feeding. . do not _over-feed_; give only as much as will be consumed at the meal. . _vary_ the food. variety will create, or, at all events, increase appetite, and it is most conducive to health. let the variations be governed by the condition of the _dung_ cast, which should be of a medium consistence, and of a grayish-brown color; if _hard_, increase the quantity of bran and succulent roots; if too _liquid_, diminish, or dispense with bran, and make the mess firmer; add a portion of corn. . feed the stock _separately_, in classes, according to their relative conditions. keep sows with young by themselves; store-hogs by themselves; and bacon-hogs and porkers by themselves. it is not advisable to keep the store-hogs too high in flesh, since high feeding is calculated to retard development of form and bulk. it is better to feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon _loosely_ and not too abundantly, until they have attained their full stature; they can then be brought into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short space of time. . keep the swine _clean_, dry, and warm. cleanliness, dryness, and warmth are _essential_, and as imperative as feeding; for an inferior description of food will, by their aid, succeed far better than the highest feeding will without them. piggeries. few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of swine than airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and above all, cleanliness. they were formerly too often housed in damp, dirty, close, and imperfectly-built sheds, which was a fruitful source of disease and of unthrifty animals. any place was once thought good enough to keep a pig in. in large establishments, where numerous pigs are kept, there should be divisions appropriated to all the different kinds; the boars, the breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should all be kept separate; and in the divisions assigned to the second and last of these classes, it is best to have a distinct apartment for each animal, all opening into a yard or inclosure of limited extent. as pigs require warmth, these buildings should face the south, and be kept weather-tight and well drained. good ventilation is also important; for it is idle to expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health, unless they have a sufficiency of pure air. the blood requires this to give it vitality and free it from impurities, as much as the stomach requires wholesome and strengthening food; and when it does not have it, it becomes vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. bad smells and exhalations, moreover, injure the flavor of the meat. damp and cold floors should be guarded against, as they tend to induce cramp and diarrh[oe]a; and the roof should be so contrived as to carry off the wet from the pigs. the walls of a well-constructed sty should be of solid masonry; the roof sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry off the rain; the floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made to carry off the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or joists, and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off. bricks and tiles, sometimes used for flooring, are objectionable, because, however well covered with straw, they still strike cold. wood is far superior in this respect, as well as because it admits of those clefts or perforations being made, which serve not only to drain off all moisture, but also to admit fresh air. the manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been much undervalued, and for this reason, that the litter is supposed to form the principal portion of it; whereas it constitutes the least valuable part, and, indeed, it can scarcely be regarded as manure at all--at least by itself--where the requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the animals and of their dwellings. the urine and the dung are valuable, being, from the very nature of the food of the animals, exceedingly rich and oleaginous, and materially beneficial to cold soils and grass-lands. the manure from the sty should always be collected as carefully as that from the stable or cow-house, and husbanded in the same way. the door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inward or outward, so as to give the animals free ingress and egress. for this purpose, it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal can push it up to effect its entry or exit; for, if it were hung in the ordinary way, it would derange the litter every time it opened inward, and be very liable to hitch. if it is not intended that the pigs shall leave their sty, there should be an upper and lower door; the former of which should always be left open when the weather is warm and dry, while the latter will serve to confine the animal. there should likewise be windows or slides, which can be opened or closed at will, to give admission to the fresh air, or exclude rain or cold. wherever it can be managed, the troughs--which should be of stone or cast metal, since wooden ones will soon be gnawed to pieces--should be so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the outside, without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all; and for this purpose it is well to have a flap, or door, with swinging hinges, made to hang horizontally on the trough, so that it can be moved to and fro, and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of the manger. when the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung inward and fastened, and so remains until feeding-time, when the trough is cleansed and refilled without any trouble, and then the flap drawn back, and the animals admitted to their food. some cover the trough with a lid having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it, which gives each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole, and eating away without interfering with or incommoding his neighbor. a hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and evacuations; of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried into the first two as possible. the piggery should always be built as near as possible to that portion of the establishment from which the chief part of the provision is to come, since much labor will thus be saved. washings, and combings, and brushings, as has been previously suggested, are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of swine; the energies of the skin are thus roused, the pores opened, the healthful functions aided, and that inertness, so likely to be engendered by the lazy life of a fattening pig, counteracted. a supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine, and should be freely furnished. if a stream can be brought through the piggery, it answers better than any thing else. swine are dirty feeders and dirty drinkers, usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or pail, and thus polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them. one of the advantages, therefore, to be derived from the stream of running water is, its being kept constantly clean and wholesome by its running. if this advantage cannot be procured, it is desirable to present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time, and of such height as to render it impossible, or difficult, for the drinker to get his feet into it. the water should be renewed twice daily. if swine are closely confined in pens, they should have as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat, for the purpose of correcting any tendency to disorders of the stomach. rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal. slaughtering. a pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for from twelve to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering; a little water must, however, be within his reach. he should, in the first place, be stunned by a blow on the head. some advise that the knife should be thrust into the neck so as to sever the artery leading from the heart; while others prefer that the animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of the heart--care being exercised not to touch the first rib. the blood should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into vessels placed for the purpose; and the more completely it does so, the better will be the meat. a large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, which is now filled with boiling water. the carcass of the hog is plunged into this, and the hair is then removed with the edge of a knife. the hair is more easily removed if the hog is scalded before he stiffens, or becomes quite cold. it is not, however, necessary, but simply brutal and barbarous, to scald him while there is yet some life in him. bacon-hogs may be singed, by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw on fire, and then scraping it all over. when this is done, care must be observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. the entrails should then be removed, and the interior of the body well washed with lukewarm water, so as to remove all blood and impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a clean cloth; the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for eighteen or twenty hours, to become set and firm. [illustration: the old english hog.] for cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon a strong table. the head should then be cut off close by the ears, and the hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams, and leave room sufficient for hanging them up; after which the carcass is divided into equal halves, up the middle of the back bone, with a cleaving-knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet. then cut the ham from the side by the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, clearing off any top fat which may appear. next cut off the sharp edge along the back bone with a knife and mallet, and slice off the first rib next the shoulder, where there is a bloody vein, which must be taken out, since, if it is left in, that part is apt to spoil. the corners should be squared off when the ham is cut. the ordinary practice is to cut out the spine, or back bone. some take out the chine and upper parts of the ribs in the first place; indeed, almost every locality has its peculiar mode of proceeding. pickling and curing. the usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. but it may be dry-salted, by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. the pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured; or it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are rolled at times to bring the salt into contact with every part. hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner either dry or in pickle, but with differently arranged materials. the following is a good pickle for two hundred pounds: take fourteen pounds of turk's island salt; one-half pound of saltpetre; two quarts of molasses, or four pounds of brown sugar; with water enough to dissolve them. bring the liquor to the scalding-point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top. when cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be perfectly cool, but not frozen, and closely packed; if not sufficient to cover it, add pure water for this purpose. some extensive packers of choice hams add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves. the hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then should be hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from ten to twenty days, according to the quantity of smoke. the fire should not be near enough to heat the hams. in holland and westphalia, the fire is made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. this is, undoubtedly, the best mode of smoking. the hams should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet birch, corn-cobs, white ash, or beech. the smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams until they are wanted. if removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. a canvas cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. when not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. a common method is to pack in dry oats, baked saw-dust, etc. the following is the method in most general use in several of the western states. the chine is taken out, as also the spare-ribs from the shoulders, and the mouse-pieces and short-ribs, or griskins, from the middlings. no acute angles should be left to shoulders or hams. in salting up, all the meat, except the heads, joints, and chines, and smaller pieces, is put into powdering-tubs--water-tight half-hogsheads--or into large troughs, ten feet long and three or four feet wide at the top, made of the poplar tree. the latter are much more convenient for packing the meat in, and are easily caulked, if they should crack so as to leak. the salting-tray--or box in which the meat is to be salted, piece by piece, and from which each piece, as it is salted, is to be transferred to the powdering-tub, or trough--must be placed just so near the trough that the man standing between can transfer the pieces from one to the other easily, and without wasting the salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough. the salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box. the hams should be salted first, the shoulders next, and the middlings last, which may be piled up two feet above the top of the trough or tub. the joints will thus in a short time be immersed in brine. measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt--a peck measure will be found most convenient--and one measure of clean, dry, sifted ashes; mix, and incorporate them well. the salter takes a ham into the tray, rubs the skin, and the raw end with his composition, turns it over, and packs the composition of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at least three-quarters of an inch deep all over it; and on the interior lower part of the ham, which is covered with the skin, as much as will lie on it. the man standing ready to transfer the pieces, deposits it carefully, without disturbing the composition, with the skin-side down, in the bottom of the trough. each succeeding ham is then deposited, side by side, so as to leave the least possible space unoccupied. when the bottom is wholly covered, see that every visible part of this layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes. then begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or fleshy side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition. when the trough is filled, even full, in this way, with the joints, salt the middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on the joints so that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough. heads, joints, back bones, etc., receive salt only, and should not be put in the trough with the large pieces. much slighter salting will preserve them, if they are salted upon loose boards, so that the bloody brine from them can pass off. the joints and middlings are to remain in and above the trough without being re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way, till they are to be hung up to be smoked. if the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds, the joints need not remain longer than five weeks in the pickle; if they weigh two hundred, or upward, six or seven weeks are not too long. it is better that they should stay in too long, rather than too short a time. in three weeks, the joints, etc., may be hung up. taking out of pickle, and preparing for hanging up to smoke, are thus performed: scrape off the undissolved salt; if the directions have been followed, there will be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not immersed in the brine; this salt and the brine are all saved; the brine is boiled down, and the dry composition given to stock, especially to hogs. wash every piece in lukewarm water, and with a rough towel clean off the salt and ashes. next, put the strings in to hang up. set the pieces up edgewise, that they may drain and dry. every piece is then to be dipped into the meat-paint, as it is termed, composed of warm--not hot--water and very fine ashes, stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick paint, and hang up to smoke. by being thus dipped, they receive a coating which protects them from the fly, prevents dripping, and tends to lessen all external injurious influences. hang up the pieces while yet moist with the paint, and smoke them well. value of the carcass. no part of the hog is valueless, excepting, perhaps, the bristles of the fine-bred races. the very intestines are cleansed, and knotted into chittarlings, very much relished by some; the blood, mixed with fat and rice, is made into black puddings; and the tender muscle under the lumbar vertebræ is worked up into sausages, sweet, high-flavored, and delicious; the skin, roasted, is a rare and toothsome morsel; and a roast sucking-pig is a general delight; salt pork and bacon are in incessant demand, and form important articles of commerce. one great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat, which, in contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep, is termed _lard_, and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent principles, which are essentially oleine and stearine. it is rendered, or fried out, in the same manner as mutton-suet. it melts completely at ninety-nine degrees fahrenheit, and then has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colorless fixed oil. eighty degrees is the melting-point. it consists of sixty-two parts oleine, and thirty-eight of stearine, out of one hundred. when subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper, the oleine is absorbed, while the stearine remains. for domestic purposes, lard is much used: it is much better than butter for frying fish; and is much used in pastry, on the score of economy. the stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, which, when separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. the other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in american commerce is known as _lard-oil_, which is very pure, and extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are valued. it has given to pork a new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased. a large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn from the market, and the depression, which must otherwise have occurred, has been thereby prevented. where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one perforated with holes. the pork is laid on the latter, and then tightly covered. steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the fat is extracted, and falls upon the lower bottom. the remaining mass is bones and scraps. the last is fed to pigs, poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. the bones are either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, valuable for various purposes in the arts. when the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat then carefully scraped off; thus avoiding the oily, viscid matter of the skin. the _bristles_ of the coarse breeds are long, strong, firm, and elastic. these are formed into brushes for painters and artists, as well as for numerous domestic uses. the _skin_, when tanned, is of a peculiar texture, and very tough. it is used for making pocket-books, and for some ornamental purposes; but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles. the numerous little variegations on it, which constitute its beauty, are the orifices whence the bristles have been removed. [illustration] diseases and their remedies by reason of being generally considered a subordinate species of stock, swine do not, in many cases, share in the benefits which an improved system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veterinary science, have conferred upon other domesticated animals. since they are by no means the most tractable of patients, it is any thing but an easy matter to compel them to swallow any thing to which their appetite does not incite them; and, hence, prevention will be found better than cure. _cleanliness_ is the great point to be insisted upon in the management of these animals. if this, and warmth, be only attended to, ailments among them are comparatively rare. as, however, disappointment may occasionally occur, even under the best system of management, a brief view of the principal complaints with which they are liable to be attacked is presented, together with the best mode of treatment to be adopted in such cases. catching the pig. swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over, or to operate on, or examine. seldom tame, or easily handled, they are at such periods most unmanageable--kicking, screaming, and even biting fiercely. the following method of getting hold of them has been recommended: fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in the cord; tie a piece of bread to the cord, and present it to the animal; and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is fast. another method is, to catch one foot in a running noose suspended from some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground; or, to envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack. all coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, be avoided; for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled that in his struggles he will often do himself far more mischief than the disease which is to be investigated or remedied would effect. bleeding. the common mode of drawing blood from the pig is by cutting off portions of the ears or tail; this should only be resorted to when local and instant blood-letting is requisite. the jugular veins of swine lie too deep, and are too much imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by any ligature about the neck; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to puncture them, as it would only be striking at random. those veins, however, which run over the interior surface of the ear, and especially toward its outer edge, may be opened without much difficulty; if the ear is turned back on the poll, one or more of them may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear, near to the conch. when the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the finger may be raised, and it will cease to flow. the palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the mouth, are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of the palate, about half way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and the teeth. the flow of blood may be readily stopped by means of a pledget of tow and a string, as in bleeding the horse. the brachial vein of the fore-leg--commonly called the plate-vein--running along the inner side under the skin affords a good opportunity. the best place for puncturing it is about an inch above the knee, and scarcely half an inch backward from the radius, or the bone of the fore-arm. no danger need to be apprehended from cutting two or three times, if sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. this vein will become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the leg, just below the shoulder. this operation should always be performed with the lancet, if possible. in cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at hand, a small penknife may be used; but the fleam is a dangerous and objectionable instrument. drenching. whenever it is possible, the medicine to be administered should be mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated or coaxed into taking it; since many instances are on record, in which the pig has ruptured some vessel in his struggles, and died on the spot, or so injured himself as to bring on inflammation and subsequent death. where this cannot be done, the following is the best method: let a man get the head of the animal firmly between his knees--without, however, pinching it--while another secures the hinder parts. then let the first take hold of the head from below, raise it a little, and incline it slightly toward the right, at the same time separating the lips on the left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually poured--no more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be swallowed at once. should the animal snort or choke, the head must be released for a few moments, or he will be in danger of being strangled. catarrh. this ailment--an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, etc.--is, if taken in time, easily cured by opening medicines, followed up by warm bran-wash--a warm, dry sty--and abstinence from rich grains, or stimulating, farinaceous diet. the cause, in most cases, is exposure to drafts of air, which should be guarded against. cholera. for what is presented concerning this disease, the author is indebted to his friend, g. w. bowler, v. s., of cincinnati, ohio, whose familiarity with the various diseases of our domestic animals and the best modes of treating them, entitles his opinions to great weight. the term "cholera" is employed to designate a disease which has been very fatal among swine in different parts of the united states; and for the reason, that its symptoms, as well as the indications accompanying its termination, are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the disease of that name which visits man. epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed fearful ravages among the swine of, particularly, ohio, indiana, and kentucky. indeed, many farmers who, until recently, have been accustomed to raise large numbers of these animals, are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest again in such stock, on account of the severe losses--in some instances to the extent of the entire drove upon particular places. various remedies have, of course, been prescribed; but the most have failed in nearly every case where the disease has secured a firm foothold. preventives are, therefore, the most that can at present be expected; and in this direction something may be done. although some peculiar change in the atmosphere is, probably, an impelling cause of cholera, its ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other predisposing associate causes. granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting among filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that reason, in surrounding him with all the nastiness possible; for even a hog, when penned up in a filthy place, in company with a large number of other hogs--particularly when that place is improperly ventilated--is not as healthy as when the animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a clean and well ventilated barn or pen. look, for a moment, at a drove of hogs coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready for the knife. they have been driven several miles, and are scarcely able to crawl along, many of them having to be carried on drays, while others have died on the road. at last they are driven into a pen, perhaps, several inches deep with the manure and filth deposited there by hundreds of predecessors; every hole in the ground has become a puddle; and in such a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled together, exhausted from the drive which they have had. they lie down in the mud; and in a short time one can see the steam beginning to rise from their bodies in volumes, increasing their already prostrate condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious gas thus thrown off from the system; the blood becomes impregnated with poison; the various functions of the body are thereby impaired; and disease will inevitably be developed in one form or another. should the disease, known as the hog cholera, prevail in the neighborhood, the chances are very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it, and consequently perishing. the _symptoms_ of cholera are as follows: the animal appears to be instantaneously deprived of energy; loss of appetite; lying down by himself; occasionally moving about slowly, as though experiencing some slight uneasiness internally; the eyes have a very dull and sunken appearance, which increases with the disease; the evacuations are almost continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor, and containing a large quantity of bile; the extremities are cold, and soreness is evinced when the abdomen is pressed; the pulse is quickened, and sometimes hardly perceptible, while the buccal membrane--that belonging to the cheek--presents a slight purple hue; the tongue has a furred appearance. the evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which may be in twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease may run on for several days. in a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of a dark purple color, and upon examination, the stomach is found to contain but a little fluid; the intestines are almost entirely empty, retaining a slight quantity of the dark colored matter before mentioned; the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, which sometimes appears only in patches, while the other parts are filled with dark venous blood--indicating a breaking up of the capillary vessels in such places. _treatment._ as a preventive, the following will be found valuable: flour of sulphur, six pounds; animal charcoal, one pound; sulphate of iron, six ounces; cinchona pulverized, one pound. mix well together in a large mortar; afterwards give a table-spoonful to each animal, mixed with a few potato-peelings and corn meal, three times a day. continue this for one week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry place, and not allowing too many together. crackings. these will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, especially about the root of the ears and of the tail, and at the flanks. they are not at all to be confounded with mange, as they never result from any thing but exposure to extremes of temperature, while the animal is unable to avail himself of such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have induced him to adopt. they are peculiarly troublesome in the heat of summer, if he does not have access to water, in which to lave his parched limbs and half-scorched carcass. anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with tar and lard, well melted up together. diarrh[oe]a. before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease--which, if permitted to continue unchecked, will rapidly prostrate the animal, and probably terminate fatally--ascertain the quality of food which the animal has recently had. in a majority of instances, this will be found to be the cause. if taken in its incipient stage, a mere change to a more binding diet, as corn, flour, etc., will suffice for a cure. if acidity is present--produced, probably, by the hog's having fed upon coarse, rank grasses in swampy places--give some chalk in the food, or powdered egg-shells, with about half a drachm of powdered rhubarb; the dose, of course, should vary with the size of the animal. in the acorn season, they alone will be found sufficiently curative, where facilities for obtaining them exist. dry lodging is indispensable; and diligence is requisite to keep it dry and clean. fever. the _symptoms_ of this disease are, redness of the eyes, dryness and heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally; appetite gone, or very defective; and, generally, a very violent thirst. [illustration: hunting the wild boar.] bleed as soon as possible; after which house the animal well, taking care, at the same time, to have the sty well and thoroughly ventilated. the bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity of food to be made the vehicle for administering external remedies. the best is bread, steeped in broth. the hog, however, sinks so rapidly when his appetite is near gone, that no depletive medicines are, in general, necessary or proper; the fever will ordinarily yield to the bleeding, and the only object needs to be the support of his strength, small portions of nourishing food, administered frequently. do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might prompt; when he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer it again until after a lapse of three or four hours. if the bowels are confined, castor and linseed oil, in equal quantities, should be added to the bread and broth, in the proportion of two to six ounces. a species of fever frequently occurs as an _epizoötic_, oftentimes attacking the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous and best looking, without any distinction of age, and with a force and rapidity absolutely astonishing. at other times, its progress is much slower; the symptoms are less intense and alarming; and the veterinary surgeon, employed at the outset, may meet with some success. the _causes_ are, in the majority of instances, the bad styes in which the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which they often contain. in addition to these is the constant lying on the dung-heap, whence is exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas; also, the remaining far too long on the muddy or parched ground, or too protracted exposure to the rigor of the season. when an animal is attacked with this disease, he should be separated from the others, placed in a warm situation, some stimulating ointment applied to the chest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. frictions of vinegar should also be applied to the dorsal and lumbar region. the drinks should be emolient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and with aromatic fumigation about the belly. if the fever then appears to be losing ground, which may be ascertained by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the plaintive cries before heard, by a less laborious respiration, by the absence of convulsions, and by the non-appearance of blotches on the skin, there is a fair chance of recovery. then administer, every second hour, as before directed, and give a proper allowance of white water, with ground barley and rye. when the symptoms redouble in intensity, it is best to destroy the animal; for it is rare that, after a certain period, much chance of recovery exists. bleeding is seldom of much avail, but produces, occasionally, considerable loss of vital power, and augments the putrid diathesis. foul skin. a simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to cleanliness, and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime; but, if it is neglected for any length of time, it assumes a malignant character--scabs and blotches, or red and fiery eruptions appear--and the disease rapidly passes into mange, which will be hereafter noticed. inflammation of the lungs. this disease, popularly known as heavings, is scarcely to be regarded as curable. were it observed in its first stage, when indicated by loss of appetite and a short, hard cough, it might, possibly, be got under by copious bleeding, and friction with stimulating ointment on the region of the lungs; minute and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be given in butter--all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided--and the animal kept dry and warm. if once the heavings set in, it may be calculated with confidence that the formation of tubercles in the substance of the lungs has begun; and when these are formed, they are very rarely absorbed. the _causes_ of the disease are damp lodging, foul air, want of ventilation, and unwholesome food. when tubercular formation becomes established, the disease may be communicated through the medium of the atmosphere, the infectious influence depending upon the noxious particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal. the following may be tried, though the knife is probably the best resort, if for no other reason, at least to provide against the danger of infection: shave the hair away from the chest, and beneath each fore-leg; wet the part with spirits of turpentine, and set fire to it, having previously had the animal well secured, with his head well raised, and a flannel cloth at hand with which to extinguish the flame after it has, burned a sufficient time to produce slight blisters; if carried too far, a sore is formed, productive of no good effects, and causing unnecessary suffering. calomel may also be used, with a view to promote the absorption of the tubercles; but the success is questionable. jaundice. the _symptoms_ of this disease are, yellowness of the white of the eye; a similar hue extending to the lips; and sometimes, but not invariably, swelling of the under part of the jaw. _treatment._ bleed freely; diminish the quantity of food; and give an active aperient every second day. aloes are, perhaps, the best, combined with colocynth; the dose will vary with the size of the animal. leprosy. this complaint commonly commences with the formation of a small tumor in the eye, followed by a general prostration of spirits; the head is held down; the whole frame inclines toward the ground; universal languor succeeds; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in flesh; blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then upon the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body. the _causes_ of this disease are want of cleanliness, absence of fresh air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul feeding. the obvious _treatment_, therefore, is, first, bleed; clean out the sty daily; wash the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water, to which soda or potash has been added; supply him with a clean bed; keep him dry and comfortable; let him have gentle exercise, and plenty of fresh air; limit the quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness; give bran with wash, in which add, for an average-sized hog--say one of one hundred and sixty pounds weight--a table-spoonful of the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a dime, daily. a few grains of powdered antimony may also be given with effect. lethargy. _symptoms_: torpor; desire to sleep; hanging of the head; and, frequently, redness of the eyes. the origin of this disease is, apparently, the same as that of indigestion, or surfeit, except that, in this instance, it acts upon a hog having a natural tendency to a redundancy of blood. _treatment._ bleed copiously; then administer an emetic. a decoction of camomile flowers will be safest; though a sufficient dose of tartar emetic will be far more certain. after this, reduce for a few days the amount of the animal's food, and administer a small portion of nitre and sulphur in each morning's meal. mange. this cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence of a minute insect, called _acarus scabiei_, or mange-fly, which burrows beneath the cuticle, and occasions much irritation and annoyance in its progress through the skin. its _symptoms_ are sufficiently well known, consisting of scabs, blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on different parts of the body. if neglected, these symptoms become aggravated; the disease spreads rapidly over the entire surface of the skin, and if allowed to proceed on its course unchecked, will before long produce deep-seated ulcers and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the affected animal becomes a mass of corruption. the _cause_ is to be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding. hogs, however well and properly kept, will occasionally become affected with this disease from contagion. few diseases are more easily propagated by contact than mange. the introduction of a single affected pig into an establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores of others. no foul-skinned pigs, therefore, should be introduced into the piggery; indeed, it would be an excellent precaution to wash every animal newly purchased with a strong solution of chloride of lime. _treatment._ if the mange is but of moderate violence, and not of very long standing, the best mode is to wash the animal, from snout to tail, leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. place him in a dry and clean sty, which is so situated as to command a constant supply of fresh air, without, at the same time, an exposure to cold or draught; furnish a bed of clean, fresh straw. reduce his food, both in quality and quantity; let boiled or steamed roots, with butter-milk, or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or inflammatory character. keep him without food for five or six hours, and then give to a hog of average size two ounces of epsom salts in a warm bran mash--to be increased or diminished, of course, as the animal's size may require. this should be previously mixed with a pint of warm water, and added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash, and it will act as a gentle purgative. give in every meal afterward one table-spoonful of flour of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a dime, for from three days to a week, according to the state of the disease. when the scabs begin to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the fiery sores to fade, a cure may be anticipated. when the above treatment has been practised for fourteen days, without effecting a cure, prepare the following: train oil, one pint; oil of tar, two drachms; spirits of turpentine, two drachms; naphtha, one drachm; with as much flour of sulphur as will form the foregoing into a thick paste. rub the animal previously washed with this mixture; let no portion of the hide escape. keep the hog dry and warm after this application, and allow it to remain on his skin for three days. on the fourth day wash him again with soft soap, adding a small quantity of soda to the water. dry him well afterward, and let him remain as he is, having again changed his bedding, for a day or so; continue the sulphur and nitre as before. almost all cases of mange, however obstinate, will, sooner or later, yield to this treatment. after he is convalescent, whitewash the sty, and fumigate it by placing a little chloride of lime in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. in the absence of vitriol, boiling water will answer nearly as well. measles. this is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable. the _symptoms_ are, redness of the eyes, foulness of the skin, and depression of spirits; decline, or total departure of the appetite; small pustules about the throat, and red and purple eruptions on the skin. the last are more plainly visible after death, when they impart a peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, and distention of the fibre, giving an appearance similar to that which might be produced by puncturing the flesh. _treatment._ allow the animal to fast, in the first instance, for twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, containing a drachm of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of bole armenian; wash the animal, cleanse the sty, and change the bedding; give at every feeding, or thrice a day, thirty grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. this malady is attributable to dirt, combined with the giving of steamed food or wash to hogs at too high a temperature. it is troublesome to eradicate, but usually yields to treatment, and is rarely fatal. murrain. this resembles leprosy in its _symptoms_, with the addition of staggering, shortness of breath, and discharge of viscid matter from the eyes and mouth. the _treatment_ should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, purging, and limitation of food. cloves of garlic are recommended; and as in all febrile diseases there exists a greater or less disposition to putrefaction, it is probable that garlic, from its antiseptic properties, may be useful. quinsy. this is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat. _treatment._ shave away the hair, and rub with tartar-emetic ointment. fomenting with very warm water is also useful. when external suppuration takes place, it is to be regarded as a favorable symptom. in this case, wait until the swellings are thoroughly ripe; then with a sharp knife make an incision through the entire length, press out the matter, wash with warm water, and afterward dress the wound with any resinous ointment, or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar. staggers. this disease is caused by an excessive determination of blood to the head. _treatment._ bleed freely and purge. swelling of the spleen. the _symptom_ most positively indicative of this disease is the circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one side, cringing, as it were, from internal pain, and bending toward the ground. the _cause_ of the obstruction on which the disease depends, is over-feeding--permitting the animal to indulge its appetite to the utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the capacity of its stomach admits. a very short perseverance in this mode of management--or, rather, mismanagement--will produce this, as well as other maladies, deriving their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and the obstruction of the excretory ducts. _treatment._ clean out the alimentary canal by means of a powerful aperient. allow the animal to fast for four or five hours, when he will take a little sweet wash or broth, in which may be mingled a dose of epsom salts proportioned to his size. this will generally effect the desired end--a copious evacuation--and the action of the medicine on the watery secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of the spleen. if the affection has continued for any length, the animal should be bled. a decoction of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liverwort, produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours, may be given in doses of from half a pint to a pint and a half, according to the size, age, etc., of the animal. scammony and rhubarb, mixed in a bran wash, or with indian meal, may be given with advantage on the following day; or, equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill, formed into a bolus with butter. the animal having been kept fasting the previous night, will probably swallow it; if not, let his fast continue a couple of hours longer. lower his diet, and keep him on reduced fare, with exercise, and, if it can be managed, grazing, until the malady has passed away. if he is then to be fattened, it should be done gradually; be cautious of at once restoring him to full diet. surfeit. this is another name for indigestion. the _symptoms_ are, panting; loss of appetite; swelling of the region about the stomach, etc.; and frequently throwing up the contents of the stomach. _treatment._ in general, this affection will pass away, provided only it is allowed to cure itself, and all food carefully kept from the animal for a few hours; a small quantity of sweet grains, with a little bran mash, may then be given, but not nearly as much as the animal would wish to take. for a few days, the food should be limited in quantity, and of a washy, liquid nature. the ordinary food may then be resumed, only observing to feed regularly, and remove the fragments remaining after each meal. tumors. these are hard swellings, which make their appearance on different parts of the body. they are not formidable, and require only to be suffered to progress until they soften; then make a free incision, and press out the matter. sulphur and nitre should be given in the food, as the appearance of these swellings, whatever be their cause, indicates the necessity of alterative medicines. poultry and their diseases. [illustration] history and varieties the domestic fowl. the cock tribe is used as a generic term, to include the whole family of domestic fowls; the name of the male, in this instance, furnishing an appellation sufficiently comprehensive and well recognized. the domestic cock appears to have been known to man from a very early period. of his real origin there is little definitely known; and even the time and manner of his introduction into greece, or southern europe, are enveloped in obscurity. in the palmiest days of greece and rome, however, he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows which amused the masses of the people. he was dedicated to the service of the pagan deities, and was connected with the worship of apollo, mercury, mars, and particularly esculapius. the flesh of this bird was highly esteemed as a delicacy, and occupied a prominent place at the roman banquets. great pains were taken in the rearing and fattening of poultry for this purpose. the practice of cock-fighting, barbarous as it is, originated in classic times, and among the most polished and civilized people of antiquity. to its introduction into britain by the cæsars we owe our acquaintance with the domestic fowl. it is impossible to state positively to what species of the wild cock, known at present, we are to look for the primitive type, so remote is the date of the original domestication of the fowl. many writers have endeavored to show that all the varieties of the domestic fowl, of which we now have knowledge, are derived from a single primitive stock. it has, also, been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his origin to the jungle fowl of india. the most probable supposition, however, is, that the varieties known to us may be referred to a few of the more remarkable fowls, as the progenitors of the several species. the great fowl of st. jago and sumatra may, perhaps, safely be recognized as the type of some of the larger varieties, such as the spanish and the padua fowls, and those resembling them; while to the bankiva cock, probably, the smaller varieties belong, such as bantams, the turkish fowl, and the like. the reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the true originals of our domestic poultry, are, _first_, the close resemblance subsisting between their females and our domestic hens; _second_, the size of our domestic cock being intermediate between the two, and alternating in degree, sometimes inclining toward the one, and sometimes toward the other; _third_, from the nature of their feathers and their general aspect--the form and distribution of their tails being the same as our domestic fowls; and, _fourth_, in these two birds alone are the females provided with a crest and small wattles, characteristics not to be met with in any other wild species. the wild cock, or the st. jago fowl, is frequently so tall as to be able to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary dinner-table. the weight is usually from ten to thirteen or fourteen pounds. the comb of both cock and hen is large, crown-shaped, often double, and sometimes, but not invariably, with a tufted crest of feathers, which occurs with the greatest frequency, and grows to the largest size, in the hen. the voice is strong and very harsh; and the young do not arrive to full plumage until more than half grown. the bankiva fowl is a native of java, and is characterized by a red indented comb, red wattles, and ashy-gray legs and feet. the comb of the cock is scolloped, and the tail elevated a little above the rump, the feathers being disposed in the form of tiles or slates; the neck-feathers are of a gold color, long, dependent, and rounded at the tips; the head and neck are of a fawn color; the wing coverts a dusky brown and black; the tail and belly, black. the color of the hen is a dusky ash-gray and yellow; her comb and wattles much smaller than those of the cock, and--with the exception of the long hackles--she has no feathers on her neck. these fowl are exceedingly wild, and inhabit the skirts of woods, forests, and other savage and unfrequented places. these bankivas resemble our bantams very much; and, like them, are also occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes. independent of all considerations of profitableness, domestic fowls are gifted with two qualifications, which--whether in man, beast, or bird--are sure to be popular: a courageous temper and an affectionate disposition. when we add to these beauty of appearance and hardiness of constitution, it is no wonder that they are held in such universal esteem. the courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry admirable, and his sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. the hen is deservedly the acknowledged pattern of maternal love. when her passion of philoprogenitiveness is disappointed by the failure or subtraction of her own brood, she will either continue incubating till her natural powers fail, or will violently kidnap the young of other fowls, and insist upon adopting them. it would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the numerous breeds and varieties of the domestic fowl. those only, therefore, will be described which are generally accepted as the best varieties; and these arranged, not in the order of their merits necessarily, but alphabetically, for convenience of reference. the bantam. the original of the bantam is, as has been already remarked, the bankiva fowl. the small white, and also the colored bantams, whose legs are heavily feathered, are sufficiently well-known to render a particular description unnecessary. bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which have clean, bright legs, without any vestige of feathers. a thorough-bred cock, in their judgment, should have a rose comb; a well-feathered tail, but without the sickle feathers; full hackles; a proud, lively carriage; and ought not to exceed a pound in weight. the nankeen-colored, and the black are the general favorites. [illustration: the bantam.] these little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and traits of disposition. amongst others, the cocks are so fond of sucking the eggs laid by the hen that they will often drive her from the nest in order to obtain them; they have even been known to attack her, tear open the ovarium, and devour its shell-less contents. to prevent this, first a hard-boiled, and then a marble egg may be given them to fight with, taking care, at the same time, to prevent their access either to the hen or to any real eggs. another strange propensity is a passion for sucking each other's blood, which is chiefly exhibited when they are moulting, when they have been known to peck each other naked, by pulling out the new feathers as they appear, and squeezing with their beaks the blood from the bulbs at the base. these fowls being subject to a great heat of the skin, its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened; in which cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position more nearly at right angles with the body than at ordinary times, and the skin and superficial muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of painful irritation. the disagreeable habit is, therefore, simply a provision of nature for their relief, which may be successfully accomplished by washing with warm water, and the subsequent application of pomatum to the skin. [illustration: bantam.] bantams, in general, are greedy devourers of some of the most destructive of our insects; the grub of the cock-chafer and the crane-fly being especial favorites with them. their chickens can hardly be raised so well, as by allowing them free access to minute insect dainties; hence, the suitableness of a worn-out hotbed for them during the first month or six weeks. they are thus positively serviceable creatures to the farmer, as far as their limited range extends; and still more so to the gardener and the nurseryman, as they will save various garden crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed. the fowl commonly known as the bantam is a small, elegantly-formed, and handsomely tinted variety, evidently but remotely allied to the game breed, and furnished with feathers to the toes. the african bantam. the cock of this variety is red upon the neck, back, and hackles; tail, black and erect, studded with glossy green feathers upon the sides; breast, black ground spotted with yellow, like the golden pheasant; comb, single; cheeks, white or silvery; the pullet is entirely black, except the inside of the wing-tips, which is perfectly white. in size, they compare with the common pigeon, being very small; their wings are about two inches longer than their bodies; and their legs dark and destitute of feathers. they are very quiet, and of decided benefit in gardens, in destroying bugs. these symmetrically-formed birds are highly prized, both by the fancier and the practical man, and the pure-bloods are very rare. they weigh from eight to twelve ounces each for the hens; and the cocks, from sixteen to twenty ounces. the bolton gray. [illustration: bolton grays or creole fowl.] these fowls--called, also, dutch every-day layers, pencilled dutch fowl, chittaprats, and, in pennsylvania, creole fowl--were originally imported from holland to bolton, a town in lancashire, england, whence they were named. they are small sized, short in the leg, and plump in the make; color of the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the whole cappel of the neck; the body white, thickly spotted with black, sometimes running into a grizzle, with one or more black bars at the extremity of the tail. a good cock of this breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; and a hen from three to three and a half pounds. the superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so much in rapid as in continued laying. she may not produce as many eggs in a month as some other kinds, but she will, it is claimed, lay more months in the year than probably any other variety. they are said to be very hardy; but their eggs, in the judgment of some, are rather watery and innutritious. the blue dun. the variety known under this name originated in dorsetshire, england. they are under the average size, rather slenderly made, of a soft and pleasing bluish-dun color, the neck being darker, with high, single combs, deeply serrated. the cock is of the same color as the hen, but has, in addition, some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the tail, and sometimes a few golden, or even scarlet marks, on the wings. they are exceedingly impudent, familiar, and pugnacious. the hens are good layers, wanting to sit after laying a moderate number of eggs, and proving attentive and careful rearers of their own chickens, but rather savage to those of other hens. the eggs are small and short, tapering slightly at one end, and perfectly white. the chickens, on first coming from the egg, sometimes bear a resemblance to the gray and yellow catkin of the willow, being of a soft bluish gray, mixed with a little yellow here and there. some class these birds among the game fowls, not recognizing them as a distinct race, upon the ground that, as there are blue dun families belonging to several breeds--the spanish, the polish, the game, and the hamburghs, for example--it is more correct to refer each blue dun to its own proper ancestry. the chittagong. the chittagong is a very superior bird, showy in plumage, exceedingly hardy, and of various colors. in some, the gray predominates, interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers upon the pullets. the legs are of a reddish flesh-color; the meat is delicately white, the comb large and single, wattles very full, wings good size. the legs are more or less feathered; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, and action prompt and determined. this breed is the largest in the world; the pullets usually weighing from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay, and the cocks from nine to ten pounds at the same age. they do not lay as many eggs in a year as smaller hens; but they lay as many pounds of eggs as the best breeds. this breed has been, by some, confounded with the great malay; but the points of difference are very noticeable. there is less offal; the flesh is finer, although the size is greatly increased; their fecundity is greater; and the offspring arrive earlier at maturity than in the common malay variety. there is also a _red_ variety of the chittagong, which is rather smaller than the gray. these have legs sometimes yellow and sometimes blue; the latter color, perhaps, from some mixture with the dark variety; the wings and tail are short. sometimes there is a rose-colored comb, and a top-knot, through crossing. this variety may weigh sixteen or eighteen pounds a pair, as ordinarily bred. the eggs are large and rich, but not very abundant, and they do not hatch remarkably well. there is, besides, a _dark-red_ variety; the hens yellow or brown, with single serrated comb, and no top-knot; legs heavily feathered, the feathers black and the legs yellow. the cock is black on the breast and thighs. the chittagongs are generally quite leggy, standing some twenty-six inches high; and the hens twenty-two inches. a first cross with the shanghae makes a very large and valuable bird for the table, but not for breeding purposes. the cochin china. the cochin china fowl are said to have been presented to queen victoria from the east indies. in order to promote their propagation, her majesty made presents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed likely to appreciate them. they differ very little in their qualities, habits, and general appearance from the shanghaes, to which they are undoubtedly nearly related. the egg is nearly the same size, shape, and color; both have an equal development of comb and wattles--the cochins slightly differing from the shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller and deeper in the breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and being usually smooth-legged, while the shanghaes, generally, are more or less heavily feathered. the plumage is much the same in both cases; and the crow in both is equally sonorous and prolonged, differing considerably from that of the great malay. [illustration: cochin chinas.] the cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented comb, very much resembling that of the black spanish, and, when in high condition, of quite as brilliant a scarlet; like him, also, he has sometimes a very large white ear-hole on each cheek, which, if not an indispensable or even a required qualification, is, however, to be preferred, for beauty at least. the wattles are large, wide, and pendent. the legs are of a pale flesh-color; some specimens have them yellow, which is objectionable. the feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright chestnut-brown, large and well-defined, giving a scaly or imbricated appearance to those parts. the hackle of the neck is of a light yellowish brown; the lower feathers being tipped with dark brown, so as to give a spotted appearance to the neck. the tail-feathers are black, and darkly iridescent; back, scarlet-orange; back-hackle, yellow-orange. it is, in short, altogether a flame-colored bird. both sexes are lower in the leg than either the black spanish or the malay. the hen approaches in her build more nearly to the dorking than to any other breed, except that the tail is very small and proportionately depressed; it is smaller and more horizontal than in any other fowl. her comb is of moderate size, almost small; she has, also, a small, white ear-hole. her coloring is flat, being composed of various shades of very light brown, with light yellow on the neck. her appearance is quiet, and only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, cleanliness, and compactness. the eggs average about two ounces each. they are smooth, of an oval shape, equally rounded at each end, and of a rich buff color, nearly resembling those of the silver pheasant. the newly-hatched chickens appear very large in proportion to the size of the egg. they have light, flesh-colored bills, feet, and legs, and are thickly covered with down, of the hue commonly called "carroty." they are not less thrifty than any other chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than either the black spanish or the malay. it is, however, most desirable to hatch these--as well as other large-growing varieties--as early in the spring as possible; even so soon as the end of february. a peculiarity in the cockerels is, that they do not show even the rudiments of their tail-feathers till they are nearly full-grown. they increase so rapidly in other directions, that there is no material to spare for the production of these decorative appendages. the merits of this breed are such that it may safely be recommended to people residing in the country. for the inhabitants of towns it is less desirable, as the light tone of its plumage would show every mark of dirt and defilement; and the readiness with which they sit would be an inconvenience, rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual layers are most in requisition. expense apart, they are equal or superior to any other fowl for the table; their flesh is delicate, white, tender, and well flavored. the cuckoo. the fowl so termed in norfolk, england, is, very probably, an old and distinct variety; although they are generally regarded as mere barn-door fowls--that is, the merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing. the name probably originated from its barred, plumage, which resembles that on the breast of the cuckoo. the prevailing color is a slaty blue, undulated, and softly shaded with white all over the body, forming bands of various widths. the comb is very small; irides, bright orange; feet and legs, light flesh-color. the hens are of a good size; the cocks are large, approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. the chickens, at two or three months old, exhibits the barred plumage even more perfectly than the full-grown birds. the eggs average about two ounces each, are white, and of porcelain smoothness. the newly-hatched chickens are gray, much resembling those of the silver polands, except in the color of the feet and legs. this breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good sitters, good mothers and good feeders; and is well worth promotion in the poultry-yard. the dominique. this seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety, about the size of the common dunghill fowl. their combs are generally double--or rose, as it is sometimes called--and the wattles small. their plumage presents, all over, a sort of greenish appearance, from a peculiar arrangement of blue and white feathers, which is the chief characteristic of the variety; although, in some specimens, the plumage is inevitably gray in both cock and hen. they are very hardy, healthy, excellent layers, and capital incubators. no fowl have better stood the tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure dominique. their name is taken from the island of dominica, from which they are reported to have been imported. take all in all, they are one of the very best breeds of fowl which we have; and although they do not come in to laying so young as the spanish, they are far better sitters and nursers. the dorking. this has been termed the capon fowl of england. it forms the chief supply for the london market, and is distinguished by a white or flesh-colored smooth leg, armed with five, instead of four toes, on each foot. its flesh is extremely delicate, especially after caponization; and it has the advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly, and growing to a very respectable size when properly managed. [illustration: white dorkings.] for those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls of the most desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and varigated plumage, and, not expecting perfection, are willing to overlook one or two other points, the speckled dorkings--so called from the town of surrey, england, which brought them into modern repute--should be selected. the hens, in addition to their gay colors, have a large, vertically flat comb, which, when they are in high health, adds very much to their brilliant appearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. the cocks are magnificent. the most gorgeous hues are lavished upon them, which their great size and peculiarly square-built form display to the greatest advantage. their legs are short; their breast broad; there is but a small proportion of offal; and the good, profitable flesh is abundant. the cocks may be brought to considerable weight, and the flavor and appearance of their meat are inferior to none. the eggs are produced in reasonable abundance; and, though not equal in size to those of spanish hens, may fairly be called large. they are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient intervals manifest the desire of sitting. in this respect, they are steady and good mothers when the little ones appear. they are better adapted than any other fowl, except the malay, to hatch superabundant turkeys' eggs; as their size and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the young for a long period. for the same reason, spare goose eggs may be entrusted to them. with all these merits, however, they are not found to be a profitable breed, if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. their powers seem to fail at an early age. they are also apt to pine away and die just at the point of reaching maturity. they appear at a certain epoch to be seized with consumption--in the speckled dorkings, the lungs seeming to be the seat of the disease. the white dorkings are, however, hardy and active birds, and are not subject to consumption or any other disease. as mothers, an objection to the dorkings is, that they are too heavy and clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and more delicate bird than themselves. pheasants, partridges, bantams, and guinea fowl are trampled under foot and crushed, if in the least weakly. the hen, in her affectionate industry in scratching for grub, kicks her smallest nurslings right and left, and leaves them sprawling on their backs; and before they are a month old, half of them will be muddled to death with this rough kindness. in spite of these drawbacks, the dorkings are still in high favor; but a cross is found to be more profitable than the true breed. a glossy, energetic game-cock, with dorking hens, produces chickens in size and beauty little inferior to their maternal parentage, and much more robust. the supernumerary toe on each foot almost always disappears with the first cross; but it is a point which can very well be spared without much disadvantage. in other respects, the appearance of the newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered. the eggs of the dorkings are large, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. the chickens are brownish-yellow, with a broad brown stripe down the middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side; feet and legs yellow. the fawn-colored dorking. the fowl bearing this name is a cross between the white dorking and the fawn-colored turkish fowl. they are, of lofty carriage, handsome, and healthy. the males of this breed weigh from eight to nine pounds, and the females from six to seven; and they come to maturity early for so large a fowl. their tails are shorter and their eggs darker than those of other dorkings; their flesh is fine and their eggs rich. it is one of the best varieties of fowl known, as the size is readily increased without diminishing the fineness of the flesh. the black dorking. the bodies of this variety are of a large size, with the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet-black color. the neck-feathers of some of the cocks are tinged with a bright gold color, and those of some of the hens bear a silvery complexion. their combs are usually double, and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or single, with wattles small; and they are usually very red about the head. their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the race, and they feather rather slowly. their legs are short and black, with five toes on each foot, the bottom of which is sometimes yellow. the two back toes are very distinct, starting from the foot separately; and there is frequently a part of an extra toe between the two. this breed commence laying when very young, and are very thrifty layers during winter. their eggs are of a large size, and hatch well; they are perfectly hardy, as their color indicates, and for the product are considered among the most valuable of the dorking breed. the dunghill fowl. this is sometimes called the barn-door fowl, and is characterized by a thin, serrated, upright comb, and wattles hanging from each side of the lower mandible; the tail rises in an arch, above the level of the rump; the feathers of the rump are long and line-like; and the color is finely variegated. the female's comb and wattles are smaller than those of the cock; she is less in size, and her colors are more dull and sombre. in the best specimens of this variety, the legs should be white and smooth, like those of the dorking, and their bodies round and plump. being mongrels, they breed all colors, and are usually from five to seven or eight pounds per pair. the frizzled fowl. this fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of japan, and, by an equally common error, is frequently called the "friesland," under the apprehension that it is derived from that place. its name, however, originates from its peculiar appearance. it is difficult to say whether this is an aboriginal variety, or merely a peculiar instance of the morphology of feathers; the circumstance that there are also frizzled bantams, would seem to make in favor of the latter position. the feathers are ruffled or frizzled, and the reversion makes them peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet, since their plumage is of little use as clothing. they have thus the demerit of being tender as well as ugly. in good specimens, every feather looks as if it had been curled the wrong way with a pair of hot curling-irons. the plumage is variegated in its colors; and there are two varieties, called the black and white frizzled. the stock, which is rather curious than valuable, is retained in this country more by importation than by rearing. some writers say that this variety is a native of asia, and that it exists in a domestic state throughout java, sumatra, and all the philippine islands, where it succeeds well. it is, according to such, uncertain in what country it is still found wild. the game fowl. it is probable that these fowl, like other choice varieties, are natives of india. it is certain that in that country an original race of some fowl exists, at the present day, bearing in full perfection all the peculiar characteristics of the species. in india, as is well known, the natives are infected with a passion for cock-fighting. these fowls are carefully bred for this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become articles of great value. in sumatra, the inhabitants are so much addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted, that instances are recorded of men staking not only their property upon the issue of a fight, but even their wives and children. the chinese are likewise passionately fond of this pastime; as, indeed, are all the inhabitants of the indian countries professing the mussulman creed. the romans introduced the practice into britain, in which country the earliest recorded cock-fight dates back to about the year . in mexico and the south american countries it is still a national amusement. [illustration: gray game fowls.] the game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and beautifully colored of our domestic breeds of poultry; and in its form, aspect, and that extraordinary courage which characterizes its natural disposition, exhibits all that either the naturalist or the sportsman would at once recognize as the purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the most indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy. it is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds, and in its shape approximates more closely to the elegance and lightness of form usually characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated race. amongst poultry, he is what the arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred short-horn amongst cattle, and the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race. the flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. the hens are excellent layers, and although the eggs are under the average size, they are not to be surpassed in excellence of flavor. such being the character of this variety of fowl, it would doubtless be much more extensively cultivated than it is, were it not for the difficulty attending the rearing of the young; their pugnacity being such, that a brood is scarcely feathered before at least one-half are killed or blinded by fighting. with proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be apprehended may be avoided. it is exceedingly desirable to perpetuate the race, for uses the most important and valuable. as a cross with other breeds, they are invaluable in improving the flavor of the flesh, which is an invariable consequence. the plumage of all fowl related to them is increased in brilliancy; and they are, moreover, very prolific, and the eggs are always enriched. the mexican hen-cock. this unique breed is a favorite variety with the mexicans, who term them hen-cocks from the fact that the male birds have short, broad tails, and, in color and plumage, the appearance of the hens of the same variety, differing only in the comb, which is very large and erect in the cock, and small in the hen. they are generally pheasant-colored, with occasional changes in plumage from a light yellow to a dark gray; and, in some instances, there is a tendency to black tail-feathers and breast, as well as an inclination to gray and light yellow, and with a slight approximation to red hackles in some rare instances. this variety has a strong frame, and very large and muscular thighs. the cocks are distinguished by large, upright combs, strong bills, and very large, lustrous eyes. the legs vary from a dirty to a dark-green color. the hen does not materially differ in appearance from the cock. they are as good layers and sitters as any other game breed, and are good nurses. the wild indian game. this variety was originally imported into this country from calcutta. the hen has a long neck, like a wild goose; neither comb nor wattles; of a dark, glossy green color; very short fan tail; lofty in carriage, trim built, and wild in general appearance; legs very large and long, spotted with blue; ordinary weight from four and a half to six pounds. as a layer, she is equal to other fowls of the game variety. the cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine pounds and upward; the plumage is of a reddish cast, interspersed with spots of glossy green; comb very small; no wattles; and bill unlike every other fowl, except the hen. the spanish game. this variety is called the english fowl by some writers. it is more slender in the body, the neck, the bill, and the legs, than the other varieties, and the colors, particularly of the cock, are very bright and showy. the flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and on this account marketable; the eggs are small, and extremely delicate. the plumage is very beautiful--a clear, dark red, very bright, extending from the back to the extremities, while the breast is beautifully black. the upper convex side of the wing is equally red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. the beak and legs are black; the eyes resemble jet beads, very full and brilliant; and the whole contour of the head gives a most ferocious expression. the guelderland. the guelderland fowl were originally imported into this country from the north of holland, where they are supposed to have originated. they are very symmetrical in form, and graceful in their motions. they have one noticeable peculiarity, which consists in the absence of a comb in either sex. this is replaced by an indentation on the top of the head; and from the extreme end of this, at the back, a small spike of feathers rises. this adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl. the presence of the male is especially dignified, and the female is little inferior in carriage. [illustration: guelderlands.] the plumage is of a beautiful black, tinged with blue, of very rich appearance, and bearing a brilliant gloss. the legs are black, and, in some few instances, slightly feathered. crosses with the shanghae have heavily feathered legs. the wattles are of good size in the cock, while those of the hen are slightly less. the flesh is fine, of white color, and of excellent flavor. the eggs are large and delicate--the shell being thicker than in those of most other fowls--and are much prized for their good qualities. the hens are great layers, seldom inclining to sit. their weight is from five pounds for the pullets, to seven pounds for the cocks. the guelderlands, in short, possess all the characteristics of a perfect breed; and in breeding them, this is demonstrated by the uniform aspect which is observable in their descendants. they are light and active birds, and are not surpassed, in point of beauty and utility, by any breed known in this country. the only objection, indeed, which has been raised against them is the tenderness of the chickens. with a degree of care, however, equal to their value, this difficulty can be surmounted, and the breed must be highly appreciated by all who have a taste for beauty, and who desire fine flesh and luscious eggs. the spangled hamburgh. the spangled hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties, the distinctive characteristics being slight, and almost dependent upon color; these varieties are termed the golden and silver spangled. [illustration: hamburgh fowls.] _the golden spangled_ is one of no ordinary beauty; it is well and very neatly made, has a good body, and no very great offal. on the crest, immediately above the beak, are two small, fleshy horns, resembling, to some extent, an abortive comb. above this crest, and occupying the place of a comb, is a very large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers composing it darkening toward their extremities. under the insertion of the lower mandible--or that portion of the neck corresponding to the chin in man--is a full, dark-colored tuft, somewhat resembling a beard. the wattles are very small; the comb, as in other high-crested fowls, is very diminutive; and the skin and flesh white. the hackles on the neck are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow; and the general ground-color of the body is of the same hue, but somewhat darker. the thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade, and the legs and feet are of a bluish gray. in the _silver spangled_ variety, the only perceptible difference is, that the ground color is a silvery white. the extremity and a portion of the extreme margin of each feather are black, presenting, when in a state of rest, the appearance of regular semicircular marks, or spangles--and hence the name, "spangled hamburgh;" the varieties being termed _gold_ or _silver_, according to the prevailing color being bright yellow, or silvery white. the eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens easily reared. in mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they are inferior to the dorking or the spanish. they weigh from four and a half to five and a half pounds for the male, and three and a half for the female. the former stands some twenty inches in height, and the latter about eighteen inches. the java. the great java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity. they are of a black or dark auburn color, with very large, thick legs, single comb and wattles. they are good layers, and their eggs are very large and well-flavored; their gait is slow and majestic. they are, in fact, amongst the most valuable fowls in the country, and are frequently described as spanish fowls, than which nothing is more erroneous. they are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded great malay, and possess about the same qualities as to excellence, but fall rather short of them in beauty. some, however, consider the pure java superior to all other large fowls, so far as beauty is concerned. their plumage is decidedly rich. the jersey-blue. the color of this variety is light-blue, sometimes approaching to dun; the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the common fowl; its legs are of various colors, generally black, sometimes lightly feathered. of superior specimens, the cocks weigh from seven to nine pounds, and the hens from six to eight. they are evidently mongrels; and though once much esteemed, they have been quite neglected, so far as breeding from them is concerned, since the introduction of the purer breeds, as the shanghaes and the cochin-chinas. the lark-crested fowl. this breed is sometimes confounded with the polish fowl; but the shape of the crest, as well as the proportions of the bird, is different. this variety, of whatever color it may be, is of a peculiar taper-form, inclining forward, with a moderately depressed, backward-directed crest, and deficient in the neatness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the polands; the latter are of more upright carriage and of a more squarely-built frame. perhaps a good distinction between the two varieties is, that the lark-crested have an occipital crest, and the poland more of a frontal one. they are of various colors: pure snow white, brown with yellow hackles, and black. the white is, perhaps, more brilliant than is seen in any other domesticated gallinaceous bird, being much more dazzling than that of the white guinea fowl, or the white pea fowl. this white variety is in great esteem, having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when rambling about a homestead. they look very clean and attractive when dressed for market; an old bird, cleverly trussed, will be, apparently, as delicate and transparent in skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken. their feathers are also more salable than those from darker colored fowls. they are but little, if, indeed, any, more tender than other kinds raised near the barn-door; they are in every way preferable to the white dorkings. in the cocks, a single, upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the place of the crest; the hens, too, vary in this respect, some having not more than half a dozen feathers in their head-dress. if they were not of average merit, as to their laying and sitting qualifications, they would not retain the favor they do with the thrifty house-wives by whom they are chiefly cultivated. the malay. [illustration: malays.] this majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it derives its name, and, in the opinion of many, forms a connecting link between the wild and domesticated races of fowls. something very like them is, indeed, still to be found in the east. this native indian bird--the _gigantic cock_, the _kulm cock_ of europeans--often stands considerably more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground. the comb extends backward in a line with the eyes; it is thick, a little elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the appearance of having been cut off. the wattles of the under mandibles are comparatively small, and the throat is bare. pale, golden-reddish hackles ornament the head, neck, and upper part of the back, and some of these spring before the bare part of the throat. the middle of the back and smaller wing-coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited; pale reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump and base of the tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of a glossy green, of which color are the wing-coverts; the secondaries and quills are pale reddish-yellow on their outer webs. all the under parts are deep glossy blackish-green, with high reflections; the deep chestnut of the base of the feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled and interrupted appearance to those parts. the weight of the malay, in general, exceeds that of the cochin-china; the male weighing, when full-grown, from eleven to twelve, and even thirteen pounds, and the female from eight to ten pounds; height, from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. they present no striking uniformity of plumage, being of all shades, from black to white; the more common color of the female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a faint tinge of dunnish-blue, especially in the tail. the cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color, with black intermingled in the breast, thighs, and tail. he has a small, but thick comb, generally inclined to one side; he should be snake-headed, and free from the slightest trace of top-knot; the wattles should be extremely small, even in an old bird; the legs are not feathered, as in the case of the shanghaes, but, like them and the cochin-chinas, his tail is small, compared with his size. in the female, there is scarcely any show of comb or wattles. their legs are long and stout; their flesh is very well flavored, when they have been properly fattened; and their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of our ordinary fowls. the malay cock, in his perfection, is a remarkably courageous and strong bird. his beak is very thick, and he is a formidable antagonist when offended. his crow is loud, harsh, and prolonged, as in the case of the cochin-china, but broken off abruptly at the termination; this is quite characteristic of the bird. the chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and are thickly covered with light brown down; but, by the time they are one-third grown, the increase of their bodies has so far outstripped that of their feathers, that they are half naked about the back and shoulders, and extremely susceptible of cold and wet. the great secret of rearing them is, to have them hatched very early indeed, so that they may have safely passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry, sunny part of may and june, and reached nearly their full stature before the midsummer rains descend. malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs of turkeys--a task for which they are well adapted in every respect but one, which is, that they will follow their natural instinct in turning off their chickens at the usual time, instead of retaining charge of them as long as the mother turkey would have done. goslings would suffer less from such untimely desertion. the pheasant malay. this variety is highly valued by many, not on account of its intrinsic merits, which are considerable, but because it is believed to be a cross between the pheasant and the common fowl. this is, however, an erroneous opinion. hybrids between the pheasant and the fowl are, for the most part, absolutely sterile; when they do breed, it is not with each other, but with the stock of one of their progenitors; and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate to one or the other original type. no half-bred family is perpetuated, no new breed created, by human or volucrine agency. the pheasant malays are large, well-flavored, good sitters, good layers, good mothers, and, in many points, an ornamental and desirable stock. some object to them as being a trifle too long in their make; but they have a healthy look of not being over-bred, which is a recommendation to those who rear for profit as well as pleasure. the eggs vary in size; some are very large in summer, smooth, but not polished, sometimes tinged with light buff, balloon-shaped, and without the zone of irregularity. the chickens, when first hatched, are all very much alike; yellow, with a black mark all down the back. the cock has a black tail, with black on the neck and wings. the plymouth rock. this name has been given to a very good breed of fowls, produced by crossing a china cock with a hen, a cross between the fawn-colored dorking, the great malay, and the wild indian. at a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two to thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds; and the pullets from six and a half to seven pounds each. the latter commence laying when five months old, and prove themselves very superior layers. their eggs are of a medium size, rich, and reddish-yellow in color. their plumage is rich and variegated; the cocks usually red or speckled, and the pullets darkish brown. they have very fine flesh, and are fit for the table at an early age. the legs are very large, and usually blue or green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon each foot. some have their legs feathered, but this is not usual. they have large and single combs and wattles, large cheeks, rather short tails, and small wings in proportion to their bodies. they are domestic, and not so destructive to gardens as smaller fowls. there is the same uniformity in size and general appearance, at the same age of the chickens, as in those of the pure bloods of primary races. the poland. the poland, or polish fowl, is quite unknown in the country which would seem to have suggested the name, which originated from some fancied resemblance between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the polish soldiers. the breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious, and is bred with great care. those desirous of propagating any singular varieties, separate and confine the individuals, and do not suffer them to mingle with such as have the colors different. the varieties are more esteemed in proportion to the variety of the colors, or the contrast of the tuft with the rest of the plumage. although the differences of plumage are thus preserved pretty constant, they seem to owe their origin to the same breed, and cannot be reproduced pure without careful superintendence. the cocks are much esteemed in egypt, in consequence of the excellence of their flesh, and are so common that they are sold at a remarkably cheap rate. they are equally abundant at the cape of good hope, where their legs are feathered. [illustration: poland fowls.] the polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, and in a clean and grassy place. they are certainly not so fit for the farm-yard, as they become blinded and miserable with dirt. care should be exercised to procure them genuine, since there is no breed of fowls more disfigured by mongrelism than this. they will, without any cross-breeding, occasionally produce white stock that are very pretty, and equally good for laying. if, however, an attempt is made to establish a separate breed of them, they become puny and weak. it is, therefore, better for those who wish for them to depend upon chance; every brood almost of the black produces one white chicken, as strong and lively as the rest. these fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being white, tender, and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for being reared in any numbers, or for general purposes, since they are so capricious in their growth, frequently remaining stationary in this respect for a whole month, getting no larger; and this, too, when they are about a quarter or half grown--the time of their life when they are most liable to disease. as aviary birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. their plumage often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty; the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their health; and their plumage improves in attractiveness with almost every month. the great merit, however, of all the polish fowls is, that for three or four years they continue to grow and gain in size, hardiness, and beauty--the male birds especially. this fact certainly points out a very wide deviation in constitution from those fowls which attain their full stature and perfect plumage in twelve or fifteen months. the similarity of coloring in the two sexes--almost a specific distinction of polish and perhaps spanish fowls--also separates them from those breeds, like the game, in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar. their edible qualities are as superior, compared with other fowls, as their outward apparel surpasses in elegance. they have also the reputation of being everlasting layers, which further fits them for keeping in small enclosures; but, in this respect, individual exceptions are often encountered--as in the case of the hamburghs--however truly the habit may be ascribed to the race. there are four known varieties of the polish fowl, one of which appears to be lost to this country. the black polish. this variety is of a uniform black--both cock and hen--glossed with metallic green. the head is ornamented with a handsome crest of white feathers, springing from a fleshy protuberance, and fronted more or less deeply with black. the comb is merely two or three spikes, and the wattles are rather small. both male and female are the same in color, except that the former has frequently narrow stripes of white in the waving feathers of the tail, a sign, it is said, of true breeding. the hens, also, have two or three feathers on each side of the tail, tinged in the tip with white. they do not lay quite so early in the spring as some varieties, especially after a hard winter; but they are exceedingly good layers, continuing a long time without wanting to sit, and laying rather large, very white, sub-ovate eggs. they will, however, sit at length, and prove of very diverse dispositions; some being excellent sitters and nurses, others heedless and spiteful. the chickens, when first hatched, are dull black, with white breasts, and white down on the front of the head. they do not always grow and get out of harm's way so quickly as some other sorts, but are not particularly tender. in rearing a brood of these fowls, some of the hens may be observed with crests round and symmetrical as a ball, and others in which the feathers turn all ways, and fall loosely over the eyes; and in the cocks, also, some have the crest falling gracefully over the back of the head, and others have the feathers turning about and standing on end. these should be rejected, the chief beauty of the kind depending upon such little particulars. one hen of this variety laid just a hundred eggs, many of them on consecutive days, before wanting to incubate; and after rearing a brood successfully, she laid twenty-five eggs before moulting in autumn. the golden polands. these are sometimes called gold spangled, as their plumage approaches to that of the gold spangled hamburghs; but many of the finest specimens have the feathers merely fringed with a darker color, and the cocks, more frequently than the hens, exhibit a spotted or spangled appearance. many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard; as to which the question has been raised whether it is an original appendage to these birds or not. a distinct race, of which the muff is one permanent characteristic, is not at present known. this appendage, whenever introduced into the poultry-yard, is not easily got rid of; which has caused some to suspect either that the original polish were beardless, or that there were two ancient races. the golden polands, when well-bred, are exceedingly handsome; the cock has golden hackles, and gold and brown feathers on the back; breast and wings richly spotted with ochre and dark brown; tail darker; large golden and brown crest, falling back over the neck; but little comb and wattles. the hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre ground; dark-spotted crest; legs light-blue, very cleanly made, and displaying a small web between the toes, almost as proportionately large as that in some of the waders. they are good layers, and produce fair-sized eggs. many of them make excellent mothers, although they cannot be induced to sit early in the season. the chickens are rather clumsy-looking little creatures, of a dingy-brown, with some dashes of ochre about the head, breast and wings. they are sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their existence; but, if they pass this successfully, they become tolerably hardy, though liable to come to a pause when about half-grown. it may be noted as a peculiarity in the temper of this breed, that, if one is caught, or attacked by any animal, the rest, whether cocks or hens, will instantly make a furious attack upon the aggressor, and endeavor to effect the rescue of their companion. the silver polands. these are similar to the preceding in shape and markings, except that white, black, and gray are exchanged for ochre or yellow, and various shades of brown. they are even more delicate in their constitution, more liable to remain stationary at a certain point of their adolescence, and, still more than the other varieties, require and will repay extra care and accommodation. their top-knots are, perhaps, not so large, as a general thing; but they retain the same neat bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet. the hens are much more ornamental than the cocks; though the latter are sure to attract notice. they may, unquestionably, be ranked among the choicest of fowls, whether their beauty or their rarity is considered. they lay, in tolerable abundance, eggs of moderate size, french-white, much pointed at one end; and when they sit, acquit themselves respectably. the newly-hatched chickens are very pretty; gray, with black eyes, light lead-colored legs, and a swelling of down on the crown of the head, indicative of the future top-knot, which is exactly the color of a powdered wig, and, indeed, gives the chicken the appearance of wearing one. there is no difficulty in rearing them for the first six weeks or two months; the critical time being the interval between that age and their reaching the fifth or sixth month. they acquire their peculiar distinctive features at a very early age, and are then the most elegant little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined. the distinction of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly full-grown; the first observable indication being in the tail. that of the pullet is carried uprightly, as it ought to be; but in the cockerel, it remains depressed, awaiting the growth of the sickle-feathers. the top-knot of the cockerel inclines to hang more backward than that of the pullets. it is remarkable that the golden polish cock produces as true silver chickens, and those stronger, with the silver polish hen, as the silver polish cock would bring. the silver polands have all the habits of their golden companions, the main difference being the silvery ground instead of the golden. this variety will sometimes make its appearance even if merely its golden kind is bred, precisely as the black polish now and then produce some pure white chickens that make very elegant birds. the black-topped white. this variety does not at present exist among us; and some have even questioned whether it ever did. buffon mentions them as if extant in france in his time. an attempt has been made to obtain them from the preceding, by acting on the imagination of the parents. the experiment failed, though similar schemes are said to have succeeded with animals; it proved, however, that it will not do to breed from the white polish as a separate breed. being albinos, the chickens come very weakly, and few survive. this breed is now recoverable, probably, only by importation from asia. the shanghae. for all the purposes of a really good fowl--for beauty of model, good size, and laying qualities--the thorough-bred shanghae is among the best, and generally the most profitable of domestic birds. the cock, when full-grown, stands about twenty-eight inches high, if he is a good specimen; the female, about twenty-two or twenty-three inches. a large comb or heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age; but the comb of the male is high, deeply indented, and his wattles double and large. the comb and wattles are not, however, to be regarded as the chief characteristics of this variety, nor even its reddish-yellow feathered leg; but the abundant, soft, and downy covering of the thighs, hips, and region of the vent, together with the remarkably short tail, and large mound of feathers piled over the upper part of its root, giving rise to a considerable elevation on that part of the rump. it should be remarked, also, that the wings are quite short and small in proportion to the size of the fowl, and carried very high up the body, thus exposing the whole of the thighs, and a considerable portion of the side. [illustration: shanghaes.] these characteristics are not found, in the same degree, in any other fowl. the peculiar arrangement of feathers gives the shanghae in appearance, what it has in reality--a greater depth of quarter, in proportion to the brisket, than any other fowl. as to the legs, they are not very peculiar. the color is usually reddish-white, or flesh-color, or reddish-yellow, mostly covered down the outside, even to the end of the toes, with feathers. this last, however, is not always the case. the plumage of the thorough-bred is remarkably soft and silky, or rather downy; and is, in the opinion of many, equally as good for domestic purposes as that of the goose. the feathers are certainly quite as fine and soft, if not as abundant. in laying qualities, the pure shanghae equals, if it does not excel, any other fowl. the black poland, or the bolton gray, may, perhaps, lay a few more eggs in the course of a year, in consequence of not so frequently inclining to sit; but their eggs are not so rich and nutritious. a pullet of this breed laid one hundred and twenty eggs in one hundred and twenty-five days, then stopped six days, then laid sixteen eggs more, stopped four days, and again continued her laying. the eggs are generally of a pale yellow, or nankeen color, not remarkably large, compared with the size of the fowl, and generally blunt at the ends. the comb is commonly single, though, in some specimens, there is a slight tendency to rose. the flesh of this fowl is tender, juicy, and unexceptionable in every respect. taking into consideration the goodly size of the shanghae--weighing, as the males do, at maturity, from ten to twelve pounds, and the females from seven and a half to eight and a half, and the males and females of six months, eight and six pounds respectively--the economical uses to which its soft, downy feathers may be applied, its productiveness, hardiness, and its quiet and docile temper, this variety must occupy, and deservedly so, a high rank among our domestic fowls; and the more it is known, the better will it be appreciated. the white shanghae. this variety is entirely white, with the legs usually feathered, and differ in no material respect from the red, yellow, and dominique, except in color. the legs are yellowish, or reddish-yellow, and sometimes of flesh-color. many prefer them to all others. the eggs are of a nankeen, or dull yellow color, and blunt at both ends. [illustration: white shanghaes.] it is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are larger and more quiet than other varieties, that their flesh is much superior, their eggs larger, and the hens more profitable. being more quiet in their habits, and less inclined to ramble, the hens are invaluable as incubators and nurses; and the mildness of their disposition makes them excellent foster-mothers, as they never injure the chickens belonging to other hens. these fowls will rank among the largest coming from china, and are very thrifty in our climate. a cock of this variety attained a weight of eight pounds, at about the age of eight months, and the pullets of the same brood were proportionably large. they are broad on the back and breast, with a body well rounded up; the plumage white, with a downy softness--in the latter respect much like the feathering of the bremen goose; the tail-feathers short and full; the head small, surmounted by a small, single, serrated comb; wattles long and wide, overlaying the cheek-piece, which is also large, and extends back on the neck; and the legs of a yellow hue, approaching a flesh-color, and feathered to the ends of the toes. the silver pheasant. this variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of plumage and diversity of colors. on a white ground, which is usually termed silvery, there is an abundance of black spots. the feathers on the upper part of the head are much longer than the rest, and unite together in a tuft. they have a small, double comb, and their wattles are also comparatively small. a remarkable peculiarity of the cock is, that there is a spot of a blue color on the cheeks, and a range of feathers under the throat, which has the appearance of a collar. the hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of the cock, and at a little distance seems to be covered with scales. on the head is a top-knot of very large size, which droops over it on every side. the silver pheasants are beautiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as ornamental appendages to the poultry-yard. the spanish. [illustration: spanish fowls.] this name is said to be a misnomer, as the breed in question was originally brought by the spaniards from the west indies; and, although subsequently propagated in spain, it has for some time been very difficult to procure good specimens from that country. from spain, they were taken in considerable numbers into holland, where they have been carefully bred, for many years; and it is from that quarter that our best fowls of this variety come. the spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many merits; of spirited and animated appearance; of considerable size; excellent for the table, both in whiteness of flesh and skin, and also in flavor; and laying exceedingly large eggs in considerable numbers. among birds of its own breed it is not deficient in courage; though it yields, without showing much fight, to those which have a dash of game blood in their veins. it is a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage. the thorough-bred birds should be entirely black, as far as feathers are concerned; and when in high condition, display a greenish, metallic lustre. the combs of both cock and hen are exceedingly large, of a vivid and most brilliant scarlet; that of the hen droops over upon one side. their most singular feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the cheek--in some specimens extending over a great part of the face--of a fleshy substance, similar to the wattle; it is small in the female, but large and very conspicuous in the male. this marked contrast of black, bright red, and white, makes the breed of the spanish cock as handsome as that of any variety which we have; in the genuine breed, the whole form is equally good. spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce very large, quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very thick at both ends, and yet tapering off a little at each. they are, by no means, good mothers of families, even when they do sit--which they will not often condescend to do--proving very careless, and frequently trampling half their brood under foot. the inconveniences of this habit are, however, easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly hen. this variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose nearly all the feathers in its body, besides the usual quantity on the neck, wings, and tail; and, if they moult late, and the weather is severe, they feel it much. this must often happen in the case of an "everlasting layer;" for if the system of a bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of eggs, it cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the growth of feathers. they have not, even yet, become acclimated in this country, since continued frost at any time is productive of much injury to their combs; frequently causing mortification in the end, which at times terminates in death. a warm poultry-house, high feeding, and care that they do not remain too long exposed to severe weather, are the best means of preventing this disfigurement. some birds are occasionally produced, handsomely streaked with red on the hackle and back. this is no proof of bad breeding, if other points are right. the chickens are large, as would be expected from such eggs, entirely shining black, except a pinafore of white on the breast--in which respect they are precisely like the black polish chickens--and a slight sprinkling under the chin, with sometimes also a little white round the back and eyes; their legs and feet are black. many of them do not get perfectly feathered till they are three-fourths grown; and, therefore, to have this variety come to perfection in a country where the summers are much shorter than in their native climate, they must be hatched early in spring, so that they may be well covered with plumage before the cold rains of autumn. there is, however, a great lack of uniformity in the time when they get their plumage; the pullets are always earlier and better feathered than the cockerels--the latter being generally half naked for a considerable time after being hatched, though some feather tolerably well at an early age. the _black_ is not the only valuable race of spanish fowl; there is, also, the _gray_, or _speckled_, of a slaty gray color, with white legs. their growth is so rapid, and their size, eventually, so large, that they are remarkably slow in obtaining their feathers. although well covered with down when first hatched, they look almost naked when half-grown, and should, therefore, be hatched as early in spring as possible. the cross between the pheasant-malay and the spanish produces a particularly handsome fowl. as early pullets, for laying purposes in the autumn and winter after they are hatched, no fowls can surpass the spanish. they are believed, also, to be more precocious in their constitution; and consequently to lay at an earlier age than the pullets of other breeds. the natural history of domestic fowls. fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows: division. _vertebrata_--possessing a back bone. class. _aves_--birds. order. _rasores_--scrapers. family. _phasianidæ_--pheasants. genus. _gallus_--the cock. birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be divided into two great classes, according to their food: the carnivorous and the graminivorous. fowls belong, strictly speaking, to the latter. in the structure of the _digestive organs_, birds exhibit a great uniformity. the [oe]sophagus, which is often very muscular, is dilated into a large sac--called the _crop_--at its entrance into the breast; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and serves as a species of first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount of preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper digestive organs. a little below the crop, the narrow [oe]sophagus is again slightly dilated, forming what is called the _ventriculus succenturiatus_, the walls of which are very thick, and contain a great number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. below this, the intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the _gizzard_, in which the process of digestion is carried still farther. in the graminivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny _epithelium_, serving for the trituration of the food. the intestine is rather short, but usually exhibits several convolutions; the large intestine is always furnished with two _corea_. it opens by a semicircular orifice into the _cloaca_, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative organs. the liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a gall-bladder. the pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop, formed by the small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. there are also large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their secretion into that cavity. the _organs of circulation and respiration_ in birds are adapted to their peculiar mode of life; but are not separated from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. the heart consists of four cavities distinctly separated--two auricles and two ventricles--so that the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ; and the whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. the blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, from which it passes through a tabular opening into the right ventricle, and is thence driven into the lungs. from these organs it returns through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence into the ventricles of the same side, by the contraction of which it is driven into the aorta. this soon divides into two branches, which, by their subdivision, give rise to the arteries of the body. _the jaws_, or mandibles, are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. in most birds, the sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp; but in some they are denticulated along the margins. the two anterior members of the body are extended into wings. the beak is used instead of hands; and such is the flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch with its beak every part of its body. this curious and important result is obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebræ of the neck, which, in the swan, consists of twenty-three bones, and in the domestic cock, thirteen. the vertebræ of the back are seven to eleven; the ribs never exceed ten on each side. the clothing of the skin consists of _feathers_, which in their nature and development resemble hair, but are of a more complicated structure. a perfect feather consists of the _shaft_, a central stem, which is tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the _barbs_, or fibres, which form the _webs_ on each side of the shaft. the two principal modifications of feathers are _quills_ and _plumes_; the former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the general clothing of the body. besides the common feathers, the skin of many birds is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists of a multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction; each of these down feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. these filaments are very slender, and bear on each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers. this downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many quadrupeds; the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth hair by which the fur of these animals is concealed. the skin also bears many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over its surface; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs toward the apex. once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of the bird is renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called _moulting_. the base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers, called the _wing coverts_; and the feathers of the tail are furnished with numerous muscles, by which they can be spread out and folded up like a fan. in the aquatic birds--like the goose, the duck, and the swan--the feathers are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely excludes the water. in their reproduction, birds are strictly oviparous. the _eggs_ are always enclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcareous matter, and birds almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the breeding season, to the hatching of their eggs and the development of their offspring; sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter are in a condition to shift for themselves. in the structure and development of the egg there is a great uniformity; but there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young bird at the moment of hatching. in the class under consideration, the young are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell; and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are likely to meet with food. the _longevity_ of birds is various, and, unlike the case of men and quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they acquire maturity. a few months, or even a few weeks, suffice to bring them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. domestic fowls live to the age of twenty years; geese, fifty; while swans exceed a century. the order _rasores_ includes the numerous species of _gallinaceous birds_, and the term is applied to them from their habit of scratching in the ground in search of food. they are generally marked by a small head, stout legs, plumage fine, the males usually adorned with magnificent colors, and the tails often developed in a manner to render the appearance extremely elegant. the wings are usually short and weak, and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolonged. the _corla_ of this order are larger than in any other birds. the species are found in almost all parts of the world, from the tropics to the frozen regions of the north; but the finest and most typical kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of asia. they feed principally on seeds, fruit, and herbage, but also, to a considerable extent, on insects, worms, and other small animals. their general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great celerity, but many of them roost on trees. they are mostly polygamous in their habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of females; and to these, with a few exceptions, the whole business of incubation is generally left. the nest is always placed on the ground in some sheltered situation, and very little art is exhibited in its construction; indeed, an elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left the egg; and at night or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath the wings of their mother. most of these species are esteemed for the table, and many of them are among the most celebrated of game birds. the _pheasant family_, of this order, includes the most beautiful of the rasorial birds; indeed, some of them may, perhaps, be justly regarded as pre-eminent in this respect over all the rest of their class. in these, the bill is of moderate size and compressed, with the upper mandible arched to the tip, where it overhangs the lower one; the _tarsi_ are of moderate length and thickness, usually armed with one or two spurs; the toes are moderate, and the hinder one short and elevated; the wings are rather short and rounded, and the tail more or less elongated and broad, but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. the head is rarely feathered all over; the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space about the eye, but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface, occasionally covering the whole head, and even a part of the neck, and frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. in some species, the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers. the birds of this family are, for the most part, indigenous to the asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, several species have been introduced into other parts of the globe. the guinea fowl of africa, and the turkeys of america, are almost the only instances of wild phasianidous birds out of asia. some species, such as the domestic fowl, the peacock, the turkey, and the guinea fowl, have been reduced to a state of complete domestication, and are distributed pretty generally over the world. the guinea fowl. this bird belongs to the same division, class, order, and family as the domestic fowl; but is assigned by naturalists to the genus numida, or numidian. it is indigenous to the tropical parts of africa, and in a wild state, guinea fowls live in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy places, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds; they roost on trees; the nest is made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty eggs. they have been propagated in the island of jamaica to such an extent as to have become wild, and are shot like other game. they do much damage to the crops, and are therefore destroyed by various means; one of which is, to get them tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with the intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground; the birds devour this, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety. the guinea fowl, to a certain degree, unites the characteristics of the pheasant and the turkey; having the delicate shape of the one, and the bare head of the other. there are several varieties: the white, the spotted, the madagascar, and the crested. the latter is not so large as the common species; the head and neck are bare, of a dull blue, shaded with red, and, instead of the casque, it has an ample crest of hair-like, disunited feathers, of a bluish black, reaching as far forward as the nostrils, but, in general, turned backward. the whole plumage, except the quills, is of a bluish black, covered with small grayish spots, sometimes four, sometimes six on each feather. [illustration: the guinea fowl.] this fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of poultry, being so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse reputation than it really deserves, from having been occasionally guilty of a few trifling faults. it is, however, useful, ornamental, and interesting during its life; and, when dead, a desirable addition to the table, at a time when all other poultry is scarce. the best way to commence keeping guineas is to procure a sitting of eggs which can be depended upon for freshness, and if possible, from a place where but a single pair is kept. a bantam hen is the best mother; she is lighter, and less likely to injure them by treading on them than a full-sized fowl. she will cover nine eggs, and incubation will last a month. the young are excessively pretty. when first hatched, they are so strong and active as to appear not to require the attention which is really necessary to rear them. almost as soon as they are dry from the moisture of the egg, they will peck each other's toes, as if supposing them to be worms, scramble with each other for a crumb of bread, and domineer over any little bantam or chicken that may chance to have been hatched at the same time with themselves. no one, ignorant of the fact, would guess, from their appearance, to what species of bird they belonged; their orange-red bills and legs, and the dark, zebra-like stripes with which they are regularly marked from head to tail, bear no traces of the speckled plumage of their parents. of all known birds, the guinea fowl is, perhaps, the most prolific of eggs. week after week, and month after month, there are very few intermissions, if any, of the daily deposit. even the process of moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw off the nutriment which it takes to make feathers instead of eggs; and the poor thing will sometimes go about half-naked in the chilly autumn months, unable to refrain from its diurnal visit to the nest, and consequently unable to furnish itself with a new outer garment. the body of the guinea hen may be regarded, in fact, as a most admirable machine for producing eggs out of insects, grain, and vegetables, garbage, or whatever material an omnivorous creature can appropriate. its normal plumage is singularly beautiful, being spangled over with an infinity of white spots on a black ground, shaded with gray and brown. the spots vary from the size of a pea to extreme minuteness. the black and white occasionally change places, causing the bird to appear covered with a net of lace. the white variety is not uncommon, and is said to be equally hardy and profitable with the usual kind; but the peculiar beauty of the original plumage is, certainly, all exchanged for a dress of not the purest white. it is doubtful how long either this or the former variety would remain permanent; though, probably, but for a few generations. pied birds blotched with patches of white, are frequent, but are not comparable, in point of beauty, with those of the original wild color. the pea fowl. this bird is assigned to the genus _paro_, or peacock--the division, class, or sex, and family, being the same as the preceding. the male of this species is noted for its long, lustrous tail, which it occasionally spreads, glittering with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots, producing an unrivalled effect of grace and beauty. the form of the bird is also exceedingly elegant, and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich metallic tints; that of the neck, particularly, being of a fine deep blue, tinged with golden green. the female, however, is of a much more sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color. the voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to the beauty of its external appearance, consisting of a harsh, disagreeable cry, not unlike the word _paon_, which is the french name of the bird. [illustration: the pea fowl.] although naturalized as a domestic bird in europe and america, the pea fowl is a native of india, where it is still found abundantly in a wild state; and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those bred in captivity. the date of its introduction into england is not known; but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into europe by alexander the great, although these birds were among the articles imported into judea by the fleets of solomon. they reached rome toward the end of the republic, and their costliness soon caused them to be regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table, though the moderns find them dry and leathery. this, perhaps, as much as the desire of ostentation, may have induced the extravagance of vitellius and heliogabulus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and tongues of peacocks at their feasts. in europe, during the middle ages, the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand entertainments, at which it was served with the greatest pomp and magnificence. and during the period of chivalry, it was usual for knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions, "before the peacock and the ladies." at present, however, the bird is kept entirely on account of the beauty of its appearance. in a state of nature, pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded localities, feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. they are polygamous, and the females make their nests upon the ground among bushes; the nest is composed of grass, and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or six. they roost in high trees, and, even in captivity, their inclination to get into an elevated position frequently manifests itself; and they may often be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of buildings. the latter characteristic is, indirectly, one reason why many are disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state. their decided determination so to roost prevents such a control being exercised over them as would restrain them from mischief, until an eye could be kept on their movements; and, consequently, they commit many depredations upon gardens, stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn, or at the most unexpected moments. their cunning indeed is such that, if frequently driven away from the garden at any particular hour of the day or evening, they will never be found there, after a certain time, at that special hour, but will invariably make their inroads at day-break. many have tried, as a last resort, to eject them with every mark of scorn and insult, such as harsh words, the cracking of whips, and the throwing of harmless brooms; but they remain incorrigible marauders, indifferent to this disrespectful usage, and careless of severe rebuke. a mansion, therefore, where the fruit and vegetable garden is at a distance, is almost the only place where they can be kept without daily vexation. the injury they do to flowers is comparatively trifling; though, like the guinea-fowl, they are great eaters of buds, cutting them out cleanly from the _axillae_ of leaves. they must likewise have a dusting-hole, which is large and unsightly; but this can be provided for them in some nook out of the way; and by feeding and encouragement, they will soon be taught to dispose themselves into a pleasing spectacle, at whatever point of view may be deemed desirable. no one with a very limited range should attempt to keep them at all, unless confined in an aviary. where they can be kept at large, they should be collected in considerable numbers, that their dazzling effects may be as impressive as possible. a wanton destructiveness toward the young of other poultry is also charged upon them. relative to this, however, statements differ; some contending that such instances of cruelty constitute the exceptions, and not the rule. the hen does not lay till her third summer; but she then seems to have an instinctive fear of her mate, manifested by the secrecy with which she selects the place for her nest; nor, if the eggs are disturbed, will she go there again. she lays from four or five to seven. if these are taken, she will frequently lay a second time during the summer; and the plan is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their stock. she sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. a common hen will hatch and rear the young; but the same objection lies against her performing that office, except in very fine, long summers, for the pea fowl as for turkeys--that the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is conveniently able to do. a turkey will prove a much better foster-mother in every respect. the peahen should, of course, be permitted to take charge of one set of eggs. even without such assistance, she will be tolerably successful. the same wise provision of nature noticed in the case of the guinea fowl is evinced in a still greater degree in the little pea chickens. their native jungle--tall, dense, sometimes impervious, swarming with reptile, quadruped, and even insect, enemies--would be a most dangerous habitation for a little tender thing that could merely run and squall. accordingly, they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very highly developed. in three days, they will fly up, and perch upon any thing three feet high; in a fortnight, they will roost on trees, or the tops of sheds; and in a month or six weeks, they will reach the ridge of a barn, if there are any intermediate low stables or other buildings to help them to mount from one to the other. there are two varieties of the common pea fowl: the _pied_ and the _white_. the first has irregular patches of white about it, like the pied guinea fowl, and the remainder of the plumage resembling the original sorts; the white have the ocellated spots on the tail faintly visible in certain lights. these last are tender, and much prized by those who prefer variety to real beauty. they are occasionally produced by birds of the common kind, in cases where no intercourse with other white birds can have taken place. in one instance, in the same brood, whose parents were both of the usual colors, there were two of the common sort, and one white cock, and one white hen. the turkey. the wild turkey. the turkey belongs to the genus _meleagris_, and, though now known as a domestic fowl in most civilized countries, was confined to america until after the discovery of that country by columbus. it was probably introduced into europe by the spaniards about the year . it was found in the forests of north america, when the country was first settled, from the isthmus of darien to canada, being then abundant even in new england; at present, a few are found in the mountains of massachusetts, new york, and new jersey; in the western and the southwestern states they are still numerous, though constantly diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements. [illustration: the wild turkey.] the wild male bird measures about three feet and a half, or nearly four feet, in length, and almost six in expanse of the wings, and weighs from fifteen to forty pounds. the skin of the head is of a bluish color, as is also the upper part of the neck, and is marked with numerous reddish, warty elevations, with a few black hairs scattered here and there. on the under part of the neck, the skin hangs down loosely, and forms a sort of wattle; and from the point where the bill commences, and the forehead terminates, arises a fleshy protuberance, with a small tuft of hair at the extremity, which becomes greatly elongated when the bird is excited; and at the lower part of the neck is a tuft of black hair, eight or nine inches in length. the feathers are, at the base, of a bright dusky tinge, succeeded by a brilliant metallic band, which changes, according to the point whence the light falls upon it, to bronze, copper, violet, or purple; and the tip is formed by a narrow, black, velvety band. this last marking is absent from the neck and breast. the color of the tail is brown, mottled with black, and crossed with numerous lines of the latter color; near the tip is a broad, black band, then a short mottled portion, and then a broad band of dingy yellow. the wings are white, banded closely with black, and shaded with brownish yellow, which deepens in tint toward the back. the head is very small, in proportion to the size of the body; the legs and feet are strongly made, and furnished with blunt spurs, about an inch long, and of a dusky reddish color; the bill is reddish, and brown-colored at the tip. the female is less in size; her legs are destitute of spurs; her neck and head are less naked, being furnished with short, dirty, gray feathers; the feathers on the back of the neck have brownish tips, producing on that part a brown, longitudinal band. she also, frequently, but not invariably, wants the tuft of feathers on the breast. her prevailing color is a dusky gray, each feather having a metallic band, less brilliant than that of the cock, then a blackish band, and a grayish fringe. her whole color is, as usual among birds, duller than that of the cock; the wing-feathers display the white, and have no bands; the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock. when young, the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to discern the difference between them; and the cock acquires his beauty only by degrees, his plumage not arriving at perfection until the fourth or fifth year. the habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceedingly curious. the males, called _gobblers_, associate in parties of from ten to a hundred, and seek their food apart from the females, which either go about singly with their young, at that time about two-thirds grown, or form troops with other females and their families, sometimes to the number of seventy or eighty. these all avoid the old males, who attack and destroy the young, whenever they can, by reiterated blows upon the skull. but all parties travel in the same direction, and on foot, unless the dog or the hunter or a river on their line of march compels them to take wing. when about to cross a river, they select the highest eminences, that their flight may be more sure, and in such positions they sometimes stay for a day or more, as if in consultation. the males upon such occasions gobble obstreperously, strutting with extraordinary importance, as if to animate their companions; and the females and the young assume much of the same pompous manner, and spread their tails as they move silently around. having mounted, at length, to the tops of the highest trees, the assembled multitude, at the signal note of their leader, wing their way to the opposite shore. the old and fat birds, contrary to what might be expected, cross without difficulty, even when the river is a mile in width; but the wings of the young and the meagre, and, of course, those of the weak, frequently fail them before they have completed their passage, when they drop in, and are forced to swim for their lives, which they do cleverly enough, spreading their tails for a support, closing their wings, stretching out their necks, and striking out quickly and strongly with their feet. all, however, do not succeed in such attempts, and the weaker often perish. the wild turkeys feed on maize, all sorts of berries, fruits, grasses, and beetles; tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards, are occasionally found in their crops. the pecan nut is a favorite food, and so is the acorn, on which last they fatten rapidly. about the beginning of october, while the mast still hangs on the trees, they gather together in flocks, directing their course to the rich bottom-lands, and are then seen in great numbers on the ohio and mississippi. this is the _turkey-month_ of the indians. when they have arrived at the land of abundance, they disperse in small, promiscuous flocks of both sexes and every age, devouring all the mast as they advance. thus they pass the autumn and winter, becoming comparatively familiar after their journeys, when they venture near plantations and farm-houses. they have even been known, on such occasions, to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food. numbers are killed in the winter, and preserved in a frozen state for distant markets. the beginning of march is the pairing season, for a short time previous to which the females separate from their mates, and shun them, though the latter pertinaciously follow them, gobbling loudly. the sexes roost apart, but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in the most rapid succession; not as when spreading the tail and strutting near the hen, but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any unusual or frequently-repeated noise. where the turkeys are numerous, the woods, from one end to the other, sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with this remarkable voice of their wooing, uttered responsively from their roosting-places. this is continued for about an hour; and, on the rising of the sun, they silently descend from their perches, and the males begin to strut for the purpose of winning the admiration of their mates. if the call of a female be given from the ground, the males in the vicinity fly toward the individual, and, whether they perceive her or not, erect and spread their tails, throw the head backward, and distend the comb and wattles, shout pompously, and rustle their wings and body-feathers, at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs. while thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as much rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. during this ceremonious approach, the males often encounter each other, and desperate battles ensue, when the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of the vanquished. the usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the conqueror, who is followed by one or more females, that roost near him, if not upon the same tree, until they begin to lay, when their habits are altered, with the view of saving their eggs, which the male breaks, if he can get at them. these are usually from nine to fifteen in number, sometimes twenty, whitish and spotted with brown, like those of the domestic bird. the nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the fallen top of a dead leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the side of a log. whenever the female leaves the nest, she covers it with leaves, so as to screen it from observation. she is a very close sitter, and when she has chosen a spot will seldom leave it, on account of its being discovered by a human intruder. should she find one of her eggs, however, sucked by a snake, or other enemy, she abandons the nest forever. when the eggs are near hatching, she will not forsake her nest while life remains. the females are particularly attentive to their young, which are very sensitive to the effects of damp; and consequently wild turkeys are always scarce after a rainy season. the flesh of the wild turkey is much superior to that of the domestic bird; yet the flesh of such of the latter as have been suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the plains is, in no respect, improved by this partially wild mode of life. the domestic turkey. the origin of the popular name, turkey, appears to be the confusion at first unaccountably subsisting relative to the identity of the bird with the guinea fowl, which was still scarce at the time of the introduction of the turkey. some, however, say that the name arose from the proud and _turkish_ strut of the cock. there is a question whether the domestic turkey is actually a second and distinct species, or merely a variety of the wild bird, owing its diversity of aspect to circumstances dependent on locality, and consequent change of habit, combined with difference of climate and other important causes, which are known in the case of other animals to produce such remarkable effects. [illustration: the domestic turkey.] the _varieties_ of the domesticated turkey are not very distinct; and as to their relative value, it is, perhaps, difficult to give any decisive opinion. some suppose that the _white_ turkey is the most robust, and most easily fattened. experience has, however, shown to the contrary. the pure white are very elegant creatures; and though very tender to rear, are not so much so as the white pea fowl. most birds, wild as well as tame, occasionally produce perfectly white individuals, of more delicate constitution than their parents. the selection and pairing of such have probably been the means of establishing and keeping up this breed. with all care, they will now and then produce speckled birds and so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage. it is remarkable that in specimens which are, in other respects, snow-white, the tuft on the breast remains coal-black, appearing, in the hens, like a tail of ermine, and so showing us a great ornament. the head and caruncles on the neck of the male are, when excited, of the same blue and scarlet hues. the bird is truly beautiful, with its snowy and trembling flakes of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black, blue, and scarlet. they have one merit--they dress most temptingly white for market; but they are unsuited for mirey, smokey, or clayey situations, and show and thrive best where they have a range of clean, short pasture, on a light or chalky subsoil. the _bronze_ and _copper-colored_ varieties are generally undersized, and are among the most difficult of all to rear; but their flesh is, certainly, very delicate, and, perhaps, more so than that of other kinds--a circumstance, however, that may partly result from their far greater delicacy of constitution, and the consequent extra trouble devoted to their management. the _brown_ and _ashy-gray_ are not particularly remarkable; but the _black_ are decidedly superior, in every respect, not only as regards greater hardiness, and a consequent greater facility of rearing, but as acquiring flesh more readily, and that, too, of the very best and primest quality. those of this color appear also to be far less removed than the others from the original wild stock. fortunately, the black seems to be the favorite color of nature; and black turkeys are produced far more abundantly than those of any other hue. the turkey is a most profitable bird, since it can almost wholly provide for itself about the roads; snails, slugs, and worms are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest stream serves to slake its thirst. to the farmer, however, it is often a perfect nuisance, from its love of grain; and should, therefore, be kept in the yard until all corn is too strong in the root to present any temptation. notwithstanding the separation which, with the exception of certain seasons, subsists between the cock and hen turkey in a wild state, they have been taught to feed and live amiably together in a state of domesticity. the former, however, retains sufficient of his hereditary propensities to give an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken, but that very seldom of a serious or malicious character. one reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not vie in splendor of plumage with their untamed brethren is, that they are not allowed to live long enough. for the same cause, the thorough development of their temper and disposition is seldom witnessed. it does not attain its full growth till its fifth or sixth year, yet it is killed at latest in the second, to the evident deterioration of the stock. if some of the best breeds were retained to their really adult state, and well fed meanwhile, they would quite recompense their keeper by their beauty in full plumage, their glancing hues of gilded green and purple, their lovely shades of bronze, brown, and black, and the pearly lustre that radiates from their polished feathers. the duck. this bird is of the order of _natatores_, or swimmers; family, _anatidæ_, of the duck kind; genus, _anas_, or duck. the most striking character of the swimming bird is derived from the structure of the _feet_, which are always palmate--that is, furnished with webs between the toes. there are always three toes directed forward, and these are usually united by a membrane to their extremities; but, in some cases, the membrane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, and furnished with a distinct web on each side. the fourth toe is generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when present, it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is sometimes continued to it along the side of the feet. these webbed feet are the principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their time. the feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming, but which renders their progression on the land somewhat awkward. [illustration: the eider duck.] the _body_ is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the greasy secretions of the caudal gland, so that it is completely water-proof. the _wings_ exhibit a great variety in their development; in some species being merely rudimentary, destitute of quills, and covered with a scaly skin--in others, being of vast size and power, and the birds passing a great part of their lives in the air. the form of the _bill_ is also very remarkable; in some, broad and flat; in others, deep and compressed; and in others, long and slender. most of these birds live in societies, which are often exceedingly numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. the distinguishing characteristic of the family of the _anatidæ_ is the _bill_, which is usually of a flattened form, covered with a soft skin, and furnished at the edges with a series of _lamellæ_, which serve to sift or strain the mud in which they generally seek their food. the feet are furnished with four toes, three of which are directed forward, and united by a web; the fourth is directed backward, usually of small size, and quite free. they are admirable swimmers, and live and move on the water with the utmost security, ease, and grace. such is their adaptation to this element that the young, immediately after being hatched, will run to it, and fearlessly launch themselves upon its bosom, rowing themselves along with their webbed feet, without a single lesson, and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. they are generally inhabitants of the fresh waters, and for the most part, prefer ponds and shallow lakes, in which they can investigate the bottom with their peculiar bills, without actually diving beneath the surface; yet at some seasons they are found along the borders of the sea. their food generally consists of worms, mollusca, and aquatic insects, which they separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellæ at the margin of the bill; but most of them also feed upon seeds, fruits, and other vegetable substances. the wild duck. this bird, known also by the name of _mallard_, is the original of all the domestic varieties. it is twenty-four inches long, and marked with green, chestnut and white. wild ducks are gregarious in their habits, and generally migrate in large flocks. the males are larger than the females, and the latter are also usually of a more uniform and sober tint. it is an inhabitant of all the countries of europe, especially toward the north, and is also abundant in north america, where it is migratory, passing to the north in spring, and returning to the south in autumn. it frequents the lakes of the interior, as well as the sea-coasts. it is plentiful in great britain at all seasons, merely quitting the more exposed situations at the approach of winter, and taking shelter in the valleys; or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries. [illustration: wild duck.] they moult twice in the year, in june and november; in june, the males acquire the female plumage to a certain extent, but regain their proper dress at the second moult, and retain it during the breeding season. in a wild state, the mallard always pairs, and, during the period of incubation, the male, although taking no part in the process, always keeps in the neighborhood of the female; and it is singular that half-bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit the same habits, although the ordinary domestic drakes are polygamous, always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can. the nest is usually placed upon the ground among reeds and ledges near the water; sometimes in holes or hollow trees, but rarely among the branches. the eggs vary from about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active from the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the water, where they are as much at home as the old birds. as the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued, immense numbers are shot, or taken in other ways. in england, large numbers are captured by decoys, consisting of a piece of water situated in the midst of a quiet plantation, from which six semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed over with hoops, and covered in with netting. into this vast trap the ducks are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose. the domestic duck. the duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard, provided that it can have access to water, even a small supply of which will suffice. they have been kept with success, and the ordinary duck fattened to the weight of eight pounds, with no further supply of water than that afforded by a large pool sunk in the ground. in a garden, ducks will do good service, voraciously consuming slops, frogs, and insects--nothing, indeed, coming amiss to them; not being scratchers, they do not, like other poultry, commit such a degree of mischief, in return, as to partially counterbalance their usefulness. a drake and two or three ducks cost little to maintain; and the only trouble they will give is, that if there is much extent of water or shrubbery about their home, they will lay and sit abroad, unless they are brought up every night, which should be done. they will otherwise drop their eggs carelessly here and there, or incubate in places where their eggs will be sucked by crows, and half their progeny destroyed by rats. [illustration: rouen duck.] the duck is very prolific, and its egg is very much relished by some, having a rich piquancy of flavor, which gives it a decided superiority over the egg of the domestic fowl; and these qualities render it much in request with the pastry-cook and confectioner--three duck's eggs being equal in culinary value to six hen's eggs. the duck does not lay during the day, but generally in the night; exceptions, regulated by circumstances, will, of course, occasionally occur. while laying, it requires, as has been intimated, more attention than does the hen, until it is accustomed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs; when, however, this is once effected, little care is needed beyond what has been indicated. the duck is a bad hatcher, being too fond of the water, and, consequently, too apt to allow her eggs to get cold; she will also, no matter what kind of weather it may be, bring the ducklings to the water the moment they break the shell--a practice always injurious, and frequently fatal; hence the very common practice of setting duck's eggs under hens. there are several _varieties_ of tame ducks; but their merits are more diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point of view. of _white_ ducks, the best is the _aylesbury_, with its unspotted, snowy plumage, and yellow legs and feet. it is large and excellent for the table, but not larger or better than several others. they are assiduous mothers and nurses, especially after the experience of two or three seasons. a much smaller race of white ducks is imported from holland, useful only to the proprietors of extensive or secluded waters, as enticers of passing wild birds to alight and join their society. this variety has a yellow-orange bill; that of the aylesbury should be flesh-colored. there is, also, the _white hook-billed_ duck, with a bill monstrously curved downward--a roman-nosed duck, in fact--with jewish features, of a most grotesque and ludicrous appearance; the bill has some resemblance in its curvature to that of the flamingo. white ducks, of course, make but a sorry figure in towns or dirty suburbs, or in any place where the means of washing themselves are scanty. there are one or two pretty varieties, not very common; one of a _slate-gray_, or bluish dun, another of a _sandy-yellow_; there are also some with top-knots as compact and spherical as those of any polish fowl, which rival the hook-billed in oddity. what are termed the _white_ poland and the _black_ poland are crested; they breed early, and are excellent layers; the former are deemed the most desirable though the black are the larger. of _mottled_ and _pied_ sorts, there exists a great variety; black and white, bronze and white, lightly speckled, and many other mixtures. to this class belongs the _rouen_--or rhone, or rohan, since each designation has been used--duck, which has been needlessly overpraised by interested dealers. this variety is highly esteemed by epicures; it is a prolific bird, and lays large eggs; its size is the criterion of its value. there is also a pied variety of the _poland_ ducks, a hybrid between the white and the black, the beaver. another variety, known as the _labrador_, the buenos ayres, or the black east indian duck, is somewhat rare and highly esteemed by dealers. they are very beautiful birds. the feet, legs, and entire plumage should be black; a few white feathers will occasionally appear. the bill also is black, with a slight under-tinge of green. not only the neck and back, but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with metallic green; the female also exhibits slight traces of the same decoration. on a sunshiny spring day, the effect of these glittering black ducks sporting in the blue water is very pleasing. a peculiarity of this variety is, that they occasionally--that is, at the commencement of the season--lay black eggs; the color of those subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the common kinds. this singular appearance is not caused by any internal strain penetrating the whole thickness of the shell, but by an oily pigment, which may be scraped off with the nail. they lay, perhaps, a little later than other ducks, but are not more difficult to rear. their voice, likewise, is said to differ slightly from that of other varieties; but they are far superior in having a high, wild-duck flavor and, if well kept, are in deserved repute as being excellent food when killed immediately from the pond, without any fattening. still another breed, known as the _muscovy_ duck, is a distinct species from the common duck; and the hybrid race will not, therefore, breed again between themselves, although they are capable of doing so with either of the species from the commixture of which they spring. this duck does not derive its name from having been brought from the country indicated, but from the flavor of its flesh, and should more properly be termed the _musk_ duck, of which this name is but a corruption. it is easily distinguished by a red membrane surrounding the eyes, and covering the cheeks. not being in esteem, on account of their peculiar odor, and the unpleasant flavor of their flesh, they are not worth breeding, unless to cross with the common varieties; in which case, the musk drake must be put to the common duck. this will produce a very large cross, while the opposite course will beget a very inferior one. the goose. the wild goose. the goose belongs to the same family as the duck, but is classed with the genus _anser_. the _gray-leg_ goose--a common wild goose of england--is by some regarded as the original of the domestic bird. it is thirty-five inches long; upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray; under parts white. this variety is migratory, proceeding to the northern parts of europe and asia in summer, and to the south in winter. the _canada_, or cravat goose, the wild goose of this country, is a fine species, forty inches long, often seen in spring and autumn in large, triangular flocks, high in air, and led by an old, experienced gander, who frequently utters a loud _honk_, equivalent, doubtless, to "all's well!" this sound often comes upon the ear at night, when the flock are invisible; and it is frequently heard even in the daytime, seeming to come from the sky, the birds being beyond the reach of vision. immense numbers of these noble birds are killed in canada, as well as along our coasts, where they assemble in the autumn in large flocks, and remain till driven to more southern climates by the season. [illustration: wild or canada goose.] the canada goose is capable of domestication, and, in spite of its original migratory habits--which it appears, in almost every instance, to forget in england--shows much more disposition for a truly domestic life than the swan; and it may be maintained in perfect health with very limited opportunities for bathing. they eat worms and soft insects, as well as grass and aquatic plants; with us, they do not breed until they are at least two years old, and so far approach the swan; like which bird, also, the male appears to be fit for reproduction at an earlier period than the female. many writers speak highly of the half-bred canada. they are, certainly, very large, and may merit approbation on the table; but with whatever other species the cross is made, they are hideously disgusting. the domestic goose. the goose is not mentioned in the bible, but it was known to the ancient egyptians, and is represented in numerous instances on their monuments, showing that it was anciently used for food, as in our own times. it was held sacred by the romans, because it was said to have alarmed, by its cackling at night, the sentinels of the capitol, at the invasion of the gauls, and thus to have saved the city. this was attributed by one of the roman writers to its fine sense of smell, which enables them to perceive at a great distance the odor of the human race. the liver of this bird seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all ages; and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means of increasing the volume of that organ. it is generally esteemed a foolish bird; yet it displays courage in defending its young, and instances of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not deficient in sentiment. the value and usefulness of geese are scarcely calculable. the only damage which they do lies in the quantity of food which they consume; the only care they require is to be saved from starvation. all the fears and anxieties requisite to educate the turkey and prepare it for making a proper appearance at the table are with them unnecessary; grass by day, a dry bed at night, and a tolerably attentive mother, are all that is required. roast goose, fatted to the point of repletion, is almost the only luxury that is not deemed an extravagance in an economical farm-house; for there are the feathers, to swell the stock of beds; there is the dripping, to enrich the dumpling or pudding; there are the giblets, for market or a pie; and there is the wholesome, solid, savory flesh for all parties interested. they are accused by some of rendering the spots where they feed offensive to other stock; but the explanation is simple. a horse bites closer than an ox; a sheep goes nearer to the ground than a horse; but, after the sharpest shearing by sheep, the goose will polish up the tuft, and grow fat upon the remnants of others. consequently, where geese are kept in great numbers on a small area, little will be left to maintain any other grass-eating creature. if, however, the pastures are not short, it will not be found that other grazing animals object to feeding either together with, or immediately after, a flock of geese. the goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry. in three months, or, about four, from leaving the egg, the birds ought to be fit for the feather-bed, the spit, and the fire. it is not only very early in its laying, but also very late. it often anticipates the spring in november, and, afterward, when spring really comes in march, it cannot resist its general influence. the autumnal eggs afford useful employment to turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times; and the period of incubation is less tedious than that required for the eggs of some other birds. the flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough, especially in young birds, to allow them to escape in that way, where they are so inclined. in the autumn, whole broods may be seen by early risers taking their morning flight, and circling in the air for matutinal exercise, just like pigeons, when first let out of their locker. the bird lives to a very great age, sometimes seventy years or more. as to the origin of our domestic species, opinions differ. by some, as already remarked, the gray-leg is regarded as the parent stock; others consider it a mongrel, like the dunghill fowl, made up of several varieties, to each of which it occasionally shows more or less affinity; and yet others contend that it is not to be referred to any existing species. the latter assert that there is really but one variety of the domestic goose, individuals of which are found from entirely white plumage, through different degrees of patchedness with gray, to entirely gray coloring, except on the abdomen. the domestic gander is polygamous, but he is not an indiscriminate libertine; he will rarely couple with females of any other species. hybrid common geese are almost always produced by the union of a wild gander with a domestic goose, and not by the opposite. the ganders are generally, though not invariably, white, and are sometimes called embden geese, from a town of hanover. high feeding, care, and moderate warmth will induce a prolific habit, which becomes, in some measure, hereditary. the season of the year at which the young are hatched--and they may be reared at any season--influences their future size and development. after allowing for these causes of diversity, it is claimed that the domestic goose constitutes only one species or permanent variety. the bernacle goose. this bird is sometimes called the barnacle goose; its name originates from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be bred from the shells so termed, which cling to wood in the sea. it is about twenty-five inches long, and is found wild in europe, abundantly in the baltic; and, occasionally, as it is said, in hudson's bay, on this continent. this bird is one of those species in which the impulse of reproduction has at length overcome the sullenness of captivity, and instances of their breeding when in confinement have increased in frequency to such an extent that hopes are entertained of the continuance of that increase. the young so reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a precaution. they would probably stay at home contentedly, if unpinioned, until the approach of inclement weather, when they would be tempted to leave their usual haunts in search of marshes, unfrozen springs, mud-banks left by the tide, and the open sea; or they might be induced to join a flock of wild birds, instead of returning to their former quarters. broods of five, six, and seven have been reared; but they are generally valued as embellishments to ponds merely, their small size rendering them suitable even for a very limited pleasure-ground, and the variety being perhaps the prettiest geese that are thus employed. the lively combination of black, white, gray, and lavender, gives them the appearance of being in agreeable half-mourning. the female differs little from the male, being distinguished by voice and deportment more than by plumage. their short bill, the moderate-sized webs of their feet, and their rounded proportions, indicate an affinity with the curious cereopsis goose, which is found in considerable numbers on the seashore of sucky bay and goose island, at the south-eastern point of australia. the number of eggs laid is six or seven, and the time of incubation is about a month; it being difficult to name the exact period, from the uncertainty respecting the precise hour when the process commences. they are steady sitters. the young are lively and active little creatures, running hither and thither, and tugging at the blades of grass. their ground color is of a dirty white; their legs, feet, eyes, and short stump of a bill, are black; they have a gray spot on the crown of the head, gray patches on the back and wings, and a yellowish tinge about the forepart of the head. the old birds are very gentle in their disposition and habits, and are less noisy than most geese. the service they may render as weed-eaters is important, though their size alone precludes any comparison of them, in this respect, with the swan. their favorite feeding-grounds are extensive flats, partially inundated by the higher tides; and their breeding may perhaps best be promoted by their being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter and early spring; a few shrimps, or small mussels, would probably not be unacceptable. a single pair is more likely to breed than if they are congregated in larger numbers. the bremen goose. [illustration: a bremen goose.] the bremen geese--so called from the place whence they were originally imported, though some term them embden geese--have been bred in this country, pure, and to a feather, since ; no single instance having occurred in which the slightest deterioration of character could be observed. the produce has invariably been of the purest white; the bill, legs, and feet being of a beautiful yellow. the flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character which belongs to other and more common kinds, but is as tender and juicy as the flesh of a wild fowl; it shrinks less in cooking than that of any other fowl. some pronounce its flesh equal if not superior to that of the canvas-back duck. they likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than common barn-yard geese; will weigh nearly, and in some instances quite, twice the weight--the full-blood weighing twenty pounds and upward; they have double the quantity of feathers; and never fly. the brent goose. this is a small species, twenty-one inches long, common in a wild state, in both europe and america. on our coast, it is a favorite game-bird, and known by the name of _brant_. it is easily tamed, and is said to have produced young in captivity, though no details have been furnished. this and the sandwich island goose are the smallest of their tribe yet introduced to our aquatic aviaries. their almost uniform color of leaden black, and their compactness of form, make them a striking feature in the scene, though they cannot be compared in beauty with many other waterfowl. there is so little difference in the sexes that it is not easy to distinguish them. their chief merit rests in their fondness for water-weeds, in which respect they appear to be second only to the swan. they are quiet, gentle and harmless in captivity. some praise their flesh, while others pronounce it fishy, strong, and oily; they may, however, be converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in a pie. the china goose. [illustration: china or hong kong goose.] this bird figures under a variety of _aliases_: knob goose, hong kong goose, asiatic goose, swan goose, chinese swan guinea goose, polish goose, muscovy goose, and, probably, others. there is something in the aspect of this creature--in the dark-brown stripe down its neck, its small, bright eye, its harsh voice, its ceremonious strut, and its affectation of seldom being in a hurry--which seems to say that it came from china. if so, it has no doubt been domesticated for many hundred years, perhaps as long as the pea fowl or the common fowl. they may be made to lay a large number of eggs by an increased supply of nourishing food. if liberally furnished with oats, boiled rice, etc., the china goose will, in the spring, lay from twenty to thirty eggs before she begins to sit, and again in the autumn, after her moult, from ten to fifteen more. another peculiarity is their deficient power of flight, compared with other geese, owing to the larger proportionate size of their bodies. indeed, of all geese, this is the worst flyer; there is no occasion to pinion them; the common domestic goose flies much more strongly. the prevailing color of their plumage is brown, comparable to the color of wheat. the different shades are very harmoniously blended, and are well relieved by the black tuberculated bill, and the pure white of the abdomen. their movements on the water are graceful and swan-like. slight variations occur in the color of the feet and legs, some having them of a dull orange, others black; a delicate fringe of minute white feathers is occasionally seen at the base of the bill. these peculiarities are hereditarily transmitted. the male is almost as much disproportionately larger than the female as the musk drake is in comparison with his mate. he is much inclined to libertine wanderings, without, however, neglecting proper attention at home. if there is any other gander on the premises, a disagreement is sure to result. both male and female are, perhaps, the noisiest of all geese; at night, the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings. the eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind, of a short oval, with a smooth, thick shell, white, but slightly tinged with yellow at the smaller end. the goslings, when first hatched, are usually very strong. they are of a dirty green, like the color produced by mixing india-ink and yellow ochre, with darker patches here and there. the legs and feet are lead-color, but afterward change to a dull red. with good pasturage, they require no farther attention than that bestowed by their parents. after a time, a little grain will strengthen and forward them. if well fed, they come to maturity very rapidly; in between three and four months from the time of leaving the shell, they will be full-grown and ready for food. they do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as common geese, and, therefore, those destined for the table are the better for profuse hand-feeding. their flesh is well-flavored, short, and tender; their eggs, excellent for cooking purposes. they are said to be a short-lived species; the ganders, at least, not lasting more than ten or a dozen years. hybrids between them and the common goose are prolific with the latter; the second and third cross is much prized by some farmers, particularly for their ganders; and in many flocks the blood of the china goose may be traced oftentimes by the more erect gait of the birds, accompanied by a faint stripe down the back of the neck. with the white-grented goose they also breed freely. _the white-china._ these are larger than the preceding, and apparently more terrestrial in their habits; the knob on the head is not only of greater proportion, but of a different shape. it is of a spotless, pure white--though a very few gray feathers occasionally appear--more swan-like than the brown, with a bright orange-colored bill, and a large knot of the same color at its base. it is particularly beautiful, either in or out of the water, its neck being long, slender, and gracefully arched when swimming. it breeds three or four times in the season; the egg is quite small for the size of the bird, being not more than half the size of that of the common goose. in many instances, efforts to obtain young from their eggs have been unsuccessful; but if the female is supplied with the eggs of the common goose, she invariably hatches and rears the goslings. they sit remarkably well, never showing themselves out of the nest by day; but, possibly, they may leave the nest too long in the cold of the night. some think that a quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running stream, and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs. it is also believed by many that, under favorable circumstances, they would be very prolific. the egyptian goose. this species is bred to a certain extent in this country. it is a most stately and rich bird, reminding one of the solemn antiquity of the nile, with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues and its long history. it is dark red round the eyes; red ring round the neck; white bill; neck and breast light fawn-gray; a maroon star on the breast; belly red and gray; half of the wing-feathers rich black, the other part of them pure white; black bar running across the centre, back light-red, growing dark-red toward the tail; the tail a deep black. they are very prolific, bringing off three broods a year, from eight to twelve each time; their weight is about eight pounds each. the java goose. the gander of this species is white, with head and half the neck light-fawn; red tubercle at the root of the bill; larger than the common goose, and longer in the body; walks erect, standing as high as the china goose, the female appearing to carry two pouches, or egg-bags, under the belly. it is very prolific; and the meat is of fine flavor. the toulouse goose. this bird is said to have been originally imported from the mediterranean; and is known also by the names mediterranean goose, and pyrenean goose. it is chiefly remarkable for its vast size, in which respect it surpasses all others. its prevailing color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and occasionally relieved with black; the head, neck, as far as the beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck, as far as the shoulders, of a dark-brown; the breast slaty-blue; the belly is white, in common with the under surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, and the feet flesh-color. in habit, the toulouse goose resembles his congeners, but seems to possess a milder and more tractable disposition, which greatly conduces to the chance of his early fattening, and that, too, at a little cost. the curl of the plumage on the neck comes closer to the head than that on common geese, and the abdominal pouch, which, in other varieties, is an accompaniment of age, exists from the shell. the flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored. some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate descendant of the gray-leg; while others assert that it is only the common domestic, enlarged by early hatching, very liberal feeding during youth, fine climate, and, perhaps, by age, and style them grenadier individuals of the domestic goose--nothing more. the white-fronted goose. in its wild state, the white-fronted or laughing goose is twenty-seven inches long, and found in great numbers in europe and in the north american fur countries, but rare along our coasts. when domesticated, it belongs to the class of birds which are restrained from resuming their original wild habits more by the influence of local and personal attachment than from any love which they seem to have for the comforts of domestication; which may be trusted with their entire liberty, or nearly so, but require an eye to be kept on them from time to time, lest they stray away and assume an independent condition. the white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage of those who have even a small piece of grass. the first impression of every one, upon seeing this species in confinement, would be that it could not be trusted with liberty; and the sight of it exercising its wings at its first escape would make its owner despair of recovering it. this is not, however, the case. by no great amount of care and attention, they will manifest such a degree of confidence and attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future; and they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in anserine nature--gentle, affectionate, cheerful, hardy, useful, and self-dependent. the gander is an attentive parent, but not a faithful spouse. the eggs are smaller than those of the common goose, pure white, and of a very long oval; the shell is also thinner than in, most others; the flesh is excellent. * * * * * having completed the enumeration and description of the varieties of poultry, it will, perhaps, be appropriate to give some account, before proceeding to the next general division of the subject, of the structure, or anatomy, so to speak, of the egg. in a laying hen may be found, upon opening the body, what is called the _ovarium_--a cluster of rudimental eggs, of different sizes, from very minute points up to shapes of easily-distinguished forms. these rudimental eggs have as yet no shell or white, these being exhibited in a different stage of development; but consist wholly of _yolk_, on the surface of which the germ of the future chicken lies. the yolk and the germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane. when the rudimental egg, still attached to the ovarium, becomes longer and larger, and arrives at a certain size, either its own weight, or some other efficient cause, detaches it from the cluster, and makes it fall into a sort of funnel, leading to a pipe, which is termed the _oviduct_. here the yolk of the rudimental egg, hitherto imperfectly formed, puts on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid; while the rudimental chick or embryo, lying on the surface opposite to that by which it had been attached to the ovarium, is white, and somewhat like paste. the white, or _albumen_, of the egg now becomes diffused around the yolk, being secreted from the blood vessels of the egg-pipe, or oviduct, in the form of a thin, glassy fluid; and it is prevented from mixing with the yolk and the embryo chicken by the thin membrane which surrounded them before they were detached from the egg-cluster, while it is strengthened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the first, immediately after falling into the oviduct. this second membrane, enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken, is thickest at the two ends, having what may be termed bulgings, termed _chalazes_ by anatomists; these bulgings of the second membrane pass quite through the white at the ends, and being thus, as it were, embedded in the white, they keep the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position, preventing them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved. the white of the egg being thus formed, a third membrane, or, rather, a double membrane, much stronger than either of the first two, is formed around it, becoming attached to the chalazes of the second membrane, and tending still more to keep all the parts in their relative positions. during the progress of these several formations, the egg gradually advances about half way along the oviduct. it is still, however, destitute of the shell, which begins to be formed by a process similar to the formation of the shell of a snail, as soon as the outer layer of the third membrane has been completed. when the shell is fully formed, the egg continues to advance along the oviduct, till the hen goes to her nest and lays it. from ill health, or accidents, eggs are sometimes excluded from the oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed, and in this state they are popularly called _wind-eggs_. reckoning, then, from the shell inward, there are _six_ different envelopes, of which one only could be detected before the descent of the egg into the oviduct: the shell; the external layer of the membrane lining the shell; the internal layer of same lining; the white, composed of a thinner liquid on the outside, and a thicker and more yellowish liquid on the inside; the bulgings, or chalaziferous membrane; and the proper membrane. one important part of the egg is the _air-bag_, placed at the larger end, between the shell and its lining membrane. this is about the size of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs, but is increased as much as ten times in the process of hatching. the air bag is of such great importance to the development of the chicken--probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen--that, if the blunt end of an egg be pierced with the point of the smallest needle, the egg cannot be hatched. instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium, two may be detected, and will, of course, be inclosed in the same shell, when the egg will be double-yolked. the eggs of a goose have, in some instances, contained even three yolks. if the double-yolked eggs be hatched, they will rarely produce two separate chickens, but, more commonly, monstrosities--chickens with two heads, and the like. the _shell_ of an egg, chemically speaking, consists chiefly of carbonate of lime, similar to chalk, with a small quantity of phosphate of lime, and animal mucus. when burnt, the animal matter and the carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of lime are separated; the first being reduced to ashes, or animal charcoal, while the second is dissipated, leaving the decarbonized lime mixed with a little phosphate of lime. the _white_ of the egg is without taste or smell, of a viscid, glairy consistence, readily dissolving in water, coagulable by acids, by spirits of wine, and by a temperature of one hundred and sixty-five degrees, fahrenheit. if it has once been coagulated, it is no longer soluble in either cold or hot water, and acquires a slight insipid taste. it is composed of eighty parts of water, fifteen and a half parts of albumen, and four and a half parts of mucus; besides giving traces of soda, benzoic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. the latter, on an egg being eaten on a silver spoon, stains the spoon of a blackish purple, by combining with the silver, and forming sulphuret of silver. the white of the egg is a very feeble conductor of heat, retarding its escape; and preventing its entrance to the yolk; a providential contrivance, not merely to prevent speedy fermentation and corruption, but to arrest the fatal chills, which might occur in hatching, when the mother hen leaves her eggs, from time to time, in search of food. eels and other fish which can live long out of water, secrete a similar viscid substance on the surface of their bodies, furnished to them, doubtless, for a similar purpose. the _yolk_ has an insipid, bland, oily taste; and, when agitated with water, forms a milky emulsion. if it is long boiled it becomes a granular, friable solid, yielding upon expression, a yellow, insipid, fixed oil. it consists, chemically, of water, oil, albumen, and gelatine. in proportion to the quantity of albumen, the egg boils hard. the weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materially; in some breeds, averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen, in others, but fourteen and a half ounces. a fair average weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a half ounces. yellow, mahogany, and salmon-colored eggs are generally richer than white ones, containing, as they do, a larger quantity of yolk. these are generally preferred for culinary purposes; while the latter, containing an excess of albumen, are preferred for boiling, etc., for the table. [illustration] breeding and management breeding. good fowls are very profitable in the keeping of intelligent breeders. it is stated, by those most competent to express the opinion, that four acres of land, devoted to the rearing of the best varieties of poultry, will, at ordinary prices, be quite as productive as a farm of one hundred and fifty acres cultivated in the usual way. the eggs of the common and cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses, would pay--or could be made to pay, if properly preserved, and sold at the right time--all expenses of feed, etc.; while good capons of the larger breeds will bring, in any of our larger markets, from three to five dollars per pair, and early spring chickens from twenty to twenty-five cents per pound. to make poultry profitable, then, it is only necessary that the better kinds be bred from, that suitable places be provided for them, that they be properly fed, and carefully and intelligently managed. these requirements are too rarely complied with, in every respect, to enable a correct opinion to be formed as to what may be made out of poultry under the most favorable circumstances. a few general principles, well-understood and faithfully applied, will prove of great value. by "in-and-in breeding" is meant commerce between individuals of the same brood, or brother and sister, so to speak; by "close breeding," commerce between the parent and his offspring, in whatever degree. _crossing the breed._ to insure successful and beneficial crossing of distinct breeds, in order to produce a new and valuable variety, the breeder must have an accurate knowledge of the laws of procreation, and the varied influences of parents upon their offspring. all the breeds in this country are crosses, produced either by accident or design. crossing does not necessarily produce a breed; but it always produces a variety, and that variety becomes a breed only where there is a sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race, and continue a progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of its progenitors. _high breeding._ when uniformity of plumage can be effected in mixed breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in, or close breeding, and without sacrificing the health and vigor of the race, it is desirable; and, in many instances, it can be accomplished in a satisfactory manner. what are called highly-bred fowls are, however, too often the deteriorated offspring of progenitors far below the original stock. genuine high breeding consists in the selection of parent stock of the same race, perfect in all the general characteristics, and _of remote consanguinity_. this should be resorted to periodically, in order to secure the best results. if a race is _pure_--that is, if the species or variety is absolutely distinct and unsophisticated--the progeny resembles the progenitors in almost every respect. the mixture of races, where the consanguinity is remote, is productive of decided benefits. to illustrate, in the case of fowls: when the blood is _unmixed_--as with the guelderlands, and some others--the offspring, _in all respects_, resemble their parents; in plumage, general habits, form, outline, etc. in this case, they look almost identically the same. but when the blood is _mixed_--as with the cochin chinas, and many others--the plumage will vary widely, or slightly, according to circumstances, though many or most of the general characteristics may remain the same. the close breeding, to which many resort for the purpose of procuring uniformity, generally results in an absolute deterioration of the race in important respects. in some cases, close breeding--and, occasionally, in-and-in--seems to be in accordance with the laws of nature; as with the wild turkey, which, in its natural state, resorts to these modes of breeding; and yet the race does not change in appearance or degenerate. the reason is that the breed is pure. in comparing any number of these birds, not the least dissimilarity is discoverable; they all look alike, as they always have, and always will. they are changed, or deteriorated, only by crossing or confinement. most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close, or in-and-in breeding, because they are not perfect of their kind; that is, the breed is not pure, but of mixed blood; and in such objectionable breeding, the race degenerates just in proportion as the breed is imperfect, or impure. the perfect guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding, for a great length of time, without deterioration; but the impure or mixed will rapidly degenerate. this is also true of all breeds, wherein the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed, showing perfection in the race. as a general rule, however, close and in-and-in breeding should be carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely perfect, if it is desired to improve the breed; and as all the breeds of this kind of fowls are of mixed blood, the danger of such breeding is greater or less, in exact proportion as the distinctive characteristics are variant or fixed; and the danger still increases if the breed is composed of strains of blood greatly dissimilar, or of races widely differing in the conformation or general habits. _preserving the distinctive breeds._ as to the time when the different breeds of hens should be separated in the spring, in order to preserve the breed pure, the most ample experience indicates that if the eggs be preserved and set after a separation of _two days_, the breed will be perfect, the offspring having all the characteristics or distinctive marks. when a valuable breed is produced, either by accident or design, it should be preserved, and the subsequent breeding should continue from that stock; otherwise, there is no certainty of the purity of the blood of the new breed, for it does not follow that a different parentage, though of the same name or original breed precisely, will produce the same new breed, or any thing resembling it. the dorking fowl, for instance, was originally produced by crossing the great malay with the english game, as an accident; but it by no means follows that dorkings are the uniform, or even the common result of such a cross, for hundreds of similar experiments have proved unsuccessful. the breeding, therefore, to be pure-blooded, must continue from the stock originally produced by accident; and as such breeding produces the leading characteristics of the race with great uniformity, the genuineness of the breed cannot be doubted. in order to produce a good cross, the parentage should be healthy, and from healthy races, not materially dissimilar in their general habits. the _size of the leg_ should always be looked to, in order to judge accurately as to purity of blood. if the leg is large for the breed--that is, if larger than the generality of the same breed--the purity of the blood, the fineness of the flesh, and most of the other valuable qualities, can be relied on; but, if the legs are smaller than most others of the same breed, the fowl is spurious, and of deteriorated blood. the fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were originally the result of accident; but by long and careful breeding, they have become incorporated into the nature of certain races of general, though not universal or essential, requisites. when a fowl exhibits any special marks indicative of all the races or breeds from which the cross originated, it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood, and of the superior excellence of the race. the best fowls of the race should always be selected for crossing or general breeding; otherwise the breeds will degenerate. the _quality_--that is, the fineness, juiciness, and richness of flavor--of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more importance than their size. all coarse-meated fowls should, therefore, be rejected, no matter how large they may be. there is no difficulty in discriminating between coarse and fine fowls at any time. in the case of chickens, if the down is straight and stands out, and the body and limbs are loosely joined, the meat is coarse; but if the down is glossy, and lies close to the body, and the body and limbs are compactly formed, the meat is fine; and when grown, if the fowl is light in weight, in proportion to its size, the flesh is coarse; but if heavy, the flesh is fine. there is also a _fitness_ in the quality of the flesh; for, if the meat is fine, the bones are fine, and the feathers are fine; and the converse holds true. if the flesh is fine, it is juicy and richly flavored; if coarse, it is dry, fibrous, and insipid. the _color of the legs_, too, is quite material in judging of the quality of fowls. all other things being equal, dark-legged fowls have the finest flesh, and are most hardy. turkeys, which have the finest flesh of any fowl of their size, have black legs; the game-cock, likewise, which is universally acknowledged to be the finest-fleshed of any of the domestic fowls, except the wild indian fowl of calcutta, has dark legs. it does not, however, of necessity follow that all dark-legged fowls are fine, or that all yellow or white-legged ones are coarse, since much depends upon the breed; but it is true that the darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest fowl. the _color of the feathers_, also, has more or less to do with the quality of the fowl. some breeds have a much more brilliant plumage than others; but when brilliancy of plumage is here spoken of, it is to be understood in comparison with others of the same breed. if, therefore, a fowl is selected of rich and glossy plumage, when compared with others of the same breed, the legs will be dark of the kind, and the quality of the bird will excel. the _best_ breeding is to cross or mix the races; this process improves the breeds, in all respects. when the object in view is to perpetuate distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood, the first requisite is to procure fowls known to be of pure blood, and possessing all the necessary characteristics of their kind. labor is lost, unless the fowl selected is a perfect specimen of the variety; for whatever imperfection exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny. regard should be had to plumage, size, and form, in making a selection either of a cock or a pullet; and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year. the _age_ of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance; and, though it is true that a pullet will lay the greatest number of eggs in her first year, yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched from the second year's eggs are more vigorous and hardy. old hens are generally preferred to pullets as sitters, on account of their more sedate and matronly character. a young cock, though more active in his earliest days, and likely to bestow his attention on the hens with less reserve, is not, however, best for use in keeping up a breed. the eggs impregnated by him after his first season are likely to produce the strongest chickens. it is an error to suppose--as is often represented--that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after three or four years. on the contrary, a healthy, vigorous cock, if not allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and useful in the poultry-yard for a longer time. an error is often committed by assigning too many hens to one cock; and the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated progeny. not more than _five_ hens should be allowed to associate with a single cock, when the quality of the breed is a matter of interest. _three_, indeed, would be the better number for restriction; but five is the farthest limit which can be safely assigned. most persons, in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable variety, find their anticipations more than realized in the production of a fine progeny. the plumage is brilliant, and the chickens are of increased size, and remarkably strong and healthy. this desirable state of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number of hens; but as soon as his harem is enlarged, different effects are manifested, and a deterioration in the stock is clearly observable--attributable, not to close-breeding, but to the increased disproportion of the females to the male, and the consequent overtasking of his powers. in breeding-time, great cleanliness should be preserved in the lodgings of the fowls, and the quantity and quality of food should be attended to. they should not be suffered to feed to repletion, and such kinds of food as are most nutritious should be carefully provided. variety of food is essential; and a proper proportion of animal and green food should be given with their usual fare. suitable arrangements should, of course, be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds. a constant vigilance in this respect is the price of success; and when all proper precautions are taken, the breeder may be perfectly secure that his anticipations will be realized. selection of stock. the habits of the domestic fowl, in a wild state, are too little known to ascertain whether the cocks always associate with the hens, or only occasionally. though hens will lay some eggs without pairing, as this is not natural, the number will, for the most part, be less, and the laying uncertain; it is, therefore, indispensable to attend to the laws of nature in this respect. the number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary with the object in view. the limit for valuable breeding purposes has already been indicated. if profit is sought for, in the production of eggs alone, one cock--if a stout, young, and lively bird--may have as many as twenty-four hens. [illustration: fighting cocks.] _the choice of a cock_ is a very important thing. he is considered to have every requisite quality when he is of a good middling size; carries his head high; has a quick, animated look; a strong and shrill voice; a fine red comb, shining as if varnished; wattles of a large size, and of the same color as the comb; the breast broad; the wings strong; the plumage black or of an obscure red; the thighs very muscular; the legs thick, and furnished with strong spurs; and the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. he ought, also, to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself as to treat his hens. he ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens; quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night. in breeding _game cocks_, the qualities required are every mark of perfect health, such as a ruddy complexion; the feathers close, short, and not feeling cold or dry; the flesh firm and compact; and a full breast, betokening good lungs; a tapering and thinness behind. he should be full in the girth, well coupled, lofty and aspiring, with a good thigh, the beam of his leg very strong, the eye large and vivid, and the beak strong, crooked, and thick at the base. a cock is in his prime at two years old; though cocks are sometimes so precocious as to show every mark of full vigor at four months, while others of the same brood do not appear in that state for several months afterward. when marks of declining vigor are perceived, the cock must be displaced, to make way for a successor, which should be chosen from among the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks, that ought to be reared for this special purpose. the change of cocks is of much importance, and is frequently very troublesome to manage; for peace does not long subsist between them when they hold a divided dominion in the poultry-yard, since they are all actuated by a restless, jealous, hasty, fiery, ardent disposition; and hence their quarrels become no less frequent than sanguinary. a battle soon succeeds to provocation or affront. the two opponents face each other, their feathers bristling up, their necks stretched out, their heads low, and their beaks ready for the onslaught. they observe each other in silence, with fixed and sparkling eyes. on the least motion of either, they stand stiffly up, and rush furiously forward, dashing at each other with beak and spur in repeated sallies, till the more powerful or the more adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of his adversary, has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings, or has stabbed him with his spurs. in _the choice of a hen_ for sitting, a large bird should be selected, with large, wide-spreading wings. though large, she must not, however, be heavy nor leggy. no one of judgment would sit a malay; as, in such case, not only would many eggs remain uncovered, but many, also, would be trampled upon and broken. elderly hens will be more willing to sit than young and giddy pullets. after the common hen, which, on account of her fecundity, is deservedly esteemed, the tufted hens may be justly ranked; particularly from being more delicate eating, because she fattens more readily, on account of laying less. the large breed, though less prolific, is preferable in rearing chickens for the market, or for making capons. with regard to these three kinds, the general opinion of breeders is, that the first is more prolific in the number of eggs, while the others produce larger chickens, which bring good prices. the spanish fowl are not generally good sitters, but are excellent layers; the dorkings reverse the order, being better sitters than layers. these qualities will be found to extend pretty generally to hens partaking of the prevailing colors of these two varieties; the black being usually the best layers, and but careless or indifferent sitters, while gray or checkered hens are the best that can be produced. feeding. experiments have demonstrated that what may be called the gastric juice in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve their food, without the aid of the grinding action of the gizzard. before the food is prepared for digestion, therefore, the grains must be subjected to a triturating process; and such as are not sufficiently bruised in this manner, before passing into the gizzard, are there reduced to the proper state, by its natural action. the action of the gizzard is, in this respect, mechanical; this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces, and then, by means of its powerful muscles, pressing it gradually into the intestines, in the form of pulp. the power of this organ is said to be sufficient to pulverize hollow globules of glass in a very short time, and solid masses of the same substance in a few weeks. the rapidity of this process seems to be proportionate, generally, to the size of the bird. a chicken, for example, breaks up such substances as are received into its stomach less readily than the capon; while a goose performs the same operation sooner than either. needles, and even lancets, given to turkeys, have been broken in pieces and voided, without any apparent injury to the stomach. the reason, undoubtedly, is, that the larger species of birds have thicker and more powerful organs of digestion. it has long been the general opinion that, from some deficiency in the digestive apparatus, fowls are obliged to resort to the use of stones and gravel, in order to enable them to dispose of the food which they consume. some have supposed that the use of these stones is to sheath the gizzard, in order to fit it to break into smaller fragments the hard, angular substances which might be swallowed; they have also been considered to have a medicinal effect; others have imagined that they acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the stomach, or as stimulants to digestion; while it has even been gravely asserted that they contribute directly to nutrition. repeated experiments, however, have established that pebbles are not at all necessary to the trituration of the hardest kinds of substances which can be introduced into their stomachs; and, of course, the usual food of fowls can be bruised without their aid. they do, however, serve a useful auxiliary purpose. when put in motion by the muscles, they are capable of producing some effects upon the contents of the stomach; thus assisting to grind down the grain, and separating its parts, the digestive fluid, or gastric juice, comes more readily in contact with it. varieties of food. fowls about a poultry-yard can usually pick up a portion of their subsistence, and, under favorable circumstances, the largest portion. when so situated, the keeping of poultry pays decidedly the best. the support even of poultry not designed for fattening should not, however, be made to depend entirely upon such precarious resources. fowls should be fed with punctuality, faithfulness, and discretion. they are fond of all sorts of grain--such as indian corn, wheat, oats, rye, buckwheat, barley, millet, etc.; but their particular preferences are not so likely to guide in the selection of their food, as the consideration of what is most economical, and easiest to be procured on the part of their owner. they will readily eat most kinds of vegetables in their green state, both cooked and raw. they likewise manifest an inclination for animal food--such as blood, fish, and flesh--whether raw or otherwise; and seem by no means averse to feeding on their own species. insects, worms, and snails they will take with avidity. it is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain once, at least, daily; but, commonly, in less quantity than they would consume, if unrestricted. they feed with great voracity; but their apparent greediness is not the criterion by which the possibility of satisfying them is to be judged. moderate quantities of food will suffice; and the amount consumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the individuals. whatever is cheapest, at any given time, may be given, without regard to any other considerations. different circumstances and different seasons may occasion a variation in their appetite; but a gill of grain is, generally speaking, about the usual daily portion. some very voracious fowls, of the largest size, will need the allowance of a third of a pint each day. _wheat_ is the most nutritive of cereal grains--with, perhaps, the exception of rice--as an article of human food. it is, therefore, natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls; and the avidity with which they eat it would induce the conclusion that they would eat more of this than of any other grain. yet it appears that when fowls have as much wheat as they can consume, they will eat about a fourth part less than of oats, barley, or buckwheat; the largest quantity of wheat eaten by a fowl in one day being, according to several experiments, about three-sixteenths of a pint. the difference in bulk is, however, compensated by the difference in weight, these three-sixteenths of wheat weighing more than one-fourth of a pint of oats. the difference in weight is not, in every instance, the reason why a fowl is satisfied with a larger or smaller measure of one sort than another. _rye_ weighs less than wheat; but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the quantity of this grain. _indian corn_ ranks intermediately between wheat and rye; five-fourths of a pint of indian corn with fowls being found, by experiment, equal to six-fourths of wheat, and three-fourths of rye. in estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the common fowl, it is wise to use data a little above than below the average. it may, therefore, safely be said that a fowl of the common size, having free access to as much as can be eaten through the day, will consume, day by day, of oats, buckwheat, or barley, one-fourth of a pint; of wheat, three-sixteenths; of indian corn, five thirty-seconds; and of rye, three thirty-seconds. it has been conclusively settled, by experiments instituted to that end, that there is the best economy in feeding poultry with _boiled_ grain rather than with dry, in every case where indian corn, barley, and wheat can be procured. the expense of fuel, and the additional trouble incident to the process of cooking, are inconsiderable in comparison with the advantages derived. where oats, buckwheat, or rye are used, boiling is useless, when profit is concerned. bran. it is an erroneous notion that money can be saved by feeding bran to fowls; since, then, so little of the farina of the grain remains in it, that the nourishment derived from its use is hardly worth mentioning. when boiled, as it always must be, its bulk is but slightly increased. two measures of dry bran, mixed with water, are equal to but three-fifths of a measure of dry barley. millet. this is recommended as excellent food for young chickens. fowls always prefer it raw; though, as its bulk is increased one-half by boiling, it is doubtless more economical to feed it cooked. rice. fowls are especially fond of this food, although they soon lose their relish for it when allowed to have it at their discretion. it should always be boiled; but its expense puts it out of the question as a daily diet. when used continuously, it should always be mixed with some substance containing less nutritive matter, in order that the appetite may not be cloyed by it. potatoes. these are very nutritious, and are usually acceptable to fowls, when properly prepared. when raw, or in a cold state, they appear to dislike them; they should, therefore, be boiled and given when moderately hot; when very hot, it is said that fowls will injure themselves by eating them, and burning their mouths. they should also be broken into pieces of convenient size; otherwise, they will be avoided. occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured; but fowls cannot be said to be fond of the root in this state. the same remark applies to most other roots, especially to _carrots_ and _parsnips_; these should always be prepared, in order to be wholesome and palatable. fowls should never be confined to a root diet, in any case; but such food should be mingled or alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain. green food. indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely necessary to the health of fowls, and is also advantageous in an economical point of view. the more delicate kinds of green vegetables are eaten with the utmost avidity; all succulent weeds, grass, and the leaves of trees and shrubs will also be consumed. if hens have green plots to graze in during the day, the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half. all the refuse of the kitchen, of a vegetable nature, should be freely thrown into the poultry-yard. green food, however, will not answer for an exclusive diet. experiment has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for a few days together exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of the bowels; and, after the lapse of eight or nine days, their combs become pale and livid, which is the same indication of disease in them that paleness of the lips is in the human species. earth-worms. these are regarded as delicacies by the inhabitants of the poultry-yard; and the individual who is fortunate enough to capture one is often forced to undergo a severe ordeal in order to retain his