13533	----	THE UNFOLDING LIFE A Study of Development with Reference to Religious Training by ANTOINETTE ABERNETHY LAMOREAUX With Introduction by Marion Lawrance 1907 TO My Precious Father and Mother, in whose daily ministry I have seen the beauty and learned the meaning of Christian Nurture, this book is affectionately dedicated. CONTENTS CHAPTER I FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT II EARLY CHILDHOOD III EARLY CHILDHOOD--Continued IV EARLY CHILDHOOD--Concluded V CHILDHOOD--SIX TO TWELVE VI THE JUNIOR AGE--NINE TO TWELVE VII ADOLESCENCE VIII MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE INTRODUCTION Having read with much care the proof sheets of this book, I am prepared to say three things about it, and it gives me pleasure to say them here. 1. THE BOOK IS WELL NAMED. "THE UNFOLDING LIFE." Turn which way we will, we see life unfolding all about us, and yet how faintly are its mysteries understood! And is it not the one thing above all others, which teachers, mothers, fathers and all of us, need to understand? It is well that our attention has been called to this most vital of all themes by a book