captive. earth-worms are more plentiful in moist land, such as pastures, etc., than in that which is cultivated; in gardens, also, they exist in vast numbers. when it is desirable to take worms in quantities, it is only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork into the ground, to the depth of about a foot, and to move it suddenly backward and forward, in order to shake the soil all around; the worms are instinctively terrified by any motion in the ground, and, when disturbed, hasten to the surface. it is advisable to store worms, on account of the trouble and difficulty of making frequent collections. they may be placed in casks, filled one-third full with earth, in quantities at least equal in bulk to the earth. the earth should be sprinkled occasionally, to prevent it from becoming too dry. care should, however, be exercised that the earth does not become too moist; since, in such an event, the worms will perish. in rainy weather, the casks should be protected with a covering. animal food. fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat, and have no reluctance to feeding even on their own kind, picking much more faithfully than quadrupeds. blood of any kind is esteemed by them a delicacy; and fish, even when salted, is devoured with a relish. they seem to be indifferent whether animal food is given to them in a cooked or raw state; though, if any preference can be detected, it is for the latter. they are sometimes so greedy that they will attack each other in order to taste the blood which flows from the wounds so inflicted; and it is quite common for them, in the moulting season, to gratify themselves by picking at the sprouting feathers on their own bodies and those of their companions. they appear to be partial to suet and fat; but they should not be allowed to devour these substances in large quantities, on account of their tendency to render them inconveniently fat. it is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reasonable quantity of animal food for their diet, which should be fed to them in small pieces, both for safety and convenience. bones and meat may be boiled; and the liquor, when mixed with bran or meal, is healthy, and not expensive. insects. fowls have a decided liking to flies, beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets; and grubs, caterpillars, and maggots are held by them in equal esteem. it is difficult, however, to supply the poultry-yard with this species of food in sufficient quantity; but enough may be provided, probably, to serve as luxuries. some recommend that pailfuls of blood should be thrown on dunghills, where fowls are allowed to run, for the purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs; which, when hatched, produce swarms of maggots for the fowls. with the same view, any sort of garbage or offal may be thrown out, if the dunghill is so situated--as it always should be--that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance. laying. the ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the family of domestic fowls is astonishing. while few hens are capable of hatching more than fifteen eggs, and are incapable usually of sitting more than twice in the year, frequent instances have occurred of hens laying three hundred eggs annually, while two hundred is the average number. some hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others. the habit of one variety is to lay once in three days only; others will lay every other day; and some produce an egg daily. the productiveness of hens depends, undoubtedly, upon circumstances, to a great degree. climate has a great influence in this respect; and their lodging and food, as well as the care bestowed upon them, have more or less effect in promoting or obstructing their fecundity. [illustration: on the watch.] there seems to be, naturally, two periods of the year in which fowls lay--early in the spring, and in the summer; and this fact would seem to indicate that, if they were left to themselves, like wild birds, they would bring forth two broods in a year. the laying continues, with few interruptions, till the close of summer, when the natural process of moulting causes them to cease. this annual process commences about august, and continues through the three following months. the constitutional effect attending the beginning, continuance, and consequences of this period--a very critical one in the case of all feathered animals--prevents them from laying, until its very close, when the entire coat of new feathers replaces the old, the washing of the nutritive juices, yielded by the blood for the express purpose of promoting this growth, is a great drain upon the system; and the constitutional forces, which would otherwise assist in forming the egg, are rendered inoperative. the approach of cold weather, also, at the close of the moulting period, contributes to the same result. as the season of moulting is every year later, the older the hen is, the later in the spring she will begin to lay. as pullets, on the contrary, do not moult the first year, they commence laying sooner than the elder hens; and it is possible, by judicious and careful management, so to arrange, in a collection of poultry tolerably numerous, as to have eggs throughout the year. it is a singular fact that pullets hatched very late in autumn, and therefore of stunted growth, will lay nearly as early as those hatched in spring. the checking of their growth seems to have a tendency to produce eggs; of course, very tiny ones at first. when a hen is near to the time of laying, her comb and wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red, while the eye becomes more bright, the gait more spirited, and she occasionally cackles for three or four days. these signs rarely prove false; and when the time comes that she desires to lay, she appears very restless, going backward and forward, visiting every nook and corner, cackling meanwhile, as if displeased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest. not having looked out for one previously, she rarely succeeds in pleasing herself till the moment comes when she can no longer tarry, when she is compelled to choose one of the boxes or baskets provided for this purpose in the poultry-house, where she settles herself in silence and lays. in some instances, a hen will make choice of a particular nest in which to lay, and when she finds, upon desiring to lay, that this is pre-occupied by another hen, she will wait till it is vacated; but, in other cases, hens will go into any nest which they find, preferring, for the most part, those having the greatest number of eggs. the process of laying is, most probably, rather painful, though the hen does not indicate this by her cries; but the instant she has done she leaves the nest, and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes, which are re-echoed by the cock, as well as by some of the other hens. some hens, however, leave the nest in silence, after laying. it seems ever to have been an object of great importance, in an economical point of view, to secure the laying of hens during those parts of the year when, if left to themselves, they are indisposed to deposit their eggs. for this purpose many methods have been devised, the most of which embrace an increase of rich and stimulating food. some recommend shutting hens up in a warm place during winter, and giving them boiled potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips. others assign as the reason for their not laying in winter, in some climates, that the earth is covered with snow, so that they can find no ground, or other calcareous matter, to form the shells; and advise, therefore, that bones of meat or poultry should be pounded and given to them, either mixed with their food, or by itself, which they will greedily eat. upon the whole, it would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh eggs during the winter is to have young hens--pullets hatched only the previous spring being the best--to use extreme liberality in feeding, and to cautiously abstain from over-stocking the poultry-yard. as serviceable _food_ to increase laying, scraps of animal food, given two or three times a week, answer admirably; the best mode of doing so is throwing down a bullock's liver, leaving it with them, and permitting them to pick it at will; this is better raw than boiled. lights, or guts, or any other animal refuse, will be found to answer the same purpose; but these substances require, or, at all events, are better for, boiling. cayenne pepper--in fact all descriptions of pepper, but especially cayenne pepper in pods--is a favorite food with fowls; and, being a powerful stimulant, it promotes laying. an abundant supply of lime, in some form, should not be omitted; either chopped bones, old mortar, or a lump of chalky marl. the shell of every egg used in the house should be roughly crushed and thrown down to the hens, which will greedily eat them. a green, living turf will be of service, both for its grass and the insects it may contain. a dusting-place, wherein to get rid of vermin, is indispensable. a daily hot meal of potatoes, boiled as carefully as for the family table, then chopped, and sprinkled or mixed with bran, will be comfortable and stimulating. after every meal of the household, the bones and other scraps should be collected and thrown out. as to _the number of eggs_, the varieties which possess the greatest fecundity are the shanghaes, guelderlands, dorkings, polish, and spanish. the poland and spanish lay the largest eggs; the dorkings, eggs of good size; while the game and the smaller kinds produce only small eggs. those eggs which have the brightest yolks are the finest flavored; and this is usually the case with the smaller kinds. the large eggs of the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color, and are inferior in flavor. preservation of eggs. eggs, after being laid, lose daily, by transpiration, a portion of the matter which they contain, notwithstanding the compact texture of their shell, and of the close tissue of the flexible membranes lining the shell, and enveloping the white. when an egg is fresh, it is full, without any vacancy; and this is a matter of common observation, whether it be broken raw, or when it is either soft or hard-boiled. in all stale eggs, on the contrary, there is uniformly more or less vacancy, proportioned to the loss they have sustained by transpiration; hence, in order to judge of the freshness of an egg, it is usual to hold it up to the light, when the transparency of the shell makes it appear whether or not there is any vacancy in the upper portion, as well as whether the yolk and white are mingled and muddy, by the rotting and bursting of their enveloping membranes. the transpiration of eggs, besides, is proportional to the temperature in which they are placed, cold retarding and heat promoting the process; hence, by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a cool cellar, or, better still, in an ice-house, they will transpire less, and be preserved for a longer period sound, than if they are kept in a warm place, or exposed to the sun's light, which has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of moisture. as, therefore, fermentation and putridity can only take place by communication with the air at a moderate temperature, such connection must be excluded by closing the pores of the shell. it is an indispensable condition of the material used for this purpose, that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the moisture transpired from the interior. spirits of wine varnish, made with lac, answers the requirement; this is not very expensive, but is rather an uncommon article in country places, where eggs are most abundantly produced. a better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet, which should be melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth into an earthen pan. the chief advantage in the use of this is, that the eggs rubbed over with it will boil as quickly as if nothing had been done to them, the fat melting off as soon as they touch the water. the transpiration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as by a thick coating, provided that no sensible vestige be left on the surface of the shell. all sorts of fat, grease, or oil are well adapted to this purpose; by means of butter, hog's lard, olive oil, and similar substances, eggs maybe preserved for nine months as fresh as the day upon which they were laid. another method is, to dip each egg into melted pork-lard, rubbing it into the shell with the finger, and pack them in old fig-drums, or butter firkins, setting every egg upright, with the small end downward. or, the eggs may be packed in the same way in an upright earthen pan; then cut some rough sheep's tallow, procured the same day that the animal is killed, into small pieces, and melt it down; strain it from the scraps, and pour it while warm, not hot, over the eggs in the jar till they are completely covered. when all is cold and firm, set the vessel in a cool, dry place till the contents are wanted. eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt, by arranging them in a barrel, first a layer of salt, then a layer of eggs, alternately. this can, however, also act mechanically, like bran or saw-dust, so long as the salt continues dry; for, in that case, the chlorine, which is the antiseptic principle of the salt, is not evolved. when the salt, however, becomes damp, its preservative principle will be brought into action, and may penetrate through the pores of the shell. immersing eggs in vitriol, or sulphuric acid, is likewise a very effectual means of preserving them; the sulphuric acid acts chemically upon the carbonate of lime in the shell, by setting free the carbonic acid gas, while it unites with the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, or plaster of paris. another method is, to mix together a bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, adding a sufficient quantity of water, so that eggs may be plunged into the paint. when a paste is made of this consistence, the eggs are put into it, and may be kept fresh, it is said, for two years. another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh, depends upon a very different principle. eggs that have not been rendered reproductive by the cock have been found to continue very uncorrupted. in order, therefore, to have eggs keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to the end of winter, it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all communication with the cocks, for at least a month before the eggs are put away. it ought not to be overlooked, in this connection, that eggs not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell, but also by being moved about and jostled, when carried to a distance by sea or land. any kind of rough motion, indeed, ruptures the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the chicken in their appropriate places; and, upon these being mixed, putrefaction is promoted. choice of eggs for setting. eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible; if laid the very same day, so much the better. this is not always possible when a particular stock is required; but, if a numerous and healthy brood is all that is wanted, the most recent eggs should be selected. eggs may be kept for this purpose in either of the ways first mentioned; or they may be placed on their points in a box, in a cool, dry place; the temperature about sixty or sixty-five, fahrenheit; the bottom of the box should be covered with a layer of wheat bran, then a layer of eggs put in, and covered with bran; and so on, alternating. in this mode, evaporation is prevented, and the eggs are almost as certain to hatch out, at the end of six weeks, or even two months, as when they were laid. it is difficult to fix the exact term during which the vitality of an egg remains unextinguished; as it, unquestionably, varies from the very first, according to the vigor of the parents of the inclosed germ, and fades away gradually till the final moment of non-existence. the chickens in stale eggs have not sufficient strength to extricate themselves from the shell; if assisted, the yolk is found to be partially absorbed into the abdomen, or not at all; they are too faint to stand; the muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads, much less to peck; and although they may sometimes be saved by extreme care, their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the mother, if they do not expire almost as soon as they begin to draw their breath. thick-shelled eggs, like those of geese, guinea fowls, etc., will retain life longer than thin-shelled ones, as those of hens and ducks. when choice eggs are expected to be laid, it is more prudent to have the hen which is to sit upon them wait for them, than to keep other eggs waiting for her. a good sitter may be amused for two or three weeks with a few addle-eggs, and so be ready to take charge of those of value immediately upon their arrival. as to the choice of eggs for hatching, such should be taken, of course, as are believed to have been rendered productive. those of medium size--the average size that the hen lays--are most apt to fulfil this requirement. a very fair judgment may be formed of eggs from their specific gravity; such as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid water should be rejected. the old-time notion, that small, round eggs produce females, and long, pointed ones males--originally applied, by the ancients, to eating rather than hatching purposes--may be considered exploded. the hen that lays one round egg, continues to lay all her eggs round; and the hen that lays one oblong, lays all oblong. according to this theory, then, one hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks, and another the perpetual producer of pullets; which is absurd, as daily experience proves. the same fate has been meted out to that other venerable test of sex, the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the shell. "if the vacancy is a little on one side, it will produce a hen; if it is exactly in the centre, a cock." upon this assumption, the cock should be a very rare bird; since there are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle is exactly concentric with the axis of the egg. in many breeds, on the contrary, the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third, and sometimes two-thirds, especially in those hatched during winter, or in unfavorable seasons; the immediate cause, doubtless, being that the eggs producing a more robust sex possess a stronger vitality. nor are these two alleged tests--the shape of the egg, and the position of the air-tube--consistent with each other; for, if the round egg produces a pullet, and an egg with the air-bag a little on one side does the same, then all round eggs should have the air bag in that position, or one test contradicts the other; and the same argument applies to the long or oval egg. the examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle will satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much in a long egg as it does in a round. there are, indeed, no known means of determining beforehand the sex of fowl; except, perhaps, that cocks may be more likely to issue from large eggs, and hens from small ones. as, however, the egg of each hen may be recognized, the means are accessible of propagating from those parents whose race it is judged most desirable to continue. incubation. the hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner different from that of any other known bird. nature having been sufficiently tasked in one direction, she becomes feverish, and loses flesh; her comb is livid; her eyes are dull; she bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary enemy; and, as if her chickens were already around her, utters the maternal "cluck." when the determination to sit becomes fixed--it is not necessary to immediately gratify the first faint inclinations--the nest which she has selected should be well cleaned, and filled with fresh straw. the number of eggs to be allowed will depend upon the season, and upon the size of egg and hen. the wisest plan is not to be too greedy; the number of chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the number of eggs set--five have only been obtained from sixteen. an odd number is, however, to be preferred, as being better adapted to covering in the nest. hens will, in general, well cover from eleven to thirteen eggs laid by themselves. a bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs of a large breed, such as the spanish. a hen of the largest size as a dorking, will successfully hatch, at the most, five goose-eggs. when hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at which there is little chance of bringing up chickens, the eggs of ducks or geese may be furnished her; the young may be reared, with a little painstaking, at any time of the year. the autumnal laying of the china and of the common goose is very valuable for this purpose. turkey-hens frequently have this fit of unseasonable incubation. where, however, it is inconvenient to gratify the desire, one or two doses of jalap will often entirely remove it; and fowls often lay in three weeks afterward. some place the would-be sitter in an aviary, for four or five days at most, and feed her but sparingly; from the commencement of her confinement, she will gradually leave off clucking, and when this has ceased, she may be again set free, without manifesting the least desire to take to the nest again, and in a short time the hen will commence laying with renewed vigor. the barbarous measures sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by every person with humane feelings. three weeks is the period of incubation; though chickens are sometimes excluded on the eighteenth day. when the hen does not sit close for the first day or two, or in early spring, it will occasionally be some hours longer; when the hen is assiduous, and the weather hot, the time will be a trifle shorter. chickens have been known to come out as late as the twenty-seventh day. it may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the egg passes through in hatching. in _twelve hours_, traces of the head and body of the chicken may be discerned; at the end of the _second day_, it assumes the form of a horse-shoe, but no red blood as yet is seen; at the _fiftieth hour_, two vesicles of blood, the rudiments of the heart, may be distinguished, one resembling a noose folded down on itself, and pulsating distinctly; at the end of _seventy hours_, the wings may be seen, and, in the head, the brain and the bill, in the form of bubbles; toward the end of the _fourth day_, the heart is more completely formed; and on the _fifth day_, the liver is discernible; at the end of _one hundred and thirty hours_, the first voluntary motions may be observed; in _seven hours_ more, the lungs and stomach appear; and, _in four hours_ after this, the intestines, the loins, and the upper jaw. at the end of the one _hundred and forty-fourth hour_, two drops of blood are observable in the heart, which is also further developed; and, on the _seventh day_, the brain exhibits some consistence. at the _one hundred and ninetieth hour_, the bill opens, and the muscular flesh appears on the breast; in _four hours_ more, the breast bone is seen; and, in _six hours_ afterward, the ribs may be observed forming from the back. at the expiration of _two hundred and thirty-six hours_, the bill assumes a green color, and, if the chicken be taken out of the egg, it will visibly move. at _two hundred and sixty-four hours_, the eyes appear; at _two hundred and eighty-eight hours_, the ribs are perfect; and _at three hundred and thirty-one hours_, the spleen approaches near to the stomach, and the lungs to the chest; at the end of _three hundred and fifty-five hours_, the bill frequently opens and shuts. at the end of the _eighteenth day_, the first cry of the chicken is heard; and it gradually acquires more strength, till it is enabled to release itself from confinement. after the hen has set a week, the fertility of the eggs may be satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a small orifice in it, placing a candle at the back, and holding up each egg to the points of light. the barren eggs may then be removed, and used, hard-boiled, for young chickens. some reserve this for the eleventh or twelfth day. about the _twenty-first day_, the chicken is excluded from the _egg_; for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is furnished with a horny-pointed scale, greatly harder than the bill itself, at the upper tip of the bill--a scale which falls off, or becomes absorbed, after the chicken is two or three days old. the chicken is rolled up in the egg in the form of a ball, with its forepart toward the highest end, and its beak uppermost, the hard scale nearly touching the shell. the first few strokes of the chicken's beak produce a small crack, rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg, and the egg is said to be _chipped_. from the first crack, the chicken turns gradually round, from left to right, chipping the shell as it turns, in a circular manner, never obliquely. all do not succeed in producing the result in the same time; some being able to complete the work within an hour, and others taking two or three hours, while half a day is most usually employed, and some require twenty-four hours or more, but rarely two days. some have greater obstacles to overcome than others, all shells not being alike in thickness and hardness. when chickens do not effect their escape easily, some little assistance is needed; but the difficulty is to know when to give it, as a rash attempt to help them, by breaking the shell, particularly in a downward direction toward the smaller end, is often followed by a loss of blood, which can ill be spared. it is better not to interfere, until it is apparent that a part of the brood have been hatched for some time, say twelve hours, and that the rest cannot succeed in making their appearance. it will then generally be found that the whole fluid contents of the egg, yolk and all, are taken up into the body of the chicken, and that weakness alone has prevented its forcing itself out. the causes of such weakness are various; sometimes, insufficient warmth, from the hen having set on too many eggs; sometimes the original feebleness of the vital spark; but, most frequently, the staleness of the eggs employed for incubation. the chances of rearing such chickens are small; but, if they survive the first twenty-four hours, they may be considered as safe. the only thing to be done is to take them from the hen till she is settled at night, keeping them in the meanwhile as snug and warm as possible. if a gentle hand can persuade a crust of bread down their throats, it will do no harm; but all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end in view. animal heat will be their greatest restorative. at night, they should be quietly slipped under their mother; the next morning will disclose the sequel. the period of incubation in the _guinea fowl_ is twenty-eight days, or one month; in the _pea fowl_, from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days; in _turkeys_, a month; in _ducks_, thirty or thirty-one days; and in _geese_, from twenty-seven to thirty days. incubation of turkeys. when the turkey hen has once selected a spot for her nest, she will continue to lay there till the time for incubation; so that the egg may be brought home from day to day, there being no need of a nest-egg, as with the domestic fowl. she will lay from fifteen to twenty eggs, more or less. if there are any dead leaves or dry grass at hand, she will cover her eggs with these; but if not, she will take no trouble to collect them from a distance. her determination to sit will be known by her constantly remaining on the nest, though it is empty; and, as it is seldom in a position sufficiently secure against the weather or pilferers, a nest should be prepared for her, by placing some straw, with her eggs, on the floor of a convenient out-building. she should then be brought home, and gently and kindly placed upon it. with the smallest varieties, thirteen eggs will suffice; a large hen might cover more. at the end of a week, it is usual to add some fowls' eggs; the activity of the chickens excites some emulation in the larger brethren, and the eggs take up but little room in the nest. some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day; but the hen herself does that many times daily. if the eggs are marked, and their position noticed when she leaves the nest, they will never be found in the same order. in about four weeks, the young will be hatched. incubation of geese. geese breed in general only once a year; but, if well kept, they sometimes hatch twice a season. during the sitting, in sections where the most attention is paid to breeding them, each bird has a space allotted to it, in rows of wicker-pens, placed one above another, and the person in charge of them drives the whole flock to water three times a day, and, bringing them back to their habitations, places each bird in its own nest. the most successful breeders of _bremen geese_ adopt the following method: the birds are, in the first place, carefully and properly fed; the eggs are removed every day in the gentlest manner from the nest, and placed in a basket of cotton kept in a moderate temperature, and free from damp. when all the geese begin to sit steadily, each is furnished with a nest composed of chopped straw; and care is taken that it is sufficiently capacious. not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs at a time. as soon as one leaves, she makes a cackling noise, which is the signal for the attendant to shut up the boxes in which the others are sitting. these are made somewhat like a dog-kennel, with a roof pitched both ways; and are thirty inches long, by twenty-four wide, and twenty-four high; the door is in the end, and is covered by a sliding panel, which moves upward, when egress or ingress is sought, and may be shut down at pleasure. the goose, upon returning, finds only her own box open. when she re-enters her box, the whole of the doors are again opened, and the same rule observed throughout the period of hatching. in this way, each goose is kept to its own nest. rearing of the young. for about twenty-four hours after birth, the chickens can not only do well enough without any extraneous nourishment, but will be far more likely to thrive subsequently, if let alone, than if crammed or incited to eat prematurely. more chickens are destroyed by over-feeding than are lost by the want of it. it is, however, well to turn them in among other chickens that already feed themselves; they will, in such cases, generally follow the example of the rest, and pick away at whatever is around. [illustration: marquee or tent-shaded coops.] a roomy, boarded coop, in a dry, sunny spot, is the best position for them during the first month; after which it may be left open during the day, for the hen to retire to when she pleases. in quiet grassy places, it is scarcely necessary to coop the hen at all. as to food, they may have every thing which is not absolutely poisonous; though if wet food is given, the chicken is thus obliged to take water, whether it requires it or not, in order to get a sufficient supply of solid food, and diseased bowels will be likely to follow; whereas, if the food is dry, they can supply themselves with food and water according to their pleasure. if indian meal is well boiled, and fed not too moist, it will answer a very good purpose, particularly after they are eight or ten days old. pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to enable them to drink without getting into the water, which, by wetting their feathers, benumbs and injures them. meat and insect diet are almost necessary; but, whatever the food, the meals must be given at short intervals; as much as they can swallow, and as often as they can eat. with all their industry, they are only half-clad till flesh and bone stop growing for a while, and allow down and feathers to overtake them. chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in the morning, or whilst the dew is on the ground; still less should they be suffered to range over the wet grass, which is a common cause of disease and death. they should also be guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of the weather, more particularly if attended with rain. nearly all the diseases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture. the period at which they are left to shift for themselves depends upon the disposition of the hen. some will continue their attentions to their chickens till they are nearly full-grown, while others will cast them off much earlier. in the latter case, an eye should be kept upon them for a few days; for chickens in this half-grown state are much more liable to disease than when they were apparently tender little weaklings, crowded under their mother's wings. they should be kept in a dry, warm, place; dryness is especially necessary. if the chickens feather rapidly when very young--as is the case with the golden pheasant, black poland, guelderland, and some others--they are always weakly, however healthy in other respects, from the fact that their food goes to sustain their feathers rather than their bodies; and they frequently languish and die, from this circumstance alone. if, on the other hand, they feather slowly, as do the cochin chinas, shanghaes, and others, the food in early life goes to nourish and sustain their bodies until they become more vigorous, and old enough to sustain the shock of feathering without detriment. pure tan-colored dorkings are more easily raised than others of the race, because they feather more slowly. chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry and warm, or they will die; while naked chickens, as they are termed, or those which feather at a more advanced age, and very slowly, seldom suffer from the cold, from the fact that their down is very warm, and their blood is hotter, and circulates more rapidly; since their food principally goes to blood, and flesh, and bones, and not to feathers. rearing of guinea fowls. for the young of these, ants' eggs, so called, hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, small worms, maggots, bread-crumbs, chopped meat, or suet--whatever, in short, is most nutritious, is the most appropriate food. this need not be offered to them in large quantities, as it would only be devoured by the mother bantam as soon as she saw that they had for the time satisfied their appetites, or it would be stolen by other birds; but it should frequently be administered to them in small supplies. feeding them three, four, or five times a day, is not often enough; every half hour during daylight they should be tempted to fill their craws, which are soon emptied again by an extraordinary power and quickness of digestion. the newly-hatched guinea fowl is a tiny creature, and its growth is, consequently, very rapid, requiring incessant supplies. a check once received can never be recovered. they do not, in such cases, mope and pine for a day or two; like young turkeys under similar circumstances, and then die; but, in half an hour after being in apparent health, they fall on their backs, give a convulsive kick or two, and fall victims, in fact, to starvation. the demands of nature for the growth of bone, muscle, and particularly of feathers, are so great, that no subsequent abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast of a couple of hours. the feathers still go on growing in geometrical progression, and drawing the sources of vitality still faster than they can be supplied, till the bird faints and expires from inanition. a dry, sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to coop them with their bantam hen. as they increase in strength, they will do no harm, but much good, by devouring worms, grubs, caterpillars, maggots, and all sorts of insects. by the time their bodies are little longer than those of sparrows, they will be able to fly with some degree of strength; other additions to their complete stature are successively and less immediately developed, the spurs, comb, and ornamental plumage not appearing till a subsequent period. when they are about the size of thrushes, or a little larger, unless the summer be very fine, the bantam may be allowed to range loose in the orchard and shrubbery, and no longer permitted to enter the garden. the young must, however, still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of food; they are not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is fairly grown. oatmeal is a great treat; cooked potatoes, boiled rice, or any thing, in short, that is eatable, may be thrown to them; they will pick the bones left after dinner with evident satisfaction. the tamer they can be made, the less troublesome will they be when grown; the more kindly they are treated, the fatter will they be for food, and the better price will they bring in market. for rearing the young of the _pea fowl_, the same directions will be found useful, and should be carried out in practice. rearing of turkeys. much quackery has been recommended in the treatment of young turkeys. nothing, however, should be given to them, nothing done for them; they should remain in the nest, under the shelter of their mother's wings, for at least eight or ten hours; if hatched in the afternoon, till the following morning. the hen should then be placed on the grass, in the sun, under a roomy coop. if the weather is fine, she may be stationed at any point desired, by a long piece of flannel-list tied round one leg, and fastened to a stump or stone. at first, a few crumbs of bread should be offered; for some hours, the little ones will be in no hurry to eat; but, when they do commence, they should be supplied constantly and abundantly with chopped egg, shreds of meat and fat, curd, boiled rice mixed with cress, lettuce, and the green of onions; melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal, and cut up when cold, as also bullock's liver boiled and minced, are excellent things. young turkeys do not like to have their food minced much smaller than they can swallow it, preferring to make a meal at three or four mouthfuls, rather than to trouble themselves with the incessant pecking and scratching in which chickens so much delight. pepper will be found particularly useful in feeding them; as, indeed, all stimulating vegetables, such as horse-radish, and the like. young turkeys are sometimes attacked by _fasciolæ_, or worms in the trachea; but not so often as chickens. cramp is the most fatal to them, particularly in bad weather. a few pieces of board laid under and about the coop are useful; sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring back the circulation. the time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her brood depends most upon the season, the situation, etc. some think that if the young are thriving, the sooner the old ones are out with them the better, after the first ten days or so. a safer rule may be fixed at the season, called "shooting the red," when young turkeys approach the size of a partridge, or before the granular, fleshy excrescences on the head and neck begin to appear; soon after, the whole plumage, particularly the tail-feathers, shoot into rapid growth, and liberal nourishment is imperatively required. if let loose at this time, they will obtain much foraging, and still be thankful for all that is given to them. caraway-seeds, as a tonic, are beneficial, if added to plenty of barley, boiled potatoes, chopped vegetables, and refuse meat. at this time the turkeys, naturally enough, begin to be troublesome and voracious; they have to grow from the size of a lark to twelve or fourteen pounds, in eight or nine months. one great merit in old birds is, that in situations where nuts, acorns, and mast are to be had, they will lead off their brood to these, and all of them will abstain, comparatively, from ravaging other crops. [illustration: duck-pond and houses.] rearing of ducklings. the best mode of rearing the young of ducks depends very much upon the situation in which they are hatched. it is customary to dip their feet in water as soon as they are hatched, and then to clip the down on their tails close with a pair of scissors, to prevent their becoming drabbled and water-logged; and before their introduction to the pond, which should not be until a day or two after hatching, it is thought advisable by many to let them have a private swim or two in a small pan of water, that they may try their strength and practice their webbed feet before venturing upon a larger space. for the first month, the confinement of the mother under a coop is better than too much liberty. their first food may be boiled eggs, nettles, and a little barley; all kinds of sapped food, cornmeal and water mixed thin, worms, etc., suit them; they will also greedily eat cabbages or other greens, mixed with boiled bran; and this mess, with the addition of pepper, forms a valuable dietetic. in a few days, they require no care, being perfectly able to shift for themselves; but at any age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the poultry-yard, having no weapons with which to defend themselves from vermin, or animals of prey, and their awkward, waddling gait precluding their seeking safety in flight. the old duck is not so brave in defence of her brood as the hen; but she will, nevertheless, display at times much spirit. the young seldom die of any disease, and with proper precaution there will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings as are hatched. they come early to maturity, being nearly full-grown and in fine eating order at three months old; far excelling, in this respect, all other poultry, except geese. none are more successful in rearing ducklings than those who keep them, for the first period of their existence, in pens two or three yards square, and cram them night and morning with long, dried pellets of flour and water, or egg and flour, until they are judged old enough to be turned out with their mother to forage for themselves. they are cheerful, harmless, good-natured, cleanly creatures, carefully washing themselves, and arranging their dress, before commencing their meals; and the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing, rather than disgusting. rearing of goslings. for the first three or four days, goslings must be kept warm and dry, and fed on barley-meal, or oatmeal, mixed with milk, if easily procurable; if not, with water. they will begin to grow in about a week. for a week or two, they should not be turned out until late in the morning, and should always be taken in early in the evening. their great enemy is the cramp, which can be kept off by making them sleep on dry straw. a little boiled rice, daily, assists their growth; with corn, of course, as soon as they can eat it. when goslings are first allowed to go at large with their mother, every plant of hemlock which grows within their range should be pulled up, as they are very apt to eat it, and it generally proves fatal. nightshade is equally pernicious to them; and they have been known to be poisoned by eating sprigs of yew-tree. the young of _bremen geese_, when first hatched, are of a very delicate and tender constitution. it is best to let them remain in the breeding-box in which they are hatched for twenty-four hours after they leave the shell. this should, however, be regulated by the weather; since, if it is fair and warm, they may be let out an hour or two in the middle of the day, when they will wet their little bills and nibble at the grass. they ought not to be out in the rain at any time during the first month; and both geese and goslings should be shut up in the boxes at night, during the same period, as a protection against rats and vermin. a very shallow pool, dug in the yard, with a bucket or two of water thrown into it, to suit the temporary purpose of bathing, is sufficient during that period. if well fed on grain from the time they are hatched, twenty-five pounds weight can be secured, at seven or eight months old. by feeding them till four days old, and then literally turning them out to grass, an average weight of from seventeen to eighteen pounds each has been attained, at that age after the feathers are cleanly picked off. caponizing. capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delicacies of the table; and are made by the extirpation of the reproductive organs in male fowls. if a cock, when young, is emasculated, a remarkable change takes place in him. his natural fierceness is calmed; he becomes placid and peaceful; his pugnacity has deserted him; he no longer seeks the company of the hens; he loses his previous strong, shrill voice; he grows to a far larger size than he would otherwise have done, having nothing to interfere with the main business of his life--to eat, drink, sleep, and get fat as speedily as possible; his flesh is peculiarly white, firm and succulent; and even the fat is perfectly destitute of rankness. the capon may, also, by a little management be converted into an admirable nurse. some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward subject to the natural process of moulting; but this is denied by others. the art has been practised from the earliest antiquity, in greece, india, and china, for the purpose of improving the flesh of birds for the table, in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. it is extensively performed in the great poultry-breeding districts of england; but in this country it is by no means so generally practised as would naturally be expected. the instruments most approved by skilful operators consist of two five or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl; a scalpel, for cutting open the thin skin enveloping the testicles; a silver retractor, for stretching open the wound sufficiently wide for operating within; a pair of spring forceps--with a sharp, cutting edge, resembling that of a chisel, having a level half an inch in its greatest width--for making the incision, and securing the thin membrane; a spoon-shaped instrument, with a sharp hook at one end, for pushing and removing the testicles, adjusting the loop, and assisting in tearing open the tender covering; and a double silver canula, for containing the two ends of horse-hair, or fibre, constituting the loop. the expense of these instruments is in the neighborhood of six dollars. a cheap penknife may be used instead of the scalpel; and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper construction--the whole not costing more than half the above-named amount. the cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest breeds, as the dorking, cochin china, or the great malay. they may be operated upon at any time after they are a month old; the age of from two to three months is considered preferable. if possible, it should be done before july; as capons made later never prove so fine. the fowl should be confined to a table or board, by laying him with the left side downward, the wings drawn behind the rump, the legs extended backward, with the upper one farthest drawn out, and the head and neck left perfectly free. the feathers are next to be plucked from the right side, near the hip-joint, on a line with, and between the joint of the shoulder. the space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, according to the size of the bird. after drawing off the skin from the part, backward--so that, when left to itself after the operation is completed, it will cover the wound in the flesh--make an incision with the bevel-edged knife, at the end of the forceps, between the last two ribs, commencing about an inch from the back-bone, and extending it obliquely downward, from an inch to an inch and a half, cutting just deep enough to separate the ribs, taking due care not to wound the intestines. next, adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small thumb-screw, and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to afford room for an examination of the organs to be removed. then, with the scalpel, or a sharp penknife, carefully cut open the skin, or membrane, covering the intestines, which, if not sufficiently drawn up, in consequence of the previous confinement, may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone, by means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument, or--what would answer equally well--with the handle of a tea-spoon. as the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found connected with the back and sides by a thin membrane, or skin, passing over them. this covering must then be seized with the forceps, and torn open with the sharp-pointed hook at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument; after which the bowl of the spoon must be introduced, with the left hand, under the lower or left testicle, which is, generally, a little nearer to the rump than the right one. then take the double canula, adjust the hair-loop, and, with the right hand, pass the loop over the small hooked end of the spoon, running it down under the bowl of the spoon containing the testicle, so as to bring the loop to act upon the parts which connect the testicle to the back. by drawing the ends of the hair-loop backward and forward, and at the same time pushing the lower end of the tube, or canula, toward the rump of the fowl, the cord or fastening of the testicle is severed. a similar process is then to be repeated with the uppermost or right testicle; after which, any remains of the testicles, together with the blood at or around the bottom of the wound, must be scooped out with the bowl of the spoon. the left testicle is first cut out, in order to prevent the blood which may issue from covering the one remaining, and so rendering it more difficult to be seen. the operation, if skilfully done, occupies but a few moments; when the skin of the fowl should be drawn over the wound with the retractor, and the wound covered with the feathers that were plucked off at the commencement. in some fowls, the fore part of the thigh covers the two hindmost ribs; in which case, care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh well back, to prevent it from being cut; since, otherwise, the operation might lame the fowl, or even cause its death. for loops, nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa-nut husk, which is rough, and readily separates the testicles by sawing. the next best substance is the hair of a horse's mane or tail. after the operation, the bird may be placed in a warm house, where there are no perches; since if such appliances are present, the newly-made capon will very probably injure himself in his attempts to perch. for about a week, the food should be soft, meal porridge, and that in small quantities, alternated with bread steeped in milk; he may be given as much pure water as he will drink, it being best to use it in a tepid state, or at least with the chill taken off. at the end of a week, or ten days, at most, the fowl, if previously of a sound, vigorous constitution, will be all right, and may be turned out with the others. the usual method, in france, of making _poulardes_, or hen-capons, as they are sometimes improperly designated, is to extirpate the egg-cluster, or _ovarium_, in the same manner as the testicles are extracted from the cockerel; but it is quite sufficient merely to cut across the oviduct, or egg-tube, with a sharp knife. otherwise, they may be treated in the same manner as the capons. capons are fattened in precisely the same manner as other fowls. fattening and slaughtering. [illustration: a bad style of slaughtering.] fat is not a necessary part of any animal body, being the form which superabundant nourishment assumes, which would, if needed, be converted into muscles and other solids. it is contained in certain membranous receptacles provided for it, distributed over the body, and it is turned to use whenever the supply of nourishment is defective, which should be provided by the stomach, and other great organs. in such emergencies it is taken up, in the animal economy, by the absorbents; if the latter, from any cause, act feebly, the health suffers. when, however, nourishment is taken into the system in greater quantities than is necessary for ordinary purposes, the absorbent vessels take it up; and the fat thus made is generally healthy, provided there is a good digestion. a common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run of a farm-yard, where they thrive upon the offal of the stable and other refuse, with perhaps some small regular daily feeds; but at threshing-time, they become fat, and are styled _barn-door fowls_, probably the most delicate and high-flavored of all, both from their full allowance of the finest grain, and the constant health in which they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise; or, they are confined in coops during a certain number of weeks, those fowls which are soonest ready being taken as wanted. fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a healthy state--their flesh being equal in quality to that of the barn-door fowl--when confined in feeding-houses. these should be at once warm and airy, with earth floors, well-raised, and sufficiently capacious to accommodate well the number desired. the floor may be slightly littered down, the litter being often changed; and the greatest cleanliness should be observed. sandy gravel should be placed in several different layers, and often changed. a sufficient number of troughs, for both water and food, should be placed around, that the fowls may feed with as little interruption as possible from each other; and perches in the same proportion should be furnished for those which are inclined to avail themselves of them; though the number will be few, after they have begun to fatten. this arrangement, however, assists in keeping them quiet and contented until that period. insects and animal food forming a part of the natural diet of poultry, they are medicinal to them in a weakly state, and the want of such food may sometimes impede their thriving. the least nutritious articles of food, so far as it can be done conveniently, should be fed out first; afterward, those that are more nutritive. fattening fowls should be kept quiet, and suffered to take no more exercise than is necessary for their health; since more exercise than this calls for an expenditure of food which does not avail any thing in the process of fattening. they should be fed regularly with suitable food, and that properly prepared; and as much should be given them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat, without waste. the larger the quantity of food which a fattening animal can be made to consume daily, with a good appetite, or which it can digest thoroughly, the greater will be the amount of flesh and fat gained, in proportion to the whole quantity of food consumed. substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated should be fed with care. there is danger, especially when the bird is first put to feed, that more may be eaten at once than the digestive organs can manage. meal of indian corn is highly nutritive; and, when properly fed, causes fowls to fatten faster than almost any other food. they will not, however, bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great length of time. meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn, especially that made from the hard, flinty kinds grown in the northern and eastern states, is quite too strong for fowls to be full-fed upon. attention should also be paid to the bulk of the food given; since sufficient bulk is necessary to effect a proper distending of the stomach, as a necessary condition of healthy digestion. one simple mode of fattening, which is adopted by many, is the following: shut the fowls up where they can get no gravel; keep corn by them all the time, and also give them dough enough once a day; for drink, give them skimmed milk; with this feed, they will fatten in ten days; if kept longer, they should have some gravel, or they will fall away. oats ground into meal, and mixed with a little molasses and water, barley-meal with sweet milk, and boiled oats, mixed with meat, are all excellent for fattening poultry--reference being had to time, expense, and quality of flesh. in _fattening ducks_, it must be remembered that their flesh will be found to partake, to a great extent, of the flavor of the food on which they have been fattened; and as they are naturally quite indiscriminate feeders, care should be taken, for at least a week or so before killing, to confine them to select food. boiled potatoes are very good feeding, and are still better if a little grain is mixed with them; indian meal is both economical and nutritive, but should be used sparingly at first. some recommend butcher's offal; but, although ducks may be fattened on such food to an unusual weight, and thus be profitable for the market, their flesh will be rendered rank and gross, and not at all fit for the table. to _fatten geese_, it is necessary to give them a little corn daily, with the addition of some raw swedish turnips, carrots, mangel-wurtzel leaves, lucerne, tares, cabbage leaves, and lettuces. barley-meal and water is recommended by some; but full-grown geese that have never been habituated to the mixture when young, will occasionally refuse to eat it. cooked potatoes, in small quantities, do no harm; and, apart from the consideration of expense, steeped wheat would produce a first-rate delicacy. those who can only afford to bring up one or two, should confine them in a crib or some such place, about the beginning of july, and feed them as directed, giving them a daily supply of clean water for drink. if from a dozen to twenty are kept, a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet square should be made, well covered with straw on the bottom, and a covered house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain, when required; since exposure to either of these is not good. it will be observed that, about noon, if geese are at liberty, they will seek some shady spot, to avoid the influence of the sun; and when confined in small places, they have not sufficient space for flapping their wings, and drying themselves after being wet, nor have they room for moving about so as to keep themselves warm. there should be three troughs in the crib: one for dry oats; another for vegetables, which ought always to be cut down; and a third for clean water, of which they must always have a plentiful supply. the riper the cabbages and lettuces are with which they are supplied the better. slaughtering and dressing. both ducks and geese should be led out to the pond a few hours before being slaughtered, where they will neatly purify and arrange their feathers. the common mode of slaughtering the latter--bleeding them from the internal parts of the throat--is needlessly slow and cruel. fowls for cooking, that are to be sent to a distance, or to be kept any time before being served, should be plucked, drawn, and dressed immediately after being killed. the feathers strip off much more easily and cleanly while the bird is yet warm. when large numbers are to be slaughtered and prepared in a short time, the process is expedited by scalding the bird in boiling water, when the feathers drop off almost at once. fowls thus treated are, however, generally thought inferior in flavor, and are more likely to acquire a taint in close, warm weather, than such as are plucked and dressed dry. in dressing, all bruises or rupturing of the skin should be avoided. a coarse, half-worn cloth, that is pervious to the air, like a wire sieve, and perfectly dry and clean, forms the best wrapper. the color of yellow-skinned turkeys--equally well-flavored, by the way--is improved for appearance at market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four hours in cloths soaked in cold salt and water, frequently changed. for the same purpose, the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and water, and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours. some dust with flour, inside and out, any fowls that are to be carried far or to hang many days before being cooked. the oldest and toughest fowls, which are often pronounced unfit for eating, thrown away, and wasted, may be made into a savory and nutritious dish by jointing, after the bird is plucked and drawn, as for a pie; it should not be skinned. stew it five hours in a close saucepan, with salt, mace, onions, or any other flavoring ingredients desired. when tender, turn it out into a deep dish, so that the meat may be entirely covered with the liquor. let it stand thus in its own jelly for a day or two; it may then be served in the shape of a curry, a hash, or a pie, and will be found to furnish an agreeable repast. old geese, killed in the autumn, after they have recovered from moulting, and before they have begun to think about the breeding time, make excellent meat, if cut into small portions, stewed slowly five or six hours with savory condiments, and made into pie the next day. by roasting and broiling, the large quantity of nutriment contained in the bones and cartilages is lost, and what might easily be made tender has to be swallowed tough. young geese, as well as the old, are, also, often salted and boiled. poultry-houses. the three grand requisites in a poultry house are _cleanliness_, _dryness_, and _warmth_. a simple arrangement for this purpose is a shed built against the gable of the house, opposite to the part warmed by the kitchen fire, in which are placed cross-bars for roosting, with boxes for laying in, or quantities of fresh straw. this should always have an opening, to allow the poultry-house to be cleansed out, at least once a week. fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness; and even with the utmost care a place where they have been long kept becomes tainted, as it is called; the surface of the ground becomes saturated with their _exuriæ_, and is therefore no longer conducive to health. to avoid this effect, some persons in the country frequently change the sites of their poultry-houses, to obtain fresh ground; while others, who cannot thus change, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch, by washing with hot lime water, and by strewing large quantities of pure sand both within and without. washing the floor every week is a necessity; for which purpose it is advantageous to have the house paved either with stones, bricks, or tiles. a good flooring, however, and cheaper than either of these, may be formed by using a composition of lime and smithy ashes, together with the riddlings of common kitchen ashes; these, having been all finely broken, must be mixed together with water, put on the floor with a mason's trowel, and nicely smoothed on the surface. if this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry situation, and allowed to harden before being used, it will become nearly as solid and compact as stone, and is almost as durable. [illustration: rustic poultry-house.] the inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed with hot lime water, to free them from vermin, which greatly torment the sitting hens. for the same purpose, poultry should always have a heap of dry sand, or fine ashes, laid under some covered place or thick tree near their yard, in which they may dust themselves; this being their means of ridding themselves of the vermin with which they are annoyed. in every establishment for poultry-rearing, there ought to be some separate crib or cribs, into which to remove fowl when laboring under disease; for, not only are many of the diseases to which poultry are liable highly contagious, but the sick birds are also regarded with dislike by such as are in health; and the latter will, generally, attack and maltreat them, aggravating, at least, their sufferings, if not actually depriving them of life. the moment, therefore, that a bird is perceived to droop, or appears pining, it should be removed to one of these infirmaries. [illustration: a fancy coop in chinese or gothic style.] separate pens are also necessary, to avoid quarrelling among some of the highly-blooded birds, more particularly the game fowl. they are also necessary when different varieties are kept, in order to avoid improper or undesirable commixture from accidental crossing. these lodgings may be most readily constructed in rows, parallel to each other; the partitions may be formed of lattice-work, being thus rather ornamental, and the cost of erection but trifling. each of these lodgings should be divided into two compartments, one somewhat larger than the other; one to be close and warm, for the sleeping-room; and the other, a large one, airy and open, that the birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime. both must be kept particularly dry and clean, and be well protected from the weather. a _hen-ladder_ is an indispensable piece of furniture, though frequently absent. this is a sort of ascending scale of perches, one a little higher than the other; not exactly above its predecessor, but somewhat in advance. by neglecting the use of this very simple contrivance, many valuable fowls may be lost or severely injured, by attempting to fly down from their roost--an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are incapacitated, in consequence of the bulk of their body preponderating over the power of their wings. some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night, in all weathers, in trees, or upon fences near the poultry-house. this is a slovenly mode of keeping even the humblest live stock; it offers a temptation to thieves, and the health of the fowls cannot be improved by their being soaked all night long in drenching rain, or having their feet frozen to the branches or rails. there is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of poultry, except the pea fowl, to regular housing at night. it is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house with the domestic fowl, as they are apt to be cross to sitting and laying hens. no poultry-house is what it ought to be, it may be suggested, in conclusion, unless it is in such a state as to afford a lady, without offending her sense of decent propriety, a respectable shelter on a showery day. [illustration] diseases and their remedies. in our climate, the disorders to which poultry are liable are, comparatively, few in number, and they usually yield to judicious treatment. the little attention that has too generally been bestowed upon this subject may be accounted for from the circumstance that, in an economical point of view, the value of an individual fowl is relatively insignificant; and while the ailments of other domesticated animals generally claim a prompt and efficient care, the unhappy inhabitants of the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings in the most summary manner. there are reasons, however, which will justify a more careful regard in this matter, besides the humanity of adding to the comfort of these useful creatures; and the attempt to cure, in cases of disease, will often be rewarded by their flesh being rendered more palatable, and their eggs more wholesome. most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the result of errors in diet or management, and should have been prevented, or may be removed by a change, and the adoption of a suitable regimen. when an individual is attacked, it should be forthwith removed, to prevent the contamination of the rest of the flock. nature, who proves a guardian to fowls in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as a most efficient physician to the sick; and the aim of all medical treatment should be to follow the indications which nature holds out, and assist in the effort which she constantly makes for the restoration of health. the more common diseases which afflict poultry will be so described that they need not be misapprehended, and such remedies suggested as experience has proved to be salutary; and, taken alphabetically, the first on the list is asthma. this common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its characteristics to warrant a distinction into two species. in one it appears to be caused by an obstruction of the air-cells, by an accumulation of phlegm, which interferes with the exercise of their functions. the fowl labors for breath, in consequence of not being able to take in the usual quantity of air at an inspiration. the capacity of the lungs is thereby diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes thickened, and its minute branches are more or less affected. these effects may, perhaps, be attributed to the fact that, as our poultry are originally natives of tropical climates, they require a more equal temperature than is afforded, except by artificial means, however well they may appear acclimated. another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue excitement. it is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to catch them, by seizing them suddenly, or by their fighting with each other. in these cases, a blood-vessel is often ruptured, and sometimes one or more of the air-cells. the symptoms are, short breathing; opening of the beak often, and for quite a time; heaving and panting of the chest; and, in case of a rupture of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing on the beak. _treatment._ confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. for the disease in its incipient state, the fowl should be kept warm, and treated with repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter, with the addition of a small quantity of cayenne pepper. costiveness. the existence of this disorder will become apparent by observing the unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve itself. it frequently results from continued feeding on dry diet, without access to green vegetables. indeed, without the use of these, or some substitute--such as mashed potatoes--costiveness is certain to ensue. the want of a sufficient supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on account of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders them unable to void their urine, except in connection with the _fæces_ of solid food, and through the same channel. _treatment._ soaked bread, with warm skimmed-milk, is a mild remedial agent, and will usually suffice. boiled carrots or cabbage are more efficient. a meal of earth-worms is sometimes advisable; and hot potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, are said to be excellent. castor-oil and burned butter will remove the most obstinate cases; though a clyster of oil, in addition, may sometimes be required, in order to effect a cure. diarrh[oe]a. there are times when fowls dung more loosely than at others, especially when they have been fed on green or soft food; but this, may occur without the presence of disease. should this state, however, deteriorate into a confirmed and continued laxity, immediate attention is required to guard against fatal effects. the causes of diarrh[oe]a are dampness, undue acidity in the bowels, or the presence of irritating matter there. the _symptoms_ are lassitude and emaciation; and, in very severe cases, the voiding of calcareous matter, white, streaked with yellow. this resembles the yolk of a stale egg, and clings to the feathers near the vent. it becomes acrid, from the presence of ammonia, and causes inflammation, which speedily extends throughout the intestines. _treatment._ this, of course, depends upon the cause. if the disease is brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the food must be changed, and water sparingly given; if it arises from undue acidity, chalk mixed with meal is advantageous, but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. alum-water, of moderate strength, is also beneficial. in cases of _bloody flux_, boiled rice and milk, given warm, with a little magnesia, or chalk, may be successfully used. fever. the most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject occurs at the period of hatching, when the animal heat is often so increased as to be perceptible to the touch. a state of fever may also be observed when they are about to lay. this is, generally, of small consequence, when the birds are otherwise healthy; but it is of moment, if any other disorder is present, since, in such case, the original malady will be aggravated. fighting also frequently occasions fever, which sometimes proves fatal. the _symptoms_ are an increased circulation of the blood; excessive heat; and restlessness. _treatment._ light food and change of air; and, if necessary, aperient medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burned butter. indigestion. cases of indigestion among fowls are common, and deserve attention according to the causes from which they proceed. a change of food will often produce _crop-sickness_, as it is called, when the fowl takes but little food, and suddenly loses flesh. such disease is of little consequence, and shortly disappears. when it requires attention at all, all the symptoms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state. sometimes, however, a fit of indigestion threatens severe consequences, especially if long continued. every effort should be made to ascertain the cause, and the remedy must be governed by the circumstances of the case. the _symptoms_ are heaviness, moping, keeping away from the nest, and want of appetite. [illustration: prairie hens.] _treatment._ lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the fowl to exercise in an open walk. give some powdered cayenne and gentian, mixed with the usual food. iron-rust, mixed with soft food, or diffused in water, is an excellent tonic, and is indicated when there is atrophy, or diminution of the flesh. it may be combined with oats or grain. milk-warm ale has also a good effect, when added to the diet of diseased fowls. lice. the whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be infested with lice; and there have been instances when fowls have been so covered in this loathsome manner that the natural color of the feathers has been undistinguishable. the presence of vermin is not only annoying to poultry, but materially interferes with their growth, and prevents their fattening. they are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the success and pleasure of the poultry fanciers; and nothing but unremitting vigilance will exterminate them, and keep them exterminated. _treatment._ to attain this, whitewash frequently all the parts adjacent to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and run them slowly through a fire made of wood shavings, dry weeds, or other light waste combustibles. flour of sulphur, placed in a vessel, and set on fire in a close poultry-house, will penetrate every crevice, and effectually exterminate the vermin. when a hen comes off with her brood, the old nest should be cleaned out, and a new one placed; and dry tobacco-leaves, rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed with the hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry. flour of sulphur may also be mixed with indian-meal and water, and fed in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two dozen fowls, in two parcels, two days apart. almost any kind of grease, or unctuous matter, is also certain death to the vermin of domestic poultry. in the case of very young chickens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, when they should be put into a coop with their mother, the coop darkened for an hour or two, and every thing made quiet, that they may secure a good rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by greasing them. they should be handled with great care, and greased thoroughly; the hen, also. after resting, they may be permitted to come out and bask in the sun; and in a few days they will look sprightly enough. to guard against vermin, however, it should not be forgotten that _cleanliness_ is of vital importance; and there must always be plenty of slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of access to the fowls, in which they can roll and dust themselves. loss of feathers. this disease, common to confined fowls, should not be confounded with the natural process of moulting. in this diseased state, no new feathers come to replace the old, but the fowl is left bald and naked; a sort of roughness also appears on the skin; there is a falling off in appetite, as well as moping and inactivity. _treatment._ as this affection is, in all probability, constitutional rather than local, external remedies may not always prove sufficient. stimulants, however, applied externally, will serve to assist the operation of whatever medicine may be given. sulphur may be thus applied, mixed with lard. sulphur and cayenne, in the proportion of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, is good to be given internally, and will act as a powerful alterative. the diet should be changed; and cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable. in _diseased moulting_, where the feathers stare and fall off, till the naked skin appears, sugar should be added to the water which the fowls drink, and corn and hemp-seed be given. they should be kept warm, and occasionally be treated to doses of cayenne pepper. pip. this disorder, known also as the _gapes_, is the most common ailment of poultry and all domestic birds. it is especially the disease of young fowls, and is most prevalent in the hottest months, being not only troublesome but frequently fatal. as to its _cause_ and nature, there has been some diversity of opinion. some consider it a catarrhal inflammation, which produces a thickening of the membrane lining the nostrils and mouth, and particularly the tongue; others assert that it is caused by want of water, or by bad water; while others describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle on the tip of the tongue, which occasions a thickened state of the skin, by the absorption of its contents. the better opinion, however, is, that the disease is occasioned by the presence of worms, or _fasciolæ_, in the windpipe. on the dissection of chickens dying with this disorder, the windpipe will be found to contain numerous small, red worms, about the size of a cambric needle, which, at the first glance, might be mistaken for blood-vessels. it is supposed by some that these worms continue to grow, until, by their enlargement, the windpipe is so filled up that the chicken is suffocated. the common _symptoms_ of this malady are the thickened state of the membrane of the tongue, particularly toward the tip; the breathing is impeded, and the beak is frequently held open, as if the creature were gasping for breath; the beak becomes yellow at its base; and the feathers on the head appear ruffled and disordered; the tongue is very dry; the appetite is not always impaired; but yet the fowl cannot eat, probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves, and sits in a corner, pining in solitude. _treatment._ most recommend the immediate removal of the thickened membrane, which can be effected by anointing the part with butter or fresh cream. if necessary, the scab may be pricked with a needle. it will also be found beneficial to use a pill, composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat; to be mixed with fresh butter, and given every morning; the fowl to be kept warm. if the disease is in an advanced state, shown by the chicken's holding up its head and gaping for want of breath, the fowl should be thrown on its back, and while the neck is held straight, the bill should be opened, and a quill inserted into the windpipe, with a little turpentine. this being round, will loosen and destroy a number of small, red worms, some of which will be drawn up by the feather, and others will be coughed up by the chicken. the operation should be repeated the following day, if the gaping continues. if it ceases, the cure is effected. it is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented by mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the food of fowls; from five to ten drops, to a pint of meal, to be made into a dough. another specific recommended is to keep iron standing in vinegar, and put a little of the liquid in the food every few days. some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in their food; and this upon the ground that chickens which are not confined with the hen, but both suffered to run at large and collect their own food, are not troubled with this disease. there can be little doubt that it is caused by inattention to cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of fowls; and some, therefore, think that if the chicken-houses and coops are kept clean, and frequently washed with thin whitewash, having plenty of salt and brine mixed with it, that it would be eradicated. roup. this disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture; but it is often ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness and exercise. it affects fowls of all ages, and is either acute or chronic; sometimes commencing suddenly, on exposure; at others gradually, as the consequence of neglected colds, or damp weather or lodging. chronic roup has been known to extend through two years. [illustration: swans.] the most prominent _symptoms_ are difficult and noisy breathing and gaping, terminating in a rattling in the throat; the head swells, and is feverish; the eyes are swollen, and the eye-lidsappear livid; the sight decays, and sometimes total blindness ensues; there are discharges from the nostrils and mouth, at first thin and limpid, afterward thick, purulent, and fetid. in this stage, which resembles the glanders in horses, the disease becomes infectious. as _secondary_ symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite fails, except for drink; the crop feels hard; the feathers are staring, ruffled, and without the gloss that appears in health; the fowl mopes by itself and seems to suffer much pain. _treatment._ the fowls should be kept warm, and have plenty of water and scalded bran, or other light food. when chronic, change of food and air is advisable. the ordinary remedies--such as salt dissolved in water--are inefficacious. a solution of sulphate of zinc, as an eye-water, is a valuable cleansing application. rue-pills, and a decoction of rue, as a tonic, have been administered with apparent benefit. the following is recommended: of powdered gentian and jamaica ginger, each one part; epsom salts, one and a half parts; and flour of sulphur, one part; to be made up with butter, and given every morning. the following method of treatment is practised by some of the most successful poulterers in the country. as soon as discovered, if in warm weather, remove the infected fowls to some well-ventilated apartment, or yard; if in winter, to some warm place; then give a dessert-spoonful of castor-oil; wash their heads with warm castile-soap suds, and let them remain till next morning fasting. scald for them indian-meal, adding two and a half ounces of epsom salts for ten hens, or in proportion for a less or larger number; give it warm, and repeat the dose in a day or two, if they do not recover. perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and all putrid affections is as follows: take of finely pulverized, fresh-burnt charcoal, and of new yeast, each three parts; of pulverized sulphur, two parts; of flour, one part; of water, a sufficient quantity; mix well, and make into two doses, of the size of a hazel-nut, and give one three times a day. _cleanliness_ is no less necessary than warmth; and it will sometimes be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and water, or suds, as convenient. wounds and sores. fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources. in their frequent encounters with each other, they often result; the poultry-house is besieged by enemies at night, and, in spite of all precaution, rats, weasels, and other animals will assault the occupants of the roost, or nest, to their damage. these wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into painful and dangerous ulcers. when such injuries occur, _cleanliness_ is the first step toward a cure. the wound should be cleared from all foreign matter, washed with tepid milk and water, and excluded as far as possible from the air. the fowl should be removed from its companions, which, in such cases, seldom or never show any sympathy, but, on the contrary, are always ready to assault the invalid, and aggravate the injury. should the wound not readily heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. the ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when the ulcer exhibits a fungous character, or _proud flesh_ is present. ulcers may also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead; if they are indolent, they may be touched with blue-stone. when severe _fractures_ occur to the limbs of fowls, the best course, undoubtedly, to pursue--unless they are very valuable--is to kill them at once, as an act of humanity. when, however, it is deemed worth while to preserve them, splints may be used, when practicable. great cleanliness must be observed; the diet should be reduced; and every precaution taken against the inflammation, which is sure to supervene. when it is established, cooling lotions--such as warm milk and water--may be applied. list of new publications. * * * * * mailing notice.--single copies of any of these books will be sent to any address, post-paid, on receipt of price. this very convenient mode may be adopted where your neighboring bookseller is not supplied with the work. address, john e. potter & co., publishers, =_no. sansom street, philadelphia._= * * * * * life and public services of abraham lincoln. containing his early history and political career. by frank crosby, of the philadelphia bar. with portrait on steel. mo., cloth. price $ . the same translated into the german language. by professor carl theodor eben. mo., cloth. price $ . life and public services of stephen a. douglas. to which are added his speeches and reports. by h. m. flint. with portrait on steel. mo., cloth. price $ . life of daniel boone, the great western hunter and pioneer. by cecil b. hartley. with illustrations. mo., cloth. price $ . life of kit carson, the great western hunter and guide. by charles burdett. with illustrations. mo., cloth. price $ . life of david crockett, the original humorist and irrepressible backwoodsman. with illustrations. mo., cloth. price $ . life and adventures of miss major pauline cushman, the celebrated union spy and scout. by f. l. sarmiento, esq., of the philadelphia bar. with portrait and illustrations. mo., cloth. price $ . thrilling stories of the great rebellion. including an account of the death of president lincoln, and capture of the assassins. by lieutenant-colonel charles s. greene, late of the united states army. with illustrations. mo., cloth. price $ . thrilling adventures among the early settlers. embracing desperate encounters with indians, refugees, gamblers, desperadoes, etc. etc. by warren wildwood, esq. illustrated by engravings. mo., cloth. price $ . thrilling incidents in the wars of the united states. embracing all the wars previous to the rebellion. with engravings. mo., cloth. price $ . our boys. the rich and racy scenes of army and camp life, as seen and participated in by one of the rank and file. by a. f. hill, of the eighth pa. reserves. with illustrations. mo., cloth. price $ . our campaigns; 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(photograph by c. e. petersen)] our domestic birds elementary lessons in aviculture by john h. robinson ginn and company boston · new york · chicago · london copyright, , by john h. robinson all rights reserved . =the athenæum press= ginn and company · proprietors · boston · u.s.a. preface ten years ago aviculture had hardly been thought of as a school subject. to-day it is taught in thousands of schools, and in some states instruction in poultry culture is required by law. this rapid change in sentiment and situation has resulted from a combination of causes. when agricultural colleges established poultry departments, it was found that a large part of those applying for admission to them had neither the practical knowledge of poultry nor the general education that they needed to do work of college grade. about this time also the interest in nature study began to take a more practical turn, and attention was directed to the superiority of domesticated to wild animals and plants as material for school studies of the phenomena of physical life. added to these special causes was a general cause more potent than either: great numbers of people had reached the stage of experience in various lines of aviculture where they realized keenly that a little sound instruction in the subject in youth would have been of great value to them later in life, saving them from costly mistakes. to these people it seemed both natural and necessary that the schools should teach poultry and pigeon culture. developing as the result of such a combination of causes, the demand for an elementary textbook on poultry came with equal force from country schools, where poultry might be kept on the school grounds as well as by every pupil at home, from city schools, in which all instruction must be by book, and from all types of schools and conditions of life between. had there been only the extreme classes of schools to consider, the natural way to supply the demand would be with a special book for each distinct type of school. the idea of one book for all schools, from which each might use what seemed to suit its requirements, was dismissed as impractical while so large a proportion of teachers were but slightly acquainted with the subject. it is believed that the plan of making an elementary reading course for general use, and a secondary book of a more technical character for use where practice courses are given, is the best solution of the problem under existing conditions. in this first book the object is to tell in plain language the things that every one ought to know about poultry, pigeons, and cage birds; to teach fundamental facts in such a way that they will be fixed in the mind; to excite interest in the subject where none existed; and to direct enthusiasm along right lines. while the demand has been almost wholly for a poultry book, pigeons and cage birds are included, because they are of more interest than some kinds of poultry and better adapted than any other kind to the conditions of city life. in regard to the time that should be given to this course, one period a week for forty weeks is better than a period a day for forty days, because the average person, young or old, retains a great deal more of what is read or heard about a diversified subject if the ground is covered by easy stages with comparatively long intervals between. references for collateral readings and suggestions for original investigations are omitted, because, in the author's opinion, what work of this kind it is desirable for a high-school pupil to do should be done by those taking practice work in the advanced course. john h. robinson reading, massachusetts contents chapter page i. birds and their relations to man definition of a bird; place of birds in the animal kingdom; flight of birds; voices of birds; social relations of birds--place of birds in domestication--uses of birds in domestication--place of wild birds in civilization--classes of domestic birds ii. characters and habits of birds related to use feathers--structure of feathers--arrangement of the feathers--decorative feather forms--color in feathers--growth and molting of feathers--flight--mechanism of the wing--scratching--swimming--foods and mode of digestion--peculiarities of birds' eggs--development of the egg--rate and amount of egg production--incubation--development of the embryo in a bird's egg iii. species and their divisions in domestic birds definition of species--origin of species--natural varieties--varieties in domestication--classification of domestic varieties of birds--systematic mixtures of breeds and varieties--pure-bred, thoroughbred, and standard-bred iv. fowls description--origin of the fowl--appearance of the original wild species--distribution of fowls in ancient times--development of principal races of fowls--how fowls were kept in old times--modern conditions and methods--native fowls in america--old european races of fowls--italian fowls--english races of fowls--german and dutch races--french races--spanish races--asiatic races of fowls--chinese races--japanese races--the "hen-fever" period--how the american breeds arose--the modern barred plymouth rock--other varieties of the plymouth rock--the wyandottes--the rhode island red--the american idea in england; the orpington--present distribution of improved races--deformed and dwarf races--silky fowls--frizzled fowls--rumpless fowls--bantams--origin of bantams--varieties of bantams v. management of fowls small flocks on town lots: numbers in flocks--houses and yards--feeding--growing chickens. small flocks on ordinary farms: numbers in flocks--single houses for farm flocks--feeding--reproducing the flock--the hatching season--broody hens--setting the hens--care of sitting hens--attention at hatching time--coops for broods--feeding young chickens--management of growing chicks. large stocks on general farms: the colony system--numbers of hens kept--feeding, care, and results--how the chickens are grown--adaptability of the colony system. intensive poultry farms: reasons for concentration--concentration not profitable--common type of intensive poultry farm. broiler growing: the "broiler craze"--present condition of broiler growing. roaster growing: description of a good roaster--general and special supplies--large roaster plants. intensive egg farming--poultry fanciers' farms vi. ducks description; origin--the common duck--improved races--ornamental ducks--place of ducks in domestication vii. management of ducks small flocks on town lots: numbers--houses and yards--feeding--laying habits. growing ducklings. small flocks on farms: general conditions--feeding. market duck farms: history--description--duck fanciers' methods viii. geese description--origin--common geese--improved races--ornamental varieties--the canada goose, or american wild goose--place of geese in domestication ix. management of geese small farm flocks: size of flock--houses and yards--feeding--laying season and habits--hatching and rearing goslings--large flocks of geese on farms--goose-fattening farms--growing thoroughbred geese for exhibition--growing a few geese on a town lot--growing wild geese in captivity x. turkeys description--origin--common turkeys--improved varieties--bronze turkeys--influence of the bronze turkey on other varieties--other varieties of the turkey--place of the turkey in domestication xi. management of turkeys size of flocks--shelters and yards--feeding--breeding season and laying habits--hatching and rearing xii. guineas description--origin--varieties--place in domestication--management of domestic guineas xiii. peafowls description--origin--place in domestication--management xiv. pheasants description--origin--history in america--species and varieties--place in domestication--management of pheasants in confinement xv. swans description--origin and history in domestication--place in domestication--management xvi. ostriches description--origin and history in domestication--place in domestication--management xvii. pigeons description--origin--distribution in ancient times--improved varieties--the carrier pigeon--the antwerp homer--tumbler and tippler pigeons--the fantail pigeon--pouter pigeons--other important types--history in domestication--place in domestication xviii. management of pigeons size of flock--quarters for pigeons--ventilation and cleanliness--handling pigeons--mating pigeons--feeding--how pigeons rear their young xix. canaries description--origin--improvement in domestication--place in domestication--management of canaries: cages--position of the cage--feeding--care--breeding xx. distribution of market products producers, consumers, and middlemen--how the middleman enters local trade--additional middlemen--how the demand for poultry products stimulates production--losses in distribution--cold storage of poultry products--methods of selling at retail--volume of products xxi. exhibitions and the fancy trade conditions in the fancy trade--exhibitions--rudiments of judging--disqualifications--methods of judging--exhibition quality and value--why good breeders have much low-priced stock--fancy and utility types in the same variety xxii. occupations related to aviculture judging fancy poultry and pigeons--journalism--art--invention--education and investigation--manufacturing and commerce--legislation and litigation index our domestic birds chapter i birds and their relations to man =definition of a bird.= a bird is a feathered animal. the covering of feathers is the only character common to all birds and not possessed by any other creature. the other characters--the bill, the wings, egg-laying, etc.--by which we usually distinguish birds from animals of other kinds are not exclusive bird characters. turtles have beaks, and there is one species of mammal (the ornithorhynchus) which has a bill like that of a duck. many insects and one species of mammal (the bat) fly. insects, fishes, and reptiles lay eggs, and there are several rare species of mammals that lay eggs and incubate them. on the other hand, some birds are deficient in one or more of the typical bird characters. the ostrich cannot fly. the penguin can neither fly nor run, and cannot even walk well. the cuckoo lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, leaving to them the hatching and rearing of its young. these exceptional cases are very interesting because they show that animals now quite different in structure and habits had a common origin, but in no case is there such a combination of characters that any doubt arises whether the creature is a bird or a mammal. the characters which typically belong to birds attain their highest development in them, and in most cases this is due to peculiar adaptabilities of the feathers. the anglo-saxons' name for a bird was _fugol_ (the flying animal). the young feathered creature they called _bridd_ (the thing brooded). this name was also sometimes given to young mammals, but it applied especially to the young of feathered creatures which were more dependent upon the parent for warmth than others. our english words "fowl" and "bird" come from these anglo-saxon terms. at first "fowl" was applied to large birds and "bird" to small ones, but gradually the use of the name "fowl" was limited to the common domestic fowl, and "bird" became the generic name for all feathered creatures. =place of birds in the animal kingdom.= zoölogists rank mammals higher than birds because man is a mammal and his general superiority to other creatures determines the rank of the class to which he belongs. yet, while placing birds below mammals in a simple classification of animals, naturalists point out that birds are the most distinct class in the animal kingdom. if we compare birds and the lower mammals, and compare the relations of each class to man, we see at once that nothing else could take the place of birds either in nature or in civilization. among birds are found the highest developments of animal locomotion and of the natural voice, capacity for language far beyond that of other creatures (except man), and family and community relations resembling those of the human race. hitherto in the history of the world mammals have been more useful to man than birds, but birds have given him some of his best ideas, and with the advance of civilization the lower mammals become less necessary and birds more necessary to him. =flight of birds.= it has been said that "on the earth and on the sea man has attained to powers of locomotion with which, in strength, endurance, and velocity, no animal movement can compare. but the air is an element on which he cannot travel, an ocean which he cannot navigate. the birds of heaven are still his envy, and on the paths they tread he cannot follow." since that was written practical flying machines have been invented, but in these, as in boats and ships, man has merely devised a machine which under his control can do laboriously and at great risk what the bird does naturally and easily. to birds man is indebted for his first lessons in navigating the water as well as for his ideas about airships. =voices of birds.= with few exceptions the different kinds of animals have natural languages through which individuals of the same species can to some extent hold communication with each other, and which are partly intelligible to other creatures. in all mammals except man, and in most birds, the range of expression is very limited and the sound of the voice is disagreeable; but a great many species of birds have very pleasing notes, many have very beautiful natural songs, and some readily learn the songs of other species. man learned melody from the song birds. there are also many species of birds that can imitate a great variety of sounds, and even learn to speak words and short sentences. birds that learn to talk often show intelligence in their use of words. this is the more remarkable because the intelligence of birds is not of a high order, but is distinctly inferior to that of the common domesticated mammals. =social relations of birds.= in aërial birds (except the cuckoos) the male and female pair, build a nest, and both take part in the incubation of the eggs and the feeding of the young. usually a pair once mated remain mated for life and are very devoted to each other. in wild land birds the pairing habit is not of advantage to a species, but still the tendency to single matings is very strong. when land and water birds are domesticated man tries to break them of this habit because the males produce no eggs and he prefers to eat them while they are young and their flesh is tender. but, as will appear in detail when the different species of birds of this class are described, he does not always succeed in doing this. even the domestic fowl and duck, in which pairing has been prevented for centuries, often show a strong tendency to pair; and the females with broods of young usually separate from the flock until the little ones no longer need their care. with this separate family life there is still in most species of birds concerted action by communities in migrations, in forming colonies, in attacks on other creatures, and in defense from enemies. from the earliest times of which we have knowledge the devotion of birds to their mates and to their young has afforded the most common and most beautiful illustration of family life in nature. =place of birds in domestication.= the place of birds among domestic animals corresponds to that of garden vegetables, small fruits, and flowers among cultivated plants. the great staple agricultural crops--corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, apples, oranges, horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, etc.--are produced mostly by men who make farming and stock-growing their business. but, while large quantities of garden vegetables, small fruits, flowers, poultry, pigeons, etc. are grown by people who specialize in them, the greater part of the supply in all lands comes from small gardens and small flocks on ordinary farms and in the back yards of town homes. =uses of birds in domestication.= with the exception of the cage birds and the ostrich, all our domestic birds are valuable for their flesh; but, as some kinds can be produced more easily and cheaply than others, people growing birds for the table give most attention to those that can be grown most profitably, and the others are grown principally by those who prize them for rarity, beauty, or some peculiar quality. the eggs of all birds are edible, but birds differ greatly in the number of eggs that they lay and in the disposition to lay them in places provided for the purpose. so, nearly all who keep birds for their eggs keep fowls, which are the most prolific and most docile, and hens' eggs are the staple eggs in the markets. the feathers of birds are used for pillows and beds, for feather dusters, and in various ways for ornament. except in the case of the ostrich, however, the value of the feathers of domesticated birds is so small that no one grows birds primarily for their feathers. on the other hand, those who keep birds for pleasure find their greatest enjoyment in breeding them with colors and markings difficult to produce. choice specimens of fancy-bred birds bring prices many times greater than the value of their flesh and eggs for food and of their feathers for use or ornament. fancy feathers have no more value than others except on the living birds. while those who keep birds for pleasure nowadays give most attention to breeding fancy stock for exhibition, several kinds of pigeons are kept to entertain by their flying performances; and--outside of the limited class of those who breed them especially for exhibition--canaries are valued according to ability to sing. the brutal sport of cockfighting was a popular pastime with our ancestors until prohibited by law, and is still prevalent in many lands. in early times birds of prey were captured when very young and carefully trained to hunt for their masters. under the feudal system there were regulations prescribing the kinds of birds which different classes of men might use in this way: the eagle and vulture were for emperors only; the gyrfalcon for kings; the lesser falcons for nobles; the harrier for esquires; the merlin for ladies; the goshawk for yeomen; the kestrel for servants; the sparrow hawk for priests. much of the value of various kinds of poultry comes from their ability to destroy insects which damage vegetation, and to maintain themselves on these and on foods not available for the larger domestic mammals. the services of poultry in this respect being limited to those insects that can be secured from the ground, and to areas on which the birds can live safely and do no damage to crops, we are dependent upon wild aërial birds to keep insect life in check on trees and high bushes and on land not occupied by poultry. =place of wild birds in civilization.= as no insect-eating aërial birds have been domesticated, the preservation of wild birds that destroy insects is of as much importance to man as the production of domestic birds. indeed, the wild birds are much more valuable to us in the wild state than they would be if domesticated. in nature species prey upon each other--the lowest forms of life upon inorganic and decayed matter, the higher forms upon the lower, the larger creatures upon the smaller, the savage upon the defenseless. fertile lands not only produce luxuriant vegetation but teem with insect life, which, if not kept in check, would soon destroy that vegetation. in tropical and semitropical regions there are mammals, some of them quite large, which feed upon insects. in temperate regions where insects are not to be obtained during the winter, there would be no adequate check upon their increase and the consequent destruction of vegetation if it were not for the vast numbers of insect-eating migratory birds which come to these regions for the summer. necessary as these birds are to vegetation on uncultivated lands, they are more necessary in cultivated fields, orchards, and gardens where the crops are more attractive to insects than the mixed vegetation on wild lands. as insect destroyers the domestic birds that are kept on cultivated lands only fill the place of the nonmigratory wild birds that have been driven away or exterminated. so it is to the interest of every one to protect insect-eating wild birds, for although these birds may do some damage to crops, their service usually more than pays for it. =classes of domestic birds.= there are three classes of domestic birds--poultry, pigeons, and cage birds. the poultry class comprises land and water birds and contains nine kinds--fowls, ducks, geese, turkeys, guineas, peafowls, pheasants, swans, and ostriches. the pigeon class has but one kind, the pigeon, which is the only aërial bird domesticated for economic purposes. the cage-bird class has as its most important representative the canary. the other birds of this class have never been popular in america. the question of increasing the number of species of birds in domestication interests many people. there is a general impression among those not familiar with the commercial aspect of aviculture that many more species might be domesticated. while it is true that many birds capable of domestication have not been domesticated, there are few of these that would serve any purpose not better served by some species already domesticated. it will be shown as the different kinds and varieties of domestic birds are discussed that the most useful kinds are always the most popular, and that many others are kept principally as ornaments. the number of ornamental creatures that can be kept in domestication is limited, for as a rule animals, like people, must earn their living. chapter ii characters and habits of birds related to use =feathers.= the feathers of a bird are the most highly developed form of protective covering in animals, serving other important functions in addition to the primary one. compared with the hair of a mammal or the scale of a fish or of a reptile, a typical soft feather from the body of a bird is a very complex structure, partaking of the characters of both scales and hair. the fact that birds have scales and hair as well as feathers shows their relation to these other forms of animal covering. this is best observed on a fowl. the legs of a fowl are normally smooth, with scales on the front of the shank and on the upper surfaces of the toes. in feather-legged fowls the feathers appear first along the outer sides of the shanks and toes. as the number of feathers is increased they grow longer and more feathers appear, until in the most heavily feathered specimens the soft skin is covered and the scales are almost hidden. the face of a fowl is normally almost bare, the skin being a bright red like the comb and wattles; but at a distance of a few feet we can usually see some very small, fine feathers on it, and if we examine closely we see in addition still finer growths--hairs. among the body feathers of a fowl, too, are quite long hairs. these are most easily observed after a bird is plucked. they do not come out with the feathers, and are removed by singeing. =structure of feathers.= the smallest feather that to the naked eye appears as something more complex than a hair, looks like a little bunch of fuzzy filaments. this is called down. in the next higher form of feather a small round quill appears with filaments protruding from it like the hairs in an artist's brush. such a feather is called a stub feather, or simply a stub. the best place to find these is on the outside of the shank of a fowl with scantily feathered legs. the first form of the complete feather is best observed either on the head of a fowl or at the hock joint. the feathers in these places are very small, yet complete. the round quill is lengthened into a shaft. extending from each side of this shaft is a single row of filaments, called barbs, the edges of which, interlocked with little hooks, form the web of the feather. on other parts of the body of the bird the feathers are larger, but the general structure is always the same. the size and special structure of the feather are always adjusted to suit the part on which it grows or the service which it has to perform. as the first function of the feathers is to keep the bird dry and warm, the body feathers are all soft as compared with the large stiff feathers of the wings and tail; yet as we look at the feathers on different parts of the body of a bird we notice differences in their structure, and also notice that the structure of a feather is not always the same throughout its length. on the exposed parts of the feathers of the neck, back, wings, and breast the web is perfect and the feathers overlap so closely that they present a smooth surface. under the surface, especially next the skin, the barbs are not smoothly joined, but are fluffy. thus the same feathers which present a hard, smooth surface to the weather provide a soft, warm garment next the skin. under the wings and on the underside of the body the feathers are quite fluffy throughout their whole length. =arrangement of the feathers.= as you look at a living bird the feathers appear to grow on all parts of the body. when the feathers are removed from the bird you see that while the skin is nearly all rough, with the little elevations where the feathers were removed, there are quite large areas where the skin is perfectly smooth, showing that no feathers grew there. these places are bare because feathers on them would interfere with the movements of the bird. the feathers on adjacent parts give the smooth areas sufficient protection. =decorative feather forms.= the natural decorative forms of plumage are found mostly in male birds and consist of extraordinary developments of the plumage of the neck and back, where the male birds of some species always have feathers differing in form from the feathers on the same parts of the female. when a feather appendage not common to a species is developed on some varieties, as the crest and beard on fowls and the ruff on pigeons, both sexes have it. the most interesting feather decorations will be described particularly in the chapters on the species on which they occur. [illustration: fig. . brown leghorn chick (one day old)] =color in feathers.= while colors in the plumage are distributed very differently in different species of birds, often making combinations peculiar to a species, there is in all the same wonderful formation of patterns, that depends for its effect in a section upon some overlapping feathers being marked alike and others having a different marking; and for the effect in a single feather, upon adjacent barbs being now alike, now different, in the distribution of the pigment in them. the best common example of a pattern covering a series of feathers is found on the wing of a mallard duck or of a rouen duck. interesting examples of the formation of patterns on a single feather may be found in the plumage of barred, laced, and penciled fowls, and also in the lacings on the body feathers of the females of the varieties of ducks mentioned. perhaps the most interesting illustrations of this kind, however, are to be seen on the plain feathers of the guinea and the gorgeous tail of the peacock. the pigment which colors the plumage may be found in soluble form in the quills of immature colored feathers. it is not conspicuous unless it is quite dark. in black fowls it is often so abundant that a part remains in the skin when the feathers are removed. after the pigment is deposited in the web of the feather the color is fast. water does not affect it, but it fades a little with age and exposure. new plumage usually contains a great deal of oil, a condition which is most conspicuous in white birds, to whose plumage the oil gives a creamy tint. in colored birds the presence of a large amount of oil in feathers is desirable because it gives greater brilliance to the plumage. [illustration: fig. . white leghorn chicks (ten days old)] =growth and molting of feathers.= the first covering of a young bird is down. the young of birds which nest on the ground have the down covering when hatched; others acquire it in a few days. in small land birds which feather quickly, as leghorn and hamburg chicks, the largest wing feathers may have started to grow before the chick leaves the egg. in most kinds of poultry, however, the young show no signs of feathers for some days. the down is gradually replaced by small feathers, and these by larger feathers as the bird grows. as feathers in all stages of growth are found on the young bird at the same time, it is not known whether all feathers are molted the same number of times. in cases where some feathers were marked and watched, or where the colors changed with the changing feathers, it appeared that after the down three sets of feathers were grown in succession, the third and last making the adult plumage of the bird. this coat remains until the following summer or fall, when it is molted and replaced by a new one. =flight.= the habit of flying is objectionable in domestic birds because it makes them more difficult to control. it has no direct use except in pigeons kept for flying. there is, however, a very important connection between development for flying and the value of birds for the table. the muscles of the wings furnish the greater part of the edible meat of most birds. the most desirable birds for food purposes are those which have the wing muscles well developed, yet not quite strong enough to enable them to fly easily. in such birds the breast meat remains comparatively soft through life, while in birds that fly well it becomes hard in a very short time. that is why the breast meat of the pigeon is relatively tougher in an old bird than the breast meat of a fowl or turkey. the balance between capacity for flight and neglect to use it, which is desired in birds grown for the table, is secured by giving them opportunity to exercise their wings moderately but not for progressive practice in flying, which would soon enable them to fly easily over the fences used to confine them. to regulate such exercise the perches for birds that roost are made low, or in an ascending series in which each perch after the first is reached from the one below it, while fences are made so much higher than the distance the bird is accustomed to fly that the failures of its first efforts to go over them discourage it. ducks and geese, which do not roost, flap their wings a great deal, and if they have room often exercise them by half running and half flying along the ground. =mechanism of the wing.= in its structure and in the muscular power that moves it, the wing of a bird is a wonderful piece of mechanism. a bird in flying strikes the air with its wings so rapidly that the movements cannot be accurately counted. the heron, which is a slow-flying bird, makes from one hundred twenty to one hundred fifty downward strokes of its wings a minute. as each downward stroke must be preceded by an upward stroke, this means that the wings make from two hundred forty to three hundred separate movements a minute. in such swift-flying birds as the pigeon the movements of the wings can be distinguished but cannot be counted. the fastest movements of the wings are not made by the swiftest fliers. in order to fly at all some land birds with comparatively small wings have to move them so fast that the movements make a blur and a whirring noise. the partridge is an illustration of a bird of this class. if the supporting surface of the wing of a bird were made of skin, like the web of the foot of a swimming bird, it would be necessary to fold the wing for each upward stroke. it is here that the structure of feathers adapts itself to the rapid action required for movement in the air. the wing is not one surface but a series of narrow surfaces lapping in such a manner that they unite to form one broad surface when the downward stroke is made, and with the upward stroke are separated so that the air passes between them. greater power in the downward stroke and less resistance in the upward stroke are also secured by the curvature of the wing. the under side is concave, the upper side convex. thus in the downward stroke the wing gathers the air under it and so increases the pressure, while in the upward stroke it scatters the air and reduces the pressure. if the wing were equally rigid throughout, the movement of the bird would be mostly upward. the bird in flying moves forward because the front of the wing is rigid and the tips of the feathers, which are directed backward, are flexible. so the air compressed by the wing in the downward stroke escapes backward, and in doing so propels the bird forward. the principle is the same that is applied in the screw propeller of a boat or an airship, except that the wing vibrates while the propeller revolves. the most important function of the tail in flight is to balance the bird. it is of some assistance in steering, but a bird steers its course mostly by manipulation of the wings. =scratching.= with the exception of the aquatic birds and the ostrich, all the species of poultry belong to the group called by naturalists _rasores_ or _scratchers_. birds of this class have legs of moderate length and very strong, with toes terminating in a stout claw. normally they have three toes upon which the foot rests when they are standing on a flat surface, and a fourth toe, like a thumb, which assists the other toes to grasp a perch. some individual birds and some races of birds have the fourth or hind toe double. the leg of a bird is so constructed that when it is bent as the bird sits on a narrow support the toes contract and grasp the support and hold it without any effort on the part of the bird. thus the bird is as secure in its position on a limb when asleep as if wide awake and looking out for itself. in proportion to their ability to scratch, birds are able to find seeds and insects concealed among dead or living vegetation on the surface of the ground, and also to dig below the surface. scratching capacity is most highly developed in the fowl. compared to it the other land birds are very feeble scratchers, and do little damage by scratching if free to roam about. for ages the scratching propensity of fowls was regarded as a vice in them, but since people began to give special attention to poultry they have learned that fowls are much more contented and thrifty in confinement if their food is given them in a litter of leaves, straw, or shavings, in which they must scratch for it, and have also found that to some extent fowls may be used to cultivate crops while destroying insects and weeds among them. =swimming.= capacity for swimming has an economic value in domestic birds because it adapts those possessing it to places which land birds rarely frequent. it will be shown when the different kinds of aquatic birds are described that each has its special place and use in domestication. the swimming faculty in these birds is of further interest because of its relation to the development of the body plumage. if a land bird is placed in the water, the feathers are quickly saturated, the water penetrating to the skin. a duck or other swimming bird will remain in the water for hours without the water penetrating the feathers. this is commonly supposed to be due to the presence of a large amount of oil in the feathers, but the difference in the oiliness of the feathers of fowls and of ducks is not great enough to account for the difference in resistance to the penetration of water. the peculiar quality of the plumage of swimming birds is its density. if you take up a fowl and examine the plumage you will find that it is easy to part the feathers so that the skin can be seen. it may be done with the fingers, or even by blowing gently among the feathers with the mouth. now try to separate the feathers of a duck so that the skin will be visible. you find it much harder, because the feathers are so thick and soft and at the same time so elastic. the familiar phrase "like water from a duck's back" is not especially appropriate. the feathers on the back of most birds are a very effective protection against rain. the feathers all over a duck are such poor conductors of water that it is hard to remove them by scalding. the structure of the plumage of swimming birds adds to their buoyancy in the water. they do not have to exert themselves to remain on the surface, but float like cork. =foods and mode of digestion.= all kinds of poultry and most of our common wild birds are omnivorous eaters, but the proportion of different foods usually taken is not the same in different kinds of birds. some eat mostly grains, some mostly animal foods. some can subsist entirely on grass if they can get it in a tender state; others eat very little grass. the scratching birds like a diet of about equal parts of grain, leaves, and insects. pigeons and canaries live almost entirely on grains and seeds, but like a little green stuff occasionally. domestic birds which produce many eggs require special supplies of food containing lime to make the shells. until within a few years it was universally believed--and it is still commonly supposed--that birds needed grit to take the place of the teeth nature did not give them, and assist in the grinding of the food in the gizzard. many close observers now reject this idea because they find that birds supplied with digestible mineral foods do not eat those that are not digestible. a bird does not need teeth to grind its food, because it is softened in the crop and the gastric juice acts upon it before the grinding process begins. =peculiarities of birds' eggs.= the only animal foodstuff produced in a natural package, easily preserved and handled, is the egg. in the vegetable world we have a great many such things--fruits, seeds, roots, nuts, with coverings of various textures to protect the contents from the air. in all of these the material stored up is either for the nourishment of the seeds in the first stages of growth as plants, or for the nourishment of a new or special growth. an egg is the seed of an animal. all animals produce eggs, but in mammals the new life originating from the egg goes through the embryonic stages within the body of the parent, while in insects, fishes, reptiles, and birds the egg is laid by the creature producing it before the embryo begins to develop. in mammals the embryo grows as a part of the body of the parent, the substances which build it up coming from the parent form as they are needed. in birds a tiny germ--the true egg--is put, with all the material needed for its development as an embryo, in a sealed package, which may be taken thousands of miles away from the parent, and, after lying dormant for weeks, may begin to grow as soon as the proper conditions of temperature are applied. the food value of the germ of an egg is inappreciable. we use the egg to get the material stored up in it for the young bird which would come from the germ. =development of the egg.= the method of the formation of an egg is very interesting. it is the same in all birds, but is most conveniently studied in fowls. if a laying hen is killed and the body is opened so that the internal organs can all be seen, one of the most conspicuous of these is a large, convoluted duct having its outlet at the vent. in this duct, which is called the oviduct, are eggs in various stages of formation. at its upper extremity, attached to the backbone, is a bunch of globular yellow substances which are at once identified as yolks of eggs in all sizes. the organ to which these are attached is the ovary. the smallest yolks are so small that they cannot be seen without a powerful microscope. these yolks are not germs, but as they grow the germ forms on one side of each yolk, where it appears as a small white spot. when a yolk is full-grown it drops into the funnel-shaped mouth of the oviduct. here it is inclosed in a membranous covering, called the chalazæ, and receives a coating of thick albumen. the function of the chalazæ is to keep the yolk suspended in the center of the egg. it does not merely inclose the yolk, but, twisted into cords, extends from either end and is attached to the outer membrane at the end of the egg. after leaving the funnel the egg passes into a narrow part of the oviduct, called the isthmus, where it receives the membranous coverings which are found just inside the shell. from the isthmus it goes into the lowest part of the oviduct--the uterus. here the shell is formed, and at the same time a thin albumen enters through the pores of the shell and the shell membranes and dilutes the thick albumen first deposited. after this process is completed the egg may be retained in the oviduct for some time. it is, however, usually laid within a few hours. =rate and amount of egg production.= in the wild state a bird, if not molested after it begins laying, produces a number of eggs varying in different kinds, according to the number of young that can be cared for, and then incubates them. if its first eggs are removed or destroyed, the bird lays more, usually changing the location of its nest. in domestication the eggs of most kinds of birds are removed from the nests daily as laid, and the birds lay many more eggs before they stop to incubate than they do in the wild state. it is, and has been for ages, the common opinion that the wild birds and poultry, when first domesticated, were capable of laying only a small number of eggs each season, and that laying capacity has been enormously increased in domestication; but the oldest reports that we have of the amount of egg production indicate that the laying capacity of fowls was as great centuries ago as it is at the present time. recent observations on wild birds in captivity show that even birds which pair and usually lay only a few eggs each season have a laying capacity at least equal to the ordinary production of hens. quails in captivity have been known to lay about one hundred eggs in a season, and an english sparrow from which the eggs were taken as laid produced over sixty. the constitutional capacity to produce ovules is now known to be far greater than the power of any bird to supply the material for the nourishment of germs through the embryonic stage. the principal factors in large egg production are abundance of food and great capacity for digesting and assimilating it. =incubation.= a bird before beginning to lay makes a nest. some birds build very elaborate and curious nests; others merely put together a few sticks, or hollow out a little place on the ground. in birds that pair, the male and female work together to build the nest. even in polygamous domestic birds like the fowl and the duck, a male will often make a nest for the females of his family and coax them to it as a cock pigeon does his mate. if the birds are left to themselves and the eggs are not molested, an aërial bird will usually lay a number of eggs equal to the number of young the parents can feed as long as they require this attention, while a terrestrial or aquatic bird will usually lay as many eggs as she can cover. the desired number of eggs having been laid, the process of incubation by the parents begins. the incubation of their eggs by birds is one of the most remarkable things in nature. we say that "instinct" leads birds to build their nests and to keep their eggs warm for a period varying from two weeks for small birds, to six weeks for the ostrich; but "instinct" is only a term to describe the apparently intelligent actions of the lower animals, which we say have not intelligence enough to know the reasons for the things that they do. [illustration: fig. . sitting hen] the mother of a young mammal knows that it came from herself, and she can see that it is like her and others of her kind. it at once seeks her care and responds to her attentions. the egg which a bird lays is as lifeless--to all appearances--as the stones which it often so closely resembles. only after many days or weeks of tiresomely close attention does it produce a creature which can respond to the care lavished upon it. the birds incubating eggs not only give them the most unremitting attention, but those that fill their nests with eggs before beginning to incubate methodically turn the eggs and change their position in the nest, this being necessary because otherwise the eggs at the center of the nest would get too much heat and those at the outside would not get enough. a bird appears to know that if she begins to sit before she has finished laying, some of the eggs would be spoiled or would hatch before the others; and, as noted above, aërial birds seem to know better than to hatch more young than they can rear. but no bird seems to have any idea of the time required to hatch its eggs, or to notice the lapse of time, or to care whether the eggs upon which it sits are of its own kind or of some other kind, or to know whether the young when hatched are like or unlike itself. if eggs fail to hatch, domestic birds will, as a rule, remain on the nest until the eggs are taken away or until sheer exhaustion compels them to abandon the hopeless task. in domestication, however, those birds which continue laying most freely when their eggs are removed as laid, tend to lose the habit of incubation. turkeys and geese will often begin to incubate after having laid about the number of eggs that they could cover. many fowls will do the same, but most fowls lay for several months before attempting to incubate, and in many races not more than two or three per cent of the hens ever incubate. [illustration: fig. . fresh egg[ ]] [illustration: fig. . infertile egg (after twenty-four hours' incubation)] [illustration: fig. . fertile egg (after twenty-four hours' incubation)] [illustration: fig. . embryo (after seventy-two hours' incubation)] [illustration: fig. . embryo (after seven days' incubation)] [ ] photographs (figs. - ) from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture. [illustration: fig. . chick ready to break shell] =development of the embryo in a bird's egg.= the condition required to produce a live bird from a fertile egg is the continuous application of a temperature of about or degrees fahrenheit from the time the heat is first applied until the embryo is fully developed and ready to emerge from the shell. in nature the heat is applied by contact with the bodies of the parent birds. development of life will start in an egg at about degrees below the temperature required to maintain it, but at this temperature the germ soon dies. the temperature in incubation may occasionally go higher than degrees or may be as low as degrees for a short time without injury to the germ. some germs will stand greater extremes of temperature than others, just as some living creatures will. the first stages of the development of life in the egg of a bird may be observed by holding the eggs before a strong light in a darkened room. white-shelled eggs are the best for this purpose. in about thirty-six hours from the beginning of incubation it will be found that the germ has turned red, and little red veins radiate from it somewhat like the legs of a spider. for several days the egg is quite translucent and the yolk shows plainly. as the germ grows, the contents of the egg become clouded and dense, and the air space at the large end of the egg is clearly defined, the density being greatest near it. from the time that the egg becomes dense, observations of development must be made by breaking one or more eggs daily or every few days, according to the number available for observation. [illustration: fig. . egg before exclusion and partially excluded chick] [illustration: fig. . light brahma (day old)] the embryo grows until it fills the egg. the mere application of heat to the egg has gradually transformed that little germ and the yellow and white of egg into bones, flesh, skin (and, in some cases, down), and all the organs of a living creature. when the embryo has filled the shell, it lies curled up, usually with the head at the large end of the egg and the beak almost touching the shell, at about one third of the distance from the large to the small end of the egg. at the point of the beak of the young bird on the curved tip of the upper mandible is a small horny scale. without this scale it would be hard for the embryo to break the shell because it cannot, as it lies, strike it a direct blow with the point of its beak. this scale is a remarkable character. its only use is to help the bird out of the shell. a few days after exclusion it disappears. if you take a hen's egg about the eighteenth or the nineteenth day of incubation and hold it closely in your hand, you may be able to feel the chick move. if your hand is a little bit cold, the chick is much more likely to squirm in the egg and may utter a peep. if, with the egg in a warm hand, you hold it to your ear, you will about this time hear an occasional tap, tap, caused by the chicken striking its beak against the shell. the tapping is kept up more or less steadily until the shell cracks where the point of the beak strikes it and a little piece is broken out. the chick usually rests awhile now,--perhaps for some hours,--then resumes the attack on the shell. it turns in the shell, breaking out little pieces as it turns, until there is a crack nearly all the way around, when, by pushing with its head and feet, it forces the shell apart and sprawls out of it. the process is the same for all birds, except that those that take longest to develop in the shell take a longer rest after first breaking it. the young of aërial birds, which are naked when hatched, are ugly little things. young poultry, too, are almost repulsive with their sprawling forms and the wet down plastered to the skin, but in a few hours they grow strong, the down dries and becomes fluffy, the bright little eyes seem to take in everything, and they are the most attractive of all baby animals. chapter iii species and their divisions in domestic birds the three general classes of domestic birds include few species but many varieties, and, outside of the distinct varieties, an indefinite number of individual types. where varieties are as numerous as in the fowl, which has about three hundred, and the pigeon, which has a much greater number, the differences between them are often very slight. sometimes the form of a single small character is the only distinguishing feature. but, if this is a fixed character, the variety is distinct. where there are so many varieties it is hard to make short, appropriate descriptive names for all, if considered simply as varieties. for such diversity there must be a more extended classification. such a classification, growing gradually with the increase in the number of varieties, will not be consistent throughout. hence to understand clearly the relations of the artificial divisions of species in domestication we must know what a species is and how these divisions arise. =definition of species.= species are the natural divisions of living things. each plant and animal species retains its distinctive character through long ages because the individuals composing it can produce perfect offspring only (if asexual) of themselves, or (if bisexual) with others of their species. the self-isolation of species is well illustrated when similar plants grow together, as grasses in the same field and practically on the same spot; yet year after year all the old kinds are found and no new ones such as might come from a mixture of two kinds, if they would mix. in the higher animals, where the parent forms are of different sexes, they choose mates of their own kind, and so each species remains distinct; but if in a species there are many different types, such as we find in domestic fowls, the members of the species, when free to do so, mate as readily with types quite different from their own as with individuals exactly like them, and produce offspring of intermediate types with all the essential characters of the species. in domestication individuals of distinct yet similar species are sometimes mated and produce offspring called hybrids, but these are sterile. the mule, which is a hybrid between the ass and the mare, is the most familiar animal of this kind. hybrid, or mule, cage birds are produced by crossing the canary with several allied species. among other domestic birds hybrids are almost unknown. =origin of species.= until near the close of the last century it was commonly believed that each species had been created in perfect form and that species were unchangeable; but long before that time some keen students of the natural sciences and close observers of the changes that take place in plants and animals in domestication had discovered that species were not perfectly stable and were changing slowly. geologists established the fact that the earth, instead of being only a few thousand years old, had existed for countless centuries. among fossil remains of creatures unlike any now known they had found also other forms which appeared to be prototypes of existing species. the idea that the forms of life now on the earth had come from earlier and somewhat different forms had occurred to several scientists more than a hundred years ago, but it was not until about that a satisfactory explanation of progressive development of forms of life was given to the world. this mode of creation is called evolution. the theory of evolution is that partly through their own inherent tendency to vary and partly through the influence of external things which affect them, all organisms change slowly; that things of the same kind, separated and living under different conditions, may in time so change that they become separate species; and that this process may be repeated indefinitely, the number of species constantly increasing and becoming more diversified and more highly developed. such a theory would not be entitled to serious consideration unless it was known that the earth was millions of years old, because we know that races of fowls separated for over three thousand years (and perhaps twice as long) and developed into quite different varieties will breed together as readily as those of the same variety. but when it is certain that the earth is so old that there has been ample time for changes in living forms that would require periods of time beyond our comprehension, some of the relations of varieties and species of birds have an important bearing on the theory of evolution. as in the case of fowls just noted, we find that domestic ducks of the same species, after a separation of several thousand years, breed freely together. but our domestic ducks are not, like the fowls, all of the same species, and if individuals of different species are paired they produce only a few weak hybrids. our domestic geese are probably descended from two wild varieties, but races that were not brought together for thousands of years after they were domesticated are perfectly fertile together, while when mated with the american wild goose, which is not domesticated but will breed in captivity, they produce only hybrids. the general resemblance between geese and ducks is very striking, yet they will not breed together at all. a comparison of these facts indicates that while three thousand, or even five or six thousand, years of separation may not be enough to break down the natural affinity of varieties of the same species, separation and difference of development will eventually make of varieties distinct species, a union of which will produce only hybrids, while a longer separation and further increase of differences makes the break between the species absolute and they will not breed together at all. =natural varieties.= a species having developed as a variety of an earlier species will continue to develop as one variety or as several varieties, according to conditions. if a part of a species becomes so separated from the rest that intercourse ceases, each division of the species may become a well-defined variety. =varieties in domestication.= how a species when domesticated breaks up into varieties is well illustrated by the case of the fowl. the original wild species has long disappeared, but there is good reason to suppose that in size and color it was something between a brown pit game and a brown leghorn. the birds were smaller than most fowls seen in this country to-day. the prevailing color was a dull brown, because that color best conceals a small land bird from its enemies. fowls that were domesticated and given good care and an abundance of food would usually grow larger than the wild stock. thus if any person, or the people generally in any community, systematically gave their fowls good care, a variety of unusual size would be developed. different colors would also appear in the flocks of fowls, because the birds of unusual colors would be protected and preserved, instead of being destroyed as they usually are in the wild state. other peculiarities, too, such as large combs, crests, and feathered legs, would be developed in some lands and neglected in others. this is how it happened that after thousands of years in domestication the races of fowls in different parts of the world were quite different in size and form, but alike in being of many colors. from a species in this condition modern poultry breeders have made hundreds of distinct varieties. the easiest method of making a variety in domestication is to select specimens for breeding as near the desired type as possible, and to breed only from a few individuals in each generation which come nearest to the ideal type. in this way a variety that breeds quite true to the type may be established in from three or four to eight or ten years, according to the number of characters to be established as distinctive of the variety. varieties are also made by crossing unlike individuals. this process is longer than the other, and sometimes requires a series of crosses to produce specimens approximating the ideal sought. after such specimens have been obtained the method is the same as in the first case. a variety is commonly considered to be well established when the greater part of the specimens produced are easily identified as of that variety. but no domestic variety is ever established in the sense that a species is. all are artificial, produced by compulsory separation and preserved only as long as it is continued. =classification of domestic varieties of birds.= domestic varieties of all kinds of live stock were at first mostly shape-varieties; that is, the individuals of a variety were alike in shape but of various colors. this is the case still with some varieties. these shape-varieties are mostly the common types of certain countries or districts. thus the leghorn fowl is the common fowl of italy, and the houdan is a type common in a small district in france. such shape-varieties are called _breeds_. when other types were made by crossing such breeds they also were called breeds. when people first began to be interested in the improvement of live stock, the popular idea of a breed was that it was a domestic species, and there are still many people who hold this view. this popular misconception of the nature of a breed is responsible for much of the inconsistency and confusion in the ordinary classifications of domestic varieties. to it also is due the use of the term "variety" to apply especially to color-varieties, which are the principal divisions of breeds. in the classification of domestic birds a _variety_ is properly a color-variety of a breed. thus in the plymouth rock breed there are six color-varieties--barred, white, buff, partridge, silver-penciled, and ermine (called columbian); and in fantail pigeons there are six color-varieties--white, blue, black, red, yellow, and silver. birds of the same breed (shape) and the same variety (color) may differ in some other character, as the form of the comb or the presence or absence of feathers in certain places. in accordance with such differences varieties are divided into _subvarieties_. thus, in leghorn fowls the brown, white, and buff varieties have single-combed and rose-combed subvarieties. in any breed, variety, or subvariety certain families are sometimes distinguished for general or special excellence of form or color. such a family is called a _strain_. =systematic mixtures of breeds and varieties.= although so many distinct varieties have been developed from common domestic stocks, the improved races do not always displace the mongrels. when the old mongrels disappear their place is often taken by a new mongrel stock produced by mixtures of the distinct breeds with each other and with the old mongrel race. the greater part of such stock is so mixed that its relation to any established breed could not be determined or expressed, but systematic mixtures are sometimes made, and to describe these the following terms are used: _crossbred_--having parents of different, distinct breeds, varieties, or subvarieties. a leghorn male mated with a cochin female produces offspring each of which is in blood one half leghorn and one half cochin. _grade_--having more than half of the blood of a breed. if the offspring of a cross such as is described in the preceding paragraph are mated with birds of one of the parent breeds, the offspring of this mating will have three fourths of the blood of that breed. if these in turn are mated to birds of the same pure breed, the offspring will have seven eighths of the blood of that breed. animals bred in this way are called _grades_ until the process has been carried so far that they are practically pure-bred. mongrel stock is often graded up in this way. as a rule stock that is seven eighths pure is not distinguishable from average pure stock of the same breed. =pure-bred, thoroughbred, and standard-bred.= a _pure-bred_ animal is, strictly speaking, one having the blood only of the variety to which it belongs. from what has been said of the making of breeds and varieties it is plain that absolute purity of blood is not a universal attribute of well-bred domestic birds. a _thoroughbred_ animal is one that is thoroughly bred for some purpose or to some type. a _standard-bred_ animal is one that is bred especially to conform to requirements agreed upon by breeders and exhibitors. a great deal of misapprehension and confusion in the use of these terms has been caused by the attitude of those who maintain that the term "thoroughbred," having been used as a name for highly bred running horses, cannot properly apply to any other kind of live stock, and that "pure-bred" should apply to all thoroughly bred races. the noun "thoroughbred" is the name of a breed of horses. the adjective "thoroughbred" is common property. writers on aviculture who wish to be accurate prefer it in many instances to "pure-bred" because absolute purity of blood is rare and is not of the importance in breeding that novices usually suppose. not only are many new varieties made by crossing, but in long-established breeds outcrosses are regularly made to restore or intensify characters. to illustrate the use of the three terms in application to a single breed: a stock of light brahmas might be kept pure for half a century, yet at the end of that period might have changed its type entirely. it might be so deteriorated that it was worth less than common mongrels; yet it is pure-bred stock. another stock of the same variety might be bred for table qualities, egg-production, and the same principal color-characteristics of the variety, but without attention to the fine points of fancy breeding. such a stock is thoroughbred but not standard-bred. chapter iv fowls [illustration: fig. . pet fowls--white wyandottes and game bantams. (photograph from dr. j. c. paige, amherst, massachusetts)] the most useful of all birds is the common fowl, seen on almost every farm and in the back yards of many city and village homes. the fowl takes to the conditions of domestic life better than any other land bird. it is more cleanly in its habits, more productive, more intelligent, and more interesting than the duck, which ranks next in usefulness. fowls supply nearly all the eggs and the greater part of the poultry meat that we use. their feathers are of less value than those of ducks, geese, and turkeys. in the days when feather beds were common they were made usually of the body feathers of fowls. now the feathers of fowls are used mostly for the cheaper grades of pillows and cushions, and in the making of feather boas and like articles. the wing and tail feathers have been much used for decorating ladies' hats, and since the use of small wild birds in millinery decorations has been prohibited, the hackle feathers of cocks are quite extensively used in trimming hats. [illustration: fig. . single-combed rhode island red male[ ]] [illustration: fig. . rose-combed rhode island red female[ ]] [ ] photograph from lester tompkins, concord, massachusetts. =description.= ordinary fowls are rather small land birds. the males at maturity weigh from four to five pounds each, and the females about a pound less. they are plump, rugged, and very active. if treated well they are bold, and with a little attention can easily be made very tame. if neglected and abused, they become shy and wild. the most striking peculiarities of the fowl are the fleshy comb and wattles which ornament the head, and the full tail which is usually carried well up and spread perpendicularly. the head appendages vary much in size and form. they are sometimes very small, but never entirely wanting. the carriage of the tail also varies, but except in a few breeds bred especially for low tails it is noticeably high as compared with that of other poultry. fowls are readily distinguished from other birds by the voice. the male crows, the female cackles. these are their most common calls, but there are other notes--some common to both sexes, some peculiar to one--which are the same in all races of fowls. an abrupt, harsh croak warns the flock that one of their number has discerned a hawk or noticed something suspicious in the air. a slowly repeated cluck keeps the young brood advised of the location of their mother. if she finds a choice morsel of food, a rapid clicking sound calls them about her. when she settles down to brood them she calls them with a peculiar crooning note. the male also cackles when alarmed, and when he finds food calls his mates in the same way that the female calls her young under the same circumstances. other poultry and sometimes even cats and dogs learn this call and respond to it. if the food discovered is something that a stronger animal wants, the bird making the call may lose it because of his eagerness to share the treasure with the members of his family. in adult fowls the male and female are readily distinguished by differences in appearance as well as by the voice. the comb and wattles of the male are larger, and after he has completed his growth are always of the same size and a bright red in color. in the female the comb is much smaller than that of a male of the same family, and both size and color vary periodically, the comb and wattles being larger and the whole head brighter in color when the female is laying. the tail of the male is also much larger than that of the female and has long plumelike coverts. the feathers of his back and neck are long, narrow, and flowing, and in many varieties are much brighter in color than the corresponding feathers on the female. the male has a short, sharp spur on the inside of each leg, a little above the hind toe. occasionally a female has spurs, but they are usually very small. with so many differences between male and female the sex of an adult fowl is apparent at a glance. in the young of breeds which have large combs the males begin to grow combs when quite small, and so the sex may be known when they are only a few weeks old. in other breeds the sex may not be distinguished with certainty until the birds are several months old, or, in some cases, until they are nearly full-grown. [illustration: fig. . white polish male (crowing) and female. (photograph from leontine lincoln jr., fall river, massachusetts)] the adult male fowl is called a _cock_, and also, in popular phrase, a _rooster_. the adult female fowl is called a _hen_. the word "hen" is the feminine form of _hana_, the anglo-saxon name for the cock. it is likely that the name "cock," which it is plain was taken from the first syllable of the crow of the bird, was gradually substituted for _hana_ because it is shorter. _hana_ means "the singer." a young fowl is called a _chicken_ until the sex can be distinguished. after that poultry fanciers call the young male a _cockerel_ and the young female a _pullet_. the word "pullet" is also used by others, but the popular names for a cockerel are _crower_ and _young rooster_. the word "cockerel," as is seen at a glance, is the diminutive of "cock." the word "pullet," sometimes spelled _poulet_, is a diminutive from the french _poule_, "a hen." =origin of the fowl.= of the origin of the fowl we have no direct knowledge. it was fully domesticated long before the beginnings of history. there is no true wild race of fowls known. for a long time it was commonly held that the _gallus bankiva_, found in the jungles of india, was the ancestor of all the races of the domestic fowl, but this view was not accepted by some of the most careful investigators, and the most recent inquiries into the subject indicate that the so-called _gallus bankiva_ is not a native wild species but a feral race, that is, a race developed in the wild from individuals escaped from domestication. =appearance of the original wild species.= the likeness of the fowls shown in ancient drawings to the ordinary unimproved stock in many parts of the world to-day shows that--except as by special breeding men have developed distinct races--fowls have not changed since the most remote times of which records exist. from the constancy of this type through this long period it is reasonably inferred that no marked change in the size and shape of the fowl had occurred in domestication in prehistoric times, and therefore that the original wild fowl very closely resembled fowls which may be seen wherever the influence of improved races has not changed the ordinary type. the particular point in which the wild species differed from a flock of ordinary domestic fowls was color. domestic fowls, unless carefully bred for one color type, are usually of many colors. in the wild species, as a rule, only one color would be found, and that would be brown, which is the prevailing color among small land birds. =distribution of fowls in ancient times.= from drawings and descriptions on ancient tablets and from figures on old coins it appears that the fowl was familiar to the babylonians seven thousand years ago, and that it was introduced into egypt about b.c. chinese tradition gives b.c. as the approximate date of the introduction of poultry into china from the west. at the time of the founding of rome the fowl was well known throughout northern africa, and in the mediterranean countries of europe as far west as italy and sicily. it was also known in japan at this time. whether it was known in india is uncertain; if not, it was brought there soon after. it is supposed that immediately following their conquests in central and western europe the romans introduced their poultry into those regions. thus, at about the beginning of the christian era, the fowl was known to all the civilized peoples of the old world and had been introduced to the less civilized races of europe. [illustration: fig. . light brahma cockerel] =development of principal races of fowls.= there is no evidence that any of the ancient civilized peoples made any effort to improve the fowl, nor have any improved races been produced in the lands where those civilizations flourished. outside of this area many different types were gradually developed to suit the needs or the tastes of people in different countries and localities. thus in the course of centuries were produced from the same original wild stock fowls as unlike as the massive brahma, with feathered legs and feet, and the diminutive game bantam; the leghorn, with its large comb, and the polish, with only the rudiments of a comb and in its place a great ball of feathers; the spanish, with monstrous development of the skin of the face, and the silky, with dark skin and hairlike plumage. except in a few limited districts these special types did not displace the ordinary type for many centuries. until modern times they were hardly known outside of the districts or the countries where they originated. of the details of their origin nothing is known. they were not of the highly specialized and finished types such as are bred by fanciers now. their distinctive features had been established, but in comparatively crude form. the refining and perfecting of all these types has been the work of fanciers in holland, belgium, england, and america in modern times. these fanciers have also developed new races of more serviceable types. [illustration: fig. . light brahma hen] [illustration: fig. . red pile game bantam cock] [illustration: fig. . red pile game bantam hen] =how fowls were kept in old times.= less than a century ago it was quite a common practice among the cottagers of england and scotland to keep their fowls in their cottages at night. sometimes a loft, to which the birds had access by a ladder outside, was fitted up for them. sometimes perches for the fowls were put in the living room of the cottage. such practices seem to us wrong from a sanitary standpoint, but it is only within very recent times that people have given careful attention to sanitation, and in old times, when petty thieving was more common than it is now, there was a decided advantage in having such small domestic animals as poultry and pigs where they could not be disturbed without the owner's knowing it. the practice of keeping fowls in the owner's dwelling seems to have been confined to the poorer people, who had no large domestic animals for which they must provide suitable outbuildings. on large farms special houses were sometimes provided for poultry, but they were probably oftener housed with other animals, for few people thought it worth while to give them special attention. [illustration: fig. . white-faced black spanish cockerel. (photograph from r. a. rowan, los angeles, california)] throughout all times and in all lands the common domestic birds have usually been the special charge of the women and children of a household. in some countries long-established custom makes the poultry the personal property of the wife. a traveler in nubia about seventy years ago states that there the henhouse, as well as the hens, belonged to the wife, and if a man divorced his wife, as the custom permitted, she took all away with her. [illustration: fig. . silver-spangled polish cock and hen. (photograph from leontine lincoln jr., fall river, massachusetts)] the flocks of fowls were usually small in old times. it was only in areas adjacent to large cities that a surplus of poultry or eggs could be disposed of profitably, and as the fowls were almost always allowed the run of the dooryard, the barnyard, and the outbuildings, the number that could be tolerated, even on a large farm, was limited. as a rule the fowls were expected to get their living as they could, but in this they were not so much worse off than other live stock, or than their owners. but, while this was the ordinary state of the family flock of fowls, there were frequent exceptions. the housewife who is thrifty always manages affairs about the house better than the majority of her neighbors, and in older poultry literature there are occasional statements of the methods of those who were most successful with their fowls, which we may well suppose were methods that had been used for centuries. [illustration: fig. . black langshan cock. (photograph from urban farms, buffalo, new york)] =modern conditions and methods.= about a hundred years ago people in england and america began to give more attention to poultry keeping, and to study how to make poultry (especially fowls) more profitable. this interest in poultry arose partly because of the increasing interest in agricultural matters and partly because eggs and poultry were becoming more important articles of food. those who studied the situation found that there were two ways of making poultry more profitable. one way, which was open to all, was to give the birds better care; the other was to replace the ordinary fowls with fowls of an improved breed. so those who were much interested began to follow the practices of the most successful poultry keepers that they knew, and to introduce new breeds, and gradually great changes were made in the methods of producing poultry and in the types of fowls that were kept in places where the interest in poultry was marked. nearly all farmers now keep quite large flocks of fowls. many farmers make the most of their living from poultry, and in some places nearly every farm is devoted primarily to the production of eggs and of poultry for the table. fowls receive most attention, although, as we shall see, some of the largest and most profitable farms are engaged in producing ducks. in the suburbs of cities and in villages all over the land many people keep more fowls now than the average farmer did in old times. these city poultry keepers often give a great deal of time to their fowls and still either lose money on them or make very small wages for the time given to this work, because they try to keep too many in a small space, or to keep more than they have time to care for properly. [illustration: fig. . black langshan hen. (photograph from urban farms, buffalo, new york)] the breeding of fancy fowls is also an important pursuit. those who engage in this line on a large scale locate on farms, but many of the smaller breeders live in towns, and the greater number of the amateur fanciers who breed fine fowls for pleasure are city people. on large poultry farms the work is usually done by men. there are many small plants operated by women. the ordinary farm and family flocks are cared for by women and children much oftener than by men, because, even when the men are interested in poultry, other work takes the farmer away from the vicinity of the house, and the city man away from home, so much that they cannot look after poultry as closely as is necessary to get the best results. many women like to have the care of a small flock of fowls, because it takes them outdoors for a few minutes at intervals every day, and the eggs and poultry sold may bring in a considerable amount of pin money. many boys, while attending the grammar and high schools, earn money by keeping a flock of fowls. some have saved enough in this way to pay expenses at college for a year or more, or to give them a start in a small business. when there are both boys and girls in a family, such outdoor work usually falls to the lot of a boy. a girl can do just as well if she has the opportunity and takes an interest in the work. [illustration: fig. . pit game cock. (photograph from w. f. liedtke, meriden, connecticut)] =native fowls in america.= to appreciate the influence of improved races of fowls from various parts of the old world upon the development of poultry culture in america, we must know what the fowls in this country were like when poultry keepers here began to see the advantages of keeping better stock, and must learn something of the history of the improved races in the countries from which they came. [illustration: fig. . dominique cockerel. (photograph from w. h. davenport, coleraine, massachusetts)] when we speak of native fowls in america we mean fowls derived from the stocks brought here by the early settlers. the fowl was not known in the western hemisphere until it was brought here by europeans. britain, france, spain, holland, and sweden all sent colonists to america, and from each of these countries came, no doubt, some of the ordinary fowls of that country. perhaps improved varieties came from some of these lands in early colonial times, but the only breeds that retained their identity sufficiently to have distinctive names were the game fowls, which came mostly from england, and the dominiques (bluish-gray barred fowls which probably came from holland or from the north of france, where fowls of this type were common). [illustration: fig. . dominique hen. (photograph from skerritt and son, utica, new york)] the game fowls, being prized for the sport of cockfighting, were often bred with great care, but the dominique fowls (also called cuckoo fowls and hawk-colored fowls) were mixed with other stock, and the name was commonly given to any fowl of that color, until after the improvement of fowls began. then some people collected flocks of fowls of this color and bred them for uniformity in other characters. well-bred fowls, however, were comparatively rare. most of the stock all through the country was of the little mongrel type until about the middle of the last century. then that type began to disappear from new england, new york, new jersey, and eastern pennsylvania. it remained longer in the northern states west of the allegheny mountains and a generation ago was still the most common type in the upper mississippi valley. it is now unknown outside of the southern states, and within ten or twenty years it will disappear entirely. [illustration: fig. . silver-gray dorking cock] [illustration: fig. . silver-gray dorking hen] =old european races of fowls.= with the exception of the leghorn, most of the distinct breeds of european origin were brought from england, and the types introduced were not the types as developed in the places where the breeds (other than english breeds) originated, but those types as modified by english fanciers. in america, again, most of these breeds have been slightly changed to conform to the ideas of american fanciers. so, while the breed characters are still the same as in the original stocks, the pupil looking at birds of these breeds to-day must not suppose that it was just such birds that came to this country from seventy to a hundred years ago, or that, if he went to the countries where those races originated, he would find birds just like those he had seen at home. except in the case of the distinctly english breeds, such as the dorking and the cornish indian game, which are bred to greater perfection in their native land than elsewhere, he would find most of the european races not so highly developed in the countries where they originated as in england and america, where fanciers are more numerous. [illustration: fig. . single-comb brown leghorn cockerel. (photograph from grove hill poultry yards, waltham, massachusetts)] [illustration: fig. . rose-comb buff leghorn hen. (photograph from h. j. fisk, falconer, new york)] =italian fowls.= strictly speaking, the italian fowls in italy are not an improved race. the fowl which is known in this country as the leghorn fowl (because the first specimens brought here came from the port of leghorn) is the common fowl of italy and has changed very little since it was introduced into that country thousands of years ago. it is found there in all colors, and mostly with a single comb. the italian type is of particular interest, not only because of its influence in modern times, but because from it were probably derived most of the other european races. italian fowls were first brought to this country about , but did not attract popular attention until twenty-five or thirty years later. [illustration: fig. . silver-spangled hamburg cock[ ]] [illustration: fig. . silver-spangled hamburg hen[ ]] [ ] photograph from dr. j. s. wolfe, bloomfield, new jersey. =english races of fowls.= it is supposed that fowls were introduced into britain from italy shortly after the roman conquest. the type was probably very like that of ordinary leghorn fowls of our own time, but with smaller combs. from such stock the english developed two very different races, the pit game and the dorking. game fowls were bred in all parts of the kingdom, but the dorkings were a local breed developed by the people in the vicinity of the town of dorking, where from very early times the growing of poultry for the london market was an important local industry. each in its way, these two breeds represent the highest skill in breeding. in the old english game fowl, symmetry, strength, endurance, and courage were combined to perfection. the dorking is the finest type of table fowl that has ever been produced. [illustration: fig. . white-crested black polish cock[ ]] [illustration: fig. . white-crested black polish hen[ ]] [ ] photograph from charles l. seely, afton, new york. =german and dutch races.= the breeds now known as hamburgs and polish are of peculiar interest to a student of the evolution of races of fowls, because they present some characters not readily derived from the primitive type of the fowl. the feather markings of some varieties of both these breeds are unlike those of other races, and are markings which would not be likely to become established unless the fowls were bred systematically for that purpose. so, too, with the large crest of the polish fowl: to carry it the structure of the head must be changed. such changes require systematic breeding for a long period. dutch and german artists of the sixteenth century painted many farmyard scenes showing fowls of both these types, frequently in flocks with common fowls and with some that appear to be a mixture. to any one versed in the breeding of poultry this indicates that these peculiar types had been made by very skillful breeders long before. the most reasonable supposition is that these breeders were monks in the monasteries of central europe. throughout the middle ages the monks of europe, more than any other class of men, worked for improvement in agriculture as well as for the advancement of learning. [illustration: fig. . houdan cock. (photograph from the houdan yards, sewickley, pennsylvania)] [illustration: fig. . white minorca hen. (photograph from tioga poultry farm, apalachin, new york)] =french races.= the houdan is the only french breed well known in america. it is of the polish type, but heavier, and the plumage is mottled irregularly, not distinctly marked as in the party-colored varieties of polish. the breed takes its name from the town of houdan, the center of a district in which this is the common type of fowl. =spanish races.= the fowls of spanish origin well known outside of spain are the white-faced black spanish, the black minorca, and the blue andalusian. the fowls of spain at the present time are mostly of the italian type, with black (or in some districts blue) the predominant color. the black spanish seems to have been known in holland and england for two hundred years or more. in spain the white face is but moderately developed. the monstrous exaggeration of this character began in holland and was carried to the extreme by british fanciers who admired it. [illustration: fig. . black minorca cock. (photograph from arthur trethaway, wilkes-barre, pennsylvania)] the black minorca is supposed to have been brought to england direct from spain about a century ago. there it was bred to much greater size, with the comb often so large that it was a burden to the fowl. blue andalusians, at first called blue spanish and blue minorcas, were first known in england about . =asiatic races of fowls.= the evolution of races of fowls in the orient gave some general results strikingly different from those in europe. as far as is known, after the introduction of fowls into china and india some thousand years ago the stock which went to those countries and that which descended from it was completely isolated from the fowls of western asia, africa, and europe until the eighteenth century. when commerce between europe, india, and the east indies began, the europeans found in these countries fowls of a much more rugged type than those of europe. some of these fowls were much larger than any that the visitors had seen. the aseel of india was a small but very strong, stocky type of game. among the malayans the common fowl was a large, coarse type of game. the hens of these breeds laid eggs of a reddish-brown color, while hens of all the races of europe laid white eggs. birds of both these types were taken to england early in the last century, and perhaps in small numbers before that time. [illustration: fig. . buff cochin hen[ ]] [illustration: fig. . buff cochin cock[ ]] [ ] photograph from tienken and case, rochester, michigan. [illustration: fig. . dark brahma hen] =chinese races.= in china a type of fowl in some ways much like the malay, in others quite different, had been developed as the common stock of the country. they were about as tall as the malays, much heavier, and very quiet and docile. they were of various colors, had feathers on the shanks and feet, and laid brown eggs. some of these fowls were brought to america in sailing vessels very early in the last century and occasionally after that until the middle of the century, but attracted no attention, for the birds were brought in small numbers for friends of sailors or for persons particularly interested in poultry, and at that time there was no means of communication between fanciers in different localities. [illustration: fig. . dark brahma cockerel] =japanese races.= although the japanese races of fowls had no particular influence on the development of poultry culture in america, they are of great interest in a study of poultry types, because, when intercourse between japan and western nations began, it was found that the ordinary fowls of japan were much like the ordinary fowls of europe and america, and not, as would be expected, like the fowls of china. this indicated that there had been no exchange of fowls between china and japan after the type in china became changed. it also affords strong evidence that the fowls of india and china, although so changed, were originally like the european and japanese common fowls. the special races developed in japan were game fowls, more like the european than the malay type; a long-tailed fowl, very much like the leghorn in other respects; and the very short-legged japanese bantam. [illustration: fig. . long-tailed japanese phoenix cockerel. (photograph from urban farms, buffalo, new york)] =the "hen-fever" period.= we are all familiar with the phrase "the hen fever" and with its application to persons intensely interested in poultry, but few know how it originated. the interest in better poultry that had been slowly growing in the eastern states culminated in in an exhibition in the public garden in boston, to which fanciers from eastern massachusetts, rhode island, and eastern connecticut brought their choicest and rarest specimens. this was the first poultry show held in america. nearly fifteen hundred birds were exhibited, and the exhibitors numbered over two hundred. there were a few birds of other kinds, but fowls made by far the greater part of the show. all the principal races of europe and asia were represented. most of the exhibitors lived in the immediate vicinity of boston. about ten thousand people attended this exhibition. such an event created a great sensation. newspaper reports of it reached all parts of the country. the chinese fowls, so large when compared with others, were most noticed. at once a great demand for these fowls and for their eggs arose, and prices for fancy poultry, which previously had been but little higher than prices for common poultry, rose so high that those who paid such prices for fowls were commonly regarded as monomaniacs. while the interest was not as great in other kinds of fowls as in the shanghais, cochin chinas, and "brahmaputras," as they were then called, all shared in the boom, and within a few years there was hardly a community in the northeastern part of the united states where there was not some one keeping highly bred fowls. when the interest became general, the famous showman, p. t. barnum, promoted a show of poultry in the american museum in new york city. many celebrated men became interested in fine poultry. daniel webster had been one of the exhibitors at the first show in . the noted temperance lecturer, john b. gough, was a very enthusiastic fancier. after a few years the excitement began to subside, and most people supposed that it was about to die, never to revive. a mr. burnham, who had been one of the most energetic promoters of asiatic fowls, and had made a small fortune while the boom lasted, had so little confidence in the permanence of the poultry fancy that he published a book called "the history of the hen fever," which presented the whole movement as a humbug skillfully engineered by himself. this book was very widely read, and the phrase "the hen fever," applying to enthusiastic amateur poultry keepers, came into common use. subsequent developments showed that those who had supposed that the interest in fine poultry was only a passing fad were wrong. the true reason for its decline at that time was that the nation was approaching a crisis in its history and a civil war. when the war was over, the interest in poultry revived at once, and has steadily increased ever since. the prices for fine specimens, which were considered absurd in the days of the hen fever, are now ordinary prices for stock of high quality. [illustration: fig. . barred plymouth rock cock. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] =how the american breeds arose.= it is natural to suppose that with such a variety of types of fowls, from so many lands, there was no occasion for americans to make any new breeds. if, however, you look critically at the foreign breeds, you may notice that not one of them had been developed with reference to the simple requirements of the ordinary farmer and poultry keeper. it was the increasing demand for eggs and poultry for market that had given the first impulse to the interest in special breeds. the first claim made for each of these was that it was a better layer than the ordinary fowl. in general, these claims were true, but farmers and others who were interested primarily in producing eggs and poultry for the table were rather indifferent to the foreign breeds, because, among them all, there was not one as well adapted to the ordinary american poultry keeper's needs as the old dominique or as the occasional flocks of the old native stock that had been bred with some attention to size and to uniformity in other characters. to every foreign breed these practical poultry keepers found some objection. the dorking was too delicate, and its five-toed feet made it clumsy. the hamburgs, too, were delicate, and the most skillful breeding was required to preserve their beautiful color markings. the superfluous feathers on the heads of the crested breeds and on the feet of the asiatics were equally objectionable. all the european races except the leghorns had white skin and flesh-colored or slate-colored feet, while in america there was a very decided popular preference for fowls with yellow skin and legs. the leghorns and the asiatics met this requirement, but the former were too small and their combs were unnecessarily large, while the latter were larger fowls than were desired for general use, and their foot feathering was a handicap in barnyards and on heavy, wet soils. [illustration: fig. . barred plymouth rock hen. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] so, while fanciers and those who were willing to give their poultry special attention, or who kept fowls for some special purpose which one of the foreign breeds suited, took these breeds up eagerly, farmers and other poultry keepers usually became interested in them only to the extent of using male birds of different breeds to cross with flocks of native and grade hens. in consequence of this promiscuous crossing, the stock in the country rapidly changed, a new type of mongrel replacing the old native stock. while the masses of poultry keepers were thus crossing new and old stock at random, many breeders were trying systematically to produce a new breed that would meet all the popular requirements. even before the days of the hen fever two local breeds had arisen, probably by accident. these were the jersey blue and the bucks county fowl, both of which continued down to our own time but never became popular. at the first exhibition in boston a class had been provided for crossbred fowls, and in this was shown a new variety called the plymouth rock. from the descriptions of these birds now in existence it appears that they looked much like the modern partridge plymouth rock. those who brought them out hoped that they would meet the popular demand, and for a short time it seemed that this hope might be realized, but interest in them soon waned, and in a few years they were almost forgotten. [illustration: fig. . white plymouth rock hen (photograph from c. e. hodgkins, northampton, massachusetts)] in the light of the history of american breeds which did afterwards become popular we can see now that the ideas of the masses of american poultry keepers were not as strictly practical as their objections to the various foreign breeds appeared to show. the three varieties that have just been mentioned, and many others arising from time to time, met all the expressed requirements of the practical poultry keeper quite as well as those which subsequently caught his fancy. indeed, as will be shown farther on, some of the productions of this period, after being neglected for a long time, finally became very popular. usually this happened when their color became fashionable. =the modern barred plymouth rock.= shortly after our civil war two poultrymen in connecticut--one a fancier, the other a farmer--engaged in a joint effort to produce the business type of fowl that would meet the favor of american farmers. a male of the old dominique type was crossed with some black cochin hens. this mating produced some chickens having the color of the sire, but larger and more robust. another and more skillful fancier saw these chickens and persuaded the farmer to sell him a few of the best. a few years later, when, by careful breeding and selection, he had fixed the type and had specimens enough to supply eggs to other fanciers, he took some of his new breed to a show at worcester, massachusetts. up to this time he had not thought of a name for them, but as people who saw them would want to know what they were called, a name was now necessary. it occurred to this man that the name "plymouth rock," having once been given to a promising american breed, would be appropriate. so the birds were exhibited as plymouth rocks. [illustration: fig. . buff plymouth rock cock] this new breed caught the popular fancy at once, for it had the color which throughout this country was supposed always to be associated with exceptional vigor and productiveness, and it had greater size than the dominique. the fame of the new breed spread rapidly. it was impossible to supply the demand from the original stock, and, as there is usually more than one way of producing a type by crossing, good imitations of the original were soon abundant. farmers and market poultrymen by thousands took up the plymouth rock, while all over the land fanciers were trying to perfect the color which their critical taste found very poor. [illustration: fig. . silver-penciled plymouth rock hen] =other varieties of the plymouth rock.= the success of the plymouth rock gave fresh impetus to efforts to make new breeds and varieties of the same general character. great as was its popularity, the new breed did not suit all. some did not like the color; some objected to the single comb, thinking that a rose comb or a pea comb had advantages; some preferred a shorter, blockier body; others wanted a larger, longer body. the off-colored birds which new races usually produce in considerable numbers, even when the greater number come quite true, also suggested to some who obtained them new varieties of the plymouth rock, while to others it seemed better policy to give them new names and exploit them as new and distinct breeds. both black and white specimens came often in the early flocks of barred plymouth rocks. the black ones were developed as a distinct breed, called the black java. the white ones, after going for a while under various names, and after strong opposition from those who claimed that the name "plymouth rock" belonged exclusively to birds of the color with which the name had become identified, finally secured recognition as white plymouth rocks. almost immediately buff plymouth rocks appeared. for reasons which will appear later, the origin of these will be given in another connection. then came in rapid succession the silver-penciled, the partridge, or golden-penciled (which, as has been said, is probably quite a close duplicate of the type to which the name "plymouth rock" was originally given), and the columbian, or ermine, plymouth rock. these were all of the general type of the barred variety, but because in most cases they were made by different combinations, and because fanciers are much more particular to breed for color than to breed for typical form, the several varieties of the plymouth rock are slightly different in form. [illustration: fig. . silver-laced wyandotte pullet. photographed in position showing lacing on back] [illustration: fig. . silver-laced wyandotte cockerel] =the wyandottes.= closely following the appearance of the barred plymouth rock came the silver-laced wyandotte, called at first simply the wyandotte. the original type was quite different in color from the modern type. it had on each feather a small white center surrounded by a heavy black lacing. this has been gradually changed until now the white center is large and the black edging narrow. at first some of these wyandottes had rose combs and some had single combs. the rose comb was preferred and the single-combed birds were discarded as culls. strange as it seems in the case of an event so recent, no one knows where the first wyandottes came from. it is supposed that they were one of the many varieties developed either by chance or in an effort to meet the demand for a general-purpose fowl. they appear to have come into the hands of those who first exploited them in some way that left no trace of their source. they went under several different names until , when the name "wyandotte" was given them as an appropriate and euphonious name for an american breed. [illustration: fig. . white wyandotte cockerel. (photograph from w. e. mack, woodstock, vermont)] next appeared a golden-laced wyandotte, marked like the silver-laced variety but having golden bay where that had white. this variety was developed from an earlier variety of unknown origin, known in southern wisconsin and northern illinois (about and earlier) under the name of "winnebago." the silver-laced wyandottes, like the barred plymouth rocks, produced some black and some white specimens. from these were made the black wyandottes and the white wyandottes. then came the buff wyandottes (from the same original source as the buff plymouth rocks), and after them partridge wyandottes, silver-penciled wyandottes, and columbian, or ermine, wyandottes. from the three last-named varieties came the plymouth rock varieties of the corresponding colors, the first stocks of these being the single-combed specimens from the flocks of breeders of these varieties of wyandottes. [illustration: fig. . silver-penciled wyandotte cockerel. (photograph from james s. wason, grand rapids, michigan)] [illustration: fig. . partridge wyandotte pullet] =the rhode island red.= among the earliest of the local types developed in america was a red fowl which soon became the prevalent type in the egg-farming section of rhode island and quite popular in the adjacent part of massachusetts. most of the stock of this race was produced by a continuous process of grading and crossing which was systematic only in that it was the common practice to preserve none but the red males after introducing a cross of another color. a few breeders in the district bred their flocks more carefully than others, but the race as a whole was not really thoroughbred until after it became more widely popular. although the formation of this race began about (perhaps earlier), it was fifty years before it became known outside of the limited area in which it was almost the only type to be seen. indeed, the first birds of this race to attract the attention of the public were exhibited about as buff plymouth rocks and buff wyandottes. at that time very few of the rhode island reds were as dark in color as the average specimen now seen in the showroom, and buff specimens were numerous. birds with rose combs, birds with single combs, birds with pea combs, and birds with intermediate types of comb could often be found in the same flock. so it was not a very difficult matter, among many thousands of birds, to pick out some that would pass for buff plymouth rocks and some that would pass for buff wyandottes. these varieties were also made in other ways, mostly by various crosses with the buff cochin, but for some years breeders continued to draw on the rhode island supply. [illustration: fig. . columbian wyandottes. (photograph from r. g. richardson, lowell, massachusetts)] some people in the rhode island district thought that a breed which could thus furnish the foundation for varieties of two other breeds ought to win popularity on its own merits. so they began to exhibit and advertise rhode island reds. at first they made little progress, but as the breed improved, many more people became interested in it, and soon it was one of the most popular breeds in the country. the modern exhibition rhode island red is of a dark brownish red in color. =the american idea in england; the orpington.= at the time that the chinese fowls were attracting wide attention in america and england some were taken to other countries of europe. in almost every country they had some influence upon the native stock, but as each of the old countries had one or more improved races that suited most of those giving special attention to poultry culture, the influence of the asiatics was less marked than in our country. when the plymouth rock and the wyandotte became popular in america, they were taken to england, where, in spite of the preference for white skin and flesh-colored legs, they were soon in such favor that a shrewd english breeder saw the advantage of making another breed of the same general type but with skin and legs of the colors preferred in england. he called his new breed the orpington, giving it the name of the town in which he lived. the first orpingtons were black and were made by crossing the black progeny of plymouth rocks (which in america had been used to make the black java), black minorcas, and black langshans. then the originator of the orpingtons put out a buff variety, which he claimed was made by another particular combination of crosses, but which others said was only an improvement of a local breed known as the lincolnshire buff. later white orpingtons and spangled orpingtons appeared. =present distribution of improved races.= having briefly traced the distribution of the fowl in ancient times, and the movements which in modern times brought long-separated branches of the species together, let us look at the present situation. the plymouth rocks, wyandottes, rhode island reds, and orpingtons, which are essentially one type, the differences between them being superficial, constitute the greater part of the improved fowls of america and england and are favorites with progressive poultry keepers in many other lands. in many parts of this country one rarely sees a fowl that is not of this type, either of one of the breeds named or a grade of the same type. after the general-purpose type, the laying type, which includes the italian, spanish, german, and dutch races, is the most popular, but in this type popularity is limited in most places to the leghorns and to a few breeds which, though classed as distinct breeds, are essentially the same. the ancona is really a leghorn, and the andalusian, although it comes from spain, is, like other races in that land, distinctly of the same type as the fowls of italy. [illustration: fig. . single-combed buff orpington cock. (photograph from miss henrietta e. hooker, south hadley, massachusetts)] with the growth of a general-purpose class, interest in the asiatic fowls rapidly declined. they are now kept principally by fanciers and by market poultry growers who produce extra large fowls for the table. =deformed and dwarf races.= although some of the races of fowls that have been considered have odd characters which, when greatly exaggerated, are detrimental and bring the race to decay, such characters as large combs, crests, feathered legs, and the peculiar development of the face in the black spanish fowl, when moderately developed, do not seriously affect the usefulness of fowls possessing them. with a little extra care they usually do as well as fowls of corresponding plain types. poultry keepers who admire such decorations and keep only a few birds do not find the extra care that they require burdensome, and consequently all these races have become well established and at times popular. it is notable that in all fowls of this class the odd character is added to the others or is an exaggeration of a regular character. there are two other classes of odd types of fowls. the first of these is made up of a small group of varieties defective in one character; the second comprises the dwarf varieties, most of which are miniatures of larger varieties. =silky fowls.= in all races of fowls individuals sometimes appear in which the web of the feathers is of a peculiar formation, resembling hair. such fowls are called silkies. they are occasionally exhibited as curiosities but are not often bred to reproduce this character. there is one distinct race of white fowls, so small that it is usually classed as a bantam, having feathers of this kind. [illustration: fig. . single-combed white orpington hen. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] =frizzled fowls.= the feathers of a fowl are sometimes curled at the tips, like the short curls in the feathers which indicate the sex of a drake. such birds are called frizzles or frizzled fowls. true frizzles, like true silkies from races having normal plumage, are very rare. many of the fowls exhibited at poultry shows as frizzles are ordinary birds the feathers of which have been curled artificially. =rumpless fowls.= the tail feathers of a fowl are borne on a fleshy protuberance at the lower end of the spine. it sometimes happens that one or more of the lower vertebræ are missing. in that case the fowl has no tail and the feathers on the back, which in a normal fowl divide and hang down at each side, fall smoothly all around. true rumpless fowls are rare. many of the specimens exhibited are birds from which the rump was removed when they were very young. =bantams.= dwarf, or bantam, fowls, on account of their diminutive size and pert ways, are especially attractive to children. breeding them to secure the minimum size, the desired type, and fine quality in plumage color has the same fascination for a fancier as the breeding of large fowls, and as the small birds are better adapted to small spaces, fanciers who have little room often devote themselves to the breeding of bantams. the larger and hardier varieties of bantams are good for eggs and poultry for home use, but are not often kept primarily for these products. most people who keep bantams keep only a few for pleasure, and the eggs and poultry they furnish are but a small part of what the family consumes. bantam keepers who have a surplus of such products can usually find customers in their own neighborhood. the very small bantams and the very rare varieties are usually delicate and so hard to rear that amateurs who try them soon become discouraged and either give up bantams or take one of the hardy kinds. it is better to begin with one of the popular varieties, which are as interesting as any and, on the whole, are the most satisfactory. [illustration: fig. . white cochin bantam cockerel] =origin of bantams.= after the explanation of the origin of varieties given in chapter iii, and the description of the evolution of the different races of fowls in the present chapter, it is perhaps not really necessary to tell how dwarf races of fowls originated; but the belief that such races were unknown until brought to europe from the city of bantam, in the island of java, is so widespread that it can do no harm to give the facts which disprove this and in doing so to show again how easily artificial varieties are made by skillful poultry fanciers. [illustration: fig. . bantams make good pets] as has been stated, people who do not understand the close relations of the different races of fowls, and do not know how quickly new types may be established by careful breeding, attach a great deal of importance to purity of breed. hence, unscrupulous promoters of new breeds have often claimed that they received their original stock direct from some remote place or from some one who had long bred it pure. the idea of assigning the town of bantam as the home of a true species of dwarf domestic fowl seems to have occurred to some one in england more than a hundred years ago, and to have been suggested because of the resemblance of the name of this asiatic city to the english word "banty," the popular name for a dwarf fowl. it seems strange that such a fiction should be accepted as accounting for dwarf varieties of european races, but it was published by some of the early writers, used by lexicographers, and, having found a place in the dictionaries, was accepted as authoritative by the majority of later writers on poultry, even after some of the highest authorities had shown conclusively that this view of the origin of dwarf races was erroneous. [illustration: fig. . black-tailed white japanese bantams. (photograph from frederick w. otte, peekskill, new york)] [illustration: fig. . white polish bantam hen] [illustration: fig. . white polish bantam cock] no evidence of the existence of a dwarf race of fowls in java has ever been produced. the chinese and japanese bantams did not come to europe and america until long after the name "bantam" came into use. dwarfs occur and undoubtedly have occurred frequently in every race of fowls. usually they are unsymmetrical and weakly, and are called runts and put out of the way as soon as possible. but occasionally an undersized individual is finely formed, active, and hardy. by mating such a specimen with the smallest specimen of the other sex that can be found (even though the latter is much larger), and by repeated selection of the smallest specimens, a dwarf race may be obtained. it could be made, though not so rapidly, by systematic selection of the smallest ordinary specimens and by keeping the growing chicks so short of food that they would be stunted. the latter process, however, is so tedious that no one is likely to adopt it. usually the idea of making a new variety of bantams does not occur to a breeder until he sees a good dwarf specimen of a race of which there is no dwarf variety. then, if he undertakes to make such a variety, he is likely to use in the process both small specimens of large races and birds of long-established dwarf races. [illustration: fig. . black cochin bantam pullet[ ]] [illustration: fig. . black cochin bantam cockerel[ ]] [ ] photograph from dr. j. n. macrae, galt, ontario. [illustration: fig. . rose-comb black bantam cock] [illustration: fig. . rose-comb black bantam hen[ ]] [ ] photograph from grove hill poultry yards, waltham, massachusetts. dwarf types of most of the popular breeds have been made here and exhibited, but the originators were given very little encouragement to perfect them. [illustration: fig. . silver sebright bantam cockerel] [illustration: fig. . silver sebright bantam pullet] [illustration: fig. . dark brahma bantam cockerel] [illustration: fig. . light brahma bantam hen with brood[ ]] [ ] photograph from brook view farm, newbury, massachusetts. =varieties of bantams.= the most popular bantams in this country to-day are the cochin bantams, formerly called pekin bantams because the first that were seen in europe and america had come from peking. only the self-colored varieties--buff, black, and white--are natives of china. the partridge variety was made in england, where there are several other color varieties not known in this country. the common game bantam is a dwarf pit game fowl; the exhibition game bantam is a dwarf type resembling the exhibition game, developed from the common game bantam. rose-comb black and rose-comb white bantams are diminutive hamburg fowls; polish bantams are diminutive polish. the sebright bantams are of the same general type as the rose-combs, but in color they are laced like the large varieties of polish, not spangled like the party-colored hamburgs. they are further distinguished by being "hen-tailed," that is, the males having tails like hens. sebright bantams were made in england about a hundred years ago, by sir john sebright, for whom they were named. although the large brahmas and cochins are originally of the same stock, no bantams of the colors of the brahmas have come from china. the light and dark brahma bantams were made in england and america in very recent times. from japan has come a peculiar type of bantam with very short legs, a large tail carried very high, and a large single comb. in their native country the japanese bantams are not separated into distinct color varieties. in england and america there are black, white, gray, black-tailed white, and buff varieties. chapter v management of fowls the methods of managing fowls vary according to the conditions under which they are kept and the time that the keeper can give them. fowls ought to have an outdoor run, and it is desirable that this should be large enough to be kept in sod; but very few people in towns can give their fowls grass yards, and the advantages of an outdoor run will not in themselves compensate for neglect in other matters. hence we often see fowls under poor conditions, with good care, doing better than fowls, in a much more favorable environment, that are given indifferent care. no absolute rules for keeping fowls under any given conditions can be made. in general, small flocks of fowls that have free range or large, grassy yards need very little attention, while those that are closely confined require a great deal. with good care the egg production of fowls in close confinement is often better than that from fowls at liberty, but if the cost of caring for the fowls is computed at current rates for common labor, the rate of compensation is often higher on fowls running at large than on fowls in confinement which are producing many more eggs. the question of profits from amateur poultry keeping, however, should not be considered solely with reference to the compensation for time used, nor should such work be adjusted wholly with reference to economic results, for it combines recreation, education, and money compensation, and the first two results should have as much consideration as the last. in this chapter the methods adapted to small flocks are first described for the instruction of the pupil, and then descriptions of operations on a larger scale are given for his information. small flocks on town lots =numbers in flocks.= the average number of fowls kept by a town family for its own use is about one dozen. very few who keep hens have less than half a dozen, and not many who plan only to supply their own tables have more than a dozen and a half. six fowls, if well cared for, will produce all the eggs used by an average family of two or three persons during the greater part of the year. =houses and yards.= for a dozen medium-sized fowls the house should be about ft. × ft. on the ground, with the highest point of the roof about or feet from the floor. the general rule is to make the poultry house face the sun, and have the windows and the outside doors in or near the front. the object of this is to get as much sunlight in the house as possible in winter, when the sun is low, and to have the walls tight that are exposed to the prevailing cold winds. in the northern hemisphere the front of the house is toward the south; in the southern hemisphere it is toward the north. in tropical and subtropical countries houses are often so constructed that they can be kept open on all sides in summer and closed tightly, except in front, during cool weather. [illustration: fig. . small house used for fowls and pigeons] if the land on which a house stands is sandy and well drained, the floor may be of earth. the common practice where earth floors are used is to fill the earth level with the top of the sill and renew it once a year by removing the soil that has become mixed with droppings of the fowls and putting in fresh earth. when a house stands on wet land or on clay soil, it is better to have a floor of boards or of cement. fowls may be confined to a house for a year or more and lay well and be in apparently good condition at the end of such a period, but as the chickens hatched from the eggs of fowls that have been so closely confined for even a few months are almost invariably less vigorous than those produced from fowls that live a more natural life, this plan is not much used except by those who keep a few fowls for their eggs only and renew the stock by purchase as often as necessary. [illustration: fig. . an old-style small poultry house and yard] to give a flock of a dozen fowls outdoor air and exercise enough to keep them in good condition, a yard containing about sq. ft. is necessary. there is no perceptible advantage in giving more yard room than this, unless the yard can be made so large that grass will grow continuously in the greater part of it. on most soils this would require a yard containing from to sq. ft. in sod before being used for poultry. [illustration: fig. . coop and shade for flock of bantams[ ]] [ ] the coop is an old dry-goods box; the shade is a burlap bag. makeshift arrangements are not always nice looking, but some of the finest chickens are kept in very poor quarters. when fowls are confined to their houses, or to the houses and small yards, the droppings must be removed at frequent, regular intervals. to facilitate this it is customary to have a wide board, called the droppings board, under the roost at a distance of eight or ten inches. all the droppings made while the birds are on the roost fall on this board and are easily collected and removed. it is a good plan to keep a supply of dry earth in a convenient place, and strew a little of this over the droppings board after each cleaning. sifted coal ashes, land plaster, and dry sawdust are sometimes used instead of earth on the droppings boards. the droppings of fowls, when not mixed with other matter, are often salable for use in tanning leather, but in most cases the difference in their value for this purpose and for use as plant fertilizer is not great enough to pay for the extra trouble which is made by saving them for the tanners. poultry manure is one of the most valuable fertilizers and can always be used to good advantage on lawns and gardens. [illustration: fig. . neat house for six hens] if the floor is of wood or of cement, a thin layer of earth or sand spread upon it makes it more comfortable for the fowls. on all kinds of floors the modern practice is to use a few inches of litter of some kind. there is a great variety of materials that will serve this purpose. lawn clippings raked up after they are dry, dried weeds and grass from the garden, leaves collected when dry and stored to be used as wanted, straw, hay, cornstalks cut into short lengths, and shavings, such as are sold baled for bedding horses and cattle, are all good. fresh litter should be added in small quantities about once a week. about once a month the coarse litter on top should be raked aside, and the fine litter mixed with droppings underneath removed. once or twice a year all the material should be taken out and a fresh start made. [illustration: fig. . house for a dozen fowls. floor, ft. × ft.; height at sides, ft.; height in middle, ft.] when kept in a house having an earth floor, fowls will scratch aside the litter from small spaces and wallow and dust themselves. in houses having hard floors, shallow boxes about ft. square, containing several inches of dry earth, are placed for the birds' dust baths. fresh earth must be provided frequently or they will not use the bath as freely as is desirable. for use in winter the earth must be so dry that it will not freeze, but the birds prefer earth that is slightly moist. the first function of the dust bath is to clean the feathers, and damp earth does this much better than earth that is very dry. in wallowing to clean their plumage fowls also rid themselves of lice. when it is not convenient to store much earth, the same material may do double service--first in the dust bath, then on the droppings board. [illustration: fig. . small houses in back yard] in a bare yard the soil should be turned over often, all the matter that can be raked up with a fine rake having first been removed. a yard that is in grass requires little care except near the house, where the ground may be bare. here it should be forked over occasionally. =feeding.= the feeding of a small flock of fowls is a very simple process. the table and kitchen waste of an ordinary family will furnish all the soft food that they need, and usually enough green food to prevent their suffering for lack of such foods if no other provision is made for supplying them. this waste should not be carried from the house as it is made, and thrown on the ground for the fowls to pick out of the dirt. a better way is to provide a covered jar large enough to hold the accumulation of this material for a day. into this may be put all the leavings from the table, except such things as orange and banana peelings, large bones, and pieces of fat meat. once a day, at whatever time is most convenient, the contents of the jar should be mixed with as much corn meal and bran (equal parts by measure) as will take up the water in them and make a moist but not sloppy mash. this should be fed in a clean trough. if the trough stands high enough from the floor to keep the contents clean, it will do no harm if more food is given than the birds will eat up at once, but the quantity given should never be so great that it will not be eaten before the next feeding time. most people find the morning the most convenient time to give the mash. if the mash is fed in the morning, a small feed of hard grain should be given about noon, and a more liberal one an hour or two before sunset. some poultry keepers feed the different grains separately; others mix them before feeding. advocates of different practices often imagine advantages for that which they favor, but no advantage can be demonstrated for either. wheat and cracked corn are the grains most used in this country; they are about equal in feeding value. as corn is nearly always cheaper than wheat, the usual practice is to feed about twice as much corn. when the grains are mixed, one part (by measure) of wheat is used to two parts of cracked corn. when they are fed separately, it is usual to feed the wheat at noon, as the light feed, and the corn in the evening, as the heavy feed. all the common grains except rye make good poultry foods. why fowls do not like rye is one of the puzzles of poultry keeping. in some countries it is used for poultry to a greater extent than in the united states, and fowls forced to eat it here have done very well for short periods, but will not eat it readily if they are accustomed to other grains and can get enough to sustain life without it. fowls do not like dry oats so well as corn and wheat, but have not such a dislike for them as for rye. they are very fond of oats soaked in water and partly sprouted. [illustration: fig. . with curtains closed] [illustration: fig. . with one curtain open] [illustration: fig. . as an open-front house] poultry house used at the central experiment station, ottawa, canada. (photograph from the station) the quantity of grain to be given any flock of fowls must be determined by trial and observation. the grain should not be fed in troughs from which the birds can eat it very quickly, but scattered in the litter on the floor, so that the fowls will take exercise scratching it out, and eat slowly. there is an advantage in giving some soft and quickly digested food, but if too much of the food can be eaten quickly, the birds do not take exercise enough. when there is grass in the poultry yard, it is a good plan to scatter the grain in the grass sometimes in fine weather. the hens will find it all, and in scratching it out will bring up the dead grass, and a better sod will grow afterward. [illustration: fig. . flock of barred plymouth rocks] a dozen medium-sized fowls, if fed in the morning with the mash described above, would probably need a little over a pint of grain in the middle of the day and about a quart toward evening. an experienced feeder can usually tell by the eagerness of the fowls for their food whether to increase or diminish the quantity; but the most expert poultry keeper does not rely upon this kind of observation alone. occasionally, before giving food, he looks in the litter to see if there is grain left there from previous feedings, and if he finds much, gives no more until the birds have eaten this all up clean. water should be given as often as is necessary to keep the supply quite fresh. in cool (but not freezing) weather, once a day is usually sufficient. in hot weather the water should be fresh two or three times a day, in order that the birds may have cool drinks. in freezing weather many poultry keepers give the water warm, because then it does not freeze so quickly. the advantage of this is very slight, and wattles that are wet with warm water in extreme cold weather become especially susceptible to frost. it is not really necessary to give fowls water when they can get snow or ice in a form in which they can eat it. [illustration: fig. . flock of single-comb white leghorns] hens that are laying must be well supplied with oyster shells or lime in some form for the shells of the eggs. they can get a part of the lime required for this purpose from the lime in foodstuffs, but not nearly enough to make good thick shells for all their eggs when they are laying well. ground oyster shells are sold by all dealers in poultry supplies. [illustration: fig. . white wyandotte hen and chicks] =growing chickens.= where old fowls have to be kept in close confinement, very little can be done in growing chickens. some amateur poultry keepers raise in small, bare yards birds that are as good as the average chickens grown under more favorable conditions, but where one succeeds in doing this a hundred fail. most of the chickens grown in close quarters are very poor indeed in comparison with farm-grown chickens, and quite unfit to be kept for laying or breeding purposes. those who succeed in growing good chickens in a small place usually give a great deal more time to the work than the chickens produced are worth. the best way for a poultry keeper so situated to get as much as possible of the pleasure of this interesting line of work is to hatch a few broods and, when the chicks are large enough, broil, eat, or sell all but a few of the best pullets and one or two cockerels. if these thrive, they may be worth keeping for a year; but if, as they mature, they do not seem rugged, it is not wise to use them for laying stock. where there is room to give young chickens a good grass yard, a limited number can be grown to maturity year after year on a town lot and used for laying and breeding purposes. many town poultry keepers who might grow a few very good chickens never grow a good one because they always try to raise too many for the space at their disposal. fifty or a hundred chickens may be kept until two months old on a plot of land only large enough to carry twelve or fifteen to maturity. so people start out with a great many more chickens than they ought to have on their land, never thinking that the better their chickens do at the start the sooner they will begin to overcrowd their quarters, and that when that stage is reached, the promising results of several months' work may in a few days be ruined beyond remedy. after they are two or three months old, young chickens will not make the best growth of which they are capable unless they have either a great deal of room or a great deal more care than most people who raise only a few, and have other work to do, can afford to give them. small flocks on ordinary farms =numbers in flocks.= the ordinary farm flock consists of from fifty to one hundred adult fowls and, during the growing season, from one hundred to two hundred chickens. the old stock is usually kept in one or more small houses located among the other outbuildings, and all run together during the day. if the farmer wants to keep the fowls out of the dooryard and the kitchen garden, he does not make yards for the fowls, but incloses the dooryard and garden. outside of these the birds go where they please. the coops for the young chickens are often kept in the dooryard or the garden until the chickens are weaned, but after that the young birds are nearly always turned out to take their chances with the old ones. [illustration: fig. . a small farm stock of fowls, ducks, and turkeys] under such conditions a farm flock is not often very productive, yet, as the birds secure a large part of their food by foraging, the flock may be more profitable than a more productive flock for which all food is bought and upon which a great deal of labor is expended. while this way of keeping fowls on farms is not in itself commendable, it is not to be altogether condemned, because circumstances often compel the farmer to treat his fowls as a sort of volunteer or self-producing crop. the conditions on a farm admit of this, and as a matter of fact the greater part of our enormous total production of eggs and poultry comes from the half-neglected flocks on the ordinary farms. hence the conditions are tolerable where they are necessary, but whenever it is possible to give farm fowls enough attention to obviate the faults of common practice, the product and the profits can be greatly increased with very little increase in the cost of production. in this section we consider the best methods of securing this result when all the old stock is to be kept as one flock. old stock and young ought always to be separated unless the old birds constitute an insignificant portion of the flock. [illustration: fig. . good poultry house on texas farm. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] =single houses for farm flocks.= it is as true on a farm as elsewhere that the greatest yields of eggs and the best growth in young birds are secured when the flock is divided into small groups. but a farm flock of the class under consideration, while it makes its headquarters in such buildings as may be provided, will forage a considerable distance in every direction, going among growing crops from which the larger farm animals must be excluded, and also following the larger animals in their stables, yards, and pastures and picking up food left by them. as fowls also eat many weeds and seeds of weeds, and all kinds of destructive insects, the advantages of letting them run at large more than make up for lower production. also the production is normal and can be easily maintained from year to year in the same line of stock, while high production secured by extra care is forced and can be maintained in the same line of stock for only a few generations. a flock of one hundred fowls or less, that run together, may all be kept in one house just as well as in several, if the size of the house and the equipment are in proportion to the size of the flock. [illustration: fig. . rude poultry house on a kansas farm. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] if the snow lies long on the ground, so that the fowls are confined to the house much of the time in winter, the allowance of floor space should be about sq. ft. per bird. where the snow rarely lies more than a day or two at a time, less space may be given, because the birds will not occupy the house much of the time during the day. under such conditions the allowance of floor space may be as low as sq. ft. per bird. those who go to this limit, however, should consider that, in the unusual case of a snowstorm keeping the hens confined to the house for more than a very few days, overcrowding may cause losses that more than offset what was gained by using the highest capacity of the house. usually a flock of fifty hens needs a house with a floor surface of about sq. ft. this is obtained in a house ft. square or in a house ft. × ft. a house ft. square is about right for seventy-five or eighty hens, and is not badly overcrowded if one hundred medium-sized birds are put into it. if an oblong building is preferred, a house ft. wide by ft. long gives one hundred birds sq. ft. of floor space per bird. houses of such size should be from ft. to ft. high at the sides, and from ft. to ft. high at the highest point of the roof, according to the style of construction. [illustration: fig. . good poultry house on a kansas farm. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] =feeding.= in the feeding of a farm flock the first thing to consider is what the birds can pick up by foraging. the poultry keeper on a farm, even more than the poultry keeper elsewhere, should make it a rule to do nothing for poultry that they can do for themselves. fowls can do more for themselves at some seasons than at others, because natural food is more abundant. as fowls do not usually go very far from their house, the larger the flock the less food each bird will secure. on some farms quite a large flock of fowls can get all the food they need about the barns and stockyards and in orchards and fields near the homestead. [illustration: fig. . poultry house at mississippi agricultural college.[ ] (photograph from the college)] [ ] in this house the part of the rear wall above the roost platform is made to open wide, thus affording perfect ventilation in summer. when the conditions are such that it may reasonably be supposed that the fowls can get all the food they require without going farther than fowls usually wander, the best way to determine whether this supposition is correct is to give them no food until evening, then throw out a little grain and see how much they will eat. if it appears that they need to be fed a considerable quantity, it is better to give a light feed in the morning and another in the evening than to give a heavy feed once a day, because if they learn to expect a full feed at a regular time, they will not forage so well. fowls that have an opportunity to secure considerable food by foraging should never be fed so much in the morning that they will sit around for hours. when hens on a farm need only one or two light feeds a day, whatever grain is most convenient may be given them. where they get so much exercise and a good variety of other foods, whole corn is as good as anything. a good way to feed it is to break the ears into short pieces and let the birds pick the grain from the cob. in winter the feeding of the farm flock should have more attention, especially if little food can be secured around the stables and stockyards. it is a good plan to give, once a day, a warm mash made of part (by measure) of corn meal and parts of bran, and to give as much grain at one other feeding as the hens will eat. some farmers use sheaf oats for litter in the floors of their poultry houses, throwing in a sheaf or two as often as is necessary to keep a good depth of litter on the floor, and then give as much corn in addition as the hens will eat readily. [illustration: fig. . open-front house with hood. (photograph from department of agriculture, victoria, british columbia)] if it is not convenient to make a mash, what grain the fowls will eat quickly from a trough may be prepared for a warm breakfast for them by pouring boiling water on it in the evening and letting it soak overnight. any of the small grains and cracked corn may be fed in this way; whole corn needs longer soaking. in hard, freezing weather no more mash or soaked grain should be given than the fowls will eat before it can freeze. a favorite old-time practice still used on many farms is to heat shelled corn in the oven and feed it while warm. the best vegetable foods for fowls in winter are cabbages and mangel-wurzels. the cabbages can be hung up by the roots and the fowls will eat all but the stump. the most convenient way to feed the beets is to split them and impale the pieces on spikes in the wall at a convenient distance from the floor. sound, sweet turnips are also good, but bitter turnips and those that have begun to spoil are likely to give an unpleasant flavor to the eggs. a little freezing does not seem to affect the value of these vegetables for poultry food, and the birds will usually eat them when frozen. the quantity fed at one time, however, should not be so large that it may freeze and thaw several times before it is all eaten. [illustration: fig. . movable poultry house on united states government farm, beltsville, maryland. (photograph from bureau of animal industry)] when hogs and cattle are killed on a farm, the blood and other offal, and the small trimmings when the carcasses are cut up, should be saved and fed to the fowls regularly in moderate quantities, but care should be taken not to leave fat trimmings where the fowls can help themselves, for if fowls have been short of animal food, they eat meat very greedily and are often made sick by it. blood and lean meat are not very injurious, but too much fat meat has very bad effects. [illustration: fig. . the upper shutter is closed only at night in extreme cold weather] [illustration: fig. . lower part of front open for hot weather] another style of movable house at the united states government farm, beltsville, maryland. (photograph from bureau of animal industry) it is not necessary to give the fowls water when there is snow on the ground. delicate fowls that are accustomed to close confinement may not be able to stand running out on the snow, but if they have a comfortable house, with a good supply of litter on the floor, and are free to go and come at will, rugged birds that are out in all kinds of weather are not in the least hurt by going out on snow and ice and wet ground in cold weather, and will usually take snow in preference to water when they can get it. when the ground is bare and frozen, water or finely chipped ice should be supplied. in extreme cold weather the latter is better, because the water soon freezes and the fowls go thirsty until a fresh supply is given them. [illustration: fig. . barred plymouth rock hen with light brahma chicks] =reproducing the flock.= fowls are short-lived creatures. they mature in less than a year; their period of greatest productiveness is usually over before they are two years old, and only a very small proportion of a flock are worth keeping after that. hence the entire stock of fowls on a farm is renewed in two years. most farmers intend to kill off all their two-year-old hens each year, thus keeping up the number in the flock by growing annually about as many young birds as there are hens in the flock. to allow for losses, for an excess of males, and for inferior pullets which are not worth keeping for layers, it is necessary to hatch about four times as many chickens as are to be reserved. =the hatching season.= most of the chickens reared on farms are hatched in the spring months. the late-hatched chickens are nearly all from hens that steal their nests. people on farms do not want late chickens; among so many larger ones a few small birds have very little chance to make good growth. but those who have a place to keep a few early chickens and time to take care of them often set a few hens in the winter. eggs will hatch at any season of the year, and chickens will grow if they get proper care; but there is a comparatively short season in the spring when eggs hatch better and chickens grow better than at any other time, and the easiest way to get a given number of good chickens that will be full-grown at the beginning of winter is to hatch them in this natural hatching season. this season cannot be exactly defined, because it varies according to latitude and also from year to year according to the weather. perhaps the best general rule is to have the first chicks hatch when the grass is beginning to grow. to effect this the hens must be set three weeks earlier, when there may be no signs of spring. no one can time hatches to a natural phenomenon of this kind with certainty, but by planning with reference to the advance of spring in a normal season, the first hatches are usually brought very near to the desired time. =broody hens.= when a hen wants to incubate eggs, or, as the common phrase is, to sit, she remains on her nest continuously and, unless very shy, will not leave it when approached and will resent any interference. the hen is then said to be broody. because the broody hen makes a clucking noise, she is sometimes called a clucking hen. hens that are shy when they begin to cluck, and that fly from the nest when approached, usually become tame and allow themselves to be handled after a few days. broody hens cannot always be obtained at the time they are wanted. in that case there is nothing to do but wait, or try to buy, hire, or borrow them. there is no way of forcing or inducing hens to become broody before they would do so of their own accord. when broody hens are hard to get, people think that hatching with incubators will relieve them of trouble and prevent delay, but the incubator, too, has its uncertainties. success in artificial hatching requires careful attention to the operation of the incubator and good judgment in adjusting and regulating it. [illustration: fig. . nest boxes, made in pairs, for sitting hens. inside dimensions: large, " × " × "; small, " × " × "] [illustration: fig. . same as fig. , with nest boxes closed] =setting the hens.= as many broody hens as can be obtained should be set at the same time. the most convenient style of nest is that shown in figs. and , which can be kept closed if desired. the best nest material is soft hay or straw. in preparing the nest a poultry keeper shapes the nest material with his hand, to give it a bowl shape, pressing it down to make a smooth, firm surface upon which the eggs will lie evenly. it is a good plan to make the nests and place the hens in them, giving to each a few china nest eggs two or three days before the eggs that are to be hatched are given to them. the eggs for hatching should be of good size and shape, with good strong shells, and as uniform in color as can be obtained. the usual number of eggs placed under a hen is thirteen. after the weather becomes warm, even a small hen will cover thirteen eggs well, and medium-sized hens will cover fifteen or sixteen eggs and often hatch every one, but early in the season it is better to give a hen eleven eggs or perhaps only nine. the number of eggs given a hen is almost always an odd number. there is an old superstition that an even number will not hatch. the reason commonly given by writers on poultry is that an odd number of eggs arrange in better form in the nest, but this is mere fancy. however the practice started, the real reason why odd numbers of eggs are placed in nests of sitting hens now is that the custom is so well established, and the habit of thinking of eggs for hatching in odd numbers is so strong, that most poultry keepers do it unconsciously. =care of sitting hens.= the best food for sitting hens is whole corn. as the hen will leave the nest only once a day, and not always daily unless removed, the food is given in a vessel from which she can eat it readily. the usual way is to keep a supply where the hens are, so that whenever they leave the nest they can get something to eat. whether to let them choose their own time to leave the nest or to keep the nests closed except when they are let off at a regular time each day is a point to be determined in each case according to the circumstances. if all the hens in the same place are quiet and get along well together and do not quarrel for the possession of particular nests, they may be left very much to themselves; otherwise the poultry keeper should regulate things so that there will be no quarreling and no danger of a nest of eggs getting cold while two hens crowd on another nest and break some of the eggs in it. besides grain the hens need water and a place to dust. most sitting hens will dust themselves every time they leave the nest, if they have an opportunity to do so. as lice multiply rapidly on sitting hens, it is a good idea, even when the hen can dust herself, to apply an insect powder to her and to the nest two or three times during the period of incubation. the eggs may be tested at the end of the seventh day by using a light, as described on page . while fertility can be determined earlier, waiting until the seventh day enables one to tell more surely whether fertility is strong or weak, and to discard weak germs as well as infertile eggs. an infertile egg is clear, that is, shows no signs of development or decay, at every period of incubation. the eggs that rot are fertile eggs in which the germs have died. a rotten egg is distinguished from a fertile egg through the tester by the movement of the line between the transparent air space at the large end of the egg and the dark contents, this movement showing that the contents are in a fluid state. the eggs which are the most opaque and have the air space most distinctly marked are those which have the strongest germs. eggs that are conspicuously light-colored (as they appear before the light) when compared with these may as well be discarded. if many eggs are discarded, those that remain may be given to a part of the hens, and the rest of the hens reset. =attention at hatching time.= the eggs of medium-sized fowls usually hatch in from twenty to twenty-one days. the eggs of small fowls take about a day less, and those of large fowls about a day more. hens' eggs have been known to hatch as early as the seventeenth day and as late as the twenty-fourth, but as a rule chickens that come before the nineteenth day or after the twenty-second are weakly. hens sometimes trample the chickens in the nests or crush the eggs after they are picked, so that the chicken cannot turn to break the shell in the regular manner. sometimes this is due to the nervousness or to the clumsiness of the hen, but oftener it is caused by the nest being too much dished (that is, hollowed so much that the eggs tend to roll toward the center) or by lice disturbing her. the chickens may be saved either by removing them to other broody hens or by putting them in a flannel wrapping in a warm place. unless, however, the conditions are bad, it is better to leave them with the hen. hens with little chicks should be left in the nests until all the eggs that will hatch have hatched and the chicks are dry and begin to show an inclination to run about. then, if the weather is fine, the hen and her brood may be taken at once to a coop out of doors, but if it is cold or stormy, the little chicks are better indoors. [illustration: fig. . coop for hen and chicks, to be used without run] =coops for broods.= the coop for a hen and chickens should be so constructed that they will have plenty of fresh air at night. there should be a small run attached to it, to which the hen can be confined while the chickens run about or come to her to be brooded, as they may wish. it is not a good plan to let a hen run with her brood while the chicks are very small. the chickens do much better if the mother is confined and gives more attention to keeping them warm than to feeding them. the coops should not be placed in the same spot year after year, nor should they be on land upon which the old fowls run during any considerable portion of the year. sod ground is best. [illustration: fig. . coop to be used with runs, as in fig. ] =feeding young chickens.= from early times in america the most common food for young chickens has been corn meal moistened with water. when fresh this is a good food for chickens that run about and eat a great deal of green food, insects, worms, and small seeds, but a mash of scalded corn meal and bran, such as is given old fowls, or a baked johnnycake, is better. there is no need of fussing with such foods as finely chopped hard-boiled eggs, cracker crumbs, pinhead oatmeal, and other things often recommended as most appropriate for the first feeds of little chicks. healthy hen-hatched chicks raised by the natural method on a farm need nothing but one soft feed (such as has been mentioned) in the morning, a little hard grain toward evening, and then, just before dark, all the soft food they will eat. the best grain for them is sound cracked corn; the next best is wheat. the chickens should have good water always before them, and may be given all the milk they want. skim milk, sour milk (either thin or clabbered), and buttermilk are all eaten with relish and promote health and growth. vessels in which milk is given must be cleaned often or they will become very filthy. [illustration: fig. . coops and runs for hens and chicks[ ]] [ ] burlap bags are used to shade the interior or to keep out rain. when not in use they are turned back on the top of the coop. =management of growing chicks.= of course, healthy chickens are growing all the time, and growing at a very rapid rate, too; but after the chicks are weaned, they have usually reached the point in growth when the increase in size in a short period is very noticeable. so poultry keepers commonly speak of chickens from weaning time until maturity as growing chicks. at this time the rudest kind of shelter will suit them as well as any. indeed, they hardly need shelter from the weather at all. the most essential things are a good range, apart from the old fowls, and an abundance of food. they should be able to pick up a great deal of food for themselves, but should have enough given them to make sure that they always have all the food they can eat. it does not pay to stint them to make them forage farther. young chickens will always take all the exercise that they need if they have the opportunity, and the more they eat the better they grow. [illustration: fig. . small house for growing chicks, in maine orchard] [illustration: fig. . small house for growing chicks, in orchard in new york state] when the range near their coops ceases to afford them good picking, the coops should be moved to a place where the food to be secured by foraging is more abundant. large stocks on general farms when farmers in america began to keep larger stocks of fowls, the most common practice nearly everywhere was to increase the general flock until there were far too many fowls on the land that they would usually forage over. under such conditions fowls on the farm were not profitable. they damaged every crop to which they had access, and made the farm most unsightly in the vicinity of the dwelling house. then some farmers would reduce the flock and return to the old practice of keeping only a few dozen hens, while others would adopt the city plan of building houses with many compartments and keeping the fowls yarded in small flocks. this plan was usually abandoned within a few years, because, while it worked very well in the winter, when the farmer had time to give the hens extra care, they were not as well off in the summer, when the farmer had to give attention to his field crops first. such was the usual course of development of farm methods of managing fowls. [illustration: fig. . stone poultry house about two hundred years old, on farm of f. w. c. almy, tiverton four corners, rhode island] [illustration: fig. . rhode island colony poultry house for thirty-five fowls] [illustration: fig. . colony poultry houses on rhode island farm] =the colony system.= but occasionally a farmer whose flock had outgrown its accommodations as one flock would divide it, moving a part to another place on the farm, and so was able to maintain the increase in numbers without adopting laborious methods. this idea was carried out most systematically and most extensively in the vicinity of little compton, rhode island, where the rhode island red fowl originated. the first settlers in this part of rhode island built large stone poultry houses like that shown in fig. . some of these old buildings are still used for poultry. this district is most favorably situated for poultry keeping. the snow rarely lies long, and the birds can be outdoors nearly every day in winter as well as in summer. being near the fashionable summer resort of newport, the farmers here early found a large demand for their eggs and poultry at high prices in the summer time, when in many places the prices were low. then in the winter they could send eggs to boston and providence, which were the best markets in the country for this class of produce. so these farmers had every inducement to devise a practical method of indefinitely increasing their stocks of fowls. the plan which they adopted was very simple. small houses, which could easily be moved from place to place with a two-horse team, and which would accommodate from twenty-five to thirty-five fowls, were made and distributed over the farm. sometimes these houses were placed in pastures not suitable for mowing or for cultivation and remained there permanently, but as a rule they were moved from time to time to suit the rotation of crops on the farm. as the number of these houses on a farm increased, and they were spread over a larger area and sometimes placed in fields and pastures a long distance from the farmhouse, the work of caring for the fowls, even by the simple method used, became too heavy to be done by man power alone, and a horse and cart was used in carrying food and water, collecting eggs, and moving chicks and fowls from one part of the farm to another. thus the work was put on a very economical basis, and keeping fowls by this method became a common feature of the farming of this section of rhode island. the methods used here have changed little, if at all, since the system was started sixty or seventy years ago. the system is so primitive that people who are familiar with more elaborate methods often imagine that the rhode island farmer, who does so well by his simple methods, would certainly do very much better if he applied more of the modern ideas. but the test of time has demonstrated that this simple colony system is easily made permanent, while most of the more ambitious and complex systems either fail utterly or have but a transient success. [illustration: fig. . collecting eggs on rhode island farm. the little girl is in the box in which dough is carried in the morning] =numbers of hens kept.= the number of hens kept on a farm in this section varies from four or five hundred to over two thousand. stocks of from eight hundred to twelve hundred are most common. the principal object is to produce market eggs, but as the two-year-old hens and the cockerels that are not needed for breeding purposes are sold every year, the receipts from the sale of live poultry are sometimes considerable. [illustration: fig. . colony houses at michigan agricultural college. (photograph from the college)] =feeding, care, and results.= the hens, being well distributed over the farm, pick a large part of their living. hard grain (usually cracked corn) is kept always before them in the house, in hoppers which will hold a bag of grain each. once a day, in the morning, the hens are given a feed of mash (or, as it is called in this locality, dough) of about the same composition as the mash described on page . the dough is cooked in a large iron set-kettle in the evening and left there until it is to be fed the next morning. then it is loaded into boxes or large tubs on a cart. the cart also carries a barrel of water. as he reaches each house the driver, with a shovel, throws what dough the hens need on the grass near the house. then he fills the water pail and drives on to the next house. the hens require no more attention until evening, when the man collects the eggs and gives more water where it is necessary. [illustration: fig. . moving one of the houses in fig. ] [illustration: fig. . colony houses at iowa agricultural college. (photograph from the college)] some of the smaller stocks of fowls on these farms--flocks that have been selected with care and are given a little more attention than is usual--give an average annual production of eleven or twelve dozen eggs a hen, but the general average is only eight or nine dozen. although the profit per hen is small, the compensation for labor and investment is better than on most poultry plants where a much greater product per hen is secured. even when eggs are the most important money crop on the farm, the care of the laying hens is but a small part of the day's work of the man who looks after them. [illustration: fig. . colony houses at hampton institute] =how the chickens are grown.= the number of chickens reared each year on one of these colony farms is usually about equal to the number of fowls kept. where there are so many hens of a sitting variety, and very early hatching is not practiced, there is rarely any shortage of sitting hens at the time when they are wanted. usually twenty or thirty hens are set at the same time, and it is expected that they will hatch eight or ten chickens each. sometimes sixty or seventy hens are set at one time. as it is almost always quite warm when the chickens are hatched, it is customary to give each hen twenty or more chickens. the coops are placed in rows, several rods apart each way, on a piece of grassland that has had no poultry on it for a year or more. most of the farmers are very particular on this point, and prefer to put the young chickens on land on which there has been no poultry for at least two years. they have learned by experience that under such conditions they can rear a much larger percentage of the chickens hatched, and that the chickens will grow more evenly and mature earlier. in planning the field crops grown on the farm they always try to arrange so that the small chickens may have fresh land not too far from the farmhouse; land seeded to grass the year before is best. the chickens are fed the same dough as is given to the hens, but are fed oftener. they have a second meal of dough about noon, and their grain supply, which is given in small troughs, is replenished frequently. while the hens are with the chickens the food is placed where the hen confined to the coop can get her share. after the hens are taken away, the dough is thrown on the grass as the cart passes up and down the rows of coops. [illustration: fig. . coop for hen and chicks, used on rhode island farm] when the hay has been harvested and the corn has grown tall, a part of the young chickens may be removed from the land where they were started, and the coops placed where they can forage on mowing lands, in cornfields, and wherever they can go without damage to a growing crop. as they become too crowded in the small coops, the cockerels are sold and, if there are still too many birds in a coop, a few pullets are taken from each of the overcrowded coops and new colonies are started, so far from their old associates that they will not find their way back. [illustration: fig. . colony house for growing chicks, at macdonald college. (photograph from the college)] in the early fall as many of the oldest hens are sold as is necessary to vacate the houses needed for the pullets reared that season. then the houses are thoroughly cleaned. (they may not have been cleaned before for six months or a year.) if a house is to be moved to a new location, the change is usually made at this time. one or two cartloads of clean sand are put into each house, to make the floor higher than the ground outside and to provide an absorbent for the droppings which are allowed to accumulate. when they are brought to the house, which will probably be their home as long as they live, the pullets are confined to the house, or a small temporary yard is attached to it, so that they cannot wander away. after a few days of confinement they accept the new home as their headquarters. =adaptability of the colony system.= the colony system as developed in rhode island attracted little attention elsewhere until very recent years. since about many descriptions of it have been published, and numerous efforts have been made to adapt features of this system to operations in other localities. the principal obstacles to this are snow and predacious animals. where snow lies deep for months it is not practical to keep fowls in widely distributed flocks in winter. in some places the plan of distributing the houses in summer and parking them (that is, placing them close together in a regular order) in winter has worked very well. where wild animals are numerous, colony methods cannot be extensively applied, but on most farms a limited application of the system will greatly increase the amount of poultry that can profitably be kept. in england many farmers use smaller colony houses than those in use in rhode island, and move them often, not letting a house stand in the same spot long enough to kill the grass. some of the houses used in this way are provided with small wheels. the advantage of moving houses often is greatest when the fowls are on good arable land, upon which there are, or will be, crops that can utilize the manure which the birds leave on the land. if the houses are moved methodically, the fertilizer will be evenly distributed. intensive poultry farms [illustration: fig. . colony houses in foreground; sheds for ducks beyond. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] =reasons for concentration.= in the early days of the poultry fancy in this country the tendency was for each fancier to keep as many different varieties as he could find room for or could afford to buy. most of these fanciers were city people who thought that, as they kept their fowls in small flocks anyway, they might just as well have as many different kinds of poultry as they had separate compartments in their poultry yards. when rich men with large estates became interested in fancy poultry, they usually built large houses containing many small pens, each with its small yard, and bought a few of each known variety. by far the greater part of the choicest poultry was kept in small inclosures, and the flocks that laid remarkably well were usually city flocks that were given good care. this seemed to a great many people to prove that fowls did not need the room and the freedom which for ages they had enjoyed on farms, and that the limit of the possible extension of the city method of keeping fowls in small, bare yards depended in any case upon the business capacity of the poultry keeper. =concentration not profitable.= very few people who have not had experience in growing large numbers of poultry under both good and bad conditions can be made to understand how futile industry and business methods are when many other things which affect results are unfavorable. even when the obstacles to the application of intensive methods on a large scale are pointed out to them, most novices imagine that the difficulties are exaggerated for the purpose of discouraging them. they think that the successful poultry keeper wishes to discourage competition, and that the person who has failed does not want to see any one else succeed, and so warns others to let such projects alone. those who have been very successful in their first efforts in a small way seldom lack perfect confidence in their ability to make good on any scale if once they are in a position to devote themselves entirely to this work. [illustration: fig. . commercial laying house at new jersey experiment station. (photograph from the station)] for some seventy or eighty years, but more especially for the last thirty or forty years, the most conspicuous phase of the poultry industry in america has been the widespread and continuous movement to develop large plants of this character. there has been no time, for a quarter of a century, when poultry plants of this kind, which to the uninitiated appeared to be highly profitable, have not been numerous. the owners of many of these plants have claimed that they were making very large profits, and their claims have led others to engage in the business, following in every detail the methods in use on some large plant which they suppose is very successful. so, while well-informed poultry keepers know that these methods are not practical on a large scale, except in a few limited lines of production, there is in the business a constant succession of newcomers who try to operate egg farms and breeding farms and combinations of various lines by methods that are not suited to their purpose. [illustration: fig. . interior of a compartment in commercial poultry house, united states government farm, beltsville, maryland. (photograph from bureau of animal industry)] =common type of intensive poultry farm.= the ordinary special poultry farm is a run-down farm upon which have been erected the buildings necessary for the accommodation of from four or five hundred to two or three thousand fowls kept in comparatively small yards. the buildings are nearly always neat and substantial, the fences strong and durable. the arrangement of the plant is orderly, and, when well stocked with fowls and kept clean, it presents a most attractive appearance. the houses and yards for adult stock, the incubator cellar and the brooder houses, the barns and sheds, and the dwelling of the owner or manager occupy but a very small part of the farm--usually from one to three acres. the young chickens are grown year after year on the nearest land not occupied by the permanent buildings and yards. in most cases the land is so heavily stocked with them that they secure almost nothing by foraging. the routine of work on such a farm is very exacting. the fowls can do so little for themselves and require so much extra care that the poultry keeper knows from the start that he cannot make his business pay unless he gets a very high production. so all his efforts are devoted to this end. he uses labor-saving appliances, carefully systematizes his work, and by great effort often succeeds in making a fair profit for a few years. it is at this stage of his progress that the poultry keeper of this class does the boasting which misleads others. then things begin to go wrong with his stock. his eggs do not hatch well, because his chickens, while nominally on free range on a farm, have really been no better off than chickens reared under ordinary conditions in town. his chickens do not thrive, because they are weak and the land is tainted. he himself is worn out with long hours of work and no holidays, and if he does not realize his mistake and close out the business in time, it is only a question of continuing until his income and credit combined no longer suffice to keep the business going. this in brief has been the history of all special poultry farms where intensive methods were used, except the duck farms and the several classes to be described farther on in this chapter. by no means all succeed to even the extent described, because a great many people who go into the business have so little capital that they have to give up the business before they have been able to make it show a profit. when the owners have capital, plants are sometimes operated for years at a loss, but it is very rare indeed that a poultry farm of this kind (except in the classes to be described later) is continued for more than seven or eight years, and few of them last five years. those who wish to make a poultry business permanent must adopt other methods. broiler growing the desire for what is rare and costly is a common trait in human character. in nothing is it more plainly displayed than in the demand for food products out of their natural season. an article which in its season of abundance is a staple article of diet, within the means of all but the very poorest, at its season of scarcity becomes a luxury which only the wealthy can afford. before cold-storage methods had been brought to high efficiency, there was a period in the latter part of the winter and the early spring when young chickens were very scarce. the number that could be hatched with hens to meet a demand at this season was small, and those who were hatching autumn and winter chickens by the natural method found it more profitable to keep them to sell as roasters late in the spring and early in the summer. =the "broiler craze."= a little before , artificial incubators being then first brought to a perfection which made them popular, some poultry keepers began to hatch chickens in the winter to meet the demand for early broilers. those who were successful made a very good profit on what chickens they had ready to sell while the prices were high. most of them operated in a very small way, taking up this work simply for occupation when they had nothing else to do. many were gardeners who had just about enough slack time, after the harvest of one year was over, to hatch and grow one lot of broilers before beginning their regular spring work. these people were not under any delusions about the limitations on this line of production. they knew that the demand for very small chickens at very high prices was limited and easily satisfied. but, as usual, the published accounts of what they were doing set a great many people to figuring the possibilities of profit from such a business conducted on a large scale. for a few years the broiler craze affected nearly every one interested in poultry keeping. thousands who never engaged in it were restrained only because of lack of capital or inability to adapt it to their circumstances. many people who had been through several unsatisfactory ventures in poultry keeping thought that they saw in this the one sure road to wealth, and began to make plans to grow broilers in large quantities. besides these business ventures there were countless small ones, sometimes conducted under the most unsuitable conditions. people tried to grow broilers in living rooms, in attics, in all sorts of unheated outbuildings, and in house cellars to which the daylight hardly penetrated. =present condition of broiler growing.= the production of broilers as a specialty did not last long. the improvement in cold-storage methods soon made it possible for speculators to carry over large quantities of summer chickens, and the poultry keepers in other lines could easily arrange to produce all the fresh broilers that could be sold at a good profit. roaster growing =description of a good roaster.= to roast nicely, a fowl must be full-grown and well filled out, but young, soft-meated, and fat. a fowl is "ripe" for a choice roaster for only a short period after arriving at maturity. when a pullet has laid a few eggs, her flesh becomes harder and is never again as tender and juicy as it was before she laid an egg. when the spurs of a cockerel begin to harden and to grow a long, sharp point, and the bird becomes boisterous and quarrelsome, the flesh becomes dry and tough and is not fit for roasting. =general and special supplies.= from july, when the earliest farm chickens are large enough for roasting, until about the first of february, when the last of the late-hatched farm chickens disappear from the markets, there are nearly always enough very good roasting chickens in the general market receipts to supply the demand for that class and grade of poultry. then for four or five months there are no fresh roasting chickens on the market except those grown especially for this trade. this line of poultry culture was developed first near philadelphia, in southern new jersey and eastern pennsylvania, about forty years ago. the chickens were hatched with hens in the autumn and early winter, each grower having only a few hundred. they were sold not only in philadelphia but in new york and boston, and in smaller eastern cities where there was a demand for them. they were, and still are, commonly known as philadelphia chickens. [illustration: fig. . massachusetts soft-roaster plant] =large roaster plants.= after incubators came into common use, the production of philadelphia chickens increased, but a more remarkable development of that line of production took place in plymouth county, massachusetts, just about the time the broiler craze started. the growing of winter chickens had been carried on to some extent in southern new england in the same way as in the vicinity of philadelphia, but the local supply was small and irregular until artificial methods were adopted. then, quite suddenly, the industry developed extensively in the vicinity of norwell, hanover, and rockland. its growth was remarkable, both because of the number of people who were successful on a comparatively large scale, and because it attracted almost no attention outside of this district until long after it had become a well-established local industry. [illustration: fig. . incubator cellar] the methods of the roaster growers in this district are very intensive, but as originally developed their business was not a continuous line of intensive poultry culture, nor is it continuous now except in some cases. for many years after the business began, the growers bought the eggs that they incubated from farmers whose flocks were kept under good conditions and were strong and vigorous; but as the numbers engaged in growing winter chickens increased, the supply of eggs from the farms was not sufficient, and some of the roaster growers began to keep hens to supply a part of the eggs they used. later some produced all the eggs for hatching that they needed for their own use, and a few sold to others also. this, however, can be done only by those having quite large farms. some of the most successful growers have only a few acres of land and do not attempt to keep breeding fowls. hatching begins in august or september and is continued until all the chickens that can be handled are hatched. if the eggs hatch well from the start, a large grower may have his houses full by december, but usually it takes until january to complete hatching, and sometimes it takes longer. the price paid for eggs for hatching is only a little above the price of market eggs, and the buyer takes all the risks of poor hatches. the chickens are kept in warm brooder houses as long as they need artificial heat, then they are removed to cold brooder houses of the same type or to colony houses. those who have land enough use mostly colony houses. while in the heated brooder houses the chickens are fed in the regular way--with mixed ground grains, either dry or moistened, and small whole or cracked grains. after they leave the brooder houses they have cracked corn, beef scrap, and water always before them; for green food they have cabbage or the winter rye or grass growing on the land. [illustration: fig. . house used for growing roasting chickens] [illustration: fig. . group of houses like that in fig. ] as the object of the grower is to have chickens that will grow large and remain soft as long as possible, the breeds used are principally light brahmas and plymouth rocks, although when eggs of these varieties cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities, wyandottes are used. the cockerels are caponized when they are about two months old. a capon does not grow a comb or spurs, nor does it crow. if a perfect capon, it remains always soft-meated and may grow very large, though it does not, as is commonly supposed, grow larger than a cockerel within the time it is usually kept before being killed. an imperfect capon will after a time grow a comb and short spurs and, though sterile, becomes harder in flesh than a perfect capon. an imperfect capon is technically called a _slip_. [illustration: fig. . petaluma egg farm. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] about the first of march some of the earliest pullets may begin to lay. from that time all the pullets that begin to lay, and the slips as they appear, are marketed; all others are kept, because the grower realizes the largest profit on those that can be marketed in june and july, when the price is highest. by the middle of july, at the latest, everything is sold. the poultry keeper then begins to prepare for the next crop of chickens by taking up all his fences, plowing land that is not in grass, and planting it with winter rye or cabbage or some late garden crop. rye and cabbage are preferred, because the rye will remain green all winter and furnish green food for chickens that have access to it, and the cabbage makes the best of green food for the little chickens in the brooder houses. it is just as good for the others, too, but not many of the poultry keepers grow enough to continue feeding it to them throughout the winter. while the land on these plants is heavily stocked with poultry, the birds are on it only half of the season,--when vegetation grows freely,--and during the remainder of the season a great deal of manure is removed from the soil by gross-feeding crops like rye and cabbage. so the land may be heavily stocked longer than it could be if fowls were on it all the time. the chickens grown in this way do not usually grow so large as those that are given more room, but they are grown at less cost and are as large as the market demands. by this method the land will carry a large crop of chickens year after year for many years, yet it finally becomes so contaminated that chickens do not thrive on it. [illustration: fig. . group of houses on a petaluma egg farm. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] intensive egg farming still another important development due to artificial incubation took place in california. the climate of the pacific coast is well suited to fowls of the mediterranean class, the cold never being severe enough to affect their large combs. hence these fowls early became very popular with farmers in this section, but as they were non-sitters, those who kept them had to keep hens of another breed to hatch and rear the chickens. when an incubator factory was established at petaluma, california, the farmers in that vicinity began to use incubators, and some small egg farms grew up in the town. white leghorns were kept almost exclusively. before long the egg industry here had grown to such proportions that it was the most important local industry, and the district became celebrated as a center of egg production. although the product is different, and a different type of fowl is used, the conditions at petaluma closely resemble those in the roaster-growing district of massachusetts. the special egg farms are small, each containing from five to ten acres. the houses for the laying hens are larger than the colony houses used in rhode island, and are arranged in groups of three, each group containing about five hundred hens. the egg farmers grow their own pullets but, as a rule, do not breed or hatch them. the hatching is done by custom hatcheries, the eggs coming from flocks of white leghorns on farms that do not specialize in poultry but keep a flock of leghorns under more favorable conditions than exist on the egg farms. here, as in the massachusetts district, the bad effects of intensive methods are reduced for a time, because the fowls affected by them are not used for reproduction. poultry fanciers' farms a large proportion of poultry fanciers are city people who have very little room for their fowls. some have no room at all for growing chickens, although, by giving them the best of care, they can keep a small flock of adult birds in fair condition. such fanciers have to find farmers to grow chickens for them. this is not so easy as is commonly supposed, for the farmers who are sufficiently interested in poultry to give them the care required to make good exhibition birds usually want to give their own birds all the time they can spare for work with poultry. [illustration: fig. . yards of a small poultry fancier] so it happens that, after a few years' experience in keeping fine fowls in close quarters, an amateur fancier almost always wants to move to a farm where he can grow more and better chickens. a small farm near a city suits the average fancier best, because, when so situated, he can continue his regular work and look after his poultry in leisure time. fanciers generally use houses with many pens under one roof, because, even when they have only one variety, the different matings must be kept separate during the breeding season, the adult males must be kept separate at all times, and valuable hens cannot be kept in large flocks except when damage to plumage may be remedied before they are to be exhibited or sold. a fancier will keep only five or six birds, and sometimes only two or three, where a utility poultry keeper would keep a dozen. if the yards connecting with the pens in the houses are small, he will arrange so that each lot of fowls may have access to a large yard daily or on alternate days. in every way practicable the experienced fancier arranges to give his fowls all the advantages of natural conditions, while isolating them as completely as is necessary to keep each individual in perfect condition. [illustration: fig. . large fancy-poultry farm] poultry farms that were started as intensive market-poultry or egg farms are sometimes converted into fancy-poultry farms. this is very likely to be the case if thoroughbred stock is used and the owner becomes skillful as a breeder. if he can breed fowls of a quality to command high prices, he may be able to produce enough of them on a small farm to make a very good living, when it would be very much harder, or perhaps impossible, to make the farm profitable with ordinary stock. [illustration: fig. . growing chicks in a fancier's yard] [illustration: fig. . young stock in cornfield on a fancier's farm] while farmers usually care more for horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, many become interested in poultry, and if they are natural fanciers and good business men, it often happens that the growing of fancy poultry becomes one of the most important industries on the farm. many women on farms become interested in fancy poultry, and some become very skillful breeders and exhibitors. a farmer-fancier's poultry plant is usually a combination of extensive and intensive methods. some buildings with small compartments must be provided, but all except the choicest birds can be managed just like the ordinary fowls on a farm where arrangements are made with a view to giving them the full advantage of the good conditions which the place affords. [illustration: fig. . summer quarters for poultry. (photograph from new york state agricultural college at cornell university)] to a novice in fancy-poultry culture the number of chickens grown by expert fanciers seems very small for the equipment and the land used, but the old fancier has learned in the costly school of competition, by the bitter experience of defeat, that in growing exhibition poultry it pays to give the birds a great deal more room, both indoors and outdoors, than is needed simply to get quick growth and good size. elegance of form, depth and brilliance of color, and the indefinable qualities of style and finish that distinguish the high-class exhibition fowl are obtained in a much larger proportion of birds when they are given a great deal more room than they apparently need. chapter vi ducks ducks rank next to fowls in economic importance. if there were no fowls, domestic ducks would probably be as numerous as fowls are now, for it is much easier to produce eggs and meat from ducks than from any known species of gallinaceous bird except the fowl. to most people who are not accustomed to eating them, neither the flesh nor the eggs of ducks seem quite as palatable as the flesh and eggs of fowls. on the other hand, people accustomed to eating fat ducks and the eggs of ducks, which contain a much higher percentage of fat than hens' eggs, often consider the flesh and eggs of fowls rather insipid. the feathers of ducks are more valuable commercially than those of fowls but are not correspondingly profitable to the producer, because ducks are much harder to pluck. =description.= common ducks are about the same size as common fowls. the improved breeds vary greatly in size but do not present such extremes of size and diversity of form as are found in the races of fowls. as the duck in a state of nature lives much upon the water, its form is at nearly every point different from the typical form of the fowl. the duck is usually described as boat-shaped, but, while this is a good description, it would be more correct to say that a boat is duck-shaped. the duck was the natural model for the first builders of boats. the bills of ducks are large, rather flat, and broad at the tip. the species to which most of our domestic ducks belong has no head ornaments corresponding to the comb and wattles of the fowl. there is one variety of this species which has a topknot, or crest. the muscovy duck, which is of a different species, has a bare face with a carunculated red skin. the plumage of ducks is very soft and dense, forming a thick covering which, when the feathers are in a natural position, is impenetrable to water and so perfect a protection from wind and cold that hardy ducks are quite indifferent to keen winds and low temperatures, and, if left to themselves, rarely seek shelter in winter. during a heavy snowfall they will get under cover to escape being buried in the snow. at other times they seem quite as comfortable on snow and ice as on the ground. one of the most interesting sights of the poultry yard is to see a duck sit down on the snow or ice when the temperature is below zero, draw up its feet and work them into the feathers at the side of its body until they are completely covered, tuck its bill into the feathers of its back until only the nostrils and a little of the base of the bill are exposed, and remain this way through the coldest nights rather than go a few feet to a comfortable house with warm bedding on the floor. being better adapted to cold than fowls, they are, as would be expected, much more susceptible to heat and suffer greatly in hot summer weather if exposed to the sun or kept where there is not a good circulation of air. the tails of ducks are short, spread laterally, and are usually folded close and carried with the tip a little higher than the base. the legs are very short, comparatively slender, and weak. most ducks walk awkwardly and fall down and flounder about helplessly when they try to run. the legs of a duck are so weak that it is not safe to catch or handle them by the legs, as fowls are usually caught and handled. it is very easy to break or dislocate the leg of a duck in this way. hence, the usual method is to catch and carry them by the neck, which is very strong. most persons who are not used to handling ducks are afraid of choking them by grasping the neck firmly, but there is very little danger of this. the feet of a duck are webbed between the forward toes, which makes them more serviceable as paddles in swimming. they are not suited to perching. there is a wild tree duck, and it is said that the domestic muscovy duck sometimes alights in trees or on objects above the ground, but the familiar kinds of ducks rest only on the surface of the land or on the water. although the males average a little larger, the male and female of the same stock are usually nearer the same size than in gallinaceous birds. the only marks by which sex can be distinguished in all ducks are the voice and the presence or absence of the small curled feathers on the tail which characterize the males. in party-colored varieties the color markings of the male and female are sometimes different. the "quack" of the duck is the note of the female; the male makes a very subdued similar sound, comparing with it as a hoarse whisper compares with the natural tones of the human voice. the duck derives its english name from its habit of ducking its head into the water in search of food at the bottom of the shallow waters, which it prefers. the term "duck" is applied to males and females collectively, and also to the female as distinguished from the male. the male is called a _drake_. the name "drake" is supposed to be derived from an old german word meaning "the chief duck." any one who is familiar with the habits of ducks will see at once the appropriateness of the term. ducks often march in single file, and when they do so, all the drakes in a group go first, the ducks following them, usually with a little space between. so if there is only one male, he marches a little ahead of his flock, like a commander. young ducks are called _ducklings_, the name being applied to both sexes. in our language there are no special terms applying to a young duck and a young drake as distinguished from adult birds. =origin.= useful domestic ducks are of two species. all the breeds of this class, except the muscovy duck, are derived from the wild mallard duck, specimens of which are still frequently captured and domesticated. the mallard takes very readily to domestication. although in the wild state it is a migratory bird, in domestication it soon becomes too heavy to fly far. after a few generations in domestication it becomes as large as common domestic stock, loses its power of flight, and cannot be distinguished from stock that has been domesticated for centuries. mallard ducks captured in the wild state and kept in captivity have been known to lay from eighty to one hundred eggs in a season, which is as many as the average domestic duck lays. [illustration: fig. . domesticated mallard ducks, brook view farm, newbury, massachusetts] when ducks were first domesticated is not known. the figure of a duck was used in the earliest egyptian hieroglyphics. as the mallard is widely distributed and so easily tamed, and as domestic ducks of the same type (but apparently not related in domestication) are found in widely separated parts of the earth, it is plain that the distribution of domestic ducks has been less dependent upon the movements of the human race than the distribution of the fowl. wherever at any time in the history of the world male and female wild mallards happened to be caught and kept in captivity, a domestic race might be developed. a missionary who went to africa in and worked among the bakubas--a people more than a thousand miles from the west coast of the continent--reported that he found there such little mongrel fowls as are common elsewhere in africa, and a local race of domestic ducks varied in color as are the common ducks of europe and america, but as large as the rouen and pekin ducks. the bakubas had had so little intercourse with civilized peoples that it was not at all likely that an improved race of ducks had been introduced from the outside world, and whatever possibility of that might be supposed to exist, the fact that the ducks of this country, like the domestic quadrupeds, were dumb indicates that they are a distinct and very old domestic race. [illustration: fig. . colored muscovy ducks. (photograph by e. j. hall)] it is worth noting in this connection that the missionary, dr. william h. sheppard, found it the accepted opinion among this savage people that, by a process of natural selection, the character of dumbness had been acquired by the domestic animals, to which it gave a measure of protection from wild enemies in the forest around them. it seems wonderful that the theory of evolution was found out by such people before it was developed by modern scientists. =the common duck.= like the ordinary mongrel fowl, the common duck (sometimes called the puddle duck, because, when it cannot find water elsewhere, it appears to be perfectly satisfied with the filthiest puddles) is much the same in all parts of the world and is a very inferior bird in comparison with ducks of the improved races. common ducks are usually very slow growers and weigh at maturity from three to four pounds each. as a rule they are very indifferent layers, laying only in the spring. they are of various colors. =improved races.= nearly all our improved races of ducks are of foreign origin. at the poultry exhibition at boston in the only kinds exhibited were the aylesbury, the muscovy, and the ornamental wood ducks. the aylesbury duck is a large white duck developed as a local variety in the vale of aylesbury, in england. it has a flesh-colored bill, and legs of a pale orange color. although the favorite market duck in england, and early known in america, it never became a favorite here. the muscovy duck is, as has been stated, of a different species from our other useful breeds. it is a native of south america and is supposed to have been taken to europe in the seventeenth century. it was probably brought to north america from europe less than a hundred years ago. it differs from ducks of mallard origin in several other particulars besides the naked head with its bright-red, carunculated skin. the male is very much larger than the female. the tail is longer and more depressed. there is an entire absence of red pigment in the plumage. the natural color is black and white, unevenly distributed. this variety is called the colored muscovy duck. many specimens are nearly black. the white muscovy duck is an albino variety. by crossing these two varieties a blue variety is sometimes obtained, but, although blue muscovy ducks have been made at various times, fanciers have never taken enough interest in them to encourage the originators to continue their breeding. the rouen duck takes its name from the town of rouen, in the north of france, though the type seems to have been common over quite a large area and not peculiar to the vicinity of that town. it is like the mallard in color, and is just such a duck as by good care and selection for size might be developed at any time from common ducks of that color. rouen ducks are said to have been well known in the south of england early in the nineteenth century. when they were brought to this country is not known. although for a long time they have been familiar to those who attend poultry shows, and have been widely distributed in small numbers, they have never been extensively bred because the rouen, having dark plumage, is not desirable for the production of young ducks for market. when mature it dresses clean and the quality of its flesh is unsurpassed. [illustration: fig. . rouen ducks, brook view farm, newbury, massachusetts] the cayuga duck is an improved black duck developed about the middle of the last century in cayuga county, new york. some early accounts of its origin stated that it was a domesticated wild black duck, but it is much more reasonable to suppose that it was developed by selection from black and nearly black common ducks. [illustration: fig. . flock of pekin ducks] the white pekin duck is a chinese breed closely resembling the aylesbury duck of england. it has an orange-yellow bill and legs. no large ducks of other colors than white have ever been brought to this country or to europe from china. as far as is known, the importations from china to england and the united states consisted of only a few birds and were made about - . information about these is not very definite. the most commonly accepted version is that they were brought to england in and to the united states from england in the following year, but some accounts say that both england and america received them direct in , and one account places the first importation to england in . the exact truth is not of importance in such a matter, but those who are interested in the remarkable developments in duck culture which followed the arrival of this breed in the western world naturally wish to know the facts. all accounts agree that there were only a few ducks brought from china. in england the pekin became quite popular at once. it was hardier and more prolific than the aylesbury, and was used largely in outcrosses, to give vigor to aylesbury stock. in america it became immensely popular in a few years. it was found to be remarkably well adapted to intensive methods of poultry keeping, and large duck farms were built up; some of these made very large profits for long periods of years. the indian runner duck is a small, active duck which originated long ago as the common duck on the meadows of certain marshy districts in the netherlands. the peasants of these districts compelled their ducks to forage for their food, and so developed ducks with a more upright carriage and stronger legs than the other races. in the netherlands these ducks are of all colors. [illustration: fig. . indian runner ducks. (photograph from owner, clayton ballard, white pine, tennessee)] ducks of this type, in color white with fawn-colored markings, were introduced to poultry fanciers in england in or as indian runner ducks. it was said that they had been first brought from india to cumberland fifty or sixty years before, and that ever since that time they had been bred pure by a few breeders and more or less mixed with the common stock of that section by many others. the story of their history in england is much more plausible than that of their origin in india. when the breed was shown on the continent of europe it was at once recognized by fanciers there as an improved variety of a common duck. compared with other ducks the indian runner is a remarkable layer, but it does not, as many admirers of the breed claim, surpass fowls in egg production, and the market for duck eggs is so limited that it is easily overstocked. [illustration: fig. . flock of white indian runner ducks. (photograph from bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] blue swedish ducks and buff orpington ducks are simply color varieties of an improved type of the common duck. there are several other quite well-marked varieties in europe that have not been seen in this country. =ornamental ducks.= the ornamental ducks of the same species as the common duck, and derived either from common ducks or directly from the mallard, are the east india duck, the black, white, and gray call ducks, and the crested white duck. the call ducks are so named because their persistent quacking makes them valuable for calling wild ducks within range of the guns of hunters, and they are much used as decoys. they are very small and were produced by dwarfing common ducks. the name "gray," to describe the colored variety, is misleading. the color is like that of the mallard but of a lighter shade. some mallards are quite as gray as the average gray call duck. the black east india duck is a dwarf black duck differing so little from the call ducks as to leave no doubt, in the mind of any one acquainted with the mysteries of making and naming breeds of poultry, that, like the call ducks, it is of european origin. [illustration: fig. . blue orpington ducks. (photograph from owner, sunswick farm, plainfield, new jersey)] there are many ornamental ducks of other species, the most interesting of which are the brilliantly colored wood duck (sometimes called the carolina duck) and the mandarin duck, which, besides being gorgeously colored, has a peculiar crest and has some of the feathers on its wings oddly curved and spread, giving it a singular appearance. specimens of these ducks are almost always to be seen in a collection of fancy waterfowl. the wood duck is a native of north america, the mandarin duck of northern china. =place of ducks in domestication.= it has been stated that if there were no fowls, the duck would make the best substitute, but as we have fowls in great variety, and as they suit us better than ducks for nearly every purpose for which either might be used, ducks are not often kept in place of fowls. small flocks of ducks are kept in addition to a flock of fowls, both on farms and by town poultry keepers, either because the owner likes to have them about or to add to the variety of poultry meat for home consumption. the flocks of ducks so kept are of comparatively little economic importance. the ratio of ducks to fowls is only about one to fifty, and the ratio of values of the products of these two kinds of poultry is probably nearer one to one hundred. but when poultry keeping is made a special business, duck growing gives the surest and the largest profits, because ducks can be grown in large numbers more easily than any other domestic animal. the largest permanently successful poultry farms in the world are the great duck farms of the united states. [illustration: fig. . black and white call ducks, brook view farm, newbury, massachusetts] to the fancier, ducks are decidedly less interesting than fowls, not only because, as has already been stated, they present fewer superficial characters upon which he can exercise his art, but because they are, on the whole, less intelligent and less capable of developing confidence in one who handles them. fowls are much easier to handle in the way the fancier must often handle his birds for thorough examination. as a rule, a fowl quickly learns that it is not going to be hurt, and the more it is handled the tamer it becomes. young ducks are almost stupidly fearless of the person who feeds them, as long as he goes among them without touching them, but after he catches them they are as stupidly shy. it takes very much more patience to handle ducks as a fancier handles birds than the average human being possesses, and so very few people find them satisfactory for pets after they cease to be a novelty. perhaps if the interest in the breeding of ducks for exhibition were greater, stocks of ducks that were free from this timidity could gradually be developed. individual birds are often found which are not at all shy; and, as a rule, persistent selection for any quality will eventually make it a race characteristic. chapter vii management of ducks although ducks delight in the water and, when they have an opportunity to do so, spend a considerable part of the time in it, they are often kept very successfully where they have no water except for drinking. some duck breeders, who have kept their ducks for many generations without water in which they could swim, have said that the ducks lost all desire to swim, and that birds of such stock would not go into the water even when they had the opportunity to do so. this statement greatly exaggerates the facts. any young duck, no matter how the stock from which it came has been kept, will take to the water as soon as it can run about if it is given access to water at that time; but if young ducks are kept away from the water until they are several weeks old, and then given access to water in which they can swim, they are often as much afraid of the water as they would be of any object to which they were not accustomed. if they remain near the water, however, it will not be long before they follow their natural instinct to get into it. having once entered the water, they are immediately as much at home there as if they had always known the pleasures of life in that element. as comparatively few people keep ducks, and specialization in duck culture is mostly in the line of producing young ducks for market, on a large scale, there is not as much variety in methods of managing ducks as in methods of managing fowls. if ducks are expected to do the best of which they are capable, they must be given a great deal of attention. while no bird will endure more neglect without appearing to suffer, there is none that will respond to good care more generously. small flocks on town lots =numbers.= the small flock of ducks on a town lot is usually a _very_ small flock, kept more from curiosity and for a little variety in poultry keeping than with any definite purpose. most of such little flocks are composed of a drake and from one to five ducks. where a larger flock is kept for the eggs they produce, the number rarely exceeds fifteen or twenty. many town people who want to grow only a few ducks each year prefer not to keep any adult stock, but to buy a few eggs for hatching when they want them. =houses and yards.= ducks require about the same amounts of house and yard room per bird as fowls. while they will stand crowding better than any other kind of poultry, they appreciate an abundance of room and good conditions, and are more thrifty when they are not overcrowded. where they can be allowed to remain outdoors at night, they really need no shelter but a shed large enough to give them shade from the sun on hot days and protection from hard, driving storms. on most town lots, however, it is advisable to have them indoors at night for protection from dogs and thieves. also, the amount of roughing that they like, while not at all detrimental to them, is not conducive to early laying. so most duck keepers prefer to have the ducks housed at night and in severe weather, and give them approximately the same space that would be given to an equal number of fowls. the floor of the house should be littered with straw, hay, or shavings. the object of littering the floors of duck houses is not to afford them exercise, but to provide them with dry bedding. the droppings of ducks are very watery, and the bedding must be changed often enough to keep the ducks clean. it is customary to provide shallow nest boxes, placing them on the floor next the wall, preferably in a corner. the ducks are quite as likely to leave their eggs anywhere on the floor, or out in the yard (if they are let out before they lay), but the nests are there if they want them, and many will use the nests regularly. the only other furnishings needed are a feed trough and a drinking vessel, but it is advisable to have a tub or a pan in which the birds can take a bath, and to supply them with water in this once or twice a week. the drinking vessel must be one that they cannot get into, for if they can get into it they will certainly do so. an ordinary wooden water pail, or a small butter tub with the part above the upper hoop sawed off, makes a very satisfactory drinking vessel for adult ducks. it will hold enough water for the ducks to partially wash themselves, which they do by dipping their heads in the water and then rubbing them on their bodies and wings. for the regular bath for two or three ducks one of the largest-sized bath pans made for pigeons will do very well, or an old washtub cut down to six or eight inches deep may be used. for a flock of eight or ten ducks a good tub may be made from one end of a molasses hogshead. the bath should always be given outdoors, because it takes the ducks only a few minutes to splash so much water out of the tub that everything around it is thoroughly wet. the drinking water should also be given outdoors whenever the houses are open. as the ducks of the breeds usually kept can hardly fly at all, very low partitions and fences will keep them in their quarters, but to keep other poultry or animals out of their yards it may be necessary to build higher fences. for the heavier breeds, like the pekin and rouen, fences are usually made from inches to inches high. the ducks will rarely attempt to go over these, but occasionally a drake learns to climb a two-foot fence by using his bill, wings, and toes, and may then manage to get over a higher fence. for the small, light breeds, fences or feet high may be needed. if their yard is on a slope and is large enough to give them a chance to start a flight high up on the slope, so that they will rise above the fence at the lower side, it may be necessary either to put a very high fence on that side or to cover the yard. while the fence for ducks need not be either high or strong, there must be no holes in it that a duck, having put its head through, could by pressure enlarge enough to let its body pass. a piece of wire netting that has begun to rust a little may be as good as ever for fowls for a long time, but if used for a duck fence it will be most unsatisfactory, because the ducks will soon make many holes in it. if wire netting alone is used, it should be fastened to the ground with pegs every three or four feet. =feeding.= the feeding of ducks differs from the feeding of hens in that ducks need mostly soft food, and that, if the keeper wishes to force growth or egg production, they may be fed much larger proportions of such concentrated foods as beef scraps and meat meals. as has been stated, in its natural state the duck gets the greater part of its food from the water. this is all soft food, and the bird swallows a great deal of water with it. it does not, therefore, need a large crop in which to soak its food before it passes into the gizzard. so the crop of the duck is small--merely an enlargement of the gullet. some of the old books on poultry say that the duck has no crop, but you can see by looking at a duck that has just had a full meal that the food it has taken remains in the passage, sometimes filling it right up to the throat. [illustration: fig. . pekin duckling six weeks old] with a mash (just the same as is given to hens) morning and evening, a cabbage to pick at, plenty of drinking water, and a supply of oyster shell always before them, ducks will do very well. if they have no cabbage, about one third (by bulk) of the mash should be cut clover or alfalfa. when the days are long, it is a good plan to give them a little cracked corn or whole wheat about noon. the water supply should always be replenished just before feeding, for as soon as a duck has taken a few mouthfuls of food of any kind, it wants a drink of water. =laying habits.= with the exception of the ducks of the indian runner type, which lay some eggs at other seasons, as hens do, ducks usually lay very persistently for about six months, and then stop entirely for about six months. occasionally ducks of other breeds lay a few eggs in the autumn, but this trait has not been developed in them as it has in the indian runner. if they are comfortably housed and well fed, pekin and rouen ducks usually begin to lay in january. if they are allowed to expose themselves to rough weather, and are fed indifferently, they may not begin to lay until march or april. when they do begin, they usually lay much more steadily than hens until hot weather comes, and then gradually decrease their production until by midsummer they have stopped altogether. [illustration: fig. . pekin drake four months old, weighing nine pounds] the eggs are usually laid very early in the morning. ducks often lay before daylight and almost always lay before eight o'clock. when a duck lays in a nest, she is very likely to cover the egg with the nest material when she leaves it. a duck will often make a nest and remain on it an hour or more and then go and drop her egg somewhere else and pay no further attention to it. =growing ducklings.= for a poultry keeper who has only a little room it is much easier to grow a few ducks than to grow an equal number of chickens. there are two reasons for this: one is that the ducklings stand close confinement better and are not so sensitive to unsanitary conditions; the other is that ducks of the improved breeds grow much more quickly than chickens and are grown up before the novelty of caring for them wears off and the keeper tires of giving the close attention that young poultry need when grown under such conditions. the ducks of the improved breeds are mostly non-sitters. unless one has common ducks, muscovy ducks, rouen ducks with some wild mallard blood, or mallards not long domesticated, he is not likely to have a duck "go broody," and so small lots of duck eggs are usually hatched under hens. as duck eggs are larger than hen eggs, a smaller number is given to the hen. eleven medium-sized duck eggs are given to a hen that would cover thirteen hen eggs. if the eggs are large, it is better to give such a hen only nine. the development of a fertile duck egg that has a white or slightly tinted shell can be seen very plainly when the egg is held before a light, much earlier than the development of a hen egg. if the shell is green and quite dark in color, the development of the germ may not show any better than in a brown-shelled hen egg. the period of incubation is about four weeks. eggs are sometimes picked as early as the twenty-fifth day, but usually on the twenty-sixth day. as stated in chapter ii, the duckling usually waits quite a long time after chipping the shell before it completes the process and emerges. in a little duckling we find the most striking resemblance to a reptile that is to be seen among domestic birds. it has a long, soft body, a long neck, short legs, and a wriggling movement, and sometimes, when it is wriggling through a small hole, it looks very snakelike. while they are very small, ducklings are the most interesting of young birds. they will go to the water as soon as they leave the nest. dabbling in it will not hurt them in the least if the weather is pleasant, if the water is not cold, and if they can leave it when they are tired and go to their mother and get dry and warm. much of the pleasure of growing young ducks is in watching their behavior in the water. for this purpose a large pan or a small, shallow tub may be placed in their coop. it should either be sunk in the ground, so that they can get in and out easily, or two short pieces of board should be nailed together at such an angle that they will form a little walk from the ground outside, over the edge of the vessel, and to the bottom inside. this walk enables the ducklings to get out if the water gets so low that they cannot scramble from its surface over the sides of the pan or tub. the best way to teach the little ducks to use the walk is to put a little pile of sods or earth beside the vessel containing the water. the ducks will learn very quickly to go into the water in this way, and will soon find their way out by the board walk. after they have come out by the walk a few times, they will begin to go in by it. it is very important to make sure that if young ducks are given water to play in, they can get out of it easily. many who have not had experience in handling them neglect this and feel very bad when some of their ducklings are drowned. if proper provision is made for the safety of the ducklings, they afford a great deal of entertainment. one of the first things a little duck does when it gets into the water is to go through the peculiar ducking performance that gives the name to its species. the little fellows duck their heads to the bottom, and their tails and feet go up into the air while they mechanically feel with their bills for the food which instinct seems to suggest should be there. they play in the water, going through all the motions of feeding in it. if the sun is warm, they are as likely to lie down together in the sun when they leave the water as they are to go to the hen to be brooded. as they lie on the ground they often turn one eye toward the sky and look steadily upward, as if they knew intuitively that one of their most dangerous natural enemies might appear from that quarter. in every way they comport themselves just as old ducks do and not at all in the ways of their hen mother. the young ducks may be fed, as the old ones are, on mash, but should be fed oftener, unless their coops are where they can eat all the grass they want and can get a great many flies, worms, and insects. they are expert flycatchers, and if there is anything in their coop to attract flies, they will get a great many of them. under such conditions three feeds a day will be sufficient. if they have no grass they should be fed five times daily and should be supplied with tender green food of some kind. for the first few days the mash given them should have a little very fine gravel or coarse sand mixed with it--about a heaping tablespoonful to a quart of mash. at any time after that when the ducks seem dull and weak, a little fine gravel in the mash will usually tone them up. little ducks grow very fast and in a few weeks are entirely independent of the hen. at ten or twelve weeks they are fully feathered and almost full-grown, and are ready to be killed and eaten as "green ducks." small flocks on farms =general conditions.= the small flock of ducks on the farm is usually most profitable if it can be given the run of a small pasture or orchard where the birds have good foraging and have access to a pond or stream but cannot wander away. ducks on the farm are often allowed to run with other poultry. this may do very well if the flocks of all kinds are small and can separate when foraging, but as a rule it is better to put the ducks where they will be away from other poultry. a small flock of ducks properly placed on a farm should require very little food and very little attention. if possible the birds should be free at night, because the worms and grubs come to the surface in greatest abundance then, and they can get as much in an hour early in the morning as they can in several hours after the sun is high. the principal objections to leaving them out at night are that they may be attacked by animals that prey upon them, and that the ducks may lay their eggs where they are not easily found. the person in charge of the ducks has to use his judgment as to whether the risks in his case are so great that the ducks should be confined at night. when a flock of ducks on a farm has liberty to wander at will, it often makes a great deal of trouble, because ducks are prone to stop for the night wherever they happen to be when they have eaten their fill late in the day. =feeding.= if the ducks are kept in until they have laid, they should have a little food when they are let out. it does not make much difference what this is. if a mash is made for other poultry, some of it may be given to them. otherwise, a little whole grain will make them comfortable until they can pick up a more varied breakfast. the best method of feeding the young ducks will depend upon the conditions. as a rule it is better to keep them quite close for the first two or three weeks and feed them well. the ideal way is to coop them on grass, or in a garden where they can get a great deal of green food and worms. treated in this way they will get a better start and will grow much faster and larger than if they are allowed to wear themselves out by running about while small. on a farm where there is no water near the house, but where there is a stream at a little distance, the young ducks should be so placed that they cannot make their way to this stream. very small ducks at liberty will often find their way alone to water so far from their home that it was not supposed that they could locate it. if they have an opportunity to do so, small ducks are much more likely than older ones to wander off in search of water, and instinct seems to direct them toward it. after the ducklings are three or four weeks old, they may be given as much freedom as old ducks. unless natural food is very abundant, they should be fed some grain for a while. ducks grown in this way cannot be sold to advantage as green ducks. at this stage of growth they cannot be collected from small flocks and marketed in condition to bring the prices paid for those from the special duck farms, and as it costs the farmer little or nothing to keep his ducks until mature, it is usually more profitable for him to do so than to sell them earlier. [illustration: fig. . duck farms at speonk, long island] on a farm near a market where there is a good demand for green ducks it might pay very well to grow several hundred a year. on this scale the methods should be similar to those used on the special duck farms, except that the hatching might be done with hens. it would not do to let the ducks run about as recommended for stock which is to be kept until mature, because then they would not be fat at the age for killing them. market duck farms =history.= the growing of ducks for the new york city market began on long island at a very early stage of specialization in poultry culture. many farmers there produced a few hundred ducks for this market each year, and found it very profitable. as the demand increased they tried to increase production to meet it, but were unable to do this, because there was then in this country no duck adapted to their needs. the aylesbury duck, the favorite table duck in england, was too delicate. the only hardy white duck that they had was the white muscovy. this breed was not very satisfactory, because the females are much smaller than the males, but they had to use white ducks, for the colored ducks will not pick clean at the age at which ducks can be marketed most profitably; so they did the best they could with the white muscovy duck, under the restrictions placed upon their operations by the difficulty of getting broody hens. while the industry was mostly on long island, there were duck growers here and there on the mainland in the vicinity of new york and also near boston, but there were no duck farms of any importance in other parts of the country. [illustration: fig. . view from the windmill tower in fig. ] when the white pekin ducks were brought from china, and reports of their hardiness, prolificacy, and rapid growth were circulated, the duck growers were at first very skeptical, but they soon learned that the reports which they had supposed were greatly exaggerated were literally true. then every duck grower had to have pekin ducks. the production increased very much after the introduction of the pekin duck, but the growth of the industry was still retarded by the impossibility of getting all the hens that were needed to hatch the eggs. several incubators had been invented, which hatched very well for those who had the skill to operate them, but which, in the hands of unskilled operators, spoiled most of the eggs placed in them. about appeared the first incubators with automatic regulators that really worked so that the ordinary person could manage the machines successfully. one of the new england duck growers who had invented the best of the machines used before this time was already growing ducklings on quite a large scale. on long island, where most of the duck farms were located, the farmers were hard to convince of the superiority of incubators for their work. indeed, the only way that they could be convinced was by practical demonstrations right on their own farms. the first incubators used there were machines set up on trial by a manufacturer who had invented an incubator which was very easy to operate. this man went to the duck growing district, placed machines on various farms, and went from farm to farm daily to attend to them, until the farmers were fully convinced that the machines would do what was claimed for them. in a very short time the artificial method had displaced hatching with hens on the commercial duck farms, and the business was growing amazingly. within ten years there were many farms producing from , to , ducks a year, and a few producing from , to , . one man on long island, who operated two farms a few miles apart, sometimes grew , ducks in a season. those who were successful on a large scale became moderately rich. without exception the successful duck farms have been built up from small beginnings by men who had very little capital to start with. some of these farms have been operated on a large scale for twenty years. [illustration: fig. . house and yards for breeding stock] [illustration: fig. . brooder house for young ducklings] [illustration: fig. . fattening sheds and yards] views of weber brothers' duck farm, wrentham, massachusetts as would be expected, the success of the big duck farms has led many people with large capital to undertake to establish duck farms on a still larger scale. but these undertakings do not last long, because it is practically impossible to secure for such a plant an organization as efficient as one developed by the owner of a plant which has grown from small beginnings under his own management. =description.= a large duck farm is a very interesting place at any time, but is most interesting at the height of the growing season, when all the operations in the business are going on at the same time. the total number of birds on a farm at any time is very much less than the product for the season, because the first ducks hatched will have gone to market before the eggs which produce the last are laid, but in flocks of more than , the impression on the visitor is much the same, no matter what the numbers. [illustration: fig. . duck house and yards on seashore, fishers island, new york] duck farms are of two types: those located on streams or inlets have the yards for all but the smallest ducks partly in the water; the inland duck farms, on which the young ducks grown for market are given no water except for drinking. some of the inland farms give the breeding stock access to streams and ponds only during the molting season, when they can be allowed to run in large flocks and a small area of water will serve for all. for a time after the large inland duck farms were first established it was claimed by many that ducks grew faster when not allowed to swim than they did when allowed to follow their natural inclination to play in the water. no doubt some ducks which were in dry yards grew better than some having access to large bodies of water, and on the whole as good ducks were grown on the inland farms as on those near the water, but it has long been known that it is much easier to manage the ducks when they have water in their yards. there are two reasons for this: in the first place, they are much more contented in the water; in the second place, they feel very much safer on the water when anything alarms them, and will keep quiet on it when, if they could not retreat to the water, they would rush about in a panic and many would be injured. [illustration: fig. . quarters for breeding stock on an inland duck farm. swimming tanks in the yards] ducks are very timid and easily panic-stricken. the duck grower has to take every possible precaution to guard against disturbances of this kind, because ducks are so easily injured, and even if they are not hurt, a sudden fright will make them shrink a great deal in weight. visitors who come merely out of curiosity are not desired on duck farms at any time, and none but those familiar with the handling of ducks are ever allowed to go about the farm without a guide who will see that the ducks are not disturbed. many visitors think that this is unreasonable, but the duck grower knows that the mere presence of a stranger excites the ducks, and that a person walking about might put a flock in a panic which would at once extend to other flocks, simply because he was not familiar enough with the ways of ducks to detect the signs of panic in a flock which he was approaching, and to stand still until they were quiet, or move very slowly until he had passed them. if a stranger, walking between yards where there were five thousand ducks fattening, made an unconscious movement that set the ducks in motion, the loss to the grower could hardly be less than from five to ten dollars, and might be very much more. where such little things can cause so much trouble and loss, the difference between success and failure may lie in preventing them. on a duck plant with a capacity of , ducks everything is on a big scale. although ducks will stand more crowding than other kinds of poultry, it takes a large farm for so many. the buildings will cover many thousands of square feet of land and, though of the cheapest substantial structure, will represent an investment of fifteen or twenty thousand dollars. incubators, appliances, breeding stock, and supplies on hand will amount to about as much. the incubator cellar will be several times as large as the cellar under the ordinary dwelling house. before the so-called mammoth incubators were made, the largest-sized machines heated with lamps were used on all duck farms, and an incubator cellar would sometimes contain as many as seventy incubators having a capacity of from to eggs each. now many of the large farms use the mammoth incubators, with a capacity of from to , eggs each. these mammoth incubators are really series of small egg chambers so arranged that the entire series is heated by pipes coming from a hot-water heater, instead of each chamber having an independent lamp heater as in the small, or individual, machines. [illustration: fig. . feeding young ducks on farm of w. r. curtiss & co., ransomville, new york] as nearly all kinds of supplies are bought by the carload, and as stocks must be kept up so that there will be no possibility of running short of foodstuffs, a great deal of space is required for storage. large quantities of ice are needed to cool the dressed ducks before shipping them to market, so the farm must have its own ice houses and store its own supply of ice in the winter. for some years after duck farms grew to such large proportions, the mixing of mash was all done by hand, with shovels. often one man was kept busy all day long mixing mash, and very hard work it was. now the men on the large farms mix the food in big dough mixers, such as are used by bakers, and work that would take a man an hour is done in a few minutes. in some sections the killing and dressing of the ducks is done by men with whom duck picking is a trade at which they work during its season. in others the killing is done by men, but the pickers are women living in the vicinity of the farm, who can be secured for this work whenever they are needed. a farm that markets , ducks in a season will keep a large force of pickers busy the greater part of the time for many months. quite a large building is required to provide room for the pickers to work in, for tanks for cooling or more ducks at once, for space for the men who pack them, and for lofts for drying the feathers before they are sold. this drying process must be used whether the birds are dry-picked or are scalded before the feathers are removed. water on feathers dries quickly, but the oil in the quills dries very slowly. the feathers from one duck are worth only a few cents, and where small numbers are grown the feathers are hardly worth the trouble of saving and curing. on a large plant the total product of feathers for a season amounts to several thousand dollars, and it pays to provide facilities for taking proper care of them. after the crop of ducks on an inland farm is marketed, the fences must be removed and the land plowed and sowed with winter rye. this crop is used extensively for this purpose, because it is a gross feeder and takes the impurities from the soil very fast, and also furnishes a good supply of green food for the stock ducks during the winter and for the first young ducks put on the land in the spring. where the farms are large enough, all ducks may be kept off a part of the land each year and crops grown on it. the farms located at the waterside do not have to look to the purification of the land so carefully, because the rains wash a great deal of the droppings away. some of these farms get large quantities of river grass from the streams and cut it up to mix with the food for the ducks. duck fanciers' methods there are two general classes of duck fanciers: those who breed one or more of the useful varieties for fine form and feather points, and those who breed the ornamental varieties. breeders of the latter class usually keep other kinds of ornamental poultry also. the methods of the fanciers of useful kinds of ducks compare with those of the practical growers who handle small numbers as do those of the fowl fancier with the methods of the poultry keeper who keeps a few fowls for his own use. in a general way they are the same, yet wherever it is necessary they are modified to secure the best possible development of the type. if a duck fancier has not a natural water supply for his ducks, he either makes a small artificial pond or ditch or gives them water for bathing much oftener than the commercial duck grower thinks is necessary. he also gives both old and young ducks more room, and encourages them to take exercise, because this makes them stronger, more symmetrical, and better able to stand transportation and the handling to which they are subjected when taken to shows. most duck fanciers are also fanciers of fowls or of some other kind of poultry. the competition in ducks is not nearly so keen as in fowls. hence they are so much less interesting to a fancier that few are satisfied with the sport that may be obtained from exhibiting ducks only. when the growing of green ducks for market began to be developed upon a large scale, many of those engaged in this line exhibited stock and sold birds for breeding and eggs for hatching. they soon found that while the pekin duck was unrivaled as a market duck, it was not of sufficient interest to fanciers to excite the competition that creates high prices for the finest specimens, and that it paid them better to devote themselves exclusively to the production of market ducks. at the present time only a few market duck growers make a business of selling breeding and exhibition stock. most of them will not take small orders, but will fill large orders when they have a surplus of breeding stock and can get a good price for it. on almost every large commercial duck farm there are hundreds of birds much better than most of the pekin ducks seen at poultry shows, and many better than the best exhibited. there is probably no other kind of poultry in which so large a proportion of the finest specimens are found on the plants of those producing for market. the ornamental varieties of ducks are given much less attention in america than they deserve. few are seen except in large collections of fancy waterfowl, and sales from these collections are principally for special displays at shows. on many farms the mallard, call, and east indian ducks might be established and left to themselves, to increase in a natural way, only enough being sold or killed to keep them from becoming too numerous. if located in a suitable place, such a flock makes a very attractive feature on a farm. the highly ornamental mandarin and carolina ducks, being able to fly quite as well as pigeons, must be kept in covered runs. they will breed and rear their young in a very small space. a covered run ft. wide, ft. high, and from to ft. long, built in a secluded place and having a small shelter at one end, makes a very satisfactory place for a pair of ducks of any of the small breeds to live and rear their young. chapter viii geese people who are not familiar with animals often get wrong ideas of the characters of certain creatures from the popular metaphorical use of their names. perhaps those who first applied these metaphors understood them correctly, but after long use by people acquainted with the metaphor but not familiar with the animal to which it relates, a part of the meaning is likely to be lost. this is what has happened to the term "goose" as applied to a person. when one acts stupidly foolish about some little thing he is often called a goose. most people, associating the idea of stupidity with the name of the goose, suppose that geese are very stupid and uninteresting. if you will notice how the term "goose" is commonly applied to persons, you will discover that it is very rarely used except to apply to a person for whom the speaker has a great deal of affection. under the same circumstances others are more likely to be designated by some harsher term. the most marked characteristic of a goose is not stupidity but an affectionate disposition. the ancient egyptians noted this, and in their hieroglyphic writing a goose stood for "son." the goose is a very intelligent and interesting bird. it is of a most social nature and becomes very much attached not only to its mates but to other animals and to people. no domestic animal except the dog develops so much affection for its master as a goose will if it is permitted to do so. but, while interesting in some ways, the goose has so little of the other qualities which lead man to make a companion and pet of an animal, that its devotion is not usually encouraged. commercially geese and ducks belong to the same class and are used in the same way (the goose being preferred where size is desired), but in some points of character, structure, and habits they are quite different. =description.= in general appearance a goose resembles a duck so closely that people not familiar with both often mistake large white ducks for geese, but no one that knows either kind well is likely to make mistakes in the identity of any of the common varieties. while many of the small domestic geese are no heavier than the largest ducks, geese are on the average more than twice as large as ducks. their legs are longer and much stronger. their bills are larger at the juncture with the head and smaller and more pointed at the tip. while ducks are usually very timid, geese are bold, and this makes a marked difference in their attitude when approached and also in the carriage of their bodies. they are very strong birds, quite able to defend themselves against the attacks of small animals and from annoyance by children. indeed, they are very likely to take an aggressive attitude toward persons or animals that they regard as trespassers, and a large gander when angry is a dangerous customer. a blow from his wing might knock a child down or even break a small child's arm. [illustration: fig. . emden geese] there are no regular distinguishing marks of sex in geese. the males average larger than the females, but the difference is slight and some females may be larger than some males of the same breeding. in some foreign varieties, not known in this country, the males are mostly of one color and the females of another, but as there are exceptions to this rule, it is not reliable. in those varieties which have a knob on the bill this is likely to be more prominent in the males. there is nothing in the form of the plumage to distinguish the male, like the little curl in the tail of the drake. the voices of males and females are so nearly alike that, while a difference may sometimes be noted in the voices of birds known to be of different sexes, the voice is not a plain indication of the sex. there are some males so distinctly masculine, and some females so distinctly feminine, in appearance and behavior, that a person familiar with geese will not often make a mistake in identifying the sex by the general appearance. there are others about which the most expert goose breeder is in doubt until the laying season arrives and the production or nonproduction of eggs shows without doubt which birds are females and which are males. [illustration: fig. . toulouse geese] the name _goose_ is applied to either male or female without reference to sex, and also to the female as distinguished from the male. the male is called a _gander_. the young are called _goslings_. _goose_ and _gander_ are the modern forms of anglo-saxon names. =origin.= our fully domesticated geese all originated in the old world. the european stock is believed to be derived from the gray lag goose, which is still found in europe in the wild state. the origin of the curious name "gray lag" has been the subject of much speculation. the most plausible theory is that which takes "lag" in its common meaning and supposes that the term was applied to this species of goose because it was slower in motion, or because it lingered longer in northern europe, than the less familiar species. as in the wild state the gray lag goose ranged over europe and northern asia, it may have been domesticated many times in many different places. wild specimens may still be brought into domestication, but there are no authentic reports of such cases. the chinese breeds of geese, which will shortly be described, are quite different in appearance from the european races, but the difference does not necessarily show that they are of different origin. [illustration: fig. . toulouse goslings three weeks old] =common geese.= throughout europe and america the ordinary geese are of much the same type as their wild progenitor. they are a little heavier and coarser than the gray lag goose, and have not its great power of flight, yet some of them can fly better than any other domestic poultry. the author has seen flocks of common geese fly from a high hill over the roofs of tall buildings at its foot and alight in a stream fully an eighth of a mile from where they started. it is perhaps needless to say that they always walked home. such geese were hard-meated and tough except when quite young. they were geese that picked the most of their living where food was none too plenty. well-kept stocks of common geese have probably always been very good table poultry. =improved races.= in various parts of europe the common geese have somewhat distinctive race characteristics. the roman geese are supposed to be the oldest distinct race. they differ from ordinary geese in that the prevailing color is white, and they are more prolific layers. the pomeranian goose, found throughout germany and southeastern europe, is somewhat larger. the female of this race is usually white, the male white with a gray back. because of the peculiar markings of the male this variety is sometimes called the saddleback goose. the emden and toulouse geese are very large. the emden was developed in germany, where it was at one time called the brunswick goose. the first specimens seen in america came from bremen in and were called bremen geese. they had been known in england for a long time and had become very popular there under the name of "emden geese." the name "bremen" was used in this country until about , when the english name was adopted. the toulouse goose is a very large gray goose which originated in a goose-growing district in the vicinity of toulouse in the south of france. it was introduced into england about and into america about fifteen years later. in russia gander fighting was from very ancient times a popular sport, and several varieties of geese were bred especially for their fighting qualities. the most common of these is the tula goose, which is usually gray in color but is sometimes clay-colored. the latter point is very interesting for its bearing on the question of the common origin of the european and asiatic breeds of geese, to be discussed in the next paragraph. none of the russian races of geese are known in this country. [illustration: fig. . white china geese. (photograph from charles mcclave, new london, ohio)] [illustration: fig. . brown china geese. (photograph by e. j. hall)] the asiatic races of geese probably came to america as early as the asiatic races of fowls. they were early known in england under a variety of names, and were quite popular there over a hundred years ago as spanish geese. a writer in an agricultural paper in stated that he had seen white china geese in virginia in . it appears, however, that the early introductions were immediately so mixed with the native geese that the distinct type was lost, and that it was not until nearly that the specimens were brought here from which the stocks now known were produced. there are two varieties of the china goose--white and brown. they are smaller and more graceful than the improved european varieties and are more prolific layers than any except perhaps the roman goose. they have a large knob on the head at its juncture with the upper mandible. most of the geese of europe are either white or gray (black-and-white). the red which appears to a slight extent as brown in the gray lag goose has been lost or so reduced that it is not noticed except in the tula goose, which is sometimes clay-colored. the colored variety of the china goose is distinctly brown. hence, if they came from the same wild species as the european geese, the red which was reduced in europe was greatly increased in china. but if, as is not impossible, they came from different wild species, a most interesting question arises: the chinese types and the european types are perfectly fertile when bred together. would their wild ancestors (supposing them to have the same characteristics) be equally fertile? unless we can find a wild ancestor for the chinese type, all that we know of the relations of domestic races points to the conclusion that they, like the european races, are descended from the gray lag goose. the variety known as the african goose is a larger and coarser type of the brown china, and is probably obtained by crossing with the toulouse or by selection from mixed flocks. nothing definite is known of the origin of this type, but to any one familiar with the stock in the goose-growing district of rhode island, and with the breeding methods of the farmers there as applied in the development of the rhode island red fowl, it appears probable that african geese came from this district. [illustration: fig. . african geese on a rhode island farm] =ornamental varieties.= there are two ornamental varieties of domestic geese and quite a number of species of wild geese that are kept in collections of fancy waterfowl. the sebastopol goose evidently belongs to the common domestic species. it is about the size of the common goose, is white in color, and has a peculiar development of some of the feathers of the body and wings, this development of the plumage giving the variety its ornamental character. a number of feathers on the back of this bird are long and twisted, as if they had been loosely curled, and lie in a wavy mass on the back and rump. the egyptian goose is the smallest domestic goose. it is unlike other domestic geese in being quite gaudy in color. it is found in the wild state and also in domestication in many parts of africa. sebastopol and egyptian geese are rare in this country. [illustration: fig. . sebastopol geese on an english farm] =the canada goose, or american wild goose.= few persons in america have not at some time seen a flock of wild geese flying in wedgelike formation as they migrate in the spring and fall. their honking can often be heard when they cannot be seen. hunters watch for these flocks and, when they are flying low, sometimes shoot them as they pass, but the favorite method of hunting wild geese is to induce them to approach a hunter concealed where he can get a better shot at them. for this kind of hunting, shooting stands are built near bodies of water where wild geese may alight in their passage. these stands are either concealed in the bushes or masked by green boughs. in order to bring near the stands any wild geese that may alight of their own accord, and also to attract any flying by, captive wild geese are used as decoys. at first the birds used for this purpose were those crippled but not killed by the hunters and kept in confinement. as the supply secured in this way was small, and as the wild birds bred readily in captivity, the breeding of wild geese for decoys soon became quite common in districts where the shooting of this kind of game was good. the wild geese will mate with domestic geese, producing a sterile hybrid called a mongrel goose. [illustration: fig. . a pet canada gander. (photograph from george e. parrett)] =place of geese in domestication.= in ancient egypt and rome the goose was a sacred bird, not an object of worship but reserved for the use of the priests, who keenly appreciated the advantage of having a monopoly of the use of the best domestic table bird then in existence. in later times, until the turkey was introduced, goose was the favorite kind of poultry for festal occasions all through europe. then it lost some of its popularity in those places where turkeys were extensively grown. in germany, austria, and russia there is still a very large production of geese. in this country geese are grown in small numbers by a few persons in almost every community. the feeding and flocking habits of geese especially adapted them to the conditions under which they were kept when stock of all kinds was allowed to run at large and to feed on common or unoccupied land in charge of a gooseherd. as towns grew, and as people became less tolerant of the trespassing of live stock, the growing of geese in towns declined. nearly all the geese now produced in this country come from flocks on general farms. the production of geese on farms has been restricted to some extent by the abundance and cheapness of turkeys. as turkeys become scarce and dear in any locality the production of geese seems to increase. from early times geese have been prized for their feathers. so valuable have these been considered that it has been a practice to pluck the live geese each year before they molted. public opinion now condemns this barbarous practice, and persons plucking live geese are sometimes punished for cruelty to animals. [illustration: fig. . mongrel geese on a rhode island farm] chapter ix management of geese geese will bear confinement well if given proper attention, but they require such large quantities of succulent green food that it does not pay to grow them where they cannot secure most of this by foraging. very few people who keep geese in inclosures too small to furnish them with good pasture can conveniently supply them with all the green food that they need. hence no one engages in growing geese in close quarters for profit. many, however, grow a few geese under such conditions because of the interest a small flock affords. goose growing cannot be developed on intensive lines as duck growing has been. one obstacle to this is the difficulty of supplying green food under such conditions. another is that the average egg production is small. the description of the management of geese on farms will show more fully why this branch of poultry culture is likely always to be restricted to general farms. small farm flocks =size of flock.= on the ordinary farm, where only a few dozen geese are grown each year, a flock of one male and from two to four females gives a sufficient number of breeding birds. it is more difficult to get a start with geese than with fowls or ducks, because a young gander will often mate with only one goose, and an old gander separated from mates to which he has become attached may be very slow about establishing new family relations. an experienced goose grower does not expect to get very good results the first season that a flock of breeding birds are together. on the other hand, a flock once harmoniously mated does not have to be renewed every year or two. as long as the old birds are vigorous the entire product of young may be sold each season without reducing the producing capacity of the flock. the average gander is past his prime after he is six or seven years old, but geese are often good breeders until ten or twelve years old. occasionally a goose lives to a great age. there are reliable accounts of geese breeding well when over twenty years old. some stories of geese living to more than eighty years of age have been widely circulated, but little credence is to be given such tales; people who originate them and suppose that they are true do not know how difficult it would be to make sure of the identity of a goose through so long a period. =houses and yards.= geese, like ducks, prefer to live in the open air, and do not often voluntarily take shelter from any element but heat. it is customary to provide a small shelter which they may use if they wish. in most cases it is not necessary for a farmer to make a yard especially for geese. the permanent fences or walls between the divisions of the farm will usually keep geese in the pasture allotted to them. the best place for geese is a marshy meadow in which some parts of the surface are elevated enough to be quite dry at all seasons. these places afford more comfortable resting places when the birds tire of the wet land. they also furnish different kinds of grass from those growing on very wet land. on many farms there are tracts of land much more suitable for geese than for any other live stock. cattle and hogs sometimes cut up such land very badly, destroying the vegetation on it and making it unsightly. such a piece of land is sometimes a part of a pasture used for cattle. in that case it may be a good plan to fence the cattle from the soft ground with a wire or rail fence, which keeps them out of the part reserved for the geese, yet allows the geese the range of the whole pasture. a small number of geese in a large pasture will not hurt the pasture for cattle or horses. too many geese in a pasture spoil the grass for themselves as well as for other stock. even when cattle have access to all parts of a pasture in which there are geese, a small space should be inclosed for a feeding pen, where food for the geese will be out of the reach of other stock. this is especially necessary during the breeding season, when they usually require extra food. =feeding.= a flock of geese in a good pasture need no other food except at the breeding season or when they are being fattened. if there is any doubt about the pasturage being sufficient, a small trough or box containing grain of any kind that it is convenient to give them should be put where they can eat what they want. when there is snow on the ground, they should have a little grain and all the cabbage, beets, turnips, or other vegetables they want. =laying season and habits.= geese usually begin to lay in february or march. as many nests should be provided as there are geese, for while two or more geese sometimes lay peaceably in the same nest, it is more likely that each goose will want one to herself. a barrel placed on its side in a secluded place makes a good nest. geese are sometimes very notional about the location of the nest and, neglecting one provided for them, may choose a spot right out in the open or in some place where the nest is not well protected. when they do this, it is a good plan to place over the nest, without disturbing it, a large box with a hole cut in one end for passage. geese, like ducks, lay very early in the morning. when they begin laying while the weather is cold, the person who has charge of them must be up early and get the eggs before they are chilled. a goose usually lays from twelve to eighteen or twenty eggs and then goes broody. the common practice is to set the first lot of eggs under hens, and keep the goose away from her nest until she shows no inclination to sit. she may then be allowed access to the nest and before long will begin laying again. as a rule the second lot of eggs will be fewer in number than the first. when the goose goes broody the second time, it is as well to set her, for if stopped again she may not resume laying. occasionally a goose lays for a whole season without going broody. =hatching and rearing goslings.= in hatching goose eggs under hens the hens are managed in just the same way as if they had hen eggs. each hen is given four or five eggs, according to the size of the eggs and the size of the hen. a goose must be set in the nest where she has been laying. if she is inclined to be very cross if approached while sitting, she should be left to herself as much as possible, care being taken that nothing can molest her. with the help of the gander a goose can defend her nest against almost anything likely to attack it, but some eggs would probably be broken in the fray. the period of incubation is from thirty to thirty-five days. the goslings sometimes chip the eggs two days before completing the process. they should be left in the nest until they begin to run about. then, if they are with a goose mother, they may safely be left to the care of the old ones, and may not even need to be fed. the early goslings with hen mothers should be placed on sod ground where the grass is fine and soft, in coops such as are used for little chickens, with a small pen in front of each coop to keep them from wandering away. this pen may be made of boards or inches wide, set on edge and kept in place by small sticks driven into the ground. it is best to give them only grass to eat the first day. after that two or three light feeds of mash may be given daily, but they should always have all the fresh, succulent green food that they can eat. the coops and pens should be moved as often as is necessary to secure this end. the goslings should also be constantly supplied with drinking water. they will appreciate a bath occasionally. goslings grow very rapidly. in from ten to fourteen days they are so large that they no longer need the hen mother and she may be taken away. at this stage several broods may be combined and the flock allowed the run of any place where it can graze unmolested. a shelter should be provided for protection from the sun, and a roomy coop with a dry floor to keep them in at night. if allowed to do so, they would stay out and graze at intervals during the night, but the owner will sleep more comfortably if he is sure that nothing can disturb them. although very big babies, they are quite soft and helpless at this stage. when six weeks old a gosling is nearly half-grown. young goslings that were started with hen mothers may then be put into the pasture with the old geese. when ten or twelve weeks old they will be almost as large as the adult birds. [illustration: fig. . goslings three or four days old] [illustration: fig. . goslings three weeks old] [illustration: fig. . goslings nine weeks old] in growing geese on the farm the most important thing is to provide good pasture. grass is not only the most economical food, but it is the best food. geese will grow and fatten on grass without grain, but will not fatten as quickly or be as firm-fleshed. to fatten for market they should be confined for from ten to twenty days before they are to be killed, and fed all that they will eat of some very fattening food. corn soaked in water until it is soft is an easily prepared food and a very good one. large flocks of geese on farms the most important goose-growing district in the united states is that part of rhode island where the colony system of egg farming is used. this district is well adapted to goose growing. the winters are not severe, and the birds can have grass almost the year round. the breeding geese are often kept in pastures occupied by hens and cattle, but there are also many small ponds and marshy places used exclusively for geese. the absence of foxes makes it possible to keep them in fields a long way from the farmhouses, and for this reason many spots are used for geese which in other districts would be too exposed. the large flocks of hens in this district give an abundance of sitters to hatch the early goslings. as the person who looks after the sitting hens and the young chickens on one of these farms has to give the greater part of his time to that work for several months in the spring, he can often use the remaining time to best advantage by hatching and rearing a few hundred goslings. so a large proportion of the farms which specialize in eggs also specialize in geese. the numbers grown on a farm vary from to , the average being between and . to produce this average number, flocks of or geese and or ganders are kept. a flock of this kind does not mate miscellaneously, as a similar flock of ducks would. it is composed of as many families as there are ganders, and if the pasture is large, these families will remain separate a great deal of the time. the method of handling the geese on these farms differs from the ordinary farm method in that the work is done more systematically and more attention is given to the goslings while growing. they are grazed each year on new grassland. most of them are sold unfatted, as soon as they are of full size, to men who make a business of fattening and dressing them. goose-fattening farms [illustration: fig. . goslings grazing on a rhode island farm] market duck growing is conducted on so large a scale that each grower can employ expert pickers and sell his product directly to wholesale dealers in poultry. so the duck grower fattens his own ducks before killing them. it is natural for him to do this, too, because his method of fattening is a modification of the feeding process which he has used from the start. as he nears the end of his process of feeding, he simply increases the proportion of fat-forming material in the food and feeds all that the ducks will eat. the fattening of geese that have been grown on grass to make them of the quality that will bring the highest price requires a change to a heavy grain diet. the farmers who grow these geese could fatten them better than any one else and make more profit on them, but few of these farmers are willing to give them the special attention that this requires. so large a part of the geese sold alive are thin that the men who bought them to dress for market long ago saw an opportunity to make a greater profit by fattening them before they were killed. some of those who engaged in fattening geese were very successful and made large profits. as they extended operations in this line they required a great deal of land. sometimes as many as , geese are fattened on one farm in a season. the fatteners buy in the early part of the summer from the farmers who sell the green geese as soon as they are grown. as these make the finest geese for the table, and as the best demand for geese comes at the holiday season in the winter, a large part of them are put in storage after being killed. after the green geese are disposed of, the fatteners buy live geese shipped in from distant points, and have them ready to kill about the time when the demand for goose is good. [illustration: fig. . scene on a goose-fattening farm in england] while they are very profitable when everything goes well, fattening geese is a business attended by heavy risks. in buying from many different sources a fattener may get some geese having a contagious disease, and the infection may spread through his whole flock before he discovers it, for some diseases have no pronounced symptoms in their early stages. keeping such large numbers of geese on the same land year after year also brings trouble through the pollution of the soil. growing thoroughbred geese for exhibition the proportion of thoroughbred geese among those grown for market is very small. most of the geese on farms are grades produced by crossing thoroughbred or high-grade males on the old unimproved stock. this gives a type of goose which is much better than the old common goose but not nearly as large as the heavy emden and toulouse geese. the intermediate size is, however, large enough to meet the general market demand. the production of thoroughbred geese is carried on to supply stock of medium quality for the farmers who want to maintain a good grade of stock, and to supply exhibition birds of the best quality for the relatively small numbers of fanciers and breeders of standard-bred stock. the usual method of growing exhibition geese is to keep only one breed on a farm, and to manage them as ordinary geese are managed, except that, to secure the best possible development, the breeder is more careful than the average farmer is to provide abundant pasture and all the grain that the birds can use to advantage. occasionally several breeds of geese are kept on a farm, but most breeders consider one enough. growing a few geese on a town lot old geese are so noisy that they are undesirable inhabitants for populous places. in such a place a poultry keeper who wants to grow a few geese often finds it satisfactory to buy eggs for hatching and either dispose of the goslings as green geese when three months old or eat one as he wants it until all are gone. the only difference in handling goslings in close quarters and on farms is in the method of providing the green food. on the farms the birds graze; on the town lot they must be fed very abundantly with succulent food. they will eat almost any vegetable leaf that is young and not too tough, and they should have such food almost constantly before them. most people who try to grow geese in a small space injure them by feeding too much grain. if they have had no experience in this line, they suppose, quite naturally, that birds so much alike as the goose and the duck, both in outward appearance and in the texture and flavor of the flesh, require the same diet. when we compare the duck, which lives so largely on grain and meat, with the goose, which makes greater growth in the same period on grass alone, we can begin to appreciate what large quantities of bulky green food the goose needs to accomplish so remarkable a result. while the growing of geese in bare yards is not recommended as a paying venture, every one interested in poultry should grow a few occasionally for observation. growing wild geese in captivity wild geese mate in pairs. if they are to be bred successfully in captivity, they must have a place away from other animals, where they will not be disturbed. they will be more contented if located near a small pool or stream. a pair of wild geese is usually kept during the breeding season in a small, isolated inclosure containing a permanent water supply. here the female will make her nest, lay her eggs, and hatch her brood. the male at this period is very savage and will vigorously resent any interference with his mate. most wild geese in captivity lay but a few eggs, and the broods hatched are small. there are seldom more than five or six goslings in a brood. after the young are hatched, the parents may be allowed to leave the inclosure with them. chapter x turkeys the turkey is commonly considered the best of birds for the table, the most desirable for any festive occasion, and quite indispensable on thanksgiving day. it is the largest bird grown for its flesh. as usually found in the markets, geese and turkeys are of about the same weight, because most people, when buying a large bird for the table, want those that, when dressed, weigh about ten or twelve pounds; but the largest turkeys are considerably heavier than the largest geese, and the proportion of extra large birds is much greater among turkeys. =description.= a dressed turkey and a dressed fowl are quite strikingly alike in shape. the most noticeable difference is in the breast, which is usually deeper and fuller in a turkey. the living birds are distinctly unlike in appearance, the carriage of the body and the character and expression of the head of the turkey being very different from those of the fowl. the head and upper part of the neck are bare, with a few bristly hairs. the bare skin is a little loose on the head and very much looser on the neck, forming many small folds, some of which are sac-like. it varies in color from a livid bluish-gray to brilliant scarlet. an elongated, trunklike extension of the skin at the juncture of the beak with the head takes the place of the comb in the fowl. there is a single wattle under the throat, not pendent from the jaw, as in the fowl, but attached to the skin of the neck. the feathers on the lower part of the neck are short, and the plumage of the whole body is closer and harder than that of most fowls. the wings are large. the tail spreads vertically and is usually carried in a drooping position. this, with the shortness of the feathers of the neck, makes the back of the turkey convex. the usual gait of the bird is a very deliberate walk. the male and female differ conspicuously in so many points that the sex of an adult bird is distinguished without difficulty. as a rule the males are much larger than the females of the same stock. in colored varieties the males are more strongly pigmented, and the shades of color in them are more pronounced. the head characters of the male are much more prominent in size and more brilliant in color. both sexes have the power of inflating the loose appendages of the head and neck. in the male this is highly developed; in the female only perceptible. the male has a brushlike tuft of coarse hair growing from the upper part of the breast. this tuft, called the beard, is black in all varieties. the female is usually shy and has a low, plaintive call. the male challenges attention and often struts about with his tail elevated and spread in a circle like a fan, wings trailing on the ground, the feathers all over the body erected until he looks twice his natural size, and at frequent intervals vociferously uttering his peculiar "gobble-gobble-gobble." the male turkey has short spurs like those of the male fowl. the name _turkey_ was erroneously given in england when the birds were first known there and it was supposed that they came from turkey. the adult male is called a _turkey cock_, also a _tom-turkey_ (sometimes simply _tom_) and a _gobbler_. the adult female is called a _turkey hen_, or a _hen turkey_, the order of the terms being immaterial. young turkeys before the sex can be distinguished are variously called _young turkeys_, _turkey chicks_, and _poults_, the latter being considered by poultrymen the proper technical name. after the sex can be distinguished, the terms _cockerel_ and _pullet_ are applied to turkeys in the same way as to fowls. =origin.= the turkey is a native of north america. although not as widely distributed as before the country was settled, it is still found wild in many places. it was domesticated in mexico and central america long before the discovery of the new world. domesticated stock from these places was taken to spain and england early in the sixteenth century, and was soon spread all over europe. the domestic stock of the colonists in the united states and canada came from europe with the other kinds of domestic poultry. it is probable that from early colonial times the domestic stock was occasionally crossed by wild stock, but we have no information about such crosses until after the revolutionary war. from the earliest published statements in regard to the matter it would appear that such crosses had long been common, and that the benefits of vigorous wild blood were appreciated by the farmers of that time. the wild turkey is about as large as a medium-sized domestic turkey but, being very close-feathered, looks smaller. it is nearly black, and the bare head and neck are darker in color than in most domestic birds. [illustration: fig. . common turkeys on a new england farm] =common turkeys.= the turkey is not so well adapted to domestication as the fowl, duck, and goose. under the conditions to which they have usually been subjected domestic turkeys have lost much of the vigor of the wild stock. as far as is known, the birds taken to europe after the discovery of america were black or nearly black. in europe white sports appeared and were preserved, and the colors became mixed--black, white, gray of various shades, brown, and buff. that has been the character of most flocks in this country until quite recent times, and many such flocks are still found. =improved varieties.= the development of the domestic turkey is unique in that the most marked improvement in domestic stocks has been due to extensive introductions of the blood of the wild race. the reason for this is indicated in the statement in the preceding paragraph, in regard to the lack of adaptation of the turkey to the ordinary conditions of life in domestication. the turkey deteriorates where the other kinds of poultry mentioned would improve. so, while in europe a few color varieties were made, and in some localities both there and in america local breeds of special merit arose, on the whole the domestic stocks were degenerate. the distinct color varieties were the black, the white, and the gray, but by no means all turkeys of these colors were well-bred birds. the color varieties were crudely made by the preference of breeders in a certain locality for a particular color. they were impure and often produced specimens of other colors because of the occasional use of breeding birds unlike the flock. in early times it was the almost universal opinion that crossbred stock had more vitality than pure-bred stock. hence farmers, although preferring a certain type of animal, would often make an outcross to an entirely different type, and then by selection go back to the type of their preference. when this mode of breeding is adopted, undesirable colors may appear for many years after a bird of a foreign variety has been used in breeding. the local european breeds that gained a wide reputation were the black norfolk, the cambridgeshire bronze, and the white holland. black and white turkeys were perhaps quite as popular and as well established in other places as in those mentioned. black turkeys were the most common kind in spain and in some parts of france. in some other parts of france, and in parts of germany and austria, white turkeys were the most numerous, but in general the turkeys of europe and america were of various colors, with gray predominating. in the united states a local breed of very good quality was developed in rhode island about the middle of the last century. it appears to have been known at first as the point judith bronze turkey, and also as the narragansett turkey, but the first name was soon dropped and has long been forgotten by all but those familiar with the early literature. the narragansett turkey was not bronze as the term is now applied to turkeys; it was a dark, brownish-gray, which is doubtless the reason why the name was changed after the distinctly bronze turkeys became well known. although the narragansett turkey is described in the american standard, and prizes are still offered for it at some shows, the type has almost disappeared. =bronze turkeys.= the accidental crossing of wild with tame turkeys produced, in the domestic flocks where such crosses occurred, many specimens of exceptional size and vigor, in which the blending of the colors of the wild turkey with the gray of the domestic birds gave rise to a very beautiful type of coloration. it was neither black nor brown nor gray, but contained all these shades and had an iridescent bronze sheen. as the crosses which produced these were only occasional, the wild blood being reduced in each generation removed from it, the bronze type was usually soon merged with and lost in the common type. as the wild birds became scarce, crosses were rare, and what improvement had been accidentally made was in danger of being lost, when the awakening of interest in all kinds of poultry stirred turkey growers to more systematic efforts for the improvement of domestic stock by crossing with the wild stock. those who were able to do so captured wild birds and bred them in captivity, producing both pure wild and half-wild stock. they also secured the eggs of wild birds and hatched and reared the young with tame hens. with wild stock under control, they were able to use as much wild blood as they desired in their flocks, and soon fixed and improved the bronze type until they had a variety of turkeys that were extremely hardy, larger than the wild race or any domestic stock that had hitherto been produced, and also more attractive in color. the name "bronze" was soon applied exclusively to this type of turkey in america. in england they are called american bronze, to distinguish them from the cambridge bronze, which seems to be very nearly a duplicate of the narragansett. [illustration: fig. . white holland turkey cock. (photograph by e. j. hall)] the evolution of the bronze turkey in america is one of the most interesting things in poultry culture. the work was done on a very large scale. it was not just a few breeders that engaged in grading up domestic turkeys with wild blood, but a great many scattered all over the country. many, remote from places where wild turkeys ranged, paid high prices for full-blooded wild males, and also for grades with a large proportion of wild blood. in this way the wild blood was very widely distributed. as the superiority of the bronze type became established, turkey growers everywhere bought bronze males to head their flocks, and so in a remarkably short time bronze turkeys of a type much superior to the old domestic stock became the common turkeys in many districts. [illustration: fig. . flock of white holland turkeys] interest in the american bronze turkey arose in england at a very early stage of this development. in fact, there is some reason to believe that the publicity given to several early shipments of small lots of wild turkeys to france and england did more than anything else to direct the attention of breeders in this country to the value of systematic breeding to fix the characters which wild blood introduced. the most celebrated of these shipments was one taken to france by lafayette on his return from his last visit to the united states in . about this time, or earlier, an english nobleman, who had some american wild turkeys, presented his sovereign with a very fine horse. the king, instead of expressing pleasure with the gift, intimated that he would prefer some of the wild turkeys, and was accordingly presented with a pair. the use of wild blood to give greater vigor to domestic stock continues, though it gives no better results now than the use of vigorous bronze turkeys many generations removed from wild ancestry. [illustration: fig. . bronze turkey cock. (photograph by e. j. hall)] =influence of the bronze turkey on other varieties.= although white turkeys have long been very popular in some parts of europe, in this country they were, until recently, considered too weak to be desirable for any but those who kept them as a hobby. by chance mixtures of bronze and white turkeys, and in some instances by systematic breeding, white turkeys that were large and vigorous were produced. some of these were large enough to be called mammoths, as the largest bronze turkeys were. a few breeders who had these big white turkeys advertised them as mammoth white turkeys produced by mammoth bronze turkeys as sports and in no way related to the old, weakly white birds. but whatever may have been the case at the outset, in a few years the mammoth whites were so mixed with others that the distinction was lost, for the best buyers of superior white turkeys were those who liked the color and had inferior stock which they wished to improve. all white turkeys in america now go by the old name, "white holland turkeys." yellow or buff turkeys were often seen among the old common turkeys. they were usually small and very poor in color. the mixture of bronze turkeys with these birds occasionally produced larger birds of a darker, more reddish buff but very uneven in color, with the tail and wings nearly white. from such birds, by careful breeding, a dark red race with white wings and tail was made. this variety is called the bourbon red, from bourbon county, kentucky, where it originated. =other varieties of the turkey.= the only other variety worthy of mention here is the slate turkey. birds of this color are often seen in mixed flocks. some of very good size and color have been bred for exhibition, and the slate turkey in america is classed as a distinct variety. [illustration: fig. . bourbon red turkeys. (photograph from owner, c. w. jones, holmdel, new jersey)] =place of the turkey in domestication.= in discussing the history of the turkey in domestication much has been said of the influence of conditions on the type and on the vitality of this bird. the case of the turkey is peculiar, because it seems as capable of being tamed as the fowl, the goose, or the duck, yet does not thrive under the conditions in which it would grow tame. it is peculiarly sensitive to the effects of soil which has been contaminated by the excrement of animals, and so instinctively avoids feeding places on which other animals are numerous. thus it requires a large range and, if permitted to follow its inclination, spends most of its time at a distance from the homestead. the successful growing of turkeys depends upon the watchfulness of the caretaker and the absence of their natural enemies. this will appear more clearly when the methods of managing them are described in the next chapter. turkey culture is not well adapted to the more intensive methods of farming which become necessary after the first fertility of the land has been exhausted. hence the turkey has almost disappeared from many places where turkey growing was once an industry of considerable importance. the farms of the central west and the mountain regions of virginia, west virginia, kentucky, and tennessee have for many years produced most of the turkeys consumed in this country, but the changing conditions in these regions seem unfavorable to the increase of turkey culture. attempts to grow turkeys on a large scale have been made on the pacific coast. while these may succeed for a time, turkey culture in this country is likely to decline rapidly unless changes in economic conditions afford cheaper labor on farms, or unless the natural enemies of poultry are so reduced that flocks of turkeys may be kept in a half-wild state. chapter xi management of turkeys the turkey is almost exclusively a farm product. it is possible to grow a few good turkeys in confinement, but this is rarely done except in experimental work or by persons who grow a few for amusement and for an opportunity to study some of their characteristics. a few adult turkeys may be kept on a small farm and remain about the homestead as other poultry does. the turkeys themselves may get along very well, but they are likely to abuse the fowls, and as they can easily fly over any ordinary fence, they cannot be controlled except by putting them in covered yards. turkeys kept under such conditions cause so much trouble that, after the novelty of watching them has worn off, the owner soon disposes of them. it is where the farms are large and there is a great deal of woodland and pasture through which the turkeys may roam without strict regard to farm boundaries, and large grain and grass fields where they can forage after the crops are removed, that turkeys in large numbers are grown for market with good profit. on such farms, too, the farmer, if he is a good breeder, can produce the finest exhibition specimens. =size of flocks.= the number of turkeys kept on a farm for breeding usually depends upon the number of young it is desired to rear, but the difficulty of keeping more than one adult male with the flock tends to restrict the annual production to what can be reared from one male. experience has taught that it is not advisable to have more than ten or twelve females with one male. sometimes a much larger number is kept with one gobbler, and the eggs hatch well and produce thrifty poults; oftener an excess of females is responsible for poor results which the breeder attributes to other causes. the average hen turkey lays only eighteen or twenty eggs in the spring. some hens lay even less. once in a long time a turkey hen lays continuously for many months. a turkey grower who raises eight or ten turkeys for each hen in his breeding flock does very well. to do much better than this the hatches must be exceptionally good and the losses very light. those who grow turkeys for profit expect them to pick the most of their living from the time they are a few weeks old until they are ready to fatten for market. a grower will, therefore, rarely undertake to hatch more young turkeys than he thinks can find food on the available range. it takes a very large farm to provide food for a hundred young turkeys and the old birds which produced them, after the young ones are well started. on many large farms where turkeys are grown regularly, not more than seventy or eighty are ever hatched, and if losses are heavy, not more than two or three dozen may be reared. a farmer who grows from seventy to a hundred turkeys is in the business on a relatively large scale. flocks of larger size are sometimes seen in the fall, but not very often. the ordinary farm flock of breeding turkeys rarely has less than three or four or more than ten or twelve hens. =shelters and yards.= the wild turkey living in the woods, with only such shelter from the rigors of northern winters as the trees afford, is perfectly hardy. domestic turkeys are most thrifty when they roost high in the open air yet are not fully exposed to storms and cold winds. if left to themselves they usually select convenient trees near the farm buildings, or mount to the ridge of a shed or a barn, or perch on a high fence. a high perch to which they can mount by a succession of easy flights has such an attraction for them that it is a common practice to place strong perches between trees that are near together, or on tall, stout poles set for the purpose, where other trees or buildings form a windbreak. the turkeys, if at home, will not fail to go to such a roost as night approaches. one of the most important tasks of the person who has charge of a flock of turkeys is to see that the flock is at home before nightfall. after they begin to roost, young turkeys need no shelter in the spring and summer. when chilly nights come in the fall, late-hatched turkeys may do better housed than in the open. turkeys that are well grown and fully feathered do not need to be under cover in the winter except in protracted or very severe storms. turkey growers who wish to have the birds partially under control, and want to be able to catch any one when they need it, often have the birds roost in a shed or other outbuilding available for the purpose. such places should be very well ventilated, or the turkeys will become soft and take colds. [illustration: fig. . house and yards for stock turkeys on a california ranch. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] yards are made for turkeys only to enable the person in charge of them to keep them under control when necessary. the principal uses of the yards are to confine the hens at the laying season and to separate birds from the general flock when there is any occasion for this. a great deal of trouble is sometimes saved by having a small yard for such purposes. the height of fence required depends on the size and weight of the turkeys and also upon whether they are in the habit of flying. a turkey that is not accustomed to fly may not attempt to go over a fence four or five feet high that has no top upon which it could alight. the same bird, when confined in a strange place, might, without hesitation, fly to a roof twice as high, because, although not in the habit of flying, it has the power to fly such a distance and can see that the roof offers a suitable place for alighting. a turkey in the habit of flying over obstacles will often go over a fence six or seven feet high without touching. a turkey hen that is laying will not fly as freely as one that is not, because the weight and bulk of the eggs in her body encumber her movements. for this reason a five-foot fence is usually high enough for a yard for breeding stock, if they are to be confined to it only as much as is necessary in order to make sure that the hens will lay at home. =feeding.= the natural diet of the turkey, like that of all birds of the order of _scratchers_, consists of a variety of vegetable and animal foods. turkeys eat the same things that fowls eat, and apparently in about the same proportions, but their foraging habits are quite different. the disposition of the fowl is to dig for its food wherever it appears that anything is to be had by scratching. the turkey will scratch a little, but it prefers to wander over the land, picking up the food that is in sight. fowls will forage from their house to the limits of their usual range and return many times in the course of a day. a flock of turkeys, if allowed to do so, leaves its roosting place in the morning and makes a wide circuit, often returning home in the afternoon from a direction nearly opposite to the direction they took in the morning. on their circuit, which is likely to follow the same course day after day, turkeys have their favorite feeding and resting places. persons familiar with the route of a flock can tell where they are likely to be found at any hour of the day. if food becomes scarce on their circuit, the turkeys extend it, or go on an exploring expedition which takes them a long way from home. if night overtakes them at a distance from home, they look for a convenient roosting place and remain there. [illustration: fig. . turkey roost in shelter of barn on a rhode island farm] the feeding habits of the turkey make it especially valuable for destroying grasshoppers and other insects that damage field crops. to get an adequate idea of the great quantities of insects destroyed by a flock of turkeys, and of the waste food that they save and turn to profit by eating it, one should take careful note of the amount of food consumed when the turkeys are fed all that they can eat at one time (as when they are being fattened), and from this compute the amount that a flock must pick in order to live, as many flocks do, from spring until fall almost wholly upon what they get by foraging. turkeys are much more systematic foragers than fowls, working more in concert. a flock advances in an irregular yet orderly formation, taking all the choice food in its way, but not often tempted to side excursions which would disperse the flock. many people who keep turkeys make a practice of feeding a little grain, usually corn, in the evening as an inducement to them to come home. when they require more food, they may be given whatever is fed to the fowls. indeed, unless some arrangement is made by which the fowls and turkeys are fed separately, the turkeys may get the habit of being on hand when the fowls are fed, and drive them from the food. this, however, is most likely to happen when the range for the turkeys is so restricted that it does not afford good picking. =breeding season and laying habits.= experienced growers of turkeys like to get their young turkeys hatched about the time when settled weather may be expected in the spring. little turkeys are less rugged than little chickens, and are very sensitive to cold, damp weather. although the hens may have been very domestic all winter, when they begin to lay they develop more of a roving disposition than is at all satisfactory to their keeper. they are very likely to want to hide their nests. when this is the case, and there is no yard in which they may be confined, they make a great deal of trouble. they often go a long way from home to find places for their nests, and make such wide circuits, and double on their tracks so often in going and returning, that the nests are very hard to find. there is nothing to do in such cases but to confine the turkey or to follow her day after day until the nest is found. if she is to be confined, it should be done as soon as she indicates that she does not intend to take one of the nests provided or to make one at home. when, in spite of efforts to prevent it, a turkey hen makes a nest at a distance and has laid some eggs in it before the nest is discovered, it is best to allow her to continue to lay there, but the eggs should be removed as soon as laid. the egg of a turkey is about twice as large as a hen's egg. the usual color is a light, slightly bluish, brown, with small spots of a darker shade. =hatching and rearing.= turkey eggs are often incubated by fowls. a fowl will hatch the eggs just as well as a turkey hen, and may make as good a mother for a few turkeys grown on a small place. for young turkeys grown on the farm, turkey hens make the best mothers, because they take them to better foraging ground and remain with them all the season. it is a good plan, especially when there are more turkey eggs than the turkey hens can cover, to set some fowls on the surplus eggs at the same time that the turkey hens are set. then, as there will rarely be a full hatch from all nests, the young turkeys hatched by the fowls will fill up the broods of the turkey mothers. a fowl will cover from seven to nine turkey eggs. as a rule it is better to give the smaller number. a turkey hen will cover from twelve to fifteen of her own eggs, or even a larger number, but the young turkeys will be stronger if the nest is not too full. the period of incubation is four weeks. even when normally strong and healthy, little turkeys appear weak in comparison with lively young chickens and ducks or the more bulky goslings. they may be fed the same as young chickens. [illustration: fig. . sheltered turkey nest. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] it is the common practice to confine the mother to a coop from which the little turkeys can go to a small pen placed in front of it. the pen may be made of wide boards placed on edge, or of light frames covered with one-inch-mesh wire netting. the coop and pen should be moved before the grass becomes much trampled and soiled. the little turkeys can be kept in such an inclosure for only about a week or ten days. as they increase in size, and as their wings grow, they fly over low obstacles as easily and naturally as little chickens scratch or as little ducks swim. having once flown out of the pen, they cannot be kept in it or in any inclosure that has not a high fence or a cover. when only two weeks old, little bronze turkeys have been seen flying to the top of a five-foot fence and, after a few efforts, reaching it with seeming ease. no matter how contented old turkeys that produced them may have been in confinement, young turkeys become restless as soon as their wings and legs are strong, and, unless prevented from doing so, will begin to roam long distances. they do not wait for the mother, whether fowl or turkey, to take the initiative and lead them. if she is not disposed to rove, they start and let her follow. a turkey hen quickly catches their spirit and goes with them and keeps them together; a fowl is likely to follow them reluctantly, allow them to scatter, and lose a part of the brood. [illustration: fig. . turkey brood coop. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] when the little turkeys have reached this stage, the best plan of managing them depends upon circumstances. if there is little danger of enemies disturbing them, they may be given a light feed in the morning and then allowed to forage where they please, the person in charge looking occasionally to see that they do not go too far and, if necessary, bringing them back or starting them off in another direction. in case of a sudden, hard shower the turkeys must be looked up, and if any have been caught out in the rain and have been chilled and wet, they should be warmed and dried at once. the usual way to do this is to wrap the bird in a piece of old flannel and place it in an oven at a temperature of about degrees, or near a stove. if this is done promptly, a bird that seemed to be nearly dead from wet and cold may be running about as well as ever in an hour. a large part of the losses of little turkeys is due to lack of attention in matters of this kind, or to delaying it until the injury cannot be fully repaired. [illustration: fig. . turkey hen with brood. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] after the young turkeys are five or six weeks old, they do not need such close watching. they are now so well feathered that their plumage sheds rain, and if they are thrifty, a little wetting will not hurt them. it is at this age that the symptoms of the disease called _blackhead_ begin to appear, if it is present, and the turkeys pine away and die one by one. blackhead is a contagious liver disease which affects fowls as well as turkeys, but is most fatal to young turkeys, because it is a filth disease; as has been said, turkeys are especially sensitive to foul conditions, and the young of all kinds of poultry are more sensitive to such conditions than the adults. the germs of the disease pass into the soil with the excrement of affected birds and may remain there for several years. young birds feeding on land containing these germs may take up some with their food. if the birds are vigorous and thrifty and the land is not badly infected, no harm may be done, but if the birds are weakly and the land is so badly infected that they are constantly taking up more germs, the disease soon develops in acute form. [illustration: fig. . driving turkeys to market in tennessee. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] many people suppose that if once they have serious trouble with this disease, it is useless for them to try to grow turkeys, but this is an error. the germs of the disease are destroyed by cultivating the land and exposing them to the sun and air. three or four years of cultivation will rid a piece of land of disease germs, no matter how badly it is affected. the infection is not usually distributed in dangerous quantities all over a farm or all over the land on which the turkeys and fowls have ranged. it is principally on the land near the farm buildings. there would be very little danger from diseases of this kind on farms if those who feed the poultry would make it a practice to scatter food on clean grass or cultivated ground at a little distance from the buildings, instead of giving it (as too many do) on ground that is bare year after year and never cultivated. on a large farm the turkeys should not require close attention after they are two months old. a little food may be given to them in the morning and again in the evening, to keep them familiar with the person in charge, and if they are inclined to stray too far, they should be rounded up soon after noon and started toward home. having started in that direction, they may be left to come at their leisure. they should pick the most of their living until the time comes to begin to fatten them. beginning about three weeks before they are to be killed, they should be fed two or three times a day all the whole corn they will eat. chapter xii guineas =description.= the guinea, or guinea fowl, is about the size of a small fowl. it is very much like the fowl in some respects but not at all like it in some others. naturalists classify it in the pheasant family, but its present place in domestication is so different from that of the pheasant that a poultry keeper hardly ever associates them in his thought. in appearance the guinea is a unique bird. the shape of the body and shape of the head are both peculiar. the body is quite plump, the back nearly horizontal, and the tail short and much depressed. the neck and legs are rather short. the feathers of the neck are short, and the head is bare. the skin of the head and face is a bluish-white. the bird has a small, knoblike red comb and short, stiff, red wattles projecting from the cheeks. the plumage of the body is quite long, loose, and soft, and lies so smoothly that it appears much shorter and closer than it is. the male and female are of nearly the same size, and so like in appearance that the sex cannot be distinguished with certainty by any external character. the comb and wattles of the male are sometimes conspicuously larger than those of the female, but this difference is not regular. although the voices of the male and female are different, the difference is not easily described, nor is it readily detected except by people who are familiar with the birds, and whose ears are trained to distinguish the different notes. both sexes make a rapid, sharp, clattering sound, and also a shrill cry of two notes. the cry of the male is harsher and has a more aggressive tone; that of the female has a somewhat plaintive sound, which some people describe as like the words "come back, come back." the name "guinea" comes from the country of guinea in africa, from which the birds were introduced into america and western europe. the male guinea fowl is called a guinea cock; the female, a guinea hen; the young, guinea chickens. =origin.= the guinea fowl is a native of africa. it is said that there are about a dozen similar species on that continent. this species is abundant there in both the wild and the domesticated state, and also in a half-wild state. it was probably brought into partial domestication at a very early date, for it was known to the ancient greeks and romans, as well as to the early civilized nations of northern africa. it may have been distributed through western europe by the romans. according to one account, some english monks had guineas in the thirteenth century. it is likely that they were rare in europe at that time and soon disappeared, for the modern europeans had never seen them until they were taken to europe from the west indies, where, it is said, they had been brought by slave ships from africa. there is a tradition that the first guineas in america were brought direct from africa with the first cargo of slaves from that continent. in the west indies and in south america the guinea, after its introduction, ran wild. the natural color of the species is a bluish-gray with many small, round white spots on each feather. on the flight feathers of the wings these spots are so placed that they form irregular bars. [illustration: fig. . white guinea fowls] =varieties.= the only change that has taken place in the guinea in domestication is the production of color varieties. white sports from the original variety, which is called the pearl guinea, were developed as a distinct variety. crosses of white and pearl guineas produced birds with white on the neck, the breast, and the under part of the body. these are called pied guineas, but are not regarded as a distinct variety. birds with the original white markings but with the color very much lighter and sometimes of a decidedly reddish tinge have also been produced by crossing. these are not considered a distinct variety, but are sometimes exhibited as such under the name of "lavender guineas." some of the older works on poultry describe the self-colored guinea, a gray bird without white spots, and the netted guinea, in which the original colors are reversed. the author has never seen these varieties, nor has he found any mention of them in the works of later writers. =place in domestication.= the guinea is as eccentric in nature and habits as it is unique in appearance. it is an ill-tempered bird, very pugnacious, and persistently annoys any other birds with which it comes in contact. while inclined to be shy of man and to resent his control, it likes to establish itself between wild and domestic conditions, where it is independent yet enjoys the safety from its enemies that proximity to the habitations of man affords. the hens are very prolific layers. this characteristic is said to be as well developed in the wild as in the domestic stock. although they lay so well, they are not usually considered desirable for egg production, because the eggs are small and it is hard to keep the birds under such control that the eggs are easily secured. the flesh and skin of the guinea are quite dark in color. the dressed carcass is not at all attractive in appearance, but the meat is very good. many people prefer it to the flesh of the fowl. the guinea is not really a domestic bird. it is possible to keep a few in confinement and to rear the young with other poultry, but the adult birds are so noisy and vicious that very few people want them near the house or with other poultry. they would not be tolerated as much as they are but for the traditional notion that their noisy clamor keeps hawks away. many farmers keep a few guineas, supposing that they are of service in this way. those who have tried to find out whether the noise of the guinea really has any effect on hawks say that the hawks are just as bad where there are guineas as where there are none. the only way that guineas can be made profitable is by treating them as half-wild birds--letting them establish themselves in the woods where they can maintain themselves--and then shooting or trapping a part of the flock each season. the number of guineas now produced in this way is steadily increasing in many parts of the united states where the winters are not severe and where wild animals which prey upon game birds are kept in subjection. [illustration: fig. . white guinea hen with brood] =management of domestic guineas.= as has been stated, guineas are so hard to control that few persons try to keep them in close quarters or where they must have particular attention. when a few birds are kept on a farm, they are usually allowed to wander at will; the owner secures as many of their eggs as he can find before they spoil, and perhaps hatches a few of them under hens, for the guinea hens often lay a long time without going broody. as they are prone to hide their nests and are very clever in eluding observation, it not infrequently happens that, when a nest is found, it contains a great many eggs, a large part of which have been spoiled by long exposure to the weather. the first care of the breeder of these birds is to see that he has suitable proportions of males and females. guineas are disposed to mate in pairs. some poultry keepers who have observed them closely say that while one or more extra females may associate with a pair, the eggs of the extra females do not usually hatch well. occasionally it happens that a small flock are all males or all females, and the owner does not find it out until too late in the season to get a bird of the missing sex. when a supposed guinea hen does not lay in the breeding season, the owner often thinks that she lays but manages to completely baffle his search for the nest. the period of incubation for guinea eggs is four weeks. the young birds may be managed the same as young turkeys while small, but do not need as close watching to keep them from wandering away. those that are hatched and reared by fowls are tamer than those reared by guinea hens, but are not so hardy. chapter xiii peafowls the peacock, or male peafowl, when matured and in full plumage, is the most gorgeous of birds. many smaller birds are more brilliant in color. many birds of various sizes and types have beautiful or interesting characters as attractive as those which distinguish the peacock. but this bird surpasses them all in attractiveness, because in it are combined in the highest degree size, beauty of form, beauty of color, and the power of displaying its beauties to the greatest advantage. =description.= the adult peacock is so much more striking in appearance than the females and the young males, and old males are so often exhibited alone, that many persons suppose that the peafowl are distinctly unlike other domestic birds. the size, shape, and carriage of the peacock sometimes suggest to them a resemblance to the turkey gobbler, but the peacock's most striking characters seem so peculiar to it that the attention of the observer is usually fixed upon them, to the exclusion of direct comparisons with other creatures. when, however, one sees a flock containing several females, or males in which the characteristic plumage is not yet developed, the general resemblance between peafowl and turkeys is immediately noticed. the peafowl is smaller, slenderer, and more graceful than the turkey, and is a little more agile in motion. but if there were no old males present to identify the species, to which they belong, a person who was not familiar with peafowls, seeing a flock for the first time, would be almost certain to think that they were turkeys of a rare breed. notwithstanding this striking general likeness, a close observer will soon note that in nearly every conspicuous character the differences between the two indicate that they belong to entirely different species. the voice of the peafowl is a harsh, piercing scream. [illustration: fig. . indian peacock. (photograph from the new york zoölogical society)] the development of the plumage in the male at full maturity is like that of the fowl and of some pheasants. in all of these species in which the tail of the male assumes a highly decorative form, it is not the tail proper that is so developed, but the tail coverts and other feathers of the back, which in the male are long and flowing. in the peacock these feathers are very remarkably developed, both in form and in color. the largest are sometimes a yard long. the stem, or shaft, is a marvelous combination of lightness and strength. for the greater part of the length of the shaft the barbs are so far apart that they do not form a web, but make a fringe on each side. toward the tip of the feather the barbs are closer together, and at the extremity they form a broad web. the feathers of this structure growing next to the main tail feathers are the longest. the next are a little shorter, and thus the length diminishes until the shortest coverts are only a little longer than the ordinary feathers of the back. this feather formation is called the train. the train of the peacock is the most prominent peculiarity of the species, but there is also in both sexes another uncommon feather character--the curious little tuft, or crest (called the aigret), which grows on the head. the surface color of the peacock is a marvelous blending of purples, greens, golds, and bronzes of various hues. on the head and neck purple tints predominate. the train is mostly green with large, eyelike spots, or spangles, at the tip of each feather. the plumage of the female is a soft brown on the body, darkest on the back and shading to nearly white on the abdomen. the brown often shows slight tints of purple and green. the neck and throat are a purple-green; much less intense than the coloring on the male. the young males are colored like the females until they molt in their second year. then they become much darker, but it is not until the next molt, in their third year, that they grow the characteristic train and take on the brilliant coloration which is their greatest attraction. the wild peafowls in different parts of asia vary somewhat in color and are sometimes thought to be of different species, but they are evidently all varieties of the same species. specimens of all are seen in domestication. one variety is almost black. domestic life has had little if any effect upon the type of peafowls. a white variety has been produced, and from the mixture of this with the green variety, birds that are partly white are sometimes obtained. the significance of the terms "fowl," "cock," "hen," and "chick," or "chicken," in combination with the "pea" in the name of this bird is, of course, perfectly plain. those who seek further meaning in the first syllable are puzzled until they consult the dictionary and find that the three letters as they occur here are not the word "pea," but a contraction of _pawa_, which was an anglo-saxon corruption of _pavo_, the latin name of the bird. while the original meaning of the name is not known, the word came into the latin language from the greek, into which it had previously come from the persian. hence, the history of the name indicates that the distribution of the peafowl was along much the same lines in europe as the distribution of the fowl. =origin.= the peafowl is supposed to be a native of java and ceylon. it is found throughout southern asia and is said to be very numerous in india and ceylon, both in the wild state and in a half-domestic state. it was known to the jews in the time of solomon, and to all the ancient civilized peoples of western asia, europe, and africa at a very early period. in the days of the roman empire a peacock served with the feathers on[ ] was a favorite dish at the feasts of wealthy romans, and this mode of serving the bird was continued in western europe for many centuries. at what time they were introduced into that part of the world is not known, but it is probable that they were distributed to the various countries soon after the roman conquests. nor is anything known of their first introduction into america. it is, however, quite reasonable to suppose that some were brought here at an early date by wealthy colonists. [ ] of course the bird was not cooked with the feathers on, but was skinned, the feathers remaining in the skin, and after the flesh was cooked the skin with the feathers was placed over it before it appeared on the table. skinning poultry instead of plucking the feathers seems to have been quite a common practice in old times. as recently as between and the author heard of people who preferred it as the easiest way of preparing chickens to be cooked immediately. =place in domestication.= in europe and america the peafowl is now bred only for ornamental purposes. that seems to be its status even in the asiatic countries, where it is most abundant, and its position has probably been much the same in all lands and in all ages. the use of fully developed peacocks for food at banquets was simply a display of barbarous extravagance. although a young peafowl is very good eating, a male old enough to have acquired its full plumage would be hard, tough, and unpalatable. the peafowl is not prolific enough to be a profitable table bird, and is too desirable for its beauty to be used for any other purpose. in this country peafowls are not common. very few are seen except in zoölogical collections and at the principal poultry shows. the scarcity of peafowl is not due wholly to the expense of procuring them or to the difficulty of rearing them. indeed, neither of these constitutes a serious drawback to their popularity. the peafowl is its own worst enemy in domestication. it has a very savage disposition toward smaller birds, and in this way usually makes itself an intolerable nuisance to those who grow other poultry. many owners of large farms, who do not keep turkeys, or who keep only a small flock, might maintain a small stock of peafowl with very little trouble. although they are so vicious when brought in close contact with smaller poultry, they will flock and forage by themselves if they have room to do so. =management.= the methods of managing turkeys apply at nearly every point to the management of peafowl. the peafowl matures more slowly and does not breed so early. the females are not fit for breeding until two years old; the males not until three years old. they do not pair, but mate in small polygamous families--one male with from two to four females. the peahen usually lays from four to six eggs--rarely more than eight or ten. the period of incubation is four weeks. young peachicks are very bright and active. they begin to fly when only three or four days old. if they are to be kept in an inclosure while very small, the sides must be high or the top must be covered with wire netting. although so active, they are less independent than most young poultry, and follow the mother closely until she drives them from her at the approach of the next breeding season. peahens are preferred as mothers, because their disposition is to keep their young with them much longer than a turkey or a fowl does. next to the peahen a turkey hen makes the best mother for peachicks. chapter xiv pheasants the guinea and the peafowl were described as closely related to the pheasants, and as of limited usefulness to man both because of their ugly dispositions and because of their roving habits. the species of pheasants that are best known are a little farther removed from domestication by their extreme shyness, and have often been excluded from lists of domestic birds; yet it is quite possible that some of them may become of much greater economic importance in america than either the guinea or the peafowl. =description.= the most common kinds of pheasants are about the size of small domestic fowls, but have rounder, plumper bodies. there are also other characteristic differences. the head of a pheasant, except a part of the face around the eye, is usually feathered. this bare skin, called the wattle, is red in most species, but in a few it is purplish. the feathers of the neck are short, and the tail is depressed. some of the rarer kinds of pheasants are as large as medium-sized fowls. pheasants as a class are distinguished principally for their brilliant plumage. in most species the male alone has showy coloring, the females being very sober hued. in some species the male has a very long tail, corresponding to the train of the peacock; in some the tail is wide and heavy, as well as quite long; in others the males are feathered like the females. the name "pheasant" comes from the name of the river phasis in colchis, at the eastern end of the euxine sea. the term "fowl" is not used in connection with "pheasant," but the words "cock," "hen," and "chicken" are used as in other cases that have been mentioned. =origin.= the pheasants are all natives of asia, where nearly all known kinds are found in the wild state. they are well distributed over that continent, and are found in localities differing greatly in climate and in the character of the soil and of the vegetation. some species live mostly at low altitudes; others are peculiar to high mountain regions. according to an old greek legend the first pheasants known in europe were brought to greece by the argonauts on their return from the expedition in search of the golden fleece. a more probable story is that which says that they were introduced in the time of alexander the great. pheasants were reared in confinement for food by the greeks and the egyptians, and also later by the romans in italy. both the rearing and the use of pheasants in those times seem to have been limited to the very wealthy. from greece and italy they were gradually distributed all over europe. [illustration: fig. . ringneck pheasant[ ]] [ ] figs. - are from photographs of mounted specimens in the national museum, made to illustrate "pheasant raising in the united states," _farmers' bulletin no. _ of the united states department of agriculture. =history in america.= the history of pheasants in america is much more fully known than that of most kinds of poultry. the first importation of which there is a record was made by an englishman named bache, who had married a daughter of benjamin franklin. in england at that time pheasants were propagated, as they are to-day, in a half-wild state in game preserves, and mr. bache expected that those which he imported and released on his estate in new jersey would soon become established there. in this he was disappointed. others who subsequently tried the same plan met with no better success. for a long time the only pheasants known in this country were those grown in confinement by fanciers. [illustration: fig. . mongolian pheasant] the first successful attempt to establish pheasants at liberty on this continent was made in oregon with pheasants brought direct from china. the united states consul at shanghai sent some ringneck pheasants to oregon in . as most of these died on the way, a second shipment was sent in the following year. in all about forty birds were liberated. the shooting of pheasants was prohibited by law in oregon until , when the stock had become so widely distributed and so well established that shooting them was allowed for a short season. so numerous were the pheasants at this time that on the first day of this open season about , were shot by the hunters. in many other states efforts have since been made, both by state game commissions and by private enterprise, to acclimatize pheasants and establish them as game birds. some of these efforts have been quite successful. [illustration: fig. . amherst pheasant] =species and varieties.= the relationships of the various kinds of pheasants are not positively known. some kinds that are undoubtedly varieties of the same species are commonly classed as different species. the best-known of these so-called species interbreed freely. the rare kinds have not been sufficiently tested, either with common kinds or with one another, to show whether they are species or merely varieties. the european pheasants, descended from the stocks which came in early times from western asia, are called by various names--common pheasant, darknecked pheasant, english pheasant, and hungarian pheasant. two kinds of pheasants, of the same type but having more distinctive color markings, have in recent times been brought from eastern asia. one of these is commonly called the ringneck pheasant, but the names "china pheasant," "mongolian pheasant," and others are also applied to it. the second variety, also called mongolian pheasant, is said by some authorities to be the only one to which the name "mongolian" properly applies. it is not quite like the ringneck, but, like it, has a white ring around the neck. from japan still another bird, called the versicolor pheasant, or japanese versicolor pheasant, very similar in type, was brought to england. these three varieties from eastern asia have been mixed with the european pheasants to such an extent that there are now very few pheasants of the type common in europe before their introduction, and good specimens of the oriental races are equally rare. the principal english variety at the present time is a ringneck produced from the mixture. this is called the english pheasant; in england it is also sometimes called the common pheasant. the birds that breed at liberty in the united states are mostly of the ringneck type. [illustration: fig. . manchurian pheasant] although they are very beautiful birds, the pheasants thus far mentioned appear plain in comparison with the silver and the golden pheasants (which are the most common of the highly ornamental varieties) and the reeves and amherst pheasants. these are the kinds most often seen in aviaries and at poultry shows. there are many other rare and curious varieties which are to be seen only in the finest collections. among these is a class called the eared pheasants, because of the little tufts of feathers which project backward at each side of the head, looking strikingly like the ears of a mammal. the pheasants of this class are mostly dull colored and quite docile in disposition. =place in domestication.= the future place of pheasants in domestication is not so plainly indicated by their history and present position as the places of the guinea and the turkey seem to be. pheasants seem to be more desirable, easier to control, better suited to confinement, and also better adapted to wintering out of doors in cold climates, than are guineas. the beauty of the ornamental types makes them very desirable to those who keep birds for pleasure. because they are so much smaller than peafowl, and also because they are able to live amicably with fowls, they may be kept where peafowl could not. it is therefore probable that, as people in america become more familiar with pheasants, and as they learn that the greatest pleasure and the surest profit in aviculture are to be found in growing a few birds under the most favorable conditions that can be made for them, the numbers of pheasant fanciers will greatly increase. [illustration: fig. . monaul, a himalayan pheasant] in england pheasants are extensively grown in game preserves, for shooting and for sale as breeding stock to those who wish to stock new preserves. where the birds are fed by a keeper, as they must be when they are very numerous, they become so tame that hunting them is not very exciting sport. some that have been released in this country, and have lived in a natural state in places where shooting them was not allowed, have become quite as tame as the birds in the english preserves. altogether the history of efforts to establish pheasants in a wild state with a measure of protection from hunters shows that it would often be practical for owners of woodland and waste land to establish and preserve colonies of wild or half-wild pheasants. whether this will be done to any great extent depends upon the extermination of wild animals and upon the placing of proper restrictions upon the domestic animals (dogs and cats) which are destructive to land birds; it depends also, to some extent, upon concert of action among the landowners in a community, in securing for themselves the use of the pheasants grown on their lands. the possibility of domesticating pheasants of the manchurian type, and one or two other rare varieties that, when seen on exhibition, appear very docile, is also to be taken into account. the united states department of agriculture[ ] has called attention to the fact that some of the little-known kinds of pheasants seem especially adapted to domestication. even before that, many poultrymen, seeing these birds at exhibitions, had been impressed by their appearance, and had remarked that they looked like birds that would become thoroughly domestic. at the present time persons desiring to grow any of the more common varieties of pheasants for table use should first ascertain how the game laws of the state in which they live, and of any state into which they might want to send pheasants, would affect their undertaking. sometimes the laws made to protect pheasants in a wild state have been passed without due regard for the interests of persons growing them in captivity. errors of this kind are usually adjusted before long; meantime those who may innocently break a law find the situation very embarrassing. [ ] pheasant raising in the united states, _farmers' bulletin no. _. =management of pheasants in confinement.= the breeding of pheasants on a small scale may be carried on in any place where suitable runs can be made for them. the first essential is a somewhat secluded site where the birds will not be subject to frequent disturbances. it should be near enough to the owner's dwelling to enable him to keep watch of what goes on in its vicinity, yet not so near that the movements of the members of the household, as they go about their ordinary affairs, will disturb the pheasants. it should be where trees or bushes make a natural shade but not a dense shade; a place where the sun and shade are about equal on a clear day is best. a light sandy or gravelly soil is to be preferred, and a clay soil should be avoided. if the land has underbrush on it, this need not be cleared from the space occupied by the run, unless it is so thick that it shades the ground too much. [illustration: fig. . coops and yards for breeding pheasants. (photograph from simpson's pheasant farm, corvallis, oregon)] the house should be of about the same size and construction as would be used for a few fowls. a roosting place should also be made in the yard, for as a rule the birds will prefer to roost outdoors. the house is to afford them proper shelter from severe storms and during prolonged damp weather. for either a pair or a pen of a male and several females the yard should contain about square feet. the fences inclosing it should be at least feet high, and the top should be covered with wire netting. [illustration: fig. . young china pheasants at feeding time. (photograph from simpson's pheasant farm, corvallis, oregon)] the silver, soemmerring, and swinhoe pheasants mate in pairs; the other familiar kinds are polygamous, and from one to five or six females may be kept with one male. pheasants may be fed the same things as are fed to fowls, and in much the same manner, but there is one important difference which the pheasant breeder must carefully observe. fowls will stand abuse in the matter of diet much better than pheasants will. in feeding the latter more attention must be given to providing regular supplies of green food, to having all food sound and good when fed, and to regulating the quantity given for a meal so that it will not lie about and become sour or soiled before it is eaten. [illustration: fig. . fowls and pheasants in same yard on a new england poultry farm] most pheasant fanciers use large bantams or small common hens to hatch and rear the young pheasants. the period of incubation is from twenty-two to twenty-four days. until they are weaned from the hens the little pheasants may be managed as young chickens are, but with the same attention to variety of food and to moderation in feeding that has been specified for the old birds. a small number with a good range on grass or in a garden will pick much of their food. many of the older works on poultry which treated of the care of pheasants recommended for the young birds a great variety of foods not easily provided. nowadays the most successful amateur fanciers feed either a mixture of the common small grains or some of the commercial mixtures which contain, in addition to these, a number of seeds and grains not much used by poultry keepers who buy their grains separately in bulk. stale cracked corn, which is dangerous to all young poultry, is especially to be avoided in feeding young pheasants. after the young pheasants are weaned, they must be kept in covered runs, or their wings must be clipped to prevent them from flying. a large pheasantry is operated on the same general lines as a plant where birds are grown in small numbers. the method is simply an extension of that just described. when only one kind of pheasant is kept, the inclosed yard is sometimes made very large, and a hundred or more birds are put together. this is not good practice with any kind of poultry, and is no doubt responsible for much of the trouble which those growing pheasants in large numbers have had. at aviaries where there are large collections of pheasants, including many rare and costly kinds, the yards are always made large enough to give the birds good sanitary conditions, and as a rule each family of adult birds, whether composed of two or more, has a yard to itself. chapter xv swans naturalists divide swans into a number of different species. whether this division is correct is not known. the habits of swans, and the circumstances under which they are usually kept, tend to prevent the mingling of different kinds. as far as the author has been able to learn, there is no evidence which shows conclusively the relations of any of the supposed different species. the differences between them are in some cases very slight. some of the decisions of the naturalists who have classified slightly different kinds as distinct species are based upon examinations of very small numbers of specimens. considering the apparent resemblances of the different kinds of swans in the light of what is known of species and varieties in fowls, ducks, geese, and pheasants, it seems probable that the true species of swans are fewer in number than the common classification shows, and it also seems quite possible that all swans are of the same species. =description.= the common swan, called the domestic swan, is about the size of the largest domestic geese, but appears larger because it has a longer neck and head and larger wings. the body is also somewhat longer than that of a goose of about the same weight, and the swan is a much more graceful bird than a large goose. it is sometimes called the mute swan, to distinguish it from the whistling swan, which is a very similar kind not bred in domestication. there are other slight differences between the mute swans and the whistling swans, but the difference in the voice, if it really is as great as is supposed, is the only one of much consequence in deciding their relations. the mute swan is not dumb. it sometimes makes a low, whistling sound. people are not agreed as to whether there is any real foundation for the familiar tradition that the mute swan remains silent until about to die, and then sings a "song." some people acquainted with the habits of swans declare that the swan is more vocal when dying than at any other time in its life. others say that the idea probably arose as a result of some one's hearing a dying swan moaning in pain, as sick animals and birds often do, and concluding that it was uttering a series of sounds characteristic of swans in a dying condition. however that may be, the mute swan is distinctly less noisy than the wild whistling swan. until all swans known to civilized people were white, and the swan was an emblem of purity of color. in that year a dutch navigator visiting australia found there a black swan. afterwards a white swan with a black neck was discovered in south america. had the subject of heredity been well understood before the discovery of these two swans that were not white, people familiar with the white swans would have known that there were colored swans in some unexplored country (or that they had existed in the known world in a former age), for white swans are not perfectly white at maturity, and when young they are gray. neither is the black swan all black. it has white flight feathers, and its black color is a rusty black, that is, a black mixed with red. swans are very long-lived birds, but stories of swans living to seventy or eighty years of age are not to be credited. it cannot be affirmed that the birds may not live as long as that, but the evidence in the cases reported is defective. the reports of swans living for fifty years are quite credible. the male and female swan are not readily distinguished, for there are no external indications of sex, and the birds use their voices so rarely that, even if there is a difference in the notes of the male and female, it is not practical to use it to distinguish between them. the only way to identify the sex with certainty is by observing the birds at nesting time. the name "swan" is anglo-saxon. nothing is known of its derivation. the terms "cock" and "hen" are sometimes applied to swans as they are to many other kinds of birds. the swanherds in england call the male a _cob_ and the female a _pen_. the young swan is called a _cygnet_, from the french word for "swan." [illustration: fig. . swan and nest] =origin and history in domestication.= tradition says that the domestic swan was brought to england from france by richard the lion-hearted. as the swan is a migratory bird, still sometimes seen in many parts of the eastern hemisphere north of the equator, it is possible that swans were known in england long before the reign of this king. however that may be, it is certain that, from about the time of the norman conquest, the swan has occupied a peculiar position in england. it was regarded as a royal bird, and the privilege of owning swans was granted only to those in high station. at first the number of those who were permitted to own swans was very small, but it was afterward extended until, in the reign of queen elizabeth, more than nine hundred different swanmarks were registered by the royal swanherd, who had general oversight of all the swans in the kingdom. the swans were marked by branding or cutting the bill, this being necessary because they lived largely on the margins of uninclosed waters, just as in some of our western states cattle live on unfenced lands. the right to own swans carried with it the right to keep them in such a place. =place in domestication.= although it has been bred in captivity for centuries, the swan is not fully domesticated. it does not, like the duck and the goose, so increase in size and weight when kept under the control of man that it becomes incapable of flight, but, like the american wild goose in captivity, it is prevented from flying by removing the first joint of one wing, the operation being performed as soon as possible after the young birds are hatched. the swan lives more on the water than either the duck or the goose. it subsists largely upon coarse aquatic grasses and plants, and is said to eat all kinds of decaying matter found in the water. in england in old times the swan was used as food by the wealthy, but its use for this purpose ceased long ago. it is now kept almost exclusively for ornament. most of the swans in america are kept in public parks or on large private estates. very few are reared here; the supply is kept up largely by importations from england. the swan is not popular, because the birds are costly and are not prolific. still the breeding of swans for ornamental purposes or for sale to exhibitors might be carried on with profit upon many farms. under suitable conditions, swans may, at the same time, perform valuable service and make a valuable product. by consuming the kinds of food which they prefer, they clean ponds and keep sluggish streams open. being so large and strong, and requiring so much coarse food, they are a great deal more serviceable in this way than are ducks and geese. =management.= when swans were abundant in england, they were kept mostly upon certain rivers and inlets of the sea where natural food was abundant. the climate of england is so mild that they can there obtain food in such places at all seasons. the colder parts of america do not afford conditions favorable to swan culture. where the winters are long and severe, and streams and ponds are frozen over for months, wintering swans would be troublesome and expensive, but where the waters are open throughout the year, a farmer who had a suitable place for them might breed swans with profit. a pair of swans would cost about the same as a good cow, and might make about the same net profit. but there would be this difference: the cow would require a great deal of care, the swans very little; the cow would eat salable food, the swans mostly waste food. by this comparison it is not meant to suggest that a farmer might profitably replace his cows with swans. the object is simply to show how the possible profit from small specialities compares with the usual profit from a regular feature of farming. the methods of managing swans are much like the methods of managing wild geese in captivity. the principal difference is that the swans must have a larger body of water, and one in which vegetation is abundant. they are not as fond of land grasses as geese are, and like to float on the surface of the water, feeding on the vegetation at the bottom. their long necks enable them to do this in water several feet deep. they need no shelter but a small hut, which they will use only in rare emergencies. after they have settled down in a spot, there should be no need of building fences to restrain them. as they are not able to fly, they will remain quite near their home unless food supplies there are very short. in that case extra food should be given them. even when natural food is abundant, it is a good plan to feed swans a little of something else occasionally, to attach them to the person who has charge of them. as every one knows who has seen the swans in parks, where visitors amuse themselves by feeding them, swans are very fond of bread. they will eat grain also, although, when not accustomed to it, they may at first refuse it. their food is usually given either by throwing it on the water or by placing it in troughs from which the birds can eat while floating upon the water. [illustration: fig. . feeding swans on the water] [illustration: fig. . view of an english swannery] the female builds near the water a nest of coarse stalks and small sticks. sometimes this is reared to a height of several feet, and material added around the sides, little by little, during the whole period of incubation. swans have been known to pile up nearly half a cord of material for their nest. from five to ten eggs are laid in the nest. the period of incubation is six weeks. as far as possible, interference with the birds should be avoided during the breeding season and while the young are small. when it is necessary to handle them in any way, the attendant should have at the start all the assistance he is likely to require. a blow from a swan's wing may injure a man very seriously. it is said that such a blow has been known to break a man's thigh. the young are gray when hatched and do not become entirely white until two years old. even then many of them are not absolutely white, but show very distinct traces of reddish-yellow, especially on the head and upper part of the neck. there is a story that a young swan of a deep buff color was hatched at lewes in england. if the swans with young must be fed, the usual practice is to throw the food upon the water. stale bread, grain, and even meal are given in this way. it looks like a wasteful way of feeding, but the birds will get all the food. swanneries are unknown in america. in england a few of those established many centuries ago still remain. the largest and most celebrated of these is at abbotsbury. swans have been bred here continuously for about eight hundred years. chapter xvi ostriches the ostrich is unlike other birds in many important characters. it is not a typical bird. while it has feathers and wings, its feathering is not normal, and the muscles of the wings are lacking. in the minds of most persons it is associated with the circus menagerie rather than with the poultry yard, but, as we shall see, this singular bird has a place in domestication and, as a useful land bird, belongs to the poultry group. there are two species of ostriches, but only one of these is of economic value. =description.= the ostrich is the largest of living birds. a full-grown male standing erect measures from six to seven feet in height. the largest specimens weigh about three hundred pounds. as, in the atmosphere which now surrounds the earth, a creature of such size and weight cannot fly at all, the wings of the ostrich have become atrophied, and the muscles of the wings, which form the plump, meaty breasts of flying birds, are entirely wanting. not only have these muscles disappeared, but the breastbone, which in flying birds is very large in proportion to the rest of the skeleton, and has a deep, longitudinal keel in the middle, is comparatively small in the ostrich and has no keel at all. the ostrich, having no power of flight, is dependent for safety upon its speed in running; so its legs are long and strong, and the muscles which move them are very large. indeed, there is very little meat on an ostrich except on the thighs. it can run much faster than a horse. because its foot must be adapted to running at great speed, the ostrich has only two toes. its neck is very long and slender, and its head is very small and flat. in such a head there is little room for brains. the ostrich is a very stupid creature, but it does not, as is commonly supposed, hide its head in the sand and imagine that, not being able to see its enemies, it cannot be seen by them. that is a myth apparently based upon the fact that, when in repose, an ostrich sometimes lies with its long neck stretched upon the ground. [illustration: fig. . side view of male ostrich. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] since the wings of the ostrich are useless for flight, the flight feathers have lost the structure adapted to that purpose and have developed into beautiful plumes. the tail feathers have also undergone a similar change. these wing and tail feathers are the ostrich feathers of commerce. the neck and head of the ostrich are almost bare of feathers. the body is covered with feathers, but not as densely as in most birds. there are just enough feathers on the body of an ostrich to protect the skin from exposure when they lie flat. the areas on the skin where there are no feathers are much larger than on other birds. the thighs of the ostrich are bare. the skin is in some varieties of a bluish-gray; in other varieties the bare parts are red and the skin of the body is yellow. the crop and the gizzard of the ostrich are not separated as in other birds, but are joined; the upper part of the stomach performs the functions of a crop and the lower part those of a gizzard. the male ostrich is usually larger than the female. the adult males and females are plainly distinguished by the color of their plumage, the body feathers of the male being black, while those of the female are gray. the plumes of both sexes are white or white mixed with black. the black on an ostrich is often of a brownish shade, and this is most conspicuous when it appears on the plumes. the bill of the male and the scales on the fronts of his shanks become a bright rose color in the breeding season. the male ostrich utters a guttural sound, called booming, which is said to resemble the roar of a lion as heard at a distance. the voice of the female is like that of the male, but very faint. the difference in the plumage of the sexes, although it is not complete until after the second adult molt, is noticeable much earlier. the females do not begin to lay until three or four years old. the males are not fully matured until four or five years of age. ostriches are very long-lived. birds whose age could be verified have lived as long as forty-five years in captivity, and at that age were profitable as breeders and also as feather producers. it is believed by some of those most competent to judge such matters that under favorable circumstances an ostrich might live a hundred years or more. very few of the birds kept in domestication die of old age. they are so stupid, and their long legs, though strong for running, are so easily broken, that an accident of some kind almost always ends the life of an ostrich long before it has passed its prime. [illustration: fig. . front view of male and female ostriches. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] the name "ostrich" has an interesting history. the greeks called this singular bird _struthion'_. this came into the latin language as _struthio_. in low latin, _avis_, the latin word for "bird," was prefixed to what remained of the greek name, giving _avis struthio_. "ostrich" is a contraction of this low latin compound. so we have in this name a combination of two words from different languages, having the same meaning. the terms "cock," "hen," and "chick" are used with the name of the species, to designate respectively the adult male, the adult female, and the young before the first plucking. =origin and history in domestication.= the domestic ostrich is the wild african ostrich in captivity. it is probable that the ostrich was familiar to the people of northern africa, and was known to those of the adjacent parts of asia and europe, in prehistoric times. in very early times ostriches may have been kept in captivity for their feathers, as they are now kept in the sudan, but, until about , when the farmers of south africa began to take an interest in the subject, we have no knowledge of any efforts to breed ostriches in captivity and to improve the quality of the feathers by giving the birds more nutritious food than they usually get in the wild state. the first stock used in south africa was some of the wild stock found in that part of the continent. in the first ostriches were brought to the united states. =place in domestication.= commercially the ostrich is valuable only for its plume feathers. the extent of the development of ostrich culture depends upon the demand for ostrich feathers at prices that will warrant breeding ostriches to supply them. when the industry was first established in south africa, ostrich feathers brought high prices and the business was very profitable; but so many farmers engaged in it, and the supply of feathers increased so rapidly that prices soon became much lower and have never since returned to the scale that prevailed at that time. the flesh of the ostrich is edible, but it is so hard and tough that no one would grow ostriches for their flesh. the egg of an ostrich is about as large as two dozen hen eggs. ostrich eggs are said to be very good, but they are too large for ordinary use, and the birds are so long in maturing that it would not pay to use them to produce eggs for commercial purposes. [illustration: fig. . ostrich eggs and newly hatched chicks. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] the breeding of ostriches for their feathers, however, may be regarded as a permanent industry, for there will always be a demand for ostrich plumes, but it cannot be developed as extensively as if the product were a staple article of food. the ostrich farms in america are mostly special farms devoted exclusively to ostrich breeding. most of these farms are owned and operated by companies. some of them are stock speculation projects. in south africa the industry is more in the hands of the general farmers, each of those engaged in it growing a few birds. the people of south africa have tried to secure a monopoly in ostrich feathers by prohibiting the exportation of ostriches and by purchasing the best stock to be obtained in north africa. ostrich farming is practical only in tropical and semitropical countries; the plumage of the birds is too scanty to protect them in the cold winters of temperate climes. in the united states nearly all the ostrich farms are in southern california and arizona, but there are some in texas, arkansas, and florida. =management.= in the places where ostrich farming is carried on, the birds need no shelter. they must be kept in inclosures fenced as for cattle. as ostriches are bred for their plumage, and that of the male is most valuable, the breeder does not object to their following their natural inclination and mating in pairs, but many males are so injured in fighting that they must be killed. this leaves an excess of females, and so two or more females are sometimes mated with one male. the birds are mated for breeding when they are about three and one-half years old. the object of mating them before they are fully mature is to prevent them from selecting for themselves partners contrary to the ideas of the breeder. each mating must have its own yard, unless the place where more than one family is kept is large enough to allow each family the exclusive use of a part of it. under such circumstances each group will keep to its own range. the natural food of the ostrich is grass and the leaves of shrubs and trees. in domestication it is usually pastured on alfalfa, or fed on alfalfa hay, according to the season. the alfalfa is often supplemented with grain (principally corn), and grit, bone, and shell are provided as for other birds. most ostrich growers prefer to hatch the eggs in incubators, because by removing the eggs from the nests they induce the hens to lay more, and because the young ostriches are much easier to manage when by themselves than when with the old birds. when a pair of ostriches hatch their own eggs, the hen sits during the day and the cock at night. the period of incubation is six weeks. [illustration: fig. . flock of ostriches on a california ostrich farm. (photograph from the bureau of animal industry, united states department of agriculture)] young ostriches are fed the same as old ones. they are kept in flocks of fifty or more until about a year old, when the sexes are separated. the plumes are cut for the first time when the birds are between six and seven months old. although the process of removing these feathers is called plucking, they are not drawn out, but are cut close to the skin. the object is to get the feather immediately after it is grown, before it can be soiled or damaged in any way. at that time the quill is still full of blood. drawing it out would be very painful to the bird, and might injure the wing so that the next feather that grew would be defective. the stumps of the feathers are allowed to remain until they are dead and dry, when they are drawn out easily. in south africa the kafirs draw the stumps out with their teeth. in about six or seven months after the stumps are removed, the new plumes are grown and the process of plucking is repeated. chapter xvii pigeons the pigeon is the only species of aërial bird kept in domestication to provide food for man. it is also the only useful domestic bird that is able to maintain itself and increase in numbers in populous districts without the care of man. =description.= the common pigeon is about the size of the smallest bantam fowls. it is a plump, hard-feathered bird, with a short neck, a round head free from ornamental appendages, a short beak, and short legs. the prevailing color is a dull, checkered blue, varying in shade from a very light blue to nearly black. the blue is sometimes replaced by red with similar variations in shade. there are also white pigeons, black pigeons, and many birds in which all the colors that have been named are irregularly mixed. the male and female pigeons are not distinguished by any regular differences of size, form, color, or voice. the males are usually a little larger and coarser looking, and make themselves conspicuous by their vain posing and domineering ways, but none of these characteristics are reliable indications of sex. the natural voice of the pigeon is a soft, gurgling coo repeated over and over with monotonous effect. it is sometimes heavier and more prolonged in the male, but except in the trumpeter and laugher pigeons, in which the voice has been peculiarly developed, the difference in the voices of the male and female is not marked. even in the two varieties mentioned, many males have such poor voices that the voice is not an infallible indication of the sex. the most expert pigeon breeders are often in doubt about the sex of some pigeons until they pair. the name "pigeon" is from the latin _pipio_ (to peep or chirp), and came into the english language from the french. the anglo-saxon name for the bird was probably _dufa_, from which we have the word "dove," which is still sometimes applied to pigeons. _dufa_ was derived from _dufan_ (to plunge into). it seems probable that the name was given because of the pigeon's habit of dropping almost perpendicularly when descending from an elevated position. the male pigeon is called a cock, the female a hen. young pigeons are called _squabs_, _squeakers_, or sometimes _squealers_. the word "squab," which means "fat," describes the characteristic appearance of the nestling pigeon; the other terms refer to the noise it makes as it persistently begs for food. [illustration: fig. . tame pigeons. (photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts)] =origin.= domestic pigeons are all descended from the wild blue rock pigeon of the old world. although many of the improved varieties have been greatly changed in form, they are all perfectly fertile when bred together. the blue rock pigeon is found in the wild state in europe, asia, and africa. "fancy pigeons," by james c. lyell, the best authority on the subject, contains this statement: "the british blue rock inhabits the rocks and caves on our seacoasts, as well as precipitous inland rocks, and certainly the difference between this bird and a common blue flying tumbler is very little. their color is identical, their size almost so.... in the west of scotland, where fanciers keep and show common pigeons, the wild blue rock domesticated is the bird so called." it is by no means certain that these wild pigeons are a true wild race. considering the habits of the pigeon and its wide distribution in england centuries ago, it seems certain that many, if not all, of the pigeons now found wild in the british isles are descended from birds once domesticated. rock pigeons of the same type, however, are found in many other parts of the old world and, whether wild or feral, are plainly all from the same original stock. the american wild pigeon, also called the passenger pigeon, which was once found in enormous flocks in eastern north america, is often erroneously mentioned as the ancestor of domestic pigeons. the rock pigeon and the passenger pigeon are of different species and are very different in appearance and habits. the rock pigeon is what is called a shelf builder. it builds its nest on a ledge, or shelf, and will rarely even alight in a tree or a bush. the passenger pigeon is a wood pigeon, nesting and roosting in trees. [illustration: fig. . flock of dragoon pigeons[ ]] [illustration: fig. . flying homer pigeon[ ]] [illustration: fig. . silver runt pigeon[ ]] [ ] photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts. =distribution in ancient times.= the pigeon was domesticated at a very early stage of civilization. like the fowl, the duck, and the goose, it was well known to all civilized peoples of antiquity. to what extent the distribution of pigeons in domestication followed the early migrations of the human race is not known. it is probable that pigeons were domesticated before the aryan migrations began, and also that the domestic stock was sometimes taken by aryan colonists to their new homes; but it is equally probable that at various times in the history of the earth people coming to new lands domesticated some of the wild rock pigeons which they found there. [illustration: fig. . swiss mondaine pigeon[ ]] [illustration: fig. . splashed homer[ ]] [illustration: fig. . blue-barred homer[ ]] [ ] photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts. =improved varieties.= common pigeons are much alike the world over, and have changed little from the wild race, but in many different parts of the old world the making of improved varieties began thousands of years ago, and in some places peculiar types were developed which were little known elsewhere until modern times. the varieties of the pigeon are so numerous that it is practically impossible to make a complete list of them. at the large shows in this country, classes are made for more than one hundred fifty named varieties, in about forty breeds. in many of these breeds there are eight or ten principal color varieties, and an indefinite number of less popular varieties, specimens of which compete in a miscellaneous competition in what is called the "any other variety class." there are probably nearly three hundred varieties of pigeons bred in america and england. on the continent of europe the number is very much greater. the triganica pigeon has one hundred fifty-two color varieties, and it is said that another variety in germany, not known in england and america, has one hundred thirty-eight color varieties. where varieties are so numerous, many of the color differences are necessarily slight, and only those who know them well can readily distinguish the different varieties at sight; others are bewildered when they attempt to do so. in this chapter only the most pronounced color varieties and the breeds of most interest to beginners will be described, but some of the most interesting of the others will be mentioned, to illustrate the range of the improved types developed by fanciers. [illustration: fig. . white hen pigeons. (photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts)] [illustration: fig. . young jacobin pigeons. (photograph from e. r. b. chapman, stoneham, massachusetts)] =the carrier pigeon.= the homing instinct--that is, the faculty of finding the way home after wandering or being taken away from it--is found in animals of all kinds. in some kinds of animals it is much more highly developed than in others, and some animals of each kind have more of it than is usual with their species. it is well known that migratory birds usually return to the same localities season after season, and that certain pairs often return to the same vicinity year after year and build their nests in the same places. when this instinct is highly developed in a wild bird, its habit of returning to the same nest is of great interest to those who observe it, but it has no particular value. in a domestic bird the homing instinct or habit is of service because the owner of a bird relies upon it to make the bird return always to the place which he has provided for it, instead of taking shelter elsewhere or remaining where nocturnal enemies will find it an easy prey. in the domestic land birds the instinct has no further use than this, but in pigeons which, while thoroughly domesticated, retain full power of flight, the development of the homing faculty makes it possible to use them as a means of communication when it is necessary to transmit short letters with great dispatch. [illustration: fig. . muffed tumblers with "saddle" color pattern. (photograph from e. r. b. chapman, stoneham, massachusetts)] it is known that pigeons were used as messengers in war about the beginning of the christian era. an egyptian bas-relief of about b.c. shows pigeons being released from cages just as they are now released in flying matches. the homing instinct is so strong in the common pigeon that any one familiar with its habits may easily suppose that pigeons were used to carry messages almost as soon as men had devised means of communication by writing upon any material which the birds could carry in their flight. there is reason to believe that in very ancient times pigeons were bred and trained especially for work of this kind in egypt, greece, and rome. [illustration: fig. . feeding pigeons on boston common. (photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts)] the pigeon which in england and america now goes by the name of "carrier pigeon" is a type developed as a messenger pigeon in persia and from that country distributed to many parts of the world. as bred in asia it was larger and stronger than the common pigeon, and had a cere, or convoluted membrane, around each eye and at the juncture of the head and the beak. it is thought that this type of carrier may have been taken from asia minor to england at the time of the crusades, but nothing definite is known of it in great britain until the seventeenth century. this old type of carrier and several closely related varieties were used for messengers, and also in flying competitions, until the variety next described was developed. when the carrier pigeon was bred for carrying messages, no attention was paid to its color. pigeon fanciers who were not interested in pigeon flying, but liked the carrier for its other characters, early developed many distinct color varieties and also gave special attention to the form and carriage of the bird and to the development of the ceres around the eyes and on the beak. the carrier pigeon is now bred only as an exhibition bird. =the antwerp homer.= beginning sometime early in the last century, breeders of flying pigeons at antwerp, in belgium, developed a race which soon became celebrated for superior development of the homing faculty and for great speed and endurance. this race was at first called the antwerp carrier. when the invention of the telegraph made the services of pigeons as messengers on land unnecessary, pigeons that could fly long distances were still bred and trained for competitive flying matches. in these, as a rule, they carried no messages; the object was to see which bird would reach home first. so gradually the term "homer" was substituted for "carrier," and the pigeons now called homers, or homing pigeons, are the antwerp homing pigeons. good birds of this type are larger and stronger than the common pigeon, and have a bolder, more confident bearing and a more attractive carriage. they show their good breeding very plainly. many of the pigeons called homers are crosses or grades of the antwerp homer, and are not much better in any way than ordinary pigeons. [illustration: fig. . flying homer[ ]] [ ] photograph from c. e. twombley, medford, massachusetts. the true homer is also the most popular type of pigeon for the production of squabs for market. its great prolificacy, strong constitution, quick growth, and large size make it a favorite with squab growers. as bred for flying or for market, homers are of various colors, and the color varieties are not distinct except as occasionally a breeder makes a specialty of producing birds of some particular color. many pigeon fanciers breed homers solely for exhibition. the exhibition homer has many distinct color varieties--blue, silver, mealy, blue checker, black checker, black, red checker, white, yellow. =tumbler and tippler pigeons.= the flying powers of pigeons have been developed for other purposes as well as for traveling long distances. in rising or descending in flight a pigeon sometimes turns a somersault in the air. this trait has been developed in certain races so that many birds will perform the feat very often. these races are called tumblers. they are found all over europe and asia and in a few localities in america. the common tumblers perform in the air, usually at some distance from the ground, the tumbling of individual birds being an occasional feature of the evolutions of a flock circling about in the vicinity of its home. from this common tumbler more highly specialized types have been developed. the breeding of these types has become something of an art, and in some cases the sport of flying them has become a well-organized recreation. [illustration: fig. . squab-breeding homers. (photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts)] by breeding together specimens which performed well when flying, tumblers were finally produced in which the tumbling propensity was so exaggerated that they could not fly but, after a few somersaults, alighted on their feet. these birds were called inside tumblers, or parlor tumblers, to distinguish them from the common tumblers, which required more room for their evolutions than any ordinary building afforded. although they are incapable of flight, the parlor tumblers can rise a short distance before they fall. the roller is a tumbler which turns many somersaults so rapidly that each revolution of its body is made in a very small space. a high-flying roller falls while rolling in the air. an inside roller turns over and over backward on the ground. [illustration: fig. . clean-legged red tumbler[ ]] [illustration: fig. . muffed, or feather-legged, tumblers[ ]] [ ] photograph from e. r. b. chapman, stoneham, massachusetts. breeders of common tumblers do not give them liberty, but release them from their loft only when they wish to see the birds perform, and, by feeding them immediately upon their return, coax and train them to return to the loft soon after being released. a good performer is soon exhausted by tumbling, and is quite willing to return to the loft in a short time. but not all birds of tumbler stock are good and persistent performers, and often birds that do not perform prefer liberty for a longer period to the food that is waiting for them in the loft. birds have sometimes been compelled to remain in the air for a long time. as a result of this treatment of poor tumblers a type of tumbler has been produced which will perform more or less when ascending or descending, but which, having risen to a high elevation, will remain for hours circling over its home and perhaps occasionally flying away and returning. tumblers of this type can remain in the air for five or six hours. in flying them for sport the object is to see which flock will remain in the air longest. the tumbling habit was gradually bred out of the high-flying birds, and after a time many of them did not tumble at all. such birds were then called tipplers ("tipple" having in some english dialects the meaning of "tumble"). the modern tippler pigeon is a bird in which the tendency to rise to a great height and remain there for a long time has been developed to the utmost, as the tendency to return home from great distances has been developed in the flying homer. performing tumblers and tipplers are usually bred for performance without regard to color, and the colors in a flock of the same breeding may be, and nearly always are, various. exhibition stocks of tumblers and tipplers are bred in many distinct color varieties. [illustration: fig. . english owl pigeon[ ]] [illustration: fig. . english red trumpeter pigeon[ ]] [illustration: fig. . english saddle trumpeter pigeon[ ]] [ ] photograph from e. r. b. chapman, stoneham, massachusetts. =the fantail pigeon.= the fantail pigeon originated in india. the fan-shaped tail, from which this variety takes its name, was developed by selection to increase the number of the large, straight main tail feathers. normally a pigeon has from twelve to sixteen of these feathers; in the ordinary fantail the number has been increased to twenty-four or twenty-six. many of the specimens in which this character is highly developed have a much greater number of tail feathers. it is said that forty-two feathers have been counted in a tail. a tail in which there are so many feathers cannot be carried in the natural position; it spreads, forming a major segment of a circle, and at the same time it is elevated until, in specimens with very full tails, the highest tail feathers stand nearly perpendicular. to balance the large tail carried in this position the fantail has to carry its head very far back. this makes the breast very prominent. the bird cannot fly well, and when walking about it appears to be strutting to make a display of its spectacular tail. its appearance is in this respect deceptive, for it is a very modest bird and has difficulty in balancing itself in any other position. the fantail is gentle and affectionate, and is the best of all pigeons for those who want birds for pets. it is bred in many color varieties. the white fantail is the most popular, because it is the most showy and the easiest to produce with uniform color in a flock. [illustration: fig. . white runt pigeon[ ]] [ ] photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts. [illustration: fig. . white pouter pigeon] =pouter pigeons.= all pigeons have in some measure the power of inflating the crop with air. in the pouter pigeons this power has been developed and its exercise encouraged to such an extent that in many specimens the inflated crop is as large as all the rest of the bird. pouters were introduced into england from holland several hundred years ago. they were at first called croppers. the common pouter is a large pigeon with long legs. it usually stands in a very erect position. there is a race of dwarf pigeons of this type, called pigmy pouters. [illustration: fig. . fowl-like, or maltese hen, pigeons[ ]] [ ] photograph from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts. =other important types.= one of the most attractive pigeons is the jacobin, which has the feathers of the neck turned upward, forming a hood which sometimes almost conceals the head. the turbit and owl pigeons are distinguished by a frill of feathers on the breast, and by the peculiar beak and face, which are very short. the dragoon is a large, showy pigeon of the carrier type. the trumpeter is distinguished by a crest, which greatly obstructs its sight, as well as by the peculiar development of the voice, to which it owes its name. the runt is a very large pigeon bred both for exhibition and for the table. some squab growers prize it very highly; others say that the smaller and more prolific homer is more profitable for squab breeding. the use of a term commonly applied to undersized, ill-developed creatures as the name of one of the largest pigeons is one of the curiosities of nomenclature. the explanation, however, is simple. in england in old times common pigeons were called runts. the pigeon now called the runt was introduced into england from spain, and was called by early writers on pigeons the spanish runt, meaning the common pigeon of spain. with the disuse of the term "runt" to designate the common pigeon, the term "spanish" was dropped from the designation of the improved breed, and it became simply the runt. besides the runt just mentioned there is another large pigeon, once called the leghorn runt, which belongs to the class of fowl-like, or hen, pigeons, so called because in shape they are strikingly like fowls. the most familiar representative of this class is the maltese hen pigeon. =history in domestication.= the history of the pigeon in domestication presents some very interesting features. its use as a messenger has been mentioned. from very early times people of privileged classes took advantage of the habits of the pigeon to grow the birds for their own use at the expense of the community. the assyrians and some other ancient peoples considered the pigeon sacred to certain of their deities. sometimes all pigeons were so regarded; at other times and places only white pigeons were sacred, those of other colors being used by the common people. [illustration: fig. . nun pigeons[ ]] [illustration: fig. . german frillback pigeons[ ]] [ ] photograph from e. r. b. chapman, stoneham, massachusetts. in medieval times in england, the lord of a manor, when leasing farms to tenants, reserved the right to let his pigeons forage over them. as pigeons live mostly upon grains and seeds, caring little for green vegetation and insects, the newly planted fields of the farmer were the favorite feeding places of his landlord's pigeons. the landlords, being able to keep pigeons without other expense than that of providing shelter for them, built large dovecots near the manor houses and kept their tables plentifully supplied with pigeons. at one time it was estimated that there were more than twenty thousand such dovecots in england. the destruction of crops by the occupants of these caused serious losses to the farmers and a great deal of trouble between them and their landlords. this form of protection for roving pigeons in agricultural districts was finally abandoned. no doubt the selfishness of landlords was originally responsible for this method of protecting pigeons, but the government of the country at that time also had something to do with it. pigeon manure is very rich in niter, which in those days the government had difficulty in procuring in such quantities as it needed for the manufacture of gunpowder; so it adopted the policy of regulating the construction of pigeon houses, prescribing the method of disposing of the droppings to conserve the niter in them and appointing official inspectors to see that its regulations were observed, and collectors to gather the pigeon manure. it was much easier to do this when large flocks were kept by landlords than when an equal number of the birds were kept in small flocks by the tenants. =place in domestication.= although many farmers keep small flocks of pigeons, the pigeon in modern times is a city bird rather than a country bird. the strong flying types are all well adapted to an independent life in towns and cities, where, as has been stated, they often become a nuisance. this form of nuisance might be partly abated and perhaps prevented if city authorities would systematically and humanely exterminate the free flocks of common pigeons, and encourage citizens to breed improved varieties under proper control. pigeon culture does not afford as many or as good opportunities for profit as poultry culture does, but it is suited to conditions under which poultry do not thrive. a flock of pigeons may be permanently maintained by a city resident who has so little room for domestic birds that, if he kept poultry, he would have to renew his flock every year. a few pigeons may be kept by any one who can provide a nesting place for them where they will be safe from cats and rats. in this country the growing of squabs has been widely exploited in recent years as a profitable commercial industry. near large cities where the demand for squabs is good, squab growing on a large scale is sometimes successful. elsewhere the small flock that can be cared for in the owner's spare time is likely to be more profitable. the breeding of fancy pigeons is also almost wholly a spare-time occupation. the demand for fancy pigeons is small in comparison with the demand for fancy poultry, and a pigeon fancier's trade rarely grows so large that he can give his attention to it exclusively. in europe the breeding of pigeons for exhibition and sport is more popular than in america, but the interest is growing rapidly in this country. chapter xviii management of pigeons [illustration: fig. . small pigeon house and fly[ ]] [ ] the photographs for illustrations in this chapter, when not credited to others, are from elmer e. rice, boston, massachusetts. almost every child knows something of the lives of the common pigeons that are seen at large in both city and country. some flocks have owners who take a slight interest in them and make rude provisions for their safety and comfort. nearly all the country flocks, and many of the city flocks, are in this class. but there are in all large cities, and in some smaller places, many flocks of pigeons which no one claims to own. they build their nests in high cupolas, in the belfries of churches, on sheltered ledges under the cornices or other projections of high buildings, and in all sorts of places from which they cannot be easily dislodged. the streets and areas of a great city afford daily food sufficient for vast numbers of birds. the principal part of this is fresh oats scattered by thousands of horses as they take their noon meal from pails or nose bags, and oats that, passing through the horses undigested, are mixed with the dust and dirt of the street. very large quantities of food also fall on the streets from torn bags or broken boxes as cereal products are carted from place to place and handled in transportation. then there are the crumbs and remnants of food thrown from windows by innumerable people who carry their lunches when they go to their work; and besides these a great deal of waste food from the occupants of tenements, as well as from many hotel and restaurant kitchens. much of this is thrown out at random, but often, when pigeons begin to frequent places where food supplies are regular, the people there take an interest in the birds and throw out more than they did before. from all these various sources an abundance of food is available for birds that forage on the city streets. [illustration: fig. . house and fly for a small flock] the pigeons do their part in saving this waste food, but the people derive little benefit from the saving, because so many pigeons are not kept under control, where their produce may be taken and used when it is ready. good management of pigeons consists in keeping them so that the owner gets all the benefits of ownership. good management in the large sense requires that all pigeons shall be owned by some one who is responsible for them, and who keeps them under full control or under partial control, as the circumstances in each case require. =size of flock.= a flock of breeding pigeons may contain as many pairs as can nest in the place where they are kept. most pigeon keepers prefer lofts about or feet square, because in larger spaces it is harder to catch the birds when they must be handled, and in many ways the very large flock makes extra trouble for the attendant. a place with a floor area of from to square feet will accommodate from fifty to sixty pairs of breeding pigeons. except when undertaking squab breeding on a large scale, pigeon keepers usually begin with a small number and keep most of the increase until the full capacity of the loft is used. [illustration: fig. . small barn and shed arranged for pigeon keeping] =quarters for pigeons.= a pair of pigeons may be kept in a coop, box, or cage about feet square, and or feet high. a cage or feet high, or one as high as the room in which it is placed, is still better, because it will allow the birds a little room to use their wings. if such a cage has a few perches at various heights, the pigeons will not seem to miss their liberty. such close confinement, however, is not recommended except for those who cannot provide larger quarters, or who merely wish to keep one or two pair a short time for observation. a house about feet square makes a convenient size for a small breeding flock of pigeons. in a place of that size eight or ten pairs may be kept. attached to it there should be a wire-inclosed fly, as pigeon keepers call the outdoor compartment for pigeons. the size of the fly can be adjusted to suit the conditions and the available space. the larger the fly the better the pigeons will like it, but even a very small place where they can be much in the open air and lie and sun themselves is better than constant confinement indoors, which makes them anemic and greatly reduces their vitality. where the space for pigeons is very limited and there is room for only one small loft and fly, breeding operations are closely restricted. most pigeon fanciers want at least two lofts of this size--one for the breeding birds, the other for the young birds that no longer need the care of their parents. with such facilities the work in the breeding loft goes on better, and promising young birds can be kept until they are well matured and the breeder can tell whether it is advisable to keep some of these and dispose of a part of the old ones. to provide for larger numbers of birds, either more lofts or larger lofts may be made. a breeder of fancy pigeons usually prefers many small compartments. a breeder of squabs for market makes each compartment as large as is convenient and builds as many as he has room for. [illustration: fig. . old poultry house arranged for pigeons. (photograph from dr. j. g. robinson, pembroke, massachusetts)] buildings for pigeons are constructed on the same plans as buildings for fowls. the furnishings of the pigeon loft are different from those of the poultry house, and of course the fly is always completely inclosed. upper floors or lofts of buildings are used for pigeons to much better advantage than for poultry, but where there is room it is more satisfactory to have all quarters for pigeons on the ground floor. as the young pigeons remain in the nest and are fed by the parents until they are almost full-grown, each pair of old pigeons must have their own nesting place. as has been stated, the domestic pigeon is a shelf builder. so in arranging for nests the pigeon keeper builds shelves or inches apart, and divides these into compartments about inches wide, thus forming pigeonholes. because a hen pigeon often lays again and begins to incubate before a pair of young are ready to leave the nest, it is usual to arrange the pigeonholes in pairs. this is sometimes done by omitting alternate dividing boards, making each pigeonhole twice the size required, so that a nest can be made in each corner. some people prefer to have single pigeonholes and to arrange them in double sections by making each alternate perpendicular board project several inches beyond the front edge of the horizontal shelf. when this is done, a pair of pigeons in possession of one side of a double section will usually claim the entire section and prevent others from entering it even when they are themselves using only one side. [illustration: fig. . city back-yard squab plant] for indoor perches for pigeons individual perches shaped like an inverted v are most used. these are attached to the wall, one above another, about or inches apart. the pigeons rest on the upper edge of the perch, and the sloping sides prevent their plumage from being soiled by birds roosting above them. in the outdoor flies running boards are placed along the sides to make exercising and resting places for the birds, for they usually prefer a shelf of this kind to the ground. long perches are also placed in the fly when the running boards do not give room for all the pigeons in the flock. out of doors the birds get along very well on long perches, but in the house each wants a separate perch. feed hoppers like those used for fowls are used in pigeon houses. drinking vessels for pigeons should be of the fountain type, exposing only a small surface of water, because if the vessel is open the birds will bathe in it. for the bath any circular vessel with a depth of or inches and a diameter of inches or over may be used. [illustration: fig. . running boards in pigeon fly. (photograph from springer brothers, bridgeton, new jersey)] =ventilation and cleanliness.= the ventilation of a pigeon house is managed in the same way as that of a poultry house, by adjusting the openings in the front. most kinds of pigeons are very rugged and, when fully feathered, can stand a great deal of cold. when a house is open in winter, some of the young, unfledged squabs may be chilled and die from exposure, but breeders agree that, on the whole, it is better to keep the windows or other openings for ventilation partly open at all times. while this causes some loss of the weaker squabs, it keeps the old birds in much better condition than when the house is tightly closed. [illustration: fig. . constant water supply for pigeons] to keep the loft looking clean and neat the droppings should be removed from the floor, and from all shelves that can be cleaned without disturbing breeding birds, at least once a week. many pigeon keepers clean the houses oftener than that, but if the ventilation is good and the droppings are dry and firm, a house may go uncleaned for weeks or months without detriment to the birds. it is customary to keep the floor of the pigeon loft thinly covered with fine gravel, coarse sand, sawdust, or chaff. to prevent the wind from the pigeons' wings from blowing this from the middle to the sides of the floor, a small box is placed in the middle of the floor. whenever it is possible, the bath pan is placed outdoors, because in taking a bath pigeons splash the water a great deal, and if they are given the bath indoors, they will make a nasty mess of the house floor unless it is perfectly clean. the bath need not be given oftener than once or twice a week. in bad weather it is better to let them go without a bath than to have them take one and get chilled before their feathers dry. =handling pigeons.= when a few pigeons in a small loft get a great deal of attention, they usually become very tame and allow themselves to be caught at any time. for catching pigeons that are shy, pigeon keepers use a net, called a landing net, such as is used by fishermen. a pigeon is held securely in the hand by grasping it so that the breast of the bird lies in the palm and one wing is held against the side by the thumb and the other by the fingers. a pigeon may also be carried by the tips of the wings by bringing them together over the back and letting the bird hang by them. [illustration: fig. . small pigeon house and fly] =mating pigeons.= the beginner's first serious difficulty in breeding pigeons is to get the birds in his loft all mated and each pair attending to the work of hatching and rearing its young. as has been said, the sexes cannot always be identified by appearance. most of the pigeons sold for breeding are young birds that have not yet mated. some breeders and dealers are very expert in selecting males and females, but all make some mistakes, and the average person makes a great many of them. there are two ways of selling pigeons. the most common way is to sell the desired number of birds, the seller selecting, according to his best judgment, equal numbers of males and females, with the understanding that if, when the birds mate, there is an excess of one sex, he will make a suitable exchange. the other way is to sell the number of pairs desired, guaranteeing them as mated pairs--which means that the pairs are all known to be properly mated. the advantage of buying guaranteed mated pairs is that the question of mating requires no further attention at the outset, but the prices for them are so much higher than for those not known to be mated, that most beginners buy on the other plan. [illustration: fig. . large squab plant. (photograph from dr. j. g. robinson, pembroke, massachusetts)] where the flock is small and the birds are to be allowed to select their own mates, all that is necessary is to watch them closely until all are mated or it is evident that there is a surplus of one sex. surplus males will quarrel persistently with the other males and endeavor to coax their mates away from them. the unmated males must be provided with mates or removed from the loft. unmated females are not so readily noticed except when there are only a few birds in the loft, but by close watching they will soon be found. when a start is to be made with quite a large number of unmated birds, the best plan is to put the flock first in a different apartment from that in which they are to be kept permanently, and, as each pair mate and begin to build their nest, remove them to their permanent quarters. [illustration: fig. . neat pigeon house and fly] when it is desired to mate a particular male and female, the best way is to place them one in each side of a small coop with a wire partition across the middle. this coop should be put where they cannot see other pigeons. sometimes one of the birds shows a decided antipathy to the other. in such a case it is, as a rule, useless to continue efforts to induce them to pair. in most cases, however, the birds will soon show mutual affection. when this stage is reached, they may be taken to the loft and released. short coarse straw or fine twigs should be placed where pigeons that are building nests can take what they want. no nest box or pan is really needed, but many pigeon keepers use a nest bowl, called a nappy, of earthenware or wood fiber. =feeding.= the food of pigeons consists almost wholly of grains and seeds. the principal grains used in america are wheat and corn (usually cracked corn). field peas are also used quite extensively. while pigeons will eat the same kinds of ground-grain products as are fed to poultry, pigeon keepers rarely use such foods. they prefer to give a variety of hard grains and seeds. those who keep large stocks of pigeons often buy separately the feeds which they use, and mix the grains to suit themselves, or feed them in such alternation as seems desirable. people who keep only a few pairs of pigeons usually find it more satisfactory to buy the feed mixtures sold by dealers in pigeons' supplies. as a rule, old grain and seed that are very dry and hard are best for pigeons, and especially for exhibition and breeding stock. [illustration: fig. . an attractive squab plant] the most common practice is to give the feed in hoppers, keeping a supply always before the birds. this is done principally because it is the most convenient way, particularly for those who are away from home a great deal. for them hopper feeding is really necessary, but pigeon fanciers seem to agree that when the birds can be fed by throwing on the floor of the loft or the fly, two or three times a day, just about the quantity of food that they need for a meal, they do better and the cost of food is less than by the hopper method. unlike poultry, pigeons require considerable quantities of salt. the common practice is to keep it before them in the form of lumps of rock salt, one large lump being enough for the birds in a loft of ordinary size. oyster shell should also be supplied. [illustration: fig. . homer squabs four weeks old] [illustration: fig. . carneaux squabs four weeks old] =how pigeons rear their young.= after a pair of pigeons have completed their nest, the male seems to come at once to the conclusion that home duties demand his mate's constant attention. at the nest he struts about, cooing and coaxing, entering the nest himself, then leaving it and plainly showing his wish that she should take the nest. if she goes away from the nest, he follows her with his head high and his neck inflated. his cooing turns to scolding. he pecks at her and will not give her a moment's peace until she returns to the nest. the hen lays one egg and, after laying it, spends most of her time standing on the nest until the second or third day after, when she lays another egg and immediately begins to sit. she seems to know that if she sat on the first egg before laying the other, one squab would hatch two or three days earlier than the other, and the second squab, being smaller and weaker, would have a hard time. the work of incubation is done mostly by the hen, the cock taking only a minor part. for about an hour in the middle of the morning and again in the middle of the afternoon he relieves her on the nest, giving her a chance to eat, drink, and take some exercise. counting from the time the last egg was laid, the period of incubation is sixteen or seventeen days. young squabs, like all other young birds that are naked when hatched, are ugly little things. they have apparently insatiable appetites, and their mouths seem to be always open. they are fed by the parents with pigeon milk, which is simply the usual food of the old birds softened in the crop. the pigeon has the power of disgorging the contents of the crop at will, and feeds its young by forcing food from its crop into their mouths. when they are well fed, the squabs grow very fast. young homers four weeks old often weigh from three quarters of a pound to a pound, or even more, and are ready for market. many of the fancy varieties of pigeons are hard to rear, because the abnormal structure of the beak or the interference of peculiar feather characters prevent the old ones from feeding their young properly. all the breeds described in detail in the preceding chapter are known as good feeders. [illustration: fig. . dressed squabs. (photograph from dr. j. g. robinson, pembroke, massachusetts)] pigeons will breed nearly the year round, stopping only while molting, but in cold climates many young birds die in the nests in winter. those who are breeding for market take this as one of the risks of their business. if only half of the squabs are reared in winter, the profits may be as great as when the actual results are much better, because in winter the prices are much higher than at the seasons when squabs are most easily produced. fanciers do not usually allow their pigeons to breed during the coldest winter months, but take the eggs from the nests or keep the sexes separate until spring approaches. the object of the fancier is to produce specimens having the finest possible development of form and color. he cannot do this successfully under conditions that cause heavy losses. the birds may grow under such conditions but will not have the superior quality that he desires, and so he finds it more profitable to concentrate all his attention upon the birds that he can produce when the weather is most favorable. chapter xix canaries the canary is the only common cage bird. there are about fifty kinds of birds that make desirable pets, but very few of them will breed in small cages, and many will not breed in confinement even when kept in large aviaries. in the united states the number of kinds of cage birds is restricted by state laws which prohibit keeping native song birds in captivity. such laws are necessary to preserve the birds. before these laws were passed, great numbers of song birds were trapped every year to send to europe, where the keeping of cage birds as pets is more popular than in america. song birds from other parts of the world may be kept in this country, but most of them are so scarce and expensive that few people would buy them even if the canary were not a more satisfactory pet. =description.= the common domestic canary is a small bird, about five inches in length, very lively and sprightly in manner, and in color yellow or a greenish gray and yellow. the male and female are so much alike that the sex cannot be positively determined by the appearance. although it often happens that the male is more slender in form and brighter in color, the voice is a better index of sex and, in mature birds of good singing stock, is very reliable. the male is the singer. the female also has a singing voice, but it is so inferior in quality to that of the male that few people care for it. =origin.= the domestic canary belongs to the finch family and is found wild in the canary islands (from which it takes its name) and in a number of other islands in that part of the world. the color of the wild birds is described, by some who have seen them, as greenish-gray, changing to a greenish-yellow on the breast and under parts. other observers describe the wild birds of some localities as brownish. [illustration: fig. . tricolor canary[ ]] [ ] the illustrations in this chapter are from "our domestic animals," by charles w. burkett. the canary was introduced into europe about four hundred years ago. as the story goes, a ship with a cargo from the canary islands, carrying several thousand canaries, which the traders thought might be sold in europe, was wrecked off the coast of italy early in the sixteenth century. before the sailors left the ship, they opened the cages containing the canaries. the birds escaped to the island of elba and there became established in the wild state. from this colony of canaries birds were captured and distributed to all parts of europe and america, their superior song powers and adaptability to domestication making them popular wherever they became known. [illustration: fig. . norwich canary with hood] the wild bird known in america as the wild canary is the american goldfinch. it belongs to the same family as the canary but is of a different species. it is of no value as a singer. [illustration: fig. . yorkshire canary] =improvement in domestication.= nearly all the varieties of the canary were developed before the eighteenth century. the german canary fanciers turned their attention to developing the song of the bird, the belgian and british fanciers to making and perfecting shape and color varieties. in germany the celebrated harz mountain canaries were produced. these are simply common canaries carefully bred and trained for singing. but their excellence as singers is not due to breeding and training alone; the climate of the harz mountain region seems to be peculiarly suited to the development of canaries with beautiful voices. the finest harz mountain canaries are produced at st. andreasberg, a health resort noted for its pure and bracing air. the st. andreasberg roller is a canary trained to sing with a peculiar rolling note. among fancy types of canaries the most interesting are the norwich canary, which is larger than the singing canaries and has reddish-yellow plumage; the manchester coppy, a yellow canary almost as large as a small pigeon; the lizard canaries (silver and golden), which have spangled markings on the back; the london fancy canary, which has an orange body with black wings and tail; and the belgian canary, a malformed type in which the head appears to grow out of the breast instead of being carried above the shoulders. [illustration: fig. . belgian canary] =place in domestication.= most people who have canaries keep them for pets, and have only a few. in perhaps the greater number of cases a single bird--a singer--satisfies the canary lover. a few of those who keep canaries as pets also breed them for sale. occasionally a canary fancier devotes a room in his house entirely to his birds and, when breeding on such a scale, has a great many to sell. the commercial side of canary breeding, however, is usually subordinate, except in the harz mountain district, where the breeding and training of singing canaries is a very important cottage industry. canaries from this district are sold all over the civilized world. [illustration: fig. . english flatheaded canary] management of canaries =cages.= the common wire bird cages used for one or two canaries are so well known that no description of them is necessary. for larger numbers larger cages must be provided. large cages cannot always be obtained at stores which sell the small ones, but they may be obtained from bird stores in the large cities, or made to order by a local mechanic. indeed, any clever boy who has learned to use tools can make one at very little cost. while the small cages are usually made all of metal, the large ones are commonly made with wooden frames. a small cage has a removable bottom. a large cage must have two bottoms--the outer one fixed, the inner one in the form of a movable drawer. a metal drawer is easier to keep clean than a wooden one. =position of the cage.= the cage in an ordinary room should be hung where its occupants will be comfortable and safe. the greatest foe of the domestic canary is the house cat. some cats can be trained to let canaries alone, but very few can be trusted to make no attempt to get a canary when left alone in a room with it. when canaries and cats are kept in the same house, the cage should hang in a place from which cats can be excluded when they cannot be watched. the comfort of the bird will often require that the position of the cage be changed once or oftener during the day, according to the season or to some particular condition. thus, a sunny window may be very pleasant at some times and too warm at others, or a bird may tire of being constantly in the same place. the bird keeper has to learn to know, by observing the actions of birds, when they are comfortable and contented, and must use judgment in placing the cage to suit them. =feeding.= canaries live mostly on ripe seeds, but they are also very fond of the leaves, flowers, and green seeds of many common plants. being such small birds, they eat only small seeds. the seeds most used as food for canaries are hempseed, flaxseed, rapeseed, and canary seed, which is the seed of the canary grass, a plant indigenous to the canary islands. these are often sold mixed under the trade name of "birdseed." many canary fanciers think that it is better to feed the seeds separately, or to make the mixtures themselves, so that they can know just what the birds eat, and can judge whether any trouble which may arise is due to a wrong diet. rapeseed and canary seed are considered the best and safest feed for canaries. they may be mixed in equal parts and kept before the birds at all times. canaries like hempseed better than anything else, but it is so rich that, if fed heavily, it is injurious. when a mixture of seeds containing hempseed is placed in the feed cup, canaries will pick out and scatter and waste the other seeds, to get the hempseed. for this reason it is often left out of the mixture and given occasionally, a few grains at a time. canaries are very fond of lettuce, chickweed, and plantain. they also like the green seeds of many grasses. these things may be given to them by fastening the leaves or stalks between the wires of the cage where the birds can reach them easily. a piece of cuttlefish bone should be placed where the birds can eat some whenever they want it. cuttle bone furnishes them with salt and lime. =care.= canaries should have regular attention. aside from having the position of the cage changed when necessary, they usually require attention only once a day. this should be at a regular hour, preferably in the morning. the cage should be placed on a table or stand, and the bottom removed, that it may be thoroughly cleaned. the best way is to wash it. while the bottom of the cage is being cleaned the cage with the bird in it rests upon the table. this is the best time to give the bird its bath. a shallow pan or dish containing about an inch of water is placed on the table under the bottomless cage. some birds splash so vigorously that the bath must be given in a room containing nothing that would be damaged by the drops of water which they scatter. some seem to understand that the harder they splash the more trouble they make, and to take delight in wetting everything about them. when the bird has had its bath, the cage should be wiped dry, the bottom replaced, the drinking cup rinsed and refilled, and the seed cup filled. if a bird is very tame and can be easily caught, it may be let out of the cage for its bath and for a little exercise. many canaries will return voluntarily to their cages after bathing and flying around the room a few times. canary fanciers frequently allow their birds the freedom of the room for hours at a time. whenever this is done, special care must be taken that no unexpected opening of a door allows the bird to escape from the room. neglect of this point often leads to the loss of a valued bird. =breeding.= the breeding season for canaries is from february until may or june. the cage for a breeding pair should be a little larger than that used for a single bird, and should be firmly attached to the wall instead of hanging where it can swing. the nest is usually a small wire basket. for nest material cotton batting and cow's hair or deer's hair are used. deer's hair may be obtained at bird stores. these materials are placed in the cage and the birds use what they want. the hen lays from four to six eggs. the period of incubation is two weeks. during the breeding season the birds should be fed, in addition to the usual supply of seed, a little grated hard-boiled egg with cracker or bread crumbs. they also need a supply of fine oyster shells. by the time the young are three weeks old they are able to leave the nest and to feed themselves. they should then be removed to a separate cage. chapter xx distribution of market products =producers, consumers, and middlemen.= the preceding chapters have treated of the characters and the uses of domestic birds, and of the methods of producing them. in this chapter we shall consider matters relating to the distribution of such of their products as are staple articles of commerce. there are very few subjects of general interest that are as widely misunderstood as some phases of the distribution of market eggs and poultry. every one uses these products; many millions of people produce them in small quantities; but the consumers who are not producers live mostly in cities remote from the farming sections which have great surpluses of eggs and poultry to send to the cities, and so the work of distributing these products is done principally by traders, or middlemen. the modern developments of poultry culture have been in a very large measure due to middlemen and could not continue without them. in a large and highly organized population middlemen in many different capacities perform the services which in primitive or small communities may be performed by either the producer or the consumer. consumers and producers are apt to think that the middlemen get more than their fair share of the profits on the articles that they buy and sell. the true situation and the exact relations of producers, middlemen, and consumers of poultry products are easily understood if we study the development of the existing methods of distribution from the beginning. =how the middleman enters local trade.= suppose that a farmer brings to town dozen eggs; that the storekeeper will allow him cents a dozen for them; and that by peddling them from house to house he can sell them for cents a dozen: how much will he make by selling them directly to the consumers? as an arithmetical example, considering only the factors which appear in the statement, this is a very simple problem. it is easy to compute that by selling the eggs from house to house the farmer will make $ . . but the farmer's practical problem in disposing of his eggs has some very important factors which do not appear in a simple arithmetical problem. unless he had regular customers for his eggs, he would probably have to call at fifty or sixty houses to sell them. he might have to call at a great many more, and then might not succeed in selling them all. he would find that it was of little use to try to sell eggs to families that had not engaged them in advance, unless he called very early in the morning, before they had ordered eggs from some one else. if he succeeded in selling all the eggs, he would still have to consider whether it paid him better to spend his time, and that of his team, in selling the eggs than in working on the farm. most farmers find that they cannot afford to peddle produce themselves, and unless some other member of the family can do it without interfering with important farm work, they sell such products as poultry, butter, and eggs to the storekeepers. now take the consumer's side of the case. the ordinary family uses only or dozen eggs a week. if the eggs can be bought at the store for cents a dozen, and at a farm for cents a dozen, there is an apparent saving of or cents by purchasing them at the farm. but in most cases it would cost the buyer more than or cents to go to the farm and get the eggs, and so he goes to the store for them. the storekeeper is the middleman, really serving both producer and consumer. every one can see this clearly in cases where there is only one middleman. =additional middlemen.= if the farmers trading at a country store bring to it more eggs than the people in the town will buy, the storekeeper must either sell them elsewhere or refuse to take them. if possible, he will find a market for the surplus, usually by shipping them to the nearest large city. but he does not send them direct to consumers, for he could not deal with them any better than the farmers could with the people in his town. he may send them to a storekeeper in the city, but he is more likely to send them to some one who makes a business of receiving eggs from country collectors and selling them at wholesale wherever there is a demand for them. if the receipts in a city exceed the local requirements, the surplus will be sent to one of the great cities which are the principal receiving centers for produce of all kinds. the large receivers in the great cities distribute the eggs to retailers in the cities and also to jobbers and retailers in smaller cities where local supplies are inadequate. [illustration: fig. . unloading coops of poultry at a receiving warehouse. (photograph from the bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] thus between the producer and the consumer there may be as many as six or seven middlemen who in turn handle the eggs. at first thought it seems that so many middlemen are not necessary. but it is not a question of numbers; it is a question of conditions. the number depends more or less upon whether the middleman at any stage finds it more advantageous to deal with one next to him in the general series or to pass one or more and deal with another farther away. in the united states prices of eggs are finally determined by the demand and supply in the large cities of the east; the prices at other points are usually the prices in these cities, minus the cost of transportation and handling. in periods of scarcity, however, there is a tendency to uniformity of prices in all large cities. the movements of poultry to market are made in much the same way as the movement of eggs. as a rule the same people handle both. =how the demand for poultry products stimulates production.= in the preceding sections it was assumed, for the purpose of showing clearly the relation of the middleman to both the producer and the consumer, that the movement of these articles from the country producer to the city buyer came about as the result of the existence of a surplus in farming districts. as a matter of fact the movement is produced by the demand in localities which do not produce their own supplies. one effect of the increase of population in cities is to cause farmers near the cities to grow more poultry and sometimes to establish special poultry farms. but as grain and labor cost more near the cities, the poultry and eggs produced near them must be sold at high prices. if the city people were dependent upon these local supplies, only the rich could afford them. as this is true of all perishable food articles, as well as of poultry products, the growth of cities was restricted as long as there was no means of bringing provisions quickly from places where they could be produced at low cost. when steam railroads were built, this restriction on the growth of cities was partly removed. many cities then began to grow very fast, and the demands of their population for cheap food led city dealers in provisions to look for supplies in the towns and farms along the railroads. many such dealers had before collected provisions by wagon as far from the city as was practicable. these men could now greatly extend their routes, because, having collected a wagon-load, they could take it to the most convenient railway station, ship it by rail to the city, and go on collecting, instead of spending a day or more in delivering their load in the city. very soon after railroads were first built, many farmers began to produce more poultry and eggs and to ship them directly to the best city market that they could find. as the demand for their produce was usually much greater than could be supplied from their own farms, such farmers often began to buy from their neighbors, thus becoming middlemen as well as producers. in many cases such men would after a time find it to their advantage to move their headquarters to the city, and would ultimately build up a very large business. [illustration: fig. . fattening chickens in crates at a poultry buyer's warehouse.[ ] (photograph from the bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] [ ] if the farmer sells his chickens without fattening, the buyer can fatten them in this way and so make an extra profit. in nearly all farming sections, even those most remote from city markets, there is a short period in the spring when there is a large surplus of eggs and sometimes a period in the fall when there is more poultry ready for market than can be sold; but the people in those places rarely make any effort to increase their production, and to extend the seasons when they have more than enough for themselves, until they have good facilities for shipping eggs and poultry and the demands from outside cause a marked increase in the local prices of these products. [illustration: fig. . driving turkeys to market. (photograph from bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] so from the city and the country, almost simultaneously, but with the demand from the city most active and pressing, the modern system of collecting and distributing poultry products has grown. at first poultry products were nearly all handled by men who dealt in all kinds of country produce. as the business increased, many firms gave their attention exclusively to poultry products. then, when creameries were established in many places, the creamery was found a convenient place for the collection of eggs. the large packing houses which handle other kinds of meat also entered this field and became a very important factor in the development of poultry culture in the west. [illustration: fig. . a big drive of turkeys arriving at a killing house. (photograph from bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture]) in the collection and distribution of poultry products the various agencies mentioned form a great many different kinds of combinations. the arrangements vary according to many different conditions. from first to last every one who handles an article is trying to make all he can out of it, but most of the middlemen deal fairly both in buying and in selling. indeed, people cannot continue long in any legitimate business unless they are honest. as we shall see, middlemen are in a position where they are often blamed without just cause, and often have to take much greater risks than either producers or consumers. =losses in distribution.= it has been said that the general tendency is to reduce as far as possible the number of middlemen concerned in the distribution of poultry products. this tendency often goes too far and overreaches its purpose of economy. the efforts of producers and country collectors to deal directly with consumers and retailers in the large cities often give them less profit than would be obtained by selling through the regular channels of the trade. the reason for this is that most producers and a majority of country collectors do not prepare and pack their poultry and eggs so that they will reach those to whom they are consigned in good condition and bring the prices which the shippers expected to realize. the losses due to improper handling of eggs and poultry by producers and small collectors are enormous, undoubtedly amounting to more than $ , , a year in the united states. [illustration: fig. . candling eggs.[ ] (photograph from bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] [ ] the man is posing for the photograph. when he works, the room must be dark except for the covered light used in candling. to place eggs and poultry in the hands of consumers in strictly first-class condition, they must be handled with great care at every stage of preparation and distribution. eggs must be gathered while perfectly fresh, kept in a cool place where no bad odors will reach them, and protected from heat and frost, as well as from breakage, when being moved from place to place. if the producer is careless about any of these points, many of his eggs will be tainted or stale or beginning to rot when they are only a few days old, and though he may call them fresh eggs and try to sell them as such, he will not get the highest price for them. the small collectors are also likely to be careless in handling eggs, and to ship them to receivers in bad condition. the receivers in the cities, whose whole business is in perishable products, cannot afford to handle goods in this slipshod way. they candle the eggs that are forwarded to them to determine the quality, and pay for eggs not only according to their external appearance, but also the appearance and condition of the package in which they are received. candling eggs consists in passing them before a bright light, as in testing to determine the fertility of eggs that are being incubated. when the egg is held before a light, the expert candler can tell in an instant whether it is fresh and good and, if not, just what is wrong with it. except when kept at almost freezing temperature, eggs that have begun to decompose continue to deteriorate quite rapidly. sometimes a lot of eggs is candled several times and the bad ones removed, before it reaches the last dealer who handles it. market poultry and pigeons are sold both alive and dead. most dead poultry is dressed (that is, has the feathers removed), but pigeons and guineas are often marketed dead without plucking, and occasionally turkeys are treated in the same way. live birds lose weight in transportation, especially when they are shipped in crowded and badly ventilated coops. frequently many birds in a shipment die before their journey is over. because of such losses, and because the price per pound of the best dressed poultry is usually much higher than the price per pound of the best live poultry, the impression that it is more profitable for a producer to dress his poultry is widespread. the result is that a great many people who have poultry to sell dress it just as they would to use at home and, putting it into a box or a barrel, ship it to a market where the prices are high, expecting to get the highest price for it. a large part of such poultry arrives on the market in such a condition that it is hard to sell at any price, and much of it has to be thrown away. [illustration: fig. . barrel of dressed poultry opened on arrival at its destination.[ ] (photograph from bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] [ ] note the large piece of ice remaining. if the ice should give out on the way, the poultry would spoil. birds that are to be marketed should be kept without food or water for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours before killing. the object of this is to have the crop, gizzard, and intestines entirely empty. the killing is done by making a small, deep cut, that will at the same time penetrate the brain (making the bird unconscious) and sever one or two veins, thus letting the blood flow freely. this cut is usually made in the roof of the mouth, but sometimes in the neck. the former method is preferred because it leaves no wound exposed to the air. the common practice in picking poultry for home use is to scald the bird in water just below the boiling temperature. when this is done just right, the results are very good; the feathers come off easily and the skin is not damaged. but if the bird is not held in the scalding water long enough, the feathers are hard to remove and the skin may be torn in several places in the process. if the bird is held in the water too long, the skin will be partly cooked. if it is scalded before it has been properly bled, the hot water will turn the skin red. the defects in scalded poultry do not show badly at first, and if it is packed and shipped at once, the shipper may think that it was in very good condition; but if he could see it when the receiver unpacks it, he would be surprised to find how many blemishes there were on it and how poor it looked. removing the feathers without scalding is called dry picking. it is an art which requires considerable practice. the novice who tries it usually tears the skin of the birds badly. in order to reach the market in good condition, poultry must not only be properly killed and picked, but each carcass must be cooled as quickly as possible, to remove the animal heat that remains in it. this is done either by hanging the carcasses in a very cool place or by putting them in cold water. meat of all kinds that is cooled immediately after killing will keep much longer than if cooling is neglected. [illustration: fig. . a badly dressed and a well-dressed fowl. (photograph from bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] there are so many details which must have attention in dressing poultry for shipment, that it usually pays both producers and small collectors to sell poultry alive to those who have better facilities for handling it and whose operations are on such a scale that they can employ experts for all parts of the work of preparation. =cold storage of poultry products.= so abundant are the supplies of eggs in the spring, and of some kinds of dressed poultry in the summer, fall, and early winter, that large quantities could not be sold at any price at seasons of plenty if there were no way of keeping them until a season of scarcity. for about half a century after the production of eggs and poultry began to receive special attention in this country, the profits of the ordinary producer were severely cut every spring and fall, because the market was overstocked. consumers derived little benefit from this situation, because they could not use the surplus before it spoiled. the popular idea of the way to remedy the conditions was to have hens lay when eggs were scarce, and to have poultry ready for sale when supplies were insufficient. experience, however, has shown that it is practically impossible to have a very large proportion of things of this kind produced out of their natural season. the relatively small numbers of people who succeed in doing so make very good profits, but the masses of producers and consumers are not benefited. the solution of the problem of carrying the surplus of a season of abundance to a season of scarcity was discovered when methods of making ice artificially were perfected and it was found that the equipment used in manufacturing ice could be used to cool, to any desired degree, rooms for the storage of perishable produce. this form of refrigeration was at first used in place of the ordinary method (with natural ice), to keep goods for short periods. much larger quantities could be taken care of in this way when for any reason a market was temporarily overstocked. for hundreds of years it had been quite a common practice to preserve eggs in various ways. by packing them in salt, or in salt brine, or in limewater, eggs may be kept in very good condition for several months, and sometimes for nearly a year. as limed and pickled eggs were regularly sold in the markets, every dealer in eggs at once saw the possibilities of cold storage as a factor in the market egg trade. wherever there was a storage house, dealers began to buy eggs when prices were low, and store them to sell when prices were high. at first a great many of those who stored eggs lost money on them, either by the eggs spoiling in storage or because they kept the eggs too long, but after a few years' experience the operators of cold-storage plants learned the best temperatures for keeping the different kinds of produce and the best methods of arranging different articles in the chambers of the storage warehouses. they found that eggs kept best at degrees fahrenheit, that poultry must be frozen hard, and that the temperature in a storage chamber must not be allowed to vary. those who were putting eggs and poultry in cold storage found that it did not pay to store produce that was not perfectly sound and good, and that products which had been in cold storage must be used promptly after being taken out, and also that they must plan their sales to have all stored goods sold before the new crop began to come in, or they would lose money. [illustration: fig. . dressed fowls cooling on racks in dry-cooling room. (photograph from bureau of chemistry, united states department of agriculture)] the development of cold-storage methods and their extensive use have been of great benefit to producers and consumers, as well as to distributors of perishable food products. the storing of such products is a legitimate form of speculative business. it prevents waste and loss. the demand for eggs and poultry to go into cold storage raises the price at seasons of plenty and makes a good market for all eggs and poultry that are fit to store. the eggs and poultry that have been stored furnish consumers with supplies at reasonable prices for much longer seasons. as a rule supplies in storage are not kept there for very long periods. speculators who want to be on the safe side plan very carefully so that most, if not all, of the stuff that they have stored shall be sold before new supplies become abundant in the market. to do this they have to watch very closely every condition affecting the markets, and to use good judgment in selling. most of them do not, as is popularly supposed, hold their entire stock for the period when prices are highest. if they did, all would lose. eggs begin to come out of storage about midsummer, and are withdrawn gradually for about six months. by far the greater part of the poultry stored goes into the warehouses in the fall and begins to come out soon after the winter holidays. within the limits of the time that goods may be carried in cold storage profitably, long storage has no more bad effects on eggs and poultry than refrigeration for short periods. cold-storage products are usually of better than average quality if used immediately upon being withdrawn from storage. =methods of selling at retail.= for convenience in handling and counting them in quantities, eggs are packed in cases containing thirty dozen each, and wholesale transactions in eggs are by the case, but with the price usually quoted by the dozen. consumers who use large quantities of eggs buy them by the case. the ordinary consumer buys them by the dozen. there is a widespread impression that, inasmuch as eggs vary greatly in size, the practice of selling them by count is not fair to the consumer. this feeling sometimes goes so far that laws are proposed, and even passed, requiring that eggs shall be sold by weight. such a law does not remain long in force, because weighing small quantities of eggs is troublesome and the greater number of consumers prefer to buy them by the dozen. in fact, while eggs are nominally sold by count both at wholesale and at retail, they are usually assorted according to size, and the prices graduated to suit. considering size, condition, quality, and color of shell, as many as ten grades of eggs are sometimes made. although the color of the shell of an egg has no relation whatever to its palatability or its nutritive value, eggs of a certain color sometimes command a premium. thus, in new york city white eggs of the best grades will bring from five to ten cents a dozen more than brown eggs of equal quality, while in boston the situation is exactly reversed. when most of the poultry of each kind in any market is of about the same size and quality, it is customary to sell live poultry at wholesale at a uniform price by the dozen, and to sell at retail by the piece or by the pair. but as soon as any considerable part of the poultry of any kind in a market is larger than the general run of supplies, a difference is made, in the prices per dozen or per piece or per pair, between small birds and large ones. if the size of the largest specimens further increases, the range of weights becomes too great to be classified in this way, and selling by weight soon becomes the common practice. conditions are the same for dead poultry, except that the change to selling by weight comes more quickly. in preparing poultry for market by the method that has been described the head and feet were left on and the internal organs were not removed. the reason for this is that poultry keeps much better in this state. removing these parts exposes the flesh at several places to the action of the air and of bacteria, which cause putrefaction. in many markets in poultry-producing sections it is customary to sell poultry drawn and with the head and feet off. in places where most of the poultry comes from a distance the waste parts of the carcass are not removed until it is bought by the consumer. some people who buy in this way think that they are being defrauded if the marketman weighs the bird before removing the offal. sometimes, to satisfy such a customer, a dealer removes the offal before weighing, and the customer cheerfully pays a higher rate per pound, feeling that at any rate he is getting just what he pays for when he insists on having it done in this way. as far as the cost is concerned, it makes no difference to the consumer at what stage of distribution the offal is discarded. =volume of products.= in the united states and canada the production and consumption of poultry products are very nearly equal, because each country has agricultural areas capable of supplying an enormous population with poultry and eggs. production in such districts responds quickly to the increasing demands of other sections, but not in such volume as to create large surpluses for export. the present annual production of the united states is variously estimated at from $ , , to $ , , , . this wide difference exists because the census is only a partial one. in canada no general census of poultry products has ever been taken. the poultry statistics for the united states as collected decennially by the bureau of the census may be found complete in the full report of agricultural statistics. those for the different states may be obtained in separate bulletins. some of the states and provinces collect poultry statistics through state and provincial departments and furnish the reports to all persons desiring them. persons living in communities which ship poultry products can usually learn from the local shippers the approximate amounts and the value of the produce that they handle. at the more important receiving points statistics of receipts are kept by such organizations as the produce exchange, board of trade, or chamber of commerce, and the results published in their annual reports. from such sources it is possible for pupils to get information as to the status and importance of the poultry trade in the communities in which they live. chapter xxi exhibitions and the fancy trade =conditions in the fancy trade.= the trade in fancy poultry and pigeons and in cage birds is on a very different basis from the trade in market products. with the arrangements for collecting poultry products and for holding them when that is desirable, it seldom happens that market products cannot be sold at any time when the producer wants to dispose of them. the fancy trade is quite closely limited to certain short seasons. in this trade prices depend as much upon the reputation of the seller as upon the quality of his stock. very high prices are obtained only by those who have made a big reputation by winning at important shows, and have advertised their winnings extensively. buyers of fancy stock prefer to deal directly with producers, and the greater part of the business is mail-order business. it is almost impossible to force the sale of this class of stock except by selling it for the table at market prices. the producer can only advertise and wait for customers, and what is not sold at fancy prices must be sold at market prices. =exhibitions.= competitive exhibitions hold a very important place in the development and distribution of improved stocks of animals. in old times such exhibitions were informal gatherings of the persons in a locality who were interested in the improvement of a particular breed or variety. our knowledge of these early gatherings of breeders of domestic birds is very limited and is mostly traditional. from what is known it appears that they were usually held in the evenings at public houses, and that each person taking part carried with him to the place of meeting one or more of his best birds; that these were compared and their qualities discussed by the company, and that at the close each participant carried his exhibit home. [illustration: fig. . view of a section of a large poultry show in mechanics building, boston, massachusetts] as the interest in breeding for fancy points extended, such gatherings became larger and assumed a more formal character, and rules were adopted for comparing, or judging, the birds; but it was not until about the middle of the nineteenth century that the modern system of public exhibitions of poultry, pigeons, cage birds, and pet stock was inaugurated. the first exhibitions of this kind were held at the agricultural fairs. very soon after these began to attract attention, special exhibitions, limited to this class of stock and held in suitable buildings in the winter, became frequent. now large shows are held annually in nearly every large city and in hundreds of smaller cities, and every agricultural fair has its poultry department. for the sake of brevity, shows at which poultry is the principal feature are called simply poultry shows, although they often include other kinds of domestic birds and all kinds of small domestic animals. a large poultry show, with a great variety of exhibits of birds and of the appliances used in aviculture, affords an excellent opportunity to see good specimens of many kinds. those who have such an opportunity ought to make the most of it. but the novice who can attend only small shows will find that, while he does not see as many different kinds of birds there and may not see many really fine specimens, the small show affords the beginner a much better opportunity to learn something about the differences that affect quality and value in fancy poultry and pigeons. at the large show there is so much to see, and the differences between the winning specimens in any class are usually so slight, that only those who are familiar with many varieties can make a critical examination of the exhibits. at the smaller shows the varieties are not as numerous, the competing classes are smaller, and the differences between the specimens which win prizes are often plainly apparent, even to a novice, if he has a clue to the method of making the awards. those who visit large shows can use their time to best advantage if they make as careful a study as they can of the few things in which they take the most interest, and take just a casual look at everything else. in the four or five days that it is open to the public it is not possible for any one to make a thorough, discriminating inspection of all that there is to be seen at a large poultry show, and an experienced visitor to such shows never tries to do so. at many of the small shows even a novice, by studying the exhibits systematically, may get a very good idea of all the classes and may add something to his accurate knowledge of a number of different kinds of birds. =rudiments of judging.= while even an ordinary poultry show contains a great deal that is of interest to those who know how to get at it, the visitor who does not know how to study the exhibits and simply takes a cursory look at all of them, tires of the regular classes at a show in a very short time. after the awards have been made, the ribbons or cards on the coops will show the winning birds and their relative positions, but unless one knows something of the methods and rules of judging and compares the birds with some care, he is likely to get the impression that making comparisons between show birds requires a keener critical faculty than he possesses, and to conclude that it is quite useless for him to attempt to discover why the birds have been ranked in the order in which the judge has placed them. judging live stock is not a matter of simple comparisons of weights and dimensions. the personal opinions of the judge necessarily affect his decisions, and as the opinions of men differ, their judgments will vary. a judge is often in doubt as to which of two or more birds is (all things considered) the better specimen, but he must make his decision on the birds as they appear to him at the time, and that decision must stand for that competition. no one, no matter how well he may know the requirements of the standard for a variety and the methods of applying it, can discover by a study of a class of birds all of the judge's reasons for his decisions; but any one who will keep in mind and try to apply a few simple, general rules can look over a variety that he has never seen before, and of which he may not know the name, and (unless the judge has been very erratic in his decisions) can see why most of the awards in a small class of varied quality have been made. these rules are: . the character or characters that most conspicuously distinguish a type are given most consideration in judging. . color of plumage is given more consideration than shape, unless some shape character is unusually striking. . quality in color of plumage consists in evenness and purity of shade in solid-colored specimens, and in sound colors and distinctness of the pattern in party-colored specimens. . the shape of extraordinary superficial shape characters, such as crests, very large combs, heavy foot-feathering, etc., is usually given as much consideration as color. the first rule really includes all the others, and although this is not usually admitted by the exponents of current methods of judging live stock, in practice it is the fundamental rule in judging. one reason why people who have a little knowledge of standards for well-bred poultry, and of the methods of applying them, are almost always puzzled by the awards at poultry shows is because they try to analyze them in accordance with the commonly accepted theory of judging by points, which assigns definite numerical values to certain characters. this theory assumes that the judge, taking these values as a basis, computes the values of faults with mathematical accuracy. this is not possible where the computation is based upon an opinion. to illustrate the application of the rules given, let us apply them to some well-known varieties, taking first the barred plymouth rock. the conspicuous distinguishing character of this variety is the barred color pattern; therefore color of plumage has most consideration in judging it. the pattern is the same all over the bird; therefore every feather should be barred. the pattern must be sharply defined; therefore the colors must be clean-cut and the bars straight and of nearly equal width on each feather, with the width of bars on feathers of different sizes proportionate to the width of the feather. these requirements seem very simple when stated, but a close examination of ordinary exhibition barred plymouth rocks will show very few specimens that closely approach perfection according to the rules. now take the white wyandotte. the most conspicuous character of any white bird is its whiteness. in judging this variety, therefore, whiteness will have more consideration than any other quality. white wyandottes are distinguished from white plymouth rocks by the shape of the comb; therefore the shape of the comb will be given more attention by the judge than if there were other distinguishing features. silver-laced wyandottes are conspicuous for their color pattern; therefore the most important thing is that this shall be well defined and uniform, the white centers clean and white and the black edges intensely black. uniformity in such markings is very difficult to produce. a bird may be well marked in one section and very poorly marked in another. in partridge cochins the most conspicuous character is extreme feather development; the next is color of plumage, which differs in male and female. feather development and the shape which it produces will therefore have about equal consideration with color. in color the male is black on the breast and body, with a red neck and back, the feathers of the hackle and the saddle having black stripes in the center; therefore, in the male, quality in color consists in blackness in the black sections, a uniform red in the red sections, and clear and sharp striping wherever it appears. the partridge cochin female has plumage of brown penciled with a darker brown; therefore to the eye of a poultry fancier the beauty of her color consists in well-defined penciling and a harmonious contrast in the two shades of color. a white-crested black polish fowl is most conspicuous for its large white crest; therefore the crest is the most important feature to be considered in judging this variety. but color is also very important, for if the white feathers of the crest are partly mixed with black, or the black of the body is dull, the effect is not pleasing. the fantail pigeon is most conspicuous for its fan-shaped tail; therefore this is the most important thing in judging. the tail must not only be large and well shaped, but must be carried in an attractive manner. it must not be too large, because then the bird cannot carry it in a good position. in addition to carrying the tail in a good position, the bird must pose so that the whole attitude adds to the attractiveness of the principal feature. similarly with the pouter pigeon, the globular crop, which is its distinctive character, must be large and well formed, and in addition the general carriage must be such as to show the pouting trait to the best advantage. [illustration: fig. . almost complete view of a poultry show at worcester, massachusetts] the same rules of color which apply to fowls apply also to pigeons. the color patterns of pigeons are much more numerous, but as a rule the principal required features are at once obvious to any one who keeps in mind the general rules that have been given. after the more conspicuous characters, many minor characters are given particular consideration. in theoretical statements of methods of judging, these minor characters are often treated as of equal importance with the conspicuous characters, but in ordinary judging practice they are not often so treated, except in the case of disqualifying faults, to be noted presently. the less conspicuous characters, including shape of body (in regard to which the average fancier and judge is somewhat careless, not discriminating between closely related types), become important in making decisions between specimens which appear to be equal in the more conspicuous characters. because of this there is a tendency to exaggerate some one minor character whenever a high degree of uniformity in characters that are of primary importance in judging is reached. [illustration: fig. . saddle fantail pigeon[ ]] [illustration: fig. . white fantail pigeons [ ]] [ ] reproduced, by permission, from "domesticated animals and plants," by e. davenport. =disqualifications.= the practice of judging the relative merits of exhibition birds principally by a few striking characters tends to make breeders and exhibitors neglect many little things which affect the appearance of a bird. this is especially the case with exhibitors competing under judges who are partial to some conspicuous character. to prevent this, and to place the heaviest possible penalty upon serious faults that are easily overlooked, certain faults are made disqualifications; that is, a bird having any one of these faults is absolutely debarred from competition, no matter how good it may be in other respects. there is general agreement as to the wisdom and justice of disqualifying for deformities or for mutilations of the feathers to conceal a fault. in regard to disqualifying for trivial faults, fanciers differ in opinion. many hold that this has been carried to a ridiculous extreme in some cases. thus, in all clean-legged fowls it is required that the shanks and toes shall be free from small feathers, stubs, or down. most fanciers agree that conspicuous feathers and stubs should disqualify, but many consider that to disqualify for a minute bit of down, which can hardly be seen without the aid of a magnifying glass, is going too far. unless the judge has overlooked a disqualification (and this rarely happens), none will be found on a bird that has been awarded a prize. if in any class there is a bird which is not given a place, though apparently superior to any of the prize winners in the characters most distinctive of its variety, that bird usually has some disqualification. the list of disqualifications is too long to be given here. it is not the same throughout for all varieties. exhibitors and breeders do not attempt to keep track of the disqualifications (which are changed occasionally) for any but the varieties in which they are especially interested. =methods of judging.= when exhibitions of domestic birds were first held, the awards were usually made by committees of two or three judges. the object in doing this was to insure impartiality and to make connivance between a judge and an exhibitor more difficult. it was found that this plan did not work well. often the opinions of one man dominated, or, if the man could not have his way, the committee wrangled and took too long to make its decisions. so by degrees the committee plan was abandoned and a single judge made the awards in accordance with standards and rules agreed upon by associations of exhibitors and judges. at first all judging was done by comparison of the specimens of each class entered in competition. that is the method still in general use in europe and widely used in america. but to many exhibitors comparison judging seemed unsatisfactory, because by it only the winning birds were indicated, and exhibitors whose birds did not win usually wanted to know how their birds compared with the winners. to meet this demand score-card judging was adopted. in this method of judging, the characters to be considered are divided into sections, which are named in order on a card having corresponding blank spaces in which to mark numerical cuts for faults in each section. the score cards used at poultry shows where judging is done by that method do not indicate to which of several possible faults a cut applies, except that, having one column for shape cuts and another for color cuts, they show in which class the fault appears. in many educational and private score cards the names of the common faults in each section are printed in the space allotted that section, in order that the fault may be accurately checked. the use of cards with so much detail is not practical in ordinary competition. the score of a bird judged by the score-card method is the difference between (taken as the symbol of the perfect bird of any variety) and the sum of all the cuts made for faults. the common cuts for faults are ½ for a slight fault, for a pronounced fault, and ½ for a very bad fault. occasionally larger cuts are made for serious faults. theoretically the score is supposed to represent accurately the relation of a specimen to a perfect specimen, but really scores only represent in a general way the judges' opinions of the relative values of the birds in a class, and indicate to the exhibitor where the judge found faults in his bird. =exhibition quality and value.= the winning of a prize at an important show gives a breeder of fancy birds a standing that he could not otherwise acquire. the greater part of the sales of poultry of this class are made by mail to persons who do not know the breeder personally and do not see his stock until after purchasing. no matter how good his stock may be, those who want to buy will not pay much attention to his claims for its superior quality until they have such confirmation of those claims as is given by the winning of prizes in competition. then the prices which a breeder can get for his stock will be regulated largely by the prices obtained by other successful exhibitors at shows of the same class. there is a wide range of prices from those that can be secured for stock of the quality that wins at the greatest shows, to those that can be obtained for the kind that wins at ordinary small shows. high prices are paid for noted winners and for other stock of the same breeding, as much for the advertising value of ownership of fine stock as for the actual value of the birds to breed from or to exhibit again. a breeder who wins at some very small show may find it hard to sell either stock or eggs for hatching except at a slight advance over market prices. some breeders who have made remarkable records in winning at the best shows can get very high prices for their prize-winning stock and for the eggs from it. fowls sometimes sell as high as $ each, and eggs at $ each. pigeons also bring very high prices at times, although fewer people are interested in them and sales are not so numerous. the ordinary prices for good stock are quite reasonable, considering how few really fine specimens are produced. the average novice finds that fowls at from $ to $ a trio and pigeons at from $ to $ a pair have all the quality that he can appreciate. in the early days of modern fancy poultry culture those breeders who had great reputations could get relatively high prices for almost any bird that would pass as a breeding specimen of its kind. this is still true of breeders who successfully introduce new varieties or who suddenly attain prominence with stock of their own breeding. but as the stock of a leading breeder becomes widely distributed among smaller breeders, the competition of his customers reduces his sales, and especially the sales of the cheaper grades of stock. the most troublesome problem that the best breeders have is to get rid of the lower grades of their stock at a fair profit. =why good breeders have much low-priced stock.= novices in the breeding of fine stock commonly suppose that all pure-bred stock of any variety is of uniform quality. when they learn that, as a rule, only a small part of the young birds hatched from good stock is considered of superior quality, they often conclude that the ideas and the standards of fanciers must be wrong. even professional and scientific men who become interested in fancy poultry and pigeons often take this view and, after considering the question carefully from their standpoint, try to explain to fanciers how, by changing a standard, they might secure a much larger proportion of specimens approximately perfect according to the standard used. in the case of varieties in which the finest specimens of the different sexes are secured from different matings, many novices waste a great deal of time trying to convince old fanciers that their standards and methods are illogical and unnatural. to those who do not understand the philosophy of the interest in breeding to highly specialized types the arguments for standards that are adjusted to common results and are easy to attain appear to be unanswerable. upon the fancier who does understand this philosophy they make no impression at all. the breeding and exhibiting of fancy stock of any kind is primarily a game. the rules of the game are in a measure arbitrary, like the rules in baseball or football or any other game. at the same time they must be framed in the interests of the development of the game as a sport and also as a spectacle. they must be reasonable and must be suited to players of all degrees of skill. standards and rules for judging fancy stock develop just as the rules of athletic games develop. a generation ago such games as baseball and football were comparatively simple games in which boys and men might take very creditable parts without devoting a great deal of attention to practice. these games still afford recreation to many who use them for that purpose only, but they have also been developed so that players of exceptional skill play competition games for the interest of a public which studies the fine points of these games and compares the abilities of the players. people who take an interest in and patronize professional or high-class amateur ball games do so because in them skillful and well-trained players do difficult things. it is the same in the breeding of fancy live stock to a high standard of excellence. when a breed or a variety is first made, the interest of the breeders centers in a few characters, precisely as the interest of a novice in any line centers in a few prominent features. as breeders grow in experience and in skill, and as the characters to which they first give special attention become fixed, they demand better quality in these and also turn their attention to the development of other characters. the more difficult a combination of characters is to produce, the greater interest the fancier takes in trying to produce it. when a standard calls for a high degree of excellence in many characters, the proportion of specimens of high excellence, as measured by that standard, will almost always be small. it is because this is the case that the rare specimens are considered so valuable. =fancy and utility types in the same variety.= the great majority of american breeders of fancy poultry seek to secure a high degree of practical value in combination with fancy quality in their stock. there are some fanciers who breed only for fancy points, and some market poultry growers who pay no attention at all to them, but as a rule those who give market poultry special attention want well-bred stock of good ordinary quality, and those who keep poultry for pleasure want the flock kept for this purpose to supply at least their own tables with eggs and meat. the breeder who wishes to combine fancy and utility properties in any kind of live stock must breed only from specimens that are meritorious in both directions, selecting much more carefully than when breeding for one class of properties. chapter xxii occupations related to aviculture the value of a knowledge of domestic birds is not limited to the use which may be made of it in keeping them for profit or for pleasure. any occupation in which a great many people are interested affords opportunities to combine the knowledge relating to it with special knowledge or skill in other lines, to the advantage of those who are able to do so. just as the large market or fancy poultry business may develop from a small flock kept to supply the owner's table or to give him a little recreation, many special occupations grow out of particular interests of aviculturists. some of these have been mentioned incidentally in preceding chapters. in this chapter the principal occupations associated with aviculture will be discussed both in their relation to that subject and with respect to their possible interest for those who plan to devote themselves to lines of work which would qualify them for special service in aviculture. =judging fancy poultry and pigeons.= there is the same difference between selecting one's own birds according to quality and judging the birds of others in competition that there is between performing well in a friendly game and performing well in a competition where the stakes are important and feeling runs high. many fanciers who are good breeders and also good judges under other conditions make poor judges in competitions. in judging at shows decisions must be made quickly, there is little opportunity to rectify mistakes, and if a judge makes serious blunders he is severely criticized. a person who deliberates a long time before coming to a decision, and who is very sensitive to criticisms of his errors, even though he knows that some errors are sure to be made by every one and that unprejudiced exhibitors make allowance for this, will not make a successful judge of poultry and pigeons. judges as a class are not the men who know the most about standard-bred birds or who are the most skillful in breeding them, although some of the best breeders are among the best judges. almost all fanciers get opportunities to act as judges. if their work is satisfactory, the demand for their services increases until in time their income from this source may be large enough to make it worth while to adjust their other affairs to their engagements at poultry shows. =journalism.= there were a few books on poultry and pigeons written in the first half of the last century, and a larger number immediately following the "hen-fever" period. these and the articles on poultry and pigeons in agricultural papers constituted the literature of the subject until about . then there appeared a number of poultry journals, most of which gave some attention to other domestic birds. the demand for special journals arose because many people who were interested in poultry were living in cities and were not interested in general agriculture; they wanted more information about poultry matters than the agricultural papers could give. advertisers of poultry and pigeons, and of goods bought by aviculturists, also wished advertising mediums through which they could reach buyers at less cost than they could through the agricultural papers. the rates for advertising are based upon circulation, and if only a small class of the readers of a publication are buyers of a particular class of goods advertised in it, the cost of reaching them may be too great. whenever any interest becomes of sufficient importance, journals especially devoted to it are issued, for the convenience of buyers and sellers as well as for the information they contain. until about nearly all poultry journals were small publications which the owners looked after in their spare time. then they began to increase in number and importance, and before long there were a great many that gave regular employment to editors, advertising solicitors, and subscription solicitors, who were employed for their knowledge of poultry and their acquaintance with poultrymen as well as for special qualifications for their respective departments. =art.= the illustrating of poultry journals and books, and of the catalogues of fanciers and other advertisers in poultry literature, gives employment to a constantly increasing number of artists. in order to successfully portray birds for critical fanciers, an artist must be something of a fancier. it is not enough that he should draw or paint them as he sees them; he must know how to pose birds of different kinds, types, and breeds so that his pictures will show the proper characteristic poses and show the most important characters to their best advantage. since the half-tone process of making illustrations was perfected, the greatest demand is for photographic work, but unless an artist is able to work over and complete a defective photograph with brush or pencil, he cannot make this line of work profitable. most birds are difficult subjects to photograph, and only a small proportion of the photographs that are taken can be used without retouching. a photographer may work for an hour to get a bird posed to suit him, and then, just as he presses the bulb, the bird, by a slight movement of the head or foot, may spoil one feature in a photograph that is otherwise all that could be desired. an artist who can draw birds can remedy such defects; the ordinary commercial artist cannot. =invention.= the most important invention used in aviculture is the artificial incubator. methods of hatching eggs by artificial heat were developed independently by the egyptians and by the chinese thousands of years ago, and are still used in egypt and china. the arrangements used in these old hatcheries are crude, and the success of the operation depends upon exceptional skill and judgment on the part of the operator. operating incubators is a business continued in the same families for centuries. each hatchery does the hatching for a community. in the early part of the eighteenth century a french scientist named réaumur, who was much interested in poultry, began to make experiments in artificial hatching and brooding. in he published a very full account of these and other experiments which he had made with poultry. his idea was to devise a modification of the egyptian practice of hatching in ovens, suited to the conditions of a more advanced civilization. he succeeded in hatching eggs by utilizing the waste heat from a baker's oven, and also hatched eggs in hotbeds heated with decomposing manure. he applied the hotbed principle to the brooding of chickens with some success. but the methods that he devised were not adapted to general use. after réaumur many others experimented with artificial hatching. some of the ideas were obviously more impractical than those of réaumur, but the experimenters tried them out and sometimes succeeded in hatching chickens by very peculiar and laborious processes. one man in england, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, hatched some chickens from eggs placed in cotton batting in a sieve adjusted over a charcoal fire in a small fireplace. the fire was watched constantly for three weeks, either by himself or by some member of his family. he demonstrated that eggs could be hatched in this way, but not that it could be done profitably. practical incubators were not produced until about forty years ago. although incubators and brooders have been brought to a relatively high state of efficiency, they are far from perfect. inventors of the best machines are still studying ways to improve them. in this and many other fields there are opportunities for inventive genius. =education and investigation.= lectures on poultry have been given occasionally at agricultural institutes in the united states since about . after the demand for such lectures, and the number given, constantly increased, and ability to speak in public became valuable to one versed in aviculture. then the study of poultry culture was introduced into agricultural colleges, and a new field was opened to poultry keepers with a faculty for teaching, and for trained teachers with special knowledge of domestic birds. the teaching of poultry culture impressed upon those engaged in it the need of scientific investigation of many problems not clearly understood even by the best-informed poultrymen. the agricultural experiment stations had been giving little attention to some of these problems except in a desultory way and without important results. as the demands for more accurate information on many topics increased, many of the experiment stations began to make important poultry investigations. for this work men specially trained in various sciences were required. as a rule the men that were secured for such work knew very little about poultry when they began their investigations, but it was much easier for them to acquire a knowledge of poultry sufficient for their needs than for persons who had poultry knowledge and no scientific training to qualify for positions as investigators. the field of investigation of matters relating to poultry is constantly being extended. proficiency in physics, chemistry, biology, surgery, and medicine, and in higher mathematics as far as it relates to the problems of any of the sciences mentioned, will always be in demand for scientific work in aviculture. in the future the most efficient teachers and investigators will be those whose early familiarity with domestic birds has given a greater insight into the subject than is usually possessed by those who take up the study of the subject comparatively late in life. =manufacturing and commerce.= it is very much easier to build up a large business in the manufacture or the sale of articles used by poultry and pigeon keepers than to build up a large business as a breeder of domestic birds of any kind. as has been stated in connection with nearly every kind of bird mentioned in this book, a poultry keeper's operations are limited by the difficulty of keeping large numbers of birds continuously on the same land, and also by the exacting nature of the work of caring for them under such conditions. in manufacturing and commercial operations there are no such limitations. the possibilities of development depend upon the extent of the demand for the articles that are manufactured or sold, and only a small proportion of the employees need to be persons versed in aviculture. but in competition with other manufacturers or merchants those who understand domestic birds and know all the different phases of interest in them have a very great advantage over those who do not. =legislation and litigation.= the rise of new industries creates new problems for legislators, executive departments, courts, and lawyers. an industry in which many people are interested eventually reaches a stage where it is profitable for lawyers to specialize to some extent in laws affecting it, and politic for legislators and administrators to do what is in their power to protect the interests of those engaged in it, and to advance those interests for the benefit of the whole community. a special field is opening for lawyers familiar with aviculture and with its relations to other matters, just as within a few years the field has opened to teachers and investigators. * * * * * the possible uses of a knowledge of aviculture to young people who are naturally inclined toward intellectual professions, art, invention, manufacturing, or trading have not been given for the sake of urging students to direct their course especially toward work connected with aviculture. the object is only to show those who take an interest in the subject that it is worth while to cultivate that interest for other reasons, as well as for the profit or the pleasure that may be immediately derived from it. index abbotsbury, old swannery at, africa, guinea fowl in, ; ostrich breeding in, african goose, ; illustrated, age, of earth, ; of fowls, ; of geese, ; of swans, ; of ostriches, agricultural experiment stations, interest of, in aviculture, agricultural fairs, poultry exhibitions at, aigret of peafowl, albumen, formation of, in egg, alfalfa, , american wild goose, ; illustrated, american wild pigeon, amherst pheasant, illustrated, ancona, andalusian, blue, , animal kingdom, place of birds in, animals, having bird characters, ; predacious, prevent use of colony system, annual production of poultry and eggs in united states, antwerp homer pigeon, art, relation of, to poultry culture, aseel, ashes, use of, in poultry house, asia, peafowl in, ; pheasants in, asiatic races of fowls, australia, black swan discovered in, austria, goose growing in, aylesbury duck, ; as a market duck in america, babylonians, knowledge of fowls among, bache, importation of pheasants by, bakubas, ducks among the, bantams, ; illustrated, , , , , , barbs of feather, barnum, p. t., promoter of an early poultry show, barrel of dressed poultry iced for shipment, illustrated, barring, quality in, bat, a flying animal, bath, for ducks, ; for pigeons, ; for canaries, beard, of fowls, ; of turkeys, bedding for ducks, beef scrap, , belgian canary, ; illustrated, bill, of duck, ; of goose, bird, use of term, birdseed, composition of, black swan, blackhead in turkeys, blood, feeding, to fowls, boat, swimming bird model for, , boston, first poultry show held in, boston common, feeding pigeons on, illustrated, bourbon red turkey, ; illustrated, brahma bantams, ; illustrated, brahmaputras, brahmas, light, illustrated, , , ; dark, illustrated, ; used for roasters, bran, , branding swans, bread, feeding, to swans, breast in birds, relation of development of, to flight, breed, defined, bremen goose, broiler growing, bronze turkey, ; illustrated, broody hen, actions of, brown eggs, preference for, in boston, brunswick goose, bucks county fowl, buff turkey, buoyancy of aquatic birds, burnham, author of "the history of the hen fever," buttermilk, cabbage for poultry, , , cackling of fowls, cages for canaries, call ducks, , ; illustrated, cambridgeshire bronze turkey, canada goose, ; illustrated, canary islands, canaries in, candling eggs, , ; illustrated, capon, carneaux squabs, illustrated, carrier pigeon, cart, used on poultry farm, illustrated, cats and canaries, cayuga duck, cement floor in poultry house, central america, turkey in, ceylon, peafowl in, chalazæ, function of, charcoal fire, incubating eggs over, chicken, exclusion of, ; technical use of term, chickweed for canaries, children as poultry keepers, , china, introduction of poultry into, ; pekin duck brought from, ; artificial incubation in, china geese, ; illustrated, , chinese races of fowls, cities, relation of growth of, to poultry culture, classes of domestic birds, clover, clucking of hen, , cochin, buff, illustrated, ; black, used in making plymouth rock, ; partridge, judging, cochin bantams, ; illustrated, cock, use of term, cockfighting, prohibition of, cockerel, cold storage, , colony houses, illustrated, , , , colony system of poultry keeping, color, in feathers, ; of wild ancestor of domestic fowl, ; of wild ancestor of domestic pigeon, ; consideration of, in judging, comb, of fowl, , ; of guinea, commerce, relations of, to aviculture, common pheasant, comparison judging, confinement, effect of, on egg production, , cooling dressed poultry, ; illustrated, coop, made of dry-goods box, illustrated, ; for hens and chicks, ; illustrated, , , ; for turkey hen and brood, illustrated, ; for pheasants, illustrated, , corn, cracked, , , , , , ; feeding, on cob, ; soaking whole, ; for sitting hens, ; stale, corn meal for chicks, , , cornfield, poultry in, ; illustrated, cracker crumbs for chicks, creameries as egg-collecting depots, creamy tint in white feathers, cause of, crest, occurrence of, in fowls, ; consideration of, in judging, crested white duck, crop, function of, ; size of, in duck, ; peculiarity of, in ostrich, croppers, crossbred, defined, crow of cock, crower, colloquial use of term, cuckoo, laying habit of, ; mating habits of, ; fowls, curl in tail of drake, cuttle bone for canaries, cygnet, darknecked pheasant, decoration, feathers used for, decorative plumage, deer's hair for canaries' nests, diet of birds, disqualifications for exhibitions, domestication, adaptability of species to, dominique, , , ; illustrated, dorking, , ; illustrated, dove, origin and use of term, dovecots, great number of, in england in medieval times, down, defined, ; replaced by feathers, ; sometimes a disqualification, dragoon pigeon, ; illustrated, drawing poultry, dressed poultry, ; illustrated, dressed squabs, illustrated, driving turkeys to market, illustrated, , , droppings board, duck farms, illustrated, , , , dumb ducks, dust bath for fowls, dutch artists, paintings of poultry by, dutch races of fowls, dwarf fowls, eared pheasants, earth, relation of age of, to evolution, east india duck, egg, description of, eggs, uses of, ; number of, set under hen, ; boiled for chicks, ; quality of ducks' and hens', compared, egypt, fowls in ancient, ; goose sacred in ancient, ; pigeons in, ; artificial incubation in, egyptian goose, egyptian hieroglyphics, duck in, ; goose in, embryo, growth of, , emden goose, ; illustrated, england, colony poultry houses in, english pheasant, english races of fowls, evolution, theory of, exhibition game bantams, ; illustrated, exhibitions of poultry, illustrated, , face of fowl, appearance of, fancier, philosophy of the, fanciers, influence of, on development of types, fancy poultry plant, illustrated, fantail pigeon, , ; illustrated, farm stock of poultry, illustrated, fattening chickens in crates, illustrated, feather beds, feathers, uses of, , ; structure of, ; resistance of, to water, feeding young ducks on duck farm, illustrated, fence for ducks, ; for turkeys, , feral race, distinguished from wild, fertile egg, appearance of, when tested, feudal system, regulation under, of use of birds in hunting, flatheaded canary, illustrated, flaxseed for canaries, flies, ducks catching, flight of birds, floors in poultry houses, fly for pigeons, flying machine, bird a model for, food, of birds, ; of fowls, foot feathering, ; consideration of, in judging, fowl, use of term, fowls and pheasants in same yard, illustrated, french races of fowls, frillback pigeons, illustrated, frizzled fowls, _gallus bankiva_, ; cock, illustrated, game, resemblance of brown pit to wild progenitor, game bantam, gander, ; fighting, in russia, garden, keeping chickens in, ; keeping ducks in, germ of egg, german artists, paintings of poultry by old, german races of fowls, germany, goose growing in, gizzard, function of, ; peculiarity of, in ostrich, gobbler, use of term, golden pheasant, goldfinch, american, erroneously called a canary, goose-fattening farm, illustrated, goslings, growth of, illustrated, ; grazing, illustrated, gough, john b., a noted poultry fancier, grade, defined, grass, in poultry yards, ; growing goslings on, grasshoppers, turkeys as destroyers of, gray lag goose, green ducks, grit, use of, for poultry, guinea, color pattern in feathers of, ; white, illustrated, , gunpowder, use of pigeon manure in manufacture of, hair, relation of, to feathers, hamburg, silver-spangled, illustrated, hamburg chicks, early growth of feathers of, handling ducks, handling pigeons, harz mountain canaries, hatching season, natural, hawk-colored fowls, hawks and guineas, hempseed for canaries, hen pigeons, illustrated, hen-tailed bantams, heron, flight of, holland turkey, white, ; illustrated, , homer pigeons, ; flying, illustrated, , , ; squab-breeding, illustrated, ; squabs of, illustrated, houdan male, illustrated, house, for fowls, , , , ; illustrated, , , , - , ; with open front protected by hood, illustrated, ; for growing chickens, illustrated, , ; old stone, on rhode island farm, illustrated, ; moving a colony to, ; interior of a compartment in, illustrated, ; for ducks, ; illustrated, , ; for geese, ; for turkeys, ; illustrated, ; for pheasants, house and fly for pigeons, illustrated, , , - houses at agricultural colleges and experiment stations, illustrated, , , , , hungarian pheasant, hybrid, defined, ice supply on large duck farms, incubation, appearance of eggs at various stages of, illustrated, , ; period of, , , , , , , , , , , incubator cellar, illustrated, incubators, ; introduction of, on long island duck farms, ; mammoth, india, antiquity of fowl in, ; peafowl in, indian runner duck, , ; illustrated, , insects, birds as destroyers of, instinct, relation of, to incubation, ; homing, in pigeons, intelligence of birds, intensive poultry farms, invention, relation of, to aviculture, italian races of fowls, jacobin pigeon, illustrated, japan, antiquity of fowl in, japanese bantams, ; illustrated, japanese long-tailed fowl, illustrated, japanese races of fowls, java, black, java, peafowl in, jersey blue, johnnycake for chicks, journalism, judging, , kafirs, their method of pulling stumps of ostrich plumes, kentucky, turkeys in, killing poultry, land plaster, use of, in poultry houses, langshan, black, illustrated, , language, capacity of birds for, laugher pigeon, lavender guinea, lawn clippings for poultry, laying capacity of birds, , laying habits of birds, , , , leaves for litter in poultry houses, leg of bird, contraction of, in perching, leghorn, ; illustrated, , , , ; early growth of feathers of, legislation relating to aviculture, lettuce for canaries, lice, how fowls rid themselves of, ; to destroy, on sitting hens, lime in eggshells, lincolnshire buff, litter in poultry houses, , lizard canary, long island duck farms, losses due to bad handling of poultry produce, lyell, james c., on origin of domestic pigeon, malay fowl, mallard duck, ; illustrated, maltese hen pigeon, manchester coppy, manchurian pheasant, illustrated, mandarin duck, mangel-wurzels, manure, poultry, use of, ; pigeon, used in manufacture of gunpowder, mash, time of feeding, ; method of making, ; use of, , , ; cooking, meat meal, mexico, turkey in, middlemen, milk, feeding, to chicks, ; pigeon, minorcas, illustrated, , molting, monaul, illustrated, mondaine pigeon, swiss, illustrated, mongolian pheasant, ; illustrated, mongrel geese, illustrated, monks, probable originators of many types of fancy fowls, mule, defined, muscovy duck, , ; illustrated, mute swan, narragansett turkey, native fowls in america, neck, handling ducks by, nest building, nest eggs, nests, fowls', ; ducks', ; geese's, ; turkeys', ; swans', ; pigeons', , ; canaries', netherlands, indian runner duck in, netted guinea, new jersey, pheasant introduced into, norfolk turkey, norwich canary, illustrated, nubia, ownership of fowls in, nun pigeons, illustrated, oatmeal for chicks, oats, ; feeding, in sheaf, offal of slaughtered animals, feeding, to poultry, oil in feathers, oregon, pheasant introduced into, ornamental birds, number of, in domestication limited, ornamental ducks, ornamental geese, ornithorhynchus, resemblance of, to bird, orpington ducks, blue, illustrated, orpington fowl, ; illustrated, , ostrich, illustrated, , , , outdoor quarters for fowls, ovary, oviduct, ovules, numbers of, in hens, owl pigeon, illustrated, oyster shell for fowls, packing houses, relation of, to distribution of poultry produce, pairing of birds, , , , , , , , , partridge, peculiarity of flight of, passenger pigeon, peacock, tail of, ; indian, illustrated, pearl guinea, peas for pigeon food, pekin duck, , ; illustrated, , , penguin, locomotion of, perches for pigeons, persia, pigeon in ancient, petaluma, egg farming at, ; illustrated, philadelphia chickens, phoenix cockerel, illustrated, pied guinea, pigment in feathers, pigmy pouters, plantain for canaries, plucking live geese, plymouth rock, barred, , ; illustrated, , , ; white, ; illustrated, ; buff, , ; illustrated, ; columbian, ; illustrated, ; silver-penciled, ; illustrated, point judith bronze turkey, polish, ; white, ; silver-spangled, illustrated, ; white-crested black, pomeranian goose, poult, pouter pigeon, , ; illustrated, preserved eggs, prices, how determined, ; of fancy poultry and pigeons, profits, computation of, pullet, pure-bred, defined, quail, laying of, in captivity, quantity of food, , range, advantages of, rapeseed for canaries, réaumur, experiments of, in incubation, reptile, resemblance of duckling to, retailing poultry produce, , rhode island, goose growing in, rhode island red, , ; illustrated, ringneck pheasant, illustrated, roaster growing, ; illustrated, rock pigeon, roller canaries, roller pigeons, romans, distribution of domestic fowl by, , ; peacock a favorite dish among, rooster, use of term, rose-comb black bantam, illustrated, rotten egg, appearance of, when candled, rouen duck, , ; illustrated, rudiments of judging poultry, ruff, occurrence of, in pigeons, rumpless fowl, running board for pigeons, runt pigeon, ; illustrated, , russia, geese in, rye, , , saddleback goose, st. andreasberg roller, salt for pigeons, sawdust in poultry house, scalding poultry, scale on beak of young birds, scales, relation of, to feathers, scoring, scotland, wild pigeon in, scratching of birds, use of, sebastopol goose, ; illustrated, sebright bantam, ; illustrated, shanghai, shavings for litter in poultry house, shell of egg, formation of, silky fowl, silver pheasant, sitting hen, illustrated, ; food for, slate turkey, slip, an imperfect capon, snow, effect of, on poultry, , , , , social relations of birds, south america, guinea in, space per bird in poultry house, spain, turkey in, spanish goose, spanish, white-faced black, illustrated, spanish races of fowls, sparrow, laying capacity of, species, predatory relation of, ; defined, ; origin of, sprouted oats, spurs, , squab, ; illustrated, , squeaker. see squab standard-bred, defined, standards for judging exhibition poultry, strain, defined, stub feather, subvariety, defined, summer quarters for poultry, illustrated, sunlight, benefits of, swan and nest, illustrated, swannery, an english, illustrated, swans feeding on the water, illustrated, swedish duck, blue, illustrated, swimming, of birds, economic value of, ; effect of, on growth of ducks, swiss mondaine pigeon, illustrated, table fowl, dorking best type of, table scraps, feeding to fowls, tail of bird, its use in flight, temperature for incubation, tennessee, turkeys in, testing eggs to determine fertility, , , thoroughbred, defined, tippler pigeon, tom-turkey, toulouse goose, ; illustrated, , train of peacock, tricolor canary, illustrated, triganica pigeon, trumpeter pigeon, ; illustrated, tula goose, tumbler pigeon, ; illustrated, , turbit pigeon, turkey, common, illustrated, turkey hen with brood, illustrated, turkey nest, illustrated, turkey roost, illustrated, turnips for poultry, uses of birds in domestication, utility types of poultry, varieties, variety, defined, ventilation, versicolor pheasant, virginia, turkeys in, voices of birds, , , , , , , , , , , waste food consumed by street pigeons, water, , , ; imperviousness of feathers to, ; warming, for fowls, ; propensity of young ducks for, ; constant supply of, for pigeons, illustrated, wattles, of fowl, ; of turkey, ; of guinea, ; of pheasant, web of feather, webster, daniel, exhibitor at first poultry show in america, west indies, guinea in, wheat, , , whistling swan, white eggs, preference for, white of egg, formation of, wild birds, place of, in civilization, wild geese, growing, in captivity, wings, movement of, in flight, women as poultry keepers, , , wood duck, wyandotte, ; silver-laced, illustrated, ; white, ; illustrated, , ; partridge, illustrated, ; silver-penciled, illustrated, ; buff, origin of, ; columbian, illustrated, yard of small poultry fancier, illustrated, yards, for fowls, ; for ducks, ; for geese, ; for turkeys, ; for pheasants, yellow-legged fowls, american preference for, yolk of egg, yorkshire canary, illustrated, transcriber's notes. in the text version, the oe-ligature was changed to the two separate characters, "oe." also, the macron, which appeared over the "o" in the greek transliteration of "struthion'" was dropped. changed "silver penciled" to "silver-penciled" on page : "partridge, silver-penciled, and ermine." changed "out-crosses" to "outcrosses" on page : "outcrosses are regularly made." changed "siver-penciled" to "silver-penciled" in the caption to figure . changed "amercia" to "america" on page : "fowls of america." changed "thay" to "they" on page : "which they may use." changed "distroyed" to "destroyed" on page : "are destroyed by cultivating." changed "servicable" to "serviceable" on page : "more serviceable in this way." making a poultry house _the house & garden ~making~ books_ it is the intention of the publishers to make this series of little volumes, of which _making a poultry house_ is one, a complete library of authoritative and well illustrated handbooks dealing with the activities of the home-maker and amateur gardener. text, pictures and diagrams will, in each respective book, aim to make perfectly clear the possibility of having, and the means of having, some of the more important features of a modern country or suburban home. among the titles already issued or planned for early publication are the following: _making a rose garden_; _making a lawn_; _making a tennis court_; _making a fireplace_; _making paths and driveways_; _making a rock garden_; _making a garden with hotbed and coldframe_; _making built-in bookcases, shelves and seats_; _making a garden to bloom this year_; _making a water garden_; _making a garden of perennials_; _making the grounds attractive with shrubbery_; _making a naturalized bulb garden_; with others to be announced later. [illustration: it is not a difficult matter to care for a small flock, but the old unsanitary methods of housing will have to be abandoned] making a poultry house _by_ m. roberts conover [illustration] new york mcbride, nast & company copyright, , by mcbride, nast & co. published may, contents page introduction specific suggestions for houses floors and foundations the roof walls, windows and ventilation the door of the poultry house nests and roosts the run some hints on upkeep the illustrations unsanitary housing must give way to modern methods _frontispiece_ facing page a colony house recommended by the oregon experiment station two portable colony houses adaptable for the home flock brood houses for the young birds floors of earth and of wood the single-pitch roof in a series of connected houses a combined poultry house and pigeon loft alfalfa under netting in the run a simple form of trap nest making a poultry house introduction to close one's eyes and dream of a home in the country with its lawns, its gardens, its flowers, its songs of birds and drone of bees, proves the sentimental in man, but he is not practical who cannot call into fancy's realm the cackle of the hen. having conceded her a legitimate place in the scheme of the country home, good housing is of the utmost importance, and it is in regard to this that one easily blunders. few would idealize a rickety hovel as a home for the flock, but many of us, while we would not put our highly prized birds into an airtight box, so over-house them that they weaken instead of profiting by our care. that the poultry house is yet in an evolutionary stage, all must admit, but no one can deny that great strides have been made since the once neglected barnyard fowl has come to be known as a very understandable and responsive creature, to be dealt with on common-sense grounds. only that poultry house is a good shelter which in winter conserves as much warmth as possible, and yet permits an abundance of fresh air; that admits sunlight, and yet in summer is cool. such a building must offer no hospitality to other than poultry life, and it must be constructed in line with the economic value of its residents. in short, the structure must be so contrived as to guard against drafts, dampness, disease, and vermin, to insure a profitable result. a maximum of comfort with a minimum of risk insures healthy poultry. the location of the poultry house has an important bearing upon the style of the building. it is better to put the building where the land will slope away from, rather than toward, it. a large and durable poultry house was recently built and afterwards condemned by its owners as damp. the land sloped slightly towards the building, but sufficiently to convey all surface water towards it, making its earth floor always damp in wet weather. if no other site can be secured, then it is better to mount the building on posts rather than on the ordinary foundation. if one has room enough to consider the kind of soil, sand is best, as it dries quickly, and the runs--one can scarcely consider the building without runs--can be kept much cleaner. a windbreak of some kind on the cold side of the building is a decided advantage--a wall, an evergreen hedge, a grove, or other buildings, will protect the poultry house, and, perhaps, also a portion of the runs, with benefit to the poultry. in that the family flock may range in size from half a dozen to fifty or seventy-five fowls, the size of the building, and even its style, must vary to suit one's needs. a small coop, almost square, may house your flock of eight or ten, but the larger flock requires a house longer and higher, with more ample ventilation. ventilation by means of the canvas or burlap curtain has so simplified the fresh-air problem that less building room is needed where sleeping-quarters alone are considered. hence the necessary house room for hens depends upon the mode of ventilation. that a large building with no direct ventilation is not so healthful for fowls as a small house that admits the fresh air direct, was proved in the case of a flock of fowls, during the last two winters. the previous winter seventy-five fowls were kept in a large building adjoining a barn. its walls were thick, the place was very high and roomy. ventilation was given through a loft. the quarters were kept clean, and all known rules of health observed. a glass door was fitted into the doorway, thus admitting sunlight to a small part of the floor. not a hen was allowed to place her fair foot upon the cold snowy ground. the birds were taken sick with catarrhal troubles early in the winter, and were in an unpromising condition until spring. this last winter the birds, now forty in number, were housed in a seven by twelve building, seven feet high, with two windows in the front, each thirty-four inches wide and twenty-one inches high, placed one foot below the eaves, and one foot from the sides. fresh air came through a canvas curtain in one window; the other had a glass sash. the birds came through the winter in fine condition. this building would have held the original number, but in that case the burlap curtain would have been used in the other window also. the cooping of the young chicks must be considered as a problem somewhat distinct until they are old enough to contend with the other fowls for their rights. water-tight roofs, walls, and floors are essential to the life and health of the birds. specific suggestions for houses while no one style of hen house can meet all the conditions for all localities, almost any good model may be adapted to almost any locality, or at least suggest adaptable features. the descriptions of houses that have been adapted as here given may easily suggest other modifications. a house eight by seventeen feet should give ample roosting and nesting room for a flock of thirty or forty hens. one used by the author is seven feet wide, fifteen feet long, and ten feet high from peak to floor, and is satisfactory during spring, summer, and fall. in winter, however, a scratching-shed of equal area is desirable. it need not be higher than three feet. it should adjoin the hennery, and a section of its roof should be movable to allow a change of litter. the sunlight should be freely admitted to this through glass. [illustration: the front of a house that will shelter satisfactorily a dozen fowls] a small coop that will house a dozen fowls, and may be used where one has little space, or is just getting into poultry keeping, is eight feet long and six feet deep. it has a double-pitched roof, is five and one-half feet high from the lower edges of the roof to the foundation, and seven from the peak to the foundation. the eaves project four inches, but in front a board eight inches wide is hinged to the lower edge of the eaves. this is swung back and hooked against the side of the building on sunny days, but in rainy weather it is swung outward, thus extending the roof eight inches to prevent the rain from beating into the muslin-covered windows below. it is held in this position by brackets at either end, which are hinged to the building, and may be turned back against it when not in use. two windows, two feet high and three feet wide, are placed in the front, six inches from either side, thirty-four inches from the ground, and eight inches below the eaves. burlap-covered frames are fitted to the windows, and these swing inward when necessary, and may be fastened by hooks suspended from the roof of the building. [illustration: the door may be at either end of the building and it must be made draft-proof] the building has a brick foundation and a concrete floor six inches higher than the surrounding surface of the ground, and on a level with the top of the foundation. at the rear are nests beneath the roosts. these are in. long, in. high, and in. wide. there are seven on the bottom row placed alternately in a lengthwise and crosswise manner, and six above. the lower nests are improvised from boxes bought from a grocer's at five cents each, and are set upon a skeleton shelf raised in. above the floor. the upper nests are likewise set upon a skeleton shelf in. above the first tier. the sides of boxes are cut away to in. height to allow the hens room to enter the nests. these nests are accessible to the hens from the front and are reached for egg collection by lifting a hinged door at the back; this door is ft. long, in. wide, and is in. above the foundation in the rear. the roosts are thirty-four inches above the floor, and run lengthwise of the house. two will accommodate the small flock of twelve or fifteen fowls. three inches below is the drop-board supported upon horizontal braces. it is in two sections, and slides out when desired. it is twenty inches wide, its outer edge being even with the first roost. the walls are covered with sheathing paper laid inside over the studs, and tongue-and-groove boards are nailed over this. the outside is weather-boarded, and the roof covered with tarred paper over boards laid closely together. a door at one end, in. wide and ft. in. high, gives access to the building, and a small door, × in., sliding in grooves, is placed in the front near the floor, for the use of the fowls. this coop may be modified to suit individual preference; for instance, by giving it a single-pitched roof. [illustration: a portable colony house of simple design recommended by j. dryden and a. g. lunn in a bulletin of the oregon experiment station] [illustration: the rear of the same house, showing the extension nest boxes with individual covers] for the framework and inclosure these materials will be required: hemlock or spruce for sills ( × in.) lineal feet hemlock or spruce for corner supports and plate to support rafters ( × in.) lineal feet for intermediate supports, or studs, corner braces, and rafters ( × ) lineal feet for the roof beneath the tarred paper, lineal feet of six-inch boards will be required, or feet of five-inch boards; lineal feet of five-inch weather boards will be required to inclose the building. for the window and door casings lineal feet of suitable lumber will be required, and lineal feet of five-inch tongue-and-groove boards for the door. the hinged door in the rear is made of the weather boards and covered with tarred paper on the inside. about square feet of tarred paper will be required. about sq. ft. of boarding will be required for the inside. where circumstances compel one to use a damp location, the building must be constructed so as to meet these conditions. foundations of concrete, brick, or stone do not meet the conditions for a dry floor where one must use a badly-drained site. in such a case, the building must be set on posts. short posts, only a foot high, hardly answer, for debris may collect thereunder, and harbor wild animals. three feet of space, at least, should be given underneath. cedar posts six feet apart, sunk into the ground to a depth of three and one-half or four feet, a foot of concrete being first poured into the hole, will insure a firm support. the back and sides of this open space may be inclosed with boards, the open front being protected with heavy, close-meshed galvanized poultry wire, to prevent wild animals or poultry from taking refuge underneath. in a very wet place, however, i would not inclose with boards at all. the floor of such a building should be: first, wide, rough boards, then rubber roofing laid over them, and secured at all joints to make it moisture-proof, and then narrow boards, tightly fitted together. this upper flooring should be well seasoned and well nailed down. a house of this character, that will hold from twenty-five to thirty-five fowls, with nesting, scratching, roosting, and sand-bath accommodations, is eight and one-half feet deep, twelve feet long, six feet high in back, and nine feet in front. it has the single-pitched roof, shingled. its walls are double-boarded, with an interlining of sheathing paper. in the front are two windows, six feet high by three and one-half feet wide. they are fitted with double sash, which can be removed in summer. at night these sash are let down from the top, and a burlap-covered frame placed over the entire window, admitting fresh air and preventing radiation of warmer air within through the exposed glass. for a house in a damp location the large windows provide an excellent means of insuring dryness in winter if used to transmit sunlight during the day, and covered at night as explained above. [illustration: one of the oregon station types in which the whole end is of netting, covered with fabric in cold weather] [illustration: a colony house on skids, × feet, as recommended by the oregon experiment station to accommodate to fowls] a building that is practically fireproof may be made of cement blocks for foundation and walls, with a concrete floor six inches higher than the outside ground. wood may be used for the rafters and ceiling, the roof being covered with metal, tile, or asbestos roofing, and the inside ceiling plastered. another building which will provide seventy-five or one hundred fowls with roosting, scratching, and nesting-room in the winter, when foul weather makes confinement necessary, is twenty feet long, twelve feet deep, six feet high in the rear, and ten feet high in front. it has a brick foundation and a concrete floor that is ten inches above the level of the ground at the front of the building, in order to bring it well above the surface of the ground in the rear--the site is a sloping one. in the front are three windows, one foot from the sides of the building, one foot below the top, and one foot apart. they are five feet four inches wide, three and one-half feet high, and fitted with burlap-covered frames, which may be lifted and fastened against the ceiling when so desired. weather boards, sheathing paper, and narrow boards on the inside form the walls. [illustration: plan of a house to give roosting, scratching and nesting accommodations to seventy-five or a hundred fowls] directly in front, and extending the length of the building, is a glass-inclosed sun room four feet high and five feet wide. one end of this has a door to allow for the cleaning of the floor. the concrete floor of the main room extends into the sun room. three openings, ten inches wide and one foot high, connect this sun room with the main room, and are provided with slides to be closed at night when the sun room is no longer a warm place. the roosts are in the rear and extend the entire length of the building. there are three, placed four feet above the ground floor. these roosts are removable, being set in grooves cut into the wooden brackets which hold them. a hinged drop-board in sections is hung below the roosts. the nests are forty in number in two tiers, and are fixed to the front wall of the building, below the windows. they are covered at the top, open at the side, and have a running-board before them one foot wide. nests and boards are supported by stout wooden brackets about three feet apart. nests and perches are reached by climbing-boards at one end of the room. the door is placed at the opposite end of the building, and is twenty-six inches wide and six feet high. it can be made wider if desired, as there is room. [illustration: cross-section of the house for seventy-five or a hundred fowls, showing the glazed scratching shed on the south front] the care of the young birds is greatly lightened by houses built for them especially. these need not be large nor elaborate, and, since they are for use in the milder seasons of the year, do not require great precautions against the cold. [illustration: the care of the young birds is greatly lightened by the use of small houses that can be moved about] while the slant-roofed colony coops, which can be moved about, are best for the care of large flocks of growing poultry, the progeny of the small family flock may be conveniently housed in one long coop divided into compartments, with separate little pens before each division. a coop of this kind, six feet long, thirty inches wide, and twenty-seven inches high, will shelter seventy-five young chicks very comfortably from babyhood to large broiler age. the floor should be made tight and warm, and the coop mounted upon skids or runners, so that it may be moved if desired. the top of this coop slants gently and lifts up like a lid for inspection and cleaning, and this top is hinged to the rear side, and covered with tarred paper. since young chicks will crowd and smother if the air supply is limited, the entire front of the coop, to seven inches above the bottom, is covered with coarse muslin or sacking during spring, and with galvanized wire netting in the summer. the size of the lumber necessary for any of these buildings is about the same: timber for sills, × in.; cross-beams and main supports, × in.; intermediate joists, supports, and rafters, × in.; and for weather boards and floor boards, any convenient width. well-seasoned lumber should be used, and should be first-class of its kind. second-grade material may be used for the wood-house, but faulty building of the poultry house may mean more in losses from drafty floors or walls than the saving in the first outlay will warrant. floors and foundations the floor of the poultry house sustains as important a relation to the health of the fowls as any other part of the building. a cold, drafty floor is a constant menace, inducing catarrhal affections, and a damp floor, with its constant evaporation of unwholesome moisture, is equally unfavorable. the floor of the building bears a close relation to the foundation; indeed, its character is actually determined by the kind of foundation used. from this relation have developed three distinct styles of flooring: the earth or cement floor with brick or stone foundations; the board floor with a foundation; and the board floor without a foundation, the structure being supported on posts. any one of these can be made a success if its peculiar requirements are complied with. the board floor with a foundation makes a warm floor, but it is not durable over a perfectly tight foundation, which tends to induce rotting from the dampness of the soil beneath. to insure against this, openings should be left in either end of the foundation--openings about the size of a brick's end. in a long building, such openings should occur at intervals of ten feet. such places are an invitation to rats, however, and should be securely protected by heavy, close-meshed galvanized wire, or by iron grating. the flooring must be so tight as to prevent drafts coming up through it. in the case of the board floor without a foundation, the building rests upon posts, and some poultrymen leave the space beneath open so that the air sweeps through beneath it. others board up the windside. such buildings should never be boarded all the way around, however, as rats will burrow beneath or gnaw through, giving a great deal of trouble. laying tin around the edges over the interlining to a width of about six inches, letting it project under the inner wall, and meeting the outer wall, will prevent rats from gnawing into the building. a warm floor is secured by laying it double with an airtight interlining of roofing paper or similar substance. (for the lower layer of boards, hemlock answers well.) cementing the surface of the floor gives a clean smooth surface. an earth floor or one of cement is cold and damp, if lower or even level with the outside surface of the ground. it should be at least six inches higher, and, to render it dry, a layer of stone several inches deep should be placed in beneath the six inches of earth. all floors must be cleaned frequently, fresh litter being placed in all scratching rooms, and sunlight be allowed to stream in upon them. where an earth floor is used, fresh earth or ashes must take the place of that cleared away each day. though not of secondary importance, the foundation of the poultry house is a secondary consideration, for after one has decided upon his location, manner of building, and the best kind of floor for his hens under those conditions, he may come to a conclusion about the foundation. [illustration: an earth floor lower than the outside surface is cold and damp] [illustration: the flooring must be perfectly tight to prevent drafts coming through it] the brick, concrete, or stone continuous foundations have such a stable appearance that, looks alone considered, they are preferable to posts. where brick or concrete posts are used, however, the effect is not unstable. on a good building site, i like the brick or concrete foundation, and would have no other. under such conditions, it meets the requirements of a durable building for fowls. the foundation of the poultry house need not be deeper than two or two and one-half feet below the surface of the ground, according to the climate of the locality. the object is to lay it below the freezing point. it must be high enough to actually raise the building above the earth and its dampness. where the soil washes in around the foundation, gradually covering it and partly burying the wood above, it is likely to cause the weather boards to decay around the base. get a man who understands his job to do the work of foundation-laying, else your superstructure will suffer. the roof the roof of the poultry house is, for the average poultryman, a problem solved by the state of his pocketbook, climate, and the location of his buildings, as well as personal preference. the shape of the roof may be governed by taste, the prevailing type of architecture, etc., but where the welfare of the fowls themselves is jeopardized by a certain style, personal preference must yield and the health of the birds themselves determine the choice. roofs that can be made watertight with the least difficulty, which do not overhang so far as to prevent sunlight from entering the windows, and which are sightly, are the aim of the average builder. considered from the point of utility alone, the single-pitched roof seems to be the most popular. it gives the necessary watershed and interior room for the least amount of material. while the height of the roof from the floor should be influenced by the other dimensions of the building, the fowls will do as well with a low-roofed building properly cleaned and ventilated, as with one of lofty roof, but the inconvenience of caring for the low-roofed building must be considered, and hence few of us want a roof lower than six feet. after one has decided the form of the roof, the next point is the material. in counting the cost, one must consider the possible expense in keeping in repair a roof cheap at the outset. some roofs absorb the sun's rays to such a degree as to make the building too warm. in certain locations a fireproof roof is imperative, by law or expediency. [illustration: the single-pitched roof is the most economical of material and labor, a consideration of importance in the housing of large flocks] wood, metal, and the tarred paper or felt roofing have peculiar qualifications which adapt them to individual requirements. the paper or felt roofings appeal to a great many people, as the work of applying the material can be done by an amateur. these roofings are laid on over boards and secured in position by nails, the joinings being made watertight with cement. pliant roofings should be turned well over the edges of the roof and fastened securely. allowance for lapping of the strips is made on the material, and this lap should be observed. the cost of the cement and nails necessary to the work is included in the price of the roofing per roll. there are several good tarred roofings on the market at one dollar and eighty cents or one dollar and ninety cents per roll of about one hundred square feet. when buying, it is best to select those having a fireproof surface. two-ply felt roofing is more economical than the one-ply, as it makes a much more lasting roof. after three or four years it will require repainting, and this must be done promptly to preserve the roof. the price of the felt roofings varies, costing from two to two and one-half dollars per square. all flexible roofings must be laid over boards that are fitted closely, else they will tend to break over the crevices. the galvanized steel and iron roofings are the most durable of all. the best grade of galvanized iron costs from four dollars and twenty-five cents to five dollars per square ( square feet), covering the cost of laying, but as it is absolutely fireproof, lower insurance rates are obtainable on buildings where it is used. the galvanized roof is very warm in summer, which in some sections proves an objection. tarred paper also is hot. roofs of cedar or white pine shingles outlast the pliant roofings, and really cost less in the end. one poultryman who has had experience with metal, felt, paper, and shingle roofing, prefers the last, claiming that it serves him best for least cost. where other buildings have just been constructed, there may be left-over roofing material of a higher grade, which will serve to cover the poultry house. roofing tile and asbestos shingles make excellent roofs, and are very sightly, but their use demands a different treatment of the roof framing, and an experienced workman to make a satisfactory job. walls, windows and ventilation obtain an influx of fresh air without drafts and without too great cooling of the air, and you have solved the problem of ventilation. to prevent an undue fall of temperature, there must be, in addition to a fresh-air supply, a continuous heat supply, and this exists in the fowls themselves. this we must plan to conserve. admitting the fabric-covered window--now so universally used--to be the best solution of how to admit fresh air with the least loss of heat, the accompaniment of this is perfect tightness of the windowless sides. as far as materials are concerned, wood, brick, cement blocks, or stone, are equally satisfactory if their requirements are understood, and they are used to suit conditions. some poultrymen object to brick or stone, claiming that they are damp, yet we know that stone does not create moisture. of course, masonry being a better conductor of heat than wood, moisture already in the air will condense upon stone, concrete, etc., when it will not be evident on wood. the moisture-laden air, which is cold and unhealthy for the fowls, must be due to a damp floor, poor ventilation, or some such reason. the fact that a certain concrete or stone wall is dry would prove that conditions were right, while the wooden wall would show warning signs only in extreme dampness. in localities where stone abounds, the entire building may be constructed of stone, giving ample window room. all buildings which are plastered or cemented in any part of their construction should be allowed to dry thoroughly before the flock moves in. as an important aid to uniformity of temperature in winter, the wall space filled with confined air is important. the cement blocks and hollow building tile provide for this to a certain extent. a double board wall may give this result if carefully constructed. by placing sheathing paper under the weather boards, and also under the ceiling boards, a very satisfactory wall is possible. a warm wall is made by combining brick and boards--using weather boards outside, brick within, and plaster, or ceiling boards, on the inner side. a single board wall can be made comfortable as winter quarters by covering the outside with roofing paper and having it painted black. these black-painted hen houses and coops are too warm in summer, however. the inside walls of the hen house should be smooth enough to be kept clean. a good wood-filler in the crevices prevents lice and mites from lodging there, but if, when whitewashing the walls, care is taken to work the lime into the crevices with the brush, and this work is done often enough, say four times a year, such pests would be kept down. make it a rule to have the windows on the light, sunny side of the building, facing south or southeast, but have none on the other three sides. windows really ought to be of such a size and position that the sunlight can reach every part of the floor space during some part of the day. though we all believe in the benefit of sunlight, we do not always realize how important a part it plays in the care of poultry. when we consider that vermin and disease thrive in its absence, and that remedial measures are more or less troublesome and expensive, we will work into our building schemes every possible inlet for sunlight. the windows should occupy a large part of the front wall area--one-third of it, at least, and be evenly distributed over the upper part of the surface. _movable_ window sash or curtain frames are imperative. the position of the ventilating arrangement depends upon the position of the fowls at night. it is a strange fact that human beings, animals, and poultry can better stand a current of air coming directly toward the front of the head than from the rear or sides; hence i would place the roosts so that the fowls face the window and get the fresh air on a level with the nostrils rather than from above or below. thus they are fortified against a drop in temperature. for example, where the roosts are to be two feet above the floor, i would have the windows about twenty inches from the floor, provided the roof is correspondingly low. with the roosts three or four feet above the floor, the window should be from thirty-two to forty-four inches above the floor, etc. i think it is safe to have the windows not higher than eight or twelve inches below the eaves, and six inches from the sides of the building. [illustration: when pigeons as well as chickens are kept the shelters for both may be economically combined] despite the fact that some poultrymen have discarded glass, i cannot rule it out altogether. it certainly has its uses on cold wintry days when the heat of the sun's rays is wanted without the chill wintry air. i believe these glass windows should be covered at night, and that the fabric curtain is therefore the most sensible mode of night ventilation. burlap, sacking, or coarse muslin may be used to cover the window frames. burlap is the most substantial. in tacking it to the frame, tacks with tin discs beneath the head (like those with roofing nails) may be used, or a thin light strip of wood may bind the burlap to the frame, and through it the tacks are driven. wherever glass is used, some protection of poultry wire is necessary to prevent its being broken. the door of the poultry house it aids in ridding the house of dust if, when the fowls are out, a searching breeze can blow through occasionally. for this reason, end doors are a great advantage, but they must be draft-proof. the good points of an otherwise well-built poultry house may be set at naught by carelessly made doors, which fit loosely in their casings. doors which open on the cold or exposed side of a building require more precautions against drafts than those on the sunny side. the door should be of tightly fitted boards, and covered on the inner side with tarred roofing paper, or thin, narrow boards. the following hints are for a door that is practically draft-proof: for the door itself use tongue-and-groove boards, an inch thick, reinforced six inches from the top and bottom by cross-pieces six inches wide, and beneath the latch by a rectangle of the same wood. over this is tacked sheathing paper, fitting it about the cross-pieces. the inner side is finished with narrow tongue-and-groove ceiling boards. (these may be placed over the battens or between them.) in case they are to be placed over the battens, the open space between the two board surfaces is closed with a narrow wooden strip. the door casing is five inches thick, the sill board six inches wide, and slanting to one inch lower on the outside than on the inside. on the sides and across the upper part of the door casing are nailed inch-thick strips which, with the edge of the casing against which the door shuts, gives a two-inch edge which effectually excludes air currents. against the lower edge of the door is a heavy strip of felt, reinforced with leather where it is tacked to the door. nests and roosts when we have come to the interior fittings of the poultry house, we are about ready for the flock to move in, and may consult the peculiarities of our chosen breed to some extent. in the matter of nests, heavier breeds of fowls need them of easier access than do the lighter breeds. the latter class seem to enjoy an ascent to their nests, and it is as well to favor them. the nests may be around the sides of the building, beneath the roosts and drop-board, or in any convenient place, and there should be as many as there is room for. nests that are scattered about and possess some distinctive characteristics seem to make a greater appeal to some fowls. nests in tiers of three or in blocks of three seem to be readily identified by the hens if the different sets of nests are differently placed, but a row of half a dozen nests exactly alike is confusing to the average hen. when space is at a premium, the nests should stand beneath the roosts, protected by a wooden drop-board--smooth to be vermin-proof and removable to be sanitary. a hinged board serves to darken the nest and at the same time can be held up by a hook when so desired. for cleanliness the nest should be made of wood and treated with some vermin preventive which should be washed well into all crevices. if the nest is raised four or five inches from the floor and built with a porous bottom, it is more easily kept dry. the compartments should be separated to prevent interference between layers. each of these should be, as a rule, × × inches, although i am now using nests - / in. long by - / in. wide and in. high. in order to be lifted for cleaning some light material must be used. a convenient arrangement is a long, narrow box, fitting the available space, divided by partitions into individual nests. wire netting makes a very good bottom for this type of nest. i like either this or the slat bottom, through which the dust and worn nest material sift and the air circulates. of course, such a nest should be supported on brackets or suspended so that the air can penetrate its parts. grocer's boxes may be converted into good nests by removing the bottom and tacking smooth slats across, with one and one-half inches of space between each. inch-meshed poultry wire may be used if one is going to use the wire netting. a coat of paint gives a more sanitary surface, but if this is not practicable, the wood should be planed as smooth as possible and whitewashed. concealment is usually favorable to the use of the nests, and if the apartment is light and sunny, a board screen may be used to secure this, or the nest entrance may be turned away from the light. i am using curtains of sacking with marked increase of popularity among my fowls. nests which were persistently shunned are now constantly used since thus darkened. the sacking may be hung from a wooden strip placed in front of the nests. it gets dusty, but if one is provided with two or three such curtains, the soiled ones may be hung outdoors in the wind and rain for cleansing. [illustration: alfalfa in the run under netting, through which the hens may pick] [illustration: even with the small flock the trap nest should be used--there is no use feeding non-producers] the trap nest is as useful to the small poultryman as to the man who runs a large poultry plant. it is so arranged that each laying hen and her product may be identified. a trap nest may be improvised from a box of suitable size. cut out entrance and exit in opposite sides, and in each suspend a door so that it will swing at a pressure of the fowl's head. the entrance door swings inward only--the exit door swings outward. after the egg is laid, the hen passes through the exit into a small inclosure, from which she is liberated after her achievement has been recorded. where rational methods are used in nest construction, it is hardly necessary to use nest-eggs to secure the fowl's patronage of the nests. where they are used, however, those of dull finish are preferable to the smooth glass ones. hens want a roost that they can clasp with their toes. it should be broad enough to support the bird's weight upon the ball of the foot and thin enough to allow the toes to curl under. this act is a reflex one and as much a part of their slumber as scratching is a part of their waking activities. this power of clasping the perch seems to belong to birds in vigorous conditions. ailing birds that cannot roost seldom have enough vitality to recover. roosts two and one-quarter inches wide and not more than an inch thick, with slightly rounded edges favoring the curl of the toes, are satisfactory. they may be arranged horizontally, or slightly inclined, ladder fashion. light poles cut from young saplings make suitable roosts, if scraped clean of bark and shaved to flatten them slightly on the upper side. horizontal roosts may be placed about one foot apart, and not more than three lying parallel, or the fowls roosting on the rear perch do not get enough air. i prefer them slightly inclined, ladder fashion, at an angle of nearly thirty degrees, the lowest perch not lower than three feet from the floor, and not more than three perches parallel. where the fabric curtain is used, all get the benefit of the fresh air coming through the canvas curtain. the run the runs are essentially a part of the problem of housing. fowls need plenty of exercise, yet they are entirely too meddlesome to be given full liberty where one has a garden, a good lawn, and flowers. while hens may be kept in buildings and, with proper care, still retain their health, the average owner of a small flock can keep the birds more economically if he gives them the natural advantages of outdoor exercise. the most useful run is the divided pen, each section to be used alternately. for the active-laying breeds, three runs, about ten by forty feet, to be used alternately by the flock of forty hens, are advisable. where two are used the dimensions should be greater--say ten by sixty. a yard inclosure for large birds requires two-inch meshed poultry wire, five and one-half or six feet in width, supported by posts set nine or ten feet apart. the wire is attached to the posts by staples about four inches apart. a wooden strip or any other finish along the top of the fence is an objection. the lower edge of the wire requires a board or strip to which it is tacked. boards six inches wide may be used for this. some hints on upkeep the poultry house, no matter how carefully built, is not a fit place for poultry, if it is neglected. cobwebs draped across the corners hold dust and disease germs. neglected perches become mite-infested and are thereafter a menace to the health of the poultry. grooves and crevices in walls harbor mites, lice, and disease. burlap curtains that become dusty do not readily admit pure air, or else convey a cloud of dust directly back to the fowls. floors that are covered with an accumulation of dirt become damp and cold, aside from the danger of contamination. window panes that are cloudy with dirt do not admit sunlight properly. the proper care of the poultry house means work, and the place seems hopelessly unlovely when the task has been ignored from day to day, and one's sins of omission are seen in the aggregate. the proper way to perform such work is daily, when but a few minutes will serve to keep the building sanitary. the litter of straw should be changed frequently, say, every third day--the floor swept and fresh litter spread upon it. the droppings should be removed daily. a little fine dry sand acts as an absorbent if sprinkled over the cleaned surface. walls should be swept down once a week, giving attention to corners, under and behind nests, perches, etc. for this purpose a splint broom, such as is used around stables, is most useful. for thorough cleansing after all loose dirt has been swept away nothing is superior to whitewashing. it makes the room lighter, sweetens the air, and is a "cold shoulder" to all vermin. a sprinkling of dilute carbolic acid is a safeguard against disease. perches are best cleaned by washing with some liquid insecticide, and then allowing them to dry in the sun. a good wash is made by dissolving half a cake of any laundry soap in ten quarts of water and adding five tablespoonfuls of kerosene oil. transcriber's note: italics is represented with underscore _, small caps with all caps and underlining with tilde ~. ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained and illustrations moved to paragraph breaks. the following corrections have been made: p. are in. long., -> removed period after long p. to -in. height -> removed hyphen after everything else has been retained as printed. [illustration: they reached quite a high branch in the apple tree. _page _] tales of a poultry farm by clara dillingham pierson author of "among the meadow people," "dooryard stories," etc. new york e. p. dutton and company west twenty-third street copyright e. p. dutton & co. published, september, the knickerbocker press, new york to my little sons harold and howard this book is affectionately dedicated contents page the farm is sold the new owner comes the first spring chickens are hatched the man builds a poultry house the pekin duck steals a nest the new nests and the nest-eggs the white plymouth rocks come the turkey chicks are hatched three chickens run away the three runaways become ill the young cock and the eagle the guinea-fowls come and go the geese and the baby the fowls have a joke played on them the little girls give a party illustrations page "cock-a-doodle-doo!" said the young cock returned with the baby in his arms she followed, quacking anxiously took the new-comers out, one at a time the happy turkey mother paused on her way a large dark bird swooping down they reached quite a high branch in the apple tree--_frontispiece_ "s-s-s-s-s!" repeated the gander introduction my dear little readers:--i have often wondered why there were not more stories written about chickens and their friends, and now i am glad that there have been so few, for i have greatly enjoyed writing some for you. did i ever tell you that i cared for my father's chickens when i was a little girl? that was one of my duties, and the most pleasant of all. it was not until i was older that i became acquainted with ducks, geese, and turkeys, and i always wish that i might have lived on a poultry farm like the one of which i have written, for then i could have learned much more than i did. you must not think that i understand no language but english. i learned chicken-talk when i was very young; and in the fall, when the quails wander through the stubble-fields near my home, i have many visits with them, calling back and forth "bob white! bob white!" and other agreeable things which they like to hear. my little boys can talk exactly like chickens, and sometimes they pretend that they are chickens, while i talk turkey to them. when you have a chance, you must learn these languages. they are often very useful to one. my friend, who drives in his hens by imitating the warning cry of a cock, had been a teacher in a college for several years before he studied poultry-talk, and it helped him greatly. you see, one must learn much outside of school, as well as inside, in order to be truly well educated. you should never look at poultry and say, "why, they are only hens!" or "why, they are only ducks!" quite likely when they look at you they may be thinking, "why, they are only boys!" or "why, they are only girls!" yet if you are gentle and care for them, you and they will learn to think a great deal of each other, and you will win new friends among the feathered people. your friend, clara d. pierson. stanton, michigan, _march , ._ the farm is sold "you stupid creature!" cackled the brown hen, as she scrambled out of the driveway. "don't you know any better than to come blundering along when a body is in the middle of a fine dust bath? how would you like to have me come trotting down the road, just as you were nicely sprawled out in it with your feathers full of dust? i think you would squawk too!" the brown hen drew her right foot up under her ruffled plumage and turned her head to one side, looking severely at bobs and snip as they backed the lumber wagon up to the side porch. "i say," she repeated, "that you would squawk too!" the brown hen's friends had been forced to run away when she did, but they had already found another warm place in the dust and were rolling and fluttering happily there. "come over here," they called to her. "this is just as good a place as the other. come over and wallow here." "no!" answered the brown hen, putting down her right foot and drawing up her left. "no! my bath is spoiled for to-day. there is no use in trying to take comfort when you are likely to be run over any minute." she turned her head to the other side and looked severely at bobs and snip with that eye. the brown hen prided herself on her way of looking sternly at people who displeased her. she always wished, however, that she could look at them with both eyes at once. she thought that if this were possible she could stop their nonsense more quickly. snip could not say anything just then. he was trying to be polite, and it took all his strength. he was young and wanted to have a good horse laugh. he could not help thinking how a horse would look covered with feathers and sprawling in the middle of the road. of course the brown hen had not meant it in exactly that way, but was as unlucky as most people are when they lose their tempers, and amused the very people whom she most wanted to scold. bobs was a steady old gray horse, and he was used to the brown hen. "i am sorry that we had to disturb you," he said pleasantly. "you looked very comfortable and i tried to turn out, but the farmer held the lines so tightly that i could not. the bit cut into my mouth until i could not stand it. you see he wanted to back the wagon up right here, and so he couldn't let us turn out. we'll do better next time if we can." the brown hen let both her feet down and took a few steps forward. "if you couldn't help it, of course i won't say anything more," she remarked, and walked off. "p-p-p-p-p-p-p-p!" said snip, blowing the air out between his lips. "why did you bother to tell her that? she is so fussy and cross about everything that i wouldn't tell her i was sorry. why doesn't she just find another place, as the other hens do?" "snip," said bobs, "i used to talk in that way when i was a colt, but i find that it makes things a good deal pleasanter around the place if i take a little trouble to say 'i am sorry' when i have to disturb people. you know how the farmer does at noon? he comes into the stall when i have finished my dinner, and he gives me a pat and says, 'come along, old fellow. we'd rather be lazy, but we have to work.' do you think i'd hang back then? i tell you when i want to balk. it is when the hired man leads me out with a jerk. that makes me kick." "i wonder if she will take her dust bath now?" said snip. "oh no," answered bobs. "any other hen on the farm would, but the brown hen will not. she will stalk around all day thinking what a hard time she has and talking about it, but she won't take her dust bath, not although every other fowl on the place should wallow beside her." "then i don't see what good it did for you to tell her you were sorry," said snip, who never liked to confess that he was wrong. "it did a lot of good," said bobs, steadily. "before that she was fussy and cross. now she is only fussy. besides, i really had to say something to her, and if it had not been pleasant it would have had to be unpleasant, and then there would have been two cross people instead of one. quite likely there would have been even more before the day was over, for if each of us had gone on being cross we would have made more of our friends cross, and there is no telling where it would have ended. i'd feel mean, anyhow, if i lost my temper with a hen. imagine a great big fellow like me getting cross with a little creature like her, who has only two legs, and can't get any water into her stomach without tipping her head back for each billful." snip had wanted to ask many more questions, but so much began to happen that he quite forgot about the brown hen. the farmer and the hired man had gone into the house, and now they came out, carrying a cook-stove between them. this they put into the wagon, covering it with rag carpet. the farmer's wife came to the door with rolled-up sleeves and a towel tied over her head. she looked tired but happy. in her hands she carried the legs of the stove, which she tucked into the oven. this was a great event to happen on the quiet farm. brown bess and her new calf came close to the fence which separated their pasture from the driveway, and stood looking on. the pigs and their mother pressed hard against the walls of their pen on the two sides from which anything could be seen. each of the nine pigs thought that he had the poorest place for peeping, so he wriggled and pushed and pushed and wriggled to get a better one, and it ended in none of them seeing anything, because they were not still long enough. their mother, being so much taller than they, had a crack all to herself and could see very well. "i don't understand why they want to do that," she sighed, as she lay down for another nap. "it was after the snow came that they brought the stove out here. but you can never tell what the people who live in houses and wear clothing will do next! they really seem to like to pick things up and carry them around. they are so silly." the gander came along with his wife and the other geese. he ate grass while they visited with the hens in the road. the hens told him all they knew, even what the barred plymouth rock hen had seen when she walked along the porch and peeped in at the open kitchen door. then the geese waddled back to where the gander was and told him all the hens had told them. he listened to it, asking a good many questions, and then said that it was just like geese to be so interested in other people's business. that made them feel quite ashamed, so they ate a little grass to make themselves feel better, and then stood around to watch the loading of the wagon. besides the stove, the kitchen and dining-room furniture was put in, with a few of the largest plants from the sitting-room, and when the farmer drove off he had the clock beside him on the seat, the churn between his knees, and a big bundle of some sort on his lap. it suddenly seemed very dull on the farm. one of the doves flew along above the team for a while and brought back the news that they had turned toward town. there was nothing now to be done but to wait until they returned and then ask as many questions as possible of the horses. "i believe that the family is going to move into town," said the white cock, who always expected sad things to happen. even when there was not a cloud in the sky, he was sure that it would rain the next day. that was probably because he was careless about what he ate. the shanghai cock said that he did not take half gravel enough, and any sensible fowl will tell you that he cannot be truly happy unless he eats enough gravel. "what will ever become of us," asked the hens, "if the family moves to town? it is their business to stay here and take care of us." "cock-a-doodle-doo!" crowed the young cock. "let them go. i can have a good enough time in the fields finding my own food." the pullets looked at him admiringly. "but who will take care of us?" they asked. "i will," said he, holding his head very high. and that was exactly what they wanted him to say, although each of them would rather have had him say it to her alone. "there will be nobody left to set traps for the rats and the weasels," said an old hen, who had seen much of the ways of poultry-yards. "and if our chickens have the gapes, who will make horse-hair loops and pull the little worms out of their throats? i have always said that it was well to have people living in the farmhouse." "well," said the brown hen, "i hope that if they go they will take the horses with them. there is no pleasure in life when one is all the time afraid of being run over. you know what happened this morning, when i had started to take my dust bath. i spoke to the horses about it afterward, and bobs was very polite, but that didn't give me the bath which he and that silly young snip had spoiled. and i do not feel at all like myself without a bath." "take it now then," said the shanghai cock, who never bothered to be polite. "you ought to be able to get it in while the team is going to town and back." "no," said the brown hen, firmly, "it is too far past the time when i should have taken it. i was never one of those hens who can wallow from morning until night. i need my bath and i ought to have it, but when i have been kept from it so long i simply have to go without it." the other hens said nothing. in nearly every poultry-yard there is one fowl who is so fussy as to make everybody else uncomfortable. the rest become used to it after a while and do not answer back when she talks so. in the house, the farmer's wife was hurrying to and fro, showing the hired man where to put this or calling him to lift that, and every little while something else would be brought out and placed on the side porch. once a basket of wax fruit was set on a table there. the glass which usually covered it was put to one side, and the young cock who had promised to care for the pullets flew up to peck at it. he knew it was not right, but he got one hurried billful from the side of the reddest peach just as the hired man threw an old shoe at him. "how does it taste?" cried the geese, who were still hanging around to find out what they could. the young cock did not reply, but wiped his bill on the grass for a long time. he feared he would never be able to open it again. the peaches which he had eaten the fall before had not stuck his bill together in this way, and he was now more sure than ever that the people who lived in houses did not know very much. "such fruit should be thrown away," he said. "it must be eating such peaches as this which keeps the boy chewing so much of the time. i have watched him, and he carries something in his mouth which he chews and chews and chews, but never swallows. once his mother made him throw it away, and i should think she would. he waggled his jaws very much like a cow." then he strolled off toward the woods to get away from the other fowls. in the middle of the afternoon the team came back drawing the empty wagon. all the poultry came sauntering toward the barn, making excuses as they came. "too hot out in the sunshine," said the brown hen. "i really cannot stand it any longer." "the geese would come up to the barn," said the gander, "so i thought i might as well come along." "shouldn't wonder if they would throw out some corn when they get through unharnessing," said the gobbler. the ducks never kept up with the others, and they were close to the house when bobs and snip stopped there. "how very lucky!" they quacked, for they were a truthful family and not given to making excuses. "we hope you will tell us what all this means. are the farmer's people moving away?" "they are," replied bobs, who was always good about giving a direct answer to a direct question. "you know the children have been staying in town to go to school ever since last fall, and now their father has sold the farm and is moving into town to be with them." "will they take us into town?" asked the drake. "guess not," said snip. "they are to live over a store." by this time the disappointed ones who had been waiting in the barn came hurrying along toward the house, where the wagon was being filled once more. it did not take long for the ducks to tell the news, and then there was great excitement, very great indeed. brown bess heard it and licked her calf more tenderly than ever. she knew that they could not live over a store, and she wondered what would become of them both. in the pig-pen the little pigs were teasing their mother to tell who would bring them their food. it was enough to make her lose her patience to have nine children all asking questions at the same time, and each saying "why?" every time that he was given an answer. so it is not to be wondered at that she finally became cross and lay down in the corner with her back to them, pretending to be asleep. to tell the truth, she herself was somewhat worried. she had often called the farmer's family silly, but she had not minded their habit of carrying things around, when the things that they carried were pails full of delicious food and they were carrying them to the pig-pen. it was the poultry who talked the longest about the change, and perhaps this was partly because there were so many of them to talk. poultry have a very happy time on small farms like this one. it is true that they did not have a good house of their own, and they had but little attention paid to them, yet when the cold winter was once past, there was all the lovely spring, summer, and fall weather in which to be happy. they were not kept in a yard, going wherever they chose, finding plenty to eat, and having no cares, excepting that when a hen felt like it she laid an egg. she laid it wherever she chose, too, and this was usually somewhere in the barn or woodshed. sometimes hens wanted to sit, and then they came off after a while with broods of chickens. when a hen had done that, she was usually caught and put under a coop for a few days. she never liked that part of it, and the others always told her that if she would hatch out chickens she might know what to expect. the winters were bad, but then the poultry spent their whole time in trying to be comfortable and hardly ever bothered to lay eggs, so it was an easy life after all. no wonder that they talked about the change until after they went to roost. although the farmer was not a thrifty man, he had been kind enough to the creatures on the farm, and they did not want to go away or belong to any one else. the last word spoken was by a black hen. she was not black spanish or black anything-in-particular. in fact, there was only one of the hens who knew to what breed she belonged. that was the barred plymouth rock hen, and it made her very proud. the black hen had a temper, and had even been known to peck at the farmer's wife. "do you know what i will do if a new farmer tries to make me lay my eggs where he wishes?" she said. "i may have to lay the eggs there, but i will smash every one of them if i do." the new owner comes on the morning after the family left, a pale and quiet man, wearing glasses, came out in a platform wagon to look over the farm. he had been there but a short time when two great loads of furniture appeared down the road. then the man took off his coat and helped the drivers carry it all into the little farmhouse. the fowls, who happened to be near enough, noticed that the man never lifted anything which seemed to be heavy. they noticed, too, that his hands were rather small and very white. still he acted as though he expected to live on the place. with the others helping him, he put down two carpets and set up two stoves. the other men drove away, leaving the single horse and the platform wagon. the man washed his hands, put on his coat, and brought a pasteboard box out onto the side porch. he opened it carefully, took out a glass, and drew up a bucketful of water at the well. he filled his glass and carried it back to the porch. then he began to eat his dinner. all the farm people had been properly cared for that morning by the farmer from across the road, and felt sure that he would not see them wanting food, so it was not just a wish for something to eat which made every creature there come quietly to a place near the side porch. they were certain that they belonged to this man, and they wanted to find out what he was like. "i hope he isn't expecting to milk me," said brown bess. "i don't believe he could draw a drop from my udders, and he would probably set the stool down on the wrong side anyhow." bobs and snip were no longer on the farm, having gone to town, to work there with their old master, so the hog was the next to speak. "i hope he won't eat that kind of dinner every day," said she. "it looks to me as though there would be no scraps left to go into my pail." "ugh! ugh! stingy!" grunted the little pigs. "he wants it all for himself!" they did not stop to think that every time food was emptied into their trough, each of them acted as though he wanted every drop and crumb of it for himself. the gobbler strutted up and down near the porch, with his feathers on end and his wings dragging. "there is just one thing i like about the man," said he. "he does _not_ wear a red tie." "i can't tell exactly what is the matter," said the gander, "but he is certainly very different from any man i ever saw before. i think he must belong to a different breed. the things he has on his feet are much blacker and shinier than the men around here wear, and that stiff and shiny white thing around his neck is much higher. i hope he is not stupid. i cannot bear stupid people." "neither can we," murmured the geese. "we really cannot bear them." "i fear he does not know very much," said the drake, sadly, "although i must say that i like his face. he looks good and kind, not at all as though he would ever throw stones at people for the fun of seeing them waddle faster. what i do not like is the way in which he acted about getting his water. any duck knows that you can tell most about people by the way they take water. the old gourd which the farmer and his family used so long, hung right on the chain-pump, and yet this man got a glass and filled it. he did not even drink from it as soon as it was full, but filled and emptied it three times before drinking. that is not what i call good sense." "did you notice how he put on his coat before he began to eat?" asked the white cock. "i never saw our farmer do that except in very cold weather, and i have been close to the kitchen door a great many times when they sat down to the table." "it must be that he was not very hungry," said one of the hens, "or he would never have taken so much time to begin eating. besides, you can see that he was not, by the size of his mouthfuls. he did not take a single bite as big as he could, and you will never make me believe that a person is hungry when he eats in that way." this was the hen who usually got the largest piece from the food-pan and swallowed it whole to make sure of it, before any of the other fowls could overtake her and get it away. then the barred plymouth rock hen spoke. "i like him," she said. "i am sure that he belongs to a different breed, but i think it is a good one. i remember hearing somebody say, when i was a chicken, that it was well for fowls to have a change of ground once in a while, and that it would make them stronger. i believe that is why he is here. you can tell by watching him work that he is not strong, and he may be here for a change of ground. i shall certainly befriend him, whatever the rest of you do. we people of fine families should stand by each other." then she strolled over toward the man, lifting her feet in her most aristocratic way and perking her head prettily. the man smiled. he broke a piece from the slice of bread which he was eating, and sprinkled it lightly with salt from a tiny bottle. this piece he divided into two portions and held one out at arm's length toward the barred plymouth rock hen. she had never before been invited to eat from anybody's hand, and she was really afraid to do it. her skin felt creepy, as though her feathers were about to stand on end. still, she had just said that she meant to befriend the new man, and that he and she were of finer breeds than most people. here was her chance to prove her words, and she was not the sort of hen to show the white feather. she stood erect in all her plymouth rock dignity, and ate the bread in five pecks. then she stooped and wiped her bill daintily on the grass at the man's feet before strolling away again. you can imagine what excitement this made among the poultry. the gobbler, the gander, and the drake did not wish to appear too much interested, and some of the cocks acted in the same way, but the mothers and sisters of the families talked of nothing else for a long time. it is true that the barred plymouth rock hen had not been very popular on the farm, most of the hens insisting that she put on airs, but now they could not help admiring her courage and grace. two or three of them even thought she might be right in saying that it was a good thing to come from a fine family. the cocks had never thought her airy. they always told the other hens that it was just their notion, and that she was really a very clever and friendly hen. as for the man, he seemed much pleased by what had happened. he put his hat on the back of his head and smiled. "that is a good beginning," he said to himself. "to eat bread and salt together means that we will always be friends, and i would rather break bread with respectable poultry than with some men that i know." late in the afternoon, the man harnessed his horse, whom he called brownie, to the same platform wagon in which he had come, gave one parting look all around the house and yard, turned the key in the side door, and drove off toward town. "what next?" asked all the poultry. if you had ever been a hen or a duck or a turkey or a goose (for although you may have acted like a perfect goose, you probably never have been one), you would know just how worried the poultry on this particular farm were, after the new man had driven away in the platform wagon. it seemed quite certain that he had gone to town to bring out his family, and it mattered a great deal to them what his family were like. a single boy of the wrong kind could make all the fowls on the place unhappy, and the others agreed with the gobbler when he said, "there is one thing worse than a girl in a red dress, and that is a boy who throws stones." it was a very sad company which wandered around the farmyard, picking here and there, and really eating but little. the white cock would keep talking about the dreadful things which might happen, and reminded his friends that there might be two boys, or three, or four, perhaps even five in the family! the other fowls soon tried to get away from him, and then they were often so unfortunate as to meet the brown hen, who was fussing and worrying for fear the man would shut her up in a small yard. at last the shanghai cock lost his temper, as he was very apt to do, and said that there were some fowls he would like to have shut up. this displeased both the white cock and the brown hen, because the shanghai cock had looked at both of them when he spoke, using one eye for each, and they did not know what to say. they thought from the mean little cackling laugh which the others gave, that he might have wished them to shut up their bills. then they did the very best thing that they could have done, going off together to the pasture, where each could talk gloomily to the other without annoying anybody else. when brownie came jogging back to the farm, the platform wagon looked very gay. on the back seat sat a pleasant looking woman with a fat baby on her lap. beside her sat a little girl with brown hair. on the seat beside the man sat another little girl, dressed exactly like the first one and just as large as she, but with golden hair. they were all laughing and talking and pointing at different things as they drove into the yard. "it is not much like our other home," said the man, as he set the baby on his feet beside the steps, and turned to help the woman out. "that does not matter if we can be comfortable and well here," she answered with a smile. "it will be a lovely place for the children, and i believe it will make you strong again." "cock-a-doodle-doo!" said the young cock from the top rail of the fence. he did it only to show off, but the children, who had never lived on a farm, and so could not understand poultry-talk very well, felt sure that he said, "how-do-you-all-do?" and thought him exceedingly polite. the baby started after him at once, and fell flat before he had taken six steps. [illustration: "cock-a-doodle-doo!" said the young cock. _page _] the man, the woman, and the two little girls all started to pick up the baby, who was so wound up in his long cloak that he could not rise. brownie looked around in a friendly way and stood perfectly still, instead of edging off toward the barn as some horses would have done, while the baby just rolled over on his back and laughed. "gobble-gobble-gobble!" said the gobbler. "i think this family will suit us very well." the barred plymouth rock hen was too polite a fowl ever to say "i told you so," but she stood very straight and chuckled softly to herself, so the rest could know that she was pleased with what she saw, and felt more certain than ever that the man and his family were no common people. all the family went to the barn with the man while he unharnessed brownie and gave him his supper. the children had a happy time on the hay, and, before they went into the house together, the man put some corn in a pan and let them scatter it by the door for the poultry. "they have been running loose in the fields," he said, "and they may not need it all, but we will give it to them anyway, and to-morrow i will study my book of directions and see how they should be fed at this season." the children scattered the corn, the woman kneeling down with her arm around the baby, to keep him from falling over each time that he threw a few kernels. the barred plymouth rock hen was the first to come forward to pick it up, and the man told his wife how he and she had eaten bread and salt at noon. then the woman said: "come, we must go into the house! i should have been there working long ago, but i wanted to see the children make friends with the poultry." as the door of the house closed behind its new inmates, the barred plymouth rock hen could not help looking at the shanghai cock. "yes," he said, for he knew what she meant, "i like your friends very much. they seem to have some sense." then the barred plymouth rock hen was satisfied, for she was fond of the shanghai cock, and praise from him was praise indeed. the first spring chickens are hatched it was only a few days after the new family settled in the house that the man drove out from town with a queer-looking box-like thing in his light wagon. this he took out and left on the ground beside the cellarway. when he had unharnessed brownie and let him loose in the pasture, he came back and took the crate off from the box. then the poultry who were standing around saw that it was not at all an ordinary box. indeed, as soon as the man had fastened a leg to each corner, they thought it rather more like a fat table than a box. while the man was examining it, he kept turning over the pages of a small book which he took from some place inside the table. the geese thought it quite a senseless habit of the man's, this looking at books when he was at work. they had never seen the farmer do so, and they did not understand it. when geese do not understand anything, you know, they always decide that it is very silly and senseless. there are a great many things which they do not understand, so, of course, there are a great many which they think extremely silly. the little girls and their mother stood beside the man as he looked at the book and the fat new table. he said something to one of them and she went into the house. when she came out she had a small basketful of eggs. the man took some and put them into one part of the table. then he took them out again and put them into the basket. that disgusted the brown hen, who was watching it all. "i am always fair," she said, "and i am willing to say that i have been treated very well by this man, very well indeed, but it is most distressing and unpleasant to a sensible fowl like myself to have to see so much utter foolishness on a farm where i have spent my life." "then why don't you shut your eyes?" asked the shanghai cock, with his usual rudeness, and after that the brown hen could say nothing more. this was a great relief to the barred plymouth rock hen, who did not at all understand what was going on, but would have tried to defend the man if the brown hen had asked her about it. after a while the woman helped the man carry the queer-looking object into the cellar, and then the poultry strolled off to talk it all over. they heard nothing more about the fat table until the next morning. then the gander, who had been standing for a long time close to the cellarway, waddled off toward the barn with the news. "they use that table to keep eggs in," said he. "now isn't that just like the man? i saw him put in a great many eggs, and he took them all out of little cases which he brought from town this morning. i don't see why a man should bring eggs out from town, when he can get plenty in the barn by hunting for them. do you?" "he won't find any of mine in the barn," said a hen turkey. "i lay one every day, but i never put them there." when she had finished speaking, she looked around to see if the gobbler had heard her. luckily he had not. if he had, he would have tried to find and break her eggs. "that was not the only silly thing the man did," said the gander, who intended to tell every bit of news he had, in spite of interruptions. "probably not," said the white cock, who was feeling badly that morning, and so thought the world was all wrong. "no indeed," said the gander, raising his voice somewhat, so that the poultry around might know he had news of importance to tell. "no indeed! the man marked every egg with a sort of stick, which he took from his pocket. it was sharp at both ends, and sometimes he marked with one end and sometimes with the other. he put a black mark on one side of each egg and a red mark on the other." "red!" exclaimed the gobbler. "ugh!" "yes, red," said the gander. "but the worst and most stupid part of it all was when he lighted a little fire in something that he had and fastened it onto the table." "what a shame!" cried all the geese together. "it will burn up those eggs, and every fowl knows that it takes time to get a good lot of them together. he may not have thought of that. he cannot know very much, for he probably never lived on a farm before. he may think that eggs are to be found in barns exactly as stones are found in fields." all this made the barred plymouth rock hen very sad. she could not help believing what she had heard, and still she hoped they might yet find out that the man had a good reason for marking and then burning up those eggs. she was glad to think that none of hers were in the lot. she was not saving them for chickens just then, but she preferred to think of them as being eaten by the little girls or the fat baby who lived in the house. she decided to begin saving for a brood of chickens at once. she wanted to say something kind about the man, or explain what he was doing when he lighted that fire. however, she could not, so she just kept her bill tightly shut and said nothing at all. this also showed that she was a fine hen, for the best people would rather say nothing at all about others than to say unkind things. it was a long time before the friendly barred plymouth rock hen knew what was going on in the cellar. she was greatly discouraged about the man. she had tried as hard as she could to make the other poultry believe in him, and had thought she was succeeding, but now this foolishness about the fat table and the eggs seemed likely to spoil it all. she found a good place for laying, in a corner of the carriage house on some old bags, and there she put all her eggs. she had decided to raise a brood of chickens and take comfort with them, leaving the man to look out for himself as well as he could. she still believed in him, but she was discouraged. several of the other hens also stole nests and began filling them, so on the day when the man hunted very thoroughly for eggs and found these stolen nests, taking all but one egg from each, there were five exceedingly sad hens. you would think they might have been discouraged, yet they were not. a hen may become discouraged about anything else in the world, but if she wants to sit, she sticks to it. that very day was an exciting one in the cellar. when the man came down after breakfast to look at the eggs in the fat table he found them all as he had left them, with the black-marked side uppermost. he took them out to air for a few minutes, and then began putting them back with the red-marked side uppermost. as he lifted them, he often put one to his ear, or held it up to the light. he had handled the eggs over in this way twice a day for about three weeks. a few of them had small breaks in the shell, and through one of these breaks there stuck out the tiny beak of an unhatched chicken. when he found an egg that was cracked, or one in which there seemed to be a faint tap-tap-tapping, he put it apart from the others. [illustration: returned with the baby in his arms. _page _] when this was done, the man ran up the inside stairs. in a few minutes he returned with the baby in his arms and the rest of the family following. the woman had her sleeves rolled up and flour on her apron. the little girls were dressed in the plain blue denim frocks which they wore all the time, except when they went to town. then all five of them watched the cracked eggs, and saw the tiny chickens who were inside chip away the shell and get ready to come out into the great world. the woman had to leave first, for there came a hissing, bubbling sound from the kitchen above, which made her turn and run up-stairs as fast as she could. then what a time the man had! the baby in his arms kept jumping and reaching for the struggling chickens, and the two little girls could hardly keep their hands away from them. "let me help just one get out of his shell," said the brown-haired little girl. "it is _so_ hard for such small chickens." "no," said the man, and he said it very patiently, although they had already been begging like this for some time. "no, you must not touch one of them. if you were hens, you would know better than to want to do such a thing. if you should take the shell off for a chicken, he would either die or be a very weak little fellow. before long each will have a fine round doorway at the large end of his shell, through which he can slip out easily." some of the chickens worked faster than others, and some had thin shells to break, while others had quite thick ones, so when the first chicken was safely out many had not even poked their bills through. as soon as the first was safely hatched, the man took away the broken shell and closed the fat table again. then he waved his hat at the little girls and said "shoo! shoo!" until they laughed and ran out-of-doors. all that day there were tiny chickens busy in the incubator (that was what the man called the fat table), working and working and working to get out of their shells. each was curled up in a tight bunch inside, and one would almost think that he could not work in such a position. however, each had his head curled around under his left wing, and pecked with it there. then, too, as he worked, each pushed with his feet against the shell, and so turned very slowly around and around inside it. that gave him a chance, you see, to peck in a circle and so break open a round doorway. as they came out, the chickens nestled close to each other or ran around a bit and got acquainted, talking in soft little "cheep-cheep-cheeps." they were very happy chickens, for they were warm and had just about light enough for eyes that had seen no light at all until that day. it is true that they had no food, but one does not need food when first hatched, so it is not strange that they were happy. it is also true that they had no mother, yet even that did not trouble them, for they knew nothing at all about mothers. probably they thought that chickens were always hatched in incubators and kept warm by lamps. the next morning, when the barred plymouth rock hen was sitting on her one egg in the carriage house, thinking sadly of her friend, the man, that same man came slowly up to her. the little girls were following him, and when they reached the doorway they stood still with their toes on a mark which the man had made. they wanted very much to see what he was about to do, yet they minded, and stood where they had been told, although they did bend forward as far as they could without tumbling over. the man knelt in front of the sitting hen, and gently uncovered the basket he held. the hen could hardly believe her ears, for she heard the soft "cheep-cheep-cheep" of newly hatched chickens. she tried to see into the basket. "there! there!" said the man, "i have brought you some children." then he lifted one at a time and slipped it into her nest, until she had twelve beautiful downy white chickens there. "well! well! well!" clucked the hen. and she could not think of another thing to say until the man had gone off to the barn. he had taken her egg, but she did not care about that. all she wanted was those beautiful chickens. she fluffed up her feathers and spread out her wings until she covered the whole twelve, and then she was the happiest fowl on the place. the man came back to put food and water where she could reach both without leaving her nest, and even then she could think of nothing to say. after he went away, a friend came strolling through the open doorway. this hen was also sitting, but had come off the nest to stretch her legs and find food. it was a warm april day, and she felt so certain that the eggs would not chill, that she paused to chat. "such dreadful luck!" she cackled. "you must never try to make me think that this man is friendly. he has left me only one of the eggs i had laid, and now i have to start all over for a brood of chickens, or else give up. the worst of it is that i feel as though i could not lay any more for a while." "don't be discouraged," said the barred plymouth rock hen. "i had only one egg to sit on last night, and this morning i have a whole brood of chickens." "where did they come from?" asked the visiting hen, in great excitement. "that is what i don't know," replied the happy mother. "the man brought them to me just now, and put food and water beside my nest. i have asked and asked them who their mother was, and they say i am the first hen they ever saw. of course that cannot be so, for chickens are not blind at first, like kittens, but it is very strange that they cannot remember about the hen who hatched them. they say that there were many more chickens where they came from, but no hen whatever." the white cock stood in the doorway. "do you know where my chickens were hatched?" asked the barred plymouth rock hen. "do i know?" said he, pausing to loosen some mud from one of his feet (he did not understand the feelings of a mother, or he would have answered at once). "i saw the man bring a basketful of chickens over this way a while ago. he got them from the cellar. the door was open and i stood on it. of course i was not hanging around to find out what he was doing. i simply happened to be there, you understand." "yes, we understand all about it," said the hens, who knew the white cock as well as anybody. "i happened to be there," he repeated, "and i saw the man take the chickens out of the fat table. there was no hen in sight. it must be a machine for hatching chickens. i think it is dreadful if the chickens on this farm have to be hatched in a cellar, without hens. everything is going wrong since the farmer left." the barred plymouth rock hen and her caller looked at each other without speaking. they remembered hearing the white cock talk in that way before the farmer left. he was one of those fowls who are always discontented. "i am going back to my nest," said the visiting hen. "perhaps the man will bring me some chickens too." the barred plymouth rock hen sat on her nest in the carriage house, eating and drinking when she wished, and cuddling her children under her feathers. she was very happy, and thought it a beautiful world. "i would rather have had them gray," she said to herself, "but if they couldn't be gray, i prefer white. they are certainly plymouth rock chickens anyway, and the color does not matter, if they are good." she stood up carefully and took a long look at her family. "i couldn't have hatched out a better brood myself," she said. "it is a queer thing for tables to take to hatching chickens, but if that is the way it is to be done on this farm, it will save me a great deal of time and be a good thing for my legs. it is lucky that this man came here. the farmer who left would never have thought of making a table sit on eggs and hatch them." the man builds a poultry-house it would be wrong to say that all the poultry on the farm really liked the man. the white cock and the brown hen had never been known really to approve of anybody, and the shanghai cock was not given to saying pleasant things of people. however, the man certainly had more and more friends among the fowls on the place, and when the white cock and the brown hen wanted to say what they thought of his ways, they had to go off together to some far-away corner where they could not be overheard. if they did not do this, they were quite certain to be asked to talk about something else. the five hens who had had chickens given to them were his firmest friends. it is true that each of them had really been on the nest long enough to hatch out chickens of her own, yet they saw that another time they would be saved the long and weary sitting. they remembered, too, the man's thoughtfulness in putting food and water where they could reach it easily on that first day, when they disliked so much to leave their families. they had spoken of this to the gander, and had tried to make him change his mind about the fat table in the cellar. they might exactly as well have talked to a feed-cutter. "i hear what you say," he replied politely (ganders are often the most polite when they are about to do or say mean things). "i hear what you say, but you cannot expect me to change my mind about what i have seen with my own eyes. it was certainly quite wrong for him to get ready to burn those eggs, and the marking of them was almost as bad. as for this nonsense about the table hatching out chickens, that is quite absurd. you could not expect a gander to believe that. it is the sort of thing which hens believe." so the man's friends had to give up talking to the gander. even the geese were not sure that it was all right. "we would like to think so," they often remarked, "but the gander says it cannot be." now the fowls had something new to puzzle them, for the man spent one sunshiny morning in walking to and fro in the fields which had always been used for a pasture, stopping every now and then to drive a stake. sometimes he walked with long strides, and then when his little girls spoke to him he would shake his head and not answer. afterward he seemed to be measuring off the ground with a long line of some sort, letting the little girls take turns in holding one end of it for him. after all of the stakes had been driven, the man harnessed brownie to the old stone-boat and began to draw large stones from different parts of the farmyard and pasture. he even went along the road and pried out some which had always lain there, right in the way of every team that had to turn aside from the narrow track. all these were drawn over to the stakes and tumbled off on the ground there. in the afternoon the farmer from across the road brought a load of lumber, which he left beside the stone and stakes, and then the work began. the farmer, who was used to building barns and sheds, began to help the man lay stone for some sort of long, narrow building. for days after that the work went on. sometimes the two men worked together, and sometimes the farmer drove off to town for more lumber, after showing the man just what to do while he was gone. the man seemed to learn very easily, and did not have to take out or do over any of his work. that was probably because he listened so carefully when the farmer was telling him. people always make mistakes, you know, unless they listen carefully to what they are told. the poultry strolled around and discussed the new building every day. they could not imagine what it was to be. at first, when only the foundation was laid, it looked so long and narrow that the gander declared it must be for a carriage house. "don't you see?" he said. "there will be plenty of room for the platform wagon, the light lumber wagon, and the implements. when they are all in, there will be room for the man to walk along on either side of them and clean them off. it is about the most sensible thing that i have known the man to do." the farmer always left his implements out in all kinds of weather, and sometimes one of his wagons stood out in a storm too. nobody except the geese agreed with the gander, and they would have agreed with him just as quickly if he had said that the building was for barn swallows. you see the gander was always ready to tell what he thought, and as the geese never even thought of thinking for themselves, it was very easy for them simply to agree with him. brown bess looked at the long lines of stone all neatly set in cement, and said that she would not mind having one end of the building for herself and the calf. "it would be much snugger than my place in the barn," said she, "although that is all right in warm weather." brownie may have known what it was for, because he had a great deal of horse sense, but if he knew he did not tell. being the only horse on the place, and so much larger than any of the other people, he had not made friends very quickly, although everybody liked him as well as they had bobs. it was not until the barred plymouth rock hen saw that the long space was to be divided into many small rooms that she guessed it might be for the poultry themselves. even then she dared not tell anybody what she thought. "in the first place," she said to herself, "they may prefer to run all over the farm, as they always have done, laying their eggs wherever they can. if any of them feel that way, they won't like it. if they really want a good house to live in, i might better not tell them what i think, for if i should be mistaken they would be disappointed." in all of which she was exactly right. it is much better for people not to tell their guesses to others. there is time enough for the telling of news when one is quite sure of it. as the work went on, the barred plymouth rock hen noticed that at each end of the long space there was a sort of scratching-shed with an open front. the distance between these end sheds was filled by two closed pens, two more scratching-sheds, two more pens, and so on. there were doors from one room to another all the way along, big doors such as men need, and there were little doors from each pen to its scratching-shed just large enough for fowls. the barred plymouth rock hen grew more and more sure that her guess was right, and still she said nothing, although she was happy to see how warm and snug the man was making the pens. "why," she said to herself, "if he will let me live in that sort of house i will lay eggs for him in the winter." she had hardly got the words out of her bill when the other poultry came up. it was growing late, and they came for a last look at the house before going to roost. "i declare," said the gobbler, "i believe that house is for the hens!" "surely not," said the gander. "you don't mean for the _hens_, do you?" "that is what i said," replied the gobbler, standing his feathers on end and dragging his wings on the ground. "why not? the man knows that turkeys do not care much for houses, else we might have a place in it. i really wouldn't mind staying in a quiet home sometimes, but in pleasant weather my wives will go, and of course i cannot let them walk around the country alone, so that is how i have to spend my days." the turkey hens looked at each other knowingly. they wished that he would leave them and their children quite alone. he was not fond of children, and the year before the turkey mothers had had dreadful times in trying to keep theirs out of his sight. "let us go inside and see what it is like," said the little speckled hen, leading the way. not until they reached the very last pen did they see enough to make them sure that the gobbler was right. there they found the perches in place, the nest-boxes ready, and a fine feeding-trough just inside the large front window, where they could stand in the sunshine in winter and eat comfortable meals. the cocks flew up at once to try the perches. "fine!" said the shanghai cock. "fine! these perches exactly fit my feet. i am glad that he made them large enough. low, too, so that we cannot hurt ourselves in flying down." "i like this," said the white cock. "the perches are all the same height from the floor. i like a low perch, but not if other fowls are above me. now you larger fellows can't roost any higher than i do. cock-a-doodle-doo!" it is not strange that he crowed over it, because every night the fowls had been fighting for the highest roosting places, and the strongest were sure to win. "nests!" cackled the hens. "nests! how pleasant this will be! they are all in a row, so we can visit with each other while we are laying." "that is a good plan," said the brown hen, who really seemed pleased at last. "i am always thinking of things to say when i am laying, and there is hardly ever any other fowl near enough to hear. it has been very annoying." "i don't care so much about that," said a very sensible white hen. "i can stand it not to talk for a while. what i want is a warm nest where the rain cannot strike me, and where i shall have quite room enough for my tail." "that is what we want, too," said three or four others. "there have always been so many unpleasant things," said the brown hen. "i have tried many places. i find a warm one where the wind cannot blow upon me, and usually there is not enough room for my tail. no hen can lay comfortably in a nest when her tail is pushed to one side. i have tried laying under the currant bushes in warm weather, and there one has all out-of-doors for her tail, but on rainy days one has to change. i do not like changes." "you do not?" asked the shanghai cock. "i thought all fowls liked changes. if you live here in winter, you will be walking from the pen to the scratching-shed half of the time." "you know very well what i mean," said the brown hen. "i like the changes that i like, of course. any fowl does. what i do not like is the changes that i don't like." she said this in a dignified and truly hen-like manner, and then she walked off. "all i hope," said the white cock, sadly, "is that we shall not be shut up in these places during the summer. one cannot tell what may happen. one must expect the worst. when i see the wire front of the scratching-shed, i fear that we shall be kept in." "nonsense!" cried the shanghai cock. "don't be a goose. the man has begun to put a wire fence around a great yard outside, and there will be plenty of room to run there if we are to live here. i do not believe that we shall be shut in, in pleasant weather." "come," clucked the barred plymouth rock hen to her brood. "come with me to the carriage house. it is time all good little chickens were asleep." she was very happy over the pleasant things which she had heard said about the man. only a truly polite hen could have kept from saying "i told you so," all this time, but she had shut her bill tightly and kept back the words she wanted to say. you remember that the shanghai cock had always liked the barred plymouth rock hen, and now he thought she should be told how they had come to feel about her friend, the man. he was not used to saying pleasant things, but having praised the perches made it a little easier for him. you know saying one kind thing always makes it easier to say another. so he ran after her. "er-er! i don't want the farmer to come back," he said. then he thought that did not sound quite right and he tried again. "i'm not sorry he went away. i mean i'm glad that the man came. all of us are now, except the gander and the white cock, and you don't really care for them, do you?" he looked at her lovingly with his round eyes, and the wind waved his drooping tail feathers. the barred plymouth rock hen thought that she had never seen him look so handsome. "i don't care at all about them," she replied quite honestly, "and i am glad that you and the others like the man." she said "you" much more loudly than she said "the others," and the shanghai cock must have known what she meant, for he stretched his neck, opened his bill, and gave such a crow as he was never known, before or since, to give at that hour of the day. the barred plymouth rock hen went happily to her nest, and stayed awake long after her last chicken was fast asleep. even if one is grown-up and the mother of a family, even if one comes of a finer breed than one's neighbors, he cannot be truly happy without their hearty liking. this hen felt that she had it at last, and that just by doing the thing which she thought right, but which the other poultry had not liked at all at first. it is often so. the pekin duck steals a nest the ducks were not much interested in the new poultry-house. to be sure the hens talked of hardly anything else now, and several had said that they would be glad to lay in the new nest-boxes as soon as they should be lined with hay for them. so the ducks heard enough about the house, but did not really care for it at all. "it is too far from the river," said they. "we are quite contented with the old pig-pen. since the hog and her children were taken away and the man has cleaned it out, we find it an excellent place. there is room for all of us in the little shed where the hog used to live, and the man has thrown in straw and fixed good places for egg-laying. besides, there is no door, and we can go in and out as often as we choose." that was exactly like the ducks. they seemed to think that to go where they wished and when they wished was the best part of life. the best part of sleeping in the old pigpen, they thought, was being able to leave it whenever they chose. they knew perfectly well, if they stopped to think about it, that a weasel or rat could get in quite as easily as they, and it was only their luck which had kept them safe so long. the ducks were very pleasant people to know. they never worried about anything for more than a few minutes, and had charmingly happy and contented ways. there were only a few of them on the farm, and no two exactly alike in color and size. the farmer had never paid much attention to them, and the boy, who bought and kept them for pets, had tired of them so soon that they had been allowed to go wherever they pleased, until they expected always to have their own way. they took their share of the food thrown out for the poultry, and then went off to the river for the day. during the hot weather they stayed there until after all respectable hens had gone to roost. even the geese left the water long before they did. when they went to sleep, they settled down on the floor and dozed off. "it is much easier than flying up to roosts and then down again," they said. "find a place you like, and then stay there. we see no reason why people should make such a fuss about going to sleep." when the shanghai cock heard these things, he shook his head until his wattles swung. "that is all very well for the ducks," said he, "but from the way this man acts, i think there may be a change coming for them by and by. i notice that things are more different every day." the ducks soon began to see that it was different with them. ducks, you know, are always very careless about where they lay their eggs. some of these were so old that they seldom laid eggs, only the pekin duck and her big friend, the aylesbury duck, laid them quite often after the middle of winter. at first the man looked in the old pig-pen for them, but after he had looked many days and found only one, he drew a book out of his pocket and read a bit. then he called the little girls to him and talked to them. "i want you to watch each of those white ducks," said he, "and for every one of their eggs which you find i will give you a penny." each morning for some days after that, the two ducks were followed by two hopeful little girls. "i don't mind it so much now," the pekin duck said to her friends on the third day, "but at first i didn't know what to do. i would no sooner sit down to lay under a bush or in some cosy corner than a little girl would sit on the ground in front and watch me. then i would move to another place, and she would move too. i must say, however, that they are very good children. the boy who lived here often threw stones at us. these children never do. i sometimes think there may be as much difference in boys and girls as there is in ducklings." when the little girls tired of watching for eggs to be laid, the pekin duck decided to do something she had never tried before. she was the youngest of the flock, and she wanted ducklings. the older ducks tried to discourage her. "have a good time while you can," said the aylesbury duck, who was about her age, and thought ducklings a bother. "i don't want to be troubled with a lot of children." the old ducks advised her not to try it. "you think it will be very fine," said they, "but you will find that you cannot go wherever you want to, and do whatever you please with ducklings tagging along. the sitting alone is enough to tire a duck out." "oh, i think i could stand it," remarked the pekin duck, quietly. "didn't some duck stand it long enough to hatch me?" "hatch you? no indeed," laughed an old rouen duck, who could remember quite distinctly things which had happened three years before on the farm from which they had all come to this. "hatch you? a shanghai hen hatched you and half a dozen other ducklings in a box with hay in it and slats across the front. i remember quite well how cross she became when she thought it time for her chickens to chip the shell, and they did not chip. she never dreamed that she was sitting on ducks' eggs, although every duck on the place knew it and thought it a good joke. she was a stupid thing, or she would have known without being told. any bright hen knows that ducks' eggs are larger, darker, and greasier looking than her own." the pekin duck remembered very little of her life before coming to the farm, so she was glad to hear of it from the old rouen duck. "what did my mother do when her eggs didn't hatch?" said she. "do?" repeated the rouen duck. "do? why she did the only thing that any sitting fowl can do. she kept on sitting." "how long?" asked the pekin duck. "you don't suppose i can remember that, do you?" replied the rouen duck, twitching her little pointed tail from side to side. "besides, i never count things. all i know is that she said one of the cocks, who was a friend of hers, declared that the moon was quite new when she began sitting, and that she sat there until it was quite new again. he was roosting in a tree just then, and knew more about the moon because he always awakened to crow during the night. she thought it was dreadful to have to sit so long." the pekin duck saw that the rouen duck was still trying to discourage her. "i suppose it was harder for her because her legs were longer," she said. "if they were longer they would ache more, wouldn't they?" the rouen duck smiled all around her bill "your mother had her worst time later on, though," she said. "when you and your brothers and sisters were hatched, she could not understand why you were so different from all the other children she had ever raised. she said that not one of you looked like her family, and the shanghai cock was very disagreeable to her about it. he said she should be more careful whose eggs she hatched. and when you children went into the water, your mother would walk up and down the bank of the pond, clucking as hard as she could, and begging you to come ashore at once. at night, too, there was trouble, for you would never go to bed as early as she thought proper. after a while she learned to march off at a time that suited her, and let you come when you were ready." "thank you ever so much for telling me," said the pekin duck, sweetly. "it must be horrid to have the wrong kind of children. i promise you that i will not sit on hens' eggs." then she waddled away. "i want some ducklings," said she, putting her pretty webbed feet down somewhat harder than usual. "i want ducklings, and i am going to steal a nest at once." she was a duck of determination, and made a start by finding a cosy spot under some burdock plants and laying an egg before she went in swimming. she was in such haste to make a beginning that she had actually to come back later to finish her nest, which she did by adding more dried leaves and grass and lining it with down which she plucked from her breast. after that, of course, all her friends knew that it was useless to talk to her about it, for when a duck goes around at that season of the year with her breast all ragged from her plucking it, people may be very sure that she is planning to hatch a brood. it is not at all becoming, but it is a great help, for when the sitting duck is tired or hungry, she can pull the down over the eggs and leave her nest, knowing that the down will keep them warm for a long time. of course the other ducks talked about her a good deal when she was not around, and said she would be sorry she had undertaken all that work and care, and that it was exactly as well to drop one's eggs anywhere and let the man pick them up to put under some sitting hen. "yes," said the aylesbury duck, "or else give them to the fat table for hatching." then they all laughed. it seemed such a joke to them that a table should take to hatching eggs. nearly every day the pekin duck laid an egg, and she soon had enough to begin sitting. after that, she did not go up to the pig-pen at night with her friends. it was quite lonely in the clump of burdocks, and if the pekin duck had been at all timid she might have had some bad nights, for weasels, rats, and skunks were out after dark, looking for something to eat. yet they must always have found food before they reached the burdocks, for the duck was not disturbed. during the day her friends came along for a chat, and often the drake waddled up for a visit. he seemed to think her a very sensible sort of duck. he had not the gobbler's dislike of children, although he never shared the labor of hatching them, like his friend the gander. he thought one could be a good father without going quite as far as that. the days were long and the nights seemed longer to the tired pekin duck, but her courage never failed. when her legs cramped so that she could hardly step off the nest, she smiled and said to herself, "suppose i were a thousand-legged worm!" she fancied it made her feel better to think of such things, and she never remembered that thousand-legged-worms do not sit on nests and hatch out their children in that way. it is probably better that she did not. if it does one good to think of thousand-legged-worms, it is wise to think about them, even if one does make a slight mistake of this sort. when the rain came, the burdock leaves kept off most of it, and the few drops which fell between the leaves rolled off the duck's back without wetting her at all. that was because her feathers were so oily that the rain could not stay on them. ducks, you know, always have on their water-proofs, and can slip in and out of the water at any time without getting really wet. the pleasure which she missed most was seeing the changes which the man was making in the upper end of the pasture. the drake told her how great yards had been fenced in with wire netting, and how the fronts of the scratching-shed had been covered with somewhat finer netting of the same kind. "not even a weasel could get through it," he said. and then the pekin duck wished that the man would fix a place for her ducklings where weasels could not get them. she had never feared such creatures for herself, but when she thought of her children she was afraid. that is always the way, since it is much easier for a mother to be brave for herself than for her children. on a beautiful morning in the last of may, the pekin duck was repaid for all her patience and courage by having seven beautiful ducklings chip the shell. they were even more beautiful than she had thought they would be, and she could not understand why her friends seemed no more impressed. to be sure they said that they were fine ducklings and that they looked like their mother, and admired their dainty little webbed feet and their bills. they spoke of the beautiful thick down which covered them, and said that they were remarkably bright and strong for their age. and yet the pekin duck could see that they had not properly realized what wonderful creatures the ducklings were. it was when all the ducks were gathered around to look at the ducklings that one of the little girls came along with her doll. when she also saw the ducklings, she was so excited that she hugged her doll tightly to her heart and ran off to find her father. a few minutes later the pekin duck saw her precious babies lifted into a well-lined basket and carried off toward the house. she followed, quacking anxiously, and keeping as close to the man as possible. twice he lowered the basket to let her see that her children were quite safe. the man carried the basket to a place beside the new poultry-house, now all done, and quickly fixed the old down-lined nest, which the little girl had been carrying in another basket, into a fine coop. next he put the nestlings into it and let the pekin duck cover them with her wings. he stretched fine wire netting across the front of the coop, and then the pekin duck was perfectly happy. indeed it was not until the middle of the following night that she remembered she had not looked at the poultry-house at all. [illustration: she followed quacking anxiously. _page _] it was rather disappointing not to be able to take her children in swimming for two days, but when she saw how carefully the man fed them on bread and milk and other soft food, and how particular he was about having plenty of clean water for them to drink, she quite forgave him for keeping them there. the other ducks came to tell her how to care for the ducklings, to shake their sleek heads, and to tell her how unfortunate it was that she could not take the ducklings in swimming at once. "you will need to know many things," said the old rouen duck, "and i will tell you if you will come to me every time that you are perplexed." "thank you," said the pekin duck. but she never went. she thought it just as well that a duck who had never hatched out children should not be giving advice to people who had. when the ducklings were three days old, they were let out and started at once for the river. when their mother had to stop to speak to her friends on the way, they did not wait for her, but marched on ahead. all the fowls spoke admiringly of them, and the pekin duck was truly happy as she looked at her seven proper little ducklings. they were such bright children, too, waddling right down to the edge of the brook and slipping in without a single question as to how it should be done. their mother followed after and showed them how she fed from the bottom, reaching her head far down until she could fill her orange-colored bill with the soft mud from the bottom. there were many tiny creatures in the mud which were good to eat, and these she kept and swallowed, letting the mud pass out between the rough edges of her bill. if the water had been deeper, she could have showed them how she dived, staying long under water and coming up in a most unexpected place. when they came out of the water and stood on the bank, their mother stretched herself up as tall as she could and preened her feathers. the seven little ducklings stood as tall as they could and squeezed the water out of their down with their tiny bills, which seemed so much longer for them than their mother's did for her. the pekin duck was much amused to see how the other ducks flocked around her children. indeed, she laughed outright once, when she heard the old rouen duck say to the white cock, "don't you think that our ducklings are growing finely?" of course the pekin duck was ashamed of having laughed at any one so much older than she, so she stuck her head under her wing and pretended to be arranging the feathers there. when she drew it out again she was quite sober, but she was thinking "our ducklings! our ducklings! they may all call them that if it makes them happy to do so, but really they are my ducklings, for i earned them, and they love me as they love nobody else." the new nests and the nest eggs as might have been expected, the new poultry-house was no sooner finished than the fowls began to discuss who should live in the different parts. they could see no reason why they should not all run together, as they always had done. "perhaps," the black hen had said, "the man may put us all together and let the table's chickens have pens to themselves." "what?" said the barred plymouth rock hen, "put me in one pen and my chickens in another? that would never do." "you forget," said the shanghai cock very gently, "that by winter-time they will not need your care any more, and you will not wish to be with them so much." and that was true, for no matter how fond a hen may be of her tiny chickens, she is certain to care less for them when they are grown. all the fowls were quite sure that they should have the best pen and yard, because they had been the longest on the place. after they had spoken of that, they had a great time in deciding which was the best pen. part of the fowls wanted to be in the end toward the road, so that they could see all that went on there and look across to the other farm to watch their neighbors. the cocks all preferred this. they liked excitement. some of the hens wished to live in the pen next to the barn. "we are fond of the barn," they said. "we have been there so much, and have laid so many eggs there that it seems like home. we know that it is not so comfortable, but it seems like home." however, the cocks had their wish, and on the day when it was granted there was such a crowing from fence-tops as greatly puzzled the man. he could not find anything in his books and papers to explain it, although he looked and looked and looked. at last one of the little girls told him what she thought, and she was exactly right. "it sounds to me as though they were just happy," she said. you see the man had not lived long enough on a farm to understand the language of poultry very well, so he had much to learn. there are many people who think themselves quite wise and yet cannot tell what one of a tiny chicken's five calls means, and there are some men, even some fathers (and fathers need to know more than anybody else in the world, except mothers) who do not know that a cock can say at least nine different things with the same cry, "cock-a-doodle-doo!" this man was a father and had been a school-teacher, too, so he was not an ignorant man, and after his little girl said that he decided to learn poultry-talk. it took some weeks, but you shall hear by and by how well he succeeded. the man wanted to teach the hens to lay in the new nests, so that he would not have to spend much time in egg-hunting, and because he wished to be sure of finding the eggs as soon as they were laid. people should grow good as they grow old, you know, but it is not so with the eggs. the man did not want to shut the fowls in during the warm weather, for then he would have to feed them more, and that would cost too much money, yet he opened this front pen with its scratching-shed and yard, and fed them there every night. while they were feeding he closed the outer gate, so that they could not go back to roost on the trees or wherever they chose. the perches were comfortable, with room enough for all, and far enough apart so that those in the back rows did not have their bills brushed by the tails of those in front. the hens who had chickens were now kept in the second pen from this, and so were quite safe from prowling weasels and other hunters. in the front pen, you see, there were only full-grown fowls, and morning was a busy time for most of the laying hens. the gate was not opened until the sun was well up, and by that time many of the hens had laid in one of the cosy nests under the perches, nests which were so well roofed over that not even a pin-feather could have dropped into them from above. they were so very comfortable that even the hens who did not lay before leaving the pen were soon glad to come strolling back to it, instead of fluttering and scrambling to some lonely corner of the hayloft in the barn. on the first morning that the fowls were shut in there, a very queer thing happened. the first hen to go on a nest exclaimed, "why, who was here ahead of me?" nobody answered, and the hen asked again. at last the speckled hen said, "i think you are the first one to lay this morning." "the first one!" exclaimed the black hen, for it was she, as she backed out onto the floor again. "you must not expect me to believe that i am the first when there is an egg in the nest already." as she spoke she pointed in with her bill, and the others came crowding around. there lay a fine, large, and quite shiny egg. while they were still looking and wondering which hen had laid it, the brown hen discovered that there was an egg in each of the six other nests. she was so excited that for a minute she could hardly cackle. the black hen began to look angry, and stood her feathers on end and shook herself in a way that she had when she was much displeased. she was not a good-natured hen. "you think that you are very smart," she said, "but _i_ think that you are very silly. every fowl here knows that i always like to be the first on the nest in the morning, and yet seven of you must have laid in the night to get ahead of me. i don't mind having an egg in the nest. every hen likes to find at least one there. it is the mean way in which you tried to prevent my getting ahead of the rest of you." the hens insisted that they never took their feet from the perches all night long, and the speckled hen, who was a very kind little person, tried to show the black hen that it was all a mistake of some sort. "perhaps they were laid in there yesterday," said she, "only we did not notice them when we came in." the cocks kept still, although they looked very knowing. they did not want to offend any of the hens by taking sides. at last the brown hen spoke. it always seemed that she made some trouble every time she opened her bill. "i remember," said she, "that there was not an egg there when i went to roost last night. the last thing i did before flying up onto my perch was to look in all the nests and try to decide which i preferred." then there was more trouble, and in the midst of it the speckled hen hopped into one of the nests. "sorry to get ahead of you," she said politely to the black hen, "but the truth is that i feel like laying." she gave a little squawk as she brushed against the egg there. "it is light!" she cried. "it is light and slippery! none of us ever laid such an egg as that." "of course not," said one of the cocks, who now saw his way to stop the trouble. "of course none of you lay that sort of eggs. i could have told you that long ago, if you had asked me." when the fowls were all looking at each other and wondering what sort of creature it could be who had slipped in and laid the eggs there, a tiny door in the outside wall, just back of one of the nests, was opened, and the man peeped in. all he saw was a number of fowls standing around and looking as though they had been very much surprised. half of the hens stood with one foot in the air. he dropped the door, which was hinged at the top, and then the fowls looked at each other again. it was a great comfort to them at times like these to be able to look both ways at once. "the man opened those little doors while we were asleep, and put those eggs in," they said. "they are not hens' eggs at all. probably they are some that his table laid." it was only a minute before all the nests were in use, and soon the noise of puzzled and even angry clucking was replaced by the joyous cackling of hens who felt that they had done their work for the day. "of course," said the speckled hen, "those eggs cannot be so good as the ones we lay, but i do not mind the feeling of them at all. and i must say that finding them already in a strange nest makes it seem much more homelike to me. this man acts as though he really understood hens and wanted to make them happy." the white plymouth rocks come only a few days after the new poultry-house had been opened to the fowls on the place, the man came home from town with a crate in his light wagon. in the crate were a cock and ten hens. all were very beautiful white plymouth rocks, and larger than any of the fowls on the place would have supposed possible. you can imagine what a scurrying to and fro there was among those who had always lived on the place, and how many questions they asked of each other, questions which nobody was able to answer. "are they to live on this farm?" said one. "it must be so," answered another. "don't you see that the man is getting ready to open the crate?" "where do you suppose they came from?" asked a third. "why, they are almost as big as turkeys." "altogether too large, i think," said a bantam. "it makes fowls look coarse to be so overgrown." "what is that?" asked the shanghai cock, sharply. he had come up from behind without the bantam's seeing him, and she hardly knew what to answer. she lowered her head and pecked at the ground, because she did not know what to say. she dared not tell the shanghai cock, who was very tall, that she thought large fowls looked coarse. so she kept still. it would have been much better if she had held up her head and told the truth, which was that she disliked to have large fowls around, since it made her seem smaller. "i think," said the shanghai cock, "that if a fowl is good, the more there is of him the better. if he is not good, the smaller he is the better." he looked over towards the wagon as he spoke, but the bantam knew that he meant her, and then she was even more uncomfortable. she thought people were all looking at her, and she felt smaller than ever. the man backed the wagon up to the outer gate of the second poultry-yard, which was just between the one where the chickens were with their mothers and the one into which the older fowls were allowed to go. then he loosened the side of the crate very carefully and took the new-comers out, one at a time. he had to hold the side of the crate with his hand, so the only way in which he could lift the fowls out was by taking them by the legs in his other hand and putting them, head downward, into the yard. one would think that it might be quite annoying to a fowl to have to enter his new home in that fashion, with all the others watching, but the white plymouth rocks did not seem to mind it in the least. perhaps that was because they had been carried so before and were used to it. perhaps, too, it was because they felt sure that the fowls who were standing around had also been carried by the legs. perhaps it was just because they were exceedingly sensible fowls and knew that such things did not matter in the least. at all events, each hen gave herself a good shake when allowed to go free, settled her feathers quickly, and began to walk around. the cock did the same, only he crowed and crowed and crowed, as much as to say, "how fine it is to be able to stretch once more! a fellow could not get room to crow properly in that crate." [illustration: took the new-comers out, one at a time. _page _] now everybody knows that the poultry who had been long on the place should have spoken pleasantly to the white plymouth rocks at once. it would have made them much happier and would have been the kind thing to do. they did not do it, and there were different reasons for this. the shanghai cock was so used to saying disagreeable things every day to the fowls whom he knew, that now, when he really wanted very much to be agreeable, he found he did not know how. there are many people in the world who have that trouble. the bantam hen was cross, and walked away, saying to herself, "i guess they are big enough to take care of themselves." and that was a mistake, as you very well know, for nobody in this world is big enough to be perfectly happy without the kindness and friendship of others. as for the rest of the fowls, some of them didn't care about being polite; some of them didn't know what was the best thing to say and so did not say anything; and some thought it would not do to talk to them, because they were not so large and fine-looking as the white plymouth rocks. they really wanted to do the kind thing, but were afraid they did not look well enough. as though kindness were not a great deal more important than the sort of feathers one wears! the white plymouth rocks did the best that they could about it. they chatted pleasantly among themselves, saying that it was a fine day, and that it seemed good to set foot on grass once more, and that they had sadly missed having a bit of grass to eat with their grain and water while they were in the crate. it was at this time that the barred plymouth rock hen in the next yard came over to the wire netting which separated the two. she would have come sooner if it had not been for her chickens. two of them had been quarrelling over a fat bug which they found, and she stayed to settle the trouble and scold them as they deserved. now she came stepping forward in her very best manner to greet the strangers. she knew that she was not so large as they, and that her barred gray feathers were not nearly so showy as their gleaming white ones, but she also knew that somebody should welcome them to the farm, and she was ashamed that it had not been done sooner. "good-morning," said she. "i am very glad that you have come here to live." "oh, thank you," replied all the white plymouth rocks together. "we are very glad to meet you. we hope to be happy here." "have you come far?" asked the barred plymouth rock hen. "very far," said they. "unless you have taken such a journey you can have no idea how glad we are to be free again." "i have never taken any journey," said she, "except the time i came here to live, and that was when i was only a chicken. i do not remember much about it. i fluttered out of a crate that was being carried in a wagon, and ran around alone until i happened to find this place." "how sad!" exclaimed the cock. "i hope you have had no such hard time since. they seem to have a good poultry-house here, although i have not yet been inside." "it is a good one," said the barred plymouth rock hen, "but i do not sleep in it these warm nights. i stay in a coop in my yard with my children." as she spoke she looked lovingly down at the white flock around her feet. they were growing finely and already showed some small feathers on their wings. "oh!" exclaimed the hens in the other yard. "oh, what beautiful chickens! so strong! so quick! so well-behaved! how long is it since you hatched them?" "well," replied their mother, "i suppose i did not hatch them. i sat long enough on the nest and laid enough eggs, but the man who owns the farm took away my eggs and brought me these chickens. he has a sort of table down in his cellar which hatches out all the chickens on the farm. i might just as well have saved myself all those tiresome days and nights of sitting if i had known how it would be." "that is a good thing to know," said one of the new-comers. "on the farm from which we came, all the chickens are hatched in that way. we never had a mother who was alive." "not until after you were hatched i suppose," remarked the barred plymouth rock hen, who thought the other did not mean exactly what she had said. "we had no real mother then," said the white plymouth rock hen. "there were so many of us that we had to get along without. the man who owned us had a lot of things to take the place of mothers. they were made of wood and some soft stuff and he used to set them around in the yards on pleasant days. we ate the food and drank the water that were brought to us, and then we played around in the grass near the make-believe mothers. when we were tired or cold we crawled under them and cuddled down, and when we were scared we did the same way. we were very well cared for by the men, and we all grew to be strong and healthy fowls, but i sometimes wish that we could have had a live mother to snuggle under and to love." the barred plymouth rock hen was greatly surprised. "i think it is well to save the hens having to hatch out the broods," she said, "but they should be willing to care for the chickens. there is nothing quite so good as a live mother." another plymouth rock hen strolled up. "i have been in the pen and the scratching-shed," said she, "and i think them delightful." "are they at all like what you had before coming here?" asked the barred plymouth rock hen. "very much the same," was the reply. "only on the farm from which we came there were a great, great many more pens. it took four men to care for us all. most of us were white plymouth rocks. what are those fowls outside? we never saw any that looked just like them." "oh," replied the barred plymouth rock hen with a little smile, "they don't know exactly what they are. the shanghai cock is a shanghai, as any one can tell by looking at his long and feathery legs, but he and i are the only ones who belong to fine families. he is really an excellent fellow, although, of course, being a shanghai is not being a plymouth rock." "of course not," agreed all the new fowls, speaking quite together. "we understand perfectly. you mean that he is a very good shanghai." "exactly," said the barred plymouth rock hen. "the other fowls think him rather cross, but he never has been cross to me. i think he gets tired of hearing some of them quarrel and fuss, and then he speaks right out." "one has to at times," said the cock, politely, for he saw that the barred plymouth rock hen wished him to like her friends. "when you can," he added, "tell him that i would like to meet him. i suppose we shall not be allowed to go out of our own yard, but he can come up to the fence. and send the others also. we would like to meet our new neighbors." "i will," replied the barred plymouth rock hen, as she clucked to her chickens. "good-by. i see that we have fresh food coming." while her children were feeding she pretended to eat, pecking every now and then at the food, and chatting softly with them as they ate. there was always much to say about their manners at such times, and she had to use both of her eyes to make sure that they did not trample on the food. she also had to remind them often about wiping their bills on the grass when they had finished. she could not bear to see a chicken running around with mush on the sides of his bill. when they had eaten all they wished and ran away to play, she ate what was left and sat down to think. "i would like to be white," she said to herself. "i would certainly like to be white, and live in style with those fowls who have just come. it must be lovely to be so important that one is taken riding on the cars and lifted around carefully in crates." then she remembered how they had spoken of their legs aching, and how glad they were to be free on the grass once more. "i don't know that i would really care about travelling," she added, "but i would like to live in such style with a lot of fowls of my own family." she remembered what the cock had said about their having to stay in their own yard, and she added, "but i would not want to have to stay always in the same place." she thought a little while longer and laughed aloud. "i believe that i would really rather be just what i happen to be," said she. "i don't know why i never thought of that before." you can see that she was a most sensible hen. many fowls never stop to think that if they were to change places with others, they would have to stand the unpleasant as well as the pleasant part of the change. the little white chickens came crowding up to their gray mother. "tell us what made you laugh," they said. "please tell us." her small round eyes twinkled. "i was laughing," she said, "just because i am myself and not somebody else." "we don't see anything very funny about that," they exclaimed. "who else could you be?" the barred plymouth rock hen sent them off to chase a butterfly, and went to call on her nearest neighbor. "i would like to tell them," she said, "but they are too young to understand it yet." the turkey chicks are hatched spring was always an anxious time for the hen turkeys who wanted to raise broods. raising children is hard work and brings many anxieties with it. the mother is so much afraid that they will take cold, or eat too much, or not get enough to eat, or take something that is not good for children. there is also the fear that they may be careless and have some dreadful accident. and, worst of all, there is always the fear that they may be naughty and grow up the wrong sort of people. these cares all mothers have, but the turkey mothers have another care which is really very hard to stand, for the gobblers do not like their children and will try in every way to prevent the eggs from hatching. if a gobbler sees one of the hen turkeys laying an egg, he will break the egg, and if he meets a flock of tiny turkey chicks he will peck and hurt, perhaps even kill, all that he can of them. that is why the hen turkeys on the farm had always been in the habit of stealing away to lay their eggs in some secret place. one had even raised a fine brood in the middle of a nettle-patch the year before. she had slipped away from her friends and from the gobbler day after day until she had laid thirteen eggs, and then had begun sitting. she had to sit as long as the ducks do, and that is for twenty-eight days. you can imagine how tired she became, and how many times she had kept very still, hardly daring to move a feather, because she heard the gobbler near and feared he would find and break her precious eggs. now she began to feel like laying, and walked off to the nettle-patch once more. she thought that having had such good luck there before was a reason for trying it again. she had hardly laid her fine large egg there when the man came softly along and picked her up by the legs. she flapped her wings and craned her head as far upwards as she could, yet he did not loosen his hold on her. he carried her carefully, but he carried her just the same. when he reached the poultry-house, he put her in a pen by herself. then he went off to the farmhouse with her newly laid egg in his pocket. you can imagine how sad she felt. if there is one thing that a hen turkey likes better than taking long walks, it is raising turkey chicks. in spite of the weariness and the anxiety, she is very fond of it. and now this one found herself shut in and without her egg. it is true that, besides the pen, she could go into the scratching-shed and the big yard, yet even then there was the wired netting between her and the great world, and her friends were on the other side of the fence. she was just wondering if she could not fly over the fence and be free, when the man returned and cut some of the long feathers from her right wing. then she knew that she could not fly at all. the man next made a fine nest of hay in a good-sized box, placing it in the shed and putting an egg into it. the hen turkey first thought that it was her own egg, but when the man left and she could come nearer, she found that it was not. instead, it was different from any she had ever seen. she tried sitting on it. "it feels all right," she said in her gentle and plaintive voice. "if i am still here when i want to lay another, i will use this nest." in spite of her loneliness and sadness, the hen turkey managed to keep brave during the days that followed. the man gave her plenty of good corn and clean water, and she had many visits with the hens and their chickens who lived in the pen next to hers and ran about all day in their yard. of course she did not think them so interesting as turkey chicks, yet she liked to watch them and visit with them between the wires. it made her want a brood of her own even more than ever. she still laid eggs right along, and the man took each away soon after it was laid. she feared that he took them to eat, but the barred plymouth rock hen said that he might be giving them to the table to hatch, and that she should not worry. "i had just such a time myself," she added, "and it all came out right. you see if he does not bring you some fine turkey chicks soon." this always cheered the hen turkey for a time, but even if it were to be so, she thought, she would prefer to hatch her own eggs. she did not know that the man had every one of hers in a basket in a dry, warm place in the house, and was turning each over carefully every day. this he did to keep them in the best possible way until there should be a nestful for her to sit on. sometimes the gobbler and the two other hen turkeys came up to the fence to visit with her. they never stayed long, because they came of a restless and wandering family, yet it did her good to have chats with them, even if they walked back and forth part of the time as they talked. the gobbler paid very little attention to her. he told her once that the hen turkeys who were foolish enough to try to raise broods deserved to be shut up and have their wings clipped. she had better visits with her sisters when he was not there to listen. one of them told her that she had several eggs hidden under a sumach bush in a fence corner. the other said that she was trying to decide on a nesting-place; she couldn't choose between a corner of the lower meadow and the edge of the woods. both of them spoke very softly, and frequently looked over toward where the gobbler was strutting in the sunshine. they were much afraid that he would hear. when her sisters walked away, the hen turkey in the yard felt sadder than ever. she strolled back into the shed and tried to think of something pleasant to do. she had not laid an egg for two days, and she was very lonely. you can imagine how pleased and happy she was to see eleven fine turkey eggs lying in her nest. the queer egg which she had not laid was gone, and she felt certain that those there were all her own. she got on the nest at once, and found that she could exactly cover them. "how lucky!" she thought. "if there were another one it would be too many and i could not keep it warm." she did not know she had laid fifteen eggs, and that the man had taken the other four down cellar to be hatched by the incubator. she thought it just luck that there were precisely enough. she did not know the man had read in one of his books that a hen turkey can safely cover only eleven eggs. there are several things better than luck, you see. willingness to study is one and willingness to work is another. this man had both kinds of willingness, and it was well for his poultry that he had. there is not much to be told about the days that passed before the first turkey chick chipped the shell. the sun shone into the open front of the shed for twenty-eight days, and the patient hen turkey was there, sitting on her nest. the moon shone into the shed for many nights, and she was still there. the moon could not shine in for twenty-eight nights for two reasons. sometimes it set too early, and sometimes the nights were cloudy and wet, although none of the days were. when it rained the turkey was the happiest. she did not like wet weather at all. it was for this reason she was happy. every shower reminded her how wet it must be out in the nettle-patch, and made her think how cosy and happy she was in the place which the man had made ready for her. then came the joyous day on which ten little turkey chicks chipped the shell. they were very promising children, quite the finest, their mother thought, that she had ever seen. there was only one sad thing about the day, and that was not having the eleventh egg hatch. the turkey hen was too happy with her ten children to spend much time in thinking of the other which she had hoped to have, but she could not help remembering once in a while, and then she became very sad. it was not until the next morning that the ten little ones began to eat and to run around. young turkeys do not eat at all the first day, you know, but they always make up for it afterwards. when the hen turkey walked out of the shed with her family, the hens in the next yard crowded to the fence to see them. the little white plymouth rocks could not understand for a long time why the turkey chicks should be so large. "it isn't fair," they said. "those turkey chicks will be grown up long before we are!" they thought that to be grown up was the finest thing in the world. the hens were very friendly and chatted long about them, telling the fond mother how very slender their necks were and how neat their little feet looked, with the tiny webs coming half-way to the tips of their toes. "i am very glad for you," said the barred plymouth rock hen. "i was sure that it would all come out right in the end. this man takes excellent care of his poultry." after a while the gobbler came strutting past. when he saw his children, he stood his feathers on end and dragged his wings on the ground. he was exceedingly angry, and would have liked it very well if they had been on his side of the fence. "ugly little things!" he said to their mother. "they will tag around after you all the rest of the summer." "very well," she replied. "i shall like to have them." "silly--silly--silly!" said the gobbler, as he strutted off. the hen turkey's sisters came walking slowly toward her. both of them were sitting on eggs, and had left their nests for a few minutes to find food. of course they could not make a long call. "i built in the edge of the woods after all," said the one who had been so undecided. "i wanted you to know, but don't tell anybody else, or the gobbler may hear of it and find the nest." then she spoke of the ten turkey chicks and asked the other sister to notice how much they looked like their mother. after that they had to hurry back to their nests. when the hen turkey called her chicks to cuddle down for the night, she found four already in the shed, eating from the food-dish. "i thought you were all outside with me," she remarked. "why did you come in here?" "we couldn't help ourselves," said they. "some very large creature brought us here just now. we came from a darker place than this." the mother was very much puzzled. she knew that she had not hatched them, and that they could not belong to her sisters, who had begun sitting after she did. there was no way of taking them to any other place for the night, so she decided to do the kind thing and care for them herself. she was quite right in this. one is never sorry for having done the kind thing, you know, but one is very often sorry for having done the unkind thing. "crawl right under my wings," said she, "and cuddle down with these other turkey chicks. i will try to cover you all." she managed very well and the night was warm, so that although a few of the chicks were not wholly covered all the time, they got along very comfortably indeed. by the next morning the mother loved the four as much as she did her own ten. "it really doesn't matter in the least who hatched them," she said, "or even who laid the eggs. they need a mother and i can love them all. it would be a shame if i couldn't stretch my wings a little more for the sake of covering them." she never knew that they had been hatched in the incubator from the four eggs which she had laid, but which the man had thought she could not cover. you see she was really adopting her own children without knowing it. turkey mothers are hungry creatures, and do not understand that they should not eat the hard-boiled eggs which are the best food for their chicks when very small. so the man had either to shut this mother in the shed and place the food for the chicks outside, where she could not reach it, or else find some other way of keeping it from her. he thought a turkey who had sat so closely on her nest for four weeks should be allowed to stretch, so he put the food for the children in a coop and left the mother free. the little ones could run in and out whenever they wanted to eat, and the mother had plenty of corn and water outside, so they were all well cared for and happy. the gobbler said unkind things to them each time he passed, but they were too happy and sensible to mind that very much, and it did not seem long before the chicks' tail-and wing-feathers were showing through their down, and they were given porridge and milk instead of hard-boiled egg. this made them feel that they were growing up very fast indeed, and they kept stretching their tiny wings and looking around at their funny little tails to watch their feathers lengthen. on the day when they had their first porridge, their aunts and their newly hatched cousins were brought in to share their yard with them. you can imagine what happy times they all had, playing together and visiting through the wire fence with their next-door neighbors, the white plymouth rock chickens. the gobbler used to pass by and try to make them and their mothers unhappy by telling them of the pleasure they missed by being shut up. "there is fine food in the lower meadow," he said, "and the upper one is even better. there are delicious bugs to be found by the side of the road. but these are for me, and not for silly hen turkeys and their good-for-nothing chicks." one day the outer gate of the empty yard next to theirs was left open and some fine corn strewn inside, just as the gobbler came along. he strutted in to eat the corn, thinking a little of it would taste good before he started for the meadow. he stood with his back to the gate while eating, and quite often he stopped between mouthfuls to tell the hen turkeys how fine it was outside. soon he noticed the man opening the gate of their yard and letting the oldest flock pass through with their mother. he took one hurried last mouthful and turned to leave. the gate of his yard was shut, and he was too fat and old to fly over the fence. [illustration: the happy turkey mother paused on her way. _page _] the happy turkey mother paused on her way to the meadows with her flock. she was a very patient creature, and would never have dared say anything of the sort to the gobbler when he was free, but now she decided to say what she wished for once. "thank you very much for telling us about the fine food outside," said she. "we shall soon be enjoying it. we shall first try the lower meadow and then the upper one. after that we shall hunt for those delicious bugs which you say may be found by the roadside. probably we shall find plenty of dandelion, cress, and mustard leaves, with a few ants or nettles to give flavor. it is really very fine outside." three chickens run away one would think that with such a good mother as the barred plymouth rock hen, chickens should have been contented to mind her and follow wherever she went, and usually hers did. one day, however, two of the brothers coaxed their good little sister to go with them to visit the chickens at the farm across the road. the brothers had teased and teased their mother to let them go there, but she had always refused. "why?" they said. "because," answered the barred plymouth rock hen, "you have enough room and enough playmates right here at home, and i know that you are safe and well here. i do not know what might happen to you there." "oh, _why_ can't we go?" teased the brothers, who had just been given an answer to that same question, and were very rude to keep on asking it. of course the barred plymouth rock hen had had too much experience with chickens to reply again to a question which should not have been asked the second time, and might better not have been asked the first. so she just turned her back and walked off, clucking to her brood as she went. the brothers who had been teasing did not like that at all, and they put their naughty little heads together and decided to run away. "let's get little sister to go along," said older brother. "why?" asked younger brother. "she can't run as fast as we can, and she's so good that it wouldn't be much fun anyway. we wouldn't get across the road before she'd want to come back and be afraid our mother would worry about us." "that is just why i want her to go along," said older brother. "we'll get her to go, and then our mother will think that we are not any worse than she is, and perhaps she won't peck us so hard when we get back." "all right," said younger brother, fluttering his wings with impatience. "let's get her right now. i know our mother won't scold her." you see both of the brothers forgot that the reason why their mother had never scolded little sister was that little sister had never done anything wrong. she was really the best chicken in the brood, and she had such a sweet way of running to the barred plymouth rock hen during the day and cuddling close to her for a short rest, that it was not strange her mother was especially fond of her. now the two naughty brothers found little sister and began talking to her. "ever been across the road?" asked older brother, carelessly, as he snapped off a blade of grass. "no," said little sister. "mother never goes." "there are some very jolly chickens on that farm," remarked younger brother. "one of them asked us to come over a little while ago." "wouldn't it be fun!" exclaimed little sister. "let's ask mother if we can't all go." "aw, they won't want the whole brood at once," said older brother. "besides, our mother is way over in the edge of the pasture now, and there isn't any use in bothering her. i tell you what let's do. let's just go down to our side of the road and see if those other chickens are there now. then we can ask them if they don't want us to come over some other day." you see the brothers knew that it would never do to ask their sister to run away with them at first, for she would have said "no," and run off to tell the barred plymouth rock hen, and that would have spoiled all their naughty fun. the three little white plymouth rocks put down their heads and scurried along as fast as they could toward the road. older brother planned it so that the fence should hide them from their mother as they ran, but he said nothing of this to little sister, for she was not used to being naughty, and he knew that he would have to go about it very carefully to get her to run away. when they reached the road they saw the chickens on the other side, but they were well within their own farm-yard. "oh, isn't that too bad!" exclaimed little sister. "now you can't ask them what you wanted to." "we might run over and speak to them about it now," said younger brother. "mother won't care. after we have come so far to see them, it seems too bad to miss our chance. come on and we can be across before that team gets here." both the brothers put down their heads and ran as fast as they could, and little sister followed after them. when they were on the other side she began to cry and wanted to go back. "i n-n-never did such a thing in all my l-l-life," she sobbed, "and i know our mother won't like it. let's go right back." "oh, don't act like a gosling," said older brother. "you're over here now and you might as well have a good time. what if our mother does scold when we get back? she never wants us to have a bit of fun, and we're just as safe here as we were at home." little sister did not feel at all happy, still, you know how hard it is to stop being naughty when you have once begun, and she found it hard. she would gladly have returned at once if her brothers had been willing to go with her, but when she found that they were going to stay, she stayed with them. the chickens whom they were visiting were very jolly and full of fun, although they were of common families and had not been carefully brought up. they did many things which the little white plymouth rocks had never been allowed to do, and in a short time the visitors were doing just the same as they. these chickens even made fun of each other when they had accidents, and little sister heard them laughing at three or four who were acting as though they were sick and opening their bills very wide. "what is the matter with those chickens?" she asked. "oh, they have the gapes," answered one of the chickens who lived there, and then he began speaking of something else. it is very sad to have to tell such a thing, but the truth is that the three white plymouth rock chickens did not return to their home until nearly roosting-time. even little sister pecked and squabbled and acted like the rest. they walked up the tongue of a hay wagon that stood in the yard, and scrambled and fluttered until they were on the edge of the rack. "dare you to fly down into the old hen-yard," said one of the chickens who lived on the place. "we used to live in there until a few days ago, and then the farmer turned us out and shut the gate after us." "why did he do that?" asked older brother. "i don't know," was the answer. "nobody knows why farmers do things. i think he did it just to be mean. there were fine angleworms in there, and now we can't get one of them. dare you to fly down there! you can get out somehow." older brother was not brave enough to refuse, so over he flew, and younger brother came after him. the other chickens fluttered along with them and younger brother gave little sister a shove that sent her over the fence when he went. they found a great many angleworms there, and ate and ate and ate, and tried to get the largest ones away from each other; but after a while the farmer's wife saw them and came running to shoo them out with her apron. little sister was really glad when this happened, for she had found no place where she could crawl through the fence. she would have told her brothers about it if she had not feared that they would laugh at her and call her a coward. she did not know that each of them was thinking the same thing and dared not speak of it for the same reason. of course the chickens who lived on that farm all the time did not care so much. naughty chickens, like the three little run-aways, are almost sure to think about their mothers when the sun begins to set and the shadows on the grass grow long. then they begin to think about home, too, and wish that they did not have to be ashamed of themselves. when these brothers and their sister got out of the hen-yard, they started straight for home. at first they ran, and quite fast too, but as they got nearer they began to go more slowly, and once in a while one of them would stop to peck at something or other. you see they were thinking of what the barred plymouth rock hen would be likely to say to them. they thought that they would find her in the old coop where they had lived when first hatched. they ran the fields now, yet always went back there to spend the nights. they were trying so hard to find excuses for themselves that they did not notice the barred plymouth rock hen behind the stone-pile in the lane. she had got the rest of her brood settled in the coop for the night and then started out in search of the wanderers. as soon as they passed the stone-pile, she ducked her head and ran after them as fast as she could, dragging the tips of her wings on the ground and pecking at them hard and fast. you should have seen them run. they fluttered their wings wildly and never thought of making excuses. the one thing they remembered was that if they only reached the coop they could crawl in under their good brothers and sisters and be safe from their mother's bill. little sister got punished as well as her brothers, and that was perfectly right. for she need not have gone with them, even if they did ask her. it may be that her mother did not peck her quite so hard as she did the others, but it was hard enough to make her glad to reach the coop at last. the good chickens were almost asleep when these three dived in under them, and it took some time for them all to get settled again. the barred plymouth rock hen sat down beside the pile of her children and looked very hot and severe, yet she did not scold them then. the rest of the brood were sound asleep when little sister slipped out from under them to cuddle close to her mother. she could not sleep until she had confessed it all, and that shows that she was a good chicken at heart. when she told about their getting into the closed hen-yard, and how they had been driven out of it, the barred plymouth rock hen looked very much startled. "did any of your playmates over there go around with their mouths open?" said she. "oh yes," replied little sister. "a good many of them did, and the rest of us laughed at them." then she drooped her head because she felt ashamed of having been so rude. "i am afraid the punishment i gave you will be only a small part of it," said the barred plymouth rock hen; "but now you must go to sleep, and we will not talk any more of your naughtiness. you did quite right to tell me all about it." the three runaways become ill nobody can tell just how long it was after the chickens ran away, but it was certainly some little time, when older brother began to have trouble about breathing. "there seems to be something stuck in my throat," said he to his mother. "i can't breathe without opening my mouth a good deal." "there is something stuck in my throat too," said younger brother. "and in mine," added little sister. the barred plymouth rock hen looked very sad. "it is just as i expected," said she. at that moment another brother ran up. "what's the matter with these chickens?" he asked his mother. "they've been running around all morning with their mouths open, and it makes them look too silly for anything. i don't want to play with them if they can't keep their bills shut. i wish you'd tell them to stop." "they can't stop," said the barred plymouth rock hen, sadly. "they have the gapes." "what is that?" cried all the four chickens together, while three of them looked badly scared. "that is a kind of illness," answered their mother. "i have been expecting it all along." "what did you let us be sick for then?" asked older brother. "why didn't you tell us to eat more gravel or something? i don't think it is taking very good care of us to let us get sick." "now," said the barred plymouth rock hen, and she spoke very firmly, "you are not to speak again until you can speak properly. on the day you ran away you played with chickens who had the gapes, and you went with them into a closed hen-yard and ate angleworms. that is what gave you the gapes. there were tiny gapeworms in the angleworms, and you swallowed them. now the gapeworms are living in your throats and you cannot get them out. the farmer had shut the poultry out of that yard because he knew that they would become ill if they fed in there. now you are ill and i can't help you." older brother looked scared. "how did she know what we did over there?" he whispered to younger brother. "i don't know," answered younger brother, while he watched his mother to be sure that she did not overhear. "mothers always seem to find out what a chicken is doing, anyhow." little sister began to cry. "i'm afraid we are going to die," she sobbed. "i feel so very, very badly." "shall we die?" asked the sick brothers, and they were so scared that their bills chattered. their teeth would have chattered, you know, if they had had teeth, but none of their family ever do have them. "yes," answered their mother, sadly. "you will die unless something is done to get the gapeworms out of your throat. i cannot help you, for they cannot be taken out by creatures who have only wings and feet. there are times when hands would be handy. the only thing for you to do is to find the man and keep near him until he sees that you are ill and does something to cure you. i will go with you." you can imagine how sad the whole brood felt when they heard the news. the brother who had not wanted to play with them was much ashamed of himself, and kept scratching up fine worms for the sick chickens to eat. he thought that a good way of showing how sorry he felt. "i tell you what," said older brother to younger brother. "if i ever get well again, i'll mind my mother every time, even if i just hate to!" "so will i," said younger brother. "i wish we hadn't coaxed little sister to go along." by this time they had reached the place where the man was working. it seemed a long while before he noticed that three of them were sick. when he did, he put his hat on the back of his head and wiped his forehead with his handkerchief. his handkerchief was white. the farmer had always carried red ones, and the gobbler was much pleased when he found that the man did not. "i wonder what is the matter with those chickens," said the man. "they must be sick in some way. i will look it up in one of my books." that was why, soon after this, the man came from the house with a small book and seated himself on the wheel-barrow to read. he would look at the page for a few minutes, then put his finger on a certain part of it and watch the sick chickens. at last he arose and put the book in his pocket. then he got a box and a piece of burlap. he also had a pan with some white powder in it. he set these down close together and threw grain to the chickens. when they came to pick it up he caught the sick ones and put them into the box. "oh! oh!" they cried. "mother! mother! the man has caught us! the man has caught us!" "keep still! keep still!" clucked the barred plymouth rock hen. "the man has to catch you before he can cure you." she spoke as though she was not in the least frightened, but the truth is that she was very badly scared. she could not stand still, and kept walking to and fro, clucking as fast as she could. she had never seen anybody use a box and powder for chickens that had the gapes. the farmer had always made loops of horse-hair and put them down the chickens' throats to catch and draw out the tiny worms. that was bad enough, and always hurt the chickens, but she had never told them beforehand that it would hurt. you can see that she was a very brave hen, for she made her children stand the hard times that would make them better, and a hen needs to be very brave for that. now the man covered the open top of the box with burlap and began to sift the white powder through it. "ow!" said older brother, coughing as though he would never stop. "ow! ow! i can't breathe! i am stifling!" "ow!" said younger brother. "ow! ow! i can't stop coughing!" "ow!" said little sister. "ow! ow! isn't this dreadful!" the three chicks staggered around in the box, coughing just as hard as they could. the dust which came down through the burlap seemed to bite and sting their throats, and very soon they were coughing so hard that they could not speak at all. the man was coughing too, but he did not stop for that. the chickens who were well could not understand what the man was doing to the sick ones, and it was a very sad time for the whole family. at last the man uncovered the box and lifted the chickens out. they could not stop coughing all at once, yet they managed to get over to where their mother was. then she spread her wings and tried to cover them, as she had done when they were first hatched. she could not do it, because they were so big; still, it comforted them to have her try, and after a while they were able to speak. "why," said older brother. "i must have coughed up some of the gapeworms! i can breathe with my mouth shut." "so can i," said younger brother. "so can i," said little sister. "then come down to the meadow for the rest of the day," said their mother. "we can find good feeding there." "we will come," answered the three, and they were hardly away from their mother's side during the rest of that day. once they got near the fence that separated the meadow from the road, and a couple of chickens from the other farm called to them to come across. "uh-uh!" they answered. "our mother doesn't want us to." they did not even ask their mother what she thought about their going, and there was no reason why they should, for they knew perfectly well that they ought not to go. when they had walked so far away that they were sure of not being overheard, they looked each other in the eye and said solemnly, "you don't catch us going where our mother thinks we should not!" the young cock and the eagle this is a sad story. it is not pleasant to tell sad stories, but if they were not told once in a while, people would never know what really happens in the world. and surely you would not wish to miss hearing of what was really the most exciting happening of all, during that first summer after the man bought the farm. you remember having heard something about the young cock. before the coming of the white plymouth rocks, there had been only three cocks on the farm. the shanghai cock was the oldest, and a very grumpy fowl, but quite sensible in spite of that. the white cock was somewhat younger than the shanghai, and was not a very strong fellow. he was always unhappy about something, and it was said that he did not eat enough gravel. if that was true, he should not have expected to be well, since his stomach would then have no way of grinding up his food and getting the strength out of it. the young cock was a strong and exceedingly conceited fellow. you probably know what conceited people are. they are the people who think themselves very clever, but who are not really so. this last one was always called the young cock, because the other two were so much older than he, although by this time he was old enough to be over such foolishness as bragging and picking quarrels with others. he had feathers of many colors in his coat, and thought that one of his great-great-great-grandfathers had been a game cock. game cocks, you know, are often very beautiful to look at, and are great fighters. he was not really sure about any of his family except his mother, who had died the year before, and was a very common-looking hen of no particular breed. however, he had thought and talked so much about game cocks that he had come really to believe in this great-great-great-grandfather. it is good to have fine grandparents, and it is good to remember them and try to be the right sort of grandchildren for their sakes, but having fine grandparents does not always make people themselves equally fine, and it is not wise to talk too much about what they have been. it is better to pay more attention to being what one should. all summer the young cock had been growing more and more annoying in his ways. he made fun of everybody whom he did not like, and sometimes even of those whom he did. he crowed and strutted and strutted and crowed. he called the barred plymouth rock hen "an old fogy," and the brown hen "an old fuss." the barred plymouth rock hen was not an old fogy, but a middle-aged and very sensible fowl, and although the brown hen was quite fussy, she was older than the young cock, and he should not have spoken of her in that way. he did not always go to roost quite as soon as the other fowls and, if he found one of them in the place which he wanted, he often pushed and shoved until he had the place and the other fowl landed on the floor. "get off of there," the young cock would say. "i want that place. move along or get off!" when he was really very young, the older fowls had hoped that he would outgrow his rude and quarrelsome ways, so they stood it much longer than they should. now he was older and there was not a single excuse to be found for him. he might better have been punished for it when young, because then he would have been well-behaved when grown up. one morning he fluttered down from his perch in a very bad temper. some of the pullets, or young hens, had been making fun of him the night before and comparing him with the white plymouth rock cock. they meant only to tease him, but it had made him cross, and he awakened even more cross after his night's sleep. he decided to show those pullets that he was not to be laughed at. he was thinking of this when he stalked out into the yard. some of the white plymouth rock chickens ran along on the other side of the wire fence, peeping prettily and wanting to talk with him. "go back to your mother," he said. "what business have you to be tagging me around like this? i don't want to talk to you. chickens should not speak until they are spoken to. run!" of course they ran. you would if you were a chicken and a cock should speak to you in that way. they ran to their mother, and it took her a long time to comfort them. next the young cock stepped directly across the path of the shanghai cock, stopping him in his morning walk. the hens who saw it done expected the shanghai cock to fight him on the spot, but they saw nothing of the sort. the shanghai cock did not think it worth while. the saucy pullets were eating in a corner of the yard and chattering over their corn. "wouldn't it be fun to see the young cock get punished by the shanghai?" one of them said. "why don't you like him?" asked another. "i do like him," answered the first. "i like him very much, but he is conceited and brags so that i wish somebody would teach him a lesson." "look!" cried another. "he is picking a quarrel with the white cock." they looked and saw him standing in front of the white cock with his head lowered, staring steadily at him. the white cock looked as though he did not care to fight, but being no coward, he would not turn his tail toward the other and run away. he simply stood where he was, and whenever the young cock lowered his head the white cock lowered his. whenever the young cock gave a little upward jerk to his head, the white cock did the same. at first he was only trying to protect himself and be ready for a blow if the young cock should begin to fight in earnest. pretty soon he began to think that he would beat him if he could. he thought it might be a good time to teach him something. after that both fought as hard as they could, staring, ducking, bobbing, fluttering, pecking, and striking with their bills and the sharp spurs that grew on their legs. it ended by the white cock staggering and running away from the blows, while the other stood proudly where he was and crowed and crowed and crowed. the young cock did not beat because he understood the movements to be made any better than the other. he beat only because he was younger and stronger. he did not look toward the pullets, feeling quite sure that they were looking toward him and admiring him. he flew onto the top rail of the pasture fence and crowed as loudly as he could. "cock-a-doodle-doo!" said he. "i have beaten him! i have beaten him!" the shanghai cock looked at him with great displeasure. "something will happen to that young fellow some day," said he, "and after that he will not crow so much." the pullets heard him say this and were scared. they did not wish anything dreadful to happen to him. one of them wanted to tell the young cock what they had overheard, but the others would not let her. it was not long after this, in fact it was before the hens had come out of the large open gate of their yard, that the young cock picked up and ate a grain of corn which the shanghai cock had already bent over to eat. the older cock did not like this, and he said so very plainly. the young cock lowered his head and looked the shanghai cock squarely in the eye. "if you don't like my way of eating," he said in his rudest tone, "you can try to punish me." "i will try it with pleasure," replied the shanghai cock, and they stared and ducked and hopped and fluttered and jumped and struck at each other with feet and bill, until the young cock had really beaten the shanghai. it should have been the other way, yet it was not, for the shanghai was growing old and fat, and could not get around so quickly as the young cock. of course the pullets were glad, but nobody else was. "there will be no getting along with him at all after this," the hens said. "if he had been well beaten for once, he might have learned manners." they paid no attention to the cocks who were beaten, for that would not be thought polite among fowls. instead, they walked about as usual, pretending that they had not noticed what was going on, and twisting their necks, lifting their feet, and dusting themselves in the most matter-of-fact way. the young cock flew onto the fence again. "cock-a-doodle-doo!" said he. "cock-a-doodle-doo! i can beat them all! i can beat them all!" he strutted back and forth there for a time, and then flew to the top of the old carriage-house. here he strutted and crowed and crowed and strutted, while the fowls in the pasture below looked at him and wondered how he dared go so high. suddenly the shanghai cock, who had been quietly trying to arrange his feathers after the fight, saw a large, dark bird swooping down from the sky and gave a queer warning cry. "er-ru-u-u-u-u!" he said. "run! run!" [illustration: a large dark bird swooping down. _page _] the white cock spoke at almost the same time. "er-ru-u-u-u-u! run! run!" then all the hens and pullets put down their heads and ran as fast as they could for the poultry-house, which was near. the shanghai cock and the white cock waited to let them pass, and then followed in after them. it is a law among fowls that the cocks must protect the hens from all danger. because these two had to wait so long for the hens and pullets to get inside, they were still where they could see quite plainly when the bird, a large eagle, swooped down to the roof of the carriage-house and caught the young cock up in his talons. the young cock had not seen him coming until he was almost there. he had been too much interested in watching the fowls on the ground below. when he saw the eagle it was too late to get away. as the eagle flew upward once more, all the fowls ran out to watch him. they could see the young cock struggling as the sharp talons of the eagle held him tightly. "poor fellow!" said the pullets. the cocks were wise enough to keep still. the hens murmured something to themselves which nobody else could understand. only the plymouth rock hen said very much about it, and that was because she had children to bring up. one of the young cock's tail-feathers floated down from the sky and fell into their yard. "leave it right there," she said. "leave it there, and every time you look at it, i want you to remember that the cock to whom it belonged might now be having a pleasant time on this farm, if he had not been quarrelsome and bragged." the guinea-fowls come and go it was only a few days after the young cock had been carried away by the eagle, that the man drove back from town with a very queer look upon his face. a small crate in the back end of the light wagon contained three odd-looking fowls. the little girls left their mud pies and ran toward the wagon. when they saw the crate, they ran into the house and called their mother to come out also. "what have you now?" said she, as she stepped onto the side porch. "guinea-fowls," answered the man. "just listen to this letter." he drew it from his pocket and read aloud: "i send you, by express, a guinea-cock and two guinea-hens. they were given to me, and i have no place for keeping them. i remember hearing that they are excellent for scaring away crows, so i send them on in the hope that they may be useful to you. if you do not wish to keep them, do what you choose with them." as he read three small and perfectly bald heads were thrust through the openings of the crate and turned and twisted until their owners had seen everything around. "i don't know anything about guinea-fowls," said the man, "but i will at least keep these long enough to find out. i have seen the crows fly down and annoy the hens several times, and it may be that these are just what we need." he took the crate down and opened it carefully. the three fowls that walked out looked almost exactly alike. all had very smooth and soft coats of black feathers covered with small round white spots. they were shaped quite like turkeys, but were much smaller, with gray-brown legs, and heads which were not feathered at all. the skin of their faces and necks was red, and they had small wattles at the corners of their mouths. bristle-like feathers stood out straight around the upper part of their necks, and below these were soft gray feathers which covered the neck and part of the chest. they walked directly toward the barnyard, where some of the farm fowls were picking up an early dinner. "ca-mac!" said they "ca-mac! ca-mac! we want some too." now the farm fowls were not especially polite, not having come of fine families or been taught good manners when they were chickens, yet they did not at all like to have newcomers speak to them in this way. they noticed it all the more, because when the white plymouth rocks came they had acted so very differently. they stepped a little to one side, giving the guinea-fowls enough room in which to scratch and pick around as they had been doing, but they did not say much to them. the gobbler was strutting back and forth among the smaller fowls. he disliked living with them as much as he had to now, but the hen turkeys would have nothing to say to him because he annoyed their chicks. they went off with their children and left him alone, and, as he wanted company of some sort, he took what he could get. he thought it might be a good plan to make friends with the guinea-fowls. "good-morning," said he. "have you come here to stay?" "we shall stay if we like it," answered the guinea-cock. "we always do what we like best." "humph!" said the shanghai cock to himself. "remarkable fowls! wonder what the man will think about that." "i hope you will like it," said the gobbler, who was so lonely that he really tried hard to be agreeable. "i understand quite how you feel about doing as you like. i always prefer to do what i prefer." "we _do_ it," remarked one of the guinea-hens, as she chased the brown hen away from the spot where she had been feeding, and swallowed a fat worm which the brown hen had just uncovered. "yes," said the other guinea-hen, "i guess we are just as good as anybody else." "is there plenty to eat here?" asked the guinea-cock. "plenty," answered the gobbler. "it is much better than it used to be. there is a new man here, and he takes better care of his fowls than the farmer did. he doesn't carry red handkerchiefs either." "i don't care what kind of handkerchiefs he carries," said the guinea-cock. "what makes you talk about such things?" "you would know what makes me speak of them if you were a gobbler," was the answer. "i cannot bear red things. i cannot even eat my corn comfortably when anything red is around. you see it is quite important. anything which spoils a fellow's fun in eating is important." "nothing would spoil my fun if i had the right sort of food," remarked the guinea-cock. then he turned to the guinea-hens. "come," he said. "we have eaten enough. let us walk around and see the place." all three started off, walking along where-ever they chose, and stopping to feed or to talk about what they saw. anybody could tell by looking at them that they were related to the turkeys, but the gobbler had not cared to remind them of that. he was looking for more company during the time when his own family left him so much alone. he knew that before very long the turkey chicks would be too large to fear him, and that when that time came, their mothers and they would be willing to walk with him. then he would have less to do with the other poultry, and might not want three bad-mannered guinea-fowl cousins tagging along after him. whenever the three met another fowl, they talked about him and said exactly what they thought, and if they passed a hen who had just found a choice bit of food, they chased her away and ate it themselves. sometimes they even chased fowls who were not in their way and who were not eating things that they wanted. it seemed as though they had simply made up their minds to do what they wanted to do, whenever and wherever they wished. they did not make much fuss about it, and if you had seen them when they were doing none of these mean things, you would have thought them very genteel. you would never have suspected that they could act as they did. the gander and the geese passed near the guinea-fowls and the guinea-fowls did not chase them. they were not foolish enough to annoy people so much larger than they. it is true that the hens were larger than they, yet the guinea-fowls could make them run every time. if they had troubled the geese, it might have ended with the guinea-fowls doing the running. and the guinea-fowls were cowards. they would never quarrel with people unless they were sure of beating. "s-s-s-s-s-s-s!" said the gander. "are we to have that sort of people on this farm? if we are, i would rather live somewhere else. i do not see why there should be any disagreeable people anyway." "there should not be," said the geese, who always agreed with everything the gander said, and who really believed as he did about this. "disagreeable people should be sent away, or eaten up, or something." both the gander and the geese thought themselves exceedingly agreeable, and so they were--when everything suited them. at other times they were often quite cross. many people act like this, and seem to think it very sweet of them not to be cross all the time. truly agreeable people, as you very well know, are those who can keep pleasant when things go wrong. "ca-mac!" said the three guinea-fowls together. "there are some of those stupid geese, who are always walking around and eating grass that is too short for anybody else. they eat grass, and grow feathers for farmers' wives to pluck off. when we have gone to the trouble of growing a fine coat of feathers, we keep them as long as we wish, and then they drop out, a few at a time. if anybody wants our feathers, he must follow around after us and pick them up." before night came, the guinea-fowls had met and annoyed nearly all the poultry on the place. they had even made dashes at the smallest chickens and frightened them dreadfully. the man had been too busy to see much of the trouble that they made, but his little girls noticed it, for they had been watching the guinea-fowls and hoping to find some of their beautiful spotted feathers lying around. when the little girls were eating their supper of bread and milk, they told their father about it. "they walk around and look too good for anything," said the brown-haired one, "but whenever they get a chance they chase the hens and the chickens." "yes," said the golden-haired little girl, "i even saw one of them scare the barred plymouth rock hen, the one who ate bread and salt with you." "that is very bad," said the man, gravely. "any fowl that troubles the barred plymouth rock hen must be punished." "what will you do to them?" asked the golden-haired little girl. "i think you will have to shut them up. you couldn't spank them, could you? not even if you wanted to ever so much." "i shall decide to-night how to punish them," said the man, "and then in the morning we will see about it." when he spoke he did not know how much time he would spend in thinking about the guinea-fowls that night. when it was time for them to go to roost, the guinea-fowls fluttered and hopped upward until they reached quite a high branch in the apple-tree by the man's chamber window. then, instead of going to sleep for the night, as one would think they would wish to do, they took short naps and awakened from time to time to visit with each other. it is true that they had seen much that was new during the day, and so had more than usual to talk about, but this was really no excuse, because they had the habit of talking much at night and would have been nearly as noisy if nothing at all had happened. the man was just going to sleep when they awakened from one of their naps and began to chat. "ca-mac! ca-mac!" said one. "i suppose those stupid fowls in the poultry-house are sound asleep, with their heads tucked under their wings. what do you think of the company here?" "good enough," said another. "i don't like any of them very much, but you can't expect geese and ducks to be guinea-fowls. we don't have to talk to them. the gobbler is trying to be agreeable, and when the hen turkeys can think of any thing besides their children we may find them good company." "it is a good thing that there are so many hens here," said the third. "the man throws out their grain and then we can scare them away and eat all we want of it. what fun it is to see hens run when they are frightened!" after this short visit they went to sleep again, and so did the man. but they went to sleep much more quickly than he did, and he was very tired and disliked being disturbed in that way. he had just fallen asleep when one of the guinea-hens awakened again. "ca-mac!" said she to the others. "ca-mac! ca-mac! i have thought of something to say. how do you like the idea of living on this place?" "we like it," answered the guinea-cock and the other guinea-hen. then they went on to tell why they liked it. they said that there were no children of the stone-throwing kind, no dog, and no cat. they had plenty of room for the long walks which they liked to take, and there were many chances to get the food which the man threw out. when they had spoken of all these things the guinea-cock said: "it is decided then that we will stay here instead of running away to another farm. this is a good enough place for any fowl. now let us take another nap." while they were thinking this, the man was thinking something quite different. in the morning while the guinea-fowls were eating grain which had been strewn in one of the yards, the man closed the gate, and, helped by the little girls, drove the three guinea-fowls into a corner and caught them. then he put them into the crate in which they had come, and took them across the road to the farmer who lived there. when this was done there were many happy people left behind on the poultry-farm. the little girls were happy, because they had found four feathers which the guinea-fowls lost in trying to get away from the man. the hens were happy, because they could now be more sure of eating the food which they found. the other poultry were glad to think that they would not have to listen to new-comers saying such dreadful things about them, and perhaps the man, when he came back, was the happiest of all. "i gave them to the farmer over there," he said, "and he will give them to a poor family far away. i have stopped keeping guinea-fowls to scare away the crows. i would rather keep crows to scare away the guinea-fowls, but i think we can get along very comfortably without either." and the poultry thought so too. the geese and the baby the little girls had gone to play with a new friend who lived down the road, and the man was working in the farthest field of the farm. the baby had been laid in the crib for his afternoon nap, and his mother went up-stairs to work at her house-cleaning. she thought that she might possibly finish two closets if the baby did not awaken and call her too soon. she felt sure that she would know when he awakened, because she left the staircase door ajar, and he usually cried a little as soon as he got his eyes open. this time, however, the baby slept only a few minutes and did not cry at all. he had grown a great deal since he came to live on the farm, and was becoming very strong and independent. when he opened his eyes he made no sound, but lay there quietly staring at the ceiling until he heard one of the cocks crowing outside. he had always wanted to catch that tallest cock and hug him--he looked so soft and warm--and now was the time to try it. when his mother was around she sometimes held his dress or one of the shoulder-straps of his little overalls and would not let him catch the cock. he would crawl out of his crib alone and go out very quietly to try it. the baby pulled himself up by the rounds of his crib, and tumbled over its railing onto his mother's bed, which stood beside it. from that he slid to the floor. it took him only two minutes more to get out of the side door and down the steps. it did not take at all long for the steps, because he fell more than half the distance. if he had not been running away, or if there had been anybody around to pity him, he would have cried, but to cry now might spoil all his fun, so he picked himself up without making a sound and started for the shanghai cock. the shanghai cock was on the ground when the baby began toddling toward him. as the baby came nearer he began to walk off. "i don't want to be caught," said he. "it is bad enough to have grown people catch me, but it would be worse to have a baby do so, for he might choke me." "here, pitty chickie!" said the baby. "baby want oo." then he tried to run, and fell down instead. the barred plymouth rock hen looked at him pityingly. "just the way my chickens used to act when trying to catch a grasshopper," said she. "it is so hard for children to learn that they cannot have everything they want." when the baby tumbled, the shanghai cock stood still, and even picked up a couple of mouthfuls of food. when the baby got up again, the shanghai cock moved on. at last the cock decided to put a stop to this sort of game, in which the baby seemed to be having all the fun, so he flew to the top of the pasture fence and crowed as loudly as he could. the baby's mother heard him as she worked busily upstairs. "how loudly that cock does crow!" said she. "i am glad that such noises do not wake the baby. he is having a fine nap to-day." then she unrolled another bundle of pieces and paid no more attention to the crowing. when the baby saw that he could not reach the cock, he thought he would try for some of the other fowls. the gobbler came in sight just then and he started after him. luckily he had no red on, or it might have been the gobbler who did the chasing. "here, pitty chickie!" said the baby. "tum, pitty chickie! tum to baby." it was the first time the gobbler had ever been been called a "pitty chickie," but that made no difference. he did not want to be petted and he did not want to be caught. baby might open and shut his tiny fat hands as many times as he pleased, beckoning to him. the gobbler would not come. "gobble-gobble-gobble!" said he. "nobody can catch me in daylight, not even with corn; and surely nobody can catch me without it." then he strutted slowly away. the baby followed, but when the gobbler pretended to lose his temper, stood all his feathers on end, spread his fine tail, dragged his wings on the ground, and puffed, the baby turned and ran away as fast as he could. brown bess was no longer in the pasture, and the gate stood open. it was through this gate that the baby ran, not stopping until he came within sight of the river along the lower edge of the pasture. the water looked so bright and beautiful that he thought he would go farther still. perhaps he could even catch some of the ducks and geese that were swimming there. he had seen his sisters wade in the edge of the river one day, while his father was mending a fence near by. he would wade, too. you see baby was only two years old, and did not understand that rivers are very dangerous places for children to visit alone, and worst of all for babies who toddle and tumble along. he did not know that if he should tumble in that beautiful shining water he might never be able to get up again, or that if he should chase one of the ducks too far out, he could not turn around and come back to the shore. these things he was not old enough to know. he did know that when he came into the pasture with his father or mother and went toward the river's edge, he was always told, "no-no!" this he remembered, but that made it seem all the more fun to go there when there was nobody by to say it. the baby stood on a little knoll near the water. "here, pitty chickie!" he said. "tum to baby, pitty chickie!" the ducks paid no attention to him, unless it were to swim farther from shore and keep their heads turned slightly toward him, watching to see what he was about. with the geese, however, it was different. geese do not like anything strange, and if they cannot understand a thing they think that there is certainly something wrong. as there is much which they do not understand, the geese are often greatly excited over very simple and harmless things, hissing loudly at those who are strangers to them. now they could not understand why the baby should stand on the river-bank and talk to them. "s-s-s-s-s!" said the gander. "there must be something wrong about this. let us get out of the water to see." he scrambled up onto the bank, with his wife and the other geese following closely behind him. he was a very stately fellow, and looked as though he could win in almost any fight. the geese were stately too, but their legs and neck did not look so strong as his, and they let him go ahead and speak first. the gander marched toward the baby and stood between him and the river. "s-s-s-s-s!" said he. "what are you doing here?" "here, pitty chickie!" said the baby. "tum to baby." "i cannot understand you," said the gander, severely. "children should speak so that they can be understood. i can always understand my own children." he was very proud of the brood of goslings which he and his wife had hatched. perhaps he was even more fond of them because he had done almost as much for them as she, sitting on the eggs part of the time and standing beside her while she was sitting on them. ganders are excellent fathers. "go way, pitty chickie!" said the baby. "baby goin' in de watty." "s-s-s-s-s!" said the gander, and this time his wife hissed also. "go back to the place where you belong. this place is for web-footed people. i have seen your feet uncovered, and you have no webs whatever between your toes. you do not belong here. go away!" the baby did not go away, for he was having a lovely time. the gander did not come any nearer to him or act as though he meant to peck him, so he just laughed and waved his hands. "why don't you go?" asked the geese. "the gander told you to go away, and you should mind the gander. we always mind him, and so should you." still the gander and the geese did not come nearer to him, and still the baby was not afraid. "s-s-s-s-s!" repeated the gander. "we do not want you to swim in our river. your body is not the right shape for swimming with geese and ducks. your neck is not long enough for feeding in the river. you could never get your mouth down to the river-bottom for food without going way under. go away! you will get wet if you go into the water. i feel quite sure that you will, for you have not nicely oiled feathers like ours. you will try to catch our children and will make us much trouble. go away!" just then the baby's mother called from the door of the house. she had come downstairs and found the baby gone. "baby!" said she. "baby! where are you?" baby did not answer, but he turned to look at her. "s-s-s-s-s!" said the gander and the geese together. "s-s-s-s-s! s-s-s-s-s!" then they walked straight for him, and the baby started home at last. his mother heard and ran toward him in time to see it all. she understood, too, that if it had not been for the gander and the geese, her baby would have gone into the river. that was why she looked so gratefully at them when she reached him and picked him up in her arms to hug and kiss. [illustration: "s-s-s-s-s!" repeated the gander. _page _] perhaps it was because she had been so frightened that she had to sit right down on a little hillock and rest. the gander and the geese stood around and wondered why she made such a fuss over the baby. "he is nothing remarkable," they said to each other. "he certainly could not swim if he had a chance, and we saw how often he fell down when he tried to run. why does she put her mouth up against his in that way? there is simply no understanding the actions of people who live in houses." there was one sort of action which they could understand very well indeed. the little girls came home just then and their mother had them bring oats from the barn to scatter on the river. then the gander, with his wife and the other geese, gladly went back to the river to feed, for there is nothing which pleases geese better than to eat oats that are floating on the water. the fowls have a joke played on them when the man first bought the farm and came to live there, he could not understand a thing that his poultry said. this made it very hard for him, and was something which he could not learn from his books and papers. you remember how the little girls understood, better than he, what the cocks meant by crowing so joyfully one day. it is often true that children who think much about such things and listen carefully come to know what fowls mean when they talk. the man was really a very clever one, much more clever than the farmer who had lived there before him, and he decided that since he was to spend much of his time among poultry, he would learn to understand what they were saying. he began to listen very carefully and to notice what they did when they made certain sounds. it is quite surprising how much people can learn by using their eyes and ears carefully, and without asking questions, too. that was why, before the summer was over, the man could tell quite correctly, whenever a fowl spoke, whether he was hungry or happy or angry or scared. not only these, but many other things he could tell by carefully listening. he could not understand a hen in exactly the way in which her chickens understand her, but he understood well enough to help him very much in his work. then he tried talking the poultry language. that was much harder, yet he kept on trying, for he was not the sort of man to give up just because the task was hard. he had been a teacher for many years, and he knew how much can be done by studying hard and sticking to it. the man was very full of fun, too, since he had grown so strong and fat on the farm. he dearly loved a joke, and was getting ready to play a very big joke on some of his poultry. anybody who has ever kept hens knows how hard it is to drive them into the poultry-house when they do not wish to go. people often run until they are quite out of breath and red in the face, trying to make even one hen go where she should. sometimes they throw stones, and this is very bad for the hens, for even if they are not hit, they are frightened, and then the eggs which they lay are not so good. sometimes, too, the people who are trying to drive hens lose their temper, and this is one of the very worst things that could happen. the poultry had not paid much attention to the man when he was learning their language. they were usually too busy talking to each other to listen to what he was saying. once the shanghai cock said what he thought of it, however: "just hear him!" he had said. "hear that man trying to crow! he does it about as well as a hen would." you know a hen tries to crow once in a while, and then the cocks all poke fun at her, because she never succeeds well. all this happened before the man had been long on the farm, and before the shanghai cock had learned to like him. the shanghai cock would have been very much surprised if anybody had then told him that he would ever be unable to tell the man's voice from that of one of his best friends. throughout the summer the fowls who had always lived on the farm were allowed to run wherever they wished during the day, and were not driven into the pen at night. there was always some corn scattered in their own yard for them just before roosting-time, and they were glad enough to stroll in and get it. when they finished eating they were sure to find the outer gate closed, and then they went inside the pen to roost. now, however, the days were growing much shorter and the nights cooler, and a skunk had begun prowling around after dark. the man decided that if he wanted to keep his poultry safe, he must have them in the pens quite early and shut all the openings through which a night-hunting animal might enter to catch them. he liked to attend to this before he ate his own supper, and the poultry did not wish to go to roost quite so early. they often talked of it as they ate their supper in the yard. "i think," said the brown hen, "that something should be done to stop the man's driving us into the pen before we are ready to go. it is very annoying." "annoying?" said the white cock, who was a great friend of hers. "i should say it is annoying! i hadn't half eaten my supper last night when i heard him saying, 'shoo! shoo!' and saw him and the little girls getting ready to drive us in." "well, you might better eat a little faster the next time," said the black hen. "i saw you fooling around when you might have been eating, and then you grumbled because you hadn't time to finish your supper." "i would rather fool around a little than to choke on a big mouthful, the way you did," replied the white cock, who did not often begin a quarrel, but was always ready to keep it up. "i was hungry all night," he added. "it is so senseless," said the brown hen. "he might just as well drive us in after we have had time enough for our supper, or even wait until we go in without driving. i have made up my mind not to go to-night until i am ready." "what if they try to drive you?" asked the white cock. "i will run this way and that, and flutter and squawk as hard as i can," replied the brown hen. the black hen laughed in her cackling way. "i will do the same," said she. "it will serve the man right for trying to send us to roost so early. i think he will find it pretty hard work." the white cock would make no promises. he wanted to see the hens run away from the man, but thought he would rather stand quietly in a corner than to flutter around. he was afraid of acting like a hen if he made too much fuss, and no cock wishes to act like a hen. the shanghai cock felt in the same way. "i am too big for running to and fro," said he, "but i will keep out of the pen and watch the fun." he had hardly spoken these words when the man and the little girls came into the yard and closed the gate behind them. the poultry kept on eating, but watched them as they ate. suddenly the brown hen picked up a small boiled potato that she had found among the other food, and ran with it in her bill to the farthest corner of the yard. the black hen ran after her and the other hens after them. the cocks remained behind and watched. the man and the little girls tried to get between the hens and the farthest side of the fence. the hens would not let them for a while, but kept running back and forth there, until the potato had fallen to pieces and been trampled on without any one having a taste. when the man and the little girls finally got behind the hens, the little girls spread out their skirts and flapped them and the man said, "shoo! shoo!" then the hens acted dreadfully frightened, and the cocks began to turn their heads quickly from side to side, quite as though they were looking for a chance to get away. they were really having a great deal of fun. whenever the man thought that he had them all ready to go into the open door of the pen, one of the hens would turn with a frightened squawk and flutter wildly past him again to the back end of the yard, and then the man would have to begin all over. several of the hens dropped loose feathers, and it was very exciting. "well," said the shanghai cock, as the man went back the fifth time for a new start, "i think that man will leave us alone after to-night." "yes," said the white cock, who was standing near him, "i think we are teaching him a lesson." he spoke quite as though he and the other cock were doing it, instead of just standing by and watching the hens. but that is often the way with cocks. after the man had tried once more and failed, he certainly acted as though he was ready to give up the task. he walked to the back end of the yard, took off his hat, and wiped his forehead with his handkerchief. the little girls stood beside him, and he picked up a feather to show them. it was a wing-feather, and he was showing them how the tiny hooks on each soft barb caught into those on the next and held it firmly. the poultry watched him for a while and then began eating once more. they thought him quite discouraged. the shanghai cock and the white cock were standing far apart when somebody called "er-ru-u-u-u-u!" which is the danger signal. as soon as he heard it, each cock thought that the other had spoken, and opened his bill and said, "er-ru-u-u-u-u!" in the same tone, even before he looked around for a hawk or an eagle. every hen in the yard ducked her head and ran for the door of the pen as fast as her legs would carry her. the cocks let the hens go ahead and crowd through the doorway as well as they could, but they followed closely behind. they were hardly inside when the door of the pen was closed after them and they heard the man fastening it on the outside. "wasn't that a shame!" said the brown hen, who always thought that something was a shame. "we didn't finish our supper after all!" "i know it," said the white cock. "it happened very badly, and all that running had made me hungry." "what was the danger?" asked the shanghai cock. "i had no time to see whether it was an eagle or a hawk coming." "what do you mean?" cried the white cock. "if i had given the alarm which took all my friends from their supper into the pen, i think i would take time to see what the danger was. can't you tell one kind of bird from another?" "i can if i see them," answered the shanghai cock, rather angrily. "i did not see this one. i looked up as soon as you gave the cry, but i saw nothing. i repeated the cry, as cocks always do, but i saw nothing." "now see here," said the white cock, as he lowered his head and looked the shanghai cock squarely in the eyes, "you stop talking in this way! you gave the first warning and you know it. i only repeated the call." "i did not," retorted the shanghai cock, as he lowered his head and ruffled his feathers. "_you_ gave the warning and _i_ repeated it." "he did not," interrupted the brown hen. "i stood right beside him, and i know he did not give the first call." "well," said the barred plymouth rock hen, "i was standing close to the shanghai cock, and _i_ know that _he_ did not give the first call." (her chickens were now so large that they did not need her, and she had begun running with her old friends.) then arose a great chatter and quarrel in the pen. part of the hens thought that the white cock gave the first warning, and part of them thought that the shanghai cock did. everybody was out of patience with somebody else, and all were scolding and finding fault until they really had to stop for breath. it was when they stopped that the speckled hen spoke for the first time. she had never been known to quarrel, and she was good-natured now. "i believe it was the white plymouth rock cock in the other yard," said she. "why didn't we think of that before?" "of course!" said all the fowls together. "it was certainly the white plymouth rock cock in the other yard." then they laughed and spoke pleasantly to each other as they began to settle themselves for the night. "we might as well go to roost now," they said, "even if it is a bit early. all that running and talking was very tiring." but it was not the white plymouth rock cock who had said "er-ru-u-u-u-u!" he and his hens had run into their pen at the same time, and had been shut in. only the man and the little girls knew who it really was, and they never told the poultry. the little girls give a party late in the fall, when the man began to talk of shutting the poultry into their own yards for the winter, there came a few mild and lovely days. the little girls had been playing out-of-doors in their jackets, but now they left them in the house and ran around bare-headed, as they had done during the summer. all the poultry were happy over the weather, and several said that, if they thought it would last long enough, they would like to raise late broods of chickens. the fowls had finished moulting, and had fine coats of new feathers to keep them warm through the winter. the young turkeys looked more and more like their mothers, for they were already nearly as large as they ever would be. the goslings and the ducklings had grown finely, and boasted that their legs and feet began to look rougher and more like those of the old geese and ducks. the chickens were all white plymouth rocks this year, and the tiny red combs which showed against the snowy feathers of their heads made them very pretty. even the hens who had cared for them since they were hatched would not have had them any other color, although at first they had wished that their chickens could look more like them. in the barn all was neat and well cared for. the man had made brownie a warm box-stall, so that he need not be tied in a cool and narrow place whenever he stood in the barn, but might turn around and take a few steps in any direction he chose. there was plenty of fine hay in the loft for him, and the place where brown bess and her calf were to stand had also been made more comfortable. there were great bins filled with grain for the poultry, and another full of fine gravel for them to eat with their meals. they had no teeth and could not chew their food, you know, so they had to swallow enough gravel, or grit, for their stomachs to use in grinding it and getting the strength out. in another place was a great pile of dust for winter dust-baths. everything was so well prepared for cold weather that it seemed almost funny to have warm days again. and just at this time the little girls had a birthday. not two birthdays, you understand, but one, for they were twins and were now exactly six years old. they were plump and rosy little girls, and very strong from living so much out-of-doors. each had a new doll for a birthday gift, and the funniest part of it was that the brown-haired little girl had a brown-haired doll and the golden-haired little girl had a golden-haired doll. that made it easy to tell which doll was which, just as the difference in hair made it easy for their parents to tell one twin from the other. when they first awakened they were given birthday kisses instead of birthday spanks, six apiece for the years they had lived, a big one on which to grow, and another big one on which to be good. after the breakfast dishes were washed and put away, their mother made two birthday cakes for the little girls and put six candles on each. with all this done for them, one would certainly expect the little girls to be perfectly happy. but, what do you think? they could not be perfectly, blissfully happy, because they were not to have a party. every year before this, as far back as they could remember, they had been allowed to have a party, and this year they could not have it, because they were living on a farm and there were no other children who could come. it is true that there were two others living quite near, but these two had the measles and could not go to parties. by the time they were over the measles, the birthday would be long past, and so the little girls were disappointed. it was when the brown-haired little girl was telling her doll about the last year's party, and the golden-haired little girl's eyes were filling with tears, that their mother had a bright idea. she would not tell them what it was, but asked them to care for the baby while she went out to talk with the man in the barn. when she came back she told them that they might have a party after all and invite the poultry to come. "i think it will be great fun," said she, "and i am sure they have never been to a birthday party in their lives." how happy the little girls were then! the man had put a very large box just in front of the poultry-yards where the white plymouth rocks were kept, so that, by crowding into the corners, the chickens on one side of the separating fence and the cock and hens on the other could come quite near to the box. inside the big box was another which was to be their table, and a couple of milking stools on which they were to sit. the baby's chair was to be brought when he came. of course it seemed a long time to wait until afternoon, when the party was to come off. if there had not been so much to do, the little girls certainly could not have been patient. it was wonderful how many things their mother could suggest. in the first place, they had to write a few invitations to pin up where the fowls could see them. then they had to go over to the edge of the woods and hunt all along the roadside to find late flowers, bits of brake, and autumn leaves, with which to trim their box and the table. after that they took pans and got grain for their guests from the bins in the barn. these they carried to the big box and placed on the table inside. it was not long afterward that the brown-haired little girl found the black hen and the white cock eating from these pans. "oh, shoo!" she cried, running as fast as she could toward them and flapping her skirts. "shoo! shoo! it isn't time for you to come, and you mustn't eat up the party yet." the other twin feared that, after being frightened away in this fashion, these two fowls would not want to come at the proper time, but she need not have worried. fowls are always glad to come to a good supper, and there is much more danger of their coming too early and staying too late than there is of their not coming at all. after that the pans of grain were carried into the house to wait until the right time. in the afternoon the twins and their dolls came out to the big box which they pretended was their house. the open side of it was toward the poultry-yards, and there was plenty of room between for the fowls who were running free to come in and get their food. the little girls had wanted to put on their sunday dresses, but their mother told them that she did not think it would be really polite to the poultry, who had to wear the very same feathers that they had on every day. so the little girls contented themselves with having their hair done up on top of their heads and bows of yellow tissue paper pinned on the knots. this made them feel very fine indeed, and as though being six years old were almost the same as being grown up. they had some beautiful red tissue paper which they wanted to use, but when they remembered how the gobbler felt about red, they decided to use the yellow instead. and that was both wise and kind. one should always try to make guests happy. the baby was not to come out until supper-time, so the little girls and their dolls played quite alone for a while. there was much to tell and to show the dolls, for it was the first time they had ever been on a farm, and everything must have seemed strange to them. "do you see that tall white plymouth rock cock over there?" said the brown-haired twin to hers. "my father says he is the most vallyoobol fowl on the farm. he cost a lot of money. i asked father if he paid as much as ten cents for him, and he said he paid a great deal more. just think of that! more than ten cents! you must be very polite to him." "i will show you our kindest hen," said the golden-haired twin to her doll. "she is coming this way now. she is the barred plymouth rock hen, and she is a peticullar friend of my father's. she didn't cost so much as some of the others, but she is very good." "and there comes the speckled hen," said the brown-haired twin. "she doesn't lay many eggs, but my father says that she is the best hen on the farm about taking care of lonely or sick chickens. she is very small, but she spreads herself out so she can cover a lot, and then she cuddles them until they are happy again, and can run around with her and eat the worms she scratches up for them." there is no telling how much more the dolls might have learned about their new neighbors, if the baby and the mother of the little girls had not come out just then. the baby was put in his chair in the big box and given a cracker to eat, while the little girls stood outside and called to their company. "come, chick, chick, chick!" they called. "come, chick, chick, chick!" from far and near the hens came running, with lowered heads and hurrying feet, to seize the food which they knew would be given them after that call. the shanghai cock and the white cock followed more slowly, as was their habit. the gander waddled gravely along from the farthest corner of the pasture in which the poultry-house stood, with his wife and the other geese following solemnly behind him. the turkeys, all together once more since the children were so large, came with rather more haste from the roadside, where they had been hunting acorns. and down by the river the ducks and their children could be seen scrambling up onto the bank and shaking themselves. all were glad enough to come to the party as soon as they were sure it was time, but whether they had understood the invitations which had been pinned around for them to read--well, who can tell about that? the man came from the barn to see the fun, and he and the woman set the two birthday cakes from her basket onto the table. after she had done that, she had to pay more attention to the baby, who kept trying to reach them with his fat little hands. the man handed a pan of corn to each of the little girls. "wait until the ducks get here," he said. "they must have their share and there is plenty of time." the brown-haired little girl felt that those who were waiting should be amused in some way, so she began to talk to them. "this is our birthday party," she said, "and we are very glad you didn't have the measles, so you could come. a party is something to eat when you are dressed up and have company. we have some corn for you because you like that best, but if you are good and polite you may have some of our cake, too." by this time the ducks were there, and each little girl began flinging handfuls of corn out to the poultry. some of it was thrown into the yards where the white plymouth rocks were kept, and the rest fell between the yards and the big box. one cannot say very much for the manners of the company, yet it is quite certain that they had a good time. when they had settled down to eating quietly, the man lighted the candles on the birthday cakes and the woman passed a plate of bread and butter sandwiches to the three happy children around the table. the dolls did not seem to be hungry, but they must have enjoyed it very much, for they smiled all the time, even when nobody was speaking to them. the man and the woman sat on a couple of old chicken-coops by the open side of the big box, and said what a fine day it was, and how good everything tasted, and what a very large party it was. the baby laughed a great deal and said "pitty! pitty!" every time a soft breeze made the candle-flames dip and waver. the most exciting time came when the candles burned low and had to be blown out by the little girls, with the baby helping. then the cakes were cut, and the man and the woman and the three children in the box all had a share. the dolls were not forgotten, but even after they had been fed there was much remaining. the barred plymouth rock hen stepped daintily up to the box and stood with her left foot lifted. "my friend, the hen, is hinting that we should pass the cake to the other guests," said the man, "and i think we should." the little girls helped to cut it into small pieces, and then the whole family, baby, and all, stood in the sunshine and threw the fragments to the eager poultry, while the dolls looked on. the barred plymouth rock hen walked inside the box and picked up the many crumbs around the table, while the other fowls fluttered and ran for the pieces outside. the black hen always picked for the largest, and the rest chased her. their manners were certainly bad, but it was the first birthday party they had ever attended, and perhaps it is not strange that they were excited and greedy. when the last crumb had been thrown out and not even the black hen could find another scrap, the man and his family turned toward the house. the sun was already low in the sky, and the air grew cooler as night drew near. it reminded the man that winter was coming. "it has been a happy summer," he said, "a busy and happy summer. i am strong again, and the work has gone well. i have a fine lot of fowls, and i am fond and proud of them. i think they deserve a party once in a while." "it was the very nicest party we ever had," said the little girls. "we ought to invite the poultry every time." the barred plymouth rock hen murmured softly as she walked along behind them. "she thinks so too," said the man. [illustration] [illustration: painted by f. winterhalter.] h.m.g. majesty, victoria, queen of great britain, in the robes of the most noble order of the garter. daguerreotyped by thompson, from the portrait in possession of geo. p. burnham; presented to him by her majesty, the queen, in [see letter, page .] the history of the hen fever. a humorous record. by geo. p. burnham. [illustration] in one volume.--illustrated boston: james french and company. new york: j.c. derby. philadelphia: t.b. peterson. entered according to act of congress, in the year , by george p. burnham, in the clerk's office of the district court of the district of massachusetts. stereotyped by hobart & robbins, new england type and stereotype foundery, boston. geo. c. rand, printer, cornhill. to the amateurs, fanciers, and breeders of poultry, the successful and unfortunate dealers, throughout the united states; and the victims of misplaced confidence in the hen trade, generally, i dedicate this volume. preface. in preparing the following pages, i have had the opportunity to inform myself pretty accurately regarding the ramifications of the subject upon which i have written herein; and i have endeavored to avoid setting down "aught in malice" in this "_history of the_ hen fever" in the united states. i have followed this extraordinary _mania_ from its incipient stages to its final death, or its _cure_, as the reader may elect to term its conclusion. the first symptoms of the fever were exhibited in my own house at roxbury, mass., early in the summer of . from that time down to the opening of (or rather to the winter of ), i have been rather intimately connected with the movement, if common report speaks correctly; and i believe i have seen as much of the tricks of this trade as one usually meets with in the course of a single natural life. now that the most serious effects of this (for six years) alarming epidemic have passed away from among us, and when "the people" who have been called upon to pay the cost of its support, and for the burial of its victims, can look back upon the scenes that have in that period transpired with a disposition cooled by experience, i have thought that a volume like this might prove acceptable to the hundreds and thousands of those who once "took an interest in the hen trade,"--who _may_ have been mortally wounded, or haply who have escaped with only a broken wing; and who will not object to learn how the thing has been done, and "who threw the bricks"! if my readers shall be edified and amused with the perusal of this work as much as i have been in recalling these past scenes while writing it, i am content that i have not thrown the powder away. i have written it in perfect good-nature, with the design to gratify its readers, and to offend no man living. and trusting that _all_ will be pleased who may devote an hour to its pages, while at the same time i indulge the hope that _none_ will feel aggrieved by its tone, or its text, i submit this book to the public. respectfully, geo. p. burnham. russet house, _melrose_, . contents. chapter page i. premonitory symptoms of the disease, ii. the "cochin-chinas." bubble number one, iii. the first fowl show in boston, iv. how "poultry-books" are made, v. threatening indications, vi. the epidemic spreading, vii. alarming demonstrations, viii. the fever working, ix. the second poultry show in boston, x. the mutual admiration society's second show, xi. progress of the malady, xii. my correspondence, xiii. the other side of the question, xiv. "bother'em pootrums." bubble number two, xv. advertising extraordinary, xvi. height of the fever, xvii. running it into the ground, xviii. one of the final kicks, xix. the fourth fowl show in boston, xx. present to queen victoria, xxi. experiments of amateurs, xxii. true history of "fanny fern," xxiii. convalescence, xxiv. an expensive business, xxv. the great pagoda hen, xxvi. "policy the best honesty," xxvii. a genuine humbug, xxviii. barnum in the field, xxix. first "national" poultry show in new york, xxx. barnum's innate diffidence, xxxi. a suppressed speech, xxxii. a "confidence" man, xxxiii. the essence of humbug, xxxiv. a trump card, xxxv. "hold your horses," xxxvi. tricks of the trade, xxxvii. final death-throes, xxxviii. the porte-monnaie i owe 'em company, xxxix. a satisfactory pedigree, xl. doing the genteel thing, xli. the fate of the "model" shanghaes, xlii. an emphatic clincher, xliii. "stand from under," xliv. bursting of the bubble, xlv. the dead and wounded, xlvi. a mournful procession, xlvii. my shanghae dinner, the history of the hen fever. chapter i. premonitory symptoms of the disease. i was sitting, one afternoon, in the summer of , in my little parlor, at roxbury, conversing with a friend, leisurely, when he suddenly rose, and passing to the rear window of the room, remarked to me, with considerable enthusiasm, "what a splendid lot of fowls you have, b----! upon my word, those are very fine indeed,--do you know it?" i had then been breeding poultry (for my own amusement) many years; and the specimens i chanced at that time to possess were rather even in color, and of good size; but were only such as any one might have had--bred from the common stock of the country--who had taken the same pains that i did with mine. there were perhaps a dozen birds, at the time, in the rear yard, and my friend (_then_, but who subsequently passed to a competitor, and eventually turned into a sharp but harmless enemy) was greatly delighted with them, as i saw from his enthusiastic conversation, and his laudation of their merits. i am not very fast, perhaps, to appreciate the drift of a man's motives in casual conversation,--and then, again, it may be that i am "not so slow" to comprehend certain matters as i might be! at all events, i have sometimes flattered myself that, on occasions like this, i can "see as far into a millstone as can he who picks it;" and so i listened to my friend, heard all he had to say, and made up my mind accordingly, before he left me. "i tell you, b----, those are handsome chickens," he insisted. "i've got a fine lot, myself. you keep but one variety, i notice. i've got 'em _all_." "all what?" i inquired. "o, all kinds--all kinds. the chinese, and the malays, and the gypsies, and the chittaprats, and the wang hongs, and the yankee games, and bengallers, and cropple-crowns, and creepers, and top-knots, and gold pheasants, and buff dorkings, and english games, and black spanish and bantams,--and i've several _new breeds_ too, i have made myself, by crossing and mixing, _in the last year_, which beat the world for beauty and size, and excellence of quality." "indeed!" i exclaimed. "so you have made several new _breeds_ during _one_ year's crossing, eh? that _is_ remarkable, doctor, certainly. i have never been able yet to accomplish so extraordinary a feat, myself," i added. "well, _i_ have," said the doctor,--and probably, as he was a practising physician of several years' experience, he knew how this reversion of nature's law could be accomplished. i didn't. "yes," he continued; "i have made a breed i call the 'plymouth rocks,'--superb birds, and great layers. the--a--'yankee games,'--regular knock-'em-downs,--rather fight than eat, any time; and never flinch from the puncture of steel. indeed, _so_ plucky are these fowls, that i think they rather _like_ to be cut up than otherwise,--alive, i mean. then, i've another breed i've made--the 'bengal mountain games.' these _are_ smashers--never yield, and are magnificent in color. then i have the '_fawn-colored dorkings_,' too; and several other fancy breeds, that i've fixed up; and fancy poultry is going to sell well in the next three years, you may be sure. come and see my stock, b----, won't you? and i'll send you anything you want from it, with pleasure." i was then the editor of a weekly paper in boston. i accepted my friend's kind invitation, and travelled forty miles and back to examine his poultry. it looked well--_very_ well; the arrangement of his houses, &c., was good, and i was gratified with the show of stock, and with his politeness. but he was an enthusiast; and i saw this at the outset. and though i heard all he had to say, i could not, for the life of me, comprehend how it was that he could have decided upon the astounding merits of all these different _breeds_ of fowls in so short a space of time--to wit, by the crossings in a single year! but that was his affair, not mine. he was getting his fancy poultry ready for the market; and he repeated, "it will _sell_, by and by." and i believe it did, too! the doctor was right in _this_ particular. he informed me that he intended to exhibit several specimens of his fowls, shortly, in boston; and soon afterwards i met with an advertisement in one of the agricultural weeklies, signed by my friend the doctor, the substance of which was as follows: notice.--i will exhibit, at _quincy market_, boston, in a few days, sample pairs of my fowls, of the following pure breeds; namely, cochin-china, yellow shanghae, black spanish, fawn-colored dorkings, plymouth rocks, white dorkings, wild indian, malays, golden hamburgs, black polands, games, &c. &c; and i shall be happy to see the stock of other fanciers, at the above place, to compare notes, etc. etc. the above was the substance of the "notice" referred to; and the doctor, coming to boston shortly after, called upon me. i showed him the impropriety of this movement at once, and suggested that some spot other than quincy market should be chosen for the proposed exhibition,--in which i would join, provided an appropriate place should be selected. after talking the matter over again, application was made to an agricultural warehouse in ann-street, or blackstone-street, i believe; the keepers of which saw the advantages that must accrue to themselves by such a show (which would necessarily draw together a great many strangers, out of whom they might subsequently make customers); but, at my suggestion, this very stupid plan was abandoned--even after the advertisements were circulated that such an exhibition would come off there. upon final consideration it was determined that the first exhibition of fancy poultry in the united states of america should take place in november, , at the _public garden_, boston. chapter ii. the "cochin-chinas." bubble number one. a public meeting was soon called at the legislative hall of the statehouse, in boston, which had the effect of drawing together a very goodly company of savans, honest farmers, amateurs, poulterers, doctors, lawyers, flats, fanciers and _humbugs_ of one kind or another. _i_ never attended one of the meetings; and only know, from subsequent public and private "reports," what occurred there. on this _first_ occasion, however, after a great deal of bosh and stuff, from the lips of old men and young men, who possessed not the slightest possible shadow of practical knowledge of the subject proposed to be discussed, it was finally resolved that the name for the (now defunct) association then and there formed, should be "_the new england society for the improvement of domestic poultry_"!!! now, the only objection i ever raised to this title was that it was not sufficiently _lengthy_! when applied to for my own views on the subject, _i_ recommended that it should be called the "mutual admiration society." but, though i was thought a great deal of by its members,--especially when the concern was short of funds,--in _this_ case they thought my proposed title was altogether too applicable; and the original name, above quoted, was adhered to. i was honored with the office of vice-president of the society, for massachusetts; to which place i was reëlected annually, i believe, until the period of its death. for which honor i was not ungrateful, and in consideration of which, "as in duty bound, i have ever prayed" for the association's prosperity and weal. the first name that was placed upon the list of subscribers to the constitution of this society was that of his excellency geo. n. briggs, formerly governor of this commonwealth. he was followed by a long list of "mourners," most of whom probably ascertained, within five years from the hour when they subscribed to this roll, that causing the cock's spur _to grow between his eyes_ was not quite so easy a thing to accomplish as one "experienced poultry-breeder" at this meeting coolly asserted it to be! how many attempted this experiment (as well as numerous others there suggested as feasible), i am not advised. but i am inclined to think that those who did try it found it to be "all in their eye." while these gentlemen were arranging the details of the new "society," and were deciding upon what the duties of the officers and committees should be, i quietly wrote out to england for information regarding the somewhat notorious "_cochin-china_" fowl, then creating considerable stir among fanciers in great britain; and soon learned that i could procure them, in their purity, from a gentleman in dublin, whose stock had been obtained, through lord heytsbury (then lord lieutenant of ireland), direct from queen victoria's samples. i ordered six of them,--two cocks and four hens,--and in december, , i received them through adams & co.'s transatlantic express. at this period there was no telegraph established from boston to halifax, i believe. some of the reporters for the daily city papers usually visited the steamers, upon their arrival here, to obtain their foreign files of exchanges; and here my birds were first seen by those gentlemen who have made or broken the prospects of more than one enterprise of far greater consequence than this "importation of fancy fowls" could seem to be. but on the day succeeding the coming of those birds, several very handsome notices of the arrival of these august chinamen appeared in the boston papers, and a vast amount of credit was accorded to the "enterprising importer" of the outlandish brutes, that were described in almost celestial language! after considerable trouble and swearing (custom-house swearing, i mean), the officers on board permitted my team to take the cage out of the steamer, and it was conveyed to my residence in roxbury, where it arrived two hours after dark. i had long been looking for the coming of these celestial strangers, and the "fever," which i had originally taken in a very kindly way, had by this time affected me rather seriously. i imagined i had a fortune on board that steamer. i looked forward with excited ideas to beholding something that this part of the world had never yet seen, and which would surely astound "the people," when i could have the opportunity to show up my rare prize,--all the way from the yards or walks of royalty itself! i waited and watched, with anxious solicitude,--and, at last, the box arrived at my house. it was a curiously-built box--the fashion of it was unique, and substantial, and foreign in its exterior. i supposed, naturally, that its contents must be similar in character. that box contained my "cochin-chinas,"--bred from the queen's stock,--about which, for many weeks, i had been so seriously disturbed. [illustration: portrait of the "cochin-china" fowl!] i am _now_ well satisfied that the "cochin-china" variety of fowl is a gross fable. if such a breed exist, in reality, we have never had them in this country. anything (and everything) has been _called_ by this name among us, in the last five years; but the engraving on the following page, in my estimation (and i have been there!), is the nearest thing possible to a likeness of this _long_ petted bird; and will be recognized, i think, by more than one victim, as an accurate and faithful portrait of this lauded "magnificent" and "superb" bird! i was anxious to examine my celestial friends at once. i caused the box to be taken into a shed, at the rear of the house, and i tore from its front a piece of canvas that concealed them from view, to behold a----well! _n'importe_--they were _cochin-china_ fowls! but, since god made me, i never beheld six _such_ birds before, or since! they resembled _giraffes_ much more nearly than they did any other thing, carnivorous, omnivorous,--fish, flesh, or fowl. i let them out upon the floor, and one of the cocks seized lustily upon my india-rubber over-shoe, and would have swallowed it (and myself), for aught i know, had not a friend who stood by seized him, and absolutely choked him off! this is truth, strange as it may seem; but i presume they had scarcely been fed at all upon their fortnight's voyage from dublin, and i never saw any animals so miserably low in flesh, in my life, before. what with their long necks, and longer legs, and their wretchedly starved condition, i never wondered that the friendly reporters spoke of their appearance as being "extraordinary, and strikingly peculiar." these were the original "cochin-china" fowls of america. and they probably never had the first drop of chinese blood in their veins, any more than had the man who bred them, and who knew this fact much better than i did--who knew it well enough. i housed my "prize" forthwith, however, and provided them with everything for their convenience and comfort. the six fowls cost me ninety dollars. they _were_ beauties, to be sure! when i informed a neighbor of their cost, he ventured upon the expressive rejoinder that i "was a bigger d----d fool than he had ever taken me for." to which i responded nothing, for i rather agreed with him myself! nine months afterwards, however, i sold him a cock and three pullets, four months old, raised from those very fowls, for sixty-five dollars; and i didn't retort upon him even _then_, but took his money. the chickens i sold him were "dog-cheap," at that! [illustration] chapter iii. the first fowl-show in boston. never in the history of modern "bubbles," probably, did _any_ mania exceed in ridiculousness or ludicrousness, or in the number of its victims surpass this inexplicable humbug, the "hen fever." kings and queens and nobility, senators and governors, mayors and councilmen, ministers, doctors and lawyers, merchants and tradesmen, the aristocrat and the humble, farmers and mechanics, gentlemen and commoners, old men and young men, women and children, rich and poor, white, black and grey,--_everybody_ was more or less seriously affected by this curious epidemic. the press of the country, far and near, was alive with accounts of "extraordinary pullets," "enormous eggs" (laid on the tables of the editors), "astounding prices" obtained for individual specimens of rare poultry; and all sorts of people, of every trade and profession and calling in life, were on the _qui vive_, and joined in the hue-and-cry, regarding the suddenly and newly ascertained fact that hens laid eggs----_sometimes_; or, that somebody's crower was heavier, larger, or higher on the legs (and consequently higher in value), than somebody else's crower. and the first exhibition of the society with the long name came off duly, at last, as agreed upon by the people, _and_ myself. "the _people_"! by this term is ordinarily meant the body-politic, the multitude, the citizens at large, the voters, the--the--a--the masses; the----well, no matter! at the period of which i am now writing, the term signified the "hen-men." this covered the whole ground, at that time. everybody was included, and thus nobody was left outside! at this first show, the committee "flattered themselves" (and who ever heard of, or from, a committee that didn't do this!) that never, within the memory of the oldest inhabitant,--who, by the way, was then living, but has since departed to that bourn from which even defunct hen-men do not return,--never had such a display been witnessed; never had the feathered race before appeared in such pristine beauty; never had any such exhibition been seen or read of, since the world begun! and, to say truth, it wasn't a very bad sight,--that same first hen-show in boston. thousands upon thousands visited it, the newspapers appropriated column after column to its laudation, and all sorts of people flocked to the public garden to behold the "rare and curious and inexpressibly-beautiful samples" of poultry caged up there, every individual specimen of which had, up to that hour, been straggling and starving in the yards of "the people" about boston (they and their progeny) for years and years before, unknown, unhonored and unsung. gilded complimentary cards, in beautifully-embossed envelopes, were duly forwarded by the "committee" to all "our first men," who came on foot or in carriages, with their lovely wives and pretty children, to see the extraordinary sight. the city fathers, the public functionaries, governors, senators, representatives, all responded to the invitation, and everybody was there. the cocks crowed lustily, the hens cackled musically, the ducks quacked sweetly, the geese hissed beautifully, the chickens peeped delightfully, the gentlemen talked gravely, the ladies smiled beneficently, the children laughed joyfully, the uninitiated gaped marvellously, the crowd conversed wisely, the few knowing ones chuckled quietly,--everybody enjoyed the thing immensely,--and suddenly, prominent among the throng of admirers present, loomed up the stalwart form and noble head of daniel webster, who came, like the rest, to _see_ what he had only "read of" for the six months previously. the committee saw him, and they instantly lighted on him for a speech; but he declined. "only a few words!" prayed one of them. "one word, _one_ word!" insisted the chairman. "i can't!" said daniel. but they were importunate and unyielding, that enthusiastic committee. "gentlemen!" said the honorable senator, at last, amid the din. "ladies and gentlemen!" he continued, as a monster upon feathered stilts, at his elbow, shrieked out an unearthly crow, that drowned the sound of his voice instanter,--"ladies and gentlemen, really--i--would--but the noise and confusion is so great, that i cannot be heard!"--and a roar followed this capital hit, that drowned, for the moment, at least, even the rattling, crashing, bellowing, squeaking _music_ of the feathered bipeds around him. the exhibition lasted three days. unheard-of prices were asked, and readily paid, for all sorts of fowls; most of those sold being mongrels, however. as high as thirteen dollars was paid by one man (who soon afterwards became an inmate of a lunatic asylum) for a single pair of domestic fowls. it was monstrous, ridiculous, outrageous, exclaimed every one, when this fact--the absolute paying down of thirteen round dollars, then the price of two barrels of good wheat flour--was announced as having been squandered for a single pair of chickens. i _sold_ some fowls at that show. i didn't _buy_ any there, i believe. the receipts at the gates paid the expenses of the exhibition, and left a small surplus in the hands of somebody,--i never knew who,--but who took good care of the money, i have not a doubt; as most of the officers at _that_ time were, like myself, "poor, but honest." by the time this fair closed, the pulse of the "dear people" had come to be rather rapid in its throbs, and the fever was evidently on the increase. fowls were in demand. not _good_ ones, because nothing was then said by the anxious would-be purchasers about _quality_. nobody had got so far as that, then. they wanted _fowls_ only,--hens and cocks,--to which they themselves gave a name. some fancied one breed, or variety, and some another; but anything that sported feathers,--from the diminutive bantam to the stork-shaped chinaman,--everything was being sought after by "amateurs" and "fanciers" with a zest, and a readiness to pay for, that did honor to the zeal of the youthful buyers, and a world of good to the hearts of the quiet breeders and sellers, who began _first_ to get posted up, and inured to the disease. _i_ was an humble and modest member of this latter class. _i_ kept and raised only _pure_ breeds of fowls. chapter iv. how "poultry-books" are made. soon after this, i learned that one asa rugg, of pennsylvania (a _nom de guerre_), was in the possession of a breed of fowls that challenged all comparison for size and weight. they were called the _chittagong_ fowl, and were thus described in the poultry-books published in : "the fowl thus alluded to has been imported, within the last two or three years, into pennsylvania, and ranks at the head of the list, in that region, for all the good qualities desirable in a domestic bird. the color is a _streaked grey_, rather than otherwise, and the portraits below" (my birds) "are fine samples of this great stock. they are designated as the grey chittagongs." "asa rugg," in his letter to me, described this stock as being at the head of the races of poultry, having "the _largest_ blood in them of any variety of fowl with which he was acquainted." the pair he first sent me were light-grey and streaked, and "at less than seven months old weighed over _nineteen_ pounds." he said, in that insinuating and delicate manner so peculiar to the habits of gentlemen who possess what another wishes to buy of them,--"i did not intend, my dear mr. b----, to part with these magnificent specimens at _any_ figure whatever. i assure you i had much rather retain them; for they are _very_ fine, as you would say, could you see them. if, however, you are disposed to pay my price, i shall let you have them. i really shall regret their absence from my yard, however. try and make up your mind to be satisfied with something else--won't you? _these_ fowls i must keep, if possible," &c. &c. now, asa _knew_ very well, if he had charged me two hundred (instead of twenty) dollars for those grey fowls, i should have taken them from him. of course i sent for them at once; and, within ten days, they were in my poultry-house, a new wonder for the hundreds who called to see my "superb" and "extraordinary" fowls. a competitor turned up, a few months after this, a notorious breeder in p----, who, though a respectable man, otherwise, never knew a hen from a stove-pipe, but who had more money at that time than i had, and who, in the hen-trade, possessed the impudence of the devil, without the accompanying graces to carry out his object. this man chanced, while in pennsylvania, to hear asa speak of _me_, and at once he stepped in to "head me" in that quarter. he bought all the "_grey_ chittagongs" that rugg had left (most of which, when they reached p----, happened to be dark _red_ and _brown_), and forthwith set up an establishment in _opposition_ to me; for what purpose i never knew. i did not know him from a side of sole-leather, i had never spoken to or of him, and i could not comprehend why this person should render himself, as he did, my future "death's head" in the fowl-trade. if he went into the traffic for the purpose of making money out of it, he has found, by this time, i have no doubt, that he would have been, at the very least calculation, five thousand dollars better off had he never thrust himself into a business of which he did not know the first rudiments. if he embarked in it to interfere with or to injure me, personally, he has now ascertained, i imagine, that it required a faster horse than _he_ was in the habit of driving to keep in sight of _my_ team. if his purpose was the gratification of his own petty spite or ambition only, he has had to pay for the enjoyment of it,--ay, to his dear cost!--and he is welcome to all he ever made out of his contemptible, niggardly huckstering. soon after the first exhibition, it was announced by the publishers in boston that dr. bennett's new treatise would be immediately issued by them. the doctor had originally applied to the establishment in which i was then a partner, to issue this work; but i recommended him to the others, because our own facilities for getting it out were not so good as i thought were theirs. i furnished a considerable amount of the matter for that book, and had already obtained, at my own individual expense, several of the engravings which appear in the work spoken of. after the original cuts were placed in the publishers' hands, they were reduced in size, and injured (for my purposes), as i conceived, when they finally appeared in print. the doctor's book on poultry had been announced again and again; but it did not make its appearance in the market, in consequence of his tardiness. week after week, and month after month, passed by, but still no dr. bennett's book could be found. i saw some of the proof-sheets finally, observed the fate of the illustrations of _my_ fowls, and made up my mind what i would do. the book was at last announced positively to appear in three weeks. i immediately called at a stereotype foundery, and asked how much time it would require to stereotype a work of one hundred and fifty pages for me. i was told that it would occupy three to four weeks to complete it. "can't it be done in _one_ week?" i inquired. the proprietor smiled, and said that this was impossible. i replied, "well, sir, to-day is tuesday. i have engaged to deliver in new york city, on the morning of a week from next saturday, three thousand copies of a book _which i am about to write_. is there _no_ way that you can help me out?" the gentleman looked at me incredulously. i added, "mr. ----, i have been in the newspaper business a good many years, and i have had the message of the president of the united states--a document occupying a dozen columns of solid brevier and minion--set up and put to press within forty-two minutes from the time it reached our office. _anything_ can be accomplished, now-a-days, if we but will it." "but, you say you _are about_ to write it. when will the 'copy' be ready?" said the stereotyper. "i have thought of this," i replied, "but a few hours. the _title_, even, is not yet decided upon. i will give you fifty pages of manuscript to-morrow morning, the next day i will add another fifty, and you shall have the whole in hand by friday morning." he kindly undertook to aid me. i engaged three engravers, who worked day and night upon the drawings and transfers of the fowls for my illustrations; the paper was wet down on monday and tuesday; i read the final revised proof of my work on wednesday night; the book went to press on thursday; the binders were ready for it as it came up, the covers were put on on friday morning, and i sent to the new york house (who had bespoken them), by harnden's express, on friday evening, three thousand five hundred copies of the "new england poultry-breeder," _illustrated with twenty-five correct engravings_ of _my_ choice, magnificent, superb, unapproachable, pure-bred fowls. this book had an extraordinary sale,--far beyond my own calculations, certainly. i got it out for the purpose of "doing justice" to my own stock, and calculated that it would prove a good advertising medium for me,--which it _did_, by the way. but the demand for the "new england poultry-breeder" was immense. and _thirteen_ different editions (varying from three thousand five hundred to one thousand copies each) were issued within as many weeks, and were sold, every copy of them. this is the true history of the "new england poultry-breeder." by and by dr. bennett's book appeared. the market was now glutted with this kind of thing, and this work, though a good one, generally, dragged on the hands of its originators. i doubt if a thousand copies of this book ever found their way into the market, the author being too deeply engrossed with his then thriving trade, to trouble himself about urging the sale of his book, or of thinking about the interests of his publishers. chapter v. threatening indications. another meeting was now called at the statehouse, which was even more fully attended than the first, and at which much more serious indications of enthusiasm were apparent. old men, and middle-aged farmers, and florists, and agriculturists, and live-stock breeders, from all parts of this and the neighboring states, congregated together on this eventful occasion, and entered into the debate with an earnestness worthy of so important and "glorious" a cause. some of the speakers had by this time got to be so elated and so ardent that they rehearsed all they knew, and some of them told of a great deal more than themselves or anybody else had ever dreamed of, bearing upon the subject of poultry-raising. but, really, the subject was an exciting one, and the talkers were excusable; they couldn't help it! shades of morus multicaulis victims! shadows of defunct tulip-growers! spirits of departed merino sheep speculators! ghosts of dead berkshire pig fanciers! where were ye all on that eventful night, when six hundred sober, "respectable" representatives of "the people" were assembled within the walls of our time-honored state edifice upon beacon hill, in serious and animated conclave, to decide the momentous question that "hens _was_ hens," notwithstanding, nevertheless! "mr. president," exclaimed one of these gentlemen (whose speech was not publicly reported, i think), "mr. president, the times is propishus. we're a-enterin' on a new ery. the _people_ is a-movin' in this 'ere great, and wonderful, and extraordinary--i may say, mr. president, this 'ere soul-stirrin' and 'lectrefyin--branch of interestin' rural erconomy." (applause, during which the speaker advanced a step or two nearer to the presiding officer's desk, wiped his nose fiercely upon a fiery-red bandanna handkerchief, and proceeded.) "the world, mr. president," he continued, "is a-growin' wiser ev'ry day,--i may say ev'ry hour, mr. president! ay, sir, ev'ry minute." (loud applause, amid which one old gentleman in a bob-wig was particularly vociferous.) "i say, mr. president, the people is a-growin' wiser continu'lly; and by that expression, sir, i mean to convey the idee that they are a-gettin' to know more, sir! who will gainsay this position? whar's the man--whar's the er--individooal, sir--that'll stan' up 'ere to-night, in this hallowed hall, under the shadder of this doom above our heads, sir, in view of the great american eagle yender,--that 'bird of promise,' sir,--and dispute the assertion that i now make, mr. president, as an american citizen, without fear and without reproach!" (deafening shouts of "nobody! nobody _can_ dispute it!") "no, _sir_! i think not, i wot not, i ventur' not, i cal'k'late _not_! i say, mr. president, it is no use for nun of us to contend agin the mighty ingine of progress; 'nless we'd like to get our crowns mashed in for our pains, sir. that's the way it 'pears to _me_; and i've no doubt that this 'nlitened ordinance now present, sir, will agree with me on _this_ p'int, and admit the truth that present indications, sir, p'int, with strikin' force, to the proberble likelihood that the deeds begun here to-night must be forever perpetooated hereafter, and that--a--they will--er--go down, sir, to our children, and our children's children, _a posteriori_, in the futur, forever!" ("yes, yes!" and thundering applause.) "but, sir, the p'int at issoo seems to me to be clear as the broad-faced sun on a cloudy day. i'm no speaker, sir. i am not the man, sir, that goes about to proclaim on tops of houses! i'm a quiet citizen, and calls myself one o' 'the people,' sir. but w'en the questions comes up of _this_ natur',--w'en it 'pears to me to be so clear and so transparent,--w'en the people goes abroad, sir, in their might, and--er--and can't stay ter home,--w'en _such_ things occurs, sir, then _i'm round_!" (shouts of "good! good! good!" the respectable old gentleman in the bob-wig creating a cloud of dust about him with his stamping and excited gestures.) "mr. president, i have a'most done----" ("no, no! go on, go on!" from all parts of the house.) "no, sir; as i've said afore, i'm no speaker, an' i make no pretenshuns to oraterry. i'm a plain man, sir; but i feel deeply interested in this subject." (nobody had yet ascertained what the "subject" was, because the gentleman hadn't alluded to any.) "and, sir, i feel that i should be unjust to myself and to this ordinance ef i did not say what i have, sir. i go in for the poultry-breedin', sir, all over! sir, i love 'em, i love 'em,--an' who shall _dar'_ to chide me for lovin' and praisin' them _'are_? "i love 'em, sir,--chickens or poultry,--dead or alive. my father afore me loved 'em, sir; and i'm rejoiced to see the feelin's that's exhibited here to-night. and, 'less anybody should suspect that i have ventured upon these few remarks with mercenary motives, mr. president (though _perhaps_ no such suppersishun would animate no man's bosom), i will state, sir, that i have no fowls to sell, sir,--none whatever. _no_, sir! not a fowl! i'm a buyer, sir,--i want to _buy_," shouted the excited man,--and he sat down amid the deafening plaudits of his associates at this meeting, who fully appreciated his speech and his palpable disinterestedness. (_item._--i found this gentleman the next day, and informed him that i had heard of his destitution. i had understood that he had no poultry, but was in search of _pure-blooded_ stock. before night i had fully supplied him with _genuine_ samples, at thirty dollars a pair, and no "discount for cash.") before this meeting concluded, the prices of fowls, and eggs, and feathers, were duly discussed, the details of which i will defer to the next chapter. but all the indications at this convention were really of a threatening character; and it would have required the strength of several stout men to have held certain of the speakers as they got warmed up, and rattled away, for dear life, upon the advantages that must accrue to the nation, in a thousand ways, from the encouragement of this epidemic, and the certain, inevitable losses that must be sustained by "the people" if they didn't go into this thing with a rush. most of these speakers, however, had fowls _for sale_! chapter vi. the epidemic spreading. while all this was transpiring, my "splendid" cochin-china fowls had arrived from england, and i had had a nice house arranged, in which to keep and exhibit them to visitors. the pullets began to lay in january, , and immediately afterwards my trade commenced in earnest, which continued, without interruption, up to the close of the year . among the "monstrosities" presented at the second meeting at the boston statehouse were several propositions that were suggested by gentlemen-amateurs and farmers in regard to the price that should be fixed on, by members of the society with the elongated title, for _eggs_ sold for incubation. one man thought that _two_ dollars a dozen for most of the fancy kinds would pay well. this gentleman (i do not remember who he was) probably calculated to furnish fancy eggs as a certain agricultural concern had been doing for some months: that is, by first purchasing them at a shilling a dozen from the eastern packets, or in quincy market. the next man thought that _three_ dollars per dozen would be fair. another member believed that _one_ dollar was enough for twelve eggs, "but he didn't know much about it," he acknowledged; which was pretty evident from his remarks. at any rate, he had never fed a "laying hen" long enough on good corn to ascertain how much she would devour while she was furnishing him with the said twelve eggs, i imagine! one gentleman, more liberally disposed, probably, ventured to express his willingness to pay _five_ dollars a dozen for what he wanted. i understood he got home safely after the meeting, though it was feared he would be mobbed for his temerity in making this ridiculous offer! i had already fixed _my_ price for the eggs that were to be dropped by my "extraordinary and superb" cochin-china fowls, which by this time had got to be "the admiration of the state" (so the newspapers said). i had the _best_ fowls in this world, or in any other; this being conceded by every one who saw them, there was no necessity of "talking the subject up" to anybody. i charged _twelve_ dollars a dozen for my eggs--and never winked at it! and why shouldn't i have the highest price? were not my fowls the "choicest specimens" ever seen in america? didn't everybody so declare? didn't the press and the poultry-books concede this, without an exception? well, they did! and so, for months, i obtained one dollar each for my cochin-china fowls' eggs; and i received order after order, and remittance after remittance, for eggs (at this figure), which i could not _begin_ to supply. and i didn't laugh, either! i had no leisure to laugh. i filled the orders as they came,--"first come, first served,"--and for several months i found my list of promises six or eight weeks in advance of my ability to meet them with _genuine_ eggs. i was not so well informed, then, as i was afterwards. i think all the eggs that were then wanted _might_ have been had. but, as the boy said, when asked where all the stolen peaches he had eaten were gone, "i donno!" will it be credited that, during the summer of , i had dozens of full-grown men--gentlemen--but enthusiastic hen-fanciers (who had contracted the fever suddenly), who came to my residence for cochin-china eggs, at one dollar each, and who, upon being informed that i hadn't one in the house, would quietly sit down in my parlor and wait two, three, or four hours at a time, _for the hens to lay them a few_, that they might take them away with them? such is the fact, however it may be doubted. i subsequently sold the eggs at ten dollars a dozen; then at six dollars; and finally, the third and fourth years, at five dollars. this paid me, because i sent off a great many. but they didn't hatch well after having been transported away and shaken over in the hands of careless and ignorant or reckless express agents. thus the buyers came again. many of the early fanciers tried this experiment over and over again, but with similar ill-success; and when they had expended ten, twenty, or thirty dollars, perhaps, for eggs, they would begin at the _beginning_ aright, and purchase a few chickens to rear, from which they could finally procure their own eggs, and go forward more successfully. but all this took time to bring it about. and meanwhile _somebody_ (i don't say who) was "feathering a certain nest" as rapidly as a course of high-minded and honorable dealing with his fellow-men would permit. chapter vii. alarming demonstrations. my premises were literally besieged with visitors, and my family attendants were worn out with answering the door-bell summons, from morning till night. "is mr. b---- at home? can we see his cochin-chinas? can we look at mr. b----'s fowls? might we take a look at the chickens?" were the questions from sun to sun again, almost; and i was absolutely compelled, in self-defence, to send the fowls away from home, for a while, for the sake of relief from the continual annoyances to which, in consequence of having them in my yard, i was subjected. fifteen, twenty, often forty callers in a single day, would come to see my "magnificent" cochin-china fowls. but i sent them off, and then "the people" cried for them! "who's dead?" queried a stranger, passing my door one day, and observing the carriages and vehicles standing in a line along the front of my garden-fence. "nobody, i guess," said another; "that's where the _cochin-chinas_ are kept." "the what?" "the cochin-chinas." "what's them?" "don't you know?" "no; never heard of 'em, afore." "never heard of burnham's cochin-chinas?" "never! what are they?" "well, i reckon you ha'n't lived in these 'ere parts long, my friend," continued the other; "and you'd better step in and look at 'em." in came the stranger, and after examining the fowls he returned. "how do you like 'em?" asked the man who had already seen them, and was waiting for his friend outside. "they're _ronchers_, that's a fact!" exclaimed the gratified stranger. and this was the universal opinion. nobody had ever seen such fowls (_i_ had seen a good many better ones!)--nobody had ever beheld any so large, so heavy, so fine. and every one who came to look at them purchased or engaged either eggs or chickens from these "extraordinary" and "never-to-be-too-much-lauded" royal cochin-china fowls! for my first broods of chickens (at three and four months old) i readily obtained twenty-five dollars a pair; and every one of them went off "like hot cakes" at this figure. it was too low for them, altogether; and i had occasion to regret, subsequently, that i did not charge fifty dollars a pair;--a price which i might just as easily then have obtained as if i had charged but one dollar a pair, as events proved to my satisfaction. but everything connected with this fever could not well be learned at once. i was not a very dull scholar, and i progressed gradually. one year after the receipt of my cochins, i got my own price for them, ask what i might. i sold a good many pairs at one hundred dollars the couple; and, oftentimes, i received this sum for a trio of them. things begun to look up with me. i had got a very handsome-looking stock on hand, at last; and when my numerous customers came to see me, they were surprised (and so was _i_) to meet with such "noble" samples of domestic fowls. "magnificent!" "astonishing!" cried everybody. a splendid open carriage halted before my door, one day, and there alighted from it a fine, portly-looking man, whom i had never seen before, and whose name i did not then learn; who, leaving an elegantly-dressed lady behind in the vehicle, called for me. i saw and recognized the _carriage_, however, as one of niles'; and i was satisfied that it came from the tremont house. as soon as the gentleman spoke, i was also satisfied, from his manner of speech, that he was a southerner. he was polite and frank, apparently. i invited him in, and he went to look at my fowls; that being the object, he said, of his visit. he examined them all, and said, quietly: "i'd like to get half a dozen of these, if they didn't come too high; but i understand you fanciers have got the price up. i used to buy these chickens for a dollar apiece. _now_, they say, you're asking five dollars each for them." i showed him my stock,--the "_pure_-bred" ones,--and informed him at once that i had not sold any of _my_ chickens, latterly, at less than _forty_ dollars a pair. he was astounded. he didn't want any--much: that is, he wasn't particular. he could buy them for five dollars; shouldn't pay that, _no_how; wanted them for his boy; would come again, and see about it, &c. &c. a five-year-old stag mounted the low fence at this moment, and sent forth an electrifying crow, such as would (at that period) have taken a novice "right out of his boots;" and a beautiful eight-pound pullet showed herself beside him at the same time. the stranger turned round, and said: "there! what is your price for such a pair as that, for instance?" "not for sale, sir." "but you _will_ sell them, i s'pose?" "no, sir. i have younger ones to dispose of; but _that_ pair are my models. i can't sell _them_." the gentleman's eye was exactly filled with this pair of chickens. "what will you _take_ for those two fowls?" "one hundred dollars, sir," i replied. "i guess you will--when you can get it," he added.--"name your lowest price, now, for those two. i want _good_ ones, if any." "i prefer to keep them, rather than to part with them at _any_ price," i insisted. "if, however, a gentleman like yourself, who evidently knows what good fowls are, desires to procure the choicest specimens in the country, why, i confess to you that those are the persons into whose hands i prefer that my best stock should fall. but i will show you some at a lower figure," i continued, driving this pair from the fence. "don't you! don't drive 'em away!" said the gentleman;--"let's see. that's the cock?" "yes, sir." "and this is the hen?" "yes." "one _hundred_ dollars! you don't _mean_ this, of course," he persisted. "no, i mean that i would rather keep them, sir." "well--i'll----_take them_," said the stranger. "it's cruel. but, i'll take them;" and he paid me five twenty-dollar gold pieces down on the spot, for two ten-months-old chickens, from my "splendid" royal cochin-china fowls. he had a tender spot _somewhere_, that i had hit, during the conversation, i presume. he took the two chickens into his carriage, and i have never seen or heard from him from that day to this. i trust, however, if "these few lines" should ever meet his eye, that his poultry turned out well, and that he himself is in good health and spirits! i called this gallant young cock "frank pierce," in honor of my valiant friend now of the white house, at washington. it will be seen that i thus sold frank for fifty dollars; a sum which the majority of the people of this country have since most emphatically determined was _a good deal more than he ever was worth_! chapter viii. the fever working. about this time an ex-member of congress, formerly from pennsylvania, was invited to deliver the address before one of the county agricultural societies of that state (where the fever had now begun to spread with alarming rapidity), who, in the course of his speech on that occasion, delivered himself of the following pointed and forcible remark. speaking of poultry and the rare qualities of certain domestic fowls, he said, "ladies and gentlemen, next to a beautiful woman, and an honest farmer, i deem a shanghae cock the noblest work of god!" now, this expression might be looked upon, by some persons, as savoring of demagogism, or, at the least, as an approach to "running this thing into the ground" (or into the air); but the honorable gentleman no doubt felt just what he said. i have seen many sensible men who felt worse than this--a good deal--on this self-same subject; and who expressed themselves much more warmly in regard to the characteristics and beauties of domestic poultry; but, to be sure, it was _after_ they had "gone through the mill," and had come out at the _small_ end of the funnel. in new england, especially, prior to the _second_ show of poultry in boston, the fever had got well up to "concert pitch;" and in new york state "the people" were getting to be very comfortably interested in the subject--where _my_ stock, by this time, had come to be pretty extensively known. the expenses attendant upon this part of the business, to wit, the process of furnishing the requisite amount of information for "the people" (on a subject of such manifestly great importance), the _quantum sufficit_ in the way of drawings, pictures, advertisements, puffings, etc., through the medium of the press, can be _imagined_, not described. the cost of the drawings and engravings which i had executed for the press, from time to time, during the years , ' , ' , and ' , exceeded over eight hundred dollars; but this, with the descriptions of my "rare" stock (which i usually furnished the papers, accompanying the cuts), was _my_ chosen mode of advertising. and i take this method publicly to acknowledge my indebtedness to the press for the kindness with which i was almost uniformly treated, while i was thus seriously affected by the epidemic which destroyed so many older and graver men than myself; though few who survived the attack "suffered" more seriously than i did, during the course of the fever. for instance, the large picture of the fowls which i had the pleasure of sending to her majesty queen victoria (in ), and which appeared in _gleason's pictorial_, the _new york spirit of the times_, _new england cultivator_, &c., cost me, for the original drawing, engraving, electrotyping, and duplicating, _eighty-three dollars_. all these expenses were cheerfully paid, however, because i found my reward in the consciousness that i performed the duty i owed to my fellow-men, by thus aiding (in my humble way) in disseminating the information which "the people" were at that time so ravenously in search of, namely, as to the person of whom they could obtain (without regard to price) the _best_ fowls in the country. this was what "the people" wanted; and thus the malady extended far and wide, and when the fall of arrived, buyers had got to be as plenty as blackberries in august, whilst sellers "of reputation" were, like the visits of angels, few and far between. _i_ was, by this time, considered "one of 'em." i strove, however, to carry my honors with christian meekness and forbearance, and with that becoming consideration for the wants and the wishes of my fellow-men that rendered myself and my "purely-bred stock" so universally popular. ah! when i look back on the past,--when i reflect upon the noble generosity and disinterestedness that characterized all my transactions at that flush period,--when i think of what i did for "the cause," and how liberally i was rewarded for my candor, my honesty of purpose, and my disingenuousness,--tears of gratitude and wonder rush to my eyes, and my overcharged heart only finds its solace by turning to my ledger and reading over, again and again, the list of prices that were then paid me by "the people," week after week, and month after month, for my "magnificent samples" of "pure-bred" cochin-china chickens, the original of which i had imported, and which were _said_ to have been bred from the stock of the queen of great britain. but, the mutual admiration----i mean, the "society" whose name was like "lengthened sweetness, long drawn out," was about to hold its second annual exhibition; and, as the number of its members had largely increased, and as each and all of those who pulled the wires of this concern (while at the same time they were pulling the wool over the eyes of "the people") had plans of their own in reference to details, i made up my mind, although i felt big enough to stand up even in this huge hornet's nest of competition, to have things to suit _my_ "notions." i _now_ had fowls to sell! i had raised a large quantity of chickens; winter was approaching, corn was high, they required shelter, the _roup_ had destroyed scores of fowls for my neighbors, and i didn't care to winter over three or four hundred of these "splendid" and "mammoth" specimens of ornithology, each one of which could very cleverly dispose of more grain, in the same number of months, than would serve to keep one of my heifers in tolerable trim. such restrictions were proposed by the officers of the society with the lengthened cognomen, that my naturally democratic disposition revolted against the arbitrary measures talked of, and i resolved to get up an exhibition of my own, where this matter could be talked over at leisure, and which i did not doubt would "turn an honest penny" into my own pocket; where, though i had done _well_ thus far, there was still room, as there was in hungry oliver twist's belly, for "more." [illustration] chapter ix. the second poultry-show in boston. on the d, d, and th days of october, in the year of our lord , the "grand exhibition" (so the _report_ termed it), for that year, came off at the large hall over the fitchburg railroad dépôt, in boston, "which proved a most extensive and inviting one" (so continued the report), "far exceeding, both in _numbers_ and in the _quality_ of specimens offered, anything of its kind ever got up in america. "the birds looked remarkably fine in every respect, and the undertaking was very successful. a magnificent show of the feathered tribe greeted the thousands of visitors who called at the hall, and all parties expressed their satisfaction at the proceedings. "the committee awarded to george p. burnham, of melrose, the _first_ premiums for fowls and chickens. the prize birds were the '_royal cochin-chinas_' and their progeny, which have been bred with care from his imported stock; and which were generally acknowledged at the head of the list of specimens." the prices obtained at this exhibition ranged very high, and "full houses" were constantly in attendance, day and evening, to examine and select and purchase from the "pure-bred" stock there. "mr. burnham, of melrose" (continued the report), "declined an offer of $ for his twelve premium cochin-china chickens, and subsequently refused $ for the choice of the pullets." "the show was much larger than the first one, and the character of the birds exhibited was altogether finer, though the old fowls were, for the most part, moulting. a deep interest was manifested in this enterprise, and it went off with satisfaction to all concerned," added the report. in order that the details of this experiment (which _i_ projected and carried through, myself) may be appreciated and understood, i extract from the "official" report the following items regarding this show, the expenses, the prize-takers, &c. the "committee of judges," consisting of myself, g.p. burnham, esq., and a gentleman of melrose, made the following statements and "observations," in the _report_ above referred to: "the exhibition was visited by full ten thousand persons, during the three days mentioned. the amount of money received for tickets was four hundred and seventy-three dollars and thirty-eight cents; and the following disbursements were made: cash paid for rent of hall, $ . " " amount of premiums and gratuities, . " " for lumber and use of tables, . " " for lighting hall, advertising, etc., . " " tickets, cards and handbills, . " " carpenters and attendants, . " " police and door-keepers, . " " grain, seed, buckets, pans, etc., . " " coops, cartage and sundries, . ------ total expenses, $ . amount received, as stated, . ------ deficit, $ . " when the state of the funds was subsequently more particularly inquired into, however, it was found that the amount of money actually received at the door was a little rising _nine_ hundred and seventy dollars, instead of "_four_ hundred and seventy-three," as above quoted. but this was a trifling matter; since the "committee of judges" spoken of above accounted for this sum, duly, in the final settlement. the "committee" aforesaid awarded the following premiums at this show, after attending to the examination confided to them--namely: "_first_ premium, for the best six fowls contributed, to _george p. burnham_, of melrose, mass., $ . "for the three best cochin-china fowls (royal), to _george p. burnham_, melrose, mass., $ . "for the twelve best chickens, of this year's growth (royal cochin-china), to _george p. burnham_, melrose, $ ." and there were some _other_ premiums awarded, i believe, there, but by which i was not particularly benefited; and so i pass by this matter without further remark, entertaining no doubt whatever that all the gentlemen who were awarded premiums (and who obtained the amount of the awards) exhibited at the fitchburg hall show _pure_-bred fowls. after making these awards, the "committee of judges" (consisting, as aforesaid, of myself, mr. burnham, and a fancier from melrose) state that "they find great pleasure"--(mark this!)--"they find great pleasure in alluding again to the splendid contributions" of some of the gentlemen who had fowls in this show,--and then the report continues as follows: "the magnificent samples of _cochin-china_ fowls, contributed by g.p. burnham, of melrose, were the theme of much comment and deserved praise. these birds include his imported fowls and their progeny--of which he exhibited nineteen splendid specimens. to this stock the committee unanimously awarded the _first_ premiums for fowls and chickens; and finer samples of domestic birds will rarely be found in this country. they are bred from the queen's variety, obtained by mr. burnham last winter, at heavy cost, through j. joseph nolan, esq., of dublin, and are unquestionably, at this time, the finest thorough-bred cochin-chinas in america." my early hen-friend the "doctor"--alluded to in the opening chapter of this book--exhibited a fowl which the "committee" thus described in their report: "the rare and beautiful imported _wild india game_ hen, contributed by mr. b.f. griggs, columbus, geo., was a curiosity much admired. this fowl (lately sold by dr. j.c. bennett, of plymouth, to mr. griggs, for $ ) is thorough game, without doubt; and her progeny, exhibited by dr. bennett, were very beautiful specimens. to this bird, and the '_yankee games_' of dr. bennett, the committee awarded a gratuity of $ ." so miserable a _hum_ as this was, i never met with, in all my long _shanghae_ experience. it out-bothered the doctor's famous "bother'ems," and really out-_cochined_ even my noted cochin-chinas! but i was content, _i_ was one of the "committee of judges." i had forgot! this committee's report was thus closed: "it has been the aim of the committee to do _justice_ to all who have taken an interest in the late fowl exhibition, and they congratulate the gentlemen who have sustained this enterprise upon its success." they did _ample_ justice to this wild bengal injun hen, that is certain. the cochin-china trade received an impulse (after this show concluded) that astonished even _me_, and i am not easily disturbed in this traffic. and i have no doubt that the people who paid their money to witness this never-to-be-forgotten (by me) exhibition, were also satisfied. the experiment was perfectly successful, however, throughout. i forwarded to all my patrons and friends copies of this report, beautifully illustrated; and the orders for "_pure_-bred chickens from the _premium_ stock" rushed in upon me, for the next four or five months, with renewed vigor and spirit. this first exhibition at the fitchburg dépôt hall proved to me a satisfactorily profitable advertisement, as i carried away all the premiums there that were of any value to anybody. but then it will be observed that the "committee of judges" of this show were my "friends." and, at that time, the competition had got to be such that all the dealers acted upon the general democratic principle of going "for the greatest good of the greatest number." in my case, i considered the "greatest number" number _one_! chapter x. the mutual admiration society's second show. in the month following, to wit, on the th, th and th of november, , the second annual exhibition of the simon pure society with the extended title was held at the public garden, in boston. no premiums were offered by the society this year, and there wasn't much to labor for. i was a contributor, and i believe i was elected a member of the committee of judges that year. how, i did not know. at any rate, i wrote the published _report_ upon the exhibition. a mr. sanford howard was chairman of this committee, if i remember rightly; and though undoubtedly a very respectable and well-meaning man (if he had not been so, he wouldn't have been placed on a committee of judges with _me_, i imagine), this mr. howard knew positively _nothing_ whatever in regard to the merits or faults of poultry generally. he had acquired some vague notions about what he was pleased to term "crested" fowls, and five-toed, white-legged, white-plumed, white-billed, white-bellied dorkings,--of which he conversed technically and learnedly; but as to his knowledge of the different varieties and breeds of domestic poultry then current, and their characteristics, it was evidently warped and very limited. but mr. howard had been connected for some months with a small monthly publication in new york state, and, like myself, i presume, among the board (god knows who they were, but _i_ don't, and never did!) who originally chose this "committee," he had "a friend at court," and was made _chairman_ of the committee too,--_how_, i never knew, either. in their report, the committee observe, again, that "_never_ in this country, if in the world, was there collected together so large a number of domestic fowls and birds as were sent to this exhibition, probably; and, though the most liberal arrangements were made in advance, it was found that the accommodations, calculated for _ten thousand specimens_, were entirely insufficient. the committee merely allude to this fact to show the actual extent of this enterprise, and the importance which the undertaking has assumed, in a single year from the birth of the association. "according to the records of the secretary, there were contributed to the society's exhibition of some four hundred and eighty coops and cages. there were in all over three hundred and fifty contributors; in addition to which about forty coops, containing some six hundred fowls, were sent to the garden and received on exhibition upon the two last days of the show; and which could not be recorded agreeably with the regulations made originally. "the palpable improvement in the appearance of the fowls exhibited in , as compared with the samples shown in , offers ample encouragement to breeders for _further and more extended efforts_; and your committee would urge it upon those who have already shown themselves competent to do so much, _to go on and effect still greater progress_ in the improvement of the poultry of new england." this report (the second of the series) did _my_ stock ample justice, i have not a doubt. i wrote it myself, and intended that it should do so. the text was in nowise changed when printed, and a reference to the document (for that year) will convince the skeptical--if any exist--whether i was or was not acquainted with adjectives in the superlative degree! a very singular occurrence took place about this time, the _basis_ of which i did not then, and have never since, been able to comprehend, upon any principles of philosophy, economy, business, benevolence, or even of sanity. but i am not very clear-headed. in the _addenda_ to my report (above named) there appeared the annexed statement, by somebody: "the trustees refer to the following with mixed pride and pleasure; the munificence and motive of the gift are most creditable. a voluntary kindness such as that of mr. smith is a very gratifying proof that the labors of the society are not regarded by enlightened men as vain: "_boston, th february, ._ "g.w. smith, esq. "sir: a meeting of the trustees of the 'new england society for the improvement of domestic poultry' was held last evening, col. samuel jaques, president of the society, in the chair, and a full quorum being present, when the treasurer announced the receipt of your very handsome _donation of one hundred and fifty dollars_ in aid of the society's funds; whereupon it was moved, and unanimously agreed, that the most grateful thanks of the society were justly due to you for such a munificent testimony of your desire for its prosperity; that the secretary communicate to you the assurance of the high appreciation with which the donation was received; and that its receipt, and also a thankful expression of gratitude towards you, should be placed on the records of the society. "i can only reiterate the sentiments contained in my instructions, in which i fully and gratefully concur; and, with best wishes for your long-continued welfare, "i am, sir, very truly yours, "john c. moore, _rec. secretary_." now, it will be observed that this was not _john_ smith who presented this sum, but another gentleman, and a different sort of individual altogether. he gave it (one hundred and fifty dollars in hard cash) the full value of a nice pair of my _best_ "pure-bred" cochin-chinas, without flinching, without any fuss, outright, freely, "in aid of the society's funds." liberal, generous, benevolent, charitable, kindly mr. smith! you did yourself honor! _you_ were one of the kind of men that i should very much liked to have had for a customer, about those days. but, after due inquiry, i ascertained that you did not keep, or breed, poultry. you were only a "friend" to the society with the elongated name,--the _only_ friend, by the way, it ever had! heaven will reward you, mr. smith, sooner or later, for your disinterestedness, but the society never can. be patient, however, and console yourself with the reflection that he who giveth to the poor, lendeth, &c. &c. the society with the long-winded title was _poor_ enough, and you cannot have forgotten that he who casteth his bread (or money) upon the waters will find it, after many days. you will find yours again, i have no doubt; but it will be emphatically "after _many_ days." the second show closed, the expenses of which reached the sum of one thousand and twenty-seven dollars eighteen cents, and the receipts at which amounted to one thousand and seventy-nine dollars eighty-four cents, exclusive of the above-named donation. the society had now a balance of two hundred and two dollars sixty-six cents in hand, and it went on its way rejoicing. col. jaques (the first president) now "resigned his commission," and moses kimball, esq., was chosen in his stead. i found myself once more among the vice presidents, john c. moore was elected secretary, dr. eben wight was made chairman of the board of trustees, and h.l. devereux became treasurer for the succeeding year. these officers were all "honorable men" who were thus placed in position _to watch each other_! the delightful consequences can readily be fancied. what my own duties were (as vice-president) i never knew. i supposed, however, that, as "one of 'em" thus elevated in official rank, i was expected to do my uttermost to keep the bubble floating, and to aid, in my humble way, to maintain the inflation. and i acted accordingly; performing my duty "as i understood it"! [illustration] chapter xi. progress of the malady. immediately after this second exhibition, the sales of poultry largely increased. everybody had now got fairly under weigh in the hen-trade; and in every town, at every corner, the pedestrian tumbled over either a fowl-raiser or some huge specimen of unnameable monster in chicken shape. i had been busy, and had added largely to my "superior" stock of "pure-blooded" birds, by importations from calcutta, hong-kong, canton and shanghae, direct. in two instances i sent out for them expressly, and in two or three other instances i had obtained them directly from on shipboard, as vessels arrived into boston and new york harbors. i was then an officer in the boston custom-house,--a democrat under a whig collector,--otherwise, a live skinned eel in a hot frying-pan. but i found that my business had got to be such that i could not fulfil my duty to uncle sam and attend appropriately to what had now got to be of very much greater importance to me; and so i resigned my situation as permit clerk at the public stores, very much to the regret of everybody in and out of the custom-house, and especially those who were applicants for my place! i had purchased a pretty estate in melrose, and now i enlarged my premises, added to my stock, and raised (during the summer and fall of ) over a thousand fowls, upon my premises. this did not begin to supply the demands of my customers, however, or even approach it. and, to give an idea of my trade at that period, i will here quote a letter from one of my new patrons. it came from the interior of louisiana, in the fall of . "geo. p. burnham, esq., boston. "i am about to embark in the raising of poultry, and i hear of yourself as an extensive breeder in this line. do me the favor to inform me, by return mail, what you can send me _one hundred pairs_ of chinese fowls for, of the yellow, red, white, brown and black varieties; the cocks to be not less than eight to ten months old, and pullets ready to lay; say twenty pairs of each color. and also state how i shall remit you, in case your price suits me, &c. "---- ----." i informed this gentleman that i had just what he wanted (of course), and that if he would remit me a draft by mail for fifteen hundred dollars--though this price was really too low for them--i would forward him one hundred pairs of fowls "that would astonish him and his neighbors." within three weeks from the date of my reply to him, i received a sight draft from the bank of louisiana upon the merchants' bank, boston, for fifteen hundred dollars. i sent him such an invoice of fowls as pleased him, and i have no doubt he was (as he seemed to be) perfectly satisfied that he had thus made the best trade he ever consummated in the whole course of his life. during the next spring i bred largely again, and supplied all the best fanciers in new england and new york state with stock, from which _they_ bred continually during that and the succeeding year. in the spring of the mutual admiration society of hen-men got up their _third_ show, at the fitchburg dépôt (in _may_, i think), where a goodly exhibition came off, and where there were now fowls _for sale_ of every conceivable color and description, good, bad, and indifferent. i contributed as usual, and, as usual, carried away the palm for the _best_ samples shown. and here was evinced some of the shifts to which certain hucksters resorted, to make "the people" believe that white was black, that they originally brought this subject before the public eye, and that _they_ only possessed the pure stock then in the country. reverends, and doctors, and deacons, and laymen,--all were there, in force. every man cried down every other man's fowls, while he as strenuously cried up his own. upon one cage appeared a card vouching for the fact that a certain _original_ shanghae crower within it, all the way from the land of the celestials, weighed fourteen pounds and three ounces, and that a hen, with him, drew nine pounds six ounces (almost twenty-four pounds). when the birds were weighed, the first drew ten and a half pounds, and the other eight and a quarter only. this memorandum appeared upon the box of a _clergyman_ contributor, who had understood that size and great weight only were to be the criterion of merit and value thenceforward. another contributor boldly declared himself to be the original holder of the only good stock in america. a third claimed to be the father of the current movement, and had a gilded vane upon his boxes which he asserted he had had upon his poultry-house for five years previously. another stated that all my fowls (there shown) were bred from _his_ stock. and still another proclaimed that the identical birds which i contributed were purchased directly of him; he knew every one of them. finally, one competitor impudently hinted that my birds actually then belonged to _him_, and had only been _loaned_ to me (for a consideration) for exhibition on this occasion! when the fair closed, however, the matter was all set right, as may be gathered from the following extract from the official report of the third show, of the committee of judges, of which i was _not_ a member: "at this third boston show," says the committee, "the best and most faultless descriptions of red and buff shanghaes were shown by g.p. burnham, esq., and others. and of the cochin-chinas, the specimens of geo. p. burnham, etc., were each and all notable, and worthy of public appreciation." this was satisfactory to me, and i made the most of this "werry fav'rable opinion" of the august committee,--who added the following, in their report, in reference to the action of southern purchasers: "it seems, from reliable information received by members of the committee, that fowls raised in new england, and exported south, attain to a much larger size, and are vastly more prolific, than in our colder climate. this is specially so in reference to the produce of stocks recently imported from the east, namely, the shanghaes, cochin-china fowls, and others of larger varieties. _so sensible have some of the most eminent southern breeders become that such is the case, that they are annually in the habit of buying their young stock from the northern states, and they find the system profitable._ in this way, new england bids fair to become the supply-market, in a great measure, for the south and west." this was beautiful! "_annually_ in the habit." i liked _that_ portion of it. and southern buyers seemed to like it, too, judging from the manner in which orders poured in upon us, after this gentle hint from _such_ authority! i believe that the chinese fowls really did better in the south than they did with us, this way. at least, i _hope_ they did! chapter xii. my correspondence. by this time my correspondence with gentlemen in all parts of america and great britain had got to be rather extended. i took from the post-office from ten to twenty-five or thirty letters, daily; and amongst them were some curious samples of orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. i offer the annexed specimens--of course without names or dates--merely to show how the young aspirants for fame (in the poultry-trade) felt, about those days; and, also, to give some idea of the progress of the fever among us, as time passed by, etc. etc. no. . sir--mr. burnham; i red in nu england poultry breeder that yu kep fouls an aigs for sail. i want one duzen aigs if tha doant cum tu tu mutch. ime a poor mann an carnt pa a gret pris. wot can yu cend me a duzen of yure best aigs for. ansur by male and direck yure leter tu me tu mi dress. yr respec'y, &c. ---- ----. no. . my dear sir: i am a poor clergyman, and i have some leisure, which i can devote to raising a few good fowls. if your price is not too high for the rather limited contents of my purse, please inform me, by return of mail, what you can furnish me with _pure_ cochin-china eggs for. i am desirous to procure a few; and i prefer that you would select for me,--in a half-dozen, say two _male_ and four _female_ eggs. i suggest this, because i am informed that your long experience in this interesting branch of rural economy has enabled you to decide (upon examining them) whether eggs will produce cocks or pullets. your early answer will confer a favor on, sir, yours, truly, ---- -- ----. no. . mr. burman: i close you ten dolls. cend me a doz. of your cotchen chiny eggs rite away--cause i hav a hen thats been a setting on some stones i put under her now most a week. you rote me that you would hav them about this time, you know. cend them by ----'s express, and tell the man who fetches them not to turn the box over, at all. i want half and half--that is to say, half cock eggs, and half hen eggs. you know what i mean by this. them that has the sharp ends on to one side--them's the cocks, and them that's round and smooth at both ends--them's the hens. forwud immediately, and mark _with care glass this side up--don't shake this with speed_. yours, &c. ---- ----. no. . g.p. burnham, esq. dear sir: i saw your beautiful cochin-china fowls last week, in the paper, and am desirous to obtain a few eggs from them, if possible. will they hatch under our common hens? or, must we have the _pure_ bloods to sit upon them? i am a novice, somewhat, in this business. i enclose you twelve dollars (the price for a dozen, i believe), which please forward, at your early convenience, by express, and oblige yours, &c. ---- -- ----. no. . friend burnham: enclosed please find ten dollars for another dozen of your _pure_ cochin-china eggs. the first ones you sent me (from some cause) did not hatch. i have kept a hen (a very good sitter, too) upon that first lot, _constantly_, for four weeks, now--and i don't believe i shall get a chick, you see! so, please forward these now, _right away_--because my hen will get tired of waiting, you know, if i don't keep her right along, steady. the $ you will find within. yours, resp'y, ---- ----. p.s. can you inform me what is good for _lice_ on fowls? i find that my hen is covered with a million of them, now. don't forget this, please.[ ] no. . sur--wen i cum to boston nex weak i want to see yure poltry i am a ole hand at the bizness myself an i like to see good kinds of poltry every ware. i see yurn in the paper an i like them verry much can yu sel a hen without a cock, i have sevral cocks now of the _black dawkin_ pure bred and fine an i would change one of them with yu for a cochon chiner hen if yu say so. answer by fust male. yure in haist ---- ----. mr. p.g. barnum,} boston.} no. . dear sir: yours duly received. i did not suppose that the price of the "cochins" was so high--but i must have a trio of them, at _any_ figure. i enclose you fifty dollars for them, agreeably with your proposal, relying upon your known good taste in selections, and upon your proverbial reputation as regards the keeping only of _pure_ stock. send them by adams & co.'s express, in a roomy cage. if they are prime, my neighbors will very shortly order from you, i am sure. yours, resp'y, ---- -- ----. no. . mr. barnam: them two fowls i bought of you, by seeing the pictur in the newspaper, and which i paid you $ cash down on the nail for, aint what they're cracked up to be--not by a long short, sir. now, what i want you to do is to sen me back my munney, or i'll prosecute you and put you in prizon for cheating people by false pertences. i was so mad when i took them out of the box that i'd a good mine to kill an eat em both on the spot.[ ] i aint no _hen_-man, i'd have you to understan, an you can't come none of this kine of nonsense over _me_. sen me back my munney, or i'll complain of you in tu days before a justis of the peas--a friend of mine, that'll give you _fits_ if you _air_ a big man. i don't keer for that. i want my munney. the fowls is both sick, too. answer this tu once, or els sen me back my munney.[ ] ---- -- ----. no. . g.p. burnham; esq.: i saw a cage of superb cochin-china fowls from your yard, yesterday, _en route_ to mobile. can you duplicate them? if so, at what price? i had understood that a mr. ---- kept choice fowls. i visited his place, but saw none there that seemed worth the taking away. if you can send me such a trio as i saw at adams & co.'s, let me know it immediately, and your price for them. how shall i remit you? yours, &c. ---- ----. no. . mr. burnham: i enclose you one hundred dollars, by check on shoe and leather dealers' bank, boston (no. ), to your order, for the fine fowls you describe in yours received this day. they should be _good_ ones, as i have no doubt they are. forward, at once, and believe me, yours, ---- -- ----. no. . g.b. burnham, boston. sir: when i paid you $ (twenty-five dolls.) for a pair of _cochin-china_ chickens, according to your own terms, i did not suppose you would dare to send to _me_ (whom you must know to be a judge of all kinds of poultry) a pair of _shanghaes_, instead of those i ordered![ ] i want none but _pure_-bred fowls in my collection, nor will i have them there, either. i have now a plenty of the shanghaes, and i ordered a pair of cochin-chinas of you. now, i want to know what you will do in this matter. will you send me a pair of _cochins_, or not? that is all i want to know at present. from yours, truly, ---- ----. p.s. i am a lawyer by profession; and i submit to no imposition of this sort, you may be sure. no. . g.p. burnham. my dear sir: the magnificent "cochin-china" birds you forwarded me last are the admiration of every one who beholds them; and i am greatly your debtor for this superb lot of fowls. my neighbor, hon. mr. m----, desires me to request you to forward him four as nearly like mine as possible, and your draft on me, at sight, for the cost, will be duly honored. he can afford (and is willing) to pay liberally for them.[ ] charge him accordingly; but be careful that you do not send him finer samples than _mine_ are,--which, by the way, i do not think possible. i enclose you draft for $ , on merchants' bank, boston, for your bill. and am yours, truly, ---- ----. no. . sir--i hav alwas heerd yu was a scamp, and now i _know_ yu are.[ ] them egs yu sent me was smasht all up, an they was runnin' down the sides of the box. what am i to do with them, sir--do yu think? do yu spose i've gut money so plenty as to throw it way in this manner? yu didn't put in _harf_ meal anuf, and the hole of them was spilte, besides being roten i hav no manner of dout. now if yu send me back the six dolls. that the postmaster see me put into my fust letter to yu, all's well an good. and ef yu don't, see if i don't publis yu and yure caracter tu the hole wurld yu infermus cheet yu. yu'd aughter be ashamed tu send a man egs that wa, anny how. so no more at present tell i heer from yu. ---- ----. no. . friend burnham: i have heard creditable accounts of thy poultry (of the cochin-china variety), and i am induced from common rumor to believe thee a man who dealeth justly and honorably. i desire to procure a few of these choice fowls, if not too expensive; and will thank thee to inform me what thy price is for such, at ages varying from four to eight months old. thy early reply will oblige thy friend and well-wisher, ---- ---- ----. no. . g.p. burnham, esq.--dear sir: send me ten trios more of the cochin-china chickens, _immediately_. if you can put them down to $ the trio, now, it will leave me a better margin. all the others are sold, at $ the trio. enclosed is draft on bank of commerce, boston, for $ . in haste, yours, ---- ----. no. . sir-- i want tu get sum coshin chiney aggs, them as will hatch out chickns with fethers onto the leggs an no mistaik. if you got them kind yu can cend me wun dusen an i will cen yu bak the munny wen the chickns is hached with fethers onto there leggs not otherwise. if yu dont like tu cend them on this turms yu can keepe 'em yureself. i bort too duzsen eg in bostun an their wasn't none of em had no fethers on the leg, i mene the chick'ns, wen tha was hached. an i dont expek i shall be fuled no mor by no such humbugg by a good dele. i pade my munny for genwine aigs and i donte see no reesun wy peeple isn't onnest. how could i tell wether their was chickns in the egs or not? of course i cou'dn't. and i doant consider sech bissiness no bettern than cheetin rite out. i bort em _twict_ this wa, an i sharnt be fuled agin arter waitin as i did both times over three weeks. ef yu will plese to sen me the pure aigs abuv menciond and wate tell tha hach fether leggs chickns, well an good, ive no dout yu air a onnest man, cos all the noospapers pufs yu. but sum of the hen traiders aint no better than thaid oughter be--that's _my_ pinion.[ ] yours &c. etc. ---- ----. no. . mr. p.b. burnum; sur, if you hav enny of them big cokin shiney fowl, that eat off tops of flour barils, i want sum. i gut a big nufoulan dogg that ways hard onto pouns, and i want tu cell him, an git sum of them cokin shinys. this dogg is a gud dogg and dont eat much. i feed him on fish and hoggs hasslits and it dont cost much to keep him. he bitt a pedler's arm most off yisterday, but he woudnt be much trubble to you, if you kep him chaind _all the time_ sose he couldnt bite nobody. if you will rite me what you ask for yure fowls, i will inform you what i ask for my dog. i dont want none nless thay can eat off tops of flour barrils, of course. them's the kind for me.[ ] anser by return mail. yours resp'y, ---- ----. [illustration: the shanghae referred to in letter no. .--(see page .)] no. . g.p. burnham, esq.: i have got a shanghae cock weighing - / pounds, and i want a few hens to match him. can you supply me? my crower stands three feet four inches high, and his middle toe measures - / inches in length. what do you think of that? i want six twelve-pound hens. dr. bennett can supply me, i presume; but i want _pure_-bred stock. i have no doubt my crower will weigh eighteen or nineteen pounds, at two years old; he is now only eight months old! let me hear from you. resp'y, ---- -- ----. no. . mr. burnham: i always took you to be a man of honor, and i supposed _you_ knew (if anybody did) what a cochin-china fowl was, because you imported your stock. now, those you sent me, and for which i willingly paid you $ for the three, are feathered on the legs; this should _not_ be, of course. how is this? they are fine, but i am certain they can be nothing but mere shanghae fowls. let me know about this, will you? yours, &c. ---- -- ----. no. . my dear sir: i hardly know what to write you about the stock i had of you, six months ago, for "cochin-chinas." that they are _not_ cochins i feel positive, however; for one half the chickens came smooth-legged, and the rest are heavily-feathered on the legs!! i consider them only _shanghaes_, and now i want to know if you can send me a trio of _pure_ bloods, that you _know_ to be cochins. if so, i care nothing about price. i want _blood_. "blood tells," you know. let me hear from you, and state your own views in this matter. i will be governed by your advice. enclosed is ten dollars for a dozen of your "cochin" eggs--_pure_, you know. in haste, yours truly, ---- ----. no. . mr. burnham. sir: do you call yourself a man of honor? i bought one doz. cochin-china eggs of you, for which i paid you six dollars, cash. i set them, and i got but _ten_ chickens out of them (two eggs i found rotten, in the nest). every one of these chicks are cocks, sir--_cocks_! now, what the devil can _i_ do, do you imagine, with ten cocks? i want to breed fowls. that is what i bought the eggs for; to begin _right_. you must have _known_ better than this. anybody could have seen that these were all male eggs. _i_ saw it, at once (i remember), but i _hoped_ i was mistaken. what do you propose to do about this? let me know, _at once_, without fail. in haste, ---- -- ----. no. . sir: you may think well of the cochin-china fowls,--i _don't_. those you sent me are long-legged, and there are no feathers on their legs, or feet, as there _ought_ to be. _i_ know what a cochin-china fowl is, too well to be deceived in this way. i will keep them. _you are a humbug._ you are welcome to the thirty dollars i paid you. i don't ask you to return it. i don't want it. i can get along very well without it. you need it. keep it. much good may it do you! in haste, ---- ----. p.s. don't you wish you may get another $ out of me, that way? o, yes--i guess you will--ha! ha! no. . mr. barman. dear sir: i see in the poultry books that the cotchin-china fowls lays two eggs every day,[ ] and sometimes three a-day. i have hens that lays two eggs a-day, frequenly, but i want to get the breed that will lay _three_ eggs a-day, reglar. if you have got anny of the cotchins that you _know_ lays three eggs a-day, i would like to get a few, at a fair price. i don't pay no fancy prices for 'em, though. the hen fever won't larst forever, i don't believe; and then when its busted up, what's the fowls good for, even if they _do_ lay three eggs a-day? let me hear from you,--but don't send any fowls unless you are _sure_ they lay three eggs every day! yours, &c., ---- ----. no. . mr. burnham.--sir: i am a gentleman, and i have no disposition to be fractious. i sent you twelve dollars, in a letter, for a dozen "cotchin" eggs, and i set them. after waiting twenty-three days, i found two grizzled-colored chickens in the nest yesterday, both of them with huge _top-knots_ on their polls! what does this mean? am i to be swindled out of my money thus? by return of mail if you do not refund my money, if i live i will prosecute you, if it costs me a thousand dollars. you may rely on this. i am not a man to be trifled with, and i refer you to messrs. ---- & ----, who know me; you evidently do _not_! in haste, ---- ----. [i did not reply to this spicy favor, because, if the gentleman really was not a "fractious" man, i imagined he would like his pure-bred chickens better as they grew up; and, besides, i could afford to wait for "a gentleman" to cool off. i never heard from him, afterwards; and concluded that he didn't _live_ to carry out his laudable intention of expending a thousand dollars in prosecuting me! i trust that, before he departed, he became hopefully pious. peace to his manes!] no. . sir: them fouls you sent me, got the sore-hed. i gin em tuppentyn and unyuns and brandy, but it want no use. the poletry books sed so, and i follered the direction, and _it killed 'em both deader'n thunder, in one night_! now you've gut my mony, and i haint narry fowls. what'll i do? don't you think this a pooty impersition? send me another pear, to once--if you don't want _fits_. in haist, ---- ----. [i sent this man "another _pear_,"--only i didn't!] [ ] after a hen had set over four weeks on her nest, i should suppose she _might_ have been thus affected! [ ] o, the cannibal! [ ] i never heard from this customer again, and should now be glad to know if he ever got his "munney"! [ ] _here_ was a "lawyer," who knew the difference between a cochin-china and a shanghae! [ ] this was the kind of gentleman i loved to fall in with. [ ] _some_ persons would consider this personal! [ ] i would liked to have seen the dealer that could "fule" this customer more than "twict." [ ] i informed this purchaser that i could send him a pair which, if they "couldn't eat off the tops" of his flour-barrels, i'd warrant would eat up the _contents_ of one as quickly as he could desire! [ ] "this gigantic bird," says richardson, a noted english writer, "is very prolific, _frequently laying two, and occasionally three eggs on the same day_!" and, in support of this monstrous assertion, he subsequently refers, as his authority for this statement (which was called in question), to the "rt. hon. mr. shaw, recorder of dublin, to mr. walters, her majesty's poultry-keeper, and to j. joseph nolan, esq., of dublin." this was, in _my_ opinion, one of the hums of the time, and i never had occasion to change that opinion. i do not believe the hen that _really_ laid two eggs in one day ever lived to do it a second time! i have _heard_ of this thing, however. but i never knew of the instance, myself. chapter xiii. the other side of the question. the foregoing are only a very few samples of hundreds upon hundreds of similar letters i constantly received, for nearly five years. all the blame occasioned by careless express-men, of false blood imposed upon me originally, of tardy hens, of the hatching or non-hatching of eggs transported hundreds of miles, of feathered legs upon chickens, or the absence of them, of every species of mishap that could by any possibility befall the fancier and amateur, through his own ignorance or errors,--every kind of mistake was charged to _me_! but, with a christian meekness, i bore it all. i was threatened with civil prosecutions, with the house of correction, the state prison, the penitentiary, and all sorts of other punishments, for my remissness; but i submitted with a quiet resignation, because "the people" were so deeply engaged in this pursuit, and everybody now had the fever so shockingly, that i sympathized with all mankind, and attributed these trifling ebullitions of ill-will, or raving, to the spasms caused by the prevalence and the severity of the epidemic. on the other hand, i was so often cheered on in my labors of love by the kind consideration of a very different sort of patrons, that i did not sink under the persecution of those who would gladly have floored me, could the thing have been readily accomplished. i pocketed the money of my customers, however, bred good fowls, followed up the trade sharply, and found myself sailing easily along, in spite of the contemptible and small-fry opposition of which i was continually the object. as an agreeable offset to the complaints and murmurings in certain quarters, the following few letters will tell their own story: from hon. henry clay. _ashland, ._ geo. p. burnham, esq., boston. my dear sir: i duly received your obliging letter, informing me that you had sent by the express of messrs. adams & co. a cage containing four fowls for me, and i postponed acknowledging it until the fate of the fowls should be ascertained. i have now the satisfaction to advise you that they all reached here safely. they have been greatly admired, not only for their enormous size, but for their fine proportions and beautiful plumage. i thank you, my dear sir, most cordially, for this very acceptable present. it has been my aim, for many years, to collect at this place the best improved breeds of the horse, the cow, the sheep, swine and the ass--though the last, not the least valuable, in this mule-raising state. to my stock on hand your splendid cochin-china fowls will be a congenial and valuable addition; and, if we succeed with them, i will take care not to monopolize the benefit of them. i am greatly obliged to you, and, with high respect, i am your obd't servant, h. clay. from gov. geo. n. briggs. _pittsfield, ._ my dear sir: the cage of cochin-china chickens you were kind enough to send, reached me in safety; and i am much obliged to you for this favor. they are, beyond comparison, the finest domestic fowls i have ever seen, and i shall breed them with such care that i hope to be able to give you a good account of them in the future. they are very much liked by all who have seen them, and you will please accept my thanks for your attention. i am, resp'y, yours, geo. n. briggs. from hon. daniel webster. _marshfield, ._ g.p. burnham, esq. dear sir: the coop of chickens arrived safely, and are noble specimens of the chinese fowl. you will rarely meet with samples apparently so well bred, and they will do any one credit. i thank you for the consignment, and consider them a most valuable addition to my stock of poultry. accept my best wishes, and believe me, dear sir, yours, very truly, daniel webster. from hon. col. phipps, h.r.m. secretary. _windsor castle, eng., ._ dear sir: the cage of grey shanghae fowls intended as a present from you to her majesty the queen has this day been received from mr. mitchell, of the zoological gardens, and they have been highly admired by her majesty. i have received her majesty's commands to assure mr. burnham of her high appreciation of his attention; and to add that it affords another addition to the many marks of good will from the citizens of the united states which the queen has received, and to which her majesty attaches so high a value. i have the honor to be your ob't and humble ser't, c.b. phipps. similar documents were often received by me, from friends and customers who knew how to appreciate good stock; and i have now hundreds of letters on file, of the most flattering character,--from _every_ state in the union, from england, ireland, france, bavaria, etc., where my stock was sent, and was roundly paid for,--all of which letters (with their enclosures, from time to time) served amply to "balance accounts" against the few received of an opposite character, and aided materially, also, to keep "the subscriber" from caving in! among the most friendly customers i ever had, and those who bought the most liberally,--while they were the most kindly in all their intercourse with me,--i must mention my patrons of the south generally, but especially the buyers in new orleans and its vicinity. i never met with a trickster amongst them, and they paid me thousands upon thousands of dollars, without a word of cavil or complaint, from first to last. these fanciers had long purses, and are live _men_, with hearts "as big as a barn," so far as my experience goes. chapter xiv. "bother'em pootrums." bubble number two. there was something tangible, and _real_, in the "cochin-china" fowl,--something that could be seen and realized (precious little, to be sure!), but still there was _something_. the cochin-china hens would lay eggs (occasionally), and when they didn't breed their chickens with feathers upon the legs, they came without them. if the legs were not black or green skinned, they were either yellow or some _other_ color. their plumage was either spotted and speckled, or it wasn't. and thus the true article, the _pure_-bred cochins, could always be designated and identified,--by the knowing ones,--i _presume_. i studied them pretty carefully, however, for five years; but _i_ never knew what a "cochin-china" fowl really was, yet! but when, in and ' , the "_bother'ems_" begun to be brought into notice, i saw at once that, although this was bubble number two, it ought to have been number _one_, decidedly. never was a grosser hum promulgated than this was, from beginning to end, even in the notorious hum of the hen-trade. there was absolutely nothing whatever in it, about it, or connected with it, that possessed the first shade of substance to recommend it, saving its _name_. and this could not have saved it, but from the fact that nobody (not even the originator of the unpronounceable cognomen himself) was ever able to write or spell it twice in the same manner. the variety of fowl itself was the _grey chittagong_, to which allusion has already been made, and the _first_ samples of which i obtained from "asa rugg" (dr. kerr), of philadelphia, in . of this no one now entertains a doubt. they were the identical fowl, all over,--size, plumage and characteristics. but my friend the doctor wanted to put forth something that would take better than his "plymouth rocks;" and so he consulted me as to a name for a brace of _grey_ fowls i saw in his yard. i always objected to the multiplying of titles; but he insisted, and finally entered them at our fitchburg dépôt show as "_burrampooters_," all the way from india. these three fowls were bred from asa rugg's grey chittagong cock, with a yellow shanghae hen, in plymouth, mass. they were an evident cross, all three of them having a _top-knot_! but, _n'importe_. they were then "burrampooters." subsequently, these fowls came to be called "buram-pootras," "burram putras," "brama-pooters," "brahmas," "brama puters," "brama poutras," and at last "brahma pootras." in the mean time, they were advertised to be exhibited at various fairs in different parts of the country under the above changes of title, varied in certain instances as follows: "burma porters," "bahama paduas," "bohemia prudas," "bahama pudras." and, for these three _last_ named, prizes were actually offered at a maryland fair, in ! the following capital sketch (which appeared originally in the boston _carpet-bag_) is from the pen of the late secretary of the mutual admiration society,--a gentleman, and a very happy writer in his way. it gives a faithful and accurate description of what many of these monsters really were, and will be read with gusto by all who have now come to be "posted up" in the secrets of the hen-trade. the editor of the above-named journal remarks that "as our _carpet-bag_ contains something connected with everything under the sun, we have abstracted therefrom a chapter on chicken-craft, which embraces a very important detail of that most abstruse science. when our readers scan the beautiful proportions of the stately fowl that _roosts_ at the head of this article, they will acknowledge that we have some right to _cackle_ because of the good fortune we have had in securing such an un_eggs_ceptionable picture, exhibiting the very perfection of cockadoodledom. isn't he a beauty, this bother'em pootrum? [illustration] "examine his altitude! observe the bold courage that stands forth in his every lineament! there is no dunghill bravery there! see what symmetry floats round every detail of his noble proportions! what kingly grace associates with the comb that adorns his head as it were a crown! what fire there is in his eye! with what proud bearing does he not wear his abbreviated posterior appendage! looking at the latter, we, and every one knowing in hen-craft, will readily exclaim, 'gerenau de montbeillard! you must have been a most unmitigated muff to designate _that_ beautiful fowl the _gallus ecaudatus_, or tailless rooster.' for ourselves, our indignity teaches us to say, 'mons. m.! your essai sur historie nat. des gallinacæ fran. tom. ii., pp. et , is a humbug!' we know that the universal world will sympathize in our sentiment on this point." peter snooks, esq. (a correspondent of this journal), it appears, had the honor to be the fortunate possessor of this invaluable variety of fancy poultry, in its unadulterated purity of blood. he furnished from his own yard samples of this rare and desirable stock for his royal highness prince albert, and also sent samples to several other noted potentates, whose taste was acknowledged to be unquestionable, including the king of roratonga, the rajah of gabble-squash, his majesty of the cannibal islands, and the mosquito king. peter supplies the annexed description of the superior properties of this variety of fowls: "the _bother'em pootrums_ are generally hatched from eggs. the original pair were not; they were sent from india, by way of nantucket, in a whale-ship. "they are a singularly _pictur-squee_ fowl from the very shell. imagine a crate-full of lean, plucked chickens, taking leg-bail for their liberty, and persevering around faneuil hall at the rate of five miles an hour, and you have an idea of their extremely ornamental appearance. "they are remarkable for producing bone, and as remarkable for producing offal. i have had one analyzed lately by a celebrated chemist, with the following result: feathers and offal, . bony substances, . very tough muscle and sinew, . miscellaneous residuum, . ------ . " a peculiarly well-developed faculty in this extraordinary fine breed of domestic fowls is that of _eating_. "a tolerably well-fed bother'em will dispose of as much corn as a common horse," insists mr. s----. this goes beyond _me_; for i have found that they could be kept on the allowance, ordinarily, that i appropriated daily to the same number of good-sized store hogs. as to affording them _all_ they would eat, i never did that. o, no! i am pretty well off, pecuniarily, but not rich enough to attempt any such fool-hardy experiment as that! but snooks is correct about one thing. they are not fastidious or "particular about _what_ they eat." whatever is portable to them is adapted to their taste for devouring. old hats, india-rubbers, boots and shoes, or stray socks, are not out-of-the-way fare with them. they are amazingly fond of corn, especially _a good deal of it_. they _will_ eat wheaten bread, rather than want. they are very inquisitive in their nature. their habit of stalking around the dwelling-house, and popping their heads into the garret-windows, is evidence of this peculiar trait. their flesh is firm and compact, and requires a great deal of eating to do it justice. like barney bradley's leather "o-no-we-never-mention-'ems," when cut up and stewed for tripe, "a fellow could eat a whole bushel of potatoes to the plateful." it is of the color of a stale red herring, and very much like that edible in taste. its scarcity constitutes its value. this _rara avis in terris_ grows to a height somewhere between . feet . inches and feet. its weight somewhat between . pounds and cwt. it never lays, except when it rolls itself in the sand. the female fowls sometimes do that duty, though amazingly seldom. mr. snooks says he will back his bother'em, for a chicken-feast, to outcrow any three asthmatical steam-whistles that any railroad company can scare up; and adds, "i am ashamed of the prejudice which makes my fellow-men unjust. the fowl society--the new england organization, i mean--repudiate the special merits of my _bother'em pootrums_, and tell me that their ideas of improvement go entirely contrary to the propriety of tolerating my noble breed of fowls. _disgustibus non disputandum_, as shakspeare, or somebody for him, emphatically says,--which means, 'every one to his taste, as the old lady said when she kissed the cow.' one thing it will not be hard to prove, i think; that is, simply the probability of something like envy operating among the members of the hen society, on account of the exclusive attention paid my _bother'ems_ at the late fowl fairs in boston,"--where the 'squire's contributions _did_ rather "astonish the boys" who were not thoroughly acquainted with the excellent qualities of these birds. verily, snooks' "bother'ems" did bother 'em exceedingly! chapter xv. advertising extraordinary. from the outset of my experience in the final attack of the hen fever, i took advantage of every possible opportunity to disseminate the now world-wide known fact that nobody else but myself possessed any "pure-bred" poultry! i could have proved this by the affidavits of more than a thousand "disinterested witnesses," at any time after april and may, , had i been called upon so to do. but as no one _doubted_ this, there was then no controversy. but, as time wore along, competition became rife, and the foremost chicken-raisers began to look about them for the readiest means obtainable with which to cut each other's throats; not "with a feather," by any means, because that would have "smelt of the shop;" but whenever, wherever, or however, their neighbors could be traduced, maligned, vilified, or injured (in this pursuit), they embraced the opportunity, and followed it up, without stint, especially towards my humble self, until most of them, fortunately, broke their own backs, and were compelled to retire from the field, while "the people" grinned, and comforted them with the friendly assurance that it "sarved 'em right." at the fitchburg dépôt show, in , my original "grey chittagongs" (already described) were in the possession of g.w. george, esq., of haverhill, to whom they had been sold by the party to whom i had previously sold them. nobody thought well of them; but they took a first prize there, and the "chittagongs" (so entered at the same time) of mr. hatch, of connecticut, also took a prize. my friend the doctor then insisted that these were _also_ "burrampooters;" but, as nobody but himself could pronounce this jaw-cracking name, it was taken little notice of at that time. mr. hatch had a large quantity of the greys at this show, which sold readily at $ to $ the pair; and immediately after this exhibition the demand for "grey chittagongs" was very active. i watched the current of the stream, and i beheld with earnest sympathy the now alarming symptoms of the fever. "the people" had suffered a relapse in the disease, and the ravages now promised to become frightful--for a time! an ambitious sea-captain arrived at new york from shanghae, bringing with him about a hundred china fowls, of all colors, grades, and proportions. out of this lot i selected a few _grey_ birds, that were very large, and (consequently) "very fine," of course. i bred these, with other grey stock i had, at once, and soon had a fine lot of birds to dispose of--to which i gave what i have always deemed their only true and appropriate title (as they came from shanghae), to wit, _grey shanghaes_. in and ' i had a most excellent "run of luck" with these birds. i distributed them all over the country, and obtained very fair prices for them; and, finally, the idea occurred to me that a present of a few of the choicest of these birds to the queen of england wouldn't prove a very bad advertisement for me in this line. i had already reaped the full benefit accruing from this sort of "disinterested generosity" on my part, toward certain _american_ notables (whose letters have already been read in these pages), and i put my newly-conceived plan into execution forthwith. i then had on hand a fine lot of fowls, bred from my "imported" stock, which had been so much admired, and i selected from my best "grey shanghae" chickens nine beautiful birds. they were placed in a very handsome black-walnut-framed cage, and after having been duly lauded by several first-rate notices in the boston and new york papers, they were duly shipped, through edwards, sanford & co.'s transatlantic express, across the big pond, addressed in purple and gold as follows: +-----------------------------------------------+ | to h.m.g. majesty, | | victoria, | | queen of great britain. | | | | _to be delivered at zoological gardens_, | | london, eng. | | | | from geo. p. burnham, boston, mass., u.s.a. | +-----------------------------------------------+ the fowls left me in december, . the _london illustrated news_ of january d, , contained the following article in reference to this consignment: "by the last steamer from the united states, a cage of very choice domestic fowls was brought to her majesty queen victoria, a present from george p. burnham, esq., of boston, mass. the consignment embraced nine beautiful birds--two males and seven pullets, bred from stock imported by mr. burnham direct from china. the fowls are seven and eight months old, but are of mammoth proportions and exquisite plumage--light silvery-grey bodies, approaching white, delicately traced and pencilled with black upon the neck-hackles and tips of the wings and tails. the parent stock of these extraordinary fowls weigh at maturity upwards of twenty-three pounds per pair; while their form, notwithstanding this great weight, is unexceptionable. they possess all the rotundity and beauty of the dorking fowl; and, at the same age, nearly double the weight of the latter. they are denominated grey shanghaes (in contradistinction to the red or yellow shanghaes), and are considered in america the finest of all the great chinese varieties. _that they are a distinct race, is evident from the accuracy with which they breed, and the very close similarity that is shown amongst them; the whole of these birds being almost precisely alike, in form, plumage and general characteristics._ they are said to be the most prolific of all the chinese fowls. at the time of their shipment, these birds weighed about twenty pounds the pair." this was a very good _beginning_. in another place (see page ) i have given a copy of the letter from hon. col. phipps, her majesty's secretary of the privy purse, acknowledging the receipt of this present. a few weeks afterward, the _london news_ contained a spirited original picture of seven of the nine grey shanghae fowls which i had the honor to forward to queen victoria. the drawing was made by permission of the queen, at the royal poultry-house, from life, by the celebrated _weir_, and the engraving was admirably executed by _smythe_, of london. the effect in the picture was capital, and the likenesses very truthful. in reference to these birds, the _news_ has the following: "grey shanghae fowls for her majesty.--in the _london illustrated news_ for january d, we described a cage of very choice domestic fowls, bred from stock imported by mr. george p. burnham, of boston, mass., direct from china, and presented by him to her majesty. we now engrave, by permission, these beautiful birds. they very closely resemble the breed of _cochin-chinas_ already introduced into this country, the head and neck being the same; the legs are yellow and feathered; the carriage very similar, but the tail being more upright than in the generality of cochins. the color is creamy white, slightly splashed with light straw-color, with the exception of the tail, which is black, and the hackles, which are pencilled with black. the egg is the same color and form as that of the cochins hitherto naturalized in this country. these fowls are very good layers, and have been supplying the royal table since their reception at the poultry-house, at windsor." all this "helped the cause along" amazingly. it proved a most excellent mode of advertising my "superb," "magnificent," "splendid," "unsurpassable," "inapproachable" grey shanghaes. the above articles found their way (somehow or other) into the papers of this country immediately; and, within sixty days afterwards, the price of "bother'ems" went up from $ and $ to $ , $ , $ , and $ , the pair!! "cochin-chinas" were now _no_whar! but _i_ was so as to be about yet. chapter xvi. height of the fever. while this cage of grey shanghaes stood for an hour or two in the express-office of adams & co., in boston, a servant came from the revere house to inform me that "a gentleman desired to see me there, about some poultry." as i never had had occasion to run round much after my customers, and, moreover, as i felt that the dignity of the business--(the _dignity_ of the hen-trade!)--might possibly be compromised by my responding in person to this summons, i directed the servant to "say to the gentleman, if he wished to see me, that i should be at my office, no. washington-street, for a couple of hours,--after that, at my residence in melrose." the man retired, and half an hour afterwards a carriage stopped before my office-door. the gentleman was inside. he invited me to ride with him--(i could afford to _ride_ with him)--to adams & co.'s office. he had seen the "grey shanghaes" intended for the queen there. "i want that cage of fowls," he said. "my dear sir," i replied, "they are going to england." "i _want_ them. what will you take for them?" "i can't sell them, sir." "you can send others, you know." "no, sir. i can't dispose of _these_, surely." "can you duplicate this lot?" "pretty nearly--perhaps not quite." "i see," he continued. "i will give you two hundred dollars for them." "no, sir." "three hundred--come!" "i can't sell them." "will you take _four_ hundred dollars for the nine chickens, sir?" he asked, drawing his pocket-book in presence of a dozen witnesses. i declined, of course. i couldn't sell these identical fowls; for i had an object in view, in sending them abroad, which appeared to me of more consequence than the amount offered--a good deal. "will you _name_ a price for them?" insisted the stranger. i said, "no, sir--excuse me. i would not take a thousand dollars for these birds, i assure you. their equals in quality and number do not live, i think, to-day, in america!" "i won't give a--a--thousand dollars, for them," he said, slowly. "no, i won't give _that_!" and we parted. yet, i have no doubt, had i encouraged him with a prospect of his obtaining them at all, he _would_ have given me a thousand dollars for that very cage of fowls! to _this_ extent did the hen fever rage at that moment. i subsequently sent this gentleman two trios of my grey chickens, for which he paid me $ . and now the grey shanghae trade commenced in _earnest_. immediately after the announcements were made (which i have quoted) orders poured in upon me furiously from all quarters of this country, and from great britain. not a steamer left america for england, for months and months, on board of which i did not send more or less of the "grey shanghaes." from every state in the union, my orders were large and numerous; and letters like the following were received by me almost every day, for months: "g.p. burnham. "sir: i have just seen the pair of superb grey shanghae fowls which you sent to mr. ---- ----, of this city, and i want a pair like them. if you can send me _better_ ones, i am willing to pay higher for them. he informs me that your price per pair is forty dollars. i enclose you _fifty_ dollars; do the best you can for me, but forward them _at once_,--don't delay. "yours, &c., "---- ---- ----." i almost always had "_better_ ones." that was the kind i always kept behind, or for my own use. i rarely sent away these better ones until they cried for 'em! i always had a great _many_ of the "best" ones, too; which were even better than those "better" ones for which the demand had come to be so great! strange to say, everybody got to want _better_ ones, at last; and, finally, i had none upon my premises but this very class of birds--to wit, the "better ones." to be sure, i reserved a very _few_ pairs of the _best_ ones, which could be obtained at a fair price; but these were the ones that would "take down" the fanciers, occasionally, who wanted to beat _me_ with them at the first show that came off. but i didn't sleep much over this business. i always had one cock and three or four hens that the boys didn't _see_--until we got upon the show-ground. ha, ha! a stranger called at my house, one sunday morning, just as i was ready with my family for church. he apologized for coming on that day, but couldn't get away during the week. he had never seen the grey shanghaes--didn't know what a chinese fowl was--had no idea about them at all. he wanted a few eggs--heard i had them--wouldn't stop but a moment--saw that i was just going out, &c. &c. he sat down--was sorry to trouble me--wouldn't do so again--would like just to take a peep at the fowls--when, suddenly, as he sat with his back close to the open window, my old crower sent forth one of those thundering, unearthly, rolling, guttural shrieks, that, once heard, can never be forgotten! the stranger leaped from his chair, and sprang over his hat, as he yelled, "good god! what's _that_?" his face was as white as his shirt-bosom. "that's one of the grey shanghaes, crowing," i replied. "_crow!_ i beg your pardon," he said; "i don't want any eggs--no! i'll leave it to another time. i--a--i couldn't take 'em now; won't detain you--good-morning, sir," he continued; and, rushing out of my front door, he disappeared on "a dead run," as fast as his legs could carry him. and i don't know but he is running yet. he was desperately alarmed, surely! [illustration: "i don't want any eggs--no!"--(see page .)] i was so amused at this incident, that i was in a precious poor mood to attend church that morning. and when my friend the minister arose at length, and announced for his text that "the wicked flee when no man pursueth," those words capped the climax for me. i jammed my handkerchief into my mouth, until i was nearly suffocated, as i thought of that wicked fellow who had just been so frightened while in the act of attempting to bargain for fancy hen's eggs on the sabbath! a western paper, in alluding to the fever, about this period, observed that "this modern epidemic has shown itself in our vicinity within a short time, and is characterized by all the peculiarities which have marked its ravages elsewhere. some of our most valuable citizens are now suffering from its attacks, and there is no little anxiety felt for their recovery. the morning slumbers of our neighbors are interrupted by the sonorous and deep-toned notes of our shanghae chanticleer, and various have been the inquiries as to how he took '_cold_,' and what we gave him for it. 'chittagongs' and 'burma porters' are now as learnedly discussed as 'fancy stocks' on change. the n.y. _scientific american_ stated, at this time, that the "cochin-china fowl fever was then as strong in england as in some parts of new england,--in fact, stronger. one pair exhibited there was valued at $ . what a sum for a hen and rooster! the common price of a pair is $ ," added this journal; and still the trade continued excellent with me. [illustration] chapter xvii. running it into the ground. there now seemed to be no limit whatever to the _prices_ that fanciers would pay for what were deemed the best samples of fowls. for my own part, from the very commencement i had been considerate and merciful in _my_ charges. true, i had been taken down handsomely by a briton (in my original purchase of cochin-chinas), but i did not retaliate. i was content with a fair remuneration; _my_ object, principally, was to disseminate good stock among "the people," for i was a democrat, and loved the dear people. so i charged lightly for my "magnificent" samples, while other persons were selling second and third rate stock for five or even six and eight dollars a pair. the "grey shanghaes" had got to be a "fixed fact" in england, as well as in this country, and still i was flooded with orders continually. i obtained $ , $ , $ a pair, for mine; and one gentleman, who ordered four greys, soon after the queen's stock reached england, paid me _sixty guineas_ for them--$ a pair. but these were of the _better_ class of birds to which i have alluded. in a boston agricultural journal stated that "within three months extra samples of two-year-old fowls, of the large chinese varieties, have been sold in massachusetts at $ the pair. several pairs, within our own knowledge, have commanded $ a pair, within the past six months. last week we saw a trio of white shanghaes sold in boston for $ . and the best specimens of shanghaes and cochin-china fowls now bring $ to $ a pair, readily, to purchasers at the south and west." now, these prices may be looked upon by the uninitiated as extraordinary. so they were for this country. but at a birmingham (eng.) show, in the fall of , a single pair of "seabright bantams," very small and finely plumed, sold for $ ; a fine "cochin-china" cock and two hens, for $ ; and a brace of "white dorkings," at $ . an english breeder went to london, from over a hundred miles distant, for the sole purpose of procuring a setting of black spanish eggs, and paid one dollar for each egg. another farmer there sent a long distance for the best cochin-china eggs, and paid one dollar and fifty cents _each_ for them, at this time! this was keeping up the rates with a vengeance, and beat us yankees, out and out. but later accounts from across the water showed that this was only a beginning, even. in the winter of the _cottage gardener_ stated that "within the last few weeks a gentleman near london sold a pair of cochin-china fowls for guineas ($ ), and another pair for guineas ($ ). he has been offered £ for a single hen; has sold numerous eggs at guinea ($ ) each, and has been paid down for chickens just hatched guineas ($ ) the half-dozen, to be delivered at a month old. one amateur alone had paid upwards of £ for stock birds." to this paragraph in the _gardener_ the _bury and norwich post_ added the following: "in our own neighborhood, during the past week, we happen to know that a cock and two hens (cochin-chinas) have been sold for guineas, or $ . the fact is, choice birds, well bred, of good size and handsome plumage, are now bringing very high prices, everywhere; and the demand (in our own experience) has never been so great as at the present time." in this way the fever raved and raged for a long year or more. shows were being held all over this country, as well as in every principal city and town in england. everybody bought fowls, and everybody had to pay for them, too, in and ! in a notice of one of the english shows in that year ( ), a paper says: "there is a pen of three geese weighing forty-eight pounds; and among the _cochin-china_ birds are to be found hens which, in the period that forms the usual boundary of chicken life, have attained a weight of seven or eight pounds. of the value of these birds it is difficult to speak without calling forth expressions of incredulity. it is evident that there is a desperate _mania_ in bird-fancying, as in other things. thus, for example, there is a single fowl to which is affixed the enormous money value of _guineas_; two cochin-china birds are estimated at _guineas_; and four other birds, of the same breed, a cock and three hens, are rated in the aggregate at _guineas_,--a price which the owner confidently expects them to realize at the auction-sale on thursday. a further illustration of this ornithological enthusiasm is to be found in the fact that, at a sale on wednesday last, one hundred and two lots, comprising one hundred and ten cochin-china birds, all belonging to one lady, realized £ . s. d.; the highest price realized for a single one being guineas." another british journal stated, a short time previously, that "a circumstance occurred which proves that the cochin-china mania has by no means diminished in intensity. the last annual sale of the stock of mr. sturgeon, of greys, has taken place at the baker-street bazaar. the two hundred birds there disposed of could not have realized a less sum than nearly £ (or $ ), some of the single specimens being knocked down at more than £ , and very many producing £ , £ , and £ each." the attention, at this sale, devoted to the pedigree of the birds, was amusing to a mere observer; one fowl would be described as a cockerel by _patriarch_, another as a pullet by _jerry_, whilst a third was recommended as being the off-spring of _sam_. had the sale been one of horses, more care could hardly have been taken in describing their pedigrees or their qualifications. many were praised by the auctioneer as being particularly _clever_ birds, although in what their cleverness consisted did not appear. the fancy had evidently extended to _all_ ranks in society. the peerage sent its representatives, who bought what they wanted, regardless of price. nor was the lower house without its delegates; a well-known metropolitan ex-member seems to have changed his constituency of voters for one of cochins; and we can only hope that it may not be his duty to hold an inquest on any that perish by a violent or unnatural death. the sums obtained for these birds depended on their being in strict accordance with the then taste of the fancy. they were magnificent in size, docile in behavior, intelligent in expression, and most of them were very finely bred. and while the hen fever was thus at its height, almost, in england, we were following close upon the footsteps of john bull in the united states. at the boston fowl show in , three cochin-chinas were sold at $ ; a pair of grey chittagongs, at $ ; two canton chinese fowls, at $ ; three grey shanghae chicks, at $ ; three white shanghaes, at $ ; six white shanghae chickens, $ to $ , etc.; and these prices, for similar samples, could have been obtained again and again. at this time there was found an ambitious individual, occasionally, who got "ahead of his time," and whose laudable efforts to outstrip his neighbors were only checked by the natural results of his own superior "progressive" notions. a case in point: "way down in lou'siana," for instance, a correspondent of mine stated that there lived one of these go-ahead fellows, who had been afflicted with a serious attack of hen fever, and who was not content with the ordinary speed and prolificness in breeding of the noted shanghae fowls. he desired to possess himself of the biggest kind of a pile of chickens for the rapidly augmenting trade; and so he had constructed an incubator, of moderate dimensions, into which he carefully stowed only three hundred nice fresh eggs, from his fancy fowls. the secret of his plan to "astonish the boys" was limited to the knowledge of only two or three friends; and--thermometer in hand--he commenced operations. with close assiduity and job-like patience, our amateur applied himself to his three weeks' task, by day and night, and at the end of fifteen days, one egg was broken, and mr. shanghae was _thar_,--alive and kicking, but as yet immature. the neighborhood was in the greatest excitement at this prospect of success. our friend commenced to crow (slightly), and, to hasten matters, put on, a _leetle_ more steam at a venture. the twenty-second day arrived, and the "boys" assembled to witness the _entrée_ of three hundred steam-hatched shanghaes into this breathing world. our amateur was full of expectation and "fever." one egg was broken; another, and then another; when, upon inspection, the entire mass was found to have been _thoroughly boiled_! a desperate guffaw was heard as our amateur friend disappeared, and his only query since has been to ascertain what actual time is required to boil a certain quantity of eggs at a given heat, and the smallest probable cost thereof! as far as heard from, the reply has been, say six gallons of good alcohol, at one dollar per gallon, for three hundred eggs; time (night and day), twenty-two days and seven hours; and the product it is generally thought would make capital fodder for young turkeys,--provided said eggs are not boiled _too hard_! on the subject of the _diseases_ of poultry many learned and sapient dissertations appeared about these days. in one agricultural journal we remember to have met with the following scientific prescription. the learned writer is talking about _roup_ in fowls, and says: "this is probably a chronic condition, the result of frequent colds. give the following medicines: _aconite_, if there is fever, _hepar-suliphuris third trituration_, or mercury, _third trituration_, for a day or two, once in three or four hours; then _pulsatilla tincture_ for the eyes; _antimonium_, third trituration or _arsenic_, or _nux vomica_, for the crop." isn't this _clear_, reader? how many poultry-raisers in the united states are there who would be likely to comprehend one line of this stuff? we advise this writer to try again; the above is an "elegant extract," verily! we now come down to the fourth and last exhibition in boston of the mutual admiration society, _alias_ the association with the long-winded cognomen, which took place in september, . chapter xviii. one of the final kicks. i was chosen by somebody (who will here permit me to present them my thanks for the honor) as one of the judges to decide upon the merits of the birds then to be exhibited: and my colleagues on this committee were dr. j.c. bennett, and messrs. andrews, balch and fussell. on the morning of the opening of this show the names of the judges were first announced to the contributors. immediately there followed a "hullabaloo" that would have done credit to any bedlam, ancient or modern, ever heard or dreamed of. the lead in this burst of rebellion amongst the hitherto "faithful" was taken by one prominent member, who announced publicly, then and there, that the selection of the judges was an infamous imposition. they were incompetent, dishonest, prejudiced, calculating, speculative, ambitious competitors. moreover, that it had all been "contrived by that damned burnham, who would rob a church-yard, or steal the cents off the eyes of his dead uncle, any time, for the price of a hen." these were the gentleman's own expressive words. he added that he could stand anything in the hen-trade but _this_. this, however, he would _not_ submit to. burnham should be kicked out of that committee, or he would kick himself out of his boots, and the society's traces also;--a threat which did not seem to alarm or disturb anybody, "as i knows on," except this same tall, stout, athletic, brave, honorable, honest, truthful, smart, gentlemanly member of this mutual admiration society! now, it was very well known, at this time, that the committee of judges had been chosen entirely without their own knowledge. so far as i was myself concerned, i should greatly have preferred at that time to have remained an outsider, because it would have then been quite as well for me to have contributed to the exhibition, where, with the "splendid specimens" i then possessed of the cochin-china and shanghae varieties of fowl, i could have knocked all the others "higher than a fence" in _that_ show, as i had done in all the previous exhibitions where i had ever competed with the boys. but the same power which had formed the committee of judges also provided that they must not be competitors. thus, three or four of those persons who had at the previous exhibitions of this society been the most extensive contributors,--men who had bred by far the largest assortments and quantities of good fowls up to this period, and who had till now paid ten or twenty dollars for one (compared with any other of the members) toward the good of the association, and in the furtherance of its objects,--_these_ men were made the judges, and were cut off as contributors. i was satisfied, however, because i saw that the framing of the _report_ of this show would fall to my lot again; and i had no doubt that, under these circumstances, i could afford to be "persecuted" for the time being. it is not in my nature to harm anybody; and those who are personally acquainted with me, know that i am _constitutionally_ of a calm, retiring, meek, religious turn of mind. my aim in life is to "do unto others as i would have others do unto me." i "love my neighbor" (if he doesn't permit his hens to get into my garden) "as myself." and, "if a man smite me upon one cheek, i turn to him the other also," immediately, if not sooner. i never retaliate upon an enemy or an opponent--until i make _sure that i have him where the hair is short_. i once knew of an extraordinary instance of patience that taught me a powerful lesson in submissiveness. it occurred in a western court, where the judge (a most exemplary man, i remember) sat for two mortal days quietly listening to the arguments of a couple of contending lawyers in reference to the construction they desired him to assume in regard to a certain act of the legislature of that state. when the two legal gentlemen had "thrown themselves," in this long and wearying debate, for forty-eight hours, his honor cut off the controversy by remarking, very quietly, "gentlemen, this law that you have been speaking of _has been repealed_!" i thought of this circumstance, and i permitted the hen-men to gas, to their hearts' content. when they got through with their anathemas, their spleen, and their stupidity, i informed them that the "committee" had unanimously left to _my_ charge _the writing of the report of that exhibition_. from that moment, up to the hour when the report was published, i never suspected (before) that i had so many _friends_ in this world! the fear that seemed to pervade every mind present was, that _i_ should probably do precisely what _they_ would have done under similar circumstances,--to wit, take care of myself. i had no fowls in this exhibition; but there were present numerous specimens bred from my stock, that were very choice (so every one said), and which commanded the highest prices during the show. there were several _southern_ gentlemen present, who bought (and paid roundly for them, too) some of the best fancy-birds on sale. it was astonishing how much some of those buyers did know about the different breeds of chinese fowls there! yes, it certainly was astounding! i think i _never_ saw before so much real, downright _bona fide_ knowledge of henology displayed as was shown by one or two southern gentlemen, then and there;--never, in the whole course of my experience! by reference to the next chapter, it will be seen how shamefully i neglected my own interests, and how self-sacrificing i was in the report of the society's last kick, which, as i have already hinted, the committee left to _my_ charge to prepare. i had no disposition (in the preparation of this document) to underrate the stock of any one else, _provided_ it did not interfere with me! and, after carefully noting down whatever seemed of importance to my well-being there, i sat myself down to oblige the committee by writing the "report" of this show, which an ill-natured competitor subsequently declared was "only in favor of burnham and his stock, all over, underneath, in the middle, outside, overhead, on top, on all sides, and at both ends!" and _i believe he was right_! chapter xix. the fourth fowl-show in boston. this show (in september, ) was the fifth exhibition held in boston, but the _fourth_ only of the society with the long name. the report commences with a congratulation (as usual) that the association still lives, and has a being; and, after alluding to the general state of the affairs of the concern,--without touching upon its financial condition,--it thus proceeds: "your committee would call your attention to the fact that among the numerous fowls exhibited this season,--as upon former occasions,--a very unnecessary practice seems to have obtained, in the mis-_naming_ of varieties. crossbred fowls have been called by original cognomens, unknown to practical breeders; and a host of birds well known to the committee, as well as to poulterers generally, have been denominated by any other than their _real_ and universally conceded ornithological titles. this savors of bad taste; it leads to ridicule among strangers who visit our shows from abroad; and should not be sanctioned by your society. errors may creep in among your transactions, in this particular, and many honest, careful breeders may be deceived; but the multiplying of _unpronounceable and meaningless names_ for domestic fowls is entirely uncalled for; and your committee recommend a close adherence, hereafter, to recognized titles only. "in this connection, it may be proper to allude to a case in point. the largest and unquestionably one of the finest varieties of domestic fowls ever shown among us was entered by the breeders of this variety as the 'chittagong;' other coops of the same stock were labelled 'grey chittagongs;' others were called 'bramah pootras;' and others, 'grey shanghae' and 'malays.' "your committee are divided in opinion as to what these birds ought, rightfully, to be called,--though the majority of the committee have no idea that 'bramah pootra' is their correct title. that they are not 'malays' is also quite as clear. several of the specimens are positively known to have come direct from shanghae; and _none_ are known to have come originally from anywhere else. nevertheless, it has been thought proper to leave this question open, for the present; and the committee, believing that this fowl originates in and hails directly from the east, are content to accept for them the title of 'grey shanghae,' 'chittagong,' or 'bramah pootra,' as different breeders may elect,--admitting, at the same time, that they are really a very superior bird, and believing that if carefully bred they may be found decidedly the most valuable among all the large _chinese_ breeds, of which they are clearly a good variety." * * * * * "a large sum of money was expended at this exhibition, by visitors, amateurs and breeders,--one gentleman investing upwards of $ in choice fowls; another, from the south, purchasing to the amount of $ for extra samples; another bought $ worth, etc. the highest figures ever yet paid on this side of the atlantic (for individual purchases) were realized at this show. "samples of the china stock originally imported from shanghae were very plentiful on this occasion, and the high reputation of this blood was fully sustained in the specimens exhibited. very superior fowls, bred from g.p. burnham's importations of cochin-chinas, were also numerous, and were sold, in four or five instances, at the very _highest_ prices paid for any samples that were disposed of." among the premiums awarded to the _chinese_ fowls by this "committee," were the following: "china fowls.--to h.h. williams, best cock and two hens (of burnham's _canton_ importation), $ . to c. sampson, west roxbury, best cock and single hen (burnham's _canton_ importation), $ . to h.h. williams, third prize, for same stock, $ . to c.c. plaisted, great falls, n.h., the committee awarded a first prize, $ , for what he called '_hong-kong_' fowls; these were of burnham's _canton_ stock, also. to a. white, e. randolph, for six best chickens (burnham's importation), $ . "cochin-china.--to h.h. williams, west roxbury, best cock and two hens (splendid samples, of extraordinary size and beauty), first prize, $ . to a. white, e. randolph, best cock and single hen (of burnham's importation), $ . to a. white, for six best chickens (burnham's importation), $ ." * * * * * the committee then allude to the _prices_ which were paid there for fowls, "_not because they advocate the propriety of keeping them up_" (o, no!), "but rather to show that the welfare of the association is by no means derogating. "the three prize _cochin-china_ fowls were sold for $ . the two prize _grey shanghaes_, or 'bramah pootras,' were sold for $ . three chickens of the same, at $ . a pair of burnham's importation of _cochins_, at $ ; another pair, at $ ; another trio (chickens), at $ . six black spanish chickens (child's), at $ . six _white shanghae_ chickens (wight's), at $ . three hens, of same stock, at $ --and several pairs and trios of other varieties, at from $ each, to $ and $ to $ the lot." * * * * * at a subsequent meeting of the trustees, mr. george p. burnham, on the part of the judges at the late exhibition of the society, presented their _report_, whereupon it was "_voted_, that the report of the judges on the recent show of poultry in the public garden be accepted." and this was the end of _that_ ball of worsted! i rather have the impression, now,--as nearly as i can recollect (though my memory is somewhat treacherous in these matters), but i _think_ i sold a few fowls, just after that fair. "i may be mistaken,--but that is my opinion!" the report was duly accepted, in form, and i had the satisfaction of seeing my "extraordinary" and "superb" stock again lauded to the very echo, at the expense of the old-fogyism of the "mutual admiration society." the consequence was a renewed activity in my sales, which continued delightfully lively and correspondingly remunerative for several months after _this_ exhibition, also, where i did not enter the first fowl! chapter xx. present to queen victoria. i have already alluded to the fine grey shanghaes which i forwarded to her majesty the queen. in relation to this circumstance the boston papers contained the following announcement, in the month of april, ; a circumstance which did not greatly retard the prospects of my business either on this or on the other side of the water! the compliment thus paid me by royalty was duly appreciated, and its delicacy will be apparent to the reader. this picture is the only one of its _kind_ ever sent to an american citizen. "a compliment from victoria.--some weeks ago, mr. george p. burnham, of boston, forwarded to her majesty queen victoria a present of some _grey shanghae_ fowls, which have been greatly admired in england. by the last steamer mr. burnham received the following letter from her majesty's secretary of the privy purse, accompanying a fine portrait of the queen, sent over to mr. b.: the queen's letter. { "buckingham palace, { march , . "dear sir: i have received the commands of her majesty the queen, to assure you of her majesty's high appreciation for the kind motives which prompted you to forward for her acceptance the magnificent 'grey shanghae' fowls which have been so much admired at her majesty's aviary at windsor. "her majesty has accepted, with great pleasure, such a mark of respect and regard, from a citizen of the united states. "i have, by her majesty's command, shipped in the 'george carl,' to your address, a case containing a portrait of her majesty,[ ] of which the queen has directed me to request your acceptance. "i have the honor to be, "sir, your ob't and humble servant, "c.b. phipps. "to geo. p. burnham, esq., boston, u.s.a." i caused a copy to be taken from this portrait of the queen, and have had it engraved for this book; it appears as the frontispiece. immediately after this paragraph appeared, a new zest appeared to have been given to the grey shanghae trade. orders came from canada and from nova scotia to a very considerable amount; and during this season my sales were again very large. during the year , i started and raised over sixteen hundred chickens of all kinds; but this did not supply my orders. i bought largely, and paid high prices, too, generally. but few persons were now doing any business in the fowl-trade, except myself, however. the _n.y. spirit of the times_ published portraits of the birds sent to the queen, and remarked that "the engraving represented six of the nine beautiful _grey shanghae_ fowls lately presented to her majesty _victoria_, queen of great britain, by _george p. burnham_, esq., of boston, mass. "these birds were forwarded by one of the last month's collins steamers, in charge of adams & co.'s express, and passed through this city on the th ult. their extraordinary size and fine plumage were the admiration of all who examined them. the picture is from life, engraved by brown, and is a faithful representation of the birds, which are very closely bred. "the color of this variety of the china fowl is a light silver-grey, approximating to white; the body is a light downy white, sparsely spotted and pencilled with metallic black in the tail and wing tips; the legs are feathered to the toes, and the form is unexceptionable for a large fowl; this variety having proved the biggest of all the 'shanghaes' yet imported into this state. "the two cocks above delineated weighed between ten and eleven pounds each at six months old; the pullets drew seven and a half to nine pounds each at seven to eight months old; the original imported pair of _old_ ones now weigh upwards of twenty-three pounds, together. in the existing rage for weighty birds, this variety will naturally satisfy the ambition of those who go for the 'biggest kind' of fowls! "the group represents this variety with accuracy, and are, without doubt, for their kind, rare specimens of the genuine _gallus giganteus_ of modern ornithologists. as her majesty has long been known among the foremost patrons of that agreeable branch of rural pursuits, poultry-raising, we do not doubt but that this splendid present from mr. burnham will prove highly gratifying to her tastes in this particular." portraits of these fowls appeared in _gleason's pictorial_ for january, , and the editor spoke as follows of them: "the grey shanghae fowls lately presented to her majesty queen victoria, of great britain, by george p. burnham, esq., of boston, were extraordinary specimens of domestic poultry, and were bred the past season by mr. burnham from stock imported by him direct from china. they were universally admitted, by the thousands who saw them before they left, to be the largest and choicest-bred lot of chickens ever seen together in this vicinity. these fowls were from the same broods as those lately sent to northby, of aldborough, by mr. burnham, who is, perhaps, the most successful poultry-raiser in america; and while these beautiful birds are creditable to him as a breeder, they are a present really 'fit for a queen.'" the new york journals alluded to them in flattering terms, during their transit through that city on the way to their destination; and the numerous orders that crowded in upon me was the best evidence of the estimation in which this variety of domestic fowls was then held, as well as of the determined disposition of "the people" to be supplied from my "_pure_-bred stock." by one of the british steamers, in the summer of , the express of edwards, sanford & co., took out to europe from my stock, for messrs. bakers, of chelsea, baily, of london, floyd, of huddersfield, deming, of brighton, simons, of birmingham, and miss watts, hampstead, six cages of these "extraordinary" birds. the best of the hens weighed nine to nine and a half pounds each, and three of the cocks drew over twelve pounds each! there were forty-two birds in all, which, together, could not be equalled, probably, at that time, in america or england, for size, beauty and uniformity of color. the sum paid me for this lot of greys was eight hundred and seventy dollars. of the three fowls sent to mr. john baily (above mentioned), and which he exhibited in the fall of that year in england, the following account reached me, subsequently: "mr. geo. p. burnham, of melrose, sent out to england, last fall, to mr. john baily, of london, a cage of his fine 'grey shanghaes,' which were exhibited at the late birmingham show. the london _field_ of dec. th says that '_one pair_ of these fowls, from mr. burnham, of the united states, the property of mr. baily, of mount-street, were shown among the extra stock, and were purchased from him, during the exhibition, by mr. taylor, of shepherd's bush, at one hundred guineas' ($ )!" this was the biggest figure ever paid for _two_ fowls, i imagine! mr. baily paid me twenty pounds sterling for the trio, and i thought that fair pay, i remember. the following brief account of my trade for the year of our lord , i published on the last day of december of that year, for the gratification of my numerous friends, and for the information of "the people" who felt an interest in this still exciting and (to me) very agreeable subject: "eds. boston daily times: in a late number of your journal you were pleased to allude to the sales of live-stock made by me latterly. at the close of the present year, i find upon my books the following aggregate of sales for , which--to show how much has been done by _one_ dealer--may be interesting to some of your readers who 'love pigs and chickens.' "i have sent into the southern and western states, through adams & co.'s express alone, from jan. st to dec. th, , a little rising $ , worth of chinese fowls and fancy pigs. by edwards, sanford & co.'s transatlantic express, in the same period, i have sent to england and the continent about $ worth of my 'grey shanghaes.' by thompson and co. and the american western express co., i have sent west and south-west, in the same time, over $ worth; and my minor cash sales (directly at my yards in melrose) have been over $ ; making the entire sales from my establishment for the past year nearly or quite _twenty-two thousand dollars_ in value. of this amount, $ worth has been sold since the th of sept last. "by the first steamer that leaves new york in january, ' , i shall send to new orleans (to a single customer) between five and six hundred dollars' worth, ordered a few days since. i have also now in hand three large orders to fill for liverpool and london, immediately; and the present prospect is that the poultry-trade will be considerably better next year than we have ever yet known it in new england. wishing you and my competitors in the trade a 'happy new year,' i am theirs and yours, truly, "geo. p. burnham. "_melrose, dec. , ._" i have offered these statistics and facts to give some idea of the amount of trade that must have been current, in the _aggregate_, when these isolated instances are considered, and for the purpose of affording the reader an opportunity to judge measurably to what an extent this _fever_ really raged. thousands and tens of thousands of "the people" were now (or had been) engaged in this extraordinary excitement, who were continuously humbugging themselves and each other, at round cost. and when these thousands are multiplied by the fives or tens, twenties or fifties, one hundreds or five hundreds of dollars, that they invested in this mania, the "prime cost" of this hum can be fancied, though it can never be known with accuracy. [ ] see frontispiece. chapter xxi. experiments of amateurs. the newspapers of the day were now occupied with speculative and actual statistics, of various kinds, relating to the utility and value of poultry and its produce, and every one seemed to join, in his or her way, to magnify the vastness of this enterprise; and statements like the following, in respectable public journals, had the effect to increase and keep up to fever-heat the state of the hen malady: "by reference to the agricultural statistics of the united states, published from reliable sources in , it may be seen that the actual value of poultry, in new york state alone, was two millions three hundred and seventy-three thousand and twenty-nine dollars! which was more than the value of _all the swine_ in the same state; nearly equal to _one half the value of its sheep_, the _entire_ value of its _neat cattle_, and nearly _five times_ the value of its _horses and mules_!" the amount of sales of live and dead _poultry_ in quincy market, boston, for the year , said another paper, was six hundred seventy-four thousand four hundred and twenty-three dollars: the average sales of one dealer alone amounting to twelve hundred dollars per week for the whole year. the amount of sales for the whole city of boston, for the same year, was over one million of dollars. the amount of sales of _eggs_ in and around the quincy market for was one million one hundred and twenty-nine thousand seven hundred and thirty-five dozen, which, at eighteen cents per dozen, makes the amount paid for eggs to be two hundred three thousand three hundred and fifty-two dollars and thirty cents; while the amount of sales of eggs for the whole city of boston, for the same year, was a fraction short of one million of dollars; the daily consumption of eggs at one of its hotels being seventy-five dozen daily, and on saturday one hundred and fifty dozen. at this time, a single dealer in the egg-trade, at philadelphia, sent to the new york market, daily, one hundred barrels of eggs; while the value of eggs shipped from dublin to liverpool and london was more than five millions of dollars for the year . in addition to these facts, frequent allusions were made to the enormous quantities required for other markets, in the interior, to supply which the number of laying hens must be kept good, and increased, as the demand for the eggs was constantly augmenting, and the business, "if skilfully and judiciously managed" (said the agricultural papers), _must_ prove immensely profitable to those who engage in it. if "skilfully and judiciously managed"! this was good advice. but no one could inform "the people" how this management was to be effected. in the mean time, every sort of experiment was resorted to, by amateurs and fanciers and humbugs (who had been humbugged), to "improve" the breeds of poultry, and to produce new fowls that would lay two or three or four eggs for one, as compared with the old-fashioned birds. we knew one beginner who had purchased a pretty little place a few miles from the city, who contracted the fever, and "suffered" badly, but who was cured by the following curious result of his early experiments. eggs were scarce (genuine ones), and, after considerable searching, he finally procured of some one in boston a clutch of "fancy" eggs, for which he paid big figures, but which did not _turn out_ exactly what he anticipated; and so _he_ concluded, after a time, that the hen fever was a rascally hum. (he didn't procure these eggs of _me_, be it understood. _i_ never had any but _genuine_ ones!) he purchased what he was assured were pure "cochin-china" eggs. (perhaps they were--who knows?) and after waiting patiently for six long weeks for the "curious" eggs to hatch, he found six young _ducks_ in his coop, one morning!--so much for his knowledge of eggs! but this was not so bad as was the case of one of his neighbors, however, who paid a round price for half a dozen choice eggs, queer-looking speckled eggs--small, round, "outlandish" eggs--which he felt certain would produce _rare_ chicks, and which he was very cautious in setting under his very best hen. at the end of a few days he was startled, at the breakfast-table, to hear his favorite hen screaming "bloody murder" from within the coop! he rushed to the rescue, raised the box-lid, and found her still on the nest, but in a frightful perturbation--struggling, yelling and cackling, most vociferously. he spoke to her kindly and softly; he would fain, appease and quiet her; for there was great danger lest, in her excitement and struggles, she would destroy the favorite eggs--those rare eggs, which had cost him so much money and trouble. but soft words were vain. his "best" hen continued to scream lustily, and he raised her from the nest to look into the cause of the trouble more critically. his astonishment was instantaneous, but immense; and his surprise found vent in the brief but expressive exclamation, "_turkles--by thunder_!" such was the fact. this poor, innocent poultry-"fancier" was the victim of misplaced confidence. the party who sold him _them_ eggs had sold the buyer shockingly! and instead of a brood of pure cochin-chinas, he found that his favorite hen had hatched half a dozen pure _mud-turtles_, all of which, upon breaking from the shells, seized upon the flesh of the poor fowl, and had well-nigh taken her life before they could be "choked off." he has given up the chicken-trade, and has since gone into the dwarf-pear business. poor devil! a youthful lawyer of my acquaintance, away down east, who was proverbial for his "sharp practice" at the bar, met with a young doctor, who was a great bird-fancier, and with whom he subsequently formed an intimate acquaintance. our medicinal friend owned a pretty little estate; distant a few miles from the city of p----, where he kept up a very neat establishment, which was thoroughly appointed. among his out-of-door appurtenances, he maintained a modern bee-house, a choice dove-cot, and a well-selected aviary; in the latter he had some choice poultry, and into this the doctor invited his legal associate, one day, to examine his specimens of cacklers and crowers. there was a super-excellent "bother'em" fowl among this collection,--a rare hen, the many good qualities of which the doctor dilated on (as he always did before his visitors), and the lawyer took a fancy to the beauty, instanter; but this fowl was a great favorite, and the doctor would neither sell, lend, or give her away; and then the visitor begged some of her eggs, as a last favor. but the doctor was selfish in regard to this particular bird--he wanted the breed exclusively to himself. it was of no avail, however, and his friend promised to embrace the first opportunity to steal the hen, and all the eggs he could find, if his request were not complied with; whereupon the doctor at length reluctantly promised to send him a dozen within a week, provided he said nothing about it. he would do it for _him_, as a particular favor--and so he was as good as his word. the young lawyer had his poultry-yard, also; and, selecting a fine hen, he quickly set her upon the choice bother'em eggs, resolved to have as good a show as his neighbor. but three weeks passed--four, and upwards--but no chickens appeared! he broke up the nest, at last, and then called upon the doctor at once. "what luck, tom?" "not a chick!" "no!" "not a _one_. the eggs weren't good." "no? that is queer," continued the doctor, "when i took so much extra pains with 'em." "extra pains--how?" "why, _i boiled every one of 'em_, the last thing before i sent 'em down to you!" and so he did. tom grinned, squirmed, and went home,--but that wasn't the last of this joke. six months afterwards, the keen-witted doctor visited the lawyer's little place, where he saw a magnificent large bucks county rooster stalking about in the latter's yard. "by jove, tom! that's a rouser," exclaimed the doctor, enthusiastically, "'pon my word! where d'you get him?" "pennsylvania--buxton's; a fine fellow that. only eight months old." "will you sell him?" "yes--no; i reckon not, on the whole." "i'll give you an x for him." "well, take him. he's worth twenty dollars; but you shall have him for ten dollars, being an old friend." the doctor placed the huge crower in his gig immediately, went home, killed off two of the finest dorking roosters in the county, and put the new comer into his nice poultry-house; congratulating himself upon having at last secured a "tip-top breeder," and nothing else. at the end of the season, however, he complained to his friend the lawyer that he had had but very few eggs latterly; he could raise no chickens from them--not a _one_; and he didn't think much of the ten-dollar bird he purchased of him, any way. "he's a rouser, bill, surely," said the lawyer, with a knowing smirk, repeating the doctor's exclamation on first beholding the rooster. "well, yes--large, large--but--" "and a finer _capon_ i never sold to anybody in my life!" "a _what_!" screamed the doctor, springing towards his horse, which stood near by. "what's the price of _b'iled eggs_, bill?" roared the lawyer, in reply. "ten dollars a dozen, by thunder!" was the answer, as the doctor drove his rowels into the sides of his nag, and dashed away from his friend's gate a _wiser_ if not a better man. many amateur poultry-raisers resorted to the most ridiculous and injurious shifts for remedies against the ills that hen-flesh is heir to. i have known certain friends who passed two or three hours every morning in running about their fowl-premises with pill-box and pepper-cup in hand, zealously dosing their drooping chickens, to their certain destruction. and some of the "doctors" went into _jalap_, in cases of colds, fevers, &c., in their fowls. we should as soon think of using arsenic, or any other poison, under such circumstances. the internal formation of a hen is scarcely believed to resemble that of a human being, surely; and why such medicinal applications, pray? this reminds us of a private joke, by the way, that was "let out" by a young fancier (out west) a little while ago. he had a bad cold himself, and had mixed "summat hot" to swallow, one evening. his servant informed him that his favorite cochin-china crower had been ill for a day or two; and he ordered twenty grains of jalap to be prepared for his fine bird. by some mistake his toddy was given to the crower, and he swallowed the hen-medicine himself, and retired to bed. he slept soundly for a time, but was visited with shocking dreams. he fancied himself to be a huge rooster--one of the biggest kind; that he had taken all the premiums at all the shows, and that he had finally been set to hatch over a bushel of shanghae eggs. it was the twentieth day, at last, and the chickens commenced to come forth from their shells beneath him. he dare not move,--his fowl-cure was at work,--and his critical position, for the time being, can be better imagined than portrayed. with a desperate effort, and a shrieking crow, he at length sprang from his couch, dashed out of doors, and, since the day afterwards, has resolved to eschew the use of jalap among his poultry,--a determination which, in all candor, we recommend earnestly to the hen-galens who imagine that a hen is "a human." it had now become an every-day occurrence to hear of black chickens emerging from what were "warranted" pure white fowls' eggs; top-knot birds peeped forth from the eggs of pure-bred anti-crested hens; and all colors and shapes and varieties of chickens, except those that they were purchased for, made their appearance about the time of hatching the eggs so bought. all the old-fashioned fowls were utterly discarded. cochin-chinaism, shanghae-ism, bother'em pootrumism, was rampant. the fancy egg-trade had begun to fall off sensibly. "the people" had had enough of _this_ part of the enterprise, which was destined to prove so "immensely profitable," if "judiciously and skilfully managed;" and the price was reduced to the miserable sum of three to five dollars a dozen, only, as customers chanced to turn up. from the commencement of the trade, in , down to the month of august, , i had a continued and certain sale, however, for every egg deposited upon my premises, at _my_ price. but this, though an exception, was not to be wondered at. _i_ kept and raised only the "genuine" article. [illustration] chapter xxii. true history of "fanny fern." i was riding through brookline, mass., one fine afternoon, on my round-about way home from a fowl-hunting excursion in norfolk county, when my attention was suddenly attracted by the appearance and carriage of the most extraordinary-looking bird i ever met with in the whole course of my poultry experience. i drew up my horse, and watched this curiosity for a few minutes, with a fowl-admirer's wonder. it was evidently a _hen_, though the variety was new to me, and its deportment was very remarkable. her plumage was a shiny coal-black, and she loitered upon a bright-green bank in the sunshine, at the southerly side of a pretty house that stood a few yards back from the road. she was rather long-legged, and "spindle-shanked," but she moved about skippingly and briskly, as if she were treading upon thin egg-shells. her feet were very delicate and very narrow, and her body was thin and trim; but her plumage--that glossy, jet-black, brilliant feathery habit--was "too much" for my then excited "fancy" for beautiful birds; and i thought i had never seen a tip-top fowl before. as i gazed and wondered, this bird observed me coquettishly, and, raising herself slightly a tip-toe, she flapped her bright wings ludicrously, opened her pretty mouth, and sent forth a _crow_ so clear and sharp, and so utterly defiant and plucky, that i laughed outright in her face. i did. i couldn't help it. she noticed my merriment, and instantly flap went those glittering wings again, and another shout--a very shriek of a crow, a termagant yell of a crow--rang forth piercingly from the lungs of my sable but beautiful inamorata. this second crow was full of fire, and daring, and challenge, and percussion. it seemed to say, as plainly as words could have uttered it, "who are _you_? what you after? wouldn't you like to cage _me_ up--_s-a-y_?" i laughed again, wondered more, stared, and shouted "bravo! milady, you _are_ a rum 'un, to be sure!" and again she hopped up and crowed bravely, sharply, maliciously, wildly, marvellously. i was puzzled. i had heard of such animals before. i had read in the newspapers about woman's rights conventions. i had seen it stated that hens occasionally were found that "crowed like a cock." but i had never seen one before. this _was_ an extraordinary bird, evidently. there it went again! that same shrill; crashing, challenging crow, from the gullet of the ebon beauty before me. o, _what_ a crow was that, my countrymen! i resolved to possess this bird, at any cost. and i was soon in communication with the gentleman who then had her. "is this _your_ hen, sir?" i inquired. and i think the gentleman suspected me, instanter. "yes," he answered. "that is, i support her." "will you sell her?" "no--no, sir." "i will give you ten dollars for her." crack! crash! whew! went that crow, again. i was electrified. "i'll give you fifteen----" "no, sir." "twenty dollars, then." "no." "what will you take for her?" "hark!" he replied. "isn't that music? isn't that heavenly?" "what _is_ that?" i asked, eagerly. "my hen." "what is she doing?" "singing," said the gentleman. "beautiful!" i responded. "i will give you forty dollars for her." "take her," replied her keeper. "she is yours." "what breed is it?" i inquired. "spanker," said the gentleman, "but rare. it is one of ellett's importation--genuine." "remarkable pullet!" i ventured. "hen, sir, _hen_," insisted the stranger. i paid him forty dollars down, and seized my prize, though she proved hard to catch. "she's much like the frenchman's flea, sir," said her previous possessor. "put your finger on her, and she's never there. feed her well, however, keep her in good quarters, let her do as she pleases, and she'll always crow--always, sir. hear _that_? you can't stop her, unless you stop her breath. she always crows and sings. there it is again! isn't that a crow, for a hen--eh?" it was, indeed. "good-day," said the brookline gentleman, quietly pocketing his money. "fanny will please you, i've no doubt." "fanny?" i queried. "yes; i call her '_fanny fern_,'" said the stranger to me, as i entered my wagon; and, half an hour afterwards, my forty-dollar cock-hen, "fanny fern," was crowing again furiously, lustily, magnificently, on the bright-green lawn beneath my own parlor-windows. "fanny" proved a thorough trump. bantams, games, cochins, dorkings, shanghaes, bother'ems, were _no_where when "fanny" was round. she could outcrow the lustiest feathered orchestra ever collected together in christendom. she was a wonder, that redoubtable but frisky, flashy, sprightly, sputtery, spunky "fanny fern." and didn't the boys run after her? well, they did! and didn't they want to buy her? didn't they bid high for her, at last? didn't everybody flock to see her, and to hear "fanny" crow? and _didn't_ she continue to crow, too? ah! it was heaven, indeed (and sometimes the other thing), to listen to "fanny's" voice. when "fanny" opened her mouth, everybody held their breath and listened. "fanny" crowed to some purpose, verily! she crowed lustily against oppression, and vice, and wrong, and injustice; and she crowed aloud (with her best strength) in behalf of injured innocence, and virtue, and merit, exalted or humble. and, finally, "fanny" hatched a brace of chickens; and _didn't_ she crow for and over _them_? she now cackled and scratched, and crowed harder and louder and shriller than ever. the people stopped in the street to listen to her; old men heard her; young men sought after her; all the women began to "swear" by her; the children thronged to see her; the newspapers all talked about her; and thousands of books were printed about my charming, astonishing, remarkable, crowing "fanny fern." i sent her to the fowl-shows, where she "took 'em all down" clean, and invariably carried away the first premium in her class. never was such a hen seen, before or since. i was offered a hundred, two hundred, five hundred dollars for her. i was poor; but didn't i own this hen "fanny,"--the extraordinary, wonderful, magnificent, coal-black, blustering, but inapproachable and world-defying "fanny"? "i will give you _eight_ hundred dollars for her," said a publisher to me, one day. "i want to put her in a book. she's a wonder! a star of the first magnitude! a diamond without blemish! a god-send to the world in !" at this moment "fanny" crowed. "will you take eight hundred?" screamed the publisher, jumping nearly to the ceiling. "no, sir." "a thousand?" "no." "two thousand?" "no, sir." "_five_ thousand?" "no! i will keep her." and i did. what was five thousand dollars to me? _bah!_ i had the hen-cock "fanny fern." i didn't want money. my pocket-book was full to bursting, and so was my head with the excitement of the hen fever. and "fanny" crowed again. ah! _what_ a crow was fanny's! "fanny" couldn't be bought, and so my competitors clanned together to destroy her. the old fogies didn't like this breed, and they resolved to annihilate all chance of its perpetuation. i placed her in better quarters, where she would be more secure from intrusion or surprise. i told her of my fears,--and _didn't_ she crow? she flapped her bright black wings, and crowed all over. "cock-a-doodle-_doo--oo--oo_!" shouted "fanny," while her sharp eyes twinkled, her fair throat trembled, and the exhilarating tone of defiance seemed to reach to the very tips of her shining toe-nails. "cock-a-too--_roo--oo_!" she shrieked; "let 'em come, too! see what they'll _do--oo_! i'll take care of _you--oo_! don't get in a _stoo--oo_! pooh--pooh--poo--_poo_!" maybe "fanny" didn't crow! and _i_ learned to crow. it was beautiful! she crowed, and i crowed. we crowed together. she in her way,--i in mine. the duet was mellifluous, cheering, soul-stirring, life-invigorating, _profitable_. "fanny" went into new york state, crowing when she left, crowing as she went, and continuing to crow until she crowed the community there clear through the next fourth o' july, out into the fabled millennium. she crowed messrs. derby & miller into a handsome fortune, and mason & brothers into ditto. she crowed one hyacinth into the shreds of a cocked hat and battered knee-buckles. she crowed the hall breed of old hens so far out of sight that the "search for sir john franklin" would be a fool to the journey requisite to overtake that family. and still she _crowed_. the more they bade her stop, the more she wouldn't. "cock-a-tootle--_too_!" "i-know-what-_i_-shall--_doo_!" "what-do-i-care-for--_yoo_?" "this-world-is-all--foo--_foo_." "leave-_me_-and-i'll-leave--_you_." "if-not-i'll-lamm--_you_--too--oo!" and "fanny" crowed herself at last into the good graces of two _long brothers_ in gotham, where she is now crowing with all her might and main. let her crow! she was a remarkable "bird," that rollicking, joyous, inexplicable, flirting, funny, furious "fanny fern." i hear her now again! "cock-a-doodle--doo--oo!" "young 'un,--you-will-do!!" "_et--tu--brute--o-o-o!!!_" chapter xxiii. convalescence. one striking feature that exhibited itself in the midst of this mania, was the fact that prominent among the leading dealers in fancy poultry, constantly appeared the names of clergymen, doctors, and other "liberally-educated" gentlemen. in ohio, pennsylvania, new york, and most of the eastern states, this circumstance was especially noticeable; and more particularly in england. whether this class of the community had the most money to throw away, or whether their leisure afforded them the better opportunity to indulge in this fancy, i cannot say; but one thing is certain,--among my own patrons and correspondents, for the past five or six years, i find the names of this class of "the people" by far the most conspicuous and frequent. there came into my office, one morning late in , a boston physician (whom i had never seen before), who introduced himself civilly, and invited me to ride a short distance with him up town. i was busy; but he insisted, and his manner was peculiarly urgent and determined. "my carriage is at the door," he said; "and i will bring you back here in twenty minutes. i have some pure-blood stock i desire to dispose of." "what _is_ it, doctor?" i asked. "chickens, chickens!" replied the doctor, briefly. i assured the gentleman that i had near a thousand fowls on hand at this time, and had no possible wish to increase the number. "they are pure-bred--cost me high," he continued; "are very fine, but i must part with them--come!" i joined him, and we rode a mile or more, when he halted before a fine, large house; his servant in waiting took his horse, and he ushered me into his well-appointed poultry-house, at the rear of his dwelling. the buildings were glazed in front and upon the roofs; the yards were spacious and cleanly, and appropriately divided; the laying and hatching rooms were roomy and convenient; the roosting-house was airy and pleasant, and everything was, seemingly, in excellent order, and arranged with good taste throughout. "that cock cost me twenty dollars," said the doctor, calmly. "those two hens i paid eighteen dollars for. that bird, yonder, twelve dollars. these five pullets stand me in about forty-five dollars. i have never yet been able to hatch but one brood of chickens. the rats carried _them_ off by the third morning after they came into this world. the hens sometimes lay, i believe; at least, my man says so. i have never _seen_ any eggs from them myself, however. i have no doubt this species of fowls (these changays) _do_ lay eggs, though. there are twenty-two of them. buy them, mr. b----," continued the doctor, urgently. i said no; i really did not want them. "i _had_ nigh forty of them," continued the doctor, "two months ago. but they have disappeared. disease, roup, vermin, night-thieves, sir. will you buy them? john----drive them out!" the fowls were driven into the main yard. there were but sixteen in all. "where are the rest, john?" inquired the doctor, anxiously. "there were twenty-two here yesterday." "i dunno, sir," said john. "drive 'em back, and box them up, john. mr. b----, will you make an offer for the remainder? to-morrow i shall probably have none to sell! will you give anything for them?" i declined to buy. "will you permit me to send them to you as a present, sir?" he continued. i did not want them, any way. i had a full supply. "what will you charge me, mr. b----, to allow them to be sent to you?" continued the fancier, desperately, and resolutely, at last. i saw he was determined, and i took his fowls (fifteen of them), and gave him ten dollars. he smiled. "i have had the hen fever," he added, "_badly_--but i am better of it. i am convalescent, now," said the doctor. "you see what i have here for houses; cost me over seven hundred dollars; my birds over four hundred more; grain and care for a year, a hundred more. i am _satisfied_! your money, here, is the first dollar i ever received in return for my investment. you see what i have left out of my venture of twelve or thirteen hundred dollars; the manure, and--and--the lice!" such were the exact facts! his stock was selected from the marsh and forbes importations, and the birds were good; but, by the time he got ready to believe that it wasn't _all_ gold that glittered, the sale of _this_ variety of fowl had passed by. a chance purchaser happened to come along soon after, however, who "hadn't read the papers" so attentively as some of us had, and who wanted these very fowls. i sold them to him, "cheap as a broom," because the fever for this kind of bird was rapidly declining. he paid me only $ for this lot; which _was_ a bargain, of a truth. the buyer was satisfied, however, and so was _i_. these were but isolated instances. scores and hundreds of gentlemen and amateur fanciers found themselves in a similar predicament, at the end of one or two or three years. without possessing a single particle of knowledge requisite to the successful accomplishment of their purpose,--utterly ignorant of the first rudiments of the business,--they jumped into it, without reason, forgetting the wholesome advice contained in the musty adage, "look before you leap." and, after sinking tens and hundreds or (in some cases) _thousands_ of dollars in experiments, they woke up to find that they had _had_ the fever badly, but, fortunately, were at last convalescent! i was busy, all this time, in supplying my friends with "pure-bred" stock, however, and had very little leisure to tarry to sympathize with these "poor creeturs." the demand for _my_ stock continued, and the best year's business i ever enjoyed, was from the spring of to may and june, ; when it commenced to fall off very sensibly, and the prospect became dubious, for future operations, even with _me_. chapter xxiv. an expensive business. during the past six years i have expended, outright, for breeding stock, and for appropriate buildings for my fowls, over four thousand dollars, in round numbers--without taking into the account the expenses of their care, and the cost of feeding. few breeders have spent anything like this sum, for this purpose, _strictly_. in the mean time, the aggregate of my receipts has reached (up to january, ) upwards of seventy thousand dollars. i have raised thousands upon thousands of the chinese varieties of fowls, and my purchases to fill orders which came to hand during this term--in addition to what i was able to fill from those i myself raised--have been very large. and, while i have been thus engaged, hundreds and hundreds of amateurs and fanciers have sprung up in various directions, all of whom have had their share, too, in this trade. to the fanciers--those who purchased, as many did at first, simply for their amusement, or for the mere satisfaction of having good, or, perhaps, the best birds--this fever proved an expensive matter. i have known amateurs who willingly paid twenty, fifty, or a hundred dollars, and even more, for a pair, or a trio, of what were considered very choice shanghaes. these fowls, after the first few weeks or months of the purchaser's excitement had passed by, could be bought of him for five or ten dollars a pair! yet, his next-door neighbor, who would not now take these identical birds for a gift, scarcely, would pay to a stranger a similarly extravagant amount to that which had a hundred times been paid by others before him, for something, perhaps, inferior in quality, but which chanced to be called by the most popular name current at the moment. thus, for a time, bubble number one, the _cochin-chinas_, prevailed. the eggs of these fowls sold at a dollar each, for a long period. then came the _shanghaes_, of different colors,--as the yellow, the white, the buff, or the black,--and took their turn. many thousands of these were disposed of, at round rates. the smooth-legged birds at first commanded the best price; then the feathered-legged. and, finally, came the grey shanghaes, or "chittagongs," or "brahmas," as they were differently termed; and this proved bubble number two, in earnest. everybody wanted them, and everybody had to pay for them, too! they were large, heavy fowls, of china blood, plainly, but, with some few exceptions, were indifferent birds. they were _leggy_, however, and stood up showy and tall, and, to _look at_, appeared advantageously to the fancy, at this period. in the maw of this bubble, thousands of good dollars were thrown; and no race of poultry ever had the run that did these greys, under various names, both in this country and in england. a most excellent southern trade had sprung up, and large shipments of fowls went forward to the west, from massachusetts, and to charleston, augusta, mobile, new orleans, etc., where the fever broke out furiously, and continued, without abatement, for three years or more. no buyers were so liberal, generally, and no men in the world, known to northern breeders, bought so extensively, as did these fanciers in new orleans and vicinity. they purchased largely, from the very start; and the trade was kept up with a singular vigor and enterprise, from the beginning to the end. orders, varying in value from $ to $ and $ , were of almost weekly occurrence from that region; and in one instance, i sent forward to a gentleman in louisiana, a single shipment for which he paid me $ ! this occurred in september, . in this same year, i sent, from january to december, to another gentleman (at new orleans), over _ten thousand_ dollars' worth of stock. the prices for chickens ranged from $ or $ a pair, to $ or $ , and often $ to $ , a pair. these rates were always willingly and freely paid, and the stock was, after a while, disseminated throughout the entire valley of the mississippi; where the china fowls always did better than in our own climate. it proved an expensive business to some of these gentlemen, most emphatically. but they always paid cheerfully, promptly, and liberally; and _knew_ the yankees they were dealing with, a good deal better than many of the sharpers supposed they did. for myself, i shall not permit this opportunity to pass without expressing my thanks to my numerous and generous southern patrons, to whom i sent a great many hundred pairs of what were deemed "good birds," and to whom i am indebted, largely, for the trade i enjoyed for upwards of five years. i sincerely hope they made more money out of all this than i did; and i trust that their substance, as well as "their shadows, may never be less." during this year, and far into , the current of trade turned towards great britain; and john bull was not very slow to appreciate the rare qualities of my "magnificent" and "extraordinary" birds; "the like of which," said a london journal, when the queen's fowls first arrived, "was never before seen in england." for upwards of a year, i had all _this_ trade in my own way. subsequently, some of the smaller dealers sent out a few pairs to london, but "the people" there could never be brought to believe those fowls were anything but mongrels; and, while these interlopers contrived to murder the trade there, they at the same time "cut off their own noses," for the future, with those who knew what poultry was, upon the other side of the atlantic. i had _my_ shy at the britons, seasonably! but, a few months afterwards (as i shall show in a future chapter), through the mismanagement of an ambitious dealer in other fancy live-stock, the trade with england, from this side of the water, was completely ruined. over two hundred american fowls were thrown suddenly upon the london market, and were finally sold there, at auction, for a very small sum; and we were subsequently unable (with all our chicken-eloquence) to make john bull believe that even the _grey shanghaes_ were any longer "scarce" with us, here! chapter xxv. the great pagoda hen. the most ridiculous and fulsome advertisements now occupied the columns of certain so-called agricultural papers in this country, particularly one or two of these sheets in new york state. stories were related by correspondents (and endorsed by the nominal editors), regarding the proportions and weights and beauties of certain of the "bother'em" class of fowls, that rivalled munchausen, out and out. fourteen and fifteen pound cocks, and ten or eleven pound hens, were as common as the liars who told the stories of these impossibilities. and one day the following capital hit, by durivage, appeared in a boston journal. he called it "the great pagoda hen." there is as much truth in this as there was in many of the more seriously-intended articles of that time. it ran as follows: "mr. sap green retired from business, and took possession of his country 'villa,' just about the time the 'hen fever' was at its height; and he soon gave evidence of having that malignant disorder in its most aggravated form. he tolerated no birds in his yard that weighed less than ten pounds at six months, and he allowed no eggs upon his table that were not of a dark mahogany color, and of the flavor of pine shavings. he supplied his own table with poultry, and the said poultry consisted of elongated drum-sticks, attached by gutta-percha muscles and catgut sinews to ponderous breast-bones. he frequently purchased a 'crower' for a figure that could have bought a good morgan horse; but then, as the said crower consumed as much grain as a morgan horse, he could not help being perfectly satisfied with the bargain. his wife complained that he was 'making ducks and drakes' of his property; but, as that involved a high compliment to his ornithological tastes, he attempted no retort. he satisfied himself that it 'would pay in the end.' his calculations of profits were 'clear as mud.' he would have a thousand hens. the improved breeds were warranted to lay five eggs apiece a week; and eggs were worth--that is, _he was paying_--six dollars a dozen. his thousand hens would lay twenty thousand eight hundred and thirty-three dozen eggs per annum, which, at six dollars per dozen, would amount to the sum of one hundred and twenty-four thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight dollars. even deducting therefrom the original cost of the hens and their keep,--say thirty-six thousand dollars,--the very pretty trifle of eighty-eight thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight was the remainder--clear profit. eggs--even dark mahogany eggs--_went down to a shilling a dozen_! but we will not anticipate. "to facilitate the multiplication of the feathered species; mr. green imported a french eccaleobion, or egg-hatching machine, that worked by steam, and was warranted to throw off a thousand chicks a month. "one day an 'ancient mariner' arrived at the villa, with a small basket on his arm, and inquired for the master of the house. sap was just then engaged in important business,--teaching a young chicken to crow,--but he left his occupation, and received the stranger. "'want to buy an egg?' asked the mariner. "'one egg? why, where did it come from?' asked the hen-fancier. "'e stingies,' replied the mariner. "'domestic fowl's egg?' "'domestic.' "'let's see it.' "the sailor produced an enormous egg, weighing about a pound. sap 'hefted' it carefully. "'did you ever see the birds that lay such eggs?' he asked. "'lots on 'em,' replied the sailor. 'they're big as all out-doors. they calls 'em the gigantic pagoda hen. i'm afeared to tell you how big they are; you won't believe me. but jest you hatch out that 'ere, and you'll see wot'll come of it.' "'but they must eat a great deal?' said sap. "'scarcely anything,' replied the mariner; 'that's the beauty on 'em. don't eat as much as bantams.' "'are they good layers?' "'you can't help 'em laying,' replied the seaman, enthusiastically. 'they lay one egg every week-day, and two sundays.' "'but when do they set?' queried green. "'they don't set at all. they lays their eggs in damp, hot places, and natur' does the rest. the chicks take keer of themselves as soon as they're out of the shell.' "'damp, hot place!' said sap. 'my eccaleobion is the very thing, and my artificial sheep-skin mother will bring 'em up to a charm. my friend, what will you take for your egg?' "'cap'n,' said the mariner, solemnly, 'if i was going to stay ashore, i wouldn't take a hundred dollars for it; but, as i've shipped ag'in, and sail directly, you shall have it for forty.' "the forty dollars were instantly paid, and the hen-fancier retired with his prize, his conscience smiting him for having robbed a poor, hard-working sailor. "o, how he watched the egg-hatching machine while that extraordinary egg was undergoing the steaming process! he begrudged the time exacted by eating and sleeping; but his vigils were rewarded by the appearance, in due time, of a stout young chick, with the long legs that are a proof of eastern blood. the bird grew apace; indeed, almost as rapidly as jack's bean-stalk, or the prophet's gourd. but the sailor was mistaken in one thing; it ate voraciously. moreover, as it increased in size and strength, the pagoda exhibited extraordinary pugnacity. it kicked a dozen comrades to death in one night. it even bit the hand of the feeder. soon it was necessary to confine it in a separate apartment. its head soon touched the ceiling. what a pity it had no mate! sap wrote to a correspondent at calcutta to ship him two pairs of the great pagoda birds, without regard to cost. meanwhile he watched the enormous growth of his single specimen. he kept its existence a profound secret. it was under lock and key, in a separate apartment, lighted by a large window in the roof. sap's man-of-all-work wheeled daily two bushels of corn and a barrel of water to the door of the apartment, and green fed them out when no one was looking. even this supply was scanty; but, out of justice to his family, sap was compelled to put the monster bird on allowance. "'poor thing!' he would say, when he saw the creature devouring broken glass, and even bolting stray nails and gravel-stones, 'it cuts me to the soul to see it reduced to such extremity. but it's eating me out of house and home. decidedly, that sailor-man must have been deceived about their being moderate feeders.' "when the bird had attained to the enormous altitude of six feet, the proud proprietor sent for the celebrated dr. ludwig hydrarchos, of cambridge, to inspect him, and furnish him with a scientific description, wherewith he might astonish his brethren of the poultry association. the doctor came, and was carefully admitted by green to the presence of the great pagoda hen. the bird was not accustomed to the sight of strangers, and began to manifest uneasiness and displeasure at seeing the man of science. it lifted first one foot and then the other, as if it were treading on hot plates. "'hi! hi!' said green, soothingly. 'pagy! pagy! come, now, be quiet!--will you?' "'let me out!' cried hydrarchos, in great alarm. the huge bird was polking up to him. 'let me out, i say!' "'i never knew it to act so before,' said green, fumbling at the lock. "a whirr, a rush, a whizzing of the wings, and the bird was down on the doctor, treading on his heels, and pecking at the nape of his neck. "'pagy! pagy!' supplicated the owner. "but the angry bird would not listen to reason, and sap received a thump on the head for his pains. and now both rushed for the opening door, stumbling and falling prostrate in their eagerness to escape. the monster bird danced a moment on their prostrate bodies, and then darted forth from its late prison-house. "it rushed through a couple of grape-houses, carrying destruction in its progress. it scoured through the flower-beds, ruining the bright parterres. mrs. green, who was walking in the garden with her child, saw the horrid apparition, and stood paralyzed with terror. in an instant she was thrown down and trampled under foot, shrieking and clasping her infant in her arms. "mr. green beheld this last atrocity, and his conjugal affection overcame his love of birds. he caught up his fowling-piece and fired at the ungrateful monster; the shot ripped up some of its tail-feathers, but failed to inflict a mortal wound,--nothing short of a field-piece could produce an impression on that living mass. away sped the fowl to the railroad-track, down which it rushed with headlong speed. but its career was brief; an express train, coming up in an opposite direction, struck it full in front, and rushed on, scattering feathers, wings and drum-sticks, wildly in the air. "'tell me, doctor,' gasped green, 'what do you think of my great pagoda?' "'great pagoda!' said the professor, in indignant disdain. 'that was a struthio,--greek, _strothous_,--in other words, an ostrich. if you hadn't belonged to the genus _asinus_, you'd have known that, without asking me. good-morning, mr. green.' "'where is the monster?' cried mrs. green. 'i believe the poor child is killed. o, sap, i didn't expect this of you!' "'be quiet, my dear,' said green; 'it was only an experiment.' "'an experiment, mr. green!' retorted the lady, sharply; 'your wife and child nearly killed, and you call it an experiment! nurturing ostriches to devour your off-spring! i wonder you don't take to raising elephants.' "'no danger of that, maria,' replied her husband, meekly. 'i have "seen the elephant." and to-morrow i shall send my entire stock to the auction-room,--shanghaes, chittagongs, brahma pootras, cochins, warhens and warhoos. they're nice birds, great layers, small eaters, but they--_don't pay_.'" * * * * * mr. green was cured, of course; and though his anticipations were great, yet he had his predecessors and his successors in the hen traffic, who were almost as sanguine as he, and who not only "paid through the nose" for their experience, but who came off, in the end, really, with quite as little success. mr. green was but one of many. mr. green was one of "the people." it will be remembered that my correspondents allude to the fowls they "_see in the noospapers_." _i_ had seen these birds, in the same way, before _they_ did. and a london dealer wrote me that he could send me a lot of egleton's "famous" stock, "which took the three first premiums at a metropolitan show, and two descendants of which, at the close of the late exhibition, were sold _at auction_ for forty-eight guineas ($ )." i immediately sent out for a few of these monsters. they were described to me as being of enormous size, and _feathered upon the legs_; and i was now somewhat surprised to note that several of the english societies decided that the _true_ "cochin-china" fowl (as _they_ term this variety) come only with feathered legs. the very stock above alluded to, however, came direct from the city of _shanghae_; and duplicate birds of the same blood were delineated in the _london illustrated news_. the metropolitan associations required that all cochin-china fowls put in competition for premiums _must_ be feathered-legged. this was a new decision, as it is well known that every importation of domestic fowl yet brought out from china direct come more or less _clean_-legged; and that fully one half of their progeny are so, with the most careful breeding, both in england and in this country. this was immaterial, however; and i repeated the story to my correspondents in good faith, and sent them copies of the portraits of these new, "extraordinary," "splendid" and "astonishing" hens, precisely as their history and pictures came to _me_. the result can be fancied. here is the "original" portrait of one of 'em. [illustration: one of 'em.] this was the kind of thing that "took down" the outsiders. orders for this strain of pure blood poured in upon me, and i supplied them. i trust the purchasers were always satisfied. in _my_ case, it might answer; but i would not recommend the practice _generally_ of purchasing chickens out of the newspapers. such a portrait as the above _might_ chance to be a little fanciful; or, _perhaps_, it might be a trifling exaggeration, you see. yet this was the breed that were always "put in the _newspapers_." you very rarely found them in your coops, though! chapter xxvi. "policy the best honesty." this reversion of the old saying that "honesty's the best policy" seemed to have finally attained among many hen-men, and the ambition to dispose of their now large surplus stock, at the best possible prices, had become very general, while the means to accomplish it came to be immaterial, so that they got rid of their fancy poultry at fancy figures. nothing that could be said against me and my stock was neglected, or omitted to be said. but, as long as fowls would sell at all, i had my full share of the trade, notwithstanding this. the following veritable letter, received from a noted "breeder," in , will explain itself; and it exhibits the disposition of more than _one_ huckster still left around us. it will be observed that this gentleman called me his "friend"! "friend b----: what has become of all the trade? i haven't sold twenty dollars' worth of chickens, in a month! i've now got over three hundred of these curses on hand--and they're eating me up, alive. what'll we do with them? do you want them? will you buy them--_any_how? and give what you like for them. "they are a better lot than you ever owned,--everybody says so,--greys, cochins (_pure_) and shanghaes. d--n the business! i'm sick of it. my fowls and fixin's cost me over twelve hundred dollars. what do you think of an auction? has the bottom fallen out, entirely? could i get back two or three dollars apiece for this lot, do you think, at public sale? "b---- is stuck with about five hundred of the gormandisers. i'm glad of it--glad--_glad_! an't you? he always lammed you, as well as me; and though i think _you_ can swinge the green 'uns as cutely as 'most any of 'em, _he_ has been an eye-sore for three years that ought to be put down. he got his stock of you, he says,--but (no offence to you, friend b----), it an't worth a cuss. all of it's sick and lousy, and he shan't sell no more fowls, if i can help it. "have you seen w----'s stock, lately? isn't _he_ a beauty! i told him, last week, he'd ought to be ashamed of himself ever to gone into this trade, at all. he's well enough off, without stealing the bread out of the mouths of them that's a long way honester than he ever was. i'll have a lick at _him_, yet. "come and see my stock,--and buy it. i don't want it. i must give it up. i'm too busy about something else. come--will you? i don't say anything against your fowls, outside; but you know, as well as i do, that you haven't got the _real thing_. bennett says you haven't, and everybody else says so. as to your 'importations,' you never had a fowl that was imported from any further off than cape cod, and you know it! but that is neither here nor there. _i_ don't care a fig how much you gouge 'em. all i want is to get rid of _mine_. if you don't buy them, i shall sell them,--somehow,--or give them away, sure. they shan't eat me up, nohow. "they don't eat nothing--these fowls don't! o, what an infernal humbug this is! i never got much out of it, though. i tell everybody what all the rest of you do,--of course. but _i_ had rather keep the same number of suffolk pigs, anyhow, so far as that's concerned. i an't afraid of your showing this letter to nobody--ha! ha! so i don't mark it 'private.' but of all the owdacious humbugs that ever this country saw, _this_ thing is the steepest,--and you know it! "write me and say what you'll give me for my lot. i won't peach on you. you can buy 'em on your own terms. i want to get out of it. and you may say just what you've a mind about 'em. i'll back you, of course. couldn't you take them, and get up another fresh guy on a 'new importation'?? that's it. come, now, friend b----, help me out. and answer immediately. all i want is to get out of it, and catch _me_ there again if you can! "yours, &c., "---- ----. "p.s. if you don't buy them, i shall kill the brutes, and send 'em to market; though they are too _poor_ for that, i think." this complimentary epistle from a brother-fancier was rather cool, but it didn't equal the following. i had more than one of this sort, too,--of which i had no occasion, for the time being, to take the slightest notice, for i had "other fish to fry," decidedly! "mr. burnham.--sir: how is it that you have the impudence to try to palm off on the public those fowls of yours for genuine '_imported_ ones,' when it is known that you bought them all of me, and a----, and b----? how can you sleep nights? don't you feel a squirming in your conscience? or is it made of ingy-rubber, or gutter-perchy? you have made hundreds, and i don't know but thousands of dollars, by your impudence and bare-faced deceit. they are _not_ genuine fowls. i say this _bolely_. i wish there was a noospaper that would show the inderpendence to print an article that i could rite for it, on this subject of poletry. if i wouldn't make you stare, and shet your eyes up, too, then i aint no judge of swindling! "why don't you act like a man? _carnt_ you? havn't you got the pluck to own up that other people have done for you what you never had the gumption to do for yourself? why don't you act fair,--and tell where the genuine fowls can be got, and of who? you're a doing the poultry business more hurt than all the rest of the men in the country is doing, or ever did, or ever will, sir. "i don't mind a man's being sharp, and looking out for himself. _i_ do that. but i carn't humbug people as you are doing,--and i won't, neither. you're sticking it into the people nicely,--don't you think you are? and they _believe_ it, too! the people believes what you tell them, and sucks it all down, and wants more of it. and you keep a giving it to them, too! how long do you suppose such infamous things as these can last? i hope this letter will do you good. i havn't no ends to answer. i keep but a few fowls, and i have never charged over twenty-five dollars a pair for the best of them,--as you know. _you_ get fifty or a hundred dollars a pair. so the noospapers say, but i believe you lie when they say so. you carn't come this over _me_! you don't pull none of that wool over _my_ eyes! no, sir! "if you want to get an honest living,--get it! i don't say nothin against that; you've a rite to. but don't cheat the people out of their eye-teeth, by telling these stories that you carn't prove.[ ] you've no right to. you sell fowls, by this means, but you don't get no clear conscience by it. it's wrong, mr. burnum, and you know it. while you do this, nobody can sell no fowls except _you_. give other people a chance, say i. i wouldn't do this, nohow, to sell my fowls at your expense; and i go for having everybody do unto others as _i_ would do to _them_. this is moral and christian-like, and you'd better adopt it. that's my advice, and i don't charge nothing for it. so, no more at present--from "your, resp'y, "---- ---- ----." these missives never disturbed me. why should they? these very men would have sold, from that very stock,--_had_ done so, repeatedly, before,--whatever a buyer sought to purchase. i never knew either of them to permit the chance of a sale to pass by him, on account of the _variety_ of bird sought! they invariably possessed whatever was wanted. with them, "_policy_ was the best _honesty_." i did not complain. i was a "hen-man," but no mentor. [ ] i never found, in my limited experience in this business, any particular necessity for attempting to prove anything. "the people" wanted fowls--not _proofs_! chapter xxvii. a genuine humbug. [illustration: a genuine humbug.] it was now getting pretty clear to the vision of most of the initiated that the hen fever was in the midst of its height. buyers with long purses were about, but they were not so ravenous as formerly. they talked knowingly and cautiously, and chose their fowls with more care than formerly; but still a great many samples were being circulated, and at very handsomely remunerating prices. a gentlemanly-_looking_ man called upon me, one day, about this time, in boston, and introduced himself, in his own felicitous manner, something in this wise: "how are you? mr. burnum, i suppose. my name is t----. i'm from phil'delphy." "happy to see you, mr. t----," i replied. "take a seat, sir?" "i want to _look_ at your fowls, burnum," he continued, in a rather bluff manner. "i know what poultry is, i _think_. i've been at it, now, over thirty year; and i'd oughter know what fowls is. you're a humbug, burnum! there's no doubt about _that_; and you're all a set of hums, together--you hen-men! i haven't got the fever. i'm never disturbed by no such stupid nonsense. these china fowls are an old story with _me_. i had 'em twenty years ago,--brought into phil'delphy straight from shanghae by a friend of mine." [this gentleman had forgotten, or didn't know (or thought _i_ didn't), that the port of shanghae had been open to communication with this country only a dozen years or less; and so i permitted him to proceed in his remarks without offering any opposition to his assumption.] "these big fowls never lay no eggs, burnum. you know it as well as anybody. _do_ they?" "none to hurt," i answered. "no, no--i reck'n not," continued my visitor. "_i_ know 'em, like a book. can't fool _me_ with them. they an't worth a curse to nobody. i'll go out and _see_ yours, though, 'cause you're a good deal fairer than i expected to find you. i thought you'd try to hum _me_, same as i s'pose you do the rest." "o, no!" i replied, meekly. "when i meet with gentlemen who are posted up, as _you_ are, sir, i conceive it to be useless to attempt to urge them to possess themselves of this stock; because i am always satisfied, at first sight, what my customer is. and i govern myself accordingly. i will take you out to my place, directly. my carriage is in town, and we'll ride out together. you can see it,--but you say you don't want to purchase any?" "no, no--that's not my object, at all. still, i like to look at the humbugs, any way." i was as well satisfied that this man knew very little of what he thus boldly talked of, as i also was that he had come all the way from philadelphia _purposely_ to buy some chinese fowls. but i gave him no hint of this suspicion; and we arrived, an hour afterwards, at my residence in melrose. he examined my fowls carefully; went through all the coops and houses, and finally we entered the "green-house" where the _selected_ animals were kept. as soon as he saw these birds, _i_ saw that he was "a goner." he denounced the whole race as he passed along; but when we entered this well-appointed place, he stopped. these were very respectable, and he wouldn't mind having a few of _these_, he said. "what do you get for such as these?" he inquired. "twenty-five dollars each," i replied, "when i sell them. but they're all alike. _you_ know it as well as i do. they're worth no such money. these fowls are well-grown, and are in good condition; but five or six shillings each is their full _real_ value. still, you know when 'the children cry for them,' why, we get a little more for them." "yes; but twenty-five dollars is a thundering hum, anyhow, burnum! i can't go _that_! you mustn't think of getting no such price as that out of _me_, you see; 'cause you know that _i_ know what all this bosh means. i'd like that cock and those three big hens," he added, pointing to four of my "best" birds. "that is," he continued, "if i could have them at anything like a fair rate." "my dear sir," i responded; "_you_ don't want any such hum as this imposed upon _you_. you know, evidently, what all this kind of thing signifies. but, at the same time, you see i can get this price, and do get it every day in the week, out of the 'flats' that you have been speaking of. i don't sell any of these things to gentlemen, who know, as _you_ do, what they are, you see." "yes, yes!" continued the stranger; "i know; i see. i comprehend you, exactly--precisely. but i should like them four fowls. what's the _lowest_ price you'll name for them?" "i never have but one price, sir," i replied. "_these_ fowls i keep here for show-birds. they are my 'sign,' you perceive--my models. the younger stock, that you have seen outside, are bred _from_ these; and thus i am enabled to show gentlemen, when they come here, what the others will be"--(_perhaps_, i might have added; but i didn't). this gentleman remained half an hour at my house, and we talked the whole subject over, at our leisure. i agreed with him in every proposition that he advanced, and he finally left me with the assurance that i had been traduced villanously. he really expected to meet with a regular sharper when he encountered me; but he was satisfied, if there was a gentleman and an honest poultry-breeder in new england, _i_ was that fortunate individual! i did not dispute even this assurance on his part. and when he left, _i_ had one hundred dollars of his money, and _he_ took away with him four of my "splendid" pure-bred grey shanghaes, which i sent to the cars with him when he bade me good-day. this was but a single sample of the _real_ humbugs that presented themselves to us, from time to time, _all_ of whom were certain to inform us that they were "thoroughly acquainted" with the entire details of the business; all of whom had been through the routine, and "knew every rope in the ship;" none of whom were affected with the "fever" (so they always declared), and not one of whom believed, while they were thus striving to pull wool over the eyes of others, that they were all the time being "shaken down" without mercy! _this_ was the very class of men who, in the later days of the malady, assisted most to keep up the delusion, and to aid in carrying on the hum of the trade. to be sure, the keepers of agricultural warehouses talked, and told big stories to their poor customers, who would buy eggs and chickens of them, for a while, at round prices; true, most of the agricultural papers strove from week to week to keep up the deceit, after the editors or proprietors found their yards over-stocked with this species of property, for which they had originally paid me (or somebody else) roundly, and which they "couldn't afford to lose," though they _knew_ it to be valueless! true, the hen-men themselves kept their advertising and the big stories of their success constantly before "the people," whom they gulled from day to day. but no portion of the community did more to "help the cause along" than did this self-sufficient, learned, know-nothing, thin-skinned class of "wise-acres," who never chanced to make much more than a considerable out of the writer of this paragraph--i _think_! among this well-informed (?) set of men there was a "john bull" who was connected in some way with a boston weekly, which was nominally called an agricultural sheet, but which for several years was filled with articles upon the subject of "the equality of the sexes." his name was pudder, or pucker, or padder, as nearly as i remember. from the commencement of this fever he was sorely affected, and his articles upon the merits of the different breeds of fowls he raised were very learned and instructive! he sold eggs for three, four, or five dollars a dozen, for a few weeks; but, as they didn't hatch, his game was soon blocked. still, he stuck to this hum with the obstinacy of a "bluenose;" and his readers were indebted to his advice for possessing themselves of the most worthless mass of trash (in the shape of poultry) that ever cursed the premises of amateur. his lauded "plymouth rocks," his "fawn-colored dorkings," his "italians," his "drab shanghaes," etc., sold, however; and the poor devils who read the paper, and who purchased this stuff, lived (like a good many others) to realize, to their hearts' content, after paying this fellow for being thus humbugged, the truth of the old adage that "the fool and his money is soon parted." still, podder was useful--in his way--in the hen-trade. the operations of such ignorant and wilful hucksters had the effect of opening the eyes of those who desired to obtain _good_ stock, and who were willing to pay for it. and after they had been thus fleeced, they became cautious, and procured their poultry only of "honorable" and responsible breeders (like myself), who imported and bred nothing but known _pure_ stock. as late as in january, , a western agricultural sheet alludes to the flaming advertisement of an old hand in this traffic, and says: "it is known to all who know anything about poultry that mr. g---- has been an amateur breeder for about forty years, and is undoubtedly better 'posted,' in reference to domestic and fancy fowls, than any other man in america; and, beside this, he is an honest man, and has no 'axe to grind.' he has raised fowls, heretofore, _solely for his own amusement_; but _now_ he proposes to accommodate the public by disposing of some of them." this man is my "fat friend" in connecticut,--who has bred and bought and sold as much _trash_, in the past ten years, as the best (or the worst) of us. friend brown, we could tell you a story worth two of yours, on this point! but--we forbear. chapter xxviii. barnum in the field. the prince of showmen was suddenly developed as a "hen-man"! mr. barnum was seized, one morning, with violent spasms, and, upon finding himself safely within the friendly shelter of "iranistan," his physicians were duly consulted, who examined his case critically, and reported that the disease lay chiefly in the head of their patient--who, it was subsequently ascertained, was suffering from a severe attack of hen fever. such was the violence of the demonstrations in this gentleman's case, however, and so fearful were the indications with him, even during the incipient stages of the affection, that his friends feared that phineas t. had really contracted his "never-get-over." but, upon being informed (as i was, soon afterwards) of this case, and questioned as to his probable eventual recovery, i unhesitatingly gave it as my opinion that his friends might rest assured the humbug that could kill _him_ was yet to be discovered; and that, so far as he was personally concerned, i entertained no sort of doubt that "he would feel much better when it was done aching." (a prediction which, i have no question, has been accurately fulfilled, ere this.) the man who could succeed, as he had, with no-haired horses, gutta-percha mermaids, fat babies, etc., and who had gone into and out of fire-annihilators, prepared mastodons, illustrated newspapers, copper mines, defunct crystal palaces, and the like, unscathed, would scarcely be jeopardized by an attack of the prevailing malady of the day, however violently it might exhibit itself in his case. and so there was hope for phineas, though his symptoms were really alarming. my friend took the very best possible means for alleviating the virulence of his attack; and, looking about him for the largest-_sized_ humbug known in the trade, he alighted upon a two-hundred-and-forty-pound connecticut joker, who quickly offered to inform him how he could find relief. "how shall i do it, john?" exclaimed phineas, as his fat friend made his appearance. "heesiest thing in life," responded john; "hall you 'ave to do is to put yer 'and in yer pocket." "_so?_" said phineas, putting his fist gently out of sight. "no--you aren't deep enough down yet," replied john. "go down deeper. that's better,--that'll do." "how much'll it cost?" queried phineas. "carn't say," responded john. "you're pooty bad. there's nuth'n' in _this_ country that'll cure you. hi'll go hout to hingland, if you say so, and hi can git somethin' there that'll 'elp you. it ar'n't to be 'ad in ameriky, though." "sho!" exclaimed barnum; "you don't say so! do you think, john, that we could find something in england that would knock 'em, here?" "nothing else," replied john. "_hi_ know where they keep 'em." (john was raised in great britain.) "but, john," persisted phineas, "there's _burnham_, you know, of boston. they say _he_ has the best poultry in the world; and i've no doubt of it, between you and i." "fudge!" exclaimed john; "burn'am's a very clever fellow, hi've no manner o' doubt, and hi won't say nuth'n' ag'inst 'im; but 'ee's the wust 'umbug you _ever_ see, since you 'ad breath. 'ee don't know the dif'rence 'tween a shanghi and a cochin-chiny--an' never did. 'ee's a _hum_, 'is burn'am. don't go near _'im_, unless you want the skin shaved hoff o' yer knuckles, clean." "well, john," said the show-man, "something must be done. i've got the fever, bad, i'm afraid, as you suggest; and it must be fed. what can you do for me?" john thought the matter over, and it was finally agreed, as there were no good fowls in america (according to john's notions), that _he_ should be deputized by phineas to proceed to "hingland," and procure some genuine (that is, _pure_) stock, for the coops at iranistan, at the liberal show-man's expense! a capital recipe, this, for barnum's disease, as well as for john's own benefit. but phineas isn't taken down easy, though they do occasionally "fetch him." and so he hesitated. he thought the matter over a while, and finally said to his friend, one day, "john, i've got it!" "'ave you?" says john. "yes, i've got it. you know i've something in my head besides grey hairs, john." "hi've no manner o' doubt o' _that_," replied john. "well, i have thought this thing over, and i have determined to see, first, what there is in america, before i send you out to europe." "it'll take you a long time to do that," said john, "and you'd 'ave to travel a great w'ile to see all the poultry we've 'ere." "i won't travel at all," said phineas. "no? as 'ow, then?" inquired john. "i'll get up a show--a poultry exhibition--on a grand scale, and it shall come off at my museum, at new york. everybody'll come, of course; and we can see what there is, buy what i want from the best of 'em, and make our selections as we may fancy; you shall go out afterwards to england, and obtain for me what i can't get here, you see." "capital!--hexellent!" responded john. "and i'll call it the--the--_what_?" said barnum, stopping for an appropriate title to this anticipated exhibition. "i donno," said john, puzzled. "well--then--the _national show_," continued phineas. "how'll that do? the first exhibition of the 'national poultry society.' i think that's good. you see that includes all quarters of the country; and we shall know no north, no south, no east, no west! a quarter admission--museum included--capital!" "yes--just _the_ thing!" chimed in his friend. and shortly afterwards advertisements and circulars found their way into the hands of all the hen-men in the country, who were thus invited to visit new york, in february, , to contribute to the grand show of the "national poultry society," of which p.t. barnum, esq., was _president_. a long string of names was attached to this call, and the list of "managers" embraced one or more representatives from every state in the union--my own humble name appearing among the vice-presidents for massachusetts. the whole thing was clearly one of barnum's _dodges_ to fill his museum for a few days; and probably not a single individual except himself had any knowledge of the formation or existence of any such _society_ as this, of which he thus nominally appeared to be the presiding officer. at any rate, after diligent inquiry, i could never ascertain that anybody knew anything about any such an association, except himself. however, this was a matter of no sort of consequence, of course. the fitchburg dépôt show, in boston, was a similar affair; and i now joined in this exhibition without asking unnecessary questions,--because i saw that there was fun ahead, and that _i_ could make an honest penny out of it, whether barnum did or not. every one now put his best foot foremost; and, as this fair approached, shanghaes were converted into cochin-chinas (by the knowing ones), by the removal of the feathers from the legs; the mongrels were made feathered-legged bother'ems, by the free use of gum-tragacanth and down; the long-tailed fowls were deprived of all superfluous plumes, through the aid of the pincers; and what this last process did not satisfactorily effect, the application of the _shears_ completed (see engraving!); until, at last, the unlucky bipeds, whom nature had originally supplied with decent caudal appendages, were reduced to that requisite state of brevity, astern, which the _mode_ or the taste of the day demanded. and, at length, all was ready for the great "national show" in new york city. [illustration: preparing for the fowl show.--(see page .)] as it turned out, the whole thing (though an utter _sham_ as regarded its being a _society_ matter) proved to have been well conceived, and, from beginning to end, was admirably well carried out. mr. barnum did his part most creditably at this first show in new york, and the experiment was eminently successful. the birds were afforded excellent care, and an immense quantity of good specimens found their way to the museum at the appointed time. for a week, notwithstanding the very dull weather, the great rooms of the american museum on broadway were thronged with visitors; and barnum was in high glee at the entire success of his undertaking. not content with one week's show of the fowls, barnum proposed that it should be continued for six days longer; and the crowd continued to visit this exhibition for another week, and to pour in with their friends, their wives, their children, and their quarters, to the great edification and satisfaction of the proprietor of the show, and the "president" of the "national poultry society." i was there, with a goodly quantity of my "rare" and "unexceptionable" and "pure-bred" fowls, which were greatly admired by the thousands of lookers-on, who flocked to this extraordinary exhibition. it was really astonishing (to _me_, at least) what very fine birds i had at this show. and, "may be," fowls didn't _sell_ there! if i remember rightly, "the people" were round, on that occasion. and so was _i_! chapter xxix. first "national" poultry-show in new york. whether it was because barnum had taken this enterprise in hand, whether it was because it was known that my "superior" stock was to be seen at the museum, or whether it was because the intrepid "fanny fern" had promised to visit the show, i cannot say; but one thing was certain,--such a gathering of "the people" was seldom witnessed, even in busy, driving, sight-seeing new york, as that which crowded the great rooms of barnum's establishment on the occasion of the first exhibition of the so-called "national poultry society." "all the world" was there, with his wife and babies, and nieces and nephews. the belle and the beau, the merchant and the mechanic, the lawyer and the parson, the rich and the poor, old and young, grave and gay,--all were in attendance upon this extraordinary display of cockadoodledom; and barnum--the indefatigable, the enterprising, the determined, the incomparable barnum--was in his glory, as the quarters were piled up at the counter of the ticket-office, and "the people" wedged their way up the crowded stairs and aisles of his museum. the great show-man was as busy as his satanic majesty is vulgarly supposed to be in a snow-storm! now here, now there; up stairs, down stairs; in the halls, in the lobbies; busy with john, button-holing the "committees," from morning till night. all smiles, all good-nature, all exertion to please the throngs of visitors who constantly jammed their way about the building. and, to say that everything about this undertaking (so far as he was personally concerned) was not managed with tact and good judgment, as well as complete propriety and liberality, would be to state what was untrue. mr. barnum rarely does anything by halves; and to him, in this instance, belongs the credit of getting up, and carrying through successfully, the very best show of poultry ever seen in america,--beyond all comparison. in due season i selected from my then somewhat reduced stock sixty specimens of the shanghae tribe of fowls, which, with some twenty samples of choice madagascar rabbits, i forwarded (in charge of my own agent) to this long-talked-of show. the person whom i employed to look after my stock--(for i had long since got to be "a gentleman," and couldn't attend to such trifling matters, personally)--the man who went with it to this exhibition was thoroughly posted up in his "profession," and knew a hawk from a handsaw, as well as a shanghae from a cochin-china. and when he started for new york with my contributions, i enjoined it upon him to bear in mind, under _all_ circumstances, that the gentleman he represented had the only _pure_-bred poultry in america, any way. to which he replied, briefly, "is _that_ all? i knew that before." i said, "john, you're a brick. a faced-brick. a _hard_-faced-brick. you'll _do_." john winked, and left me, with the understanding that, as soon as he should have time to look around the show, he would telegraph me at boston what the prospect was, comparatively. i felt quite _sure_ that my fowls would take all the premiums, for they always had done so before; and my "pure-bred" stock grew better and better every year! i did not go to the show for a day or two after my agent left; and, on the morning succeeding the opening, i received from him the following brief but expressive telegraphic dispatch: "g.p. burnham, boston. "arrived safe; thought we'd got 'em, _sure_. we have--_over the left_. you are nowhar! "b." here was a precious fix, to be sure! for five years, i had carried away the palm at every exhibition where my "splendid" and deservedly "unrivalled" samples had been put in competition with the stock of others. and now, at the first great _national_ exhibition, where everybody would of course be present (and where the first cages that would be looked for, or looked into, must be those of mr. burnham, the breeder of the only original "pure"-blooded poultry in the country), according to my agent's dispatch i was _no_whar! this dispatch reached me at noon, and on the following morning i was in new york. i looked about the several apartments in the museum, and satisfied myself who had the best fowls there, very quickly. as it happened, they were not inside of _my_ cages, by a long mark! yet "the people" crowded around my showy coops, for which my agent had secured an advantageous position, and in displaying them (if i remember aright) he lost no opportunity in saying just _enough_ (and no more) to the throng who passed and admired their beautiful proportions, their great size, and splendid colors. there were not a few choice birds scattered about the rooms,--under the benches, or in the far-off corners,--which my eye fell upon, which my agent subsequently purchased at very modest prices, and which found their way, somehow, into my coops. "the people" now stared with more earnestness than ever. by the evening of the second day, my "pure-bred" stock _did_ look remarkably well! and when the "committee" came round, at last, i found myself the recipient of several of the leading premiums, for my "magnificent," "superb" and "extraordinary" contributions, again. and now commenced the fun, once more, in earnest. everything that i sent to new york was quickly bought up at enormous prices. fifty, eighty, a hundred, a hundred and twenty-five dollars per trio, was willingly paid my agent for the rare and incomparable fowls i exhibited there. "the people" were literally mad on the subject; and i hadn't half enough to supply my customers with, at figures that astonished even _my_ ideas of prices,--which, by the way, were not easily disturbed! during this exhibition, mr. barnum announced that a "conversational" gathering would be held, one day, in the lecture-room of his museum; whither the throng were invited to repair, at last, to talk over matters pertaining to the welfare of the trade generally, and the hen-humbug more particularly. a rush was directly made for this hall, which was quickly filled up by the multitude, who now stood or sat, with gaping mouths and staring eyes, in readiness to be further bamboozled by the managers of this _national_ "society," who duly paraded themselves upon the platform, and commenced to show themselves up for the edification of the uninitiated, and to the great amusement of those who had "been there" before them. mr. barnum presided, but with that grace and modesty and extreme diffidence for which he is so noted. the enthusiasm of the occasion soon reached concert-pitch, however, and everybody on the stage, in the parquette, and around the gallery, desired to relieve themselves of the pent-up patriotism that rioted in their bosoms; and all desired to be heard at the same time. cries of "barnum! barnum!" "where's bennett?" "speech from burnham!" "down in front!" "give 'em a chance!" "hear the president!--there he is!" "hurra for the bother'ems!" &c. &c., rang from the lungs of the crowd. and finally order was restored, and mr. barnum approached the front of the stage, to deliver himself of "feelings that could be fancied, not described," amid the cheers and shouts of that crazy multitude. chapter xxx. barnum's innate diffidence. as soon as the vociferous cheering had subsided, mr. barnum reached the foot-lights, and smiled beneficently upon the crowd before him. "ladies and gentlemen," said the show-man, modestly, "unaccustomed as i am to public speaking, you will pardon me, _imprimis_, for hinting at the extreme diffidence with which i now rise to address you; and i am sure that, notwithstanding the commendable zeal that now animates this enlightened audience, you will sympathize with me in the midst of the embarrassments under which you must readily perceive _i_ am laboring, and extend to the speaker your lenity (all unused, as you are aware he is, to this sort of scene), while he ventures upon a few very brief remarks on the interesting and laudably-exciting topic that has brought us together here, on this happy occasion." this modest appeal brought down the house, of course; and the bashful mr. b., after clearing his throat, was requested by the crowd to "go on, barnum! proceed--put 'er through!" "the hen fever," continued mr. b----, "is but just _begun_ to be realized, ladies and gentlemen, among us." (barnum had been attacked by the malady only a few weeks previously, and hadn't "heard from the back counties" then!) "this first exhibition of the national poultry society, my friends, is ample evidence in support of this statement. was there ever such a show seen, or heard of, ladies and gentlemen, as this which you are now the witnesses of? never! yet, i repeat it, this is but the commencement. the enthusiasm which has attended upon this exhibition, the feelings that have been stirred up by this before unheard-of display, the people of every grade in society that come forward here in its support, the zeal which animates the bosoms of the thousands upon thousands who have attended it, and the names of the men connected with its origin and present patronage, afford ample evidence in support of my assertions, that the fire has but just begun--just _begun_ to burn, fairly, ladies and gentlemen!" ("that's a fact," was the ready response of a young gentleman who had just paid my agent over three hundred dollars for a few samples of my "choice" chickens; the first he ever owned!) "_i_ want to say a few words," remarked a stranger, under the gallery, at this point. but he was requested by the chairman to "_hold in!_" until mr. barnum concluded. after considerable urging, this anxious man was prevailed upon to sit down; though he was evidently "full to bursting," with his enthusiastic emotions. "we have a good deal to learn yet, gentlemen," continued barnum (and that was truthful, at any rate!) "we have much to learn; but we know enough to spur us on to acquire more. more knowledge, more experience, more fowls. we haven't enough--we don't know enough, yet. i am greatly rejoiced at the prospects, to-day, and with the entire success of this enterprise, here!" (and well he might be.) "i have freely given my time and humble talents to its consummation, and we have triumphed! we, _the people_, the men who have the heart and the pluck to undertake and carry through this sort of thing. there's no hum in _this_, gentlemen! none, whatever. how _can_ there be? we see this thing before our very eyes. it is a tangible, living, breathing, walking, crowing" (and he might have added _eating_!) "reality, ladies and gentlemen. there can be no humbug in anything of this sort; because we can take hold upon it, handle it, view it with our eyes open. a humbug is but an unexplained or half-concluded _fact_. this is a self-evident, clearly-defined fact-- 'a thing that _is_--and to be blessed!' and when you, or i, can take a crower in our hands that will weigh twelve or fourteen or fifteen pounds,--when we can see and feel him,--can there, by any possibility, be humbug in it?" "no--no--no!" shouted the crowd; the ladies kindly joining in the decisive negative given to this forcible appeal. "then, i repeat it, we are but just in the beginning of the commencement of this new and promising era. the fire has just begun to burn, and to illumine the world; and, as i said before (or intended to say), it is not to be subdued! it is a mighty conflagration, which assails everybody at this moment, and is now enveloping all classes of the community, from the highest to the lowest! this land is in a blaze! in a threatening, exciting, violent, whirling, astounding blaze, gentlemen--and no opposition or invention can put it out!" ("fetch on your fire-'nihilators, then!" shouted a vicious wag, from the gallery.) "we don't want to put it out," continued mr. barnum, growing warmer as the fire of his zeal in this cause continued to glow within him; "we have no wish to put it out. let it burn! let it come! let it conflagrate! we love it--_you_ love it--_i_ love it--it's one of the things we admire to think of, and speak of, and read of, and pay for, and help to keep alive here, and everywhere, and elsewhere! our country is big enough; we have millions of broad acres, miles on miles of fertile fields, and cords of maize and grain that cannot be used or disposed of, unless it be devoted to the uses and benefits of these beautiful birds, sometimes so cavalierly spoken of by their enemies, but the value of which _i_ know, and most of _you_, gentlemen, know how to appreciate!" (applause, and cries of "go it, old hoss! you'll be a capital customer for some of the hen-men to pick up! go it, barnum!") "i did not rise, gentlemen," continued the speaker, "with any idea of telling you anything new. i am but an humble coadjutor with you in this pleasing and innocent undertaking. i can see, as you can, also, the importance of this subject" (he didn't say _what_ "subject"), "and i trust that we may go on, and increase, and multiply domestic fowls and customers, in a ratio commensurate with the rapidly increasing throbs of the public pulse--which is now beating only at . , and which must soon reach a . pace, if nothing breaks!" ("hurra! hurra!" yelled the boys; "that's a good 'un!") and the president sat down, blushing, amid the uproarious applause that followed his remarks. as soon as order was comparatively restored, other gentlemen, whom the president introduced as "honorable," and "talented," and "professional," and "influential," took the rostrum, and "followed suit" upon barnum's lead. a vote of thanks was finally passed to mr. barnum for his services, and the _sacrifices_ he had made in behalf of the "society;" another to the "orator" of the day (whose name i have now forgotten), formerly a member of congress, i believe; another similar vote to the secretary, to whom, also, a plated jug was subsequently presented; a vote to mr. burnham, of boston, for his speech and his "magnificent" contributions of _pure_-bred stock; a vote condemning everybody who had or should thenceforward nickname fowls; a vote of condolence and sympathy with john giles, because none of his _pure_ black spanish fowls were in the exhibition; a vote to porter, of the new york _spirit of the times_, for his disinterested notices of the show; another to greeley, of the _tribune_, who hadn't time to visit it; another to pay the bills of the "committees" at the astor house (_minus_ the champagne charges!); another to dr. bennett, for not being present at this show; another endorsing the claims of patent pill-venders and cross-grained bee-hive makers; another to frank pierce, for the allusions in his inaugural to the "march of progress" in our land, which of course included shanghae-ism; another to caleb cushing (an honorary member), who was lauded as the most thoroughly graceless humbug known to the "national" society; another endorsing the collector and postmaster of boston as disinterested democrats; another that my "grey shanghaes" were evidently the only full-blooded fowls exhibited at the american museum on this occasion; and numerous other resolves were duly "voted," of which no note was taken at the time. while this bosh was transpiring, i sent to boston for some fifty pairs more of my "superb" specimens of shanghaes and cochins, all of which were disposed of during the second week of this show, at curiously "ruinous" rates. and at the close of the exhibition my agent had taken very nearly _three thousand dollars_ for the "pure" shanghaes, and cochins, and greys, he had sold there for my account! i trust that every one was as well satisfied with the results of this first exhibition of the "national poultry society" as i was. it is the last show _i_ shall ever attend. and having invariably taken the lead, from the beginning up to this trial, i retired, content with the self-assurance that i had made all i could make out of this sort of thing, and that the field now legitimately belonged to my juniors in the profession. may success attend them! at the close of the exhibition, my friend barnum congratulated me. "they tell me you've done _well_, burnham," said my friend, cheerfully. "i'm glad of it. and, since you've made it so handsomely, suppose you leave me a couple of your best fancy rabbits, yonder; i'll add them to the 'happy family.'" "certainly," i replied. "with great pleasure, b----. and, since _you_ have done so capitally with this show, you shall give me a quarter of your profits on the tickets sold. here--take the rabbits!" "a-_hem_!" said barnum. "no--no. it's no matter. you needn't--no--we won't say anything about it. it's all right. you'll do. you can run alone, i guess. _i believe i don't spell my name right!_ good-by--good-by." i haven't seen friend barnum since. at this exhibition of poultry i managed to show a pair of my pure-bred suffolk pigs, too, which did not set me back any. i took numerous orders for these animals, and i have given on page what passes for a likeness of a fancy "shanghae" fowl, such as we "read of in the newspapers," and which everybody, during the last five years, imagined he was buying, when he ordered "such," after seeing the "pictur'." in this class of illustration, there was quite as much deceit and chicanery practised, commonly, as in any part of the general system of the humbug. the uninitiated saw the well-rounded forms of the huge fowls or hogs he sought, in his weekly agricultural journal, from time to time; and, through the same channel, he met with "portraits," represented to have had originals at some time or other, and which were said to be in the possession of this or that breeder, who "had been induced, after earnest solicitation, to part with a very few choice samples," out of such imaginary stock. with the _swine_, the thicker the ham, the smaller the feet, the shorter the nose, and the thinner the hair, the better and the _purer_ blooded pig you got, for instance! the following is a sample of this kind of guy, which has had its run in the past three years, and upon which tens of thousands of dollars have been squandered by enthusiastic admirers of these bloated bladders of lard. this is _supposed_ to be a likeness of the "genuine" suffolk pig. [illustration: suffolk pig.] the good old lady replied, when asked if she loved the lord, "i donno much about him, but i hain't nothin' agin him!" so i affirm in reference to this hog. but one thing i may be permitted to remark in this connection; to wit, that the more pure suffolk _pigs_ there are, the less _corn_ you find round. that's all! chapter xxxi. a suppressed speech. the following remarks, on the occasion referred to, were neither published at the time, nor would the "committee on printing" admit them into the official report of the proceedings of this _national_ show. for what reason, i am utterly unable to determine. these were the author's sentiments, and i give the speech a place _here_, because i have no idea of being thus "headed" by my colleagues in that enterprise. this speech was delivered by the young 'un "with emphasis and discretion;" but the managers suppressed it. i now submit it, in the hope that it will be duly appreciated. when called upon, i said, as modestly and as gracefully as i knew how: "mr. president: _vox populi, vox dei!_ the people assembled within the classic and well-painted walls of your american museum call upon me for a few words of encouragement; and, while i assure you i find myself totally unprepared to speak (though my present address has been written some four weeks), i cheerfully respond to the flattering demonstration that greets me on this electrifying occasion." (applause, and waving of hats and handkerchiefs.) "i am but an humble disciple in this profession, mr. president, and know very little of the deceit and chicanery that _some_ persons charge others with practising in the ramifications of the hen-trade; and, although it has been said that 'what i don't know about this part of the business wouldn't be worth much to anybody,' yet i here solemnly disclaim any superhuman or supernatural knowledge of the tricks of this laudable and highly respectable calling." (cries of "good, good! you're an injured man! go on!") "for six years, mr. president, i have carefully watched the progress of this disease, and it really warms the recesses of my heart to find myself surrounded, as i do to-day, by the highly honorable and respectable throng of gentlemen who now grace this rostrum,--yourself, mr. president, prominent among this galaxy of talent, education, genius, morality, and thrift!" (immense applause, during which the speaker removed his outside coat.) "the day is auspicious, mr. barnum,--i beg pardon--mr. _president_. the spirit of liberty,--of american liberty,--sir, is abroad! to be sure, our valued friends who pretend to know nothing (and whose pretensions none of here, i think, will gainsay) have commenced an onslaught upon almost everything of foreign extraction; but they kindly permit us to import chinese _fowls_, and allow us to breed them--for the present, at least--without interruption; for which i trust they may receive a unanimous vote of thanks from this american _national_ poultry society." ("yes, yes!" followed this allusion, with hearty cheers.) "i repeat it, sir,--the times are auspicious. money is a drug in the market, plainly. the patronage bestowed upon this show (in which, mr. president, i am sure your native modesty and national patriotism cannot suffer you to feel the slightest _personal_ interest) is evidence of this fact. the prices paid here, in , for domestic fowls--though so clearly below their actual value!--supports this assertion: and your own entire lack of backwardness in coming forward to assume the risk and responsibility of the expenses of this exhibition is the crowning proof that _l'argent_ is plenty--somewhere, at least. i have no disposition, mr. president,--far be it from me--heaven forbid that i should attempt--to offer one word of flattery, that you might, by any possibility, appropriate personally. no, sir,--i am no such man! but, if ever there was an individual whose pure-bred disinterestedness, whose incomparable generosity, whose astonishing sacrifice of self, stuck out like a sore thumb, these attributes have now been evinced, beyond the shadow of a shade of question, on this exhilarating occasion, through the astounding liberality of a gentleman, the initials of whose name are finnyous tee barman!" (immense applause, during which the young 'un laid aside his dress-coat, and took off his cravat,--while the president, with both hands over his face, sat overpowered with his emotions.) "mr. president, i am no clap-trap orator. i shall say what i have to say, sir, to-day, without any hope or aim towards future reward. to be sure, i have the originals of the finest-blooded fowls in the land, and nobody disputes it; and i have now a fine lot here to dispose of; but this is not the time or place to allude to this matter; and i will only say that i do not charge so much for them as many breeders do, while, at the same time, mine are very much finer and purer than anybody else's, as can readily be seen upon examining the contents of my cages, in the first room below this hall, on the right-hand side as you enter the building. the people, sir, are in search of information on this interesting subject; and i will only add, gentlemen,--call as you pass out, and judge for yourselves." (loud cries of "we will!--we will!" "that's true!" "that's a fact!" "your fame is firmly established!") "mr. president, i have been too long a resident of these united states--i am too old a citizen of this enlightened country--to be ignorant of the true character of the american people. i am a yankee, sir! my father was a yankee, and my grandfather (if i ever had one, sir), before him. 'the people' know what they are about. you cannot deceive _them_, sir, as you and i well know. when they undertake a thing, it must go forward. there's no stopping them, sir. they enter into any enterprise that promises so much of universal success to the whole country as does this business of poultry-raising, with a rush, sir! and they carry out their objects,--_nil disperandum hic jacit est glorii mundi morning_, sir,--as the poet remarks." (hurra! hurra! "three cheers for burnham," suggested the president, which were given with a will; and during which the speaker removed his vest and braces,--carefully securing his watch, however, at the same time.) "we are not here to be humbugged, sir, nor do we aspire to humbug anybody, at this exhibition;--a performance which would be rather difficult to effect, in my humble judgment, even if we did! we come here to show the people what has been done, what is now doing, and what may be done again, sir, by our friends here, all of them and any of them, who choose to undertake the pleasing and delightful task of rearing _pure_-bred fowls. and, should there now be within the sound of my voice any lady or gentleman who has never seen the tiny shanghae chick as it emerged from its delicate prison-shell and leaped forth into liberty and the glorious sunlight,--should any one of my listeners never have enjoyed the dulcet tone of that chicken's tender 'peep,'--if any of you are strangers to the habits and beauties and innocence of these rare but graceful birds,--if you have never listened to the melody of their musical crow, from youth to green old age,--i will only say, procure some of the genuine specimens, and there is much of joy and happiness yet in store for yourselves, your wives, your children, or your friends,--if you chance to have any." (applause, and marked sensation.) "mr. president, i am no speech-maker. had i, for one moment, supposed that _i_ should have been thought of, by this talented and well-informed audience, i should not have been present here, i assure you. but, sir, my fame preceded me here. i'm a poor but honest man; and modesty, sir, that native modesty which so preeminently characterizes your own composition, mr. president (had i suspected that i should have been called upon), would have prompted me to have left to others the pleasing task of speaking of me and mine. still, if my friends '_will_ buckle fortune on my back, whether i will or no,' i can only say that i feel impressed that the duty and moral obligations i owe to society compel me to submit to the burthen, with the best possible grace at my humble command." (deep sensation among the audience; the ladies, for the most part, in tears.) "but, sir, the future is before us! the brilliant star of fortune still shines in the distance, for the encouragement of those who have not yet availed themselves of the splendid promise that awaits the men who are yet to come after us, to do as _we_ have done! and, to those who are now about to undertake the commendable occupation of attempting to breed 'fancy poultry,' i will only say, 'go on, gentlemen! forward, in your delightfully pleasing and profit-promising ambition! purchase none but the best stock, without regard to price; and _breed_ it (if you can!). everybody wants to buy,--everybody _will_ buy,--and the hens that lay the golden eggs are still for sale, within the sound of my voice (unless they have all been bought up since i entered this hall). but there are still a few more left, i have no doubt, gentlemen; and, i charge you, seize them while you may!'" a general stampede followed my speech. i secured my clothes, and, for three hours afterwards, i found it impossible to get within fifty feet of my show-cages, in consequence of the throng of purchasers that crowded around them! there must have been some charm about those magical coops of mine. they were filled and refilled, twenty times over; but they were as often emptied, and at singularly gratifying prices, both to buyer and seller. chapter xxxii. a "confidence" man. towards the close of this show in new york, a somewhat noted cattle-breeder (who was then absent in england) wrote home to an agent in this country, directing him to secure all the grey shanghaes obtainable, and further to contract for the raising of hundreds or thousands more, to be delivered during the following season. at this late day, such an undertaking appeared (to the initiated) to exhibit a most extraordinary confidence in the reality of the hen-trade; but, to those who "had been there," it was very amusing to witness the new-born zeal of this curiously verdant purchaser, who invested so large an amount of money, in , in this hum! the most extravagant prices were paid by this person for grey fowls, and large orders were given by the agent, to different breeders, in new england, for future supplies. several hundred birds were then purchased, at rates varying from four or five dollars to fifty dollars _each_; and finally some twenty cages were filled, and consigned to london, to be disposed of (as it was supposed) at enormous figures. this speculation was a total failure. the fowls were inferior, and sick, and worthless. an auction sale followed quickly upon their arrival in england, the proceeds of which failed to pay even their freight and expenses out from this country; and the "confidential" proprietor of the stock, who had not the slightest conception of the details of the trade, was the loser of hundreds of dollars by this foolish and reckless undertaking. but his contracts with home breeders, who had raised for him one hundred, three hundred, or five hundred pairs of chickens, each, were yet in _statu quo_! two or three thousand grey chickens were awaiting this confident gentleman's orders, and in the mean time were devouring huge quantities of corn and meal, then ranging at from a dollar to a dollar and ten cents a bushel! sales were merely nominal; buyers of fancy fowls were _no_whar; grain continued on the rise; the chickens grew longer in the legs and necks, and devoured more corn than ever; cold weather approached, and the breeders had no conveniences for housing these thousands of monsters; and finally the victims became importunate. the contractor didn't want the fowls. of course he didn't. he had "put his foot into it" with a vengeance! but the parties who had raised these birds "to order" insisted upon the fulfilment of the contractor's promise to take them, at four, six and eight months old. but the confident gentleman, who, in the spring of , had made up his mind that the "hen fever had but just then made its appearance, in fact," _now_ discovered that the bottom had been shaky for a twelvemonth, at the least, and had at length fallen out altogether! the folly of this enterprise was apparent to every fowl-raiser in new england, from the outset. but this man knew what he was about,--so he declared,--and he scouted the advice of those who, from long experience, were able to instruct and advise him better. it was but a single instance of its kind, however, and it served, for the time being, to aid in keeping up the excitement of the humbug which had cost so many men before him large sums of money, and months of labor and care, without the slightest subsequent compensation. by the fall of , the price of this "fancy stock" began to approximate towards its intrinsic level, somewhat, in consequence of its being thus overdone; and very fair birds were offered for five to seven dollars the pair, with but few purchasers. in england, the fever had subsided. during the spring and summer, my own sales for that market had been continuously, and without any abatement, extremely liberal; but the prospect suddenly became clouded--the demand fell off--and i saw that the gate was about to be shut down. the jig was nearly up, evidently, in december, . in all the suburban towns of this state, and more especially throughout the entire length and breadth of rhode island and connecticut, immense numbers of the chinese varieties of fowls were being bred; and i saw, months before, that the market must of necessity be glutted, to the full, in the winter that was then approaching. many of the experienced fanciers still clung to the hope that the trade would rally again, however,--but i was satisfied that the engine-bell had rung for the last time, and that the train was already now on the move. [illustration: a "pure-bred" specimen, imported from brighton.] chapter xxxiii. the essence of humbug. during this and the previous years, some of the older fanciers and breeders had resorted to the most fulsome and nonsensical style of advertisements, to push off their stock upon the unguarded. no quality of superlative goodness, known or unknown, that could be described in the english language (either by means of "communications" through the public prints, or by ordinary forms of advertising), was omitted to be proclaimed by the owners of fancy stock, in order to force off upon the credulous or the uninitiated their "newly-imported" stuff, and its progeny. high-sounding but most ridiculous titles were given, by the nominal "importers," to their live stock; and the public were asked to purchase "hong-kong" fowls, "bengal eagle" chickens, "wild indian mountain" hens, "whang-tongs," "quittaquongs," "hoang-hos," "paduas," etc.; and the following advertisement appeared, finally, to cap the climax of this inexpressibly stupid nonsense. it was printed in an agricultural monthly, issued somewhere in western new york, and it ran as follows: "mormann & humm, importers and exporters of, and dealers in, all breeds and varieties of blooded live stock, big falls, n.s. messrs. mormann and humm are now perfecting their arrangements for _importing_ from europe and asia all the best breeds of horses, cattle, hogs, dogs, sheep, rabbits, goats, fowls, &c. &c., and for _exporting_ buffalo, elk, deer, moose, badgers, bears, foxes, swifts, eagles, swans, pelicans, cranes, loons, &c. &c. they will keep on hand, as near as may be, all the best blooded animals and fowls--gallinaceous and aquatic--fancy and substantial--which they will furnish to their numerous patrons in europe and america at reasonable rates. all orders should be directed to big falls, n.s., until otherwise notified. "also, they have imported the finest and only ptarmagins ever introduced into the united states. these surprisingly beautiful fowls are direct from the original stock. the ptarmagins--white in winter and ash-colored in summer--booted and tufted--are the most unique of domestic fowls. they will supply orders for ptarmagin chickens; also, hoang-hos, imperials, falcon-hocked cochins, (!) and a large variety of improved suffolks and other fine hogs, from the choice stocks of his royal highness prince albert, his grace the duke of beaufort, lord wenlock, the earl of radnor, late earl of ducie, rev. mr. thursby, mr. garbanati, &c. &c. also some choice chinese mandarin and siamese hogs, &c. &c. &c." in this same pamphlet, appeared the annexed communication (in the form of a letter to the nominal publisher), which will explain itself, probably, to those who are acquainted with its hifalutin author. it was a rich "card," in the estimation of the "boys," at the time of its first appearance, though nobody ever saw this extraordinary beast or its progeny, i imagine: chinese mandarin hogs. "_----, nov. , ._ "friend m----: "we have just purchased the lot of _chinese mandarin swine_, imported, &c. &c. &c.... "this is the best breed of china hogs, and are great favorites with the inhabitants, _the meat being remarkably tender and fine-flavored_. at maturity they weigh from fifteen to eighteen score, and are very prolific. "the head and face of these animals very closely resemble an elephant, both as to the appearance of the skin and ears, and the number and depth of facial fissures; perfectly unique, and strikingly oriental in capital aspect. "the neck is longer than that of anything of the hog race, imparting a most singular appearance to the proportions of the whole animal. "these chinese hogs are entirely different from anything of the sort ever imported into this country before, and are the most prolific of the swine race. the imported sow and each of the sow-pigs have _eighteen_ well-developed dugs. the number of well-defined dugs is always the best _prima facie_ evidence of prolificness in any animal. "the bodies of these hogs are shaped like the _white_ berkshire breed of england. they take on fat with remarkable rapidity, and, in color, though not so spotted as the leopard, these hogs are beautifully striated, the body spotted like polished alabaster and ebony, checkered and rounded most exquisitely. "we shall have an engraving of these animals for the northern agricultural papers, and one of the great english periodicals. "yours, truly, "---- & ----." the editor adds, cautiously, "the importers are gentlemen of strict probity and honor, so far as our knowledge extends; but, in these hurrying times, when the public excitement is up on any kind of stock, a man _may_ import and sell worthless animals, to a great extent, before a reaction can take place." now, this sort of mush and moonshine very soon nauseated upon the stomachs of "the people," even; who ordinarily can (and will) patiently submit to a vast deal of mummery. but when such palpable bosh as this is placed before them, they are apt to dodge all association with it and its clearly-expressed humbuggery; and so the tide now very quickly began to turn against the trade. "brahmas," and "quittaquong" fowls, and "mandarin" pigs, proved too threatening a dose for the masses! they hadn't time to spell out the names of such stock--to say nothing of purchasing it, at round figures, and attempting to _breed_ it afterwards. what those men imagined they could possibly effect by this sort of ridiculous nonsense, i am unable to conceive of. yet it was put forth in sober earnest; and scores of similar advertisements filled the papers, from time to time--each having for its object the continuous gulling of the "dear people," each in its own peculiar way. and for years--up to this period--the star-gazing, wonder-loving, humbug-seeking portion of the community,--the mass who fill every corner of the land, and who watch for something continuously "new under the sun," out of which money can be made,--i say, for years, this portion of the public believed what they saw and read of, and responded to this sort of thing with a gusto equalled only by the zest with which, in years before, they had encouraged and supported the score of other "hums" that had been current around them. but the delusions of morus multicaulis, and merino sheep, and patent bee-keeping, and berkshire pigs, and tulip-growing, had passed away; and the hen fever, at last, subsided, too. unpronounceable names and long-winded advertisements wouldn't do! "the people" had ascertained that there was an end even to shanghae and brahma-ism! and this flimsiest of _all_ bubbles was now inflated fully to bursting. chapter xxxiv. a trump card. not to be beaten by this sort of thing (since the columns of certain friendly journals were still open to me), i adopted the style of advertising then current; and soon after the articles noted in the last chapter made their appearance in the "agricultural" paper alluded to, the following letter from the young 'un was published in the new york _spirit of the times_, upon the subject of live stock generally, and what _i_ had for sale particularly. "uncle porter: "during the last few years, i have turned my attention to trafficking in stock (as you may _possibly_ already be aware). not copper stock, or reading, or hoosac tunnel, or similar 'bores,'--but in _live_ stock; to wit, living stock. as is usual in this great and free country, other people have got to doing the same kind of business, since it has been now found to 'pay;' and who's a better right? "_i_ desire, at the commencement of the new year, through the _spirit_, to call the attention of such of _your_ friends (as you cannot supply readily) to my present assortment of _ominus_, omnivorous, carnivorous, graminivorous and bipederous specimens--which i have imported from europe, asia, africa, oceanica, south america, and _other_ places; and consisting, _in part_, of the following, namely: "all the best and choicest breeds and varieties of horses, cattle, swine, dogs, cats, sheep, rabbits, goats, fowls, pigeons, rats, catamounts, hyenas, alligators, cormorants, kangaroos, grizzly bears, antelopes, envelopes, llamas, lam'ems, jaguars, fox and geese, kinkajous, petrel, periwinkles, long-tailed rabbits, nubian fennecs, red eagles, condors, hooded ducks and hood-winked drakes, swifts, sloes (intended for 'fast' men and old 'fogies'), chamois, armadilloes, wingless emus, beadles, crabs, cranes, coons (bred from 'that same old 'un'), white zebras, macaws, catspaws, cantelopes, carbuncles and shuttle-sewing machines. "i also have, for _exporting_, a splendid assortment of buffalo, elk, deer, moose, bears, cranes, owls, badgers, woodchucks, swans, pelicans, gulls (genuine), rattle-snakes (domesticated), fighting hen-turkeys (from iowa), larks (from nauvoo), and a superior assortment of _fishes_, of every conceivable size, color and variety, which are warranted to live out of the water, in any climate. in short, i will keep on hand all the best 'blooded' animals, fowls, quadrupeds, fishes, reptiles, insects and birds,--be they gallinaceous, aquatic, aërial, fancy, substantial, good, bad or indifferent, that may be had; which i will furnish to my numerous friends, patrons, and the rest of mankind, in europe, asia, africa or america, at all hours of the day or night (sundays excepted); and at prices so reasonable that christendom shall 'vote me' a philanthropist, or no sale. "among my most recently received samples, i beg especially to call the attention of fanciers, amateurs and breeders, to a 'vaggin-load of monkeys, vith their tails burned off,' which i warrant will not frighten the most skittish of horses. a crate of she-basilisks, of most virtuous exteriors, and with eyes as large as saucers. eleven pet elephants (intended to have been offered to mr. barnum, but who informs me that he has done breeding them, on account of the high price of provender). one pair of red ostriches,--supposed to be the original progenitors of the famous 'cochin-china' race of poultry. (the male has a 'horse-shoe mark' upon his breast, described by certain modern authors on poultry. unluckily for this theory, however, i happen to know that this individual was kicked by a mare of mine, while the beauty was skulking behind her, and attempting to rob her of the corn she was eating from her crib.) i have a trio of very healthy walruses, from norway, that will eat snowballs from your hand. also, a brace of young mastodons, very docile, and as easily kept, _almost_, as a trio of 'brahma pootras.' three _green_ swans (delightfully green), that never seek for or approach the water; supposed not yet to have learned to swim. i have also in my collection a family of very curious chameleons (believed to be), but none of which are supplied with the usual caudal extremity yclept _a tail_. "my friend durivage--who, as you are aware, is now in the boston custom-house, and whose opinion, consequently, isn't worth much--examined this family, and at once pronounced them hop-toads! but i don't mind _his_ jokes. _you_ must see them. they are beautiful creatures, and '_do_ live on air,' i assure you; i have seen them do it frequently, without changing color. dr. bennett, of fort des moines, has recently sent me a fine male porcupine,--a nice little fellow to handle, so long as you rub his feathers the right way,--which i purpose to cross upon my chinese mandarin sow, at a future day, for experiment. in addition to all these, i have, of _fowls_, the mum-chums, hong-kongs, whamphoas, quittaquongs, hoanghos, brama-pooters, damphules, rocky-mountain-indian-wharhoops, nincompoops, etc., and an endless variety of white blackbirds, sleeping weasels, very fine mules (for breeding), fan-tail tumblers and tumbling fantails, no-woolled sheep, etc. etc., and so forth. "the principal object of this communication, however, is _not_ to particularize my stock, but rather to call attention to my new breed of hogs, which i have lately imported; and of which i send you a striking likeness herewith. i call it the chinese mandarin hog. [illustration: the chinese mandarin hog.--(see page .)] "the drawing of this very faithful and life-like picture--copies of which i have already forwarded to _punch_, the paris _charivari_, etc.--was executed by phizz; the engraving is by quizz; the portraits are perfect. "this breed of hogs is most extraordinary; and has been pronounced of great value for their beautiful model (see portrait), and easy fattening qualities. their meat is also remarkably tender and fine-flavored, as can be proved by several gentlemen in this country, although this is the _first_ hog of the kind ever brought here, and she is now alive! as you will note in the drawing, the head and face of these hogs (supposing it possible that another could be found on god's footstool of the same kind) very closely resemble an elephant; perfectly unique, and strikingly oriental in capital aspect. (which, if you do not understand, i can only say is plain english, and i must again refer you to the picture.) there is another singular feature, you will probably have observed (allowing that you are somewhat acquainted with the _ordinary_ formation of animals), and that is, that the trunk of this animal is upon the wrong extremity; but it answers, apparently, a very good purpose for a tail, as will be noted. true, the neck is longer than that of any hogs ever seen here, imparting a singular appearance; but it is a long lane that has no turn in it, and so _n'importe_ on this point. "this is the most _prolific_ of the whole swine race. there never was one in america before, but this point is settled. she has eighteen dugs (see portrait), and learned doctors inform us that the number of dugs (teats) is always evidence of prolificness. the bodies of these hogs are like the _white_ 'berkshires' of england (admitting that the white and the black berkshires have different-shaped _bodies_). in color, though not so spotted as the leopard, these hogs are beautifully striated, like polished alabaster and ebony, checkered and rounded (see drawing) most exquisitely, like a slice of mouldy sage cheese. "p.s. although i am now short--or shall be, in the spring--full eleven thousand pairs of pigs, from this sow (to fill present orders), yet i will undertake to furnish a few more to gentlemen who may fancy them, at the advanced price,--seven-and-sixpence per pair. (i have no _boar_ of this breed, but that is immaterial.) "n.b. i have frequently been asked to account for the singular facial appearance of this sow; but i can only do so, satisfactorily to myself, upon the theory of my friend jacob, of old; that, _at some time or other_, her mother must have 'seen the elephant'! "***the other figures in the accompanying drawing are likenesses, also from life, of my harmless and beautiful 'bramerpootrers.' they are very fond of little children (see picture) and i send to my uncle william porter, herewith, as a new year's gift to our mutual friend, solon robinson, a very fine sample, with the gentle hint that if he keeps his 'hot corn' as far out of this fellow's reach as it has thus far been out of mine, it will be perfectly safe. "==>all orders for my famous 'bramerpootrers,' or my imported 'chinese mandarin hogs,' etc., must be put in water-proof condition, post-paid, endorsed by the collector of this port, and sent, by adams & co.'s express, to niagara falls, until i conclude to remove to salt lake, nebraska, or 'elsewhere,' of which due notice will be given (provided i don't decide to 'step out' between two days). _adios!_ "yours, "_the_ young 'un. "_boston, jan., ._" now, the above letter explains itself fairly, upon its face; yet--would it be believed?--i actually received four or five sober (i _presume_ the writers were sober) letters of inquiry, relating to the "curious and remarkable chinese mandarin hog in my possession," immediately after the above article appeared in the _spirit_! such are the knowledge and acquirements of "the people," in certain quarters, upon the subject of live stock! chapter xxxv. "hold your horses." my competitors in the hen-trade, by this time, had got to be exceedingly active and zealous, though they rarely indulged in personalities towards me, at all. generous, disinterested, liberal, kind-hearted, valiant men! providence will reward you all, i have no doubt, _some day or other_! the following article, which appeared in a "respectable" agricultural sheet (which, though i was solicited so to do, i neither subscribed for nor advertised in), i offer here as a sample of the puffs that were extended to me for five years, by the small-fry humbugs whom i rarely condescended to notice. this "elegant extract" appeared in a northern _farmer_: "we did suppose that the strait-jacket we fitted to this fellow (burnham) would be worn by him, but it appears that, on reading our article relative to his movements in england in regard to grey shanghae fowls, he cast it off, and made an attempt to put us _hors du combat_, in his usual style. "but we must say that his pretensions to being an '_importer_' of these fowls, to having the '_original_' stock, to being the importer of the fowls he sent to england, is the greatest deception that ever came under our observation. but this is only in character with the general transactions of the man. in his dealings generally he seems to have had no other object in view but to _get all he could for his fowls_, with no regard to their _merits_. this is shown by a letter of his, which we have in our possession, written in to dr. bennett, in which he uses the following language, in regard to fowls: 'anything that will _sell_,--bah!' "we will take the liberty to digress a moment, to make a few remarks on his penchant for the use of the expression '_bah!_' which is his common habit in correspondence. when burnham was a loafer at large, previous to his _foul_ speculations, it is said that he was very fond of _mutton_; and as many a fat lamb was missed in the vicinity where he resided, it was more than suspected that he knew what became of them. whether this be so or not, it seems that '_bah_' is ever escaping from his lips, a judgment, as it were, for the alleged iniquity of disturbing the nocturnal peace of that quiet animal.... "now, friend burnham, do be civil and _honest_. your having sold 'premium' cochins all over the country, with the _real_ 'premium' fowls in your own yard, will soon be forgotten, and you may yet be considered a clever, honest fellow; but you _must_ stop pretending to be an 'importer' of fowls." i was thus charged with putting my "friend" _hors du combat_, with lying generally, with sheep-stealing, with selling "premium" fowls over and over again, as well as with striving _to get all i could for my poultry_,--this _last_ offence being the most heinous of all! but, as i lived (as i supposed i should) to see this cub and his allies on their knees to me (as i could show, if i desired to do so, now), i did not mind these first-rate notices. they were most decidedly of _miner_ consideration in my esteem, when i thought how "the people" crowded around me to obtain eggs or samples of my famed "imported," "superior," "magnificent" and "never-to-be-too-much-lauded" pure-bred fowls! in the official report upon the first new york show, the committee of judges there state that, "though they have been governed by the nomenclature of the list, they by no means assent to it as a proper classification. _shanghae_ and _cochin-china_ are convertible terms, and brahma pootra is a name for a sub-variety of shanghaes, of great size and beauty. white _calcuttas_ and _hong-kongs_ were not on exhibition. believing them to be inferior specimens of white and black shanghaes, it is likely that we would not have awarded them premiums, if found. in lieu thereof, we have assigned several additional second premiums for _brahma shanghaes_. "for the sake of simplicity, we would recommend that _all_ thorough-bred large asiatic fowls be classed under the name of _shanghae_, to be further designated by their color; and, inasmuch as these shows are intended not solely for the aggrandizement of breeders, but for the purpose of converting 'henology' into a science, we would earnestly suggest that all ridiculous, unmeaning _aliases_ be abandoned, and a simple, intelligible and truthful classification strictly observed." after quoting this, the writer above alluded to objects to the recommendation to call _all_ asiatic fowls _shanghaes_, notwithstanding the action of the committees of the national society. he insists: "this is a ridiculous affair, and we call on fowl-breeders to _veto_ this nonsense at the outset. just imagine what a ridiculous figure breeders would cut in calling their fowls '_brahma_ shanghaes,' '_chittagong_ shanghaes,' &c.! why this desire to overturn _established_ names? it arises from a _prejudice_ against the _name_ 'brahma pootra,' and a desire to _put down_ that popular breed. again: _who_ are the gentlemen who recommend such a course? why don't they give their _names_? these 'recommendations' and 'resolutions' are no more the act of the _national poultry society_ than of the emperor of russia! where were the _forty_ managers when the above 'resolution' was passed? _we_, as _one_, were not there; and we learn that not over _three_ out of the entire number were present, and that the resolution was passed by _outsiders_, and, perhaps, influenced to do so by g.p. burnham, of '_grey shanghae_' notoriety." this clown even "regrets that he did not attend this show;" as if it would have made a difference in the result! well, well!--the impudence and ignorance of some people really astound us, at times! he says "some of the best brahma pootra fowls were entered 'chittagongs.' now, we declare emphatically that the desire on the part of certain breeders to class the _brahmas_ as identical with the _chittagong_ fowl is absurd; and we assert that no man can produce any evidence that the brahmas are identical with chittagongs, beyond the fact that many breeders have produced mongrels, by crossing brahmas with chittagongs, and now seek to amalgamate the two breeds." who ever wished to "produce any evidence" on this subject, pray? "the people" wanted _fowls_; they never sought for "evidence," man! the breeder who could "produce" fowls was the man to succeed in the hen-trade. as you never did this, and only bought and sold wretched mongrels, with long names, you never succeeded. and "the people" said, "served you right!" this sapient editor then declares that he "doubts the ability of any _poultry_ society to maintain its existence _permanently_, for the reason that such societies will, sooner or later, degenerate into mere _speculating_ cliques, and the premiums will become a matter of _barter_, or a matter of _favor_ to particular men, like the operations of our government." is it possible! when did you discover this extraordinary and singular fact, my dear sir? not until the close of the year ! after the cars had long since passed by, and the fun was over, effectually and forever, in this country. your warning was valuable, indeed! the colt had left the stable, and you _now_ come to fasten the door! o, chief of prophets in henology! how much "the people" owe you for your advice and foresight in this hum! this writer finally thus wriggles over the action of the "national" society at new york, which knocked his "bother'ems" on the head so effectually, substituting their true name (the "grey shanghaes") for this ridiculously assumed cognomen. he continues: "the most absurd thing which came under our observation at the fair was the _classification_ of certain fowls. there were the beautiful white brahmas, with pencilled neck hackles, placed by the side of fowls of an owl or hawk color, and both classed '_grey shanghaes_!' how long will a few old fogies thus stultify themselves? many exhibitors were highly displeased with this absurdity. they who think that the name of brahma fowls can be changed to 'grey shanghaes' have entirely mistaken their ability to make such an innovation. what did all the nonsense in the resolutions passed at the national poultry show in new york about the nomenclature of fowls effect? just nothing at all." indeed! didn't it? is it possible? you don't say so! my dear friend, you have a great deal to learn yet; and i here advise you, affectionately and lovingly, and with an ardent desire for your present and future good, to--"hold your horses!" chapter xxxvi. tricks of the trade. poultry exhibitions had been or were now being held all over the country. in the new england states, in new york, ohio, pennsylvania, maryland and virginia, numerous fairs had come off, at which the customary competition among breeders of fancy poultry had been duly shown; and for a time, yet, out of massachusetts, the fever still raged, though with comparative abatement. it was now a common thing, and certain men were in the habit of visiting the express offices, and examining coops of fowls, and taking the names of the persons to whom they were directed, and then writing them that they would furnish such fowls at a much cheaper rate. this occurred, generally, while the stock was _en route_ to its destination; but it never disturbed _me_. among the rhode islanders (who, by the way, generally speaking, have raised the best of all the chinese varieties of fowls, for five years past) a feeling of desperate rivalry had grown up. at the providence shows, many of the choicest specimens ever seen among us were exhibited and disposed of at high rates. but the management of the fairs there was not satisfactory to certain breeders, who, unfortunately, and naturally, drove rather "too slow coaches" to keep pace with a few of the leaders in the traffic there, as will be seen by the following _exposé_, which i find in the shape of an advertisement in the _woonsocket patriot_: in a report published subsequently to this state fair in rhode island, the committee on poultry at the exhibition held there in the fall of awarded their first premium to the _chairman_ of the committee. the second premium was awarded to another man, who had just as good fowls, probably, but who wasn't smart enough to "keep up" with his competitor. the person who came out thus second-best, only, at once charged, through the public prints, that an attempt had been made by the chairman thus "to hoodwink the public" in their future purchases (which was very likely, because it was a very common matter). the injured party says, in his published "card,"-- "no doubt mr. c---- was ready to grasp at the appointment as the committee, and he was progressing in the examination, when i remonstrated, and had two other men added to the committee with him, supposing that justice would then be administered to the parties concerned. but mr. c---- was determined to have the sole arrangement of the report, contending with the other two upwards of five hours, aggrandizing to himself the first premium, and then affixing to the committee's report the name of mr. a----, instead of his own, to deceive the public, that he was not interested. mr. c---- intended that justice should not be done his competitor, by withholding his right as to the first premium; and i challenge him to an impartial exhibition of the poultry (although some of his number were borrowed), for the sum of one hundred dollars, to be decided by three disinterested men." another member of this committee then states that, "being one of the committee on poultry at the late state fair, held in providence, r.i., and having seen the report of the same, i feel it my duty to say that such was _not_ the decision of the committee. two were in favor of giving to ---- the _first_ premium; as we could not agree, we decided to award a premium of _twelve dollars_ to ----, also the same to mr. c----, provided each were represented equal in the report." now, this was a very trifling affair to trouble the public with, yet it shows "how the thing was done." mr. c---- had a happy way of "laying 'em all out," when _i_ was not in the field. if the advertisements "to the public" were paid for duly (and i presume they were), i have no doubt the public are satisfied; and mr. ----, the injured party, must keep his eyes open tight, if he trains in company with experienced hen-men. this is but "a part of the system," man! now, as this sort of thing was of very common occurrence among the hucksters who kept the hen-trade alive, for years, this was in nowise a matter of astonishment to the "hard heads" in the business. the only wonder was that the man who performed _this_ trifling trick did not carry out the dodge more effectually, and bear away _all_ the premiums in a similar manner, as had been done by some of his smarter predecessors! the editor of a new york journal undertook as follows to "inform the public" (in ) of a little performance in kind, which had been common for several years at these fairs where "premiums" were awarded, and which proved a very profitable mode of operation, almost from the very beginning of fowl-shows in the united states. in an article upon a recent exhibition, under the caption "_how the cards are played_," he says: "a fowl-breeder, by extraordinary means, raises a _few_ specimens of fowls of great size, which he takes to the exhibition; and, on the appearance and character of those _few_ specimens, he contracts to furnish fowls and eggs of the 'same stock.' he goes home with his pockets full of orders, and with not a _single fowl, for sale_, in his possession at the time, and hastens to purchase of a, b and c, such fowls as he can find, say at $ , $ to $ a pair, which he sends to fill his orders at $ to $ a pair, and no nearer in value to the stock that appeared on exhibition than a turkey is to a turkey _buzzard_! the same of _eggs_. now, there are exceptions to this allegation, but we know that such things are done, and we think that the public should be put on their guard." there is no question about the accuracy of this statement. the writer says he "_knows_ that such things were done;" and i feel sure that no man in new york state ever knew the details of this dodge so well as _he_ did. it was a very common thing everywhere, however, among the hucksters. i had no occasion to resort to this plan; for the game _we_ played was a deeper one, altogether. there was a "live yankee," all the way from rhode island, who attended the new york show, who took the boys down there after the following style, as appears from another advertisement, which i recently met with, and which feat is thus described by one of the sufferers. in a "card" published soon after that exhibition, this victim of misplaced confidence says, with a show of seeming injured innocence: "justice to the public, as well as myself, demands a slight explanation of a few facts connected with the recent national poultry show, in new york city. "mr. c----, of woonsocket, r.i., accompanied me to new york for the purpose of attending the fair. on the fourth day of the exhibition it was announced that the judges were about to commence their labors. mr. c----, seeing that his chance for a premium of _any_ kind on asiatic fowls was very slim, came to me and requested, nay, even _insisted_, on grounds of mutual friendship, that i should put my two best hens with a cock of his, for the purpose of taking the first premium. i finally consented, with the express understanding, _and no other_, that we should each share the honors and proceeds equally. on friday it was announced, in the lecture-room, that _he_ had taken the first premium on the best pair of asiatic fowls, of whatever sub-variety. i went to him, at once, and expressed my dissatisfaction, and reminded him of his agreement. he then agreed to see the secretary and all the reporters, and publish, or cause to be published, a card, stating that i was equally entitled to the premium with himself, as the hens were raised by me; and he furthermore agreed that his name should not be mentioned or published, in relation to the premium, except in connection with my own. how was that agreement fulfilled? on taking up one of the new york dailies the next morning, i was surprised to see a puff laudatory of mr. c----, while _my_ name was not alluded to,--which puff, report says, was paid for with a rooster. on my return home, a few days afterwards, i found that he had volunteered to make the following assertions: 'well, i have laid 'em all out. i took the first premium on everything, best pair and all, and i can beat the world.' when asked how it was done, he said, 'i will tell you, _some time_, how i played my card.'" but mr. c----, with that reserve and indifference peculiar to gentlemen in the hen-trade who have accomplished a "neat operation," did not see fit to explain the process, and hesitated to inform his "friend" how he played his card. and so the aggrieved party resorted to the newspaper, and come the "power of the press" upon mr. c----, as follows: "mr. c---- stated that my stock was 'mongrel,' and inferior. whether it be so or not, is for the thousands and tens of thousands who saw them, while on exhibition, to judge. after selecting two of my best hens for mr. c----'s especial benefit (as it appears), the committee _even then_ saw fit to award me a premium, while his two coops of '_pure, full-blooded_ asiatic fowls,' which he had cracked up so loud and extensively, did not receive, as i can learn, even a passing notice, _except the old cock_, which was put in the coop with my 'mongrel hens,' as he is pleased to call them. perhaps the public would also be gratified to learn the manner in which he obtained the first premium at the recent agricultural fair in providence, r.i. was it not done by entering several coops of fowls, belonging to another person, in his own name, without that person's knowledge and consent, and pointing out those fowls to one or more of the judges, representing them as his own? no doubt the books of the society, and those of the railroad corporation which conveyed mr. c----'s poultry to and from the fair, if compared, will throw some light upon the subject. is not this the manner in which he has frequently played his card; or, in other words, 'laid 'em all out'? as i have always treated him as a gentleman, a neighbor and friend, to what cause can i impute this low, mean contemptible and underhand manner of exalting himself at my expense? i would advise him, in conclusion, to peruse Æsop's moral and instructive fable of the ambitious jackdaw, and learn from that, that however well a course of deception and duplicity may at first prosper, the day of exposure and disgrace will come, and the ungainly jackdaw, stripped of his ill-gotten plumage, will stand forth in all his native blackness and deformity." now, i have no doubt, that this mr. c----, when he read the above "card" (which must have cost its author considerable time and money), felt very badly about it, the more especially as the show-prizes had been duly announced, and he had the premium-money safely in his own pocket! and it certainly must have been a very gratifying circumstance, to the man who had been thus duped, to see his advertisement thus in print, too. had _i_ been similarly situated, however, after losing my premium and the credit that belonged to my having had the best fowls on exhibition, also (only by thus joining issue with another to gull the "dear people"), i rather think i should not have _published_ the facts, to show myself up a fool as well as a knave. but this is merely a matter of taste. mr. b----, who signs this "card," will scarcely be caught in this way again. we "live to learn." mr. b---- had not become apprised of the fact that, from the very commencement, the hen-trade was a huge gull, possessing an unconscionable maw, and most inconceivable powers of digestion. older heads and wiser men than he had been duped or swallowed by this monster, that stalked about the earth for six long years, seeking whom he might devour. if this is the worst treatment he ever experienced at the hands of those who helped to feed the vampire, mr. b---- is, indeed, a fortunate man. there _be_ those who would gladly exchange places with this gentleman, and give him large odds. c---- was _smart_. i have known him for several years. he is one of the few "hen-men" whom i would trust alone with my purse. and whether he raised them, or purchased them, it matters nothing; he has _sold_ some of the best fowls in america. in all human probability, the author of the "card" last quoted will live long enough (unless he shall have already stepped out) to know that "the people" went into the hen-trade blindfolded, and that the bandages have now dropped from their eyes. he will have ascertained, too, i think, that a resort to the newspapers for redress against such of his "friends" as may get ahead of his time in this way is precious poor consolation, when he reflects that advertisements cost money, and that the anathemas of an over-reached chicken-man have never yet been known to harm anybody--as far as heard from! _selah!_ chapter xxxvii. final death-throes. the officers and the judges at the poultry-fairs (most of whom are self-constituted), as will be seen, usually carried away all the first prizes. at a late show of the new york _state_ society, the president thereof received about _one third_ of all the premiums awarded, and yet his fowls were nearly all _second_ and _third_ rate, and not one of them, it was stated, was _bred_ by him. he may have bred a few specimens during last season, but not _one_ on exhibition was bred by him. the people and certain greenhorns were astonished to see the way in which the premiums were awarded to him. one of the judges there seemed determined to award to him every premium that his influence could secure, right or wrong; and, from what was learned from exhibitors, it did look very much like an existing understanding between the parties in regard to the premiums. for the above statement we have the authority of a huckster in new york, who did _not_ obtain any premiums, and who says of the management of the state show there, that this sort of partiality shown in favor of the wire-pullers "is the rock on which the 'new england poultry society' foundered; and our state society is treading in the footsteps of its 'illustrious predecessor.'" this writer contends that the president of the new york society, who thus received about all the premiums at one of their late shows, was a man of too much discernment not to see that such a _farce_ as some of the judges played would redound to his discredit. they went _too far_--overdid the matter; hence the universal indignation of exhibitors. and then concludes that "poultry-societies generally merge into mere _speculating_ gatherings, a _few_ receiving most of the premiums, while the uninitiated exhibitor is made a tool to swell the income of those who pull the wires. many breeders exhibit solely for the sake of the _notoriety_ that their fowls will receive,--a sort of _gratuitous_ advertising,"--and it is now got to be "notorious that an order sent to one who receives the _first_ premium for fowls is no more likely, in many cases, to be filled with any better fowls than if sent to one who took no premium at all; as the _prize_ fowls are not often for sale, and very inferior specimens are sent when orders are received." this information would have answered very well, had it been afforded years ago. now that the fever has disappeared almost entirely, and now that everybody has been gulled, and gouged, and _gorged_, with the fulsome and glowing accounts of the asserted reality of this thing, from the pen of this very man among the rest, it comes rather late in the day for such an one to "warn the people," and in such a manner! but, soon after the exhibition above referred to had closed, the president of the society issued a most astounding "card," _declining_ to receive the premiums awarded him, and in which appears the following sentence: "in connection with the report of the judges of the late state poultry show, allow me to make a statement. as appears from the report, my birds have been unusually successful in the contest for premiums, sixteen out of twenty distinct varieties exhibited being so honored. this was more than i expected, and more than i honestly think they deserved. and i am strongly of opinion that, had they had more time, they would have come to a different conclusion, in two or three cases." i was prepared for almost anything in the hen-trade, up to this time; but this performance really astonished _me_! the man actually refused to take the premiums awarded him! he even went so far as to show the "judges" who _ought_ to have had the prizes, rather than himself. and he actually sent back to the committee the money they forwarded to him after the exhibition was over!! now, if this were not sufficient to astonish "the people," i am very much in error regarding the ordinary strength of their nerves. it was an almost immaculate performance; and the "new york state poultry society" should positively insist that this extraordinary man (if he can be proved to be sane) should at once accept from them one of the largest-sized leather medals, to be worn next to his gizzard, for this unexampled disinterestedness, and extraordinary sacrifice of self. o, but _that_ gentleman must be "a brick," indeed! a journal that alluded to this singular circumstance, at the time, asserted that this procedure on the part of the president "was highly commendable in the author, if his statements were made through _principle_, rather than through fear to encounter _public opinion_. he stands high in the estimation of the public, and we have ever considered him as strictly honorable in all his business transactions; but we cannot help thinking that 'a screw was loose' somewhere in the matter. his statements are not very flattering to the judgment of the judges, and show that some of them, at least, were not competent to discharge their duties properly," etc.; while, in _my_ opinion, than this, a more bare-faced piece of _mush_ was never yet perpetrated, in the details even of the hen-trade. this was emphatically among the "death-throes" of the _mania_. and cards like the following found their way into the newspapers, about this time, in further proof that the valve of this huge balloon had slipped out. an ambitious western man says: "i have long been expecting to hear of the swindling operations of a certain dealer, who makes a great display of _pretending_ to have _every_ breed known or bred in this country; and, to my _certain_ knowledge, buys all, or nearly all, of his fowls, as wanted, and as many on _credit_ as he can, but does not _pay_, nor can the _law reach_ him to make him pay. i believe, also, that the papers that advertise for him are doing it for _nothing_--that is, that they are not, and never will be paid for it. "such a course, in my opinion, is no better than highway robbery; and i hereby give said person fair warning to act honestly hereafter, or i will point him out in a way that shall not be misunderstood, as i cannot see such rascality perpetrated, and remain silent. "a man who deals in high-priced fowls, in receiving pay in _advance_, has his customers completely at his mercy, especially when he is not _responsible_ for a copper; and at the rates that fowls sell for--say, from ten dollars to one hundred dollars a pair--purchasers should receive what is promised them,--good specimens of the _pure_ breeds. so far as _weight_ is concerned, a pair of fowls will fall off _a few pounds_ in a journey of a week or less, in a cramped condition, and perhaps without food for a portion of the time; but in other respects justice should be done to the confiding purchaser." beautiful!--poetical!--musical! this advertiser, i have no doubt, keeps only _pure_ stock. i do not know who he is; but, if i wanted to buy (which i don't), i should certainly apply to such an honest and justice-loving person, because i should feel assured, after reading such an advertisement, that _that_ man was a professor of religion; and, even if he had the chance, would never fleece me--_over the left_! other fanciers, in their utter desperation (as the fever so positively and now rapidly begun to decline), resorted to the printing of the _pedigrees_ of their stock; and the following advertisements made their appearance late in : "by the influence of mr. ellibeth watch (editor of the _london polkem chronicler_, and uncle to the turkish bashaw with three long tails), i have just procured a few of prince albert's famous breed of 'windsor fowls.' in a letter to me of the d day of april, mr. watch observes: 'i have positively ordered a trio of _windsor_ fowls of prince albert, for you. it is the best breed in england, and they are much run after, and cannot be had without giving previous notice; but you are safe to have yours. i have engaged a friend to choose yours for you; and i consider it _a great thing_ to get them direct from the prince, for you must be aware that persons generally cannot exactly _pick and choose_ from the prince's own stock. i shall employ an efficient person to have them shipped, etc.'" in due time this remarkable stock arrived in america, and their pedigrees were duly published; the advertiser being "thus particular," because (as he asserted) "there had been so much imposition upon the public by irresponsible persons _claiming to have made importations_"! now i never entertained the slightest objections to this sort of advertisement,--not _i_, i'faith! on the contrary, i deem all this kind of thing very excellent, in its way, to be sure. the more the merrier. "the people" want it, and let them have it, say i. but, at the same time, though the "porte-monnaie i owe 'ems" declare that their unrivalled stock comes from prince albert's yards, i feel very well assured that all this is a mere guy, it being very well known that his royal highness is not engaged in the hen-trade particularly, and of course has something else to do besides supplying even the "porte-monnaie company" with his pigs and chickens. it was a rare undertaking, this importing live stock (with any expectation of selling it) in the fall of ! but we shall soon see who were the final victims of the "fever." chapter xxxviii. the porte-monnaie i owe 'em company. it has been said, with much of truth, that "two of a calling rarely agree;" and this applies with force to those engaged in the "hen-trade." messrs. mormann and humm, whom i have before spoken of, couldn't long agree together, and their "dissolution" soon appeared; and, from the ashes of the professional part of this firm, there suddenly arose an entirely new dodge, under the big-sounding title of "the porte-monnaie i owe 'em company." the presiding genius of this concern was one doctor bangit,--an old friend of mine, who had been through wars enough to have killed a regiment of ghouls, who was among the earliest advocates and supporters of the "new england mutual admiration society," who was one of the very first physicians employed in prescribing for the hen fever in this country, and who, i _supposed_, had had sufficient experience not to embark (at this late day) in such a ridiculous enterprise as this so clearly seemed to be. but the doctor saw his victims in prospective, probably; and, though he had run the hummery of the fowl-fever so far into the ground that, in his case, it would surely never know a day of resurrection, still he was ambitious and hopeful; and he flattered himself (and some others) that the _last man_ who bought live stock had _not_ yet turned up! and so the doctor pushed on, once more. the "blood stock" of the "_porte-monnaie i owe 'em company_"[ ] was thus advertised, also: "in addition to the genuine, unadulterated prince albert fowls, the 'porte-monnaie i owe 'ems' offer pigs, with tails on, of the winsor, unproved essex, proved suffolks, yorkshire, wild indian, bramerpouter, siam, hong-kongo, emperor napoleons, and shanghae breeds; most of them of new styles, and warranted to hold their colors in any climate. "also, welsh rarebits--bred from their merino buck 'champum,' of england (that _didn't_ take the first prize at the national show, because mr. burnham's 'knockum' did!), whose ears are each thirty-three feet longer than those of our best pure-bred jackasses, and wider than five snow-shovels, by actual measurement. "also, a-quack-it fowls; as swans (_porte-monnaie i owe 'em_ strain), two-lice, hong-gong, brumagem and other geese. ruin and ailsburied ducks, and pharmigan pigeons (blue-billed). "also, every breed of gallinaceous fowls,--games and other bloods already noted,--together with every species of pure and select blood-stock, which has been secured in europe, asia, africa, and the arctic ocean, with reference to quality, without regard to _price_. "==>we can furnish pedigrees to all buyers who desire them, which will be endorsed by the faculty of riply college, iowa. "n.b. the 'winsor' breed of pigs imported by us is a great addition to the already fine hog stock of the united states, and is fully _equal_, if not _superior_, to any other breed. they are the very choicest of the royal stock which is so much admired in england. we are in possession of the shipping papers of these splendid pigs. the freight and incidental expenses on them, alone, amount to about six hundred dollars. they ought to be fine pigs. three hundred dollars a _pair_ for the pigs from this splendid stock would be _low_, taking their great value into consideration. we have often heard of prince albert's stock of pigs, but until g.p. burnham, esq., of russet house, melrose, first imported this superb stock into this country, no american was ever honored with a shy at this extraordinary breed of swine. the company, at great expense and trouble, prevailed upon mr. burnham to part with a few of his second-rate samples; and they have now no doubt that they will be able to 'beat him all to rags,' in a few months, since they have been lucky enough to get them from him _pure_ly bred (probably!). "p.s. of these pigs, which gained the first prize and gold and silver medal at london in december, , and the first prize and gold and silver medal in birmingham, were from tibby, by wun-eyed jack. old pulgubbin's pigs gained a prize at mutton-head in , and one at london in ." still, notwithstanding all this extra flourish of trumpets, the "porte monnaie i owe 'em company" is well-nigh defunct. it was started, unfortunately, about five years and eight months "too late in the season." yet, as i honor talent and enterprise, wherever they may be shown, i trust that this association may be galvanized into successful operation--as, _perhaps_, it will! [ ] i trust that this association may not be confounded with the "_fort des moines iowa company_." the difference will plainly be seen, of course. chapter xxxix. a satisfactory pedigree. in the course of my live-stock experience, and especially during the excitement that prevailed amidst the routine of the hen-trade, i found myself constantly the recipient of scores and hundreds of the most ridiculously unreasonable and meaningless letters, from the fever-struck (and innocent) but uninitiated victims of this epidemic. in england, amongst other nonsense bearing upon this subject, the more cunning poultry-keepers resorted to the furnishing of _pedigrees_ for the birds they sold. this trick worked to admiration in great britain for a time, and the highest-sounding names were given to certain favorite fowls, the progeny of which ("with pedigree attached") commanded the most extravagant and ruinous prices, in the english "fancy" market. for instance, i noticed in the london papers, in , an account given of the sale of "two splendid cinnamon-colored chickens, out of the famous cock 'jerry,' by the noted hen 'beauty,' sired by 'napoleon,' upon the well-known 'queen dowager,' grandsire 'prince albert,' on 'victoria first,'" &c. &c., which brought the handsome sum of one hundred and sixty pounds (or about eight hundred dollars). and, soon afterwards, the same dodge was adopted on this side of the atlantic. the "porte-monnaie i owe 'em company" have _now_ an advertisement in several new york and western papers, concluding thus: "to all who desire it, we will furnish authentic pedigrees of our stock of _all_ descriptions, which may be relied on for their accuracy." this sort of thing was rather too much for my naturally republican turn of mind; and, though i could endure _almost_ anything in the humbug of this bubble, i couldn't swallow _this_. i received from new york state, one day, the following spicy epistle: "mr. burnham. "sir: i have been a live-stock breeder for some years in this and the old country, and i was desirous to obtain only _pure_-blooded fowls when i ordered the 'cochins' of you last month. i asked you for their _pedigree_. you have sent none. what does this mean? i paid you your price--seventy-five dollars--for three chickens. what have you sent me? am i dealing with a gentleman? or are you a mere shambles-huckster? what are these fowls bred from? perhaps i may find myself called upon to speak more plainly, sir. i hope not. who _are you_? i sent for a pedigree, and i want it. _i must have it_, sir. you will comprehend this, i presume. if you do not, i can enlighten you further. "in haste, "---- -- ----." i smiled at the earnestness of this letter, the more particularly when i reflected that this gentleman always supplied to his patrons a thing he called a pedigree, for all the animals he sold--so intricate, conglomerated and lengthy, that no one would ever venture to dispute the authenticity and reliability of the document he sent them. i re-read his sharp communication, and i found the sentence again, "who _are you_? i sent for a pedigree, and i must have it." and i sat down, at once, and wrote him as follows: "_melrose, mass., ._ "my dear sir: "your peppery favor came duly to hand. you say you 'want a pedigree,' and that you 'must have it;' and you inquire who _i_ am? i cannot furnish any such history for my _fowls_, for i haven't the slightest idea what they are, except that they are bred from my superb imported 'cochin-chinas,' which have so long been pronounced the 'admiration of the world.' "but, since you must have a pedigree, you say, and as you seem anxious to know who _i_ am, i enclose you the following, as an accurate account of my _own_ pedigree, which i furnished to a legal gentleman in new york city, some years since,[ ] and which, i presume, will answer your purpose as well as any other would; as i observe, by your polite favor now before me, that you 'want a pedigree.' please read this carefully, and then inform me (as you promise to do) if you 'can enlighten _me_ further'! "very profoundly yours, "g.p.b." it will be necessary, in order that my readers may the better appreciate the pedigree that follows (and which i enclosed to my correspondent, as above stated), to inform them that some fifteen years ago, or more, there was a person named _burnham_, who died in england, leaving no will behind him; but who was possessed, at the time of his decease, of an immense fortune, said to amount to several millions of pounds sterling in value. as soon as the intelligence reached this country, the burnhams were greatly elated with their prospects, and meetings of the imaginative "heirs" to this estate were held, who, each and all, believed that a windfall was now in certain prospect before them. the excitement ended as all this sort of thing does. no one among the burnhams could identify himself, or substantiate the fact of his ever having had a grandfather; and the bubble was soon exploded. among the parties who were addressed on the subject of this supposed "burnham fortune," was my humble self; the ambitious lawyer who undertook to unravel the mystery, and to recover the money for us, informing me by mail that "it would be of material pecuniary advantage to me to establish my pedigree." i wrote _him_ as follows: "my dear sir: "your favor, under date th instant, came duly to hand, and i improve my earliest moment of leisure (after the unavoidable delays attendant upon procuring the information you seek) to reply. you are desirous of being made acquainted with my 'pedigree.' "i have to inform you that i have taken some days to examine into this matter, and, after a careful investigation of the 'records,' find that i am a descendant, in the direct line, from a gentleman, very well remembered in these parts, by the name of adam. the old man had two sons. 'cain' and 'abel' they were called. the latter, by the other's hands, went dead one day; but as no coroner had then been appointed in the county where they resided, 'verdict was postponed.' a third son was born, whom they called 'seth.' _cain_ adam had a son named enoch, who had a son (in the fourth generation) by the name of malech. malech had a son whom he called noah, from whom i trace directly my own being. "noah had three sons, 'shem,' '_ham_' and 'japheth.' the eldest and youngest--shem and japheth--were a couple of the 'b'hoys;' and ham was a very well-disposed young gentleman, who slept at home o' nights. but his two brothers, unfortunately, were not so well inclined. _ham_ was a sort of 'jethro'--the butt of his two brothers, who had done him 'brown' so many times, that they called him 'burnt.' for many years he was known, therefore, as 'burnt-ham.' before his death he applied to the legislature in his diggings for a change of name. he dropped the _t_, a bill was passed entitling him to the name of burn-ham, and hence the _sur_name of your humble servant. so much for the _name_. "in several of the newspapers of that period i find allusions made to _a very severe rain-storm_ which occurred 'just about this time;' and the public prints (of all parties) agree that 'this storm was tremendous,' and that 'an immense amount of damage was done to the shipping and commercial interest.' as this took place some six thousand years back, however, you will not, i presume, expect me to quote the particular details of this circumstance, except in so far as refers directly to my own relatives. i may here add, however, that subsequent accounts inform me that everything of any particular value was totally destroyed. a private letter from ham, dated at the time, declares that 'there wasn't a peg left to hang his hat on.' "old noah found it was 'gittin' werry wet under foot' (to use a familiar expression of his), and he wisely built a canal-boat (of very generous dimensions) for the safety of himself and family. finding that the rain continued, he enlarged his boat, so that he could carry a very considerable amount of luggage, in case of accident. this foresight in the old gentleman proved most fortunate, and only confirms the established opinion, that the family is 'smart;' for the 'storm continued unabated for forty days and forty nights' (so say the accounts), until every species of animal and vegetable matter had been 'used up,' always excepting the old gentleman's canal-boat _and_ cargo. "now, noah was a great lover of animals. 'of every kind, a male and female,' did he take into his boat with him, and 'a nice time' they must have had of it for six weeks! notwithstanding the fact (which i find recorded in one of the journals of the day), that 'a gentleman, who was swimming about, and who requested the old man to let him in, upon being refused, declared that he might go to grass with his old canoe, for he didn't think it would be much of a shower, anyhow,'--i say, notwithstanding this opinion of the gentleman, who is represented as having been a 'very expert swimmer,' everything was destroyed. "ham was one of 'em--_he_ was! he 'knew sufficient to get out of the rain,' albeit he wasn't thought _very_ witty. he took passage with the rest, however, and thus did away with the necessity of a life-preserver. from _ham_ i trace my pedigree directly down through all the grades, to king solomon, without any difficulty, who, by the way, was reported to have been a little loose in his habits, and was very fond of the ladies and manzanilla sherry. he used to sing songs, too, of which 'the least said the soonest mended.' but, on the whole, sol was a very clever, jolly-good fellow, and on several occasions gave evidence of possessing his share of the cunning natural to our family. some thought him 'wise;' but, although i have no disposition to abuse any of my ancestors, i think the queen of sheba (a very nice young woman she was, too) rather 'come it' over the old fellow! "by a continuous chain, i trace my relationship thence through a rather tortuous line, from generation to generation, down to mr. matthew,--not the comedian, but to matthew, the collector (of galilee, i think), who 'sat at the receipt of customs.' to _this_ connection i was, undoubtedly, indebted for an appointment in the boston custom-house. matthew lived in the good old 'high tariff' times, when something in the shape of duties was coming in. but, as nothing is said of his _finale_, i rather think he absquatulated with the funds of the government. but i will come to the information you desire, without further ado. "you know the 'old 'un,' undoubtedly. (if you don't, there is very little doubt but you will know his _namesake_ hereafter, if you don't cease to squander your time in looking after the plunder of the burnham family!) well, the 'old 'un' is in the 'direct line,' to which i have now endeavored to turn your attention; and i have been called, of late years, the 'young 'un,' for reasons that will not interest you. to my honored senior (whom i set down in the category as my legitimate 'dad') i would refer you for further particulars. he is tenacious of the character of his progeny, and loves me; i would commend you to him, for it will warm the cockles of his old heart to learn that the 'young 'un' _is in luck_. "if you chance to live long enough to get as far down in my letter as _this_ paragraph, allow me to add that, should you happen to receive any very considerable amount as _my_ share of the 'property' for the burnham family, please not overlook the fact that i am i 'one of 'em,' and that i have taken pains to tell you 'whar i cum from.' please forward my dividend by adams & co.'s express (if their crates should be big enough to convey it), and if it should prove too bulky, turn it into american gold, and charter a steamer to come round for the purpose; i shan't mind the expense. "in conclusion, i can only intimate the high consideration i entertain towards yourself for having prepaid the postage upon your communication; a very unusual transaction with legal gentlemen. my sensations, upon closing this hasty scrawl, are, i fancy, very nearly akin to those of the hibernian who '_liked_ to have found a sovereign once,'--but you will allow me to assure you that it will afford me the greatest pleasure to meet you hereafter, and i shall be happy to give you any further information in my power touching _that_ 'putty' in prospective. "i am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, "geo. p. burnham, _alias the_ 'young 'un.'" i presume this pedigree was perfectly satisfactory to my correspondent; and i am quite certain that it was of as much account as this kind of thing usually is. at any rate, i heard nothing more from him, in any way; and i made up my mind, therefore, that, after reading this, he concluded that he couldn't "enlighten me further," as he had so pertly suggested in his communication, quoted in the beginning of this chapter. he is a very nice man, i have no manner of doubt. [ ] this article was originally published in the new york _spirit of the times_, substantially, and was afterwards issued in an edition of my fugitive literary productions, by getz & buck, of philadelphia, in a volume entitled "_stray subjects_." chapter xl. "doing the genteel thing." "there is one thing you should always bear in mind," said a notorious shark to me, one day, while we conversed upon the subject of breeding live-stock successfully--"there is one thing you should always remember; and that is, under no circumstances ever permit a fowl or a pig to pass out of your hands to a purchaser, unless you _know_ him to be of _pure blood_." this is a pretty theory, and, i have no doubt, such a course would work to admiration, if faithfully carried out (as _i_ always intended to do, by the way); but in this country this was easier to talk about than to accomplish. i have now a letter before me, received some years since, upon this point, and which will give the reader some idea how far this thing extended in certain quarters, and what came of it. "sir: i have been informed by my friends, and i have seen it stated in the poultry-books generally, that _you_ are a breeder of fowls who can be relied on. i wish i could say as much of some other parties with whom i have dealt, during the past year or two. "i have been striving, for a long time, to get possession of some _pure_-bred domestic fowls, and a strain of thorough-bred suffolk swine. i am satisfied _you_ have got them. now, i beg you will understand that i am fortunately pecuniarily able to _pay_ for what i seek. i care nothing for _prices_;[ ] but i do desire, and stipulate for, purity of blood. can you supply me? what are your strains? when did you import it, and how has it been bred? "if you can send me half a dozen chinese fowls, all _pure_ bloods, of each of the different varieties, do so, and charge me whatever you please,--only let them be fine, and such as will produce their like. "i have read much on this subject of poultry, and i want to _begin_ right, you perceive. i have made up my mind that there are not so many _varieties_ of fowls extant as many breeders describe. i am satisfied that these domestic birds hail originally from china, and that _all_ of them are of one blood. what is your opinion? "write me your views, please, and let me know if you can furnish me what i seek, upon honor; bearing in mind that i am ready to pay your price, whatever it may be; but that i want only pure-blooded stock. "yours, respectfully, "---- ----." i immediately forwarded to this customer (as i usually did to my newly-found patrons) copies of the _portraits_ of my "genuine suffolk" pigs, and of my "pure-bred" and "imported" chinese-fowls. these "pictures," samples of which appear in this work upon pages and , had the desired effect. i rarely forwarded to these beginners one of these nicely-got-up circulars that didn't "knock 'em" at first sight. these gentlemen stared at the engravings, exclaimed, "_can_ it be?" thrust their hands to the very bottom of their long purses, and ordered the stock by return of mail. in this last-mentioned case, i informed my correspondent that i agreed with him in the ideas he had advanced precisely (i usually did agree with such gentlemen), and i entertained no doubt that he was entirely correct in his views as to the origin of domestic fowls, of which he evidently knew so much. (this helped me, amazingly.) i pointed out to him the distinction that existed (without a difference) between a "shanghae" and a "cochin-china," and finally concluded my learned and _un_selfish appeal by hinting (barely _hinting_) to him that i felt certain _he_ was the best judge of the facts in the case, and i would only _suggest_ that, so far as my experience went, there were, in reality, but _ten_ varieties of _pure_-bred fowls known to ornithologists (i was one of this latter class), and that these ten varieties were the cochins, the white, grey, dominique, buff, yellow, red, brown, bronze and black _shanghaes_--and these were the only kinds _i_ ever bred. as to their purity of blood, i could only say, that i imported the original stock myself, and "enclosed" he had their _portraits_; to which i referred with pride and confidence and pleasure, &c. &c. &c. of their probable merits i must leave it entirely to his own good judgment to decide. i had this stock _for sale_, and it did not become me (mind this!) didn't _become me_ to praise it, of course (o no!). and i would say no more, but simply refer him to the public prints for my character as a breeder of blooded stock, etc. etc. etc. did this take him down? well, it did; _vide_ the following reply from him, two weeks subsequently. "my dear sir: "i never entertained a doubt that you were _all_ you had been represented; and your reputation is, indeed, an enviable one, in the midst of these times, when so much deceit and trickery is being practised among this community. i am flattered with the tone of your kind letter, just received, and i am greatly pleased that you thus readily coincide with me in regard to my opinions touching the fowl race. "i had come to the conclusion that there were but _eight_ real varieties of genuine fowls; but i observe that, in your last favor, you describe _ten_ strains of pure-bloods, that you know to be such. the portraits of your stock are beautiful. you allude to the 'bronze' and the 'dominique' colored shanghaes. these must be very fine, i have no doubt; and i gladly embrace the opportunity to enclose you a draft on merchants' bank, boston, for six hundred dollars, in payment for six of each of your splendid varieties of this pure china stock, the like of which (on paper, at least) i have never yet been so fortunate as to meet with. "please forward them, as per schedule, in care of adams & co.'s express; whose agents, i am assured, will feed and water them regularly _three times a day_[ ] on the route, and who are universally proverbial for their attention to the birds thus directed and intrusted to their care. i shall order the 'suffolks' shortly. "yours, truly, "---- ----." i sent this anxious purchaser sixty chickens, at ten dollars each (cheap enough, to be sure), in accordance with his directions, and he was delighted with them. i do not _now_ entertain a shadow of doubt that every _one_ of those ten "different varieties" were bred from white hens and a black cock, of the ordinary "shanghae" tribe. [ ] this was the kind of customer i met with occasionally, and whom i always took at his word. the gentleman who "didn't care about price" was always the man after my own heart. [ ] certainly--of course. the express agents had nothing else to do but to "feed and water" fowls "_three times a day_" on the way! chapter xli. the fate of the "model" shanghaes. napoleon, the great, found himself compelled to succumb to adverse fate, at the end of a long and brilliantly triumphant career. "it was destiny," he said; and he bowed to the fiat; which at last he was unable successfully to dodge. i was the fortunate owner of a pair of fine shanghae fowls, that were universally acknowledged to be "at the head of the crowd,"--so far as there was any beauty or attractive qualities, whatever, in this species of animal,--and i thought they were not bad-looking birds, really. i caused a likeness to be taken of them from life, accurately, and it was placed, some years since, at the head of the circulars which i always enclosed back to my correspondents, in reply to their favors and inquiries regarding my views as to what was the _best_ kind of domestic bird for breeding. the cock was very handsomely formed, and when in full feather was exceedingly showy, and graceful, and noble in his carriage. his hen companions were fine, too; but there was one in particular, that, in company with this bird, i showed at several fairs, where they invariably carried away the first premium, without any question or cavil as to comparative beauty and merit. i named them "napoleon" and the "empress." their joint weight, when in the best condition, was about twenty-two pounds; and as the "fancy" then raged, they were really unexceptionable. i "donno" how many chickens i have sold by means of the _pictures_ of these birds, but i _do_ know that, unfortunately, this particular hen never laid an egg while i owned her, which was some two years. still, she was very handsome, as was also her husband; and i certainly raised a great many fine chickens while they were in my yards. i called them my very best,--and they were, indeed, to look at,--_a model pair of shanghaes_, as will be seen by a glance at their portraits on the next page. [illustration: the "model" shanghaes.----(see page .)] but they were singled out for a curious fate. at two or three of our early fairs they had taken the first prizes; and at one of the exhibitions, finally, there chanced to come along a gentleman who fancied them exceedingly, and who was bound to possess himself of the best that could be had. he had a long purse (though, at the time _he_ bought, prices were not up to the mark they reached subsequently, by a long margin); and when he offered forty dollars for this "model" pair, it was thought, by most of the outsiders, to be a fabulous transaction altogether, made up between us to aid in gulling "the people." however, he paid his money for them, sent them off, and the following account of their subsequent fate is thus touchingly furnished by my friend "acorn," who chanced to be "in at the death": "the gentleman who became the fortunate purchaser of these fine fowls had come to the city in the morning for the purpose of posting himself up generally, and to procure a pair of these then very desirable birds, though he did not imagine that he would be called upon to come down so 'werry han'some' for a single pair. he saw these, however, and visions of brilliant promise loomed up before him, if he could contrive to obtain them, however high a figure this 'magnificent' twain might be held at. as soon as he secured them, he felt that his fortune was made. "he calculated to remain in town until evening, and, sitting down, he hastily wrote a note to the keeper of a fashionable hotel in t---- street, informing him that he would dine with him, and that the bearer would deliver him a pair of nice chickens, which he desired him to take charge of. he also directed the boy (to whom he gave this note and the coop) to say that he would take dinner with his friend at four p.m.; and, sending up the fowls, he turned to other matters, for the day. "arriving at the hotel, the youngster found the landlord, and said, "'here's a pair of rousing big chickens mr. m----s has sent up; and he says he'll be here to dine with you at four o'clock,' "the landlord supposed that his friend knew a hawk from a handsaw, as well as a canvass-back from a broiled owl; and believed that he had 'sent up' something a little extra for the proposed dinner. he therefore ordered the two birds to be placed in the hands of the cook, and gave directions also to have these 'model shanghaes' killed and dressed at once, for the proposed dinner, to come off at four o'clock p.m.! "this order was promptly obeyed; and at the hour appointed the chicken-fancier made his appearance, in company with a few of the 'boys,' and the dinner was served up with due accompaniments. after indulging in sundry wine bitters, as a sharpener to their appetites, the snug party sat down to table, and the liberal owner of the forty-dollar shanghaes was politely invited to carve. while in the act of dissecting those enormous 'members of the late hen convention,' the amateur remarked, "''pon my word, major, you've a noble pair of chickens here, to be sure.' "'yes, yes,' responded the major. 'i think they _are_ an indifferently good-sized pair of birds. they were sent up to me, to-day, by a mutual friend of ours. i think we shall find them choice.' "'a present, eh?' said the owner, unwittingly. 'a very clever fellow our friend must be, major. capital,--really!' and as he finally commenced to enjoy the feast, he added, 'i declare they are very fine, and of the most delicious flavor i ever tasted. juicy, too,--juicy as a canvass-back.' "thus continued the victim, praising the rich excellence of the birds, until at last he had bagged a bottle or more of sparkling schreider. while chatting over their sherry, at last, and enjoying the rich aroma of their regalias, the now unlucky owner of the model shanghaes suddenly said, "'by the way, major, speaking of fowls, what do you think of my hen-purchase, this morning? aren't they good 'uns?' "'well, bill,' rejoined his friend, 'i think they were delicious. and i won't mind if you dine with me every day in the week, provided you can send me up such chickens as those!' "'_such_ chickens!' exclaimed bill, astounded, as the thought for the first time flashed upon him that he might possibly now have been dining upon his 'model shanghaes.' 'why, major, what the deuce do you mean?' "'mean?' replied the major; 'nothing,--only to say--without any intention of disturbing your nerves,--that we have just finished a most capital dinner upon those nice shanghaes that you sent up to me, this morning.' "'_what!_' yelled bill, jumping wildly up from the table; 'what do you say, major?' "'those shanghaes--' "bill groaned, rammed his hands clean up to the elbows into his breeches-pockets, and, after striding fiercely across the room some half a dozen times, without uttering another word, but with his eyes all this time 'in a fine frenzy rolling,' he stopped short, and, turning to the major, he exclaimed, with no little gesticulation, "'good god, major, you don't mean to say you're serious, now?' "'nothing else, bill. what's the matter?' "'why, _i paid forty dollars for that pair of chickens, this morning, at the hen-show_!' "'you did!' "'yes. didn't that stupid boy give you my note, when he left the chickens?' "'not a note; not even a due-bill,' said the major, provokingly. "'i mean my letter,' continued bill. "'no,' said the major, 'he gave me no letter; he simply delivered the fowls, and informed me that you would dine with me at four p.m. i thought, of course, you would like them thus, and so i had 'em roasted.' "bill didn't stop for further explanations, but rushed for his horse and wagon, and wasn't seen in the city but once afterwards, for a long time. he was then closely muffled up, and had both his ears stopped up with cotton-batting, lest he might possibly hear some one say _shanghae_! "a few weeks afterwards, while passing near his residence, i halted, and dropped in upon him for an hour; and, after a while, i ventured to touch upon the merits and beauties of the different breeds of poultry;--but i discovered, at once, that there was a wildness about bill's eyes, and therefore ceased to allude to this usually interesting 'rural' subject, as bill exclaimed, imploringly, "'don't hit me, old boy, now i'm down! _that chicken dinner has never yet digested!_'" thus "passed away" one of the handsomest pairs of domestic fowls ever seen in this part of the country, and which were well known, by all the fanciers around me, as tip-top specimens of the then lauded race of shanghaes. this result proved rather an expensive dinner for mr. m----s; but, while it served for an excellent lesson to him (as well as to many of his friends who chanced to hear of what the major called "this capital joke"), he had the satisfaction, subsequently, of ascertaining that he got off at a remarkably low figure. _his_ hen fever was very quickly, and fortunately, cured. but for this sudden and happy turn in his case, the disease _might_ have cost him far more dearly. the fowls he thus lost were what were then deemed "tall specimens;" but they did not, in this respect, equal those of a neighbor, who declared that a young shanghae cock of his grew so high on the leg, that he got to be afraid of him; and, instead of eating him, one day while the rooster was in a meditative mood, he contrived to place a twenty-feet ladder beside him, and, mounting it, managed to blow out the monster's brains, greatly to the owner's relief. [illustration] chapter xlii. an emphatic clincher. one of the last specimen _letters_ that i will offer i received late in the year of our lord , which afforded me as much amusement (considering the circumstances of the case) as any one i ever yet received, of the thousands that found their way to "geo. p. burnham, esq.; boston, mass." here it is, word for word: "georg burnam: "more'n a yeer aggo i cent yu twenty six dollers in a leter for coshin chiner chickns, an yu sed tha wus perfeck pure bludds an yu lade yerseff lyble tu a sute of prosekushn fer letin such dam stuf go intu yure yard or out of it, eether. "i bred them orl by themselfs an never had no uther cockrill on my plase. an i _no_ yu cheeted me like the devl, an yu no it . the fust lot of chickns i gut was awl _wite_ as snobawls. but i didnt sa nothin, cause wy? wat did i want tu let fokes no ide bin fuled an suckt in by a corntemtible yanky, fer! i sed nothin an kep shaidy, an stuk to it that i gut em to _breed_ wite fouls out on--caus i ment peeple shudent larf at me, no how! "wel, the nex lot of chickns i gut wus _black_ as thunder! _black_, geo burnam--bred out of yur patent yaller impoted preemum stock, that yu an the lyin noospappers ced wus pure bludds. i chocked every wun on em quicker 'n _scatt_--wen i found um, an ef yude a bin thare then i guess you wuddent razed not more'n ten thowsen more fouls to cheet peeple with after ide a gut a holt on yure desaitful gullet. "never yu mind now, yuve gut my monny an yu can maik the most of it. aint yu a pooty kine of mann? dont yu think yu ort tu hav yure naim put in the nuspapper an let em say more'n fifty times a munth that yu breed onny pure impoted stock? dont yu feel nice wen yu heer about the luck that peeple has with the stuf you impose on em in this shaimfull maner? yu muss be a nise kine of a sort of mann, i _dont_ think. "i tell yu wot i think on yu. i think if yu shud taik to sum onnest imploiment, sech as drivin a express waggin or sorring wood, yude be considurd a gentle mann compaired with wat yu now be. everyboddy nose how yu ar cheetin and gougin and bleadin the publick, an yur naim stinks wuss'n a ole hen-cupe enny how. i spose tho ef yu _shud_ taik to enny kine of onness sort of way tu git a livin it ud kill yu dam quik cos yu aint uste tu it, an that wud serv yu rite, yu cheetin lyin onprinsipled nave. ide orter taikn bennits an minur's advise, an then i shudent bin suckt by yu. _tha_ air gentle mann to yu, an tha aint no better then tha shud be neyther--_no_ how! "i dont mine the eckspence, it aint no cornsidable matter of konsekens tu me, i 'shure yu. i can _stan_ it, yu needn't be afeered of that. i can aford tu be suckt wunce. but ide like yu tu tell me how blak chickns an wite chickns an sum of em _orl_ cullers tu, can cum out of pure bludded aigs, or pure bludded fouls? tha _carnt_, an yu kno it. an yu kno'de it afore, an yure welcom tu orl yule evver maik more out of _me_, bait yure life on that, georg burnam! "go ahed. suc em as long as yu can. tha wunt fine yu out fer a wile, an yu can maik sum cornsidable mor monny out of the flatts, yit. yu thort yude suckt _me_ i spoze. well i own up. yu _did_. yu gut twenty six dollers of my monny an i spose yu chukled about it, same's yu did wen yu stuk them roten aigs onto bill turner. yude beter cum here, this wa, sum fine da an see the stock here thats bred out of yure preemum fouls. praps yude git hoam agin without a saw hed. i think yu wood. haddn't yu better try it on--_hay_? "dont yu wish ide pade the postige on this leter? yule git a wus wun nex time. ile rite yu agin, wunct a weak, cee ef i dont. ile meat yu sum day at sum of the _fares_ an then cee if i dont rake yu down with a corse comb. i haint harf dun with yu yit, by a dam site. so wate. "in haist, "b---- f---- l----. "_poss skrip._--p.s. i seen in boston _times_ yisterday that yu 'lade six aigs on the editurs table, inchis long an inchis round.' this was put in that paper i spose sose yu cud cell aigs. yu ma pool wull over thair ies but yu dont fule _me_. i doant bleeve yu ever lade a aig in yur life--yu hombugg. go tu the devl gorge burnam!" a german friend of mine once temporarily left the profession to which he had been educated thoroughly, and, with a few hundred dollars in hand, purchased a small place, a dozen miles out from the city, which was called by the seller of it "a farm." mynheer went to work lustily at his new vocation, slaving and sweating and puffing away over his lately acquired grounds, every moment of time that he could borrow or steal from his legitimate duties, and expending upon his "farm" every dollar he could rake and scrape together. in the fall of his first year as a "practical agriculturist," i met him casually, and i said, "a----, how does the farming succeed with you? how have you made it?" "by gar," he replied, "i 'av try vera hard all de time, i 'av plant potato an quash an corn an all dat, i 'av hire all my neighbors to 'elp, i buy all de manoor in town, i 'av spent all my monish--an wot you tink, now, burnham--wot you tink i get--eh? well, i git one dam big watermel'n, dass all;--but _he never git ripe, by gar_!" when i had read the letter which i have just quoted above, i thought of my friend a----, and i said that my correspondent (like a good many before him), as did mynheer a----, had undertaken a business which was entirely beyond his comprehension. his letter was complimentary, (!) to say the least of it. but the young man was easily excited, i think. he did pay me some twenty-six dollars for four chickens, and from some cause (unknown to this individual) he got only white or black progeny from the _yellow_ fowls i sent him! was that any business of _mine_? he should have thanked, rather than have abused me, surely,--for didn't he thus obtain a _variety_ of "pure" stock, from one and the same source? such fortune as this was by no means uncommon. the yellow stock was crossed in china, oftentimes, long before we ever saw it here; and there was only one means of redress that i could ever recommend to these unlucky wights, conscientiously, and that was to buy _more_, and try it again. _sometimes_ "like would breed its like" in poultry; not often, however, within _my_ humble experience! the amateurs were continually trying experiments, and grumbling, and constantly dodging from one "fancy" kind of fowl to another, in search of the _right_ thing; and i endeavored to aid them in their pursuit; though they did not always attain their object, even when they purchased of _me_. [illustration] chapter xliii. "stand from under!" i have asserted, in another place, that, in all probability, in _no_ bubble, short of the famous "south sea expedition," has there ever been so great an amount of money squandered, from first to last, as in the chicken-trade; and, surely, into the meshes of no humbug known to us of the present day have there been so many persons inveigled, as could now be counted among the victims of this inexplicable mania. a copy of the _liverpool express_ in january, , now lies before me, from which i notice that the great metropolitan show in london, just then closed, surpassed all its predecessors; and that the excitement in england, at that time, was at its height. the editor asserts that "it was not an easy thing to exhaust the merits of the three thousand specimens of the feathered tribe there shown. no one," continues the writer, "who is at all conversant with natural history, can fail to find abundance of material for an hour's instruction and amusement. the general character of the exhibition has been already indicated; but this is one of those cases in which _no_ description, however elaborate, can supply the place of personal inspection." the british correspondent of the _boston post_, but a short time previously, writes that "the fowl fever, which has raged with so much violence in _new england_ during the last three years, has extended to this country. there was a great crowing among the cocks at the late smithfield cattle-show, and there seems to have been a still louder one at the birmingham fair. "the mania for the purchase of fine fowls," continues this writer, "was as furious there as if each of them had been the hen in the fable that found the jewel in the dunghill. some pairs brought as high as forty pounds (two hundred dollars). one very fine pair of cochin-chinas sold for fifty pounds (two hundred and fifty dollars). in the catalogue some were marked at one hundred pounds, the _valuation_ prices of owners who did not wish to sell. with you, in america, the rage for fowl-raising is simply one of fancy and profit,[ ] but here it is the result--and a very beneficial one, too--of free trade. the price of eggs and poultry, owing to the great demand, does not fall; the price of grain, owing to free importation, does fall; and hence the great profit which is realized from keeping fowls. the dorkings are great favorites, less difficult to raise than with you; and, though not abundant layers, still command, from the greater whiteness and superior delicacy of their flesh, a high price in the market. but the new cochin-china varieties are in the greatest demand; the display of them at birmingham exceeded all others, and they are now much sought after here." such accounts as these continually occupied the papers; and the fever had been kept furiously alive, by this means, until far into the year . the most glowing accounts of the poultry-shows, at home and abroad, were kept up, too; but, in the mean time, shanghae chickens multiplied rapidly, and grew up, and filled the barns and yards of "the people,"--and at the same time they did not forget how to eat corn, when they could get it. and, in spite of the best endeavors of interested parties to galvanize the hum into a continued existence, it was now evident to those who watched its progress, as _i_ had done, that the death-rattle was clearly in its throat. at this juncture i was reminded of the details of the mulberry-tree bubble, the tulip fever, and the merino sheep speculation; and i had taken care not to become involved in the final ruin of the hen-trade (as i knew many had been, and more were destined to be), in the eventual winding-up of this affair, which was now close at hand. a brief account of the famous sheep mania (so like the hen fever in its workings) will not be uninteresting at this point; and its record here, perhaps, will have the effect of opening the eyes of some chance reader, haply, who is, even now, half inclined to _try_ his hand in the chicken-trade. this sheep bubble originated in the year or , immediately after the treaty of ghent, and at a period when thousands of the american people were actually "wool-mad" in reference to the huge profits that were then apparent, prospectively, in manufacturing enterprises. in the summer of the last-named year (as nearly as can be fixed upon), a gentleman in boston first imported some half-dozen sheep from one of the southern provinces of spain, whose fleeces were of the finest texture, as it was said; and such, undoubtedly, was the fact, though the sheep were so thoroughly and completely imbedded in tar, and every other offensive article, upon their arrival in america, that it would have been very difficult to have proved this statement. but the very offensive appearance of the sheep seemed to imbue them with a mysterious value, that rendered them doubly attractive. it was contended that the introduction of these sheep into the united states would enable our manufactories, then in their infancy, to produce broadcloths, and other woollen fabrics, of a texture that would compete with england and europe. even mr. clay was consulted in reference to the sheep; and he at once decided that they were exactly the animals that were wanted; and some of them subsequently found their way to ashland. the first merino sheep sold, if i recollect right, for fifty dollars the head. they cost just _one dollar each_ in andalusia! the speculation was too profitable to stop here; and, before a long period had elapsed, a small fleet sailed on a sheep speculation to the mediterranean. by the end of the year there probably were one thousand merino sheep in the union, and they had advanced in price to _twelve hundred_ dollars the head. before the winter of that year had passed away, they sold for fifteen hundred dollars the head; and a lusty and good-looking buck would command two thousand dollars at sight. of course, the natural yankee spirit of enterprise, and the love which new englanders bore to the "almighty dollar," were equal to such an emergency as this, and hundreds of merino sheep soon accumulated in the eastern states. but, in the course of the year , the speculation, in consequence of the surplus importation, began to decline; yet it steadily and rapidly advanced throughout the western country, while kentucky, in consequence of the influence of mr. clay's opinions, was especially benefited. in the fall of , what was then deemed a very fine merino buck and ewe were sold to a gentleman in the western country for the sum of eight _thousand_ dollars; and even that was deemed a very small price for the animals! they were purchased by a mr. samuel long, a house builder and contractor, who fancied he had by the transaction secured an immense fortune. now, mr. long had acquired the sheep fever precisely as thousands of others (in later days) have taken the hen fever. and, in this case, the victim was really _rabid_ with the merino mania. in proof of this, the following authentic anecdote will be amply sufficient and convincing. there resided, at this time, in lexington, ky., and but a short distance from mr. clay's villa of _ashland_, a wealthy gentleman, named samuel trotter, who was, in fact, the money-king of kentucky, and who, to a very great extent, at that time, controlled the branch of the bank of the united states. he had two sheep,--a buck and an ewe,--and mr. long was very anxious to possess them. mr. long repeatedly bantered and importuned mr. trotter to obtain this pair of sheep from him, but without success; but, one day, the latter said to the former, "if you will build me such a house, on a certain lot of land, as i shall describe, you shall have the merinos." "draw your plans for the buildings," replied long, instantly, "and let me see them; i will then decide." the plans were soon after submitted to him, and long eagerly accepted the proposal, and forthwith engaged in the enterprise. he built for trotter a four-story brick house, about fifty feet by seventy, on the middle of an acre of land; he finished it in the most approved modern style, and enclosed it with a costly fence; and, finally, handed it over to trotter, for the _two merino sheep_. the establishment must have cost, at the very least, fifteen thousand dollars. but, alas! a long while before this beautiful and costly estate was fully completed, the price of merinos declined gradually; and six months had not passed away before they would not command twenty dollars each, even in kentucky. mr. long was subsequently a wiser but a _poorer_ man. he held on to this pair till their price reached the par value only of any other sheep; and then he absolutely killed this buck and ewe, made a princely barbecue, called all his friends to the feast, and whilst the "goblet went its giddy rounds," like the ruined venetian, he thanked god that, at that moment, he was not worth a ducat! this is absolute, sober _fact_. mr. long was completely and irretrievably ruined in his pecuniary affairs; and very soon after this "sumptuous dinner," he took sick, and actually died of a broken heart. along in the summer and fall of , having watched the course that matters were taking in the chicken-trade, i became cautious; for i thought i heard in the far-off distance something indefinite, and almost undistinguishable, yet pointed and emphatic in its general tone. i listened; and, as nearly as i could make the warning out, it sounded like "take care!" and so i waited for the _dénouement_ that was yet to come. in the mean time, i had a friend who for five long years had been religiously seeking for that incomprehensible and never-yet-come-at-able _ignis fatuus_, a genuine "cochin-china" fowl of undoubted purity! i had not heard of or from him for some weeks; until, one morning, about this time, a near relative of his sent to my house all that remained of this indefatigable searcher after truth; an accurate drawing of which i instantly caused to be made--and here it is! [illustration] [ ] _we_ have found it a very comfortable "rage," thank you! chapter xliv. bursting of the bubble. my friend john giles, of woodstock, conn., has somewhere said, of late, "i often hear that the 'fowl' fever is dying out. if by this is meant the unhealthy excitement which we have had for a few years past, for one, i say the sooner that it dies out the better. but as to the enthusiasm of _true_ lovers of the feathered tribe dying out, it never will, as long as man exists. it is part of god's creation. the thinking man loves and admires his maker's work; always did; always will. and i have not the least doubt that any enterprising young man, with a suitable place and fancier's eye, would find it to his advantage to embark in the enterprise of fowl-raising for market." now, i don't know but john is honest in this assertion,--that is, i can imagine that he believes in this theory! but how he can ever have arrived at such a conclusion (with the results of his own experience before him), is more than i _can_ comprehend. laying aside all badinage, for the moment, i think it may be presumed that i have had some share of experience in this business, _practically_, and i think i can speak advisedly on this subject. as far back as during the years , ' and ' , i erected, in roxbury, a poultry establishment on a large scale, upon a good location, where i had the advantages of ample space, twenty separate hen-houses, running water and a fine pond on the premises, glass-houses (cold, and artificially heated, for winter use), and every appurtenance, needful or ornamental, was at my command. i purchased and bred all kinds of domestic fowls there, and they were attended with care from year's end to year's end. but there was _no_ profit whatever resulting from the undertaking,--and why? the very week that a _mass_ of poultry--say three to five hundred fowls--is put together _upon one spot_, they begin to suffer, and fail, and retrograde, and die. no amount of care, cleanliness or watching, can evade this result. _in a body_ (over a dozen to twenty together), they cannot thrive; nor can the owner coax or force them to lay eggs, by any known process.[ ] to succeed with the breeding of poultry, the stock must be _colonized_ (if a large number of fowls be kept), or else only a few must find shelter in any one place, about the farm or country residence. and my experience has taught me that five hens together will yield more eggs than fifty-five together will in the same number of months. i honestly assert, to-day, that of all the humbug that exists, or which has been made to exist, on this subject, no part of it is more glaringly deceptive, in my estimation, than that which contends for the _profit_ that is to be gained _by breeding poultry_--_as a business by itself_--_for market consumption_. the idea is preposterous and ridiculous, and no man can accomplish it,--i care not _what_ his facilities may be,--to any great extent, _upon a single estate_. the thing is impossible; and i state this, candidly, after many years of practical experience among poultry, on a liberal scale, and in the possession of rare advantages for repeated experiment. i do not say that certain persons who have kept a _few_ fowls (from twenty-five to a hundred, perhaps), and who have looked after them carefully, may not have realized a profit upon them, in connection with the farm. but, to make it a business _by itself_, i repeat it, a _mass_ of domestic and aquatic fowls cannot be kept together to any advantage whatever, their produce to be disposed of at ordinary market value. the fever for the "fancy" stock broke out at a time when money was plenty, and when there was no other speculation rife in which every one, almost, could easily participate. the prices for fowls increased with astonishing rapidity. the whole community rushed into the breeding of poultry, without the slightest consideration, and the mania was by no means confined to any particular class of individuals--though there was not a little shyness among certain circles who were attacked at first; but this feeling soon gave way, and our first men, at home and abroad, were soon deeply and riotously engaged in the subject of henology. meantime, in england they were doing up the matter somewhat more earnestly than with us on this side of the water. to show how even the nobility never "put their hand to the plough and look back" when anything in this line is to come off, and the better to prove how fully the poultry interests were looked after in england, i would point to the names of those who, from to , patronized the london and birmingham associations for the improvement of domestic poultry. the great annual show, at bingley hall, was got up under the sanction of his royal highness prince albert, the duchess of sutherland, lady charlotte gough, the countess of bradford, rt. hon. countess of littlefield, lady chetwynd, hon. viscountess hill, lady littleton, hon. mrs. percy, lady scott, and a host of other noble and royal lords and ladies, whose names are well known among the lines of english aristocracy. but, as time advanced, the star of shanghae-ism began to wane. the nobility tired of the excitement, and the people of england and of the united states began to ascertain that there was absolutely nothing in this "hum," save what the "importers and breeders" had made, through the influence of the newspapers; and while a few of the _last men_ were examining the thickness of the shell, cautiously and warily, the long-inflated bubble burst! and, as the fragments descended upon the devoted heads of the unlucky star-gazers, a cry was faintly heard, from beneath the ruins--"_stand from under_!" i had been watching for this climax for several months; and when the explosion occurred, as nearly as i can "cal-'late," _i_ wasn't _thar_! [ ] since this was written, i find in the _country gentleman_ a communication from l.f. allen, esq., on this very subject, in which he says that "a correspondent desires to know how to build a chicken-house for 'about one thousand fowls.' if my poor opinion is worth anything, _he will not build it at all_. fowls, in any large number, will not thrive. although i have seen it tried, i never knew a large collection of several hundred fowls succeed _in a confined place_. i have known sundry of these enterprises tried; but i never knew one _permanently_ successful. they were all, in turn, abandoned." the thing is entirely impracticable. chapter xlv. the dead and wounded. i have never yet been able to ascertain, authentically, all the exact particulars of the final catastrophe; but, basing an opinion upon the numerous "dispatches" i received from november, , to february, , the number of dead and wounded must have been considerable, if not more. i received scores of letters, during this last period mentioned, of which the annexed is a fair sample: "g.p. burnham, esq. "dear sir: i'm afraid the jig is up! there's a big hole in the bottom somewhere, or i am mistaken. i _think_ the dance is concluded; and if it isn't time to 'blow out the lights' and shut down the gate, just let us know,--will you? where's bennett, and harry williams, and dr. eben, and childs, and ad. white, and brackett, and johnny giles, and uncle alden, and buckminster, and chickering, and coffin, and fussell, and chenery, and gilman, and hatch, and jaques, and barnum, and southwick, and packard, and balch, and morton, and plarsted, and geo. white, _et id omne genus_? where are they all? _s-a-y!_ "what has become of platt, and miner, and newell, and hudson, and heffron, and taggard, and hill, and swett, and m'clintock, and dr. kerr, and devereux, and thacher, and haines, and hildreth; and brown, and smith, and green, and _their_ allies? are they dead, or only 'kilt'? let me know, if you can, i beseech you! "'o, where, tell me where,' is my bonnie friend john moore, and mine ancient _frère_ morse, and my loved chum howard, and the wily butters? and where's pedder--the immaculate pedder? and charley belcher, too, and bragging cornish, and billy everett, and our good neighbors parkinson, and george, and sol. jewett, and president kimball, and know-nothing king, and the reverend marsh, and pendletonian pendleton of pendleton hill, and their satellites? have all departed, and left no _wreck_ behind? i reckon not! "seriously, friend b----, what does all this mean? has the fever passed by? can't we offer another single prescription? has the _last_ man been heard from? has there been found 'a balm in gilead' to heal the wounds of the afflicted sufferers? is the thing finished? are they all cured? did you say _all_? dunder and blixen! is anybody hurt? what are we to do? '_speak_, or die!' "where are the 'committee,' and the 'judges,' and the 'trustees,' and the 'managers'? where is the 'society' whose name, 'like linked sweetness long drawn out,' i haven't time to write? where is _that_ balance in the _treasurer's_ hands,'--and where is that functionary himself? did he ever exist at all? what has become of the premiums that were _awarded_ at the last show in boston? and when, in the language of the enthusiastic mr. snooks (at the statehouse in ), will that association begin 'to be forever perpetuated,'--eh? "i have got on hand three hundred of the shanghae devils! what can i do with them? there is a neighbor of mine (a police-officer), who has got stuck with a lot of 'cochin' chickens, which he swears he won't support this winter; and he has at last advertised them as _stolen property_, in the faint hope, i suppose, that some 'green 'un' will come forward and claim them. you can't get rid of these birds! it is useless to try to sell them; _you can't give them away_; nobody will take them. you can't starve them, for they are fierce and dangerous when aggravated, and will kick down the strongest store-closet door; and you can't kill them, for they are tough as rhinoceroses, and tenacious of life as cats. ah! burnham, i have never forgiven the man who made me a present of my first lot! do you want what i've got left? will you take them? how much shall i pay you to receive them? help me out, if you can. "i am not aware that i ever committed any offence, that this judgment should be thus visited upon _my_ poor head! i never sold fowls for what they were _not_; i never cheated anybody, that i know of; i do not remember ever having done any unjust act that should bring down upon me this terrible vengeance. yet i am now the owner of nearly three hundred of these infernal, cursed, miserable ghosts in 'feathered mail,' which i cannot get rid of! tell me what i shall do, and answer promptly. "yours, in distress, "---- -- ----." i have smiled over this document, so full of feeling and earnestness, so lively and touching in its recollections of the days when we went _chicken_-ing, long time ago! but i have never been able to reply fully to my ardent friend's numerous inquiries. i don't want those "three hundred shanghae devils," though. i have now on hand _nine_ of them (only, thank heaven!) myself; and that is quite enough for one farm, at the present current price of grain. what has become of all the friends about whom my correspondent so carefully inquires, i don't know. not _five_ of them are now _in_ the hen-trade, however; and there are not ten of them who got _out_ of the business with a whole skin, from the commencement. the engine has collapsed its boiler. there was altogether too much steam crowded on, and the managers were not all "up to snuff." the dead and wounded and dying are now scattered throughout new england and new york state chiefly, and their moans can occasionally be heard, though their groans of repentance come too late to help them. they recklessly invested their twenties, or fifties, or hundreds, and, in some instances, their thousands of dollars, in this hum, without any knowledge of the business, and without any consideration whatever, except the single aim to keep the bubble floating aloft until they could realize anticipated fortunes, on a larger or smaller scale, as the case might be. but the "cars have gone by," and they may now wait for another train. _perhaps_ it will come! poor fellows! poor, deluded, crazy, reckless dupes! you have had your fun, many of you, and you will now have the opportunity to reflect over the ruins that are piled up around you; while, for the time being, you may well exclaim, with the sulky and flunkey moor, "_othello's occupation's_ gone!" chapter xlvi. a mournful procession. i was sitting before my comfortable library fire in midwinter, , and had been reflecting upon the mutability of human affairs generally, and the uncertainty of shanghae-ism more particularly, when i finally dropped into a gentle slumber in my easy-chair, where i dozed away an hour, and dreamed. my thoughts took a very curious turn. i fancied myself sitting before a large window that opened into a broad public street, in which i suddenly discovered a multitude of people moving actively about; and i thought it was some gala-day in the city, for the throng appeared to be excited and anxious. "the people" were evidently abroad; and the crowds finally packed themselves along the sidewalks, leaving the wide street open and clear; and i could overhear the words "they're coming!" "here they are!" i looked out, and beheld an immense gathering of human beings approaching in a line that stretched away as far as the eye could reach,--a dense mass of moving mortality, that soon arrived, and passed the window, beneath me. i was alone in the room, and could ask no questions. i could only see what occurred before me; and i noted down, as they passed by, this motley procession, which moved in the following =order of march.= escort of indescribables. hatless aid. [chief marshal in black.] bootless aid. police. two ex-mormons in white tunics. police. calathumpian band. whig {the "_know nothing guards_," with guns} democrat office-holders. { enough for all useful purposes. } expectants. the "ins." [collector and postmaster.] the "outs." u.s. {the "national" democracy, two deep,} u.s. dist. marshal. { in one section. } att'y. banner. motto--"_we know of_ burns _that russia salve can't cure_." "aids to the revenue." [marshal.] drawbacks on the revenue. _kaleb krushing._ [the man who fainted in mexico.] jorge ah! poll. "_fanny fern_," flanked by a company of disappointed publishers, twenty-four deep, in twelve sections. banner. motto.--"_she's a brick!_" aids. [marshal.] aids. president of the "n.e. mutual admiration" hen society. fat marshal. [the great show man.] lean marshal. band, playing the "rogue's march." marshal. ghost of joice heth. marshal. aids, {a fejee mermaid, astride} aids, of quaking shakers. { the woolly horse. } the happy family. aids, { _invited guests._ } and their readers { _the three historians_, } "admirers." { burnham, prescot, and bancraft. } escort in the rear, with charged bayonets. police. { a _genuine_ "cochin-china" rooster, } police. {succeeded by the man who _knew_ him to be such!} marshal. {the entire united states american national } marshal. pea wilder. {agricultural society, in a one-horse buggy.} w. ess king. [the _good_ this association had accomplished was borne along by a stout "practical farmer," in a small thimble; the _records_ of its doings were inscribed on a huge roll of paper, , yards long, carried upon a truck drawn by twelve yoke of "pure" devon oxen.] banner.--motto: "_ourselves and those who vote for us._" aid, {an ex-u.s. navy agent who left that office } aid, naval store {without having made money out of his place!} u.s. keeper. { banner.--motto: "_poor, but honest._" }sub-treasurer. { the mass. hort. improvement society, } one hundred and {_en masse_, with several full bands of} twenty-five twenty-five {music, on "seedling" accompaniments, } hundred and marshals. {etc. } one gold-medal { banner. } seekers { motto: "_cuss the concord grape._" } no { the man who voluntarily gave up his office under the } no aids. { national government, _solus_, on horseback, with } friends. { banner.--motto: "_few die, and none resign._" } { "the young 'un," } the defunct { in his own barouche, drawn by four "superb } his new england { dapple-grey shanghaes." } vanquished hen society. { banner.--motto: }music.{ banner.--motto: }competitors. {"_who's afraid?_"} {"_not this child!_"} police. { hen men who had mistaken their calling, } police. {twenty-eight deep, in four hundred sections.} aids, { grain men, _with their bills_, } aids, constables { in seventy sections, } all in a row. { sixty-four deep. } band, playing "_hope told a flattering tale._" { the great-grandson of the man who set } tree-venders { out an orchard of dwarf pear-trees } with thumbs and { (in a barouche). he was years } on their horticulturists, { old, and believed he should see fruit } noses. { on those same trees "next season"! } pall bearers. [ his coffin, behind. ] heirs to his estate. aids, { believers that cochituate water is } aids, respectable { wholesome (in a chaise) } board of physicians. { } commissioners. { chicken fanciers who _didn't_ buy their eggs } marshals. { of me, and who _expected they would hatch_! } marshals. { (four thousand strong.) } aids, { a body of express agents, who never shook up } aids, the { the eggs intrusted to them (though they } the conductors. { occasionally shook down their employers). } brakemen. band.--air: "_o, i never will deceive you!_" flanked by { "_my friend_ the president," } and the the subscribers { in the carriage presented to him } "mourners" who for _that_ { by "the people," drawn by that } _didn't_ obtain "double harness," { "_superb_ pair of $ horses" } fat offices. { which we read of in the papers. } motto: { } motto: "_i'll see you in the fall._" { banners. } "_save me from my friends!_" full band. { the hatch grey shanghae express co., } aid, { with the latest news from nantucket } aid, brass & co. { and "marm hackett's garden." } the "colonel." { _motto_: "important, if true!" } aid, { holders of _second_ mortgage r.r. bonds, } aid, two { deep, in sections. } one presidents. { banner. } treasurer. { motto: "_there's a good time coming._" } aids, { the owner of the first "brahma pootra" } aids, regular { fowls in america, with a map of india } faculty of doctors. { on the seat of his pantaloons. } ripum college. aid { the original members of the } aid, lucy brick { "women's rights convention." } abby fulsome. { band.--air: "_why don't the men propose?_" } aids, { the "wreck of burnham's character" } aids, the first { caused by the _powerful_ newspaper } the "porte-monnaie premium fowls { assaults of one } i owe 'em { the bee minur, a.ss. } company." banner.--motto: "_don't_ he feel bad!" no { the poultry fancier who had found out the exact } too far aid for { difference between a "cochin-china" and a } gone! him! { "shanghae." } unpaid { delinquent subscribers to northern } disappointed compositors. { _farmers_, twelve deep, and three } "press gang." { miles long! } marshal. { the "editor," suffering } marshal. { from a severe attack of _roup_. } { dr. bangit, } david. { with the unsold copies of his poultry-book, } goliah. { in a huge baggage-wagon, drawn by horses. } { a battalion of victims to the hen fever, who } aids, aids, { had bought eggs that "didn't hatch" and who } friends sisters { were waiting patiently to have their money } to the of charity. { returned! } insane { } poor. marshal { my _legal_ friend (on a mule) who promised } jail keeper and { to spend a thousand dollars in prosecuting } and deputy { me for selling him _shanghae_ eggs for } constables. sheriff. { _cochin-chinas_! } aid, { fat johnny jiles, with the head of a _pure_ } aid, barnam. { "black spanish" crower on a salver. } burnum. { the men who _didn't_ take the first premiums } marshals. { (when i was round) at the poultry-shows } marshals. { (in deep mourning). } aids, a { the political remains of frank pierce, } aids, "cabinet" of { in a toy wheelbarrow, with banner, } his own curiosities. { on a "sharp stick." motto: "_veto._" } opinions! aid, { victims who purchased minor's } aid, editor of the { "patent cross-grained collateral } gen. bangit, _northum { beehives," with motto: } of the "nauvoo farmer_. { "_burned child dreads the fire._" } legion." aids, { _customers for_ "_ozier willow_," } aids, the sellers. { in two sections, _one man deep_. } the victims. { banner.--motto: "_i rather guess not!_" } marshals { a huge concourse of "copper stock" and } marshals. { "agewuth land" owners, in deep sables. } full band.--air: _dead march._ banner.--motto: "_you're sure to win--if you don't lose!_" ==> a smooth-skinned _pure_ "suffolk" pig, _imported_. <== twenty-four sewing machines, "_warranted_." aid, { president of the "porte-monnaie i owe 'em } aid, secretary. { company," as richard iii. on horseback. } treasurer. nine "bother'em pootrums," rampant. the few { the identical lot of "pure-bred" fowls that } the unlucky { bangit, plarsterd, minor, humm & co., } believers buyers. { _imported_ (over the left) "for the southern } in this { market," in ! } story! the hen that lays two eggs a day! treasurer of the "mut. adm'n society." defunct hucksters, in a tip-cart. four empty hen-coops, on wheels. ==> breeders of _pure_ alderney cattle! <== who furnish pedigrees with long tails. an effigy of the last man that will buy shanghae chickens (in a strait-jacket). police { purchasers of live stock who bought of my competitors; } sheriff and { with banner. } and aids. { motto: "_we got more than we bargained for!_" } posse. the hen-men who "pity poor burnham." my own cash customers, , _strong_! cavalcade. "the people," music, and the rest of mankind, etc. the scene was closing! that immense concourse of humbugs and humbugged had passed on, and i was alone once more. but, a moment afterwards, i saw the head and face of a comical and good-humored looking yankee (just beneath the window), who was in the act of puffing into the air a huge budget of bubbles, that danced and floated in the atmosphere for a brief moment, and which, bursting, suddenly awoke me. here is a sketch of the _finale_. [illustration] chapter xlvii. my shanghae dinner. i saw by the papers, one day, late in the year , an account of the return from england of my fat friend giles, who brought with him the poultry purchased abroad for mr. barnum, and which proved to be a lot of _pure_ stock, of a remarkable character, as i supposed it would be. but, while john was absent in great britain, the knowing ones there shook him down, beautifully! his theory, when he left america, four months previously, was that "hall 'at was wanted 'ere was to get hover from hingland pure-bred fowls, and such would _sell_." john brought over "such," and they _did_ sell; but barnum was sold by far the worst! an auction was immediately got up at the american museum, in new york; and after a vast deal of drumming, puffing and advertising this magnificent, just-imported, pure-bred poultry, the sale came off, to a sorry company, indeed! and the gross amount of the sales of the fowls thus disposed of, really, was insufficient to pay the _freight_ bills for bringing them across the atlantic, to say nothing of their original high cost abroad. the show-man has since left the hen-business, i learn, "a wiser if not a better man;" while john retired with the simple exclamation, "most extr'ornerry result i hever 'eer'd of in hall my life!" soon after this little episode occurred, the second show of the "national poultry society" (in january, ) came off at barnum's museum, in new york; which, notwithstanding the best endeavors of the "president," was a failure. the "committee" shut out of their premium list the grey shanghaes, altogether; and the result of this last exhibition was just what i had anticipated. but mr. barnum can well afford to foot the bills; and, as he is perfectly willing to do this, no objection will be raised to his choice, i presume. this final exhibition at new york, i have no doubt, closed up the business, for the present. as soon as this last fair had closed, and when the lucky and unlucky contributors returned to boston, i invited a party of my former _confrères_ to my residence, to dinner. i had been preparing for this little event for several days; and the following was the actual "bill of fare" to which we all sat down, at russet house, _melrose_, on the fifth day of february, : +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | dinner. | | | | soup--_a la_ shanghae. | | | | fresh fish--with china sauce. | | | | boiled fowl--_to wit, the identical grey shanghae cock (two years | | old) which took the premium at the_ first _national poultry show, | | in new york, in ; then valued at $ _. | | | | roast--shanghae cock, nine months old, weighing, dressed, - / | | pounds. do. shanghae pullets, same age, drawing, dressed, - / | | pounds each. do. spring shanghae chickens in variety. | | | | baked--pure "suffolk" pig, with genu-wine "mandarin" sauce. | | | | | | entrements. | | | | broiled shanghae chicks. | fried shanghae pullets. | | stewed shanghae chickens. | coddled shanghae stags. | | curried shanghae fowls. | fricasseed shanghaes. | | shanghaes truffled, | | and | | more shanghaes, if wanted! | | | | | | dessert. | | | | shanghae chicken pie. | pudding _a la_ shanghae. | | shanghae omelets. | candied cocks' spurs. | | shanghae custards. | crystallized pullets' combs. | | chinese pudding. | shanghae wattles, in syrup. | | | | | | shanghae-quill tooth-picks, | | and | | more shanghaes in the yard! | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ to this repast, with thankful hearts, a company of five-and-twenty sat down, and, as nearly as my recollection now serves me, the friends did ample justice to my shanghae dinner. after two hours over the _varied_ dishes (varied in size and style of cooking only), the cloth was removed, and the intellectual treat commenced with a song, written "expressly for this occasion," by the young 'un, which was delivered with admirable effect by "one who had been there," and in the chorus of which the guests unitedly joined, with surprising harmony and unison. the following toasts were then submitted: _by the man in the black coat._--the memory of the defunct rooster we have this day devoured: peace to his manes! (drank standing, in silence.) _by a successful breeder._--the health, long life, and prosperity, of our absent cash customers,--at home and abroad. _by an amateur._--honor to the discoverer of the exact difference between a "shanghae" and a "cochin-china" fowl, if he shall ever turn up! _by the "confidence" man._--the continuity of the beautifully-elongated chinese fowls: may their shadows never be less! _by a victim._--the bother'em wot-yer-call-'ems: dammum! (nine cheers for doctors bennett and miner.) _by a disappointed "fancier."_--barn-yard fowls and white-shelled eggs, for _my_ money. (three cheers for the old-style biddies.) _by the youth in a white vest._--"fanny fern": the hen that lays the golden eggs. (six cheers for fanny, and the fair sex generally.) _by a repentant._--the whole shanghae tribe: curse 'em; the more _fowls_ you see of this race, the less _eggs_ there are about! (this was deemed slightly _personal_, but it was permitted to pass; the gentleman spoke with unusual feeling; he had been only three years in the trade, and had expended some sixteen hundred dollars in experimenting with a view to establish a _breed_ that would lay _two_ eggs daily.) _by one of my "friends."_--the young 'un: the only hen-man who has put the knife in up to the handle with a decent grace! (nine cheers followed, for the importer of the only pure-bred poultry in america.) this last sentiment called me to my feet, naturally enough; and, as nearly as i remember, i thus addressed my guests, amidst the most marked and respectful attention: "gentlemen: i think i have seen it written somewhere, or i have heard it said, 'it is a long lane that has no turn in it.' i believe, however, that, although the lane we have most of us been travelling for the last six years has proved somewhat tortuous as well as lengthy, we have now passed the _turn_ in it, and have arrived very nearly at the end of the road. "few of you, gentlemen, have met with so many thorns, _en route_, as i have; none of you, perhaps, have gathered so many roses. i am content, and i trust that everybody is as well satisfied with the results of this journey as _i_ am. _the shanghae trade is done_, gentlemen! we have this day eaten up what, four years ago, would have been the nucleus, at least, of a small fortune to any one of us who at that time might have chanced to have possessed it. but the fever is over; the demand for giraffe cocks and chaise-top hens is passed; the 'poor remains of beauty once admired, in my premium fowls,' now lie scattered about the dishes that have just left this table; and 'brahma-pootra-ism' is now no longer rampant. "perhaps, gentlemen, as you entertain opinions of your own upon this delightfully pleasing subject of poultry-raising generally, and of the propagation of shanghae fowls in particular, you would care to hear nothing of my views regarding this point. yet, i pray you, indulge me for a single moment--in all seriousness--and permit me to say (without the slightest intention of being personal), that we have proved ourselves a clan of short-sighted mortals, at the best, during the last half-dozen years, in our crazy devotion to what we have deemed an honorable and laudable 'profession,' but which has been, in reality, the most shallow, heartless, unreasonable, silly and bottomless humbug that grown-up men have ever been cajoled with, since the hour when adam was fooled by the accomplished and coquetting eve!" (cries of "you're more'n half right!" "that's a fact!" "exactly--just so!") "there is now living in melrose, mass., gentlemen, a breeder who begun at the beginning of this excitement, who has since followed up the details of this hum with a zeal worthy of a better cause; and who has accumulated a handsome competency in this traffic, by attending strictly to his own affairs, while he has uniformly acted upon the principle that this world is sufficiently capacious to accommodate all god's creatures, without jostling. if you should chance to meet this now retired fowl-fancier, he will tell you that he has had, and believes he still has, many personal friends; but the very _best_ 'friend' he has ever known is the enjoyment of his present income of eight per cent. interest, per annum, upon thirty thousand dollars. but this is a digression, and i beg pardon for the allusion. "i look back with no regrets at the past, gentlemen. we have seen a great many merry days, and, in the midst of the competition and humbuggery in which we enlisted, we have often differed in sentiment. but _here_,--at the close of the route on which we have so long been journeying,--let us remember only the good traits that we any of us possess, while from this point we forget the errors that ourselves and our companions may have committed, forever." (three times three, "and one more," were here given for the speaker, his friends, and all the rest of mankind.) "i will say no more, gentlemen. my stomach is too full for further convenient utterance; and i will conclude with a sentiment to which, i am sure, you will all respond. i will give you-- "'the hen fever!'"-- "don't, _don't_!" shrieked the crowd. "we've had that disease once, and that is quite sufficient." "indulge me, gentlemen, one moment, and i will propose, then-- "'the hen trade: though a _fowl_ calling, it puts _fair_ money in the purse, when "judiciously" managed. may none of you ever do worse, pecuniarily, in this humble "profession," than has your friend--the subscriber.'" another round of hearty cheers succeeded this sentiment, a parting bumper was enjoyed, and the circle separated, to meet again at philippi,--or elsewhere,--where the author hopes to encounter only friendly faces, whatever may have been his business relations with his acquaintances in the days that are now passed away. the mania is over. i have frankly repeated to you the humble history of this curious fever, and we have reached the end. [illustration] list of books published by james french & co., washington street, boston. school books. foster's book-keeping, by double and single entry, both in single and copartnership business, exemplified in three sets of books. twelfth edition. vo. cloth, extra. foster's book-keeping, by single entry, exemplified in two sets of books. boards. french's system of practical penmanship, founded on scientific movements; combining the principles on which the method of teaching is based.--illustrated by engraved copies, for the use of teachers and learners. twenty-seventh edition. this little treatise seems well fitted to teach everything which can be taught of the theory of penmanship. the style proposed is very simple. the copperplate fac-similes of mr. french's writing are as neat as anything of the kind we ever saw.--_post._ mr. french has illustrated his theory with some of the most elegant specimens of execution, which prove him master of his science.--_courier._ this work is of a useful character, evidently illustrating an excellent system. we have already spoken of it in terms of approbation.--_journal._ this little work of his is one of the best and most useful publications of the kind that we have seen.--_transcript._ beauties of writing, containing twenty large specimens of ornamental penmanship, pen drawing, and off-hand flourishing. boston copy-book, comprising nearly two hundred engraved copies, for the use of schools and academies. ladies' copy-book, containing many beautiful engraved copies, which are a perfect imitation of the natural hand writing; also including german text and old english. boston elementary copy-book, comprising large and small text hand, for schools. - / cook's mercantile system of penmanship. fourth revised edition. - / the art of pen-drawing, containing examples of the usual styles, adorned with a variety of figures and flourishes, executed by command of hand. also a variety of ornamental penmanship. miscellaneous and juvenile. turkey and the turks, by dr. j.v.c. smith, mayor of boston. pages. mo. cloth. it is a most excellent work. it will have a large sale, for it embraces more real information about real turks and their strange peculiarities than anything we have yet read.--_post._ the massachusetts state record, for the years , , , and ; one of the most valuable american statistical works. vols. mo. cloth. the new hampshire festival. a graphic account of the assemblage of the "sons of new hampshire" at boston, hon. daniel webster presiding. illustrated with portraits of webster, woodbury and wilder. vo. cloth, gilt. the same, gilt edges and sides. second festival of the "sons of new hampshire." illustrated with portraits of webster, wilder, appleton and chickering. vo. cloth, gilt. the same, gilt edges and sides. festival. vols. in one. vo. cloth, gilt. eleanor: or, life without love. mo. cloth. life in england and america. illustrated. mo. cloth. the vacation: or, mrs. stanley and her children. by mrs. j. thayer. illustrated. mo. cloth. third edition. the same, gilt edges. sunshine and shade: or, the denham family. by sarah maria. fourth edition. mo. cloth. - / the same, gilt edges. the dream fulfilled: or, the trials and triumphs of the moreland family. mo. cloth. the same, gilt edges. fifth edition. - / the cooper's son: or, the prize of virtue. a tale of the revolution. written for the young. mo. cloth. sixth edition. (in press.) - / the same, gilt edges. the sociable story teller. being a selection of new anecdotes, humorous tales, amusing stories and witticisms; calculated to entertain and enliven the social circle. third edition. mo. cloth. the same, gilt edges. - / talmudic maxims. translated from the hebrew; together with other sayings, compiled from various authors. by l.s. d'israel. mo. cloth. the same, gilt edges. lectures to youth. containing instructions preparatory to their entrance upon the active duties of life. by rev. r.f. lawrence. mo. cloth. the same, gilt edges. the sabbath made for man: or, instituted by divine authority. by rev. dr. cornell. mo. cloth. - / the same, gilt edges. consumption forestalled and prevented. by. w.m. cornell, a.m., m.d., member of the mass. medical society. mo. cloth. fourth edition. - / the same, gilt edges. passion and other tales. by mrs. j. thayer, author of "floral gems," &c. &c. mo. cloth. - / turnover. a tale of new hampshire. paper. the history of the hen fever; a humorous record. by geo. p. burnham. with twenty illustrations. mo. cloth. the work is written in a happy but ludicrous style, and this reliable history of the fowl _mania_ in america, will create an immense sensation.--_courier._ new miniature volumes. the art of conversing. written for the instruction of youth in the polite manners and language of the drawing-room, by a society of gentlemen; with an illustrative title. fourteenth edition. gilt edges. - / the same, gilt edges and sides. floral gems: or, the songs of the flowers. by mrs. j. thayer. thirteenth edition, with a beautiful frontispiece. gilt edges. - / the same, gilt edges and sides. the amethyst: or, poetical gems. a gift book for all seasons. illustrated. gilt edges. - / the same, gilt edges and sides. zion. with illustrative title. by rev. mr. taylor. the same, gilt edges and sides. the triune. with illustrative title. by rev. mr. taylor. - / triad. with illustrative title. by rev. timothy a. taylor. - / two mottoes. by rev. t.a. taylor. - / solace. by rev. t.a. taylor. - / the same, gilt edges and sides. sonnets. by edward moxon. - / the same, gilt edges and sides. gray's elegy, and other poems. the poetical works of thomas gray. "poetry--poetry;--gray--gray!" [daniel webster, the night before his death, oct. , .]. the same, gilt edges and sides. the following writing books are offered on liberal terms. french's new writing book, with a fine engraved copy on each page. just published, in four numbers, on a highly-improved plan. no. contains the first principles, &c. no. a fine copy hand. no. a bold business hand writing. no. beautiful epistolary writing for the lady. james french & co., no. washington street, have just published a new series of writing books for the use of schools and academies. they are arranged upon a new and improved plan, with a copy on each page, and ample instructions for learners. we commend them to the attention of teachers and parents.--_transcript._ they commence with those simple forms which the learner needs first to make, and they conduct him, by natural and appropriate steps, to those styles of the art which indicate the chirography not only of the finished penman, but which are adapted to the wants of those who wish to become accomplished accountants.--_courier._ a new and original system of writing books, which cannot fail to meet with favor. they consist of a series, and at the top of each page is a finely-executed copy. we cordially recommend the work.--_bee._ it is easily acquired, practical and beautiful.--_fitchburg sentinel._ we have no hesitation in pronouncing them superior to anything of the kind ever issued.--_star spangled banner._ french's practical writing book, for the use of schools and academies; in three numbers, with a copy for each page. no. , commencing with the first principles. no. , running-hand copies for business purposes. no. , very fine copies, together with german text and old english. boston school writing book, for the use of public and private schools; in six numbers, with copies to assist the teacher and aid the learner. no. contains the elementary principles, together with the large text hand. no. contains the principles and first exercises for a small hand. no. consists of the capital letters, and continuation of small letters. no. contains business-hand copies, beautifully executed. no. consists of a continuation of business writing, also an alphabet of roman print. no. contains many beautiful specimens of epistolary writing, also an alphabet of old english and german text. ladies' writing book, for the use of teachers and learners, with three engraved copies on each page, and the manner of holding the pen, sitting at the table, &c., explained. gentlemen's writing book, for the use of teachers and learners, with three engraved copies on each page, and the manner of holding the pen, sitting at the table, &c., explained. yankee penman, containing pages, with engraved copies. french's eagle cover writing books, made of fine blue paper, without copies. transcriber's note punctuation and formatting markup have been normalized. apparent printer's errors have been retained, unless stated below. page numbers cited in illustration captions refer to their discussion in the text. illustrations have been moved near their mention in the text. the symbols, ==> and <==, replace the character of a pointing hand that appeared in the text. page , "gray" changed to "grey" for consistency. (...rich and poor, white, black and grey,--_everybody_ was more or less seriously affected by this curious epidemic.) page , "anexed" changed to "annexed". (in the _addenda_ to my report (above named) there appeared the annexed statement, by somebody:) page , "h.b.m." changed to "h.r.m." (her royal majesty) for consistency. (from hon. col. phipps, h.r.m. secretary.) page , "oustrip" changed to "outstrip". (at this time there was found an ambitious individual, occasionally, who got "ahead of his time," and whose laudable efforts to outstrip his neighbors were only checked by the natural results of his own superior "progressive" notions) page , "millenium" changed to "millennium". ("fanny" went into new york state, crowing when she left, crowing as she went, and continuing to crow until she crowed the community there clear through the next fourth o' july, out into the fabled millennium.) page , "@" changed to "or". (the prices for chickens ranged from $ _or_ $ a pair, to $ or $ , and often $ to $ , a pair.) on page , *** represents the symbol used in the text which resembles an inverted asterism. transcriber's note. hyphenation has been standardised. ================================== [illustration: white dorking cock. coloured dorkings. duck-winged and black-breasted red game.] poultry a practical guide to the choice, breeding, rearing, and management of all descriptions of fowls, turkeys, guinea-fowls, ducks, and geese, for profit and exhibition. by hugh piper, author of "pigeons: their varieties, management, breeding, and diseases." illustrated with eight coloured plates. fourth edition. london: groombridge & sons. mdccclxxvii. london: barrett, sons and co., printers, seething lane. preface. this work is intended as a practical guide to those about to commence poultry keeping, and to provide those who already have experience on the subject with the most trustworthy information compiled from the best authorities of all ages, and the most recent improvements in poultry breeding and management. the author believes that he has presented his readers with a greater amount of valuable information and practical directions on the various points treated than will be found in most similar works. the book is not the result of the author's own experience solely, and he acknowledges the assistance he has received from other authorities. among those whom he has consulted he desires specially to acknowledge his obligations to mr. tegetmeier, whose "poultry book" (published by messrs. routledge & sons, london) contains his especial knowledge of the diseases of poultry; and to mr. l. wright, whose excellent and practical treatise, entitled "the practical poultry keeper" (published by messrs. cassell, petter & galpin, london), cannot be too highly commended. contents. general management. page chapter i.--introduction neglect of poultry-breeding--profit of poultry-keeping--value to the farmer--poultry shows--cottage poultry. chapter ii.--the fowl-house size of the house--brick and wood--cheap houses--the roof--ventilation--light--warmth--the flooring--perches--movable frame--roosts for cochin-chinas and brahma-pootras--nests for laying--cleanliness--fowls' dung--doors and entrance-holes--lime-washing--fumigating--raising chickens under glass. chapter iii.--the fowl-yard soil--situation--covered run--pulverised earth for deodorising--diet for confined fowls--height of wall, &c.--preventing fowls from flying--the dust-heap--material for shells--gravel--the gizzard--the grass run. chapter iv.--food table of relative constituents and qualities of food--barley--wheat--oats--meal--refuse corn--boiling grain--indian corn, or maize--buckwheat--peas, beans and tares--rice--hempseed--linseed--potatoes--roots--soft food--variety of food--quantity--mode of feeding--number of meals--grass and vegetables--insects--worms--snails and slugs--animal food--water--fountains. chapter v.--eggs eggs all the year round--warmth essential to laying--forcing eggs--soft shells--shape and colour of eggs--the air-bag--preserving eggs--keeping and choosing eggs for setting--sex of eggs--packing setting-eggs for travelling. chapter vi.--the sitting hen evil of restraining a hen from sitting--checking the desire--a separate house and run--nests for sitting in--damping eggs--filling for nests--choosing their own nests--choosing a hen for sitting--number and age of eggs--food and exercise--absence from the nest--examining the eggs--setting two hens on the same day--time of incubation--the "tapping" sound--breaking the shell--emerging from the shell--assisting the chicken--artificial mothers--artificial incubation. chapter vii.--rearing and fattening fowls the chicken's first food--cooping the brood--basket and wooden coops--feeding chickens--age for fattening--barn-door fattening--fattening-houses--fattening-coops--food--"cramming"-- capons and poulardes--killing poultry--plucking and packing fowls--preserving feathers. chapter viii.--stock, breeding, and crossing well-bred fowls--choice of breed--signs of age--breeding in-and-in--number of hens to one cock--choice of a cock--to prevent cocks from fighting--choice of a hen--improved breeds--origin of breeds--crossing--choice of breeding stock--keeping a breed pure. chapter ix.--poultry shows the first show--the first birmingham show--influence of shows--exhibition rules--hatching for summer and winter shows--weight--exhibition fowls sitting--matching fowls--imparting lustre to the plumage--washing fowls--hampers--travelling--treatment on return--washing the hampers and linings--exhibition points--technical terms. breeds. chapter x.--cochin-chinas, or shanghaes chapter xi.--brahma-pootras chapter xii.--malays chapter xiii.--game chapter xiv.--dorkings chapter xv.--spanish chapter xvi.--hamburgs chapter xvii.--polands chapter xviii.--bantams chapter xix.--french and various chapter xx.--turkeys chapter xxi.--guinea-fowls chapter xxii.--ducks chapter xxiii.--geese chapter xxiv.--diseases list of plates. page plate i.--facing the title-page. white dorking cock--coloured dorkings--duck-winged and black-breasted red game. plate ii. white and buff cochin-china--malay cock--light and dark brahma-pootras. plate iii. golden-pencilled and silver-spangled hamburgs--black spanish. plate iv. white-crested black polish--golden and silver-spangled polish. plate v. white and black bantams--gold and silver-laced or sebright bantams--game bantams. plate vi. french: houdans--la flêche cock--crêve-coeur hen. plate vii. turkey--guinea-fowls. plate viii. toulouse goose--rouen ducks--aylesbury ducks. profitable and ornamental poultry. chapter i. introduction. until of late years the breeding of poultry has been almost generally neglected in great britain. any kind of mongrel fowl would do for a farmer's stock, although he fully appreciated the importance of breeding in respect of his cattle and pigs, and the value of improved seeds. had he thought at all upon the subject, it must have occurred to him that poultry might be improved by breeding from select specimens as much as any other kind of live stock. the french produce a very much greater number of fowls and far finer ones for market than we do. in france, bonington mowbray observes, "poultry forms an important part of the live stock of the farmer, and the poultry-yards supply more animal food to the great mass of the community than the butchers' shops"; while in egypt, and some other countries of the east, from time immemorial, vast numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by artificial heat to supply the demand for poultry; but in great britain poultry-keeping has been generally neglected, eggs are dear, and all kinds of poultry so great a luxury that the lower classes and a large number of the middle seldom, if ever, taste it, except perhaps once a year in the form of a christmas goose, while hundreds of thousands cannot afford even this. it is computed that a million of eggs are eaten daily in london and its suburbs alone; yet this vast number only gives one egg to every three mouths. "it is a national waste," says mr. edwards, "importing eggs by the hundreds of millions, and poultry by tens of thousands, when we are feeding our cattle upon corn, and grudging it to our poultry; although the return made from the former, it is generally admitted, is not five per cent. beyond the value of the corn consumed, whereas an immense percentage can be realised by feeding poultry." a writer in the _times_, of february , , states that, while it will take five years to fatten an ox to the weight of sixty stone, which will produce a profit of £ , the same sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal weight of poultry for the table. although fowls are so commonly kept, the proportion to the population is still very small, and the number of those who rear and manage them profitably still smaller, chiefly because most people keep them without system or order, and have not given the slightest attention to the subject. nevertheless, it costs no more trouble and much less expense to keep fowls successfully and profitably, for neglected fowls are always falling sick, or getting into mischief and causing annoyance, and often expense and loss. "a man," says mr. edwards, "who expects a good return of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and cared for, is like a miller expecting to get meal from a neglected mill, to which he does not supply grain." the antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to the crops has been proved to be false; for if the grain is sown as deeply as it should be, they cannot reach it by scratching; and, besides, they greatly prefer worms and insects. mr. mechi says, "commend me to poultry as the farmer's best friend," and considers the value of fowls, in destroying the vast number of worms, grubs, flies, beetles, insects, larvæ, &c., which they devour, as incalculable; and the same may be said as to their destruction of the seeds of weeds. they also consume large quantities of kitchen and table refuse, which is generally otherwise wasted, and often allowed to decay and become a source of disease, or at least of impurity. the enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of and for fancy fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping; and many persons who formerly thought the management of poultry beneath their attention, now superintend their yards. mrs. ferguson blair, now the hon. mrs. arbuthnot, the authoress of the "henwife," whose experience may be judged by the fact that she gained in four years upwards of prizes in england and scotland, and personally superintended the management of forty separate yards, in which above , chickens were hatched annually, says:-- "i began to breed poultry for amusement only, then for exhibition, and lastly, was glad to take the trouble to make it pay, and do not like my poultry-yard less because it is not a loss. it is impossible to imagine any occupation more suited to a lady, living in the country, than that of poultry rearing. if she has any superfluous affection to bestow, let it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned cent. per cent. are you a lover of nature? come with me and view, with delighted gaze, her chosen dyes. are you a utilitarian? rejoice in such an increase of the people's food. are you a philanthropist? be grateful that yours has been the privilege to afford a _possible_ pleasure to the poor man, to whom so many are _impossible_. such we often find fond of poultry--no mean judges of it, and frequently successful in exhibition. a poor man's pleasure in victory is, at least, as great as that of his richer brother. let him, then, have the field whereon to fight for it. encourage village poultry-shows, not only by your patronage, but also by your presence. a taste for such may save many from dissipation and much evil; no man can win poultry honours and haunt the taproom too." for those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry keeping in young people, and their humbler neighbours, we would recommend our smaller work on the subject as a suitable present.[ ] "it becomes," says miss harriet martineau, "an interesting wonder every year why the rural cottagers of the united kingdom do not rear fowls almost universally, seeing how little the cost would be and how great the demand. we import many millions of eggs annually. why should we import any? wherever there is a cottage family living on potatoes or better fare, and grass growing anywhere near them, it would be worth while to nail up a little penthouse, and make nests of clean straw, and go in for a speculation in eggs and chickens. seeds, worms, and insects go a great way in feeding poultry in such places; and then there are the small and refuse potatoes from the heap, and the outside cabbage leaves, and the scraps of all sorts. very small purchases of broken rice (which is extremely cheap), inferior grain, and mixed meal, would do all else that is necessary. there would be probably larger losses from vermin than in better guarded places; but these could be well afforded as a mere deduction from considerable gains. it is understood that the keeping of poultry is largely on the increase in the country generally, and even among cottagers; but the prevailing idea is of competition as to races and specimens for the poultry-yard, rather than of meeting the demand for eggs and fowls for the table." with the exception of prizes for dorkings, which are chiefly bred for market, our poultry-shows have always looked upon fowls as if they were merely ornamental birds, and have framed their standards of excellence accordingly, and not with any regard to the production of profitable poultry, which is much to be regretted. martin doyle, the cottage economist of ireland, in his "hints to small holders," observes that "a few cocks and hens, if they be prevented from scratching in the garden, are a useful and appropriate stock about a cottage, the warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter--no trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce. the french, who are extremely fond of eggs, and contrive to have them in great abundance, feed the fowls so well on curds and buckwheat, and keep them so warm, that they have plenty of eggs even in winter. now, in our country (ireland), especially in a gentleman's fowl yard, there is not an egg to be had in cold weather; but the warmth of the poor man's cabin insures him an egg even in the most ungenial season." such fowls obtain fresh air, fresh grass, and fresh ground to scratch in, and prosper in spite of the most miserable, puny, mongrel stock, deteriorating year after year from breeding in and in, without the introduction of fresh blood even of the same indifferent description. many an honest cottager might keep himself and family from the parish by the aid of a small stock of poultry, if some kind poultry-keeper would present him with two or three good fowls to begin with, for the cottager has seldom capital even for so small a purchase. considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and surplus stock, if the breeds kept are good, and the stock known to be pure and vigorous. the "henwife" says: "you may reduce your expenses by selling eggs for setting, at a remunerative price. no one should be ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do; therefore, boldly announce your superfluous eggs for sale, at such a price as you think the public will pay for them." this is now done extensively by breeders of rank and eminence, especially through the london _field_ and agricultural papers. but, "beware of sending such eggs to market. every one would be set, and you might find yourself beaten by your own stock, very likely in your own local show, and at small cost to the exhibitor." the great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to hatch chiefly in march and april; encourage the pullets by proper feeding to lay at the age of six months; and fatten and dispose of them when about nineteen months old, just before their first adult moult; and never to allow a cockerel to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is fattened and disposed of. chapter ii. the fowl-house. in this work we shall consider the accommodation and requisites for keeping fowls successfully on a moderate scale, and the reader must adapt them to his own premises, circumstances, and requirements. everywhere there must be some alterations, omissions, or compromises. we shall state the essentials for their proper accommodation, and describe the mode of constructing houses, sheds, and arranging runs, and the reader must then form his plan according to his own wishes, resources, and the capabilities of the place. the climate of great britain being so very variable in itself, and differing in its temperature so much in different parts, no one manner or material for building the fowl-house can be recommended for all cases. plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the hatching, rearing, and fattening of fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese, are given in our smaller work on poultry, referred to on page . the best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east, and sloping ground is preferable to flat. "it is only of late years," says mr. baily, "poultry-houses have been much thought of. in large farmyards, where there are cart-houses, calf-pens, pig-styes, cattle-sheds, shelter under the eaves of barns, and numerous other roosting-places, not omitting the trees in the immediate vicinity, they are little required--fowls will generally do better by choosing for themselves; and it is beyond a doubt healthier for them to be spread about in this manner, than to be confined to one place. but a love of order, on the one hand, and a dread of thieves or foxes on the other, will sometimes make it desirable to have a proper poultry-house." each family of fowls should, if possible, have a house and run; and if they are kept as breeding stock, and the breeds are to be preserved pure, this is essential. and where many kinds are kept, the various houses must be adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds, in order to do justice to them all, and to attain success in each. the size of the house and the extent of the yard or run should be proportioned to the number of fowls kept; but it is better for the house to be too small than too large, particularly in winter, for the mutual imparting of animal heat. it is found by experience that when fowls are crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues even in winter; and there is no fear of engendering disease by crowding if the house is properly ventilated, and thoroughly cleansed every day. mr. baily kept for years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six feet square, and six feet high in the centre, the sides being somewhat shorter, and says such a house would hold six hens as well as four. ventilating holes were made near the top. it had no floor, being placed upon the ground, and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side. a few cochin-chinas may be kept where there is no other convenience than an outhouse six feet square to serve for their roosting, laying, and sitting, with a yard of twice that size attached. mr. wright "once knew a young man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his own construction, not more than three feet square, and a run of the same width, under twelve feet long." the french breeders keep their fowls in as small a space as possible, in order to generate and preserve the warmth that will induce them to lay; while the english breeders allow more space for exercise, larger houses, and free circulation of air. the french mode, is very likely the best for the winter and the english for the summer, but the two opposite methods may be made available by having one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls can be distributed in the summer. a close, warm roosting-place will cause the production of more eggs in winter, when they are scarcest and most valuable, while air and exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls for the table; and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields in which to pick up grain or insects, their flesh will be far superior in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement, or crammed in coops. almost any outbuilding, shed, or lean-to, may be easily and cheaply converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise of a little thought and ingenuity. the best material to build a house with is brick, but the cheapest to be durable is board, with the roof also of wood, covered with patent felt. one objection to timber houses is their being combustible, and easily ignited, and houses had better be built of a single brick in thickness, unless cheapness is a great object. a lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small sum, with boards an inch thick, against the west or south side of any wall. whenever wood is employed it should be tongued, which is a very cheap method of providing against warping by heat, or admitting wind or rain; lying flat against the uprights, it saves material and has an external appearance far superior to any other method of boarding. if the second coat of paint is rough cast over with sand, it will greatly improve the appearance, and the house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental part of a gentleman's grounds. a house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into the ground at equal distances, and nailing weather-boarding upon their outside. if it is to be square, one pole should be placed at each corner, and two more will be required for the door-posts. the house may be made with five, six, or more sides, as many poles being used as there are sides, and the door may occupy one side if the house be small and the side narrow, otherwise two door-posts will be required. if the boards are not tongued together, the chinks between them must be well caulked by driving in string or tow with a blunt chisel, for it is not only necessary to keep out the rain but also to keep out the wind, which has great influence on the health and laying of the fowls. where double boarding is employed for the sides, the house may be made much warmer by filling up the space with straw, or still better with marsh reeds, so durable for thatching. this plan, unfortunately, affords a shelter for rats, mice, and insects, and therefore, if adopted, it will be highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels, so as to be removable at pleasure for examination and cleansing. for the roof, tiles or slates alone are not sufficient, but, if used, must have a boarding or ceiling under them; otherwise all the heat generated by the fowls will escape through the numerous interstices, and it will be next to impossible to keep the house warm in winter. a corrugated roof of galvanised iron may be used instead, but a ceiling also will be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth. a rough ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth generated by the fowls and keeps out the cold, but has the great advantage of being easily lime-washed, an operation that should be performed at least four or five times a year. boards alone make a very good and cheap roof. they may be laid either horizontally, one plank overlapping the other, and the whole well tarred two or three times, and once every autumn afterwards; or they may be laid perpendicularly side by side, fitting closely, in which case they should be well tarred, then covered with old sheeting, waste calico, or thick brown paper tightly stretched over it, and afterwards brushed over with hot tar, or a mixture of tar boiled with a little lime, and applied while hot; this, soaking through the calico, cements it to the roof, and makes it waterproof. but board covered with patent felt, and tarred once a year, is the best. the roof ought to project considerably beyond the walls, in order to prevent the rain from dripping down them. ventilation is most important, and the house should be high, especially if there are many fowls, for by having it lofty a current of air can pass through it far above the level of the fowls, and purify the atmosphere without causing a draught near them. they very much dislike a draught, and will alter their positions to avoid it, and if unable to do so, will seek another roosting-place. ventilation may be obtained by leaving out some bricks in the wall or making holes in the boarding; and when there is a shed at the side of the fowl-house, by boring a few holes near the top of the wall next to the shed; all ventilators should be considerably above the perches, in order to avoid a draught near to the fowls; and should be entirely closed at night in severe weather. the best method of ventilation for a fowl-house of sufficient size and height, is by means of an opening in the highest part of the roof, covered with a lantern of laths or narrow boards, placed one over the other in a slanting position, with a small space between them like venetian blinds. light is essential, not only for the health of the fowls, but in order that the state of the house may be seen, and the floor and perches may be well cleansed. it may be admitted either through a common window, a pane or two of thick glass placed in the sides, or glass tiles in the roof. it also induces them to take shelter there in rough weather. warmth is the most important point of all. fowls that roost in cold houses and exposed places require more food and produce fewer eggs; and pullets which are usually forward in laying will not easily be induced to do so in severe weather if their house is not kept warm. it is a great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable. a gentleman told mr. baily that he "had been very successful in raising early chickens in the north of scotland, and he attributed much of it to the following arrangements. he had always from twenty to thirty oxen or other cattle fattening in a long building; he made his poultry-house to join this, and had ventilators and openings made in the partition, so that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into the fowl-house. little good has resulted from the use of stoves, or hot-water pipes, for poultry; but by skilfully taking advantage of every circumstance like that above mentioned, and by consulting aspect and position, many valuable helps are obtained." a house built of wood in the north of england and scotland must be lined, unless artificially warmed. felt is the best material, as its strong smell of tar will keep away most insects. matting is frequently used, and will make the house sufficiently warm, but it harbours vermin, and therefore, if used, should be only slightly fastened to the walls, so that it can be often taken down and well beaten, and, if necessary, fumigated. various materials are recommended for the flooring. boards are warm, but they soon become foul. beaten earth, with loose dust scattered over it some inches deep, is excellent for the feet of the birds, but is a harbour for the minute vermin which are often so troublesome, and even destructive, to domestic fowls. mowbray recommends a floor of "well-rammed chalk or earth, that its surface, being smooth, may present no impediment to being swept perfectly clean." chalk laid on dry coal-ashes to absorb the moisture is excellent. a mixture of cow-dung and water, about the consistency of paint, put on the surface of the floor, no thicker than paint, gives it a hard surface which will bear sweeping down. it is used by the natives of india, not only for the floors, but often for the walls of their houses, and is supposed to be healthy in its application, and to keep away vermin. miss watts says: "dig out the floor to about a foot deep, and fill in with burnt clay, like that used extensively on railways, the strong gravel which is called 'metal' in road-making, or any loose dry material of the kind. let this be well rammed down, and then lay over it, with a bricklayer's trowel, a flooring of a compost of cinder-ashes, gravel, quick-lime, and water. this flooring is without the objections due to those which are cold and damp, and those which imbibe foul moisture. stone is too cold for a flooring; beaten earth or wood becomes foul when the place is inhabited by living animals; and a flooring of bricks possesses both these bad qualities united." bricks are the worst of all materials; they retain moisture, whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient drainage; and thus the temperature is kept low, and disease too often follows, especially rheumatic attacks of the feet and legs. however, trodden earth makes a very good flooring, and it or other materials may easily be kept clean by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to receive the fowl-droppings. the floor should slope from every direction towards the door, to facilitate its cleansing, and to keep it dry. perches are generally placed too high, probably because it was noticed that fowls in their natural state, or when at large, usually roost upon high branches; but it should be observed that, in descending from lofty branches, they have a considerable distance to fly, and therefore alight on the ground gently, while in a confined fowl-house the bird flutters down almost perpendicularly, coming into contact with the floor forcibly, by which the keel of the breast-bone is often broken, and bumble-foot in dorkings and corns are caused. some writers do not object to lofty perches, provided the fowls have a board with cross-pieces of wood fastened on to it reaching from the ground to the perch; but this does not obviate the evil, for they will only use it for ascent, and not for descent. the air, too, at the upper part of any dwelling-room, or house for animals, is much more impure than nearer the floor, because the air that has been breathed, and vapours from the body, are lighter than pure air, and consequently ascend to the top. the perches should therefore not be more than eighteen inches from the ground, unless the breed is very small and light. perches are also generally made too small and round. when they are too small in proportion to the size of the birds, they are apt to cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls to grow crooked, which is a great defect, and very unsightly in a table-fowl. those for heavy fowls should not be less than three inches in diameter. capital perches may be formed of fir or larch poles, about three inches in diameter, split into two, the round side being placed uppermost; the birds' claws cling to it easily, and the bark is not so hard as planed wood. the perches, if made of timber, should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off, as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth round poles. those for chickens should not be thicker than their claws can easily grasp, and neither too sharp nor too round. when more than one row of perches is required they should be ranged obliquely--that is, one above and behind the other; by which arrangement each perch forms a step to the next higher one, and an equal convenience in descending, and the birds do not void their dung over each other. they should be placed two feet apart, and supported on bars of wood fixed to the walls at each end; and in order that they may be taken out to be cleaned, they should not be nailed to the supporter, but securely placed in niches cut in the bar, or by pieces of wood nailed to it like the rowlocks of a boat. if the wall space at the sides is required for laying-boxes, the perches must be shorter than the house, and the oblique bars which support them must be securely fastened to the back of the house, and, if necessary, have an upright placed beneath the upper end of each. some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting, formed of two poles of the required length, joined at each end by two narrow pieces; the frame being supported upon four or more legs, according to its length and the weight of the fowls. if necessary it should be strengthened by rails--connecting the bottoms of the legs, and by pieces crossing from each angle of the sides and ends. these frames can conveniently be moved out of the house when they require cleansing. or it may be made of one pole supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart, like two sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. the perch may be made more secure for heavy fowls by a rail at each side fastened to each leg, about three inches from the foot. mr. baily says: "i had some fowls in a large outhouse, where they were well provided with perches; as there was plenty of room, i put some small faggots, cut for firing, at one extremity, and i found many of the fowls deserted their perches to roost on the faggots, which they evidently preferred." cochin-chinas and brahma pootras do not require perches, but roost comfortably on a floor littered down warmly with straw. it should be gathered up every morning, and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till night, when the straw, if clean, should be again laid down. it must be often changed. a bed of sand is also used, and a latticed floor even without straw, and some use latticed benches raised about six inches from the floor. but we should think that latticed roosting-places must be uncomfortable to fowls, and the dung which falls through is often unseen, and, consequently, liable to remain for too long a time, while a portion will stick to the sides of the lattice-work, and be not only difficult to see, but also to remove when seen. the "henwife" finds, however, "that if there are nests, there the cochins will roost, in spite of all attempts to make them do otherwise." it is a good plan, in warm weather, occasionally to sprinkle water over and about the perches, and scatter a little powdered sulphur over the wetted parts, which will greatly tend to keep the fowls free from insect parasites. the nests for laying in are usually made on the ground, or in a kind of trough, a little raised; but some use boxes or wicker-baskets, which are preferable, as they can be removed separately from time to time, and thoroughly cleansed from dust and vermin, and can also be kept a little apart from each other. these boxes or troughs should be placed against the sides of the house, and a board sloping forwards should be fixed above, to prevent the fowls from roosting upon the edges. if required, a row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the ground, and another about a foot or eighteen inches above the floor. the nest should be made of wheaten, rye, or oaten straw, but never of hay, which is too hot, and favourable besides to the increase of vermin. heath cut into short pieces forms excellent material for nests, but it cannot always be had. the material must be changed whenever it smells foul or musty, for if it is allowed to become offensive, the hens will often drop their eggs upon the ground sooner than go to the nest. when the fowl-house adjoins a passage, or it can be otherwise so contrived, it is an excellent plan to have a wooden flap made to open just above the back of the nests, so that the eggs can be removed without your going into the roosting-house, treading the dung about, and disturbing any birds that may be there, or about to enter to lay. where possible the nests in the roosting-houses should be used for laying in only; and a separate house should be set apart for sitting hens. where there are but a few fowls and only one house, if a hen is allowed to sit, a separate nest must be made as quiet as possible for her.--_see_ chapter vi. cleanliness must be maintained. the _canada farmer_ suggested an admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house clean. a broad shelf, securely fastened, but moveable, is fixed at the back of the house, eighteen inches from the ground, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, a foot from the wall. the nests are placed on the ground beneath the board, which preserves them from the roosting fowl's droppings, and keeps them well shaded for the laying or sitting hen, if the latter is obliged to incubate in the same house, and the nests do not need a top. the shelf can be easily scraped clean every morning, and should be lightly sanded afterwards. thus the floor of the house is never soiled by the roosting birds, and the broad board at the same time protects them from upward draughts of air. where the nests and perches are not so arranged, the idea may be followed by placing a loose board below each perch, upon which the dung will fall, and the board can be taken up every morning and the dung removed. with proper tools, a properly constructed fowl-house can be kept perfectly clean, and all the details of management well carried out without scarcely soiling your hands. a birch broom is the best implement with which to clean the house if the floor is as hard as it ought to be. a handful of ashes or sand, sprinkled over the places from which dung has been removed, will absorb any remaining impurity. fowls' dung is a very valuable manure, being strong, stimulating, and nitrogenous, possessing great power in forcing the growth of vegetables, particularly those of the cabbage tribe, and is excellent for growing strawberries, or indeed almost any plants, if sufficiently diluted; for, being very strong, it should always be mixed with earth. a fowl, according to stevens, will void at least one ounce of dry dung in twenty-four hours, which is worth at least seven shillings a cwt. the door should fit closely, a slight space only being left at the bottom to admit air. it should have a square hole, which is usually placed either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to enter to roost. a hole at the top is generally preferred, as it is inaccessible to vermin. the fowls ascend by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board, with strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet; a similar ladder should be placed inside to enable them to descend, if they are heavy fowls; but the evil is that, even with this precaution, they are inclined to fly down, as they do from high perches, without using the ladder, and thus injure their feet. a hole in the middle of the door would be preferable to either, and obviate the defects of both. these holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside, so that they can be closed in order to keep the fowls out while cleaning the house, or to keep them in until they have laid their eggs, or it may be safe to let them out in the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they would else be liable to be stolen. every day, after the fowls have left their roosts, the doors and windows should be opened, and a thorough draught created to purify the house. during the winter months all the entrance holes should be closed from sunset to sunrise, unless in mild localities. where there are many houses, they should, if possible, communicate with each other by doors, so that they may be cleaned from end to end, or inspected without the necessity of passing through the yards, which is especially unpleasant in wet weather. the doors should be capable of being fastened on either side, to avoid the chance of the different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied in arranging the nests, collecting eggs, &c. see that your fowls are securely locked in at night, for they are more easily stolen than any other kind of domestic animals. a good dog in the yard or adjoining house or stable is an excellent protection. every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four or five times a year, and oftener if convenient. vermin of any kind can be effectually destroyed by fumigating the place with sulphur. in this operation a little care is requisite; it should be commenced early in the morning, by first closing the lattices, and stopping up every crevice through which air can enter; then place on the ground a pan of lighted charcoal, and throw on it some brimstone broken into small pieces. directly this is done the room should be left, the door kept shut and airtight for some hours; care too should be taken that the lattices are first opened, and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse before any one again enters, when every creature within the building will be found destroyed. it is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house will keep away rats. in a large establishment, and in a moderate one, if the outlay is not an object, the pens for the chickens and the passages between the various houses may be profitably covered with glass, and grapes grown on the rafters. raising chickens under glass has been tried with great success. chapter iii. the fowl-yard. the scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises from all gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness to keep them in perfect health, while the climate of great britain is naturally moist and cold. "the warmest and driest soils," says mowbray, "are the best adapted to the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous fowls, more particularly chickens. a wet soil is the worst, since, however ill affected fowls are by cold, they endure it better than moisture. land proper for sheep is generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry and rabbits." but poultry may be reared and kept successfully even on bad soils with good drainage and attention. the "henwife" says: "i do not consider any one soil necessary for success in rearing poultry. some think a chalk soil essential for dorkings, but i have proved the fallacy of this opinion by bringing up, during three years, many hundreds of these _soi disant_ delicate birds on the strong blue clay of the carse of gowrie, doubtless thoroughly drained, that system being well understood and universally practised by the farmers of the district. a coating of gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure the necessary dryness in the runs." the best soil for a poultry-yard is gravel, or sand resting on chalk or gravel. when the soil is clayey, or damp from any other cause, it should be thoroughly drained, and the whole or a good portion of the ground should be raised by the addition of twelve inches of chalk, or bricklayer's rubbish, over which should be spread a few inches of sand. cramp, roup, and some other diseases, more frequently arise from stagnant wet in the soil than from any other cause. the yard should be sheltered from the north and east winds, and where this is effected by the position of a shrubbery or plantation in which the fowls may be allowed to run, it will afford the advantage of protection, not only from wind and cold, but also shelter from the rain and the burning sun. it also furnishes harbourage for insects, which will find them both food and exercise in picking up. indeed, for all these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously planted in or adjoining any poultry-yard. when a tree can be enclosed in a run, it forms an agreeable object for the eye, and affords shelter to the fowls. a covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather is a great advantage, especially if chickens are reared. it may be constructed with a few rough poles supporting a roof of patent felt, thatch, or rough board, plain or painted for preservation, and may be made of any length and width, from four feet upwards, and of any height from four feet at the back and three feet in the front, to eight feet at the back and six feet in the front. the shed should, if possible, adjoin the fowl-house. it should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work, which should be boarded for a foot from the ground to keep out the wet and snow, and to keep in small chickens. the roof should project a foot beyond the uprights which support it, in order to throw the rain well off, and have a gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown in upon the enclosed space. the floor should be a little higher than the level of the yard, both in order to keep it dry and the easier to keep it clean; and it should be higher at the back than in the front, which will keep it drained if any wet should be blown in or water upset. if preferred, moveable netting may be used, so that the fowls can be allowed their liberty in fine weather, and be confined in wet weather. but the boarding must be retained to keep out the wet. the ground may be left in its natural state for the fowls to scratch in, in which case the surface should be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth pressed down moderately hard. if the house is large and has a good window, a shed is not absolutely necessary, especially for a few fowls only, but it is a valuable addition, and is also very useful to shelter the coops of the mother hens and their young birds in wet, windy, or hot weather. by daily attention to cleanliness, a few fowls may be kept in such a covered shed, without having any open run, by employing a thick layer of dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser, which is to be turned over with a rake every day, and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a week. the dry earth entirely absorbs all odour. in a run of this kind, six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept, for a smaller surface of the dry earth becomes moist and will then no longer deodorise the dung. sifted ashes spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole shed will be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had. they should be raked over every other morning, and renewed at least every fortnight, or oftener if possible. the ground should be dug and turned over whenever it looks sodden, or gives out any offensive smell; and three or four times a year the polluted soil below the layer, that is, the earth to the depth of three or four inches, should be removed and replaced with fresh earth, gravel, chalk, or ashes.[ ] the shed must be so contrived that the sun can shine upon the fowls during some part of the day, or they will not continue in health for any length of time, and it is almost impossible to rear healthy chickens without its light and warmth; and it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open. another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared. fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered runs will require a different diet to those that are allowed to roam in fields and pick up insects, grass, &c., and must be provided with green food, animal food in place of insects, and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and gravel. the height of the wall, paling, or fencing that surrounds the yard, and of the partitions, if the yard is divided into compartments for the purpose of keeping two or more breeds separate and pure, must be according to the nature of the breed. three feet in height will be sufficient to retain cochins and brahmas; six feet will be required for moderate-sized fowls; and eight or nine feet will be necessary to confine the game, hamburg, and bantam breeds. galvanised iron wire-netting is the best material, as it does not rust, and will not need painting for a long time. it is made of various degrees of strength, and in different forms, and may be had with meshes varying from three-fourths of an inch to two inches or more; with very small meshes at the lower part only, to keep out rats and to keep in chickens; with spikes upon the top, or with scolloped wire-work, which gives it a neat and finished appearance; with doors, and with iron standards terminating in double spikes to fix in the ground, by which wooden posts are divided, while it can be easily fixed and removed. the meshes should not be more than two inches wide, and if the meshes of the lower part are not very small, it should be boarded to about two feet six inches from the ground, in order to keep out rats, keep in chickens, and to prevent the cocks fighting through the wire, which fighting is more dangerous than in the open, for the birds are very liable to injure themselves in the meshes, and, dorkings especially, to tear their combs and toes in them. if iron standards are not attached to the netting, it should be stretched to stout posts, well fixed in the ground, eight feet apart, and fastened by galvanised iron staples. a rail at the top gives a neater appearance, but induces the fowls to perch upon it, which may tempt them to fly over. where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high, or when a hen just out with her brood has to be kept in, a fowl may be prevented from flying over fences by stripping off the vanes or side shoots from the first-flight feathers of one wing, usually ten in number, which will effectually prevent the bird from flying, and will not be unsightly, as the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not used for flying. this method answers much better than clipping the quills of each wing, as the cut points are liable to inflict injuries and cause irritation in moulting. the openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw off the water well, like those of most birds, enables them to cleanse themselves easier from insects and dirt, by dusting their feathers, and then shaking off the dirt and these minute pests with the dust. for this purpose one or more ample heaps of sifted ashes, or very dry sand or earth, for them to roll in, must be placed in the sun, and, if possible, under shelter, so as to be warm and perfectly dry. wood ashes are the best. this dust-heap is as necessary to fowls as water for washing is to human beings. it cleanses their feathers and skin from vermin and impurities, promotes the cuticular or skin excretion, and is materially instrumental in preserving their health. if they should be much troubled with insects, mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes and a little flour of sulphur. a good supply of old mortar-rubbish, or similar substance, must be kept under the shed, or in a dry place, to provide material for the eggshells, or the hens will be liable to lay soft-shelled eggs. burnt oyster-shells are an excellent substitute for common lime, and should be prepared for use by being heated red-hot, and when cold broken into small pieces with the fingers, but not powdered. some give chopped or ground bones, or a lump of chalky marl. eggshells roughly crushed are also good, and are greedily devoured by the hens. a good supply of gravel is also essential, the small stones which the fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to digest their hard food. fowls swallow all grain whole, their bills not being adapted for crushing it like the teeth of the rabbit or the horse, and it is prepared for digestion by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard, lined with a tough leathery membrane, which forms a remarkable peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys. "by the action," says mr. w. h. l. martin, "of the two thick muscular sides of this gizzard on each other, the seeds and grains swallowed (and previously macerated in the crop, and there softened by a peculiar secretion oozing from glandular pores) are ground up, or triturated in order that their due digestion may take place. it is a remarkable fact that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small pebbles, bits of gravel, and similar substances, which it would seem are essential to their health. the definite use of these substances, which are certainly ground down by the mill-like action of the gizzard, has been a matter of difference among various physiologists, and many experiments, with a view to elucidate the subject, have been undertaken. it was sufficiently proved by spallanzani that the digestive fluid was incapable of dissolving grains of barley, &c., in their unbruised state; and this he ascertained by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of metal or glass with grain, and causing them to be swallowed by turkeys and other fowls; when examined, after twenty-four and forty-eight hours, the grains were found to be unaffected by the gastric fluid; but when he filled similar balls and tubes with bruised grains, and caused them to be swallowed, he found, after a lapse of the same number of hours, that they were more or less dissolved by the action of the gastric juice. in other experiments, he found that metallic tubes introduced into the gizzard of common fowls and turkeys, were bruised, crushed, and distorted, and even that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into blunt fragments without having produced the slightest injury to the gizzard. but these experiments go rather to prove the extraordinary force and grinding powers of the gizzard, than to throw light upon the positive use of the pebbles swallowed; which, after all, spallanzani thought were swallowed without any definite object, but from mere stupidity. blumenbach and dr. bostock aver that fowls, however well supplied with food, grow lean without them, and to this we can bear our own testimony. yet the question, what is their precise effect? remains to be answered. boerhave thought it probable that they might act as absorbents to superabundant acid; others have regarded them as irritants or stimulants to digestion; and borelli supposed that they might really contribute some degree of nutriment." sir everard home, in his "comparative anatomy," says: "when the external form of this organ is first attentively examined, viewing that side which is anterior in the living bird, and on which the two bellies of the muscle and middle are more distinct, there being no other part to obstruct the view, the belly of the muscle on the left side is seen to be larger than on the right. this appears, on reflection, to be of great advantage in producing the necessary motion; for if the two muscles were of equal strength, they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is necessary; while, in the present case, the principal effect is produced by that of the left side, and a smaller force is used by that on the right to bring the parts back again. the two bellies of the muscle, by their alternate action, produce two effects--the one a constant friction on the contents of the cavity; the other, a pressure on them. this last arises from a swelling of the muscle inwards, which readily explains all the instances which have been given by spallanzani and others, of the force of the gizzard upon substances introduced into it--a force which is found by their experiments always to act in an oblique direction. the internal cavity, when opened in this distended state, is found to be of an oval form, the long diameter being in the line of the body; its capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's egg; and on the sides there are ridges in their horny coat (lining membrane) in the long direction of the oval. when the horny coat is examined in its internal structure, the fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction perpendicular to the ligamentous substance behind it; but in the upper portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards. from this form of cavity it is evident that no part of the sides is ever intended to be brought in contact, and that the food is triturated by being mixed with hard bodies, and acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard." the experiments of spallanzani show that the muscular action of the gizzard is equally powerful whether the small stones are present or not; and that they are not at all necessary to the trituration of the firmest food, or the hardest foreign substances; but it is also quite clear that when these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the gizzard they assist in crushing the grain, and at the same time prevent it from consolidating into a thick, heavy, compacted mass, which would take a far longer time in undergoing the digestive process than when separated and intermingled with the pebbles. this was the opinion of the great physiologist, john hunter, who, in his treatise "on the animal economy," after noticing the grinding powers of the gizzard, says, in reference to the pebbles swallowed, "we are not, however, to conclude that stones are entirely useless; for if we compare the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals which masticate their food with those of birds who do not, we shall say that the parts are well calculated for the purpose of mastication; yet we are not thence to infer that the teeth in such jaws are useless, even although we have proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are gone. if pebbles are of use, which we may reasonably conclude they are, birds have an advantage over animals having teeth, so far as pebbles are always to be found, while the teeth are not renewed. if we constantly find in an organ substances which can only be subservient to the functions of that organ, should we deny their use, although the part can do its office without them? the stones assist in grinding down the grain, and, by separating its parts, allow the gastric juice to come more readily in contact with it." when a paddock is used as a run for a large number of poultry, it should be enclosed either by a wall or paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls can get through it, and will also lay their eggs under the hedge. the paddock should be well drained, and it will be a great advantage if it contains a pond, or has a stream of water running through or by it. mowbray advises that the grass run should be sown "with common trefoil or wild clover, with a mixture of burnet, spurry, or storgrass," which last two kinds "are particularly salubrious to poultry." if the grass is well rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it, they may range there for several hours daily, according to its extent and their number, but it should be renewed in the spring by sowing where it has become bare or thin. a dry common, or pasture fields, in which they may freely wander and pick up grubs, insects, ants' eggs, worms, and leaves of plants, is a great advantage, and they may be accustomed to return from it at a call. where there is a cropped field, orchard, or garden, in which fowls may roam at certain seasons, when the crops are safe from injury, each brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a few hours daily, or on different days, as may be most convenient. "a garden dung-heap," says mr. baily, "overgrown with artichokes, mallows, &c., is an excellent covert for chickens, especially in hot weather. they find shelter and meet with many insects there." when horse-dung is procured for the garden, or supplied from your stables, some should be placed in a small trench, and frequently renewed, in which the fowls will amuse themselves, particularly in winter, by scraping for corn and worms. when fowls have not the advantage of a grass run they should be indulged with a square or two of fresh turf, as often as it can be obtained, on which they will feed and amuse themselves. it should be heavy enough to enable them to tear off the grass, without being obliged to drag the turf about with them. chapter iv. food. the following table, which first appeared in the "poultry diary," will show at a glance the relative constituents and qualities of the different kinds of food, and may be consulted with great advantage by the poultry-keeper, as it will enable him to proportion mixed food correctly, and to change it according to the production of growth, flesh, or fat that may be desired, and according to the temperature of the season. these proportions, of course, are not absolutely invariable, for the relative proportions of the constituents of the grain will vary with the soil, manure used, and the growing and ripening characteristics of the season. ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- |flesh- |warmth-| bone- | husk |water.| |forming|giving |making | or | | there is in every | food. | food. | food. | fibre. | | lbs. of +-------+-------+-------+---------+ | |gluten,|fat or |starch,| mineral | | | &c. | oil. | &c. |substance| | ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- oats | | | | | | oatmeal | | | | | | middlings or fine | | | | | | sharps | | | | | | wheat | | | | | | barley | | | | | | indian corn | | | | | | rice | |a trace| | a trace | -- | beans and peas | | | | | | milk | ½ | | | ¾ | -- | ¾ ------------------------------------------------------------------- barley is more generally used than any other grain, and, reckoned by weight, is cheaper than wheat or oats; but, unless in the form of meal, should not be the only grain given, for fowls do not fatten upon it, as, though possessing a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances, it contains a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties of corn. in surrey barley is the usual grain given, excepting during the time of incubation, when the sitting hens have oats, as being less heating to the system than the former. barley-meal contains the same component parts as the whole grain, being ground with the husk, but only inferior barley is made into meal. wheat of the best description is dearer than barley, both by weight and measure, and possesses but about one-twelfth part more flesh-forming material, but it is fortunate that the small cheap wheat is the best for poultry, for professor johnston says, "the small or tail corn which the farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is richer in gluten (flesh-forming food) than the full-grown grain, and is therefore more nutritious." the "henwife" finds "light wheats or tailings the best grain for daily use, and next to that barley." oats are dearer than barley by weight. the heaviest should be bought, as they contain very little more husk than the lightest, and are therefore cheaper in proportion. oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming material than any other kind of grain, and double the amount of fatty material than wheat, and three times as much as barley. mowbray says oats are apt to cause scouring, and chickens become tired of them; but they are recommended by many for promoting laying, and in kent, sussex, and surrey for fattening. fowls frequently refuse the lighter samples of oats, but if soaked in water for a few hours so as to swell the kernel, they will not refuse them. the meal contains more flesh-forming material than the whole grain. the meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the whole grain, but oatmeal is drier and separated from a large portion of the husk, which makes it too dear except for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest chickens, for which it is the very best food. fine "middlings," also termed "sharps" and "thirds," and in london coarse country flour, are much like oatmeal, but cheaper than the best, and may be cheaply and advantageously employed instead of oatmeal, or mixed with boiled or steamed small potatoes or roots. many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls, and the greater number of poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps think such light common grain the cheapest food; but this is a great mistake, as, though young fowls may be fed on offal and refuse, it is the best economy to give the older birds the finest kind of grain, both for fattening and laying, and even the young fowls should be fed upon the best if fine birds for breeding or exhibition are desired. "instead of giving ordinary or tail corn to my fattening or breeding poultry," says mowbray, "i have always found it most advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best; thus putting the confined fowls on a level with those at the barn-door, where they are sure to get their share of the weightiest and finest corn. this high feeding shows itself not only in the size and flesh of the fowls, but in the size, weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which, in these valuable particulars, will prove far superior to the eggs of fowls fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes; two eggs of the former going further in domestic use than three of the latter." "sweepings" sometimes contain poisonous or hurtful substances, and are always dearer, weight for weight, than sound grain. some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should be boiled, which makes it swell greatly, and consequently fills the fowl's crop with a smaller quantity, and the bird is satisfied with less than if dry grain be given; but others say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the same quantity of grain unboiled. indeed, it seems evident that a portion of the nutriment must pass into the water, and also evaporate in steam. the fowl's gizzard being a powerful grinding mill, evidently designed by providence for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal, it is clear that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls, and that softer kinds of food are chiefly to be used for the first or morning meal for fowls confined in houses (see p. ), and for those being fattened artificially in coops, where it is desired to help the fowl's digestive powers, and to convert the food into flesh as quickly as possible. indian corn or maize, either whole or in meal, must not be given in too great a proportion, as it is very fattening from the large quantity of oil it contains; but mixed with barley or barley-meal, it is a most economical and useful food. it is useful for a change, but is not a good food by itself. it may be given once or twice a week, especially in the winter, with advantage. from its size small birds cannot eat it and rob the fowls. whether whole or in meal, the maize should be scalded, that the swelling may be done before it is eaten. the yellow-coloured maize is not so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown. buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming food, and is very much used on the continent. mr. wright has "a strong opinion that the enormous production of eggs and fowls in france is to some extent connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by french poultry-keepers." it is not often to be had cheap in this country, but is hardy and may be grown anywhere at little cost. mr. edwards says, he "obtained (without manure) forty bushels to the acre, on very poor sandy soil, that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats. the seed is angular in form, not unlike hempseed; and is stimulating, from the quantity of spirit it contains." peas, beans, and tares contain an extraordinary quantity of flesh-forming material, and very little of fat-forming, but are too stimulating for general use, and would harden the muscular fibres and give too great firmness of flesh to fowls that are being fattened, but where tares are at a low price, or peas or beans plentiful, stock fowls may be advantageously fed upon any of these, and they may be given occasionally to fowls that are being fattened. it is better to give them boiled than in a raw state, especially if they are hard and dry, and the beans in particular may be too large for the fowls to swallow comfortably. near geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares. poultry reject the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond. rice is not a cheap food. when boiled it absorbs a great quantity of water and forms a large substance, but, of course, only contains the original quantity of grain which is of inferior value, especially for growing chickens, as it consists almost entirely of starch, and does not contain quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats. when broken or slightly damaged it may be had much cheaper, and will do as well as the finest. boil it for half an hour in skim-milk or water, and then let it stand in the water till cold, when it will have swollen greatly, and be so firm that it can be taken out in lumps, and easily broken into pieces. in addition to its strengthening and fattening qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the flesh. fowls are especially fond of it at first, but soon grow tired of this food. if mixed with less cloying food, such as bran, they would probably continue to relish it. hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time, and should then be given freely, especially in cold localities. linseed steeped is occasionally given, chiefly to birds intended for exhibition, to increase the secretion of oil, and give lustre to their plumage. potatoes, from the large quantity of starch they contain, are not good unmixed, as regular food, but mixed with bran or meal are most conducive to good condition and laying. they contain a great proportion of nutriment, comparatively to their bulk and price; and may be advantageously and profitably given where the number of eggs produced is of more consequence than their flavour or goodness. a good morning meal of soft food for a few fowls may be provided daily almost for nothing by boiling the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff dry paste. the peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons at the dinner table. a little salt should always be added, and in winter a slight sprinkling of pepper is good. "it is indispensable," says mr. dickson, "to give the potatoes to fowls not only in a boiled state, but hot; not so hot, however, as to burn their mouths, as they are stupid enough to do if permitted. they dislike cold potatoes, and will not eat them willingly. it is likewise requisite to break all the potatoes a little, for they will not unfrequently leave a potato when thrown down unbroken, taking it, probably, for a stone, since the moment the skin is broken and the white of the interior is brought into view, they fall upon it greedily. when pieces of raw potatoes are accidentally in their way, fowls will sometimes eat them, though they are not fond of these, and it is doubtful whether they are not injurious." mangold-wurtzel, swedes, or other turnips, boiled with a very small quantity of water, until quite soft, and then thickened with the very best middlings or meal, is the very best soft food, especially for dorkings. soft food should always be mixed rather dry and _friable_, and not _porridgy_, for they do not like sticky food, which clings round their beaks and annoys them, besides often causing diarrhoea. there should never be enough water in food to cause it to glisten in the light. if the soft food is mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven, or covered with a cloth, it will be warm in the morning, in which state it should always be given in cold weather. fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human beings, some preferring one kind of grain to all others, which grain is again disliked by other fowls. they also grow tired of the same food, and will thrive all the better for having as much variety of diet as possible, some little change in the food being made every few days. fowls should not be forced or pressed to take food to which they show a dislike. it is most important to give them chiefly that which they like best, as it is a rule, with but few exceptions, that what is eaten with most relish agrees best and is most easily digested; but care must be taken not to give too much, for one sort of grain being more pleasing to their palate than another, induces them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or healthy. m. réaumur made many careful experiments upon the feeding of fowls, and among them found that they were much more easily satisfied than might be supposed from the greedy voracity which they exhibit when they are fed, and that the sorts of food most easily digested by them are those of which they eat the greatest quantity. no definite scale can be given for the quantity of food which fowls require, as it must necessarily vary with the different breeds, sizes, ages, condition, and health of the fowls; and with the seasons of the year, and the temperature of the season, much more food being necessary to keep up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in summer; and the amount of seeds, insects, vegetables, and other food that they may pick up in a run of more or less extent. over-feeding, whether by excess of quantity or excess of stimulating constituents, is the cause of the most general diseases, the greater proportion of these diseases, and of most of the deaths from natural causes among fowls. when fowls are neither laying well nor moulting, they should not be fed very abundantly; for in such a state over-feeding, especially with rich food, may cause them to accumulate too much fat. a fat hen ceases to lay, or nearly, while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless, and may die of apoplexy. but half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table or to produce eggs. a fowl cannot get fat or make an egg a day upon little or poor food. a hen producing eggs will eat nearly twice as much food as at another time. in cold weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale. poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground. "no plan," says mr. baily, "is so extravagant or so injurious as to throw down heaps once or twice per day. they should have it scattered as far and wide as possible, that the birds may be long and healthily employed in finding it, and may not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy them for hours. for this reason every sort of feeder or hopper is bad. it is the nature of fowls to take a grain at a time, and to pick grass and dirt with it, which assist digestion. they should feed as pheasants, partridges, grouse, and other game do in a state of nature; if, contrary to this, they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls, their crops are soon overfilled, and they seek relief in excessive draughts of water. nothing is more injurious than this, and the inactivity that attends the discomfort caused by it lays the foundation of many disorders. the advantage of scattering the food is, that all then get their share; while if it is thrown only on a small space the master birds get the greater part, while the others wait around. in most poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted; the same quantity is thrown down day after day, without reference to time of year, alteration of numbers, or variation of appetite, and that which is not eaten is trodden about, or taken by small birds. many a poultry-yard is coated with corn and meal." if two fowls will not run after one piece, they do not want it. if a trough is used, the best kind is the simplest, being merely a long, open one, shaped like that used for pigs, but on a smaller scale. it should be placed about a foot from one of the sides of the yard, behind some round rails driven into the ground three inches apart, so that the fowls cannot get into the troughs, so as to upset them, or tread in or otherwise dirty the food. the rails should be all of the same height, and a slanting board be fixed over the trough. some persons give but one meal a day, and that generally in the morning; this is false economy, for the whole of the nutriment contained in the one meal is absorbed in keeping up the animal heat, and there is no material for producing eggs. "the number of meals per day," says mr. wright, "best consistent with real economy will vary from two to three, according to the size of the run. if it be of moderate extent, so that they can in any degree forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least in summer, and should be given early in the morning and the last thing before the birds go to roost. in any case, these will be the principal meals; but when the fowls are kept in confinement they will require, in addition, a scanty feed at mid-day. the first feeding should consist of soft food of some kind. the birds have passed a whole night since they were last fed; and it is important, especially in cold weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the system, and not merely into the crop. but if grain be given, it has to be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested, and on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. but, for the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the best food which can be supplied; it is digested slowly, and during the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the fowls." they should be fed at regular hours, and will then soon become accustomed to them, and not loiter about the house or kitchen door all day long, expecting food, which they will do if fed irregularly or too often, and neglect to forage about for themselves, and thus cost more for food. grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry, and where they have no paddock, or grass-plot, fresh vegetables must be given them daily, as green food is essential to the health of all poultry, even of the very youngest chickens. cabbage and lettuce leaves, spinach, endive, turnip-tops, turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain, or cut in two, radish-leaves, or any refuse, but not stale vegetables will do; but the best thing is a large sod of fresh-cut turf. they are partial to all the mild succulent weeds, such as chickweed and _chenopodium_, or fat-hen, and eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs, even those of evergreens; but they reject the leaves of strawberries, celery, parsnips, carrots, potatoes, onions, and leeks. the supply of green food may be unlimited, but poultry should never be entirely fed on raw greens. cabbage and spinach are still more relaxing when boiled than raw. they are very fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees, and will enjoy any that falls, and prevent it from being wasted. insect food is important to fowls, and essential for chickens and laying hens. "there is no sort of insect, perhaps," says mr. dickson, "which fowls will not eat. they are exceedingly fond of flies, beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets, but more particularly of every sort of grub, caterpillar, and maggot, with the remarkable exception of the caterpillar moth of the magpie (_abraxas grossularia_), which no bird will touch." m. réaumur mentions the circumstance of a quantity of wheat stored in a corn-loft being much infected with the caterpillars of the small corn-moth, which spins a web and unites several grains together. a young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to the loft to feed on the caterpillars, of which they were so fond that in a few days they devoured them all, without touching a single grain of the corn. mr. dickson observes, that "biscuit-dust from ships' stores, which consists of biscuit mouldered into meal, mixed with fragments still unbroken, would be an excellent food for poultry, if soaked in boiling water and given them hot. it is thus used for feeding pigs near the larger seaports, where it can sometimes be had in considerable quantity, and at a very reasonable price. it will be no detriment to this material if it be full of weevils and their grubs, of which fowls are fonder than of the biscuit itself." there is not any food of which poultry generally are so fond as of earthworms; but all fowls are not equally fond of them, and some will not touch them. they will not eat dead worms. too many ought not to be given, or they will become too fat and cease laying. when fowls are intended for the table worms should not be given, as they are said always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of the flesh. a good supply may easily be obtained. by stamping hard upon the ground, as anglers do, worms will rise to the surface; but a better method is to thrust a strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground, to the depth of a foot or so, and jerk it backwards and forwards, so as to shake the soil all around. by going out with a light at night in calm, mild weather, particularly when there is dew, or after rain, a cautious observer will see large numbers of worms lying on the ground, gravel-walks, grass-plots or pastures; but they are easily frightened into their holes, though with caution and dexterity a great number, and those chiefly of the largest size, may be captured. mr. dickson advises that cottagers' children should be employed to imitate the example of the rooks, by following the plough or the digger, and collecting the worms which are disclosed to view; and also to collect cock-chafers, "and, what would be more advantageous, they might be set to collect the grubs of this destructive insect after the plough, and thus, while providing a rich banquet for the poultry, they would be clearing the fields of a most destructive insect." fowls are very fond of shell snails. they are still more fattening than worms, and therefore too many must not be given when laying, but they do not injure the flavour of the flesh. some will eat slugs, but they are not generally fond of these, and many fowls will not touch them. one great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is, that hens cannot thrive and lay without a considerable quantity of animal food, and therefore if they cannot obtain a sufficient quantity in the form of insects, it must be supplied in meat, which, minced small, should be given daily and also to all fowls in winter, as insects are then not to be had. mr. baily says: "do not give fowls meat, but always have the bones thrown out to them after dinner; they enjoy picking them, and perform the operation perfectly. do not feed on raw meat; it makes fowls quarrelsome, and gives them a propensity to peck each other, especially in moulting time if the accustomed meat be withheld." they will peck at the wound of another fowl to procure blood, and even at their own wounds when within reach. take care that long pieces of membrane, or thick skin, tough gristle or sinew, or pieces of bone, are not left sticking to the meat, or it may choke them, or form a lodgment in the crop. "pieces of suet or fat," says mr. dickson, "are liked by fowls better than any other sort of animal food; but, if supplied in any quantity, will soon render them too fat for continuing to lay. should there be any quantity of fat to dispose of, it ought, therefore, to be given at intervals, and mixed or accompanied with bran, which will serve to fill their crops without producing too much nutriment." it is a good plan when there are plenty of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well, and mix bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the fowls, as it makes the meat easier to mince, and extracts nourishment from the bones. when minced-meat is required for a large number of fowls, a mincing or sausage machine will save much time and prepare the meat better than chopping. they are as fond of fish, whether salted or fresh, as of flesh. crumbs, fragments of pastry, and all the refuse and slops of the kitchen may be given them. greaves, so much advertised for fowls, are very bad, rapidly throwing them out of condition, causing their feathers to fall off, spoiling the flavour of the flesh; they cause premature decrepitude, and engender many diseases, the most common being dropsy of an incurable character. where there is no danger from thieves, foxes, or other vermin, and the run is extensive, it is the best plan to leave the small door of the fowl-house open, and the fowls will go out at daybreak and pick up many an "early worm" and insect. the morning meal may be given when the household has risen. a constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable. fountains are preferable to open vessels, in which the fowls are apt to void their dung, and the chickens to dabble and catch cold, often causing roup, cramp, &c. the simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red pottery, containing several circular, concentric troughs, each about an inch wide, and of the same depth. chickens cannot get drowned in these shallow vessels, but unless placed behind rails the water will be dirtied by the fowls. they are sold at all earthenware shops, and are used for forcing early mustard in. a capital fountain may be made with an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot saucer. bore a small hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch and a half from the edge of the rim, or detach a piece about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch wide, from the rim, and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in the bottom airtight with a piece of cork; fill the vessel with water, place the saucer bottom upwards on the top, press it closely, and quickly turn both upside down, when the water will flow into the saucer, filling up the space between it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole in the side of the jar or flower-pot, therefore the hole in the side of the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the height of the side of the saucer; and above all the plug in the flower-pot must be airtight. this fountain is cheap, simple, and easily cleaned. water may also be kept in troughs, or earthenware pans, placed in the same way. the fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh water once every day, and oftener in warm weather; and they should occasionally be scoured with sand to remove the green slime which collects on the surface, and produces roup, gapes, and other diseases. in winter the vessels should always be emptied at night, in order to avoid ice from forming in them, which is troublesome to remove, and snow must never be allowed to fall into them, snow-water being most injurious to poultry. chapter v. eggs. during the natural process of moulting, hens cease laying because all the superabundant nutriment is required for the production of the new feathers. fowls moult later each time; the moulting occupies a longer period, and is more severe as it becomes later, and if the weather should be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying for some time. but young fowls moult in spring. therefore, by having pullets and hens of different ages, and moulting at different times, a healthy laying stock may be kept up. pullets hatched in march, and constantly fed highly, not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn, but when killed in the following february or march, are as fat as any one could or need desire them to be, and open more like michaelmas geese than chickens. when eggs alone are wanted, you can commence by buying in the spring as many hens as you require, and your run will accommodate, not more than a year or eighteen months old. if in good health and condition, they will be already laying, or will begin almost immediately; and, if well housed and fed, will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the autumn. when these hens have ceased laying, and before they lose their good condition by moulting, they should be either killed or sold, unless they are hamburgs, brahmas, or cochins, and replaced by pullets hatched in march or april, which will have moulted early, and, if properly housed and fed, will begin to lay by november at the latest, and continue laying until february or march, when they may be sold or killed, being then in prime condition, and replaced as before; or, as they will not stop laying for any length of time, the best may be kept until the autumn, when, if profit is the chief consideration, they must be disposed of.[ ] but brahmas, cochins, and hamburgs will lay through the winter up to their second, or even third year. if you commence poultry-keeping in the autumn you should buy pullets hatched in the preceding spring. the best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock is to keep a full-feathered cochin or two for march or april sitting; and, if necessary, procure eggs of the breed you desire. the cochin will sit again, being only too often ready for the task; and the later-hatched chickens can be fattened profitably for the table. but if you wish to obtain eggs all the year round, and to avoid replacing of stock, or object to the trouble of rearing chickens, keep only those breeds that are non-sitters, as the hamburgs, polands, and spanish; but you must purchase younger birds from time to time to keep a supply of laying hens while others are moulting. warmth is most essential for promoting laying. a severe frost will suddenly stop the laying of even the most prolific hens. "when," says m. bosc, "it is wished to have eggs during the cold season, even in the dead of winter, it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven, in a stable, in a shed where many cattle are kept, or to erect a stove in the fowl-house on purpose. by such methods, the farmers of ange have chickens fit for the table in the month of april, a period when they are only beginning to be hatched in the farms around paris, although farther to the south." it is the winter management of fowls that decides the question of profit or loss, for hens will be sure to pay in the summer, even if only tolerably attended to. it is thought by many that each hen can produce only a certain number of eggs; and if such be the case, it is very advantageous to obtain a portion of them in winter when they are generally scarce and can be eaten while fresh, instead of having the whole number produced in the summer, when so many are spoiled from too long keeping in consequence of more being produced than are required for use at the time. when the time for her laying approaches, her comb and wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red, the eye brightens, the gait becomes more spirited, and sometimes she cackles for three or four days. after laying her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud cackling cry, to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched kind of scream; but some hens after laying leave the nest in silence. some hens will lay an egg in three days, some every other day, and others every day. hens should not be forced. by unnaturally forcing a fowl with stimulating food, and more particularly with hempseed and tallow greaves, to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have been the produce of several, the hen becomes prematurely old and diseased; and it is reasonable to suppose that the eggs are not so good as they would have been if nature had been left to run its own course. the eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may be expected to be laid; for if left in the nest, the heat of the hens when laying next day will tend to corrupt them. when the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft, it is because the hens are rather inclined to grow too fat. it is then proper to mix up a little chalk in their water, and to put a little mortar rubbish in their food, the quantity of which should be diminished. we give the following remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old school, as valuable from being the result of practice: "the hen sometimes experiences a difficulty in laying. in this case a few grains of salt or garlic put into the vent have been successfully tried. the keeper should indeed make use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen has laid without his knowledge; for, as the hen will be in haste to deposit her egg, her pace towards the nest will be quickened; she may then be followed and her secret found out." "though one particular form," says mr. dickson, "is so common to eggs, that it is known by the familiar name of egg-shaped, yet all keepers of poultry must be aware that eggs are sometimes nearly round, and sometimes almost cylindrical, besides innumerable minor shades of difference. in fact, eggs differ so much in shape, that it is said experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of the eggs alone the hen that laid them; for, strange to say, however different in size the eggs of any particular hen may be occasionally, they are very rarely different in form. among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those of the shanghae, or cochin-china fowl, which are of a pale chocolate colour; and those of the dorking fowl, which are of a pure white, and nearly as round as balls. the eggs of the malay fowls are brown; those of the polish fowl, which are very much pointed at one end, are of a delicate pinkish white; and those of the bantam are of a long oval." a very important part of the egg is the air-bag, or _folliculus æris_, which is placed at the larger end, between the shell and its lining membranes. it is, according to dr. paris, about the size of the eye of a small bird in new laid eggs, but enlarges to ten times that size during the process of incubation. "this air-bag," says mr. dickson, "is of such great importance to the development of the chick, probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen, that if the blunt end of the egg be pierced with the point of the smallest needle (a stratagem which malice not unfrequently suggests), the egg cannot be hatched, but perishes." an egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion of its moisture, the place of which is filled by the entrance of air, and the egg consequently becomes stale, and after a time putrid. m. réaumur made many experiments in preserving eggs, and found that, by coating them with varnish, it was impossible to distinguish those which had been kept for a year from those newly laid; but varnish, though not expensive, is not always to be had in country places, and it also remained on the eggs placed under a hen and impeded the hatching, while in boiling them, the varnish, not being soluble in hot water, prevented them from being properly cooked. he tried other substances, and found that fat or grease, such as suet, lard, dripping, butter, and oil, were well adapted for the purpose, the best of these being a mixture of mutton and beef suet thoroughly melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth into an earthen pan. it is only requisite, he says, to take a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the end of the finger, and rub it all over the shell, by passing and repassing the finger so that no part be left untouched; the transpiration of matter from the egg being as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat or grease as by a thick coating, so that no part of the shell be left ungreased, or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed over the shell in the same manner. if it is desired that the eggs should look clean, they may be afterwards wiped with a towel, for sufficient grease or oil enters the pores of the shell to prevent all transpiration without its being necessary that any should be left to fill up the spaces between the pores. they can be boiled as usual without rubbing off the fat, as it will melt in the hot water, and when taken out of the water the little grease that is left upon the egg is easily wiped off with a napkin. eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for hatching, as the fat easily melts away by the heat of the hen; and by this means the eggs of foreign fowls might be carried to a distance, hatched, and naturalised in this and other countries. the french also find that a mixture of melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative. eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them in sawdust, in an earthen vessel, and covering the top with melted mutton suet or fat; as fruit is sometimes preserved. they are also said to keep well in salt, in a barrel arranged in layers of salt and eggs alternately. if the salt should become damp, it would penetrate through the pores of the shell and pickle them to a certain extent. m. gagne says that eggs may be preserved in a mixture made of one bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, with sufficient water to make it into a paste of a consistency to receive the eggs, which, it is said, may be kept in it fresh for two years; but eggs become tasteless when preserved with lime. it may be as well to mention here that eggs are comparatively wasted when used in making a rice pudding, as they render it too hard and dry, and the pudding without them, if properly made, will be just of the right consistency. "another way to preserve eggs," says mr. dickson, "is to have them cooked in boiling water the same day they are laid. on taking them out of the water they are marked with red ink, to record their date, and put away in a cool place, where they will keep, it is said, for several months. when they are wanted for use, they are again put into hot water to warm them. the curdy part which is usually seen in new-laid eggs is so abundant, and the taste is said to be so well preserved, that the nicest people may be made to believe that they are new laid. at the end of three or four months, however, the membrane lining the shell becomes much thickened, and the eggs lose their flavour. eggs so preserved have the advantage of not suffering from being carried about." "it ought not to be overlooked," says mr. dickson, "with respect to the preservation of eggs, that they not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell; but also by being moved about, and jostled when carried to a distance by sea or land. any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the chick in their proper places, and upon these becoming mixed, putrefaction soon follows." if the eggs are to be kept for setting, place a box, divided by partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different breeds, in a dry corner of your kitchen, but not too near to the fire; fill the divisions with bran previously well dried in an oven; place the eggs in it upright, with the larger ends uppermost, as soon as they are laid, and cover them with the bran. mark each egg in pencil with the date when laid, and description of breed or cross. they should be kept in a cool place or a warm place according to the season. airtight jars, closed with airtight stoppers, may be used if the eggs are intended to be kept for a very long time. in selecting eggs for setting, choose the freshest, those of moderate size, well-shaped, and having the air-vessel distinctly visible, either in the centre of the top of the egg, or slightly to the side, when the egg is held between the eye and a lighted candle, in a darkened room. reject very small eggs, which generally have no yolk, those that are ill-shaped, and those of equal thickness at both ends, which latter is the usual shape of eggs with double yolks. these should be avoided, as they are apt generally to prove unfertile, or produce monstrosities. it has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken can be ascertained by the position of the air-vessel; that if it be on the top the egg will produce a cockerel, and if on the side a pullet; but there is no proof of the truth of this, and, notwithstanding such assertions, it appears to be impossible to foretell the sex of the chick, from the shape of the egg or in any other way. in selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls that are to be kept for laying only, being non-sitters, choose eggs only from those hens that are prolific layers, for prolific laying is often as characteristic of some fowls of a breed as it is of the particular breeds, and by careful selection this faculty, like others, may be further developed, or continued if already fully developed. if carefully packed, eggs for setting may be carried great distances--hundreds and even thousands of miles--without injury; vibration and even moderate shaking, and very considerable changes of temperature, producing no ill effect upon the germ. the chief point is to prevent the escape of moisture by evaporation, and consequent admission of air. a hamper travels with less vibration than a box, and is therefore preferable, especially for a long journey. they should be packed in hay, by which they will be preserved from breakage much better than by being packed in short, close material like bran, chaff, oats, or sawdust; these being shaken into smaller space by the vibration of travelling, the eggs often strike and crack each other. the hamper or box should be large enough to admit of some soft, yielding packing material being placed all round the eggs. the bottom should be first covered with a good layer of hay, straw, or moss. it is a good plan to roll each egg separately in hay or moss, fastened with a little wool or worsted. they should be covered with well-rubbed straw, pressed down carefully and gently. the lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly all round, or in three or four places at least. if a box is used, the lid should be fastened by cords or screws, but not with nails, as the hammering would probably destroy the germ of the egg. in procuring eggs for hatching, be sure that the parent birds are of mature age, but not too old, well-shaped, vigorous, and in perfect health; that one cock is kept to every six or seven hens; and that they are well fed and attended to. have a steady broody hen ready to take the eggs. chapter vi. the sitting hen. all hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to hatch and bring up one brood of chickens a year; for, if altogether restrained from sitting, a hen suffers much in moulting, and is restless and excited for the remainder of the season. it is unnatural, and therefore must be injurious. the period of incubation gives her rest from producing eggs. the hen that is always stimulated to produce eggs, and not allowed to vary that process by hatching and bringing up a young brood, must ultimately suffer from this constant drain upon her system, and the eggs are said to be unwholesome. but hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient, or in autumn or winter, when it is not advisable, unless very late or early chickens are desired, and every attention can be given to them. to check this desire, the old-fashioned plan with farmers' wives, of plunging the broody hen into cold water, and keeping her there for some minutes, was not only a cruel practice, but often failed to effect its object, and must naturally always have caused ultimate disease in the poor bird. when it is absolutely necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit, the best plan is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week, then remove and coop her for a few days, away from the place where she made her nest, low diet, as boiled potatoes and boiled rice, and water being placed near; meanwhile taking away the eggs and destroying the nest, and, not finding it on her return, she will generally not seek for another, unless she is a cochin, or the desire exceedingly strong. when a hen wishes to sit, she utters a peculiar cluck, ruffles her feathers, wanders about, searches obscure corners and recesses, is very fidgety, feverishly hot, impatient, anxiously restless, and seeks for a nest. highly-fed hens feel this desire sooner than those that are not so highly fed. a hen may be induced to sit at any season, by confining her in a dark room in a covered basket, only large enough to contain her nest, keeping her warm, and feeding her on stimulating food, such as bread steeped in ale, a little raw liver or fresh meat chopped small, and potatoes mashed warm with milk and oatmeal. every large poultry establishment should have a separate house for the sitting hens, and the run that should be provided for their relaxation must be divided from that of the other fowls by wire or lattice work, to prevent any intrusion. where there is a large number of sitting hens, each nest should be numbered, and the date of setting, number and description of eggs, entered in a diary or memorandum book opposite to the number; and the number of chickens hatched, and any particulars likely to be useful on a future occasion, should afterwards be entered. a separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great advantage, as it prevents other hens from going to the nest during her absence, or herself from returning to the wrong nest, as will often happen in a common house. the run should not be large, or the hen may be inclined to wander and stay away too long from her nest. a separate division for the sitting hen is often otherwise useful, for the purpose of keeping the cock apart from the hens, or for keeping a few additional birds for which accommodation has not been prepared, or for the use of a pen of birds about to be sent for exhibition. "boxes, of which every carpenter knows the form," says mowbray, "are to be arranged round the walls, and it is proper to have a sufficient number, the hens being apt to dispute possession, and sit upon one another. the board or step at the entrance should be of sufficient height to prevent the eggs from rolling out. provision of a few railed doors may be made for occasional use, to be hung before the entrance, in order to prevent other hens from intruding to lay their eggs upon those which sit, a habit to which some are much addicted, and by which a brood is often injured. the common deep square boxes, uncovered at top, are extremely improper, because that form obliges the hen to jump down upon her eggs, whereas for safety she should descend upon them from a very small height, or in a manner walk in upon them. the same objection lies against hampers, with the additional one of the wicker-work admitting the cold in variable weather, during winter or early spring sittings. many breeders prefer to have all the nests upon the ground, on account of the danger of chickens falling from the nests which are placed above." the ground is preferable for other reasons. the damp arising from the ground assists very materially in incubation. when fowls sit upon wooden floors, or in boxes, the eggs become so dry and parched as to prevent the chicken from disencumbering itself of the shell, and it is liable to perish in its attempts. hens in a state of nature make their nests upon the ground; and fowls, when left to choose a nest for themselves, generally fix upon a hedge, where the hen conceals herself under the branches of the hedge, and among the grass. in general, the sitting places are too close and confined, and very different in this respect to those that hens select for themselves. but nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the ground, unless properly secured from vermin, particularly from rats, which will frequently convey away the whole of the eggs from under a hen. and other considerations may render it necessary to have them on a floor, in boxes on the ground, or placed above; in which cases the eggs must be kept properly moistened, for, unless the egg is kept sufficiently damp, its inner membrane becomes so hard and dry that the chicken cannot break through, and perishes. when a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of evergreens or bushes, she makes it on the damp ground. she goes in search of food early in the morning, before the dew is off the grass, and returns to her nest with her feathers saturated with moisture. this is the cause of the comparatively successful hatching of the eggs of wild birds. the old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of damping eggs, but frequently complained of their not hatching, although chickens were found in them, which was, in most cases, entirely caused by want of damping. if, therefore, the weather is warm and wet, all will probably go well; but if the air should be very dry, moisture must be imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly, when the hen is off feeding, by means of a small brush dipped in tepid water. a small flat brush such as is used by painters is excellent for this purpose, as it does not distribute the water too freely. the ground round about, also, should be watered with hot water, to cause a steam. but the natural moisture of a damp soil is preferable, and never fails. the nest may be of any shape. a long box divided by partitions into several compartments is much used, but separate boxes or baskets are preferable as being more easily cleaned and freed from vermin. wooden nest-boxes are preferable to wicker baskets in winter, as the latter let in the cold air, but many prefer wicker baskets in summer for their airiness. a round glazed earthen pan, with shelving sides, like those used in the midland counties for milk, and partially filled with moss, forms a good nest, the moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than in a box. the nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill it, not very deep, and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as possible, so that the eggs may not lean against each other, or they may get broken, especially by the hen turning them. the best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand, mould, coal or wood ashes placed on a cut turf, covering it and lining the sides with a little well-broken dry grass, moss, bruised straw, lichen, or liverwort collected from trees, or dry heather, which is the best of all, but cannot always be had. hay, though soft at first, soon becomes hard and matted, and is also said to breed vermin. straw is good material, but must be cut into short pieces, for if long straw is used and the hen should catch her foot in it, and drag it after her when she leaves the nest, it will disturb, if not break, the eggs. the nests of the sitting hens in her majesty's poultry-yard at windsor are made of heather, which offers an excellent medium between the natural damp hedge-nest of the hen and the dryness of a box filled with straw, and also enables her to free herself from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting hens. a thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold weather will keep in the heat of the hen. a little scotch snuff is a good thing to keep the nests free from vermin. where only a few fowls are kept, and a separate place cannot be found for the sitting hen, she can be placed on a nest which should be covered over with a coop, closed in with a little boarding or some other contrivance for a day or two, to prevent her being disturbed by any other fowls that have been accustomed to lay there. they will then soon use another nest. she should be carefully lifted off her nest, by taking hold of her under the wings, regularly every morning, exercised and fed, and then shut in, so that she cannot be annoyed. it is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has chosen when she shows an inclination to sit; and if she continues to sit steadily, and has not a sufficient number of eggs under her, or the eggs you desire her to hatch, remove her gently at night, replace the eggs with the proper batch, and place her quietly upon the nest again. hens are very fond of choosing their own nests in out of the way places; and where the spot is not unsafe, or too much exposed to the weather, it is best to let her keep possession, for it has been noticed that, when she selects her own nest and manages for herself, she generally brings forth a good and numerous brood. mr. tegetmeier observes that he has "reason to believe, indeed, that whatever care may be taken in keeping eggs, their vitality is better preserved when they are allowed to remain in the nest. perhaps the periodical visits of the hen, while adding to her store of eggs, has a stimulating influence. the warmth communicated in the half-hour during which she occupies the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo in a vigorous state." it is a good plan, before giving an untried hen choice eggs, to let her sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few days, and if she continue to sit with constancy, then to give her the batch for hatching. when choice can be made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of eggs, one should be selected with rather short legs, a broad body, large wings well furnished with feathers, and having the nails and spurs not too long or sharp. as a rule, hens which are the best layers are the worst sitters, and those with short legs are good sitters, while long-legged hens are not. dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds, and by high feeding may be induced to sit in october, especially if they have moulted early, and with great care and attention chickens may be reared and made fit for table by christmas. early in the spring dorkings only should be employed as mothers, for they remain much longer with their chickens than the cochin-chinas, but the latter may safely be entrusted with a brood after april. cochins are excellent sitters, and, from the quantity of "fluff" which is peculiar to them, keep the eggs at a high and regular degree of heat. their short legs also are advantageous for sitting. a cochin hen can always be easily induced to sit, and eggs of theirs or of brahma pootras for sitting, are not wanted in the coldest weather. old hens are more steady sitters than pullets, more fond of their brood, and not so apt as pullets to leave them too soon. indeed, pullets were formerly never allowed to sit before the second year of their laying, but now many eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they show a strong desire to do so, considering that the prejudice against them upon this point is unfounded, and that young hens sit as well as older fowls. pullets hatched early will generally begin to lay in november or december, if kept warm and well fed, and will sit in january or february. broody hens brought from a distance should be carried in a basket, covered over with a cloth. the number of eggs to be set under a hen must be according to the extent of her wings and the temperature of the weather. some say that the number may vary from nine to fourteen, but others would never give more than nine in winter and early spring, and eleven in summer, to the largest hen, and two fewer to the smaller fowls. a cochin-china may have fifteen of her own in summer. a hen should not be allowed more eggs than she can completely cover; for eggs that are not thoroughly covered become chilled, and fewer and weaker chickens will be hatched from too large a number than from a more moderate allowance. it is not only necessary to consider how many eggs a hen can hatch, but also how many chickens she can cover when they are partly grown. in january and february, not more than seven or eight eggs should be placed under the hen, as she cannot cover more than that number of chickens when they grow large, and exposure to the cold during the long winter nights would destroy many. "the common order to set egges," says mascall, "is in odde numbers, as seven, nyne, eleven, thirteen, &c., whiche is to make them lye round the neste, and to have the odde egge in the middest." eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old, if possible, and never more than a month. fresh eggs hatch in proper time, and, if good, produce strong, lively chicks; while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as much as two days later than new laid, and the chickens are often too weak to break the shell, while of those well out fewer will probably be reared. it is certain, as a general rule, that the older the egg the weaker will be its progeny. every egg should be marked by a pencil or ink line drawn quite round it, so that it can be known without touching, and if another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and removed, for hens will sometimes lay several after they have commenced sitting. place the eggs under the hen with their larger ends uppermost. let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before putting her on the nest. whole barley and soft food, chiefly barley-meal and mashed potatoes, should be given to her when she comes off the nest, and she must have as much as she will eat, for she leaves the nest but once daily, and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without plenty of food; or she may have the same food as the general stock. a good supply of water must be always within her reach. a good-sized shallow box or pan, containing fine coal-ashes, sand, or dry earth, to cleanse herself in, should always be ready near to the nest. she should be left undisturbed, and, as far as possible, allowed to manage her own business. when a hen shows impatience of her confinement, and frequently leaves the nest, m. parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal should be given, after which she should be replaced on the nest and fed from the hand with hemp or millet seed, which will induce her to stay constantly on her eggs. others will sit so long and closely that they become faint for want of food. such hens should not be fed on the nest, but gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little exercise, for they will not leave their eggs of their own accord, and feeding on the nest has crippled many a good sitter. it is not healthy for the hen to feed while sitting on or close by the nest, for she requires a little exercise and rolling in the dust-heap, as well as that the eggs should be exposed for the air to carry off any of that stagnant vapour which m. réaumur proved to be so destructive to the embryo chickens; and it has also been shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused by this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply of air to penetrate through the pores of the shell, for the respiration of the chick. when there are many hens sitting at the same time, it is a good plan to take them off their nests regularly at the same time every morning to feed, and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse themselves in a convenient dusting-place, and, if possible, allow them exercise in a good grass run. a hen should never be caught, but driven back gently to her nest. a good hen will not stay away more than half an hour, unless infested with vermin, from want of having a proper dust-heap. but hens have often been absent for more than an hour, and yet have hatched seven or eight chickens; and instances have been known of their being absent for five and even for nine hours, and yet hatching a few. the following remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent authority: "eggs had been supplied and a sitting hen lent to a neighbour, and, when she had set in a granary ten days, she was shut out through the carelessness of a servant. being a stranger in the farmyard, the hen was not recognised, but supposed to have strayed in from an adjoining walk, and thirty hours elapsed before it was discovered that the hen had left her nest. the farmer's wife despaired of her brood; but, to her surprise and pleasure, eight chickens were hatched. the tiled roof of the granary was fully exposed to the rays of the sun, and the temperature very high, probably above deg. during the day, and not much lower at night." valuable eggs, therefore, should not be abandoned on account of a rather lengthened absence; and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight or so; but if she has been sitting for only a few days, it is safer to throw them away, and have a fresh batch. during the hen's absence, always look at the eggs, remove any that may have been broken, and very gently wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a flannel dipped in milk-warm water. see that they are dry before putting them back. if the nest is also dirty, replace it with fresh material of the same kind. gently drive the hen back to her nest as quickly as possible, to prevent any damage from the eggs becoming chilled. if a hen should break an egg with her feet or otherwise, it should be removed as soon as it is seen, or she may eat it, and, liking the taste, break and eat the others. some hens have a bad habit of breaking and eating the eggs on which they are sitting, to cure which some recommend to boil an egg hard, bore a few holes in it, so that the inside can be seen, and give it while hot to the culprit, who will peck at the holes and burn herself; but hens with such propensities should be fattened for the table, for they are generally useless either for sitting or laying. some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat upon them for six or seven days, and remove all that are sterile, by which plan more warmth and space are gained for those that are fertile, and the warmth is not wasted upon barren eggs. they may be easily proved by holding them near to the flame of a candle, the eye being kept shaded by one hand, when the fertile eggs will appear dark and the sterile transparent. another plan is to place the eggs on a drum, or between the hands, in the sunshine, and observe the shadow. if this wavers, by the motion of the chick, the eggs are good; but if the shadow shows no motion, they are unfertile. if two hens have been sitting during the same time, and many unfertile eggs are found in the two nests, all the fertile eggs should be placed under one hen, and a fresh batch given to the other. the eggs should not be moved after this time, except by the hen, more especially when incubation has proceeded for some time, lest the position of the chick be interfered with, for if taken up a little time before its exit, and incautiously replaced with the large end lowermost, the chicken, from its position, will not be able to chip the shell, and must therefore perish. the forepart of the chicken is towards the biggest end of the egg, and it is so placed in the shell that the beak is always uppermost. when the egg of a choice breed has been cracked towards the end of the period of incubation, the crack may be covered with a slip of gummed paper, or the unprinted border that is round a sheet of postage stamps, and the damaged egg will probably yet produce a fine chick. it is a good plan to set two hens on the same day, for the two broods may be united under one if desirable, and on the hatching day, to prevent the newly-born chickens being crushed by the unhatched eggs, all that are hatched can be given to one hen, and the other take charge of the eggs, which are then more likely to be hatched, as, while the chickens are under the hen, she will sit higher from the eggs, and afford them less warmth when they require it most. the hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls, from the bantam to the cochin-china, sits for twenty-one days, at which time, on an average, the chickens break the shell; but if the eggs are new laid it will often lessen the time by five or six hours, while stale eggs will always be behind time. for the purpose of breaking the shell, the yet soft beak of the chicken is furnished, just above the point of the upper mandible, with a small, hard, horny scale, which, from the position of the head, as mr. yarrell observes, is brought in contact with the inner surface of the shell. this scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched chickens, but in the course of a short time peels off. it should not be removed. the peculiar sound, incorrectly called "tapping," so perceptible within the egg about the nineteenth day of incubation, which was universally believed to be produced by the bill of the chick striking against the shell in order to break it and effect its release, has been incontestably proved, by the late dr. f. r. horner, of hull, in a paper read by him before the british association for the advancement of science, to be a totally distinct sound, being nothing more than the natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick, which first begins to breathe at that period. of course there is also an occasional sound made by the tapping of the beak in endeavouring to break the shell. the time occupied in breaking the shell varies, according to the strength of the chick, from one to three hours usually, but extends sometimes to twenty-four, and even more. "i have seen," says réaumur, "chicks continue at work for two days together; some work incessantly, while others take rest at intervals, according to their physical strength. some, i have observed, begin to break the shell a great deal too soon; for, be it observed, they ought, before they make their exit, to have within them provision enough to serve for twenty-four hours without taking food, and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the yolk enters through the navel. the chick, indeed, which comes out of the shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to droop and die in a few days after it is hatched. the assistance which i have occasionally tried to give to several of them, by way of completing their deliverance, has afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had begun to break their shells before this was accomplished; and i have opened many eggs much fractured, in each of which the chick had as yet much of the yolk not absorbed. some chicks have greater obstacles to overcome than others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor of an equal consistence; and the same inequality takes place in the lining membrane, and offers still greater difficulty to the emergent chick. the shells of the eggs of birds of various species are of a thickness proportionate to the strength of the chick that is obliged to break through them. the canary-bird would never be able to break the shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of a barn-door fowl. the chick of a barn-door fowl, again, would in vain try to break its shell if it were as thick and hard as that of an ostrich; indeed, though an ostrich ready to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the common chick, it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill can be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china cup, and the smoothness and gloss of which indicate that it is nearly as hard--sufficiently so to form, as may be often seen, a firm drinking-cup. it is the practice in some countries to dip the eggs into warm water at the time they are expected to chip, on the supposition that the shell is thereby rendered more fragile, and the labour of the chick lightened. but, though the water should soften it, upon drying in the air it would become as hard as at first. when the chick is entirely or almost out of the shell, it draws its head from under its wing, where it had hitherto been placed, stretches out its neck, directing it forwards, but for several minutes is unable to raise it. on seeing for the first time a chick in this condition, we are led to infer that its strength is exhausted, and that it is ready to expire; but in most cases it recruits rapidly, its organs acquire strength, and in a very short time it appears quite another creature. after having dragged itself on its legs a little while, it becomes capable of standing on them, and of lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions, and at length of holding up its head. at this period the feathers are merely fine down, but, as they are wet with the fluid of the egg, the chick appears almost naked. from the multitude of their branchlets these down feathers resemble minute shrubs; when, however, these branchlets are wet and sticking to each other, they take up but very little room; as they dry they become disentangled and separated. the branchlets, plumules, or beards of each feather are at first enclosed in a membranous tube, by which they are pressed and kept close together; but as soon as this dries it splits asunder, an effect assisted also by the elasticity of the plumules themselves, which causes them to recede and spread themselves out. this being accomplished, each down feather extends over a considerable space, and when they all become dry and straight, the chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of soft down." if they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been broken, and the hole is not enlarged, they are probably glued to the shell. look through the egg then, and, if all the yolk has passed into the body of the chicken, you may assist it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of fine scissors, cutting up towards the large end of the egg, never downwards. "if," says miss watts, "the time has arrived when the chicken may with safety be liberated, there will be no appearance of blood in the minute blood-vessels spread over the interior of the shell; they have done their work, and are no longer needed by the now fully developed and breathing chick. if there should be the slightest appearance of blood, resist at once, for its escape would generally be fatal. do not attempt to let the chicken out at once, but help it a little every two or three hours. the object is not to hurry the chicken out of its shell, but to prevent its being suffocated by being close shut up within it. if the chick is tolerably strong, and the assistance needful, it will aid its deliverance with its own exertions." when the chicken at last makes its way out, do not interfere with it in any way, or attempt to feed it. animal heat alone can restore it. weakness has caused the delay, and this has probably arisen from insufficient warmth, perhaps from the hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly, or they may have been stale when set. should you have to assist it out of the shell, take it out gently with your fingers, taking great care not to tear any of its tender skin, when freeing the feathers from the shell. mr. wright says: "we never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from the shell. if the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever needed. to fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly; and we have always found that, even where the poor little creature survived at the time, it never lived to maturity. should the reader attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been long chipped, and no further progress made, let the shell be cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane; if that be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries and glues the chick to the shell. should this happen, or should both shell and membrane be perforated at first, introduce the point of a pair of scissors and cut up the egg towards the large end, where there will be an empty space, remembering that, if blood flows, all hope is at end. then put the chick back under the hen; she will probably squeeze it to death, it is true--it is so very weak; but it will never live if put by the fire, at least we always found it so. indeed, as we have said, we consider it quite useless to make the attempt at all." the fact is, it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist in the case of ordinary eggs, but if the breed is valuable the labour may be well bestowed. some hens are reluctant to give up sitting, and will hatch a second brood with evident pleasure; but it is cruel to overtask their strength and patience, and they are sure to suffer, more or less, from the unnatural exertion. some breeders use a contrivance called an "artificial mother" for broods hatched under the hen, and it may be employed very advantageously when any accident has happened to her. it is made in various forms, such as a wooden frame, or shallow box, open at both ends, and sloping like a writing-desk, with a perforated lid lined with sheep or lamb's skin, goose-down, or some similar warm fleecy material hanging down, under and between which the chickens nestle, heat being applied to the lid either by hot water or hot air, so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's breast. when chickens are hatched by artificial means, such as by the hydro-incubator, or the eccaleobion, or in an oven according to the method practised by the egyptians, these protectors are essential; for without a good substitute for the hen's natural warmth the chickens would perish. artificial incubators are now extensively used, and where gas is laid on they are easily managed, but the chief difficulty is in rearing the chickens. for information on the subject see the works of tegetmeier, dickson, and wright, on poultry. chapter vii. rearing and fattening fowls. the first want which the chick will feel will be that of warmth, and there is no warmth so suited for them as that of the hen's body. some persons remove the chicks from under the mother as soon as they are hatched, one by one, placing them in a basket covered up with flannel, and keep them there in a warm place, until the last chick is out, when they are put back under the hen. but this is very seldom necessary unless the weather is very cold and the hen restless, and is generally more likely to annoy than benefit her. nor should the hen be induced to leave the nest, but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own accord, when the last hatched chickens will be in a better condition to follow her than if she had been tempted to leave earlier. in a few hours they are able to run about and follow their parent; they do not require to be fed in the nest like most birds, but pick up the food which their mother shows them; and repose at night huddled up beneath her wings. the chicken during its development in the egg is nourished by the yolk, and the remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous to its leaving the shell, being designed for its first nourishment; and the chicken, therefore, does not require any food whatever during the first day. the old-fashioned plan, so popular with "practical" farmers' wives, of cramming a peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick is absurd and injurious. the first food must be very light and delicate, such as crumbs of bread soaked in milk, the yolk of an egg boiled hard, and curds; but very little of anything at first except water, for thirst will come before hunger. the thirsty hen will herself soon teach the little ones how to drink. if your chicks be very weakly, you may cram them with crumbs of good white bread, steeped in milk or wine, but at the same time recollect that their little craws are not capable of holding more than the bulk of a pea; so rather under than over feed them. as soon as the hen leaves the nest, she should have as much grain as she can eat, and a good supply of pure, clean water. in winter, or settled wet weather, she should, if possible, be kept on her nest for a day, and, when removed, be cooped in a warm, dry shed or outhouse; but in summer, if the weather be fine, and the chickens well upon their legs, they may be at once cooped out in the sun, on dry gravel, or if possible on a nice grass-plot, with food and water within her reach. the hen is cooped to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them about until they are over-tired, besides being exposed to danger from cats, hawks, and vermin, tumbling into ditches, or getting wet in the high grass. they can pass in and out between the bars of the coop, and will come when she calls, or they wish to shelter under her wings. it is a good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon some dry sand, so that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably. the common basket coop should only be used in fine weather, and some straw, kept down by a stone, matting, or other covering, should be placed on the top, to shelter them from the mid-day sun; otherwise a wooden coop should be used, open in front only, about two and a half or three feet square; well-made of stout, sound boards, with a gabled roof covered with felt; and at night a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front, sufficient space being left for proper ventilation, but not to admit cold draught, or to allow the chicks to get out. mr. wright describes an excellent coop which is "very common in some parts of france, and consists of two compartments, separated by a partition of bars, one compartment being closed in front, the other fronted with bars like the partition. each set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a door, and the whole coop should be tight and sound. it is best to have no bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two deep. each half of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of glass. the advantage of such a coop is that, except in very severe weather, no further shelter is required, even at night [if placed under a shed]. during the day the hen is kept in the outer compartment, the chickens having liberty, and the food and water being placed outside; whilst at night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half. if the top be glazed, a little food and the water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment at night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early in the morning, being prevented by the canvas from going out into the cold air. it will be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a few minutes, to take away the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. there should, if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor of which should be covered with dry, loose dust or earth." the hen should be kept under a coop until the brood has grown strong. some breeders object to cooping, on account of its preventing the hen from scratching for worms and insects for her brood, and which are far superior to the substitutes with which they must be supplied, unless, indeed, a good supply of worms, ants' eggs, insects, or gentles can be had. the hen too has not sufficient exercise after her long sitting. cooping thus has its advantages and disadvantages, and its adoption or not should depend upon circumstances. if it is preferred not to coop the hen, and she should be inclined to roam too far, a small run may be made with network, or with the moveable wire-work described on page . winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in a warm place, which must be kept at an equal temperature. they return a large profit for the great care they require in hatching and rearing. chickens should be fed very often; every two hours is not too frequently. the number of these meals must be reduced by degrees to four or five, which may be continued until they are full grown. grain should not be given to newly-hatched chickens. the very best food for them, after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg, is made of two parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal, mixed into a thick crumbly paste with milk or water. if milk is used, it must be fresh mixed for each meal, or it will become sour. cold oatmeal porridge is an excellent food, and much liked by them. after the first week they may have cheaper food, such as bran, oatmeal, and indian meal mixed, or potatoes mashed with bran. in a few days they may also have some whole grain, which their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind. grits, crushed wheat, or bruised oats, should form the last meal at night. bread sopped in water is the worst food they can have, and even with milk is still inferior to meal. for the first three or four days they may also have daily the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up small, which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks; and afterwards, a piece of cooked meat, rather underdone, the size of a good walnut, minced fine, should be daily given to the brood until they are three weeks old. in winter and very early spring this stimulating diet may be given regularly, and once a day they should also have some stale bread soaked in ale; and whenever chickens suffer from bad feathering, caused either by the coldness of the season or delicacy of constitution, they must be fed highly, and have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale. ants' eggs, which are well known as the very best animal diet for young pheasants, are also excellent for young chickens; and when a nest can be obtained it should be thrown with its surrounding mould into the run for them to peck at. where there is no grass-plot they should have some grass cut into small pieces, or other vegetable food minced small, until they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves. onion tops and leeks chopped small, cress, lettuce, and cabbage, are much relished by all young poultry. the french breeders give a few dried nettle seeds occasionally. young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food, so long as they eat it with a good appetite, and do not tread any about, or otherwise leave it to waste. young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded. they should not be allowed to roost on the branches of trees or shrubs, or otherwise out of doors, even in the warmest weather, or they will acquire the habit of sleeping out, which cannot be easily overcome; not that they would suffer much from even severe weather, when once accustomed to roosting out of doors, but from want of warmth the supply of eggs would decrease, and it would, in many places, be unsafe and, in most, inconvenient. the sooner chickens can be fattened, of course the greater must be the profit. they should be put up for fattening as soon as they have quitted the hen, for they are then generally in good condition, but begin to lose flesh as their bones develop and become stronger, particularly those fowls which stand high on the leg. fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are fully developed. by keeping young fowls, especially the cockerels, too long before fattening them for market or home consumption, they eat up all the profit that would be made by disposing of them when the pullets have ceased laying just before their first adult moult, and the cockerels before their appetites have become large. fowls intended to be fattened should be well and abundantly fed from their birth; for if they are badly fed during their growth they become stunted, the bones do not attain their full size, and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply these defects and transform them into fine, large birds. poultry that have been constantly fed well from their birth will not only be always ready for the table, with very little extra attention and feeding, but their flesh will be superior in juiciness and rich flavour to those which are fattened up from a poor state. in choosing full-grown fowls for fattening, the short-legged and early-hatched should be preferred. in fattening poultry, "the well-known common methods," mowbray observes, "are, first, to give fowls the run of the farmyard, where they thrive upon the offals of the stables and other refuse, with perhaps some small regular feeds; but at threshing time they become fat, and are thence styled barn-door fowls, probably the most delicate and high-flavoured of all others, both from their full allowance of the finest corn and from the constant health in which they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise; or secondly, they are confined during a certain number of weeks in coops; those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as wanted." "the former method," says mr. dickson, "is immeasurably the best as regards the flavour and even wholesomeness of the fowls as food, and though the latter mode may, in some cases, make the fowls fatter, it is only when they have been always accustomed to confinement; for when barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week or two under the notion of improving them for the table, and increasing their fat, it rarely succeeds, since the fowls generally pine for their liberty, and, slighting their food, lose instead of gaining additional flesh." to fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door, mowbray recommends fattening-houses large enough to contain twenty or thirty fowls, warm and airy, with well-raised earth floors, slightly littered down with straw, which should be often changed, and the whole place kept perfectly clean. "sandy gravel," he says, "should be placed in several different layers, and often changed. a sufficient number of troughs for both water and food should be placed around, that the stock may feed with as little interruption as possible from each other, and perches in the same proportion should be furnished for those birds which are inclined to perch, which few of them will desire after they have begun to fatten, but it helps to keep them easy and contented until that period. in this manner fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a healthy state, their flesh being nearly equal in quality to the barn-door fowl. to suffer fattening fowls to perch is contrary to the general practice, since it is supposed to bend and deform the backbone; but as soon as they become heavy and indolent from feeding, they will rather incline to roost in the straw, and the liberty of perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they wish for rest." the practice of fattening fowls in coops, if carried to a moderate extent, is not objectionable, and may be necessary in many cases. the coop may be three feet high, two feet wide, and four feet long, which will accommodate six or eight birds, according to their size; or it may be constructed in compartments, each being about nine inches by eighteen, and about eighteen inches high. the floor should not consist of board, but be formed of bars two inches wide, and placed two inches apart. the bars should be laid from side to side, and not from the back to the front of the coop. they should be two inches wide at the upper part, with slanting or rounded sides, so as to prevent the dung from sticking to them instead of falling straight between. the front should be made of rails three inches apart. the house in which the coops are placed should be properly ventilated, but free from cold draughts, and kept of an even temperature, which should be moderately warm. the fronts of the coops should be covered with matting or other kind of protection in cold weather. the coop should be placed about two inches from the ground, and a shallow tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed underneath to catch the droppings, and renewed every day. when fowls are put up to fat they should not have any food given to them for some hours, and they will take it then more eagerly than if pressed upon them when first put into the coop. but little grain should be given to fowls during the time they are fattening in coops; indeed the chief secret of success consists in supplying them with the most fattening food without stint, in such a form that their digestive mills shall find no difficulty in grinding it. buckwheat-meal is the best food for fattening; and to its use the french, in a great measure, owe the splendid condition of the fowls they send to market. if it cannot be had, the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal and barley-meal. the meal may be mixed with skim milk if available. oatmeal and barley-meal alternately, mixed with milk, and occasionally with a little dripping, is good fattening food. milk is most excellent for all young poultry. a little chopped green food should be given daily, to keep their bowels in a proper state. the feeding-troughs, which must be kept clean by frequent scouring, should be placed before the fowls at regular times, and when they have eaten sufficient it is best to remove them, and place a little gravel within reach to assist digestion. each fowl should have as much food as it will eat at one time, but none should be left to become sour. a little barley may, however, be scattered within their reach. a good supply of clean water must be always within their reach. if a bird appears to be troubled with vermin, some powdered sulphur, well rubbed into the roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. the coops should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls are removed, and well dried before fresh birds are put up in them. it is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a process called "cramming," by which they are loaded with greasy fat in a very short time. but it is evident that such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive powers, want of exercise and fresh air, confinement in a small space, and partial deprivation of light, without which nothing living, either animal or vegetable, can flourish, cannot produce healthy or wholesome flesh. "indeed," as mowbray observes, "it seems contrary to reason, that fowls fed upon such greasy, impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh or fat so firm, delicate, high-flavoured, or nourishing, as those fattened upon more simple and substantial food; as for example, meal and milk, and perhaps either treacle or sugar. with respect to grease of any kind, its chief effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse flavour. neither can any advantage be gained, except perhaps a commercial one, by very quick feeding; for real excellence cannot be obtained but by waiting nature's time, and using the best food. besides all this, i have been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten fowls by cramming; they seem to loathe the crams, to pine, and to lose the flesh they were put up with, instead of acquiring flesh; and when crammed fowls do succeed, they must necessarily, in the height of their fat, be in a state of disease." mr. muirhead, poulterer to her majesty in scotland, says: "with regard to _cramming_, i may say that it is _wholly_ unnecessary, provided the fowls have abundance of the best food at regular intervals, fresh air, and a free run; in confinement fowls may gain fat, but they lose flesh. none but those who have had experience can form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in a natural way. i have seen fowls reared at inchmartine (which had never been shut up, or had food forced upon them), equal, if not superior, to the finest surrey fowl, or those fattened by myself for the royal table." if "cramming" is practised it should be done in the following manner: the feeder, usually a female, should take the fowl carefully out of the fatting-coop by placing both her hands gently under its breast, then sit down with the bird upon her lap, its rump under her left arm, open its mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand, take the pellet with the right, dip it well into water, milk, or pot liquor, shake the superfluous moisture from it, put it into the mouth, "cram" it gently into the gullet with her forefinger, then close the beak and gently assist it down into the crop with the forefinger and thumb, without breaking the pellet, and taking great care not to pinch the throat. when the fowl has been "crammed" it should be carefully carried back to its coop, both hands being placed under its breast as before. chickens should be "crammed" regularly every twelve hours. the "cramming" should commence with a few pellets, and the number be gradually increased at each meal until it amounts to about fifteen. but always before you begin to feed gently feel the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal has been digested, and if you find it to contain food, let the bird wait until it is all digested, and give it fewer pellets at the next meal. if the "crams" should become hardened in the crop, some lukewarm water must be given to the bird, or poured down its throat if disinclined to drink, and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can grind it. the food chiefly used in france for "cramming" fowls is buckwheat-meal bolted very fine and mixed with milk. it should be prepared in the following manner: pour the milk, which should be lukewarm in winter, into a hole made in the heap of meal, mixing it up with a wooden spoon a little at a time as long as the meal will take up the milk, and make it into the consistency of dough, keep kneading it until it will not stick to the hands, then divide it into pieces twice as large as an egg, which form into rolls generally about as thick as a small finger, but more or less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed, and divide the rolls into pellets about two and a half inches in length by a slanting cut, which leaves pointed ends, that are easier to "cram" the fowls with than if they were square. the pellets should be rolled up as dry as possible. the operation of caponising as performed in england is barbarous, extremely painful, and dangerous. in france it is performed in a much more scientific and skilful manner. but the small advantage gained by this unnatural operation is more than counterbalanced by the unnecessary pain inflicted on the bird, and the great risk of losing it. capons never moult, and lose their previously strong, shrill voice. in warm, dry countries they grow to a large size, and soon fatten, but do not succeed well in our moist, cold climate. they are not common in this country, and most of the fowls sold in the london markets as capons are merely young cockerels well crammed. if capons are kept they should have a separate house, for the other fowls will not allow those even of their own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them. the hens not only show them indifference, but decided aversion. hen chickens, deprived of their reproductive organs in order to fatten them sooner, are common in france, where they are styled poulardes. fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty days. when fowls are once fattened up they should be killed, for they cannot be kept fat, but begin to lose flesh and become feverish, which renders their flesh red and unsaleable, and frequently causes their death. great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers, higglers, and others, in "twisting the necks" of poultry. an easy mode of killing a fowl is to give the bird a very sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt stick, such as a child's bat or wooden sword, at the back of the neck, about the second or third joint from the head, which will, if properly done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. but the knife is the most merciful means; the bird being first hung up by the legs, the mouth must be opened wide, and a long, narrow, sharp-pointed knife, like a long penknife, which instrument is made for the purpose, should be thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of the mouth up into the brain, which will cause almost instant death. another mode of killing is to pluck a few feathers from the side of the head, just below the ear, and make a deep incision there. some say that fowls should not be bled to death like turkeys and geese, as, from the loss of blood, the flesh becomes dry and insipid. but when great whiteness of flesh is desired, the fowl should be hung up by its legs immediately after being killed, and if it has been killed without the flow of blood, an incision should be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely. fowls that have been kept without food and water for twelve hours before being killed will keep much better than if they had been recently fed, as the food is apt to ferment in the crop and bowels, which often causes the fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather. if empty they should not be drawn, and they will keep much better. fowls are easiest plucked at once, while warm; they should afterwards be scalded by dipping them for a moment in boiling water, which will give a plump appearance to any good fowl. fowls should not be packed for market before they are quite cold. old fowls should not be roasted, but boiled, and they will then prove tolerably good eating. the feathers are valuable and should be preserved, which is very easily managed. "strip the plumage," says mr. wright, "from the quills of the larger feathers, and mix with the small ones, putting the whole loosely in paper bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some other warm place, for a few days to dry. then let the bags be baked three or four times for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each baking, and the process will be completed. less trouble than this will do, and is often made to suffice; but the feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may occasionally become offensive." chapter viii. stock, breeding, and crossing. keep only good, healthy, vigorous, well-bred fowls, whether you keep them to produce eggs or chickens, or both. the ill-bred mongrel fowls which are so commonly kept, are the most voracious, and consume larger quantities of food, without turning it to any account; while well-bred fowls eat less, and quickly convert that into fat, flesh, and eggs. "large, well-bred fowls," says mr. edwards, "do not consume more food than ravenous, mongrel breeds. it is the same with fowls as with other stock. i have at this moment two store pigs, one highly bred, the other a rough, ill-bred animal. they have, since they left their mothers, been fed together and upon the same food. the former, i am confident (from observation), ate considerably less than the latter, which was particularly ravenous. the former pig, however, is in excellent condition, kind, and in a measure fat; whereas the latter looks hard, starved, and thin, and i am sure she will require one-third more food to make bacon of." for the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens, and does not long for prize cups, excellent birds possessing nearly all the best characteristics of their breeds, but rendered imperfect by a few blemishes, may be purchased at a small cost, and will be as good layers or chicken-producers, and answer his purpose as well as the most expensive that can be bought. the choice of breed must depend upon the object for which the fowls are kept, whether chiefly for eggs or to produce chickens, or for both; the climate, soil, and situation; the space that can be allotted to them; and the amount of attention that can be devoted to their care. if fowls are to be bred for exhibition, you must be guided by your own taste, pocket, and resources, as well as by the suitability of the situation for the particular breed desired. the advantages, disadvantages, and peculiarities of the various breeds will be described under their respective heads. in commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and healthy birds. no one sign is infallible to the inexperienced. in general, however, the legs of a young hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles are soft and fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless when fattened for the table), rather light and graceful; whilst an old one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks; her comb and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. but any of these signs may be deceptive, and the beginner should use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "old look," which he will soon learn to know. all authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two years of age, though some birds show every sign of full vigour when only four months old. it is agreed by nearly all the greatest authorities that the ages of the cocks and hens should be different; however, good birds may be bred from parents of the same age, but they should not be less than a year old. the strongest chickens are obtained from two-year old hens by a cockerel of about a year old; but such broods contain a disproportion of cocks, and, therefore, most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from well-grown pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two years of age. the cock should not be related to the hens. it is, therefore, not advisable to purchase him from the same breeder of whom you procure the hens. do not let him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are his own offspring. breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls as in all other animals. some birds retain all their fire and energy until five or even six years of age, but they are beyond their prime after the third, or at the latest their fourth year; and should be replaced by younger birds of the same breed, but from a different stock. poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper number of hens that should be allowed to one cock. columella, who wrote upon poultry about two thousand years ago, advised twelve hens to one cock, but stated that "our ancestors did use to give but five hens." stephanus gave the same number as columella. bradley, and the authors of the "complete farmer," and the article upon the subject in "rees's cyclopædia," give seven or eight; and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting the number of hens to four or five for one cock, in order to obtain strong chickens. if fine, strong chickens be desired for fattening or breeding, there should not be more than five or six hens to one cock; but if the supply of eggs is the chief consideration, ten or twelve may be allowed; indeed, if eggs are the sole object, he can be dispensed with altogether, and his food saved, as hens lay, if there be any difference, rather better without one. the russet red is the most hardy colour, white the most delicate, and black the most prolific. general directions for the choice of fowls, as to size, shape, and colour, cannot be applicable to all breeds, which must necessarily vary upon these points. but in all breeds the cock should, as m. parmentier says, "carry his head high, have a quick, animated look, a strong, shrill voice (except in the cochins, which have a fuller tone), a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles of the same colour, strong wings, muscular thighs, thick legs furnished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. he ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself, as to treat his hens. he ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night." to prevent cocks from fighting, old mascall, following columella, says: "now, to slacke that heate of jealousie, ye shall slitte two pieces of thicke leather, and put them on his legges, and those will hang over his feete, which will correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him"; and m. parmentier observes that "such a bit of leather will cause the most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man who is fettered at the feet, hands, and neck." the hen should be of good constitution and temper, and, if required to sit, large in the body and wide in the wings, so as to cover many eggs and shelter many chickens, but short in the legs, or she could not sit well. m. parmentier advises the rejection of savage, quarrelsome, or peevish hens, as such are seldom favourites with the cocks, scarcely ever lay, and do not hatch well; also all above four or five years of age, those that are too fat to lay, and those whose combs and claws are rough, which are signs that they have ceased to lay. hens should not be kept over their third year unless very good or choice. hens are not uncommon with the plumage and spurs of the cock, and which imitate, though badly, his full-toned crow. in such fowls the power of producing eggs is invariably lost from internal disease, as has been fully demonstrated by mr. yarrell in the "philosophical transactions" for , and in the "proceedings of the zoological society" for . such birds should be fattened and killed as soon as observed. by careful study of the characteristics of the various breeds, breeding from select specimens, and judicious crossing, great size may be attained, maturity early developed, facility in putting on flesh encouraged, hardiness of constitution and strength gained, and the inclination to sit or the faculty of laying increased. sir john sebright, speaking of breeding cattle, says: "animals may be said to be improved when any desired quality has been increased by art beyond what that quality was in the same breed in a state of nature. the swiftness of the racehorse, the propensity to fatten in cattle, and to produce fine wool in sheep, are improvements which have been made in particular varieties in the species to which these animals belong. what has been produced by art must be continued by the same means, for the most improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature, or perhaps defects will arise which did not exist when the breed was in its natural state, unless the greatest attention is paid to the selection of the individuals who are to breed together." the exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its numerous varieties is unknown. it is doubtless derived from one or more of the wild or jungle fowls of india. some naturalists are of opinion that it is derived from the common jungle fowl known as the _gallus bankiva_ of temminck, or _gallus ferrugineus_ of gmelin, which very closely resembles the variety known as black-breasted red game, except that the tail of the cock is more depressed; while others consider it to have been produced by the crossing of that species with one or more others, as the malay gigantic fowl, known as the _gallus giganteus_ of temminck, sonnerat's jungle fowl, _gallus sonneratii_, and probably some other species. at what period or by what people it was reclaimed is not known, but it was probably first domesticated in india. the writers of antiquity speak of it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in their days. very likely there are many species unknown to us in sumatra, java, and the rich woods of borneo. the process by which the various breeds have been produced "is simple and easily understood," says mr. wright. "even in the wild state the original breed will show some amount of variation in colour, form, and size; whilst in domestication the tendency to change, as every one knows, is very much increased. by breeding from birds which show any marked feature, stock is obtained of which a portion will possess that feature in an _increased degree_; and by again selecting the best specimens, the special points sought may be developed to almost any degree required. a good example of such a process of development may be seen in the 'white face' so conspicuous in the spanish breed. white ears will be observed occasionally in all fowls; even in such breeds as cochins or brahmas, where white ear-lobes are considered almost fatal blemishes; they continually occur, and by selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, they might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the characteristics. a large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly established, traces of the white _face_ will now and then be found, and by a similar method is capable of development and fixture; whilst any colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained and established in the same way. the original amount of character required is _very_ slight; a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that characteristic to a whole breed. any peculiarity of _constitution_, such as constant laying, or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner, all that is necessary being care and time. that such has been the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful selection is needful to perpetuate them in perfection. if the very best examples of a breed are selected as the starting-point, and the produce is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a more or less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type, in size and even colour of the plumage. the purest black or white originally, rapidly becomes first marked with, and ultimately changed into, the original red or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously disappear. if, however, the process of artificial selection be carried too far, and with reference _only to one_ prominent point, any breed is almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been neglected, and this has been the case with the very breed already mentioned--the white-faced spanish. we know from old fanciers that this breed was formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely failed to afford a constant supply of its unequalled large white eggs. but of late years attention has been so _exclusively_ directed to the 'white-face,' that whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never before known, the breed has become one of the most delicate of all, and the laying qualities of at least many strains have greatly fallen off. it would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not for a valuable compensating principle, which admits of _crossing_. that principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection by a foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a strain it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic of the cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out again. or one or more of these additional characteristics may be also retained, and thus a _new variety_ be established, as many have been within the last few years." size may be imparted to the dorking by crossing it with the cochin, and the disposition to feather on the legs bred out again by judicious selection; and the constitution may be strengthened by crossing with the game breed. game fowls that have deteriorated in size, strength, and fierceness, by a long course of breeding in-and-in, may have all these qualities restored by crossing with the fierce, powerful, and gigantic malay, and his peculiarities may be afterwards bred out. the size of the eggs of the hamburg might very probably be increased without decreasing, or with very slightly decreasing, the number of eggs, by crossing with a houdan cock; and the size would also be increased for the table. the french breeds, crêve-coeur, houdan, and la flêche, gain in size and hardiness by being crossed with the brahma cock. the cross between a houdan cock and a brahma hen "produces," says the "henwife," "the finest possible chickens for market, but not to breed from. pure brahmas and houdans alone must be kept for that purpose; i have always found the second cross worthless." in crossing, the cockerels will more or less resemble the male, and the pullets the hen. "long experience," says mr. wright, "has ascertained that the male bird has most influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon the comb, and what may be called the 'fancy points,' of any breed generally; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are principally derived from the hen." breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls. in the breeding of poultry it is a rule, as in all other cases of organised life, that the best-shaped be used for the purpose of propagation. if a cock and hen have both the same defect, however trifling it may be, they should never be allowed to breed together, for the object is to improve the breed, not to deteriorate it, even in the slightest degree. hens should never be allowed to associate with a cock of a different breed if you wish to keep the breed pure, and if you desire superior birds, not even with an inferior male of their own variety. "no time," says mr. baily, "has ever been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been running with cocks of divers breeds, and afterwards been placed with their legitimate partners, can be depended upon to produce purely-bred chickens; i am disposed to think at least two months. time of year may have much to do with it. in the winter the escape of a hen from one run to the other, or the intrusion of a cock, is of little moment; but it may be serious in the spring, and destroy the hopes of a season." many poultry-keepers separate the cocks and hens after the breeding season, considering that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next season. where there is a separate house and run for the sitting hen this can be conveniently done when that compartment is vacant. in order to preserve a breed perfectly pure, it will be necessary, where there is not a large stock of the race, to breed from birds sprung from the same parents, but the blood should be crossed every year by procuring one or more fowls of the same breed from a distance, or by the exchange of eggs with some neighbouring stock, of colour and qualities as nearly allied as possible with the original breed. chapter ix. poultry shows. a few years ago poultry shows were unknown. in , the first was held in the gardens of the zoological society, in the regent's park; mr. baily being the sole judge. it was a very fair beginning, but did not succeed, and it was not till the cochin-china breed was introduced into this country, and the first birmingham show was held, that these exhibitions became successful. in , "the first poultry show that was ever held in 'the good old town of birmingham,' was beset with all the untried difficulties of such a scheme, when without the experiences of the present day, then altogether unavailable, a few spirited individuals carried to a successful issue an event that has now proved the foster-parent of the many others of similar character that abound in almost every principal town of the united kingdom. it is quite essential, that i may be clearly understood, to preface my narrative by assuring fanciers that in those former days poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the present time; few and far between were their locations; and though even then, among the few who felt interest in fowls, emulation existed, generally speaking, the keeping of poultry was regarded as 'a useless hobby,' 'a mere individual caprice,' 'an idle whim from which no good result could by possibility accrue'; nay, sometimes it was hinted, 'what a pity they have not something better to employ them during leisure hours!' and they were styled 'enthusiasts.' but have not the records of every age proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of improvement? and time, too, substantiated the verity of this rule in reference to our subject; for, among other proofs, it brought incontestable evidence that the raising of poultry was by no means the unremunerative folly idlers supposed it to be, and hesitated not rashly to declaim it; likewise, that it simply required to be fairly brought under public notice, to prove its general utility, and to induce the acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source of emolument had been hitherto neglected and overlooked." at the birmingham show of , about five thousand fowls were exhibited, and the specimens sold during the four days of the show amounted to nearly two thousand pounds, notwithstanding the high prices affixed to the pens, and that many were placed at enormous prices amounting to a prohibition, the owners not wishing to sell them. the birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to two thousand pens of fowls and water-fowls, arranged in nearly one hundred classes; besides an equal proportion of pigeons. this show is the finest and most important, but there are many others of very high character and great extent. poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable extent at agricultural meetings. any one may see the wonderful improvement that has been made in poultry-breeding by visiting the next birmingham or other first-class show, and comparing the fowls there exhibited with those of his earliest recollections, and with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still be seen in too many farmyards. points that were said to be impossible of attainment have been obtained with comparative ease by perserverance and skill, and the worst birds of a show are now often superior to the chief prize fowls of former days. indeed, "a modern prize bird," says the "henwife," "almost merits the character which a parisian waiter gave of a melon, when asked to pronounce whether it was a fruit or a vegetable, 'gentlemen,' said he, 'a melon is neither; it is a work of art.'" such shows must have great influence on the improvement of the breeds and the general management of poultry, though like all other prize exhibitions they have certain disadvantages. "we cannot but think," says mr. wright, "that our poultry shows have, to some extent, by the character of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds. it will be readily admitted in _theory_ that a breed of fowls becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased, and the quantity and quality of its flesh are improved, with a small amount of bone and offal in proportion. but, if we except the dorking, which certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this is _totally_ lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and attention is fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and other equally fancy 'points.' beauty and utility might be _both_ secured. the french have taught us a lesson of some value in this respect. within a comparatively recent period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of older standing, are all eminently valuable as table fowls; and which in one particular are superior to any english variety, not even excepting the dorking--we mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. this is really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon _one_ definite object, and we do trust the result will prove suggestive with regard to others equally valuable. we should be afraid to say how much might be done if english breeders would bring _their_ perseverance and experience to bear in a similar direction. agricultural societies in particular might be expected in _their_ exhibitions to show some interest in the improvement of poultry regarded as _useful stock_, and to them especially we commend the matter." the rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at different shows, and may be obtained by applying to the secretary. notices of exhibitions are advertised in the local papers, and in the _field_ and other london papers of an agricultural character. in breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one cock should not exceed four or five, but if only two or three hens of the breed are possessed, the proper number of his harem should be made up by the addition of hens of another breed, those being chosen whose eggs are easily known from the others. if it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at the june, july, or august shows, the earlier they are hatched the better, and therefore a sitting should be made in january, if you have a young, healthy hen broody. set her on the ground in a warm, sheltered, and quiet place, perfectly secure from rain, or from any flow of snow water. feed her well, and keep water and small quantities of food constantly within her reach, so that she may not be tempted to leave the nest in search of food; for the eggs soon chill in winter. mix the best oatmeal with hot water, and give it to her warm twice a day. a few grains of hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of the day. the great difficulty to overcome in rearing early chickens is to sustain their vital powers during the very long winter nights, when they are for so many hours without food, the only substitute for which is warmth, and this can only be well got from the hen. consequently a young cochin-china with plenty of "fluff" will provide most warmth. the hen should not be set on more than five, or at most seven eggs; for if she has more, although she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very small, she will not be able to do so when they grow larger, and the outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push themselves into the inside places, and then the displaced chickens being warm are sure to get more chilled than the others; and so the greater number of the brood, even if they survive, will probably be weakly, puny things, through the greedy desire to rear so many, while if she hatch but five chickens she will probably rear four. the hen should be cooped until the chickens are at least ten weeks old, and covered up at night with matting, sacking, or a piece of carpet. give them plenty of curd, chopped egg, and oatmeal, mixed with new milk. stiff oatmeal porridge is the best stock food. some onion tops minced fine will be an excellent addition if they can be had. they should have some milk to drink. feed the hen well. the best warmth the chickens can have is that of their mother, and the best warmth for her is generated by generous, but proper, food, and a good supply of it. early chickens rearing for show should be fed twice after dark, say at eight and eleven o'clock, and again at seven in the morning, so that they will not be without food for more than eight hours. the hen should be fed at the same times, and she will become accustomed to it, and call the chickens to feed; it will also generate more warmth in her for their benefit. yolk of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening for weakly chickens; or it may be mixed with their oatmeal. the tender breeds should not be hatched till april or may, unless in a mild climate, or with exceptional advantages. for winter exhibition, march and april hatched birds are preferable to those hatched earlier. not more than seven eggs should be set, for a hen cannot scratch up insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more than six chickens. if the chickens have not a good grass run, they must be supplied with abundance of green food. they should not be allowed to roost before they are three months old, and the perches must be sufficiently large. mr. wright recommends a bed of clean, dry ashes, an inch deep, for those that leave the hen before the proper age for roosting, and does not allow his chickens, even while with the hen, to bed upon straw, considering the ashes to be much cleaner and also warmer. the chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished from their companions by small stripes of different coloured silks loosely sewn round their legs, which distinguishing colours should be entered in the poultry-book. a few good birds should always be kept in reserve to fill up the pen in case of accidents. weight is more important in the december and later winter shows than at those held between august and november, but at all shows feather and other points of competitors being equal weight must carry the day, game and bantams excepted. it is not safe to trust to the apparent weight of a bird, for the feathers deceive, and it is therefore advisable to weigh the birds occasionally. each should be weighed in a basket, allowance being made for the weight of the basket, and they should if possible be weighed before a meal. but fowls that are over-fattened, as some judges very improperly desire, cannot be in good health anymore than "crammed" fowls, and are useless for breeding, producing at best a few puny, delicate, or sickly chickens; thus making the exhibition a mere "show," barren of all useful results. pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay, which almost or quite stops their growth; and therefore if great size is desired for exhibition, they should be kept from the cockerels and partly from stimulating food until a month before the show, when they will be required to be matched in pens. during this month they should have extra food and attention. if fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit, the chickens are apt to cause injury to their plumage, and loss of condition, while if prevented from sitting, they are liable to suffer in moulting. their chickens may be given to other hens, but the best and safest plan is to set a broody exhibition hen on duck's eggs, which will satisfy her natural desire for sitting, while the young ducklings will give her much less trouble, and leave her sooner than a brood of her own kind. all the birds in a pen should match in comb, colour of their legs, and indeed in every particular. mr. baily mentions "a common fault in exhibitors who send two pens composed of three excellent and three inferior birds, so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one highly commended pen: whereas a different selection would make one of unusual merit. if an amateur who wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to choose from, and to form a pen of a cock and two hens, he should study and scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning. he should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen, wherein he can put the selected birds; they should be raised to the height at which he can best see them, and before he has looked long at them defects will become apparent one after the other till, in all probability, neither of the subjects of his first selection will go to the show. we also advise him rather to look for defects than to dwell on beauties--the latter are always prominent enough. the pen of which we speak should be a moveable one for convenience' sake, and it is well to leave the fowls in it for a time that they may become accustomed to each other, and also to an exhibition pen." birds that are strangers should never be put into the same hamper, for not only the cocks but even the hens will fight with and disfigure each other. some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to impart lustre to the plumage, by increasing the secretion of oil. a small quantity of the meal should be mixed with their usual soft food, as fowls generally refuse the whole grain. but buckwheat and hempseed, mixed in equal proportions, if given for the evening meal during the last ten or twelve days, is healthier for the bird, much liked, and will not only impart equal lustre to the plumage, but also improve the appearance of the comb and wattles. spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some days before the show, with just enough light to enable them to feed and perch, and the place should be littered with clean straw. this greatly improves their condition; why we know not, but it is an established fact. game fowls should be kept in for a few days, and fed on meal, barley, and bread, with a few peas, which tend to make the plumage hard, but will make them too fat if given freely. dark and golden birds should be allowed to run about till they have to be sent off. remove all scurf or dead skin from the comb, dry dirt from the beak, and stains from the plumage, and wash their legs clean. white and light fowls that have a good grass run and plenty of clean straw in their houses and yards to scratch in, will seldom require washing, but town birds, and country ones if not perfectly clean, should be washed the day before the show with tepid water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel, care being taken to wash the feathers downwards, so as not to break or ruffle them; afterwards wiped with a piece of flannel that has been thoroughly soaked in clean water, and gently dried with soft towels before the fire; or the bird may be entirely dipped into a pan of warm water, then rinsed thoroughly in cold water, wiped with a flannel, and placed in a basket with soft straw before a fire to dry. they should then be shut up in their houses with plenty of clean straw. they should have their feet washed if dirty, and be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put into the travelling-basket, for hard food is apt to cause fever and heat while travelling, and, having to be digested without gravel or exercise, causes indigestion, which ruffles the plumage, dulls its colour, darkens the comb, and altogether spoils the appearance of the bird. sopped or steeped bread is excellent. the hampers should always be round or oval in form, as fowls invariably creep into corners and destroy their plumage. they should be high enough for the cocks to stand upright in, without touching the top with their combs. some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids, considering that the former preserve the fowls' combs from injury if they should strike against the top, while others prefer the latter as being more secure, and allowing one hamper to be placed upon another if necessary, and also preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or package should otherwise be placed over it. a good plan is to have a double canvas top, the space between being filled with hay. a thick layer of hay or straw should be placed at the bottom of the basket. wheaten straw is the best in summer and early autumn, and oat or barley straw later in the year and during winter. a good lining also is essential; coarse calico stitched round the inside of the basket is the best. ducks and geese do not require their hampers to be lined, except in very cold weather; and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of pulled straw round the inside of the basket. turkeys should have their hampers lined, for although they are very hardy, cold and wet damage their appearance more than other poultry. take care that the geese cannot get at the label, for they will eat it, and also devour the hempen fastenings if within their reach. be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition; describe their ages, breed, &c., exactly and accurately, and see yourself to the packing and labelling of their hampers. mr. f. wragg, the superintendent of the poultry-yard of r. w. boyle, esq., whose fowls have a sea voyage from ireland besides the railway journey, and yet always appear in splendid condition and "bloom," ties on one side of the hamper, "near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on the other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf, of which they will eat away all the soft part. before starting, i give each bird half a tablespoonful of port wine, which makes them sleep a good part of the journey. of course, if i go with my birds, as i generally do, i see that they, as well as myself, have 'refreshment' on the road."[a] the cabbage will always be a treat, and the loaf and wine may be added for long journeys. birds are frequently over-fed at the show, particularly with barley, which cannot be properly digested for want of gravel and exercise; and therefore, if upon their return their crops are hard and combs look dark, give a tablespoonful of castor oil; but if they look well do not interfere with them. they should not have any grain, but be fed sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale, with two or three mouthfuls of tepid water, for liquid is most hurtful if given in quantity. they should not be put into the yard with the other fowls which may treat them, after their absence, as intruders, but be joined with them at night when the others have gone to roost. on the next day give them a moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of water, or stale bread sopped in water, and a sod of grass or half a cabbage leaf each, but no other green food; and on the following day they may have their usual food. when the fowls are brought back, take out the linings, wash them, and put them by to be ready for the next show; and after the exhibition season, on a fine dry day, wash the hampers, dry them thoroughly, and put them in a dry place. never use them as quiet berths for sick birds, which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the next occupants; or as nesting-places for sitting hens, which may leave insects in the crevices that will be difficult to eradicate. in our descriptions of the various breeds, we have given sufficient general information upon the exhibition points from the best authorities; but considerable differences of opinion have been expressed of late years, and eminent breeders dissent in some cases even from the generally recognised authority of the popular "standard of excellence." we, therefore, advise intending exhibitors to ascertain the standards to be followed at the show and the predilections of the judges, and to breed accordingly, or, if they object to the views held, not to compete at that exhibition. technical terms. _coverts._--the _upper_ and _lower wing coverts_ are those ranges of feathers which cover the primary quills; and the _tail coverts_ are those feathers growing on each side of the tail, and are longer than the body feathers, but shorter than those of the tail. _dubbing._--cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock; an operation usually confined to game cocks. _ear-lobe._--the small feathers covering the organ of hearing, which is placed a little behind the eye. _flight._--the last five feathers of each wing. _fluff._--the silky feathers growing on the thighs and hinder parts of cochin-china fowls. _hackles._--the _neck hackles_ are feathers growing from the neck, and covering the shoulders and part of the back; and the _saddle hackles_ those growing from the end of the back, and falling over the sides. _legs._--the _legs_ are properly the lower and scaly limbs, the upper part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called legs, being correctly styled the _thighs_. _primary quills._--the long, strong quills, usually ten in number, forming the chief portion of each wing, and the means of flight. _vulture-hocked._--feathers growing from the thigh, and projecting backwards below the knee. [illustration: buff and white cochin-china. malay cock. light and dark brahmas.] chapter x. cochin-chinas, or shanghaes. like many other fowls these possess a name which is incorrectly applied, for they came from shanghae, not cochin-china, where they were comparatively unknown. mr. fortune, who, from his travels in china, is well qualified to give an opinion, states that they are a chinese breed, kept in great numbers at shanghae; the real cochin-china breed being small and elegantly shaped. but all attempts to give them the name of the port from which they were brought have failed, and the majority of breeders persist in calling them cochins. in the united states both names are used, the feather-legged being called shanghaes, and the clean-legged cochins. the first shanghae fowls brought to this country were sent from india to her majesty, which gave them great importance; and the eggs having been freely distributed by the kindness of the queen and the prince consort, the breed was soon widely spread. they were first introduced into this country when the northern ports of china, including shanghae, were thrown open to european vessels on the conclusion of the chinese war in ; but some assign the date of their introduction from to , and say that those called cochins, exhibited by the queen in , were not the true breed, having been not only entirely without feathers on the shanks, but also altogether different in form and general characteristics. a pair which were sent by her majesty for exhibition at the dublin cattle show in april, , created such a sensation from their great size and immense weight, and the full, loud, deep-pitched crowing of the cock, that almost every one seemed desirous to possess some of the breed, and enormous prices were given for the eggs and chickens. with his propensity for exaggeration, paddy boasted that they laid five eggs in two days, each weighing three ounces, that the fowls equalled turkeys in size, and "cochin eggs became in as great demand as though they had been laid by the fabled golden goose. philosophers, poets, merchants, and sweeps had alike partook of the mania; and although the latter could hardly come up to the price of a real cochin, there were plenty of vagabond dealers about, with counterfeit crossed birds of all kinds, which were advertised to be the genuine article. for to such a pitch did the excitement rise, that they who never kept a fowl in their lives, and would hardly know a bantam from a dorking, puzzled their shallow brains as to the proper place to keep them, and the proper diet to feed them on." their justly-deserved popularity speedily grew into a mania, and the price which had been from fifteen to thirty shillings each, then considered a high price for a fowl, rose to ten pounds for a fine specimen, and ultimately a hundred guineas was repeatedly paid for a single cock, and was not an uncommon price for a pair of really fine birds. "they were afterwards bred," says miss watts, "for qualities difficult of attainment, and, as the result proved, little worth trying for," and "fowls with _many_ excellent qualities were blamed for not being _perfect_," and they fell from their high place, and were as unjustly depreciated as they had been unduly exalted. "had these birds," wrote mr. baily many years since, "been shy breeders--if like song birds the produce of a pair were four, or at most five, birds in the year, prices might have been maintained; but as they are marvellous layers they increased. they bred in large numbers, and consequently became cheaper, and then the mania ended, because those who dealt most largely in them did so not from a love of the birds or the pursuit, but as a speculation. as they had over-praised them before, they now treated them with contempt. anything like a moderate profit was despised, and the birds were left to their own merits. these were sufficient to ensure their popularity, and now after fluctuating in value more than anything except shares, after being over-praised and then abused, they have remained favourites with a large portion of the public, sell at a remunerating price, and form one of the largest classes at all the great exhibitions." this has proved to be a perfectly correct view, and the breed is now firmly established in public estimation, and unusually fine birds will still sell for from five to twenty pounds each. the mania did great service to the breeding and improvement of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject throughout the kingdom which has lasted. they are the best of all fowls for a limited space, and not inclined to wander even when they have an extensive run. they cannot fly, and a fence three feet high will keep them in. but if kept in a confined space they must have an unlimited supply of green food. they give us eggs when they are most expensive, and indeed, with regard to new-laid eggs, when they are almost impossible to be had at any price. they begin to lay soon after they are five months old, regardless of the season or weather, and lay throughout the year, except when requiring to sit, which they do twice or thrice a year, and some oftener. pullets will sometimes lay at fourteen weeks, and want to sit before they are six months old. cochins have been known to lay twice in a day, but not again on the following day, and the instances are exceptional. their eggs are of a pale chocolate colour, of excellent flavour, and usually weigh - / ounces each. they are excellent sitters and mothers. pullets will frequently hatch, lay again, and sit with the chickens of the first brood around them. cochins are most valuable as sitters early in the year, being broody when other fowls are beginning to lay; but unless cooped they are apt to leave their chickens too soon, especially for early broods, and lay again. they are very hardy, and their chickens easy to rear, doing well even in bleak places without any unusual care. but they are backward in fledging, chickens bred from immature fowls being the most backward. those which are cockerels show their flight feathers earliest. they are very early matured. a writer in the _poultry chronicle_ well says: "these fowls were sent to provide food for man; by many they are not thought good table fowls; but when others fail, if you keep them, you shall never want the luxury of a really new-laid egg on your breakfast table. the snow may fall, the frost may be thick on your windows when you first look out on a december morning, but your cochins will provide you eggs. your children shall learn gentleness and kindness from them, for they are kind and gentle, and you shall be at peace with your neighbours, for they will not wander nor become depredators. they have fallen in price because they were unnaturally exalted; but their sun is not eclipsed; they have good qualities, and valuable. they shall now be within the reach of all; and will make the delight of many by their domestic habits, which will allow them to be kept where others would be an annoyance." they will let you take them off their roost, handle and examine them, and put them back without struggling. the fault of the cochin-chinas as table birds is, that they produce most meat on the inferior parts; thus, there is generally too little on the breast which is the prime part of a fowl, while the leg which is an inferior part, is unusually fleshy, but it must be admitted that the leg is more tender than in other breeds. a greater quantity of flesh may be raised within a given time, on a certain quantity of food, from these fowls than from any other breed. the cross with the dorking is easily reared, and produces a very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table, and a good layer. "a great hue and cry," says miss watts, "has been raised against the cochin-chinas as fowls for the table, but we believe none have bestowed attention on breeding them with a view to this valuable consideration. square, compact, short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain colour of feather, and a broad chest was given up for the wedge-form at the very time that was pronounced a fault in the fowl. it is said that yellow-legged fowls are yellow also in the skin, and that white skin and white legs accompany each other; but how pertinaciously the yellow leg of the cochin is adhered to! yet all who have bred them will attest that a little careful breeding would perpetuate white-legged cochins. exhibitions are generally excellent; but to this fowl they certainly have only been injurious, by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at the expense of those which are solid and useful. who would favour, or even sanction, a dorking in which size and shape, and every property we value in them, was sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular colour? and this is what we have been doing with the cochin-china. many breeders say, eat cochins while very young; but we have found them much better for the table as fowls than as chickens. a fine cochin, from five to seven months old, is like a turkey, and very juicy and fine in flavour." a peculiar characteristic of these birds, technically called "fluff," is a quantity of beautifully soft, long feathers, covering the thighs till they project considerably, and garnishing all the hinder parts of the bird in the same manner, so that the broadest part of the bird is behind. its quality is a good indication of the breed; if fine and downy the birds are probably well-bred, but if rank and coarse they are inferior. the cocks are frequently somewhat scanty in "fluff," but should be chosen with as much as possible; but vulture-hocks which often accompany the heaviest feathered birds should be avoided, as they now disqualify at the best shows. "the fluff," says a good authority, "in the hen especially, should so cover the tail feathers as to give the appearance of a very short back, the line taking an upward direction from within an inch or so of the point of junction with the hackle." the last joint of the wings folds up, so that the ends of the flight feathers are concealed by the middle feathers, and their extremities are again covered by the copious saddle, which peculiarity has caused them to be also called the ostrich-fowl. a good cochin cock should be compact, large, and square built; broad across the loins and hind-quarters; with a deep keel; broad, short back; short neck; small, delicately-shaped, well-arched head; short, strong, curved beak; rather small, finely and evenly serrated, straight, single, erect comb, wholly free from reduplications and sprigs; brilliant red face, and pendant wattles; long hanging ear-lobe, of pure red, white being inadmissible; bright, bold eye, approaching the plumage in colour; rich, full, long hackle; small, closely-folded wings; short tail, scarcely any in some fine specimens, not very erect, with slightly twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those of the ostrich; stout legs set widely apart, yellow and heavily feathered to the toe; and erect carriage. the chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast, which should therefore be sought for as full as possible. the hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that of the cock. she resembles him upon most points, but differs in some; her comb having many indentations; the fluff being softer, and of almost silky quality; the tail has upright instead of falling feathers, and comes to a blunt point; and her carriage is less upright. cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed, and moult with more difficulty each time. they are in their greatest beauty at from nine to eighteen months old. the cocks' tails increase with age. in buying cochins avoid clean legs, fifth toes, which show that it has been crossed with the dorking, double combs that betray malay blood, and long tails, particularly taking care that the cock has not, and ascertaining that he never had, sickle feathers. the cock ought not to weigh less than ten or eleven pounds, and a very fine bird will reach thirteen; the hens from eight to ten pounds. the principal colours now bred are buff, cinnamon, partridge, grouse, black, and white. the buff and white are the most popular. buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes, but the less there is the better. black-pencilling in the hackle is considered objectionable at good shows. the cock's neck hackles, wing coverts, back, and saddle hackles, are usually of a rich gold colour, but his breast and the lower parts of his body should match with those of his hens. buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than themselves. most birds become rather lighter at each moult. in making up an exhibition pen, observe that grouse and partridge hens should have a black-breasted cock; and that buff and cinnamon birds should not be placed together, but all the birds in the pen should be either buff or cinnamon. the cinnamon are of two shades, the light cinnamon and the silver, which is a pale washy tint, that looks very delicate and pretty when perfectly clean. silver cinnamon hens should not be penned with a pale yellow cock, but with one as near to their own tint as can be found. mr. andrews's celebrated strain of cochins sometimes produced both cocks and hens which were silver cinnamon, with streaks of gold in the hackle. in partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles should be of a bright red, striped with black, his back and wings of dark red, the latter crossed with a well-defined bar of metallic greenish black, and the breast and under parts of his body should be black, and not mottled. the hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold, striped with black, and all the other portions of her body of a light brown, pencilled with very dark brown. the grouse are very dark partridge, have a very rich appearance, and are particularly beautiful when laced. they are far from common, and well worth cultivating. the partridge are more mossed in their markings, and not so rich in colour as the grouse. cuckoo cochins are marked like the cuckoo dorkings, and difficult to breed free of yellow. the white and black were introduced later than the others. mr. baily says the white were principally bred from a pair imported and given to the dean of worcester, and which afterwards became the property of mrs. herbert, of powick. white cochins for exhibition must have yellow legs, and they are prone to green. the origin of the black is disputed. it is said to be a sport from the white, or to have been produced by a cross between the buff and the white. by careful breeding it has been fixed as a decided sub-variety, but it is difficult, if not almost impossible, to rear a cock to complete maturity entirely free from coloured feathers. they keep perfectly pure in colour till six months old, after which age they sometimes show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing, or a few streaks of red upon the hackle, of so dark a shade as to be imperceptible except in a strong light, and are often found on close examination to have white under feathers, and others barred with white. the legs in all the colours should be yellow. flesh-coloured legs are admissible, but green, black, or white are defects. in the partridge and grouse a slight wash, as of indigo, appears to be thrown over them, which in the black assumes a still darker shade; but in all three yellow should appear partially even here beneath the scales, as the pink tinge does in the buff and white birds. cochin-chinas being much inclined to accumulate internal fat, which frequently results in apoplexy, should not be fed on food of a very fattening character, such as indian corn. they are liable to have inflamed feet if they are obliged to roost on very high, small, or sharp perches, or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones. they are also subject to an affection called white comb, which is a white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles like powdered chalk; and if not properly treated in time, will spread over the whole body, causing the feathers to fall off. it is caused by want of cleanliness, over-stimulating or bad food, and most frequently by want of green food, which must be supplied, and the place rubbed with an ointment composed of two parts of cocoanut oil, and one of turmeric powder, to which some persons add one half part of sulphur; and six grains of jalap may be given to clear the bowels. chapter xi. brahma-pootras. it is a disputed point among great authorities whether brahmas form a distinct variety, or whether they originated in a cross with the cochin, and have become established by careful breeding. when they were first introduced, mr. baily considered them to be a distinct breed, and has since seen nothing to alter his opinion. their nature and habits are quite dissimilar, for they wander from home and will get their own living where a cochin would starve, have more spirit, deeper breasts, are hardier, lay larger eggs, are less prone to sit, and never produce a clean-legged chicken. whatever their origin, by slow and sure degrees, without any mania, they have become more and more popular, standing upon their own merits, and are now one of the most favourite varieties. "the worst accusation," says miss watts, "their enemies can advance against them is, that no one knows their origin; but this is applicable to them only as it is when applied to dorkings, spanish, polands, and all the other kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful breeding, working on good originals. all we have in england are descended from fowls imported from the united states, and the best account of them is, that a sailor (rather vague, certainly) appeared in an american town (boston or new york, i forget which) with a new kind of fowl for sale, and that a pair bought from him were the parents of all the brahmas. uncertain as this appears, the accounts of those who pretend to trace their origin as cross-bred fowls is, at least, equally so, and i believe we may just act towards the brahmas as we do with regard to dorkings and other good fowls, and be satisfied to possess a first-rate, useful kind, although we may be unable to trace its genealogical tree back to the root. whatever may be their origin, i find them distinct in their characteristics. i have found them true to their points, generation after generation, in all the years that i have kept them. the pea-comb is very peculiar, and i have never had one chicken untrue in this among all that i have bred. their habits are very unlike the cochins. although docile, they are much less inert; they lay a larger number of eggs, and sit less frequently. many of my hens only wish to sit once a year; a few oftener than that, perhaps twice or even three times in rare instances, but never at the end of each small batch of eggs, as i find (my almost equal favourites) the cochins do. the division of light and dark brahmas is a fancy of the judges, which any one who keeps them can humour with a little care in breeding. my idea of their colour is, that it should be black and grey (iron grey, with more or less of a blue tinge, and devoid of any brown) on a clear white ground, and i do not care whether the white or the marking predominates. i believe breeders could bear me out, if they would, when i say many fowls which pass muster as brahmas are the result of a cross, employed to increase size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges affect." for strength of constitution, both as chickens and fowls, they surpass all other breeds. brahmas like an extensive range, but bear confinement as well as any fowls, and keep cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any that have white feathers. they are capital foragers where they have their liberty, are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than cochins, and most prolific in eggs. they lay regularly on an average five fine large eggs a week all the year round, even when snow is on the ground, except when moulting or tending their brood. mr. boyle, of bray, ireland, the most eminent breeder of dark brahmas in great britain, says he has "repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in autumn, and _never stop_--let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm--for a single day till next spring." they usually lay from thirty to forty eggs before they seek to sit. the hens do not sit so often as cochins, and a week's change of place will generally banish the desire. they put on flesh well, with plenty of breast-meat, and are more juicy and better shaped for the table than most cochins; though, after they are six months old, the flesh is much inferior to that of the dorking. a cross with a dorking or crêve-coeur cock produces the finest possible table fowl, carrying almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality. the chickens are hardy and easy to rear. they vary in colour when first hatched, being all shades of brown, yellow, and grey, and are often streaked on the back and spotted about the head; but this variety gives place, as the feathers come, to the mixture of black, white, and grey, which forms the distinguishing colour of the brahma. mr. baily has "hatched them in snow, and reared them all out of doors without any other shelter than a piece of mat or carpet thrown over the coop at night." they reach their full size at an early age, and the pullets are in their prime at eight months. miss watts noticed that brahmas "are more clever in the treatment of themselves when they are ill than other fowls; when they get out of order, they will generally fast until eating is no longer injurious," which peculiarity is corroborated by the experienced "henwife." the feathers of the brahma-pootra are said to be nearly equal to goose feathers. the head should have a slight fulness over the eye, giving breadth to the top; a full, pearl eye is much admired, but far from common; comb either a small single, or pea-comb--the single resembling that of the cochin; the neck short; the breast wide and full; the legs short, yellow, and well-feathered, but not so fully as in the finest cochins; and the tail short but full, and in the cock opening into a fan. they should be wide and deep made, large and weighty, and have a free, noble carriage, equally distinct from the waddle of the cochin, and the erect bearing of the malay. unlike the cochins, they keep constantly to their colour, which is a mixture of black, white, and grey; the lightest being almost white, and the darkest consisting of grey markings on a white ground. the colour is entirely a matter of taste, but the bottom colour should always be grey. "after breeding brahmas for many years," says miss watts, "through many generations and crosses (always, however, keeping to families imported direct from america), we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the pea-comb is _the_ comb for the brahma; and this seems now a settled question, for single-combed birds never take prizes when passable pea-combed birds are present. the leading characteristic of the peculiar comb, named by the americans the pea-comb, is its triple character. it may be developed and separated almost like three combs, or nearly united into one; but its triple form is always evident. what we think most beautiful is, where the centre division is a little fluted, slightly serrated, and flanked by two little side combs. the degree of the division into three varies, and the peculiarities of the comb may be less perceptible in december than when the hens are laying; but the triple character of the pea-comb is always evident. it shows itself in the chick at a few days old, in three tiny paralleled lines." it is thick at the base, and like three combs joined into one, the centre comb being higher than the other, but the comb altogether must be low, rounded at the top, and the indentations must not be deep. whether single or triple, all the combs in a pen should be uniform. the dark and light varieties should not be crossed, as, according to mr. teebay, who was formerly the most extensive and successful breeder of brahmas in england, the result is never satisfactory. chapter xii. malays. this was the first of the gigantic asiatic breeds imported into this country, and in height and size exceeds any fowl yet known. the origin of the malay breed is supposed to be the _gallus giganteus_ of temminck. "this large and very remarkable species," says mr. w. c. l. martin, "is a native of java and sumatra. the comb is thick and low, and destitute of serrations, appearing as if it had been partially cut off; the wattles are small, and the throat is bare. the neck is covered with elongated feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour, which advance upon the back, and hackles of the same colour cover the rump, and drop on each side of the base of the tail. the middle of the back and the shoulders of the wings are of a dark chestnut, the feathers being of a loose texture. the greater wing-coverts are of a glossy green, and form a bar of that colour across the wing. the primary and secondary quill feathers are yellowish, with a tinge of rufous. the tail feathers are of a glossy green. the under surface uniformly is of a glossy blackish green, but the base of each feather is a chestnut, and this colour appears on the least derangement of the plumage. the limbs are remarkably stout, and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour. the voice is a sort of crow--hoarse and short, and very different from the clear notes of defiance uttered by our farmyard chanticleer. this species has the habit, when fatigued, of resting on the tarsi or legs, as we have seen the emu do under similar circumstances." in the "proceedings of the zoological society" for , we find the following notice respecting this breed, by colonel sykes, who observed it domesticated in the deccan: "known by the name of the kulm cock by europeans in india. met with only as a domestic bird; and colonel sykes has reason to believe that it is not a native of india, but has been introduced by the mussulmans from sumatra or java. the iris of the real game bird should be whitish or straw yellow. colonel sykes landed two cocks and a hen in england in june, . they bore the winter well; the hen laid freely, and has reared two broods of chickens. the cock has not the shrill clear pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale of note appears more limited. a cock in the possession of colonel sykes stood twenty-six inches high to the crown of the head; but they attain a greater height. length from the tip of the bill to the insertion of the tail, twenty-three inches. hen one-third smaller than the male. shaw very justly describes the habit of the cock, of resting, when tired, on the first joint of the leg." it is a long, large, heavy bird, standing remarkably upright, having an almost uninterrupted slope from the head to the insertion of the tail; with very long, though strong, yellow legs, quite free from feathers; long, stout, firm thighs, and stands very erect; the cock, when full grown, being at least two feet six inches, and sometimes over three feet in height, and weighing from eight to eleven pounds. the head has great fulness over the eye, and is flattened above, resembling that of the snake. the small, thick, hard comb, scarcely rising from the head, and barely as long, like half a strawberry, resembles that of a game fowl dubbed. the wattles are very small; the neck closely feathered, and like a rope, with a space for an inch below the beak bare of feathers. it has a hard, cruel expression of face; a brilliant bold eye, pearled around the edge of the lids; skinny red face; very strong curved yellow beak; and small, drooping tail, with very beautiful, though short, sickle feathers. the hen resembles the cock upon all these points, but is smaller. their colours now comprise different shades of red and deep chestnut, in combination with rich browns, and there are also black and white varieties, each of which should be uniform. the feathers should be hard and close, which causes it to be heavier than it appears. malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers, but the pullets commence laying early, and are often good winter layers. their eggs, which weigh about - / ounces each, are of a deep buff or pale chocolate colour, surpass all others in flavour, and are so rich that two of them are considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls. they are nearly always fertile. their chief excellence is as table fowls, carrying, as they do, a great quantity of meat, which, when under a year old, is of very good quality and flavour. crossed with the spanish and dorking, they produce excellent table fowls; the latter cross being also good layers. malays are good sitters and mothers, if they have roomy nests. their chickens should not be hatched after june, as they feather slowly, and are delicate; but the adult birds are hardy enough, and seem especially adapted to crowded localities, such as courts and alleys. "malays," says mr. baily, "will live anywhere; they will inhabit a back yard of small dimensions; they will scratch in the dust-hole, and roost under the water-butt; and yet not only lay well, but show in good condition when requisite." like the game fowl, it is terribly pugnacious, and in its native country is kept and trained for fighting. this propensity, which is still greater in confinement, is its greatest disadvantage. when closely confined they are apt to eat each other's feathers, the cure for which is turning them into a grass run, and giving them a good supply of lettuce leaves, with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap. the chittagong is said to be a variety of the malay. chapter xiii. game. this is the kind expressly called the english breed by buffon and the french writers, and is the noblest and most beautiful of all breeds, combining an admirable figure, brilliant plumage, and stately gait. it is most probably derived from the larger or continental indian species of the javanese, or bankiva jungle fowl--the _gallus bankiva_ of temminck--which is a distinct species, distinguished chiefly from the javanese fowl by its larger size. (_see_ page .) of this continental species, sir w. jardine states that he has seen three or four specimens, all of which came from india proper. the game cock is the undisputed king of all poultry, and is unsurpassed for courage. the malay is more cruel and ferocious, but has less real courage. game fowls are in every respect fighting birds, and, although cock-fighting is now very properly prohibited by law, game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to fighting qualities. but their pugnacious disposition renders them very troublesome, especially if they have not ample range, although it does not disqualify them for small runs to the extent generally supposed. a blow with his spur is dangerous, and instances have been recorded of very severe injuries inflicted upon children, even causing death. an old newspaper states that "mr. johnson, a farmer in the west riding of yorkshire, who has a famous breed of the game fowl, has had the great misfortune to lose his little son, a boy of three years old, who was attacked by a game cock, and so severely injured that he died shortly afterwards." high-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as the cocks. the chickens are very quarrelsome, and both cocks and hens fight so furiously, that frequently one-half of a brood is destroyed, and the other half have to be killed. game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty, but cannot be well kept in a confined space. they eat little, and are excellent for an unprotected place, because by their activity they avoid danger themselves, and by their courage defend their chickens from enemies. the hen is a prolific layer, and, if she has a good run, equal to any breed. the eggs, though of moderate size only, are remarkable for delicacy of flavour. she is an excellent sitter, and still more excellent mother. the chickens are easily reared, require little food, and are more robust in constitution than almost any other variety. the flesh of the game fowl is beautifully white, and superior to that of all other breeds for richness and delicacy of flavour. they should never be put up to fat, as they are impatient of confinement. "they are in no way fit for the fattening-coop," says mr. baily. "they cannot bear the extra food without excitement, and that is not favourable to obesity. nevertheless, they have their merits. if they are reared like pheasants round a keeper's house, and allowed to run semi-wild in the woods, to frequent sunny banks and dry ditches, they will grow up like them; they will have little fat, but they will be full of meat. they must be eaten young; and a game pullet four or five months old, caught up wild in this way, and killed two days before she is eaten, is, perhaps, the most delicious chicken there is in point of flavour." the game-fowl continues to breed for many years without showing any signs of decay, and in this respect is superior to the cochin, brahma, and even to the dorking. the cock's head should be long, but fine; beak long, curved, and strong; comb single, small, upright, and bright red; wattles and face bright red; eyes large and brilliant; neck long, arched, and strong; breast well developed; back short and broad between the shoulders, but tapering to the tail; thighs muscular, but short compared to the shanks; spur low; foot flat, with powerful claws, and his carriage erect. the form of the hen should resemble the above on a smaller scale, with small, fine comb and face, and wattles of a less intense red. the feathers of both should be very hard, firm, and close, very strong in the quills, and seem so united that it should be almost impossible to ruffle them, each feather if lifted up falling readily into its original place. size is not a point of merit, from four to six pounds being considered sufficient, and better than heavier weights. among the list of imperfections in game cocks, sketchley enumerates "flat sides, short legs, thin thighs, crooked or indented breast, short thin neck, imperfect eye, and duck or short feet." "it is the custom," says miss watts, "consequently imperative, that all birds which are exhibited should have been dubbed, and this should not be done until the comb is so much developed that it will not spring again after the dubbing. this will be safe if the chicken is nearly six months old, but some are more set than others at a certain age. a keen pair of scissors is the best instrument with which to operate. hold the fowl with a firm hand, cut away the deaf ears and wattles, then cut the comb, cutting a certain distance from the back, and then from the front to join this cut, taking especial care not to go too near the skull. some operators put a finger inside the mouth to get a firm purchase. we should like to see dubbing done away with, leaving these beautiful fowls as nature makes them; but since amateurs and shows will not agree to this, it is best to give directions for dubbing, as an operation bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary pain." to save the bird from excessive loss of blood his wattles are usually cut off a week later. every superfluous piece of flesh and skin should be removed. the "henwife" well says: "why these poor birds are condemned to submit to this cruel operation is a mystery, unfathomable, i suspect, even by the judges themselves. cock-fighting being forbidden by law, the cocks should, on principle, be left undubbed, as a protest against this brutal amusement. the comb of the game male bird is as beautifully formed as that of the dorking; why then rob it of this great ornament? it is asserted that it is necessary to remove the comb to prevent the cocks injuring each other fatally in fighting; but this is not true; a dorking will fight for the championship as ardently as any game bird, and yet his comb is spared. cockerels will not quarrel if kept apart from hens until the breeding season, when they should be separated, and put on their several walks. if pugnaciously inclined i do not believe that the absence of the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction; therefore i raise my voice for pity, in favour of the beautiful game cock." the colours are various, and they are classed into numerous varieties and sub-varieties, of which the chief are--black-breasted red; brown-red; silver duck-wing greys, so called from the feathers resembling those of a duck; greys; blues; duns; piles, or pieds; black; white; and brassy-winged, which is black with yellow on the lesser wing coverts. colours and markings must be allowed a somewhat wide range in this breed; and figure, with courage, may be held to prove purity of blood though the colour be doubtful. mr. douglas considers the black-breasted red the finest feathered game, and states that he never found any come so true to colour as a brood of that variety. white in the tail feathers is highly objectionable, though not an absolute disqualification. white fowls should be entirely white, with white legs. the rules for the coloured legs are very undecided. light legs match light-coloured birds best. no particular colour is imperative, but it should harmonise with the plumage, and all in a pen must agree. the best layers are the black-breasted reds with willow legs, and the worst the greys. chapter xiv. dorkings. this is one of the finest breeds, and especially english. a pure dorking is distinguished by an additional or fifth toe. there are several varieties, which are all comprised in two distinct classes--the white and the coloured. the rose-combed white breed is _the_ dorking of the old fanciers, and most probably the original breed, from which the coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the old sussex, or some other large coloured fowl. "that such was the case," says mr. wright, "is almost proved by the fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured chickens, even of the best strains. such uncertainty in any important point is always an indication of mixed blood; and that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding, which has now rendered the fifth toe permanent, and finally established the variety." mr. brent says: "the _old_ dorking, the _pure_ dorking, the _only_ dorking, is the _white_ dorking. it is of good size, compact and plump form, with short neck, short white legs, five toes, a full rose-comb, a large breast, and a plumage of spotless white. the practice of crossing with a game cock was much in vogue with the old breeders, to improve a worn-out stock (which, however, would have been better accomplished by procuring a fresh bird of the same kind, but not related). this cross shows itself in single combs, loss of a claw, or an occasional red feather, but what is still more objectionable, in pale-yellow legs and a yellow circle about the beak, which also indicates a yellowish skin. these, then, are faults to be avoided. as regards size, the white dorking is generally inferior to the sussex fowl (or 'coloured dorking'), but in this respect it only requires attention and careful breeding. the pure white dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock, as well as useful, because they will breed true to their points; but the grey sussex, surrey or coloured dorking, often sport. to the breeders and admirers of the so-called 'coloured dorkings' i would say, continue to improve the fowl of your choice, but let him be known by his right title; do not support him on another's fame, nor yet deny that the rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a dorking, because your favourites are not constant to those points. the absence of the fifth claw to the dorking would be a great defect, but to the sussex fowl (erroneously called a 'coloured dorking') it is my opinion it would be an improvement, provided the leg did not get longer with the loss." the fifth toe should not be excessively large, or too far above the ordinary toe. the white dorking must have the plumage uniformly white, though in the older birds the hackle and saddle may attain a light golden tint. the rose-comb is preferable, and the beak and legs should be light and clear. the coloured dorking is now bred to great size and beauty. it is a large, plump, compact, square-made bird, with short white legs, and should have a well-developed fifth toe. the plumage is very varied, and may have a wide range, and might almost be termed immaterial, provided a coarse mealy appearance be avoided, and the pen is well matched. this latitude in respect of plumage is so generally admitted that the assertion "you cannot breed dorkings true to colour," has almost acquired the authority of a proverb. they may be shown with either rose or single combs, but all the birds in a pen must match. the dorking is the perfection of a table bird, combining delicately-flavoured white flesh, which is produced in greatest quantity in the choicest parts--the breast, merry-thought, and wings--equal distribution of fat, and symmetrical shape. mr. baily prefers the speckled or grey to the white, as "they are larger, hardier, and fatten more readily, and although it may appear anomalous, it is not less true that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to yellowness in the flesh and fat." size is an important point in dorkings. coloured prize birds weigh from seven to fourteen pounds, and eight months' chickens six or seven pounds. the white dorking is smaller. they are not good layers, except when very young, and are bad winter layers. the eggs are large, averaging - / ounces, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. the hen is an excellent sitter and mother. the chickens are very delicate, requiring more care when young than most breeds, and none show a greater mortality, no more than two-thirds of a brood usually surviving the fourth week of their life. they should not be hatched before march, and must be kept on gravel soil, hard clay, or other equally dry ground, and never on brick, stone, or wooden flooring. this breed will only thrive on a dry soil. they are fond of a wide range, and cannot be kept within a fence of less than seven feet in height. when allowed unlimited range they appear to grow hardy, and are as easily reared as any other breed if not hatched too early. if kept in confinement they should have fresh turf every day, besides other vegetable food. dorkings degenerate more than any breed by inter-breeding, and rapidly decrease in size. dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation or abscess of the foot, known as "bumble-foot," which probably originated in heavy fowls descending from high perches and walking over sharp stones. the additional toe may have rendered them more liable to this disease. it may now arise from the same cause, and is best prevented by using broad, low perches, and keeping their runs clear of sharp, rough stones, but it also appears to have become hereditary in some birds. there is no cure for it when matured except its removal, and this operation fails oftener than it succeeds; but mr. tegetmeier states, that he has in early cases removed the corn-like or wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with which the disease begins, and cauterised the part with nitrate of silver successfully. [illustration: golden-pencilled and silver-spangled hamburgs. black spanish] chapter xv. spanish. this splendid breed was originally imported from spain, and is characterised by its peculiar white face, which in the cock should extend from the comb downwards, including the entire face, and meet beneath in a white cravat, hidden by the wattles; and in the hen should be equally striking. the plumage is perfectly black, with brilliant metallic lustre, reflecting rich green and purple tints. the tail should resemble a sickle in the cock, and be square in the hen. the comb should be of a bright red, large, and high, upright in the cock, but pendent in the hen; the legs blue, clean, and long, and the bearing proud and gallant. with care they will thrive in a very small space, and are perhaps better adapted for town than any other variety. they are tolerably hardy when grown, but suffer much from cold and wet. their combs and wattles are liable to be injured by severe cold, from which these fowls should be carefully protected. if frost-bitten, the parts should be rubbed with snow or cold water, and the birds must not be taken into a warm room until recovered. the spanish are excellent layers, producing five or six eggs weekly from february to august, and two or three weekly from november to february, and also laying earlier than any other breed except the brahma, the pullets beginning to lay before they are six months old. although the hens are only of an average size, and but moderate eaters, their eggs are larger than those of any other breed, averaging - / ounces, and some weighing - / ounces, each. the shells are very thin and white, and the largest eggs are laid in the spring. the flesh is excellent, but the body is small compared to that of the dorking. they very seldom show any inclination to sit, and if they hatch a brood are bad nurses. the chickens are very delicate, and are best hatched at the end of april and during may. they do not feather till almost three-parts grown, and require a steady mother that will keep with them till they are safely feathered, and therefore the eggs should be set under a dorking hen, because that breed remains longer with the chicks than any other. they almost always have white feathers in the flight of the wings, but these become black. "in purchasing spanish fowls," says an excellent authority, "blue legs, the entire absence of white or coloured feathers in the plumage, and a large white face, with a very large, high comb, which should be erect in the cock, though pendent in the hen, should be insisted on." legginess is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid. the cockerels show the white face earlier than the pullets, and a blue, shrivelly appearance in the face of the chickens is a better sign of future whiteness than a red fleshiness. pullets are rarely fully white-faced till above a year old. "the white face," says an excellent authority, "should always extend well around the eye, and up to the point of junction with the comb, though a line of short black feathers is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired presence. it is certainly objectionable, and the less of it the better; but any attempt to remove or disguise this eyesore should be followed by immediate disqualification." some exhibitors of spanish shave the down of the edges of the white-face, in order to make it smooth and larger. this disgraceful practice is not allowed at the birmingham show. "one test of condition," says mr. baily, "more particularly of the pullets, is the state of the comb, which will be red, soft, and developed, just in proportion to the condition of the bird. while moulting--and they are almost naked during this process--the comb entirely shrivels up." the white-faced white spanish is thought to be merely a sport of the white-faced black spanish. but, whatever their origin may have been, they possess every indication of common blood with their black relatives, and their claims to appear by their side in the exhibition room are as good as those of the white cochins and the white polish. the plumage is uniformly white, but in all other respects they resemble the black breed. from the absence of contrast of colour shown in the face, comb, and plumage of the black spanish, the white variety is far less striking in appearance. the andalusian are so called from having been brought from the spanish province of andalusia. this breed is of a bluish grey, sometimes slightly laced with a darker shade, but having the neck hackles and tail feathers of a glossy black, with red face and white ears. the chickens are very hardy, and feather well, and earlier than the spanish. the minorca is so called from having been imported from that island, and is a larger and more compactly-formed breed, resembling the spanish in its general characteristics; black, with metallic lustre, but with red face, and having only the ear-lobes white; showing even a larger comb, and with shorter legs. they are better as table fowls than the spanish, but the andalusian are superior to either. the minorca is the best layer of all the spanish breeds, its chickens are tolerably hardy, and it is altogether far superior to the white-faced breed. ancona is a provincial term applied to black and white mottled, or "cuckoo," which on all other points resemble minorcas, but are smaller. the "black rot," to which spanish fowls are subject, is a blackening of the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, and general wasting of the system; and can only be cured in the earlier stages by frequent purgings with castor oil, combined with warm nourishing food, and strong ale, or other stimulants, given freely. they are also subject to a peculiar kind of swelled face, which first appears like a small knob under the skin, and increases till it has covered one side of the face. it is considered to be incurable. chapter xvi. hamburgs. this breed is medium-sized, and should have a brilliant red, finely-serrated rose-comb, terminating in a spike at the back, taper blue legs, ample tail, exact markings, a well-developed white deaf-ear, and a quick, spirited bearing. they are classed in three varieties, the pencilled, spangled, and black varieties, with the sub-varieties of gold and silver in the two former. the pencilled hamburg is of two ground colours, gold and silver, that is, of a brown yellow or white, and very minutely marked. the hens of both colours should have the body clearly pencilled across with several bars of black. the hackle in both sexes should be free from dark marks. in the golden-pencilled variety the cock should be of one uniform red all over his body without any pencilling whatever, and his tail copper colour; but many first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle feathers should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper. in the silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white, with yellowish wing-coverts, and a brown or chestnut patch on the flight feathers of his wing. the tail should be black and the sickle feathers tinged with a reddish white. the speckled or spangled hamburg, also called pheasant fowl, from the false idea that the pheasant was one of its parents, is of two kinds, the golden-speckled and silver-speckled, according to their ground colour, the marking taking the form of a spot upon each feather. they have very full double and firmly fixed combs, the point at the end turning upwards, a dark rim round the eyes, blue legs, and mixed hackle. they were also called moss fowls, and mooneys, the latter probably because the end of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow or white ground. in the golden-spangled some judges prefer cocks with a pure black breast, but others desire them spangled. "one chief cause of discussion," says miss watts, "relating to the hamburg, regarded the markings on the cocks. the yorkshire breed, which had been a favourite in that county for many years, produced henny cocks--_i.e._ cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen. the feathers of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of cocks generally, but were short and rounded like those of the hen; the saddle-feathers were the same, and the tail, instead of being graced with fine flowing sickle feathers, was merely square like that of a hen. the lancashire mooneys, on the contrary, produce cocks with as fine flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land, and tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long, fine flowing saddle-feathers, and abundant hackle. the hen-tail cocks had the markings, as well as the form, of the hen; the long feathers of the others cannot, from their form, have these markings. on this question party-spirit ran high: york and lancaster, cavalier and roundhead, were small discussions compared with it; but the hen-cocks were beaten, and we now seldom hear of them. a mixture of the two breeds has been tried; but by it valuable qualities and purity of race have been sacrificed." the black hamburg is of a beautiful black with a metallic lustre, and is a noble-looking bird, the cocks often weighing seven pounds. there is little doubt that it was produced by crossing with the spanish, which blood shows itself in the white face, which is often half apparent, and in the darker legs. but it is well established as a distinct variety, and good birds breed true to colour and points. the cocks' combs are larger, and the hens' legs shorter, than the other varieties. bolton bays and greys, chitteprats, turkish, and creoles or corals, pencilled dutch fowls, and dutch every-day layers, are but incorrect names for the hamburgs, with which they are identical. the hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until three years old. "as a general rule," says mr. baily, "no true bred hamburg fowl has top-knot, single comb, white legs, any approach to feather on the legs, white tail, or spotted hackle." the white ear-lobe being so characteristic a feature in all the hamburgs, becomes most important in judging their merits. weight is not considered, but still the pencilled cock should not weigh less than four and a half pounds, nor the hen than three and a half; and the spangled cock five pounds and the hen four. the hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally, without over-stimulating feeding, surpassing all others in the number of their eggs, and deserve their popular name of "everlasting layers." their eggs are white, and do not weigh more than - / ounce to - / ounce each; and the hens are known to average eggs yearly. not being large eaters, they are very profitable fowls to keep. the eggs of the golden-spangled are the largest, and it is the hardiest variety, but the pencilled lay more. the black variety produces large eggs, and lays a greater number than any known breed. they very seldom show any desire to sit except when they have a free woodland range, for even if free it must be wild to induce any desire to perpetuate the species, and they never sit if confined to a yard. the chickens should not be hatched earlier than may, but in the south of england they will do very well if hatched by a cochin-china hen at the beginning of march. they are small birds for table, but of excellent quality. hamburgs do not bear confinement well, and will not thrive without a good run; a grass field is the best. being small and light, even a ten-feet fence will not keep them within a small run. they may indeed be kept in a shed, but the number must be very few in proportion to its size, and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean. they are excellent guards in the country, for if disturbed in their roosting-place they will make a great noise. the breed has improved in this country, and british bred fowls are much stronger than the imported birds. [illustration: white-crested black. golden and silver-spangled. polish.] chapter xvii. polands. this breed might with good reason be divided into more families, but it is usual to rank as polands all fowls with their chief distinguishing characteristic, a full, large, round, compact tuft on the head. the breed "is quite unknown in poland, and takes its name," says mr. dickson, "from some resemblance having been fancied between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the polish soldiers." it is much esteemed in egypt, and equally abundant at the cape of good hope, where their legs are feathered. some travellers assert that the mexican poultry are crested, and that what are called poland fowls are natives of either mexico or south america; but others believe that they are natives of the east, and that they, as well as all the other fowls on the continent of america, have been introduced from the old world. the golden-spangled and silver-spangled are the most beautiful varieties, the first being of a gold colour and the second white, both spangled with black. the more uniform the colour of the tuft is with that of the bird, the higher it is valued. the black poland is of a deep velvety black; has a large, white, round tuft, and should not have a comb, but many have a little comb in the form of two small points before the tuft. the tuft to be perfect should be entirely white, but it is rare to meet with one without a slight bordering of black, or partly black, feathers round the front. there are also yellow, laced with white, buff or chamois, spangled with white, blue, grey, black, and white mottled. all the sub-varieties should be of medium size, neat compact form, plump, full-breasted, and have lead-coloured legs and ample tails. the top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight feathers, growing from the centre of the crown, and falling over outside, but not so much as to intercept the sight, and form a circular crest. that of the hen should be formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the extremity, so as to resemble a cauliflower, and it should be even, firm, and as nearly round as possible. large, uneven top-knots composed of loose feathers do not equal smaller but firm and well-shaped crests. the white ear-lobe is essential in all the varieties. "beards" in polands were formerly not admired. among the early birds brought from the continent, not one in a hundred was bearded, and those that were so were often rejected, and it was a question of dispute whether the pure bird should have them or not. bearded birds at shows were the exceptions, but an unbearded pen of polands is now seldom or ever seen. there was formerly a breed of white, with black top-knots, but that is lost, although it seems to have been not only the most ornamental, but the largest and most valuable of all the polish varieties. the last specimen known was seen by mr. brent at st. omer in , and it is possible that the breed may still exist in france or ireland. the serai ta-ook, or fowl of the sultan, is the latest polish fowl introduced into this country. they were imported in by miss watts, who says: "with regard to the name, serai is the name of the sultan's palace; tä-ook is turkish for fowl; the simplest translation of this is, sultan's fowls, or fowls of the sultan; a name which has the double advantage of being the nearest to be found to that by which they have been known in their own country, and of designating the country from which they came. in general habits they are brisk and happy-tempered, but not kept in as easily as cochin-chinas. they are very good layers; their eggs are large and white; they are non-sitters, and small eaters. a grass run with them will remain green long after the crop would have been cleared by either brahmas or cochins, and with scattered food they soon become satisfied and walk away. they are the size of our english poland fowls. their plumage is white and flowing; they have a full-sized compact poland tuft on the head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, short well-feathered legs, and five toes upon each foot. the comb is merely two little points, and the wattles very small. we have never seen fowls more fully decorated--full tail, abundant furnishing, in hackle almost touching the ground, boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and full round poland crests. their colour is pure white." they are prolific layers during spring and summer. their eggs are white, and weigh from ounces to - / ounces each, the spangled varieties producing the largest. they rarely sit, and generally leave their eggs after five or six days, and are not good mothers. the chickens require great care for six weeks. they should never be hatched by heavy hens, as the prominence in the skull which supports the top-knot is never completely covered with bone, and very sensible to injury. like the game breed they improve in feather for several years. polands never thrive on a wet or cold soil, and are more affected by bad weather than any other breed; the top-knots being very liable to be saturated with wet. they are easily fattened, and their flesh is white, juicy, and rich-flavoured, but they are not sufficiently large for the market. mr. hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize birds suddenly, as the crest obscures their sight, and, being taken by surprise, they are frequently so frightened as to die in the hand. they should, therefore, always be spoken to, or their attention otherwise attracted before being touched. chapter xviii. bantams. of this breed one kind is game, and resembles the game fowl, except in size; another is feathered to the very toes, the feathers on the tarsi, or beam of the leg, being long and stiff, and often brushing the ground. they are peculiarly fancy fowls. there are several varieties, the white, black, nankin, partridge, booted or feather-legged, game, and the golden-laced and silver-laced, or sebright bantam. all should be very small, varying from fourteen to twenty ounces in the hen, and from sixteen to twenty-four in the cock. the head should be narrow; beak curved; forehead rounded; eyes bright; back short; body round and full; breast very prominent; legs short and clean, except in the booted variety; wings depressed; and the carriage unusually erect, the back of the neck and the tail feathers almost touching; and the whole bearing graceful, bold, and proud. [illustration: black. sebright's gold and silver-laced. white. game. bantams.] "the javanese jungle-fowl" (_gallus bankiva_), says mr. w. c. l. martin, "the ayam-utan of the malays, is a native of java; but either a variety or a distinct species of larger size, yet very similar in colouring, is found in continental india. the javanese, or bankiva jungle-fowl, is about the size of an ordinary bantam, and in plumage resembles the black-breasted red game-bird of our country, with, a steel-blue mark across the wings. the comb is high, its edge is deeply serrated, and the wattles are rather large. the hackle feathers of the neck and rump are long and of a glossy golden orange; the shoulders are chestnut red, the greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue, the quill feathers brownish black, edged with pale, reddish yellow, or sandy red. the tail is of a black colour, with metallic reflections of green and blue. the under parts are black the naked space round the eyes, the comb, and wattles are scarlet. the hen closely resembles a brown hen of the game breed, except in being very much smaller. that this bird, or its continental ally, is one of the sources--perhaps the main source--of our domestic race, cannot be doubted. it inter-breeds freely with our common poultry, and the progeny is fertile. most beautiful cross-breeds between the bankiva jungle-fowl and bantam may be seen in the gardens of the zoological society." "that the bankiva jungle-fowl of java, or its larger continental variety, if it be not a distinct species (and of which sir w. jardine states that he has seen several specimens), is one of the sources of our domestic breeds, cannot, we think, be for a moment doubted. it would be difficult to discover any difference between a clean-limbed, black-breasted red bantam-cock, and a cock bankiva jungle-fowl. indeed, the very term bantam goes far to prove their specific identity. bantam is a town or city at the bottom of a bay on the northern coast of java; it was first visited by the portuguese in , at which time a great trade was carried on by the town with arabia, hindostan, and china, chiefly in pepper. subsequently it fell into the hands of the dutch, and was at one time the great rendezvous for european shipping. it is now a place of comparative insignificance. from this it would seem that the jungle-fowls domesticated and sold to the europeans at bantam continued to be designated by the name of the place where they were obtained, and in process of time the name was appropriated to all our dwarfish breeds." game bantams are exact miniatures of real game fowls, in black-breasted red, duck-wing, and other varieties. the cocks must not have the strut of the bantam, but the bold, martial bearing of the game cock. their wings should be carried closely, and their feathers be hard and close. the duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked with blue, forming a bar across each wing. the sebright, or gold and silver-laced bantam, is a breed with clean legs, and of most elegantly spangled plumage, which was bred and has been brought to great perfection by sir john sebright, after whom they are named. the attitude of the cock is singularly bold and proud, the head being often thrown so much back as to meet the tail feathers, which are simple like those of a hen, the ordinary sickle-like feathers being abbreviated and broad. the gold-laced sebright bantams should have golden brownish-yellow plumage, each feather being bordered with a lacing of black; the tail square like that of the hen, without sickle feathers, and carried well over the back, each feather being tipped with black, a rose-comb pointed at the back, the wings drooping to the ground, neither saddle nor neck hackles, clean lead-coloured legs and feet, and white ear-lobes; and the hen should correspond exactly with him, but be much smaller. the silver-laced birds have exactly the same points except in the ground feathering, which should be silvery, and the nearer the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be the bird. their carriage should resemble that of a good fantail pigeon. the black bantams should be uniform in colour, with well-developed white ear-lobes, rose-combs, full hackles, sickled and flowing tail, and deep slate-coloured legs. the white bantams should have white legs and beak. both should be of tiny size. the nankin, or common yellow bantam, is probably the nearest approach to the original type of the family--the "bankiva fowl." the cock "has a large proportion of red and dark chestnut on the body, with a full black tail; while the hen is a pale orange yellow, with a tail tipped with black, and the hackle lightly pencilled with the same colour, and clean legs. combs vary, but the rose is decidedly preferable. true-bred specimens of these birds being by no means common, considerable deviations from the above description may consequently be expected in birds passing under this appellation." the booted bantams have their legs plumed to the toes, not on one side only like cochin-chinas, but completely on both, with stiff, long feathers, which brush the ground. the most beautiful specimens are of a pure white. "feathered-legged bantams," says mr. baily, "may be of any colour; the old-fashioned birds were very small, falcon-hocked, and feathered, with long quill feathers to the extremity of the toe. many of them were bearded. they are now very scarce; indeed, till exhibitions brought them again into notice, these beautiful specimens of their tribe were all neglected and fast passing away. nothing but the sebright was cultivated; but now we bid fair to revive the pets of our ancestors in all their beauty." the pekin, or cochin bantams, were taken from the summer palace at pekin during the chinese war, and brought to this country. they exactly resemble the buff cochins in all respects except size. they are very tame. the japanese bantam is a recent importation, and differs from most of the other varieties in having a very large single comb. it has very short well-feathered legs, and the colour varies. some are quite white, some have pure white bodies, with glossy, jet-black tails, others are mottled and buff. they throw the tail up and the head back till they nearly meet, as in the fantailed pigeon. they are said to be the constant companions of man in their native country, and have a droll and good-natured expression. all the bantam cocks are very pugnacious, and though the hens are good mothers to their own chickens, they will attack any stranger with fury. they are good layers of small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs. but no breed produces so great a proportion of unfertile eggs. june is the best month for hatching, as the chickens are delicate. they feather more quickly than most breeds, and are apt to die at that period through the great drain upon the system in producing feathers. when fully feathered they are quite hardy. the hens are excellent mothers. the chickens require a little more animal food than other fowls, and extra attention for a week or two in keeping them dry. bantams are very useful in a garden, eating many slugs and insects, and doing little damage. chapter xix. french and various. the french breeds are remarkable for great weight and excellent quality of flesh, with a very small proportion of bones and offal; their breeders having paid great attention to those important, substantial, and commercial points instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to colour and other fancy points as we have done. as a rule they are all non-sitters, or sit but rarely. [illustration: houdans. la flêche, cock. crêve-coeur, hen. french.] the crÊve-coeur has been known the longest and most generally. this breed is said to derive its name from a village so called in normandy, whence its origin can be distinctly traced; but others fancifully say, from the resemblance of its peculiar comb to a broken heart. it is scarce, and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure. the crêve-coeur is a fine large bird, black in plumage, or nearly so, with short, clean black legs, square body, deep chest, and a large and extraordinary crest or comb, which is thus described by m. jacque: "various, but always forming two horns, sometimes parallel, straight, and fleshy; sometimes joined at the base, slightly notched, pointed, and separating at their extremities; sometimes adding to this latter description interior ramifications like the horns of a young stag. the comb, shaped like horns, gives the crêve-coeur the appearance of a devil." it is bearded, and has a top-knot or crest behind the comb. they are very quiet, walk slowly, scratch but little, do not fly, are very tame, ramble but little, and prefer seeking their food on the dunghill in the poultry-yard to wandering afar off. they are the most contented of all breeds in confinement, and will thrive in a limited space. they are tame, tractable fowls, but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our climate, and therefore prosper most on a dry, light soil, and can scarcely have too much sun. they are excellent layers of very large white eggs. the chickens grow so fast, and are so inclined to fatten, that they may be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of age, and well fattened in fifteen days. the crêve-coeur is a splendid table bird, both for the quantity and quality of its flesh. the hen is heavy in proportion to the cock, weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a half, and the pullets always outweigh the cockerels. la flÊche is thus described by m. jacque: "a strong, firm body, well placed on its legs, and long muscular feet, appearing less than it really is, because the feathers are close; every muscular part well developed; black plumage. the la flêche is the tallest of all french cocks; it has many points of resemblance with the spanish, from which i believe it to be descended by crossing with the crêve-coeur. others believe that it is connected with the brêda, which it does, in fact, resemble, in some particulars. it has white, loose, and transparent skin; short, juicy, and delicate flesh, which puts on fat easily." "the comb is transversal, double, forming two horns bending forward, united at their base, divided at their summits, sometimes even and pointed, sometimes having ramifications on the inner sides. a little double 'combling' protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils, and although hardly as large as a pea, this combling, which surmounts the sort of rising formed by the protrusion of the nostrils, contributes to the singular aspect of the head. this measured prominence of the comb seems to add to the characteristic depression of the beak, and gives the bird a likeness to a rhinoceros." the plumage is jet black, with a very rich metallic lustre; large ear-lobe of pure white; bright red face, unusually free from feathers; and bright lead-coloured legs, with hard, firm scales. they are very handsome, showy, large, and lively birds, more inclined to wander than the crêve-coeur, and hardier when full grown; but their chickens are even more delicate in wet weather, and should not be hatched before may. they are easily reared, and grow quickly. they are excellent layers of very large white eggs, but do not lay well in winter, unless under very favourable circumstances, and resemble the spanish in the size and number of their eggs, and the time and duration of laying. their flesh is excellent, juicy, and resembles that of the game fowl, and the skin white and transparent, but the legs are dark. this breed is larger and has more style than the crêve-coeur, and is better adapted to our climate; but the fowls lack constitution, particularly the cocks, and are very liable to leg weakness and disease of the knee-joint, and when they get out of condition seldom recover. they are found in the north of france, but are not common even there. the houdan has the size, deep compact body, short legs, and fifth toe of the dorking. they are generally white, some having black spots as large as a shilling, are bearded, and should have good top-knots of black and white feathers, falling backwards like a lark's crest; and the remarkable comb is thus described by m. jacque: "triple, transversal in the direction of the beak, composed of two flattened spikes, of long and rectangular form, opening from right to left, like two leaves of a book; thick, fleshy, and variegated at the edges. a third spike grows between these two, having somewhat the shape of an irregular strawberry, and the size of a long nut. another, quite detached from the others, about the size of a pea, should show between the nostrils, above the beak." mr. f. h. schröder, of the national poultry company, considered that this surpassed all the french breeds, combining the size, shape, and quality of flesh of the dorking with earlier maturity; prolific laying of good-sized eggs, which are nearly always fertile, and on this point the opposite of the dorking; and early and rapid feathering in the chickens, which are, notwithstanding, hardier than any breeds except the cochin and brahma. they are very hardy, never sick, and will thrive in a small space. they are smaller than the crêve-coeur or la flêche, but well shaped and plump; and for combining size and quality of flesh with quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them. scotch dumpies, go laighs, bakies, or creepers, are almost extinct; but they are profitable fowls, and ought to be more common, as they are very hardy, productive layers of fine large eggs, and their flesh is white and of excellent quality. they should have large, heavy bodies; short, white, clean legs, not above an inch and a half or two inches in length. the plumage is a mixture of black or brown, and white. they are good layers of fine large eggs. they cannot be surpassed as sitters and mothers, and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching the eggs of pheasants. the cocks should weigh six or seven and the hen five or six pounds. the silky fowl is so called from its plumage, which is snowy white, being all discomposed and loose, and of a silky appearance, resembling spun glass. the comb and wattles are purple; the bones and the periosteum, or membrane covering the bones, black, and the skin blue or purple; but the flesh, however, is white and tender, and superior to that of most breeds. it is a good layer of small, round, and excellent eggs. the cock generally weighs less than three, and the hen less than two, pounds. it comes from japan and china, and generally thrives in our climate. the chickens are easily reared if not hatched before april nor later than june. they are capital foster mothers for partridges, and other small and tender game. the rumpkin, or rumpless fowl, a persian breed, not only lacks the tail-feathers but the tail itself. it is hardy, of moderate size, and varies in colour, but is generally black or brown, and from the absence of tail appears rounder than other fowls. the hens are good layers, but the eggs are often unfertile. they are good sitters and mothers, and the flesh is of fair quality. the friesland, so named from confounding the term "frizzled" with friesland, is remarkable from having all the feathers, except those of the wings and tail, frizzled, or curled up the wrong way. it is small, very delicate, and a shower drenches it to the skin. barn-door fowl are a mongrel race, compounded by chance, usually of the game, dorking, and polish breeds. chapter xx. turkeys. turkeys are not considered profitable except on light, dry soils, which is said to be the cause of their success in norfolk. they prosper, however, in ireland; but although the air there is moist, the soil is dry, except in the boggy districts. miss watts believes that "any place in which turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with norfolk. very fine birds may be seen in surrey, and other places near london." the general opinion of the best judges is, that they can barely be made to repay the cost of their food, which is doubtless owing to the usual great mortality among the chicks, which loss outbalances all profit; but others make them yield a fair profit, simply because, from good situation and judicious management, they rear all, or nearly all, the chicks. a single brood may be reared with ease on a small farm or private establishment without much extra expense, where sufficient attention can be devoted to them; but to make them profitable they should be bred on a large scale, and receive exclusive attention. they should have a large shed or house, with a boarded floor, to themselves. [illustration: turkey and guinea-fowls.] turkeys must have space, for they are birds of rambling habits, and only fitted for the farmyard, or extensive runs, delighting to wander in the fields in quest of insects, on which, with green herbage, berries, beech-mast, and various seeds, they greedily feed. the troop will ramble about all day, returning to roost in the evening, when they should have a good supply of grain; and another should be given in the morning, which will not only induce them to return home regularly every night, but keep them in good store condition, so that they can at any time be speedily fattened. peas, vetches, tares, and most sorts of pulse, are almost poisonous to them. their feeding-place must be separate from the other poultry, or they will gobble up more than their share. turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house, and should have a very high open shed, the perches being placed as high as possible. they are extremely hardy, roosting, if allowed, on the highest trees in the severest weather. but this should be prevented, as their feet are apt to become frost-bitten in severe weather. the chickens are as delicate. wet is fatal to them, and the very slightest shower even in warm weather will frequently destroy half a brood. the breeding birds should be carefully selected, any malformation almost invariably proving itself hereditary. the cock is at maturity when a year old, but not in his prime till he has attained his third year, and is entering upon his fourth, and he continues in vigour for three or four years more. he should be vigorous, broad-breasted, clean-legged, with ample wings, well-developed tail, bright eyes, and the carunculated skin of the neck full and rapid in its changes of colour. the largest possible hen should be chosen, the size of the brood depending far more upon the female than the male. one visit to the male is sufficient to render all the eggs fertile, and the number of hens may be unlimited, but to obtain fine birds, twelve or fifteen hens to one cock is the best proportion. the hen breeds in the spring following that in which she was hatched, but is not in her prime till two or three years old, and continues for two or three years in full vigour. the hen generally commences laying about the middle of march, but sometimes earlier. when from her uttering a peculiar cry and prying about in quest of a secret spot for sitting, it is evident that she is ready to lay, she should be confined in the shed, barn, or other place where the nest has been prepared for her, and let out when she has laid an egg. the nest should be made of straw and dried leaves, in a large wicker basket, in a quiet secluded place, and an egg or nest-egg of chalk should be placed in it to induce her to adopt it. turkeys like to choose their own laying-places, and keep to them though their eggs are removed daily, provided a nest-egg is left there. they will wander to a distance in search of a secluded spot for laying, and pay their visits to the nest so cleverly that sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a brood there, which, however, does not generally prove a strong or large one as in the case of ordinary fowls. when a hen has chosen a safe, quiet, and sheltered place for her nest, it is best to give her more eggs when she shows a desire to sit, and let her stay there. the hen generally lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, sometimes fewer and often many more. as soon as seven are produced, they should be placed under a good common hen, a cochin is the best, and the remainder can be put under her when she wants to sit. the best hatching period is from the end of march to may, and none should be hatched later than june. the broody hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place, as they are patient, constant sitters, and will not leave their eggs wherever they may be put. a hen may be allowed from nine to fifteen eggs, according to her size. during the time the hen is sitting she requires constant attention. she must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed, and regularly supplied with fresh water; otherwise she will continue to sit without leaving for food, till completely exhausted. in general, do not let the cock go near the sitting hen, or he will destroy the eggs or chicks; but some behave well, and may be left at large with safety. she should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the person she is accustomed to be fed by, and the eggs should not be touched unnecessarily. the chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to the twenty-ninth day, but sometimes as late as the thirty-first. let them remain in the nest for twenty-four hours, but remove the shells, and next morning place the hen under a roomy coop or crate, on boards, in a warm outhouse. keep her and her brood cooped up for two months, moving the coop every fine day into a dry grass field, but keep them in an outhouse in cold or wet weather. the chicks having a great tendency to diarrhoea, the very best food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs, chopped small, mixed with minced dandelion, and when that cannot be had, with boiled nettles. they may then have boiled egg, bread-crumbs, and barley-meal for a fortnight, when the egg may be replaced by boiled potato, and small grain may soon be added. do not force them to eat, but give them a little food on the tip of your finger, and they will soon learn to pick it out of the trough. a little hempseed, suet, onion-tops, green mustard, and nettle-tops, chopped very fine, should be mixed with their food. curds are excellent food, and easily prepared by mixing powdered alum with milk slightly warmed, in the proportion of one teaspoonful of alum to four quarts of milk, and, when curdled, separating the curds from the whey. they should be squeezed very dry, and must always be given in a soft state. water should be given but sparingly, and never allowed to stand by them, but when they have had sufficient it should be taken or thrown away. the water must be put in pans so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves. (_see_ page .) fresh milk is apt to disagree with the young chicks, and is not necessary. if a chick shows weakness, or has taken cold, give it some carraway seeds. in their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a season, and it is not advisable to induce the domesticated bird by any expedients to hatch a second, for it would be not only detrimental to her, but the brood would be hatched late in the season, and very difficult to rear, while those reared would not be strong, healthy birds. the coop should be like that used for common fowls, but two feet broad, and higher, being about three feet high in front and one foot at the back; this greater slant of the roof being made in order to confine her movements, as otherwise she would move about too much, and trample upon her brood. when they have grown larger they must have a larger coop, made of open bars wide enough apart for them to go in and out, but too close to let in fowls to eat their delicate food, and the hen must be placed under it with them. a large empty crate, such as is used to contain crockery-ware, will make a good coop for large poults; but if one cannot be had, a coop may be made of laths or rails, with the bars four inches apart; it should be about five feet long, four feet broad, and three feet high. keep her cooped for two months, moving the coop every fine, dry day into a grass field, but on cold or wet days keep them in the outhouse. if she is allowed her liberty before they are well grown and strong, she will wander away with them through the long grass, hedges, and ditches, over highway, common, and meadow, mile after mile, losing them on the road, and straying on with the greatest complacency, and perfectly satisfied so long as she has one or two following her, and never once turning her head to see how her panting chicks are getting on, nor troubled when they squat down tired out, and implore her plaintively to come back; and all this arises from sheer heedlessness, and not from want of affection, for she will fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for hers. when full grown they should never be allowed to roam with her while there is heavy dew or white frost on the grass, but be kept in till the fields and hedgerows are dry. they will pick up many seeds and insects while wandering about in the fields with her, but must be fed by hand three or four times a day at regular intervals. they cease to be chicks or chickens, and are called turkey-poults when the male and female distinctive characteristics are fairly established, the carunculated skin and comb of the cock being developed, which is called "shooting the red," or "putting out the red," and begins when they are eight or ten weeks old. it is the most critical period of their lives--much more so than moulting, and during the process their food must be increased in quantity, and made more nourishing by the addition of boiled egg-yolks, bread crumbled in ale, wheaten flour, bruised hempseed, and the like, and they must be well housed at night. when this process is completed they will be hardy, and able to take care of themselves; but till they are fully fledged it will be advisable to keep them from rain and cold, and not to try their hardness too suddenly. vegetables, as chopped nettles, turnip-tops, cabbage sprouts, onions, docks, and the like, boiled down and well mixed with barley-meal, oatmeal, or wheaten flour, and curds, if they can be afforded, form excellent food for the young poults; also steamed potatoes, boiled carrots, turnips, and the like. with this diet may be given buckwheat, barley, oats, beans, and sunflower seeds. when they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and fields, they are placed in charge of a boy or girl of from twelve to fifteen years old, who can easily manage one hundred poults. they are driven with a long bean stick, and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from fighting, to lead them to every place where there are acorns, beech-mast, corn, wild fruit, insects, or other food to be picked up. he must not allow them to get fatigued with too long rambles, as they are not fully grown, and must shelter them from the burning sun, and hasten them home on the approach of rain. the best times for these rambles are from eight to ten in the morning, when the dew is off the grass, and from four till seven in the evening, before it begins to fall. turkeys are crammed for the london markets. the process of fattening may commence when they are six months old, as they require a longer time to become fit for the market than fowls. the large birds which are seen at christmas are usually males of the preceding year, and about twenty months old. all experienced breeders repudiate "cramming." to obtain fine birds the chickens must be fed abundantly from their birth until they are sent to market, and while they are being fattened they should be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time daily, and their food must be increased in quantity and improved in quality. early hatched, well fed young norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three pounds by christmas of the same year, and two-year-old birds will sometimes attain to twenty pounds. when two or more years old they are called "stags." the domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be divided into distinct breeds like the common fowl, the several varieties being distinguished by colour only, but identical in their form and habits. they vary considerably in colour--some being of a bronzed black, others of a coppery tint, of a delicate fawn colour, or buff, and some of pure white. the dark coloured birds are generally considered the most hardy, and are usually the largest. the chief varieties are the cambridge, norfolk, irish, american, and french. the cambridge combines enormous size, a tendency to fatten speedily, and first-rate flavour. the tortoiseshell character of its plumage gives the adult birds a very prepossessing appearance around the homestead, and a striking character in the exhibition room. the colours may vary from pale to dark grey, with a deep metallic brown tint, and light legs. the legs should be stout and long. the norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned, and produces a large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness and excellent quality. the cocks are almost as heavy as the cambridge breed, but the hens are smaller and more compact. the norfolk should be jet, not blue black, and free from any other colour, being uniform throughout, including the legs and feet. all the birds in a pen must be uniform. the american wild turkey has become naturalised in this country, but being of a very wandering disposition is best adapted to be kept in parks and on large tracts of wild land. it is slender in shape, but of good size, with uniform metallic bronze plumage, the flight feathers being barred with white, and the tail alternately with white, rich dark brown, and black, and with bright pink legs. the wattles are smaller than in the other breeds, and of a bluish tinge. they are very hardy, but more spiteful than others, and are said to be also more prolific. crosses often take place in america between the wild and tame races, and are highly valued both for their appearance and for the table. eggs of the wild turkey have also often been taken from their nests, and hatched under the domesticated hen. the flavour of the flesh of the american breed is peculiar and exceedingly good, but they do not attain a large size. chapter xxi. guinea-fowls. the guinea-fowl, gallina, or pintado (_numida meleagris_), is the true meleagris of the ancients, a term generically applied by belon, aldrovandus, and gesner to the turkey, and now retained, although the error is acknowledged, in order to prevent confusion. it is a native of africa, where it is extensively distributed. they associate in large flocks and frequent open glades, the borders of forests, and banks of rivers, which offer abundant supplies of grain, berries, and insects, in quest of which they wander during the day, and collect together at evening, and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or shrubs. several other wild species are known, some of which are remarkable for their beauty; but the common guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in europe. the guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long, and from standing high on its legs, and having loose, full plumage, appears to be larger than it really is, for when plucked it does not weigh more than an ordinary dorking. it is very plump and well-proportioned. the guinea-fowl is not bred so much as the turkey in england or france, is very rare in the northern parts of europe, and in india is bred almost exclusively by europeans, although it thrives as well there as in its native country. it "is turbulent and restless," says mr. dickson, "continually moving from place to place, and domineering over the whole poultry-yard, boldly attacking even the fiercest turkey cock, and keeping all in alarm by its petulant pugnacity"; and the males, although without spurs, can inflict serious injury on other poultry with their short, hard beaks. the guinea-fowls make very little use of their wings, and if forced to take to flight, fly but a short distance, then alight, and trust to their rapid mode of running, and their dexterity in threading the mazes of brushwood and dense herbage, for security. they are shy, wary, and alert. it is not much kept, its habits being wandering, and requiring an extensive range, but as it picks up nearly all its food, and is very prolific, it may be made very profitable in certain localities. the whole management of both the young and the old may be precisely the same as that of turkeys, in hatching, feeding, and fattening. this "species," says mr. dickson, "differs from all other poultry, in its being difficult to distinguish the cock from the hen, the chief difference being in the colour of the wattles, which are more of a red hue in the cock, and more tinged with blue in the hen. the cock has also a more stately strut." they mate in pairs, and therefore an equal number of cocks and hens must be kept, or the eggs will prove unfertile. to obtain stock, some of their eggs must be procured, and placed under a common hen; for if old birds are bought, they will wander away for miles in search of their old home, and never return. they should be fed regularly, and must always have one meal at night, or they will scarcely ever roost at home. they will not sleep in the fowl-house, but prefer roosting in the lower branches of a tree, or on a thick bush, and retire early. they make a peculiar, harsh, querulous noise, which is oft-repeated, and not agreeable. the hens are prolific layers, beginning in may, and continuing during the whole summer. their eggs are small, but of excellent flavour, of a pale yellowish red, finely dotted with a darker tint, and remarkable for the hardness of the shell. the hen usually lays on a dry bank, in secret places; and a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off is quite as likely to contain her nest as any situation nearer her home. she is very shy, and, if the eggs are taken from her nest, will desert it, and find another; a few should, therefore, always be left, and it should never be visited when she is in sight. but she often contrives to elude all watching, and hatch a brood, frequently at a late period, when the weather is too cold for the chickens. as the guinea-fowl seldom shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint, and frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in this country, it is a general practice to place her eggs under a common fowl--game and bantams are the best for the purpose. about twenty of the earliest eggs should be set in may. the guinea-hen will hatch another brood when she feels inclined. they sit for twenty-six to twenty-nine or thirty days. when she sits in due season she generally rears a large brood, twenty not being an unusual number. the chickens are very tender, and should not be hatched too early in spring, as a cold march wind is generally fatal to them. they must be treated like those of the turkey, and as carefully. they should be fed almost immediately, within six hours of being hatched, abundantly, and often; and they require more animal food than other chickens. egg boiled hard, chopped very fine, and mixed with oatmeal, is the best food. they will die if kept without food for three or four hours; and should have a constant supply near them until they are allowed to have full liberty and forage for themselves. they will soon pick up insects, &c., and will keep themselves in good condition with a little extra food. they are very strong on their legs, and those hatched under common hens may be allowed to range with her at the end of six weeks, and be fed on the same food and at the same times as other chickens. the guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate between the pheasant and turkey. after the pheasant season, young birds that have been hatched the same year are excellent substitutes for that fine game, and fetch a fair price. they should never be fattened, but have a good supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being killed. the flesh of the young bird is very delicate, juicy, and well-flavoured, but the old birds, even of the second year, are dry, tough, and tasteless. chapter xxii. ducks. ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought, except it is purchased wholesale, and they are reared for town markets, for their appetites are voracious, and they do not graze like geese. they may be kept in a limited space, but more profitably and conveniently where they have the run of a paddock, orchard, kitchen garden, flat common, green lane, or farmyard, with ditches and water. they will return at night, and come to the call of the feeder. nothing comes amiss to them--green vegetables, especially when boiled, all kinds of meal made into porridge, all kinds of grain, bread, oatcake, the refuse and offal of the kitchen, worms, slugs, snails, insects and their larvæ, are devoured eagerly. where many fowls are kept, a few ducks may be added profitably, for they may be fed very nearly on what the hens refuse. ducks require water to swim in, but "it is a mistake," says mr. baily, "to imagine that ducks require a great deal of water. they may be kept where there is but very little, and only want a pond or tank just deep enough to swim in. the early aylesbury ducklings that realise such large prices in the london market have hardly ever had a swim; and in rearing ducks, where size is a desideratum, they will grow faster and become larger when kept in pens, farmyards, or in pastures, than where they are at and in the water all day." where a large number of geese and ducks are kept, water on a sufficient scale, and easily accessible, should be in the neighbourhood. [illustration: toulouse goose. rouen and aylesbury ducks.] ducks, being aquatic birds, do not require heated apartments, nor roosts on which to perch during the night. they squat on the floors, which must be dry and warm. they should, if possible, be kept in a house separate from the other poultry, and it should have a brick floor, so that it can be easily washed. in winter the floor should be littered with a thin layer of straw, rushes, or fern leaves, fresh every day. the hatching-houses should be separated from the lodging apartments, and provided with boxes for the purpose of incubation and hatching. in its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate: the domestic duck has become polygamous, and five ducks may be allowed to one drake, but not more than two or three ducks should be given to one drake if eggs are required for setting. ducks begin laying in january, and usually from that time only during the spring; but those hatched in march will often lay in the autumn, and continue for two or three months. they usually lay fifty or sixty eggs, and have been known to produce . the faculty of laying might be greatly developed, as it has been in some breeds of fowls; but they have been hitherto chiefly bred for their flesh. they require constant watching when beginning to lay, for they drop their eggs everywhere but in the nest made for them, but as they generally lay in the night, or early in the morning, when in perfect health, they should therefore be kept in every morning till they have laid. one of the surest signs of indisposition among them is irregularity in laying. "the eggs of the duck," says mr. dickson, "are readily known from those of the common fowl by their bluish colour and larger size, the shell being smoother, not so thick, and with much fewer pores. when boiled, the white is never curdy like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the yolk is much darker in colour. the flavour is by no means so delicate. for omelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck eggs are much better than hen's eggs, giving a finer colour and flavour, and requiring less butter; qualities so highly esteemed in picardy, that the women will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to make their holiday cakes." a hen is often made to hatch ducklings, being considered a better nurse than a duck, which is apt to take them while too young to the pond, dragging them under beetling banks in search of food, and generally leaving half of them in the water unable to get out; and if the fly or the gnat is on the water, she will stay there till after dark, and lose part of her brood. ducks' eggs may be advantageously placed under a broody exhibition hen. (_see_ page .) a turkey is much better than either, from the large expanse of the wings in covering the broods, and the greater heat of body; but if the duck is a good sitter, it is best to let her hatch her own eggs, taking care to keep her and them from the water till they are strong. the nest should be on the ground, and in a damp place. choose the freshest eggs, and place from nine to eleven under her. feed her morning and evening while sitting, and place food and water within her reach. the duck always covers her eggs upon leaving them, and loose straw should be placed near the house for that purpose. they are hatched in thirty days. they may generally be left with their mother upon the nest for her own time. when she moves coop her on the short grass if fine weather, or under shelter if otherwise, for a week or ten days, when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour at a time. when hatched they require constant feeding. a little curd, bread-crumbs, and meal, mixed with chopped green food, is the best food when first hatched. boiled cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for ducklings for the first ten days; afterwards barley-meal, pollard, and oats, with plenty of green food. never give them hard spring water to drink, but that from a pond. ducklings are easily reared, soon able to shift for themselves, and to pick up worms, slugs, and insects, and can be cooped together in numbers at night if protected from rats. an old pigsty is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks. ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till feathers have supplied the place of their early down, for the latter will get saturated with the water while the former throws off the wet. "though the young ducklings," says mr. w. c. l. martin, "take early to the water, it is better that they should gain a little strength before they be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers; a shallow vessel of water filled to the brim and sunk in the ground will suffice for the first week or ten days, and this rule is more especially to be adhered to when they are under the care of a common hen, which cannot follow them into the pond, and the calls of which when there they pay little or no regard to. rats, weasels, pike, and eels are formidable foes to ducklings: we have known entire broods destroyed by the former, which, having their burrows in a steep bank around a sequestered pond, it was found impossible to extirpate." if the ducklings stay too long in the water they will have diarrhoea, in which case coop them close for a few days, and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their ordinary food. a troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen garden in the summer or autumn, when they can do no mischief by devouring delicate salads and young sprouting vegetables. they will search industriously for snails, slugs, woodlice, and millipedes, and gobble them up eagerly, getting positively fat on slugs and snails. strawberries, of which they are very fond, must be protected from them. where steamed food is daily prepared for pigs and cattle, a portion of this mixed with bran and barley-meal is the cheapest mode of satisfying their voracious appetites. they should never be stinted in food. to fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food as they will eat, bruised oats and peameal being the standard, plenty of exercise, and clean water. boiled roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent food, with a little milk added during fattening. they require neither penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness, and if well fed should be fit for market in eight or ten weeks. celery imparts a delicious flavour. the aylesbury is the finest breed, and should be of a spotless white, with long, flat, broad beak of a pale flesh colour, grey eyes, long head and neck, broad and flat body and breast, and orange legs, placed wide apart. as it lays early, its ducklings are the earliest ready for market. they have produced large eggs in a year, and are better sitters than the rouen. the rouen is hardy and easily reared, but rarely lay till february or march. they thrive better in most parts of england than the aylesburys, and care less for the water than the other varieties. they are very handsome, and weigh eight or nine pounds each, and their flesh is excellent. the muscovy duck is so called, says ray, "not because it comes from muscovy, but because it exhales a somewhat powerful odour of musk." little is known of its origin, which is generally thought to be south america; nor has the date of its introduction into europe been ascertained. "this species," says mr. w. c. l. martin, "will inter-breed with the common duck, but we believe the progeny are not fertile. the musk duck greatly exceeds the ordinary kind in size, and moreover, differs in the colours and character of the plumage, in general contour, and the form of the head. the general colour is glossy blue-black, varied more or less with white; the head is crested, and a space of naked scarlet skin, more or less clouded with violet, surrounds the eye, continued from scarlet caruncles on the base of the beak; the top of the head is crested, the feathers of the body are larger, more lax, softer, and less closely compacted together than in the common duck, and seem to indicate less aquatic habits. the male far surpasses the female in size; there are no curled feathers in his tail." the male is fierce and quarrelsome, and when enraged has a savage appearance, and utters deep, hoarse sounds. the flesh is very good, but the breed is inferior as a layer to the aylesbury or rouen. the buenos ayres, labrador, or east indian, brought most probably from the first-named country, is a small and very beautiful variety, with the plumage of a uniform rich, lustrous, greenish-black, and dark legs and bills; the drake rarely weighing five pounds, and the duck four pounds. their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured matter, but the shell is really of a dull white. chapter xxiii. geese. geese require much the same management as ducks. they may be kept profitably where there is a rough pasture or common into which they may be turned, and the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep, as is generally the case; but even when the pasturage is good, a supply of oats, barley, or other grain should be allowed every morning and evening. where the pasturage is poor or bad, the old geese become thin and weak, and the young broods never thrive and often die unless fully fed at home. a goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet long by six feet wide and six or seven feet high, with a smooth floor of brick. a little clean straw should be spread over it every other day, after removing that previously used, and washing the floor. each goose should have a compartment two feet and a half square for laying and sitting, as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg. the house must be well ventilated. all damp must be avoided. a pigsty makes a capital pen. although a pond is an advantage, they do not require more than a large trough or tank to bathe in. for breeding not more than four geese should be kept to one gander. their breeding powers continue to more than twenty years old. it is often difficult to distinguish the sexes, no one sign being infallible except close examination. the goose lays early in a mild spring, or in an ordinary season, if fed high throughout the winter with corn, and on the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley, malt, fresh grains, and fine pollard mixed up with ale, or other stimulants; by which two broods may be obtained in a year. the common goose lays from nine to seventeen eggs, usually about thirteen, and generally carries straws about previously to laying. thirteen eggs are quite enough for the largest goose to sit on. they sit from thirty to thirty-five days. march or early april is the best period for hatching, and the geese should therefore begin to sit in february or early march; for goslings hatched at any time after april are difficult to rear. food and water should be placed near to her, for she sits closely. she ought to leave her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring pond. the gander is very attentive, and sits by her, and is vigilant and daring in her defence. when her eggs are placed under a common hen they should be sprinkled with water daily or every other day, for the moisture of the goose's breast is beneficial to them. (see page .) a turkey is an excellent mother for goslings. she should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot or meadow, with grain and water by her, of which the goslings will eat; and they should also be supplied with chopped cabbage or beet leaves, or other green food. they must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from rats. their only dangers are heavy rains, damp floors, and vermin; and they require but little care for the first fortnight; while the old birds are singularly free from maladies of all kinds common to poultry. when a fortnight old they may be allowed to go abroad with their mother and frequent the pond. "it has been formerly recommended," says mowbray, "to keep the newly-hatched gulls in house during a week, lest they get cramp from the damp earth; but we did not find this indoor confinement necessary; penning the goose and her brood between four hurdles upon a piece of dry grass well sheltered, putting them out late in the morning, or not at all in severe weather, and ever taking them in early in the evening. sometimes we have pitched double the number of hurdles, for the convenience of two broods, there being no quarrels among this sociable and harmless part of the feathered race. we did not even find it necessary to interpose a parting hurdle, which, on occasion, may be always conveniently done. for the first range a convenient field containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common, over which the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose, until they become cramped or tired, some of them squatting down and remaining behind at evening." all the hemlock or deadly nightshade within range should be destroyed. when the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned into the stubble which they will thoroughly glean, and many of them will be in fine condition by michaelmas. green geese are young geese fattened at about the age of four months, usually on oatmeal and peas, mixed with skim-milk or butter-milk, or upon oats or other grain, and are very delicate. in fattening geese for christmas give oats mixed with water for the first fortnight, and afterwards barley-meal made into a crumbling porridge. they should be allowed to bathe for a few hours before being killed, for they are then plucked more easily and the feathers are in better condition. their feathers, down, and quills are very valuable. geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as young trees, and must therefore be carefully kept out of orchards and plantations. their dung, though acrid and apt to injure at first, will, when it is mellowed, much enrich the ground. the toulouse or grey goose is very large, of uniform grey plumage, with long neck, having a kind of dewlap under the throat; the abdominal pouch very much developed, almost touching the ground; short legs; flat feet; short, broad tail; and very upright carriage, almost like a penguin. the toulouse lays a large number of eggs, sometimes as many as thirty, and even more, but rarely wishes to sit, and is a very bad mother. the emden or pure white is very scarce. the bill is flesh-colour, and the legs and feet orange. they require a pond. the toulouse, crossed with the large white or dark-coloured common breed, produces greater weight than either, and the objection to the former as indifferent sitters and mothers is avoided; but is not desirable for breeding stock, and must have a pond like the white. chapter xxiv. diseases. it is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease, and so save trouble, loss of their carcases, and the risk of infection. but if the fowls are favourites, or valuable, it may be desirable to use every means of cure. see to a sick fowl at once; prompt attention may prevent serious illness, and loss of the bird. when a fowl's plumage is seen to be bristled up and disordered, and its wings hanging or dragging, it should be at once removed from the others, and looked to. pale and livid combs are as certain a sign of bad health in fowls, as the paleness or lividness of the lips is in human beings. every large establishment should have a warm, properly ventilated, and well-lighted house, comfortably littered down with clean straw, to be used as a hospital, and every fowl should be removed to it upon showing any symptoms of illness, even if the disease is not infectious, for sick fowls are often pecked at, ill treated, and disliked by their healthy companions. bear in mind that prevention is better than cure, and that proper management and housing, good feeding, pure water and greens, cleanliness and exercise, will prevent all, or nearly all, these diseases. apoplexy arises from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to be of service. the only remedy is bleeding, by opening the large vein under the wing, and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes. open the vein with a lancet, or if that is not at hand, with a sharp-pointed penknife; make the incision lengthways, not across, and press the vein with your thumb between the opening and the body, when the blood will flow. if the fowl should recover, feed it on soft, low food for a few days, and keep it quiet. it occurs most often in laying hens, which frequently die on the nest while ejecting the egg; and is frequently caused by too much of very stimulating food, such as hempseed, or improper diet of greaves, and also by giving too much pea or bean meal. hard crop, or being crop-bound, is caused by too much food, especially of hard grain, being taken into the crop, so that it cannot be softened by maceration, and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach. although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop, the stomach becomes empty, and the fowl eats still more food. sometimes a fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach, and being kept in the crop forms a kernel, around which fibrous and other hard material collects. mr. baily says: "pour plenty of warm water down the throat, and loosen the food till it is soft. then give a tablespoonful of castor-oil, or about as much jalap as will lie on a shilling, mixed in butter; make a pill of it, and slide it into the crop. the fowl will be well in the morning. if the crop still remain hard after this, an operation is the only remedy. the feathers should be picked off the crop in a straight line down the middle. generally speaking, the crop will be found full of grass or hay, that has formed a ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance. (i once took a piece of carrot three inches long out of a crop.) when the offence has been removed, the crop should be washed out with warm water. it should then be sewn up with coarse thread, and the suture rubbed with grease. afterwards the outer skin should be served the same. the crop and skin must not be sewed together. for three or four days the patient should have only gruel; no hard food for a fortnight." the slit should be made in the upper part of the crop, and just large enough to admit a blunt instrument, with which you must gently remove the hardened mass. diarrhoea is caused by exposure to much cold and wet, reaction after constipation from having had too little green food, unwholesome food, and dirt. feed on warm barley-meal, or oatmeal mashed with a little warm ale, and some but not very much green food, and give five grains of powdered chalk, one grain of opium, and one grain of powdered ipecacuanha twice a day till the looseness is checked. boiled rice, with a little chalk and cayenne pepper mixed, will also check the complaint. when the evacuations are coloured with blood, the diarrhoea has become dysentery, and cure is very doubtful. gapes, a frequent yawning or gaping, is caused by worms in the windpipe, which may be removed by introducing a feather, stripped to within an inch of the point, into the windpipe, turning it round quickly, and then drawing it out, when the parasites will be found adhering with slime upon it; but if this be not quickly and skilfully done, and with some knowledge of the anatomy of the parts touched, the bird may be killed instead of cured. another remedy is to put the fowl into a box, placing in it at the same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot water plate filled with boiling water, and repeating this for three or four days. some persons recommend, as a certain cure in a few days, half a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine mixed with a handful of grain, giving that quantity to two dozen of chickens each day. a pinch of salt put as far back into the mouth as possible is also said to be effectual. leg weakness, shown by the bird resting on the first joint, is generally caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the strength of the legs; and this being entirely the result of weakness, the remedy is to give strength by tonics and more nourishing food. the quality should be improved, but the quantity must not be increased, as the disease has been caused by over-feeding having produced too much weight for the strength of the legs. frequent bathing in cold water is very beneficial. this is best effected by tying a towel round the fowl, and suspending it over a pail of water, with the legs only immersed. loss of feathers is almost always caused by want of green food, or dust-heap for cleansing. let the fowls have both, and remove them to a grass run if possible. but nothing will restore the feathers till the next moult. fowls, when too closely housed or not well supplied with green food and lime, sometimes eat each other's feathers, destroying the plumage till the next moult. in such cases green food and mortar rubbish should be supplied, exercise allowed, the injured fowl should be removed to a separate place, and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur ointment. cut or broken feathers should be pulled out at once. pip, a dry scale on the tongue, is not a disease, but the symptom of some disease, being only analogous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. do not scrape the tongue, nor cut off the tip, but cure the roup, diarrhoea, bad digestion, gapes, or whatever the disease may be, and the pip will disappear. roup is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds. it begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from cold, and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils, froth in the corners of the eyes, and swollen lids. it is very contagious. separate the fowl from the others, keep it warm, add some "douglass mixture" (see "moulting") to its water daily, wash its head once or twice daily with tepid water, feed it with meal, only mixed with hot ale instead of water, and plenty of green food. mr. wright advises half a grain of cayenne pepper with half a grain of powdered allspice in a bolus of the meal, or one of baily's roup pills to be given daily. mr. tegetmeier recommends one grain of sulphate of copper daily. another advises a spoonful of castor-oil at once, and a few hours afterwards one of baily's roup pills, and to take the scale off the tongue, which can easily be done by holding the beak open with your left hand, and removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right hand; with a pill every morning for a week. if not almost well in a week it will be better to kill it. the thrush may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water. paralysis generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to move. it is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food. there is no known remedy for this disease, and the fowl seldom if ever recovers. although chiefly affecting the legs of fowls, it is quite a different disease from leg weakness. vertigo results from too great a flow of blood to the head, and is generally caused by over-feeding. pouring cold water upon the fowl's head, or holding it under a tap for a few minutes, will check this complaint, and the bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or six grains of jalap. moulting. all birds, but especially old fowls, require more warmth and more nourishing diet during this drain upon their system, and should roost in a warm, sheltered, and properly-ventilated house, free from all draught. do not let them out early in the morning, if the weather is chilly, but feed them under cover, and give them every morning warm, soft food, such as bread and ale, oatmeal and milk, potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor, with a little pepper and a little boiled meat, as liver, &c., cut small, and a little hempseed with their grain at night. give them in their water some iron or "douglass mixture," which consists of one ounce of sulphate of iron and one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart of water; a teaspoonful of the mixture is to be added to each pint of drinking water. this chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young chickens, and young birds that are disposed to outgrow their strength. it increases their appetite, improves the health, imparts strength, brightens the colour of the comb, and increases the stamina of the birds. when chickens droop and seem to suffer as the feathers on the head grow, give them once a day meat minced fine and a little canary-seed. footnotes: [footnote : piper on poultry: their varieties, management, breeding, and diseases; price s. groombridge & sons, , paternoster row, london.] [footnote : the practical poultry keeper. by mr. l. wright. cassell, petter & galpin.] [footnote : the practical poultry keeper. by mr. l. wright. cassell, petter & galpin.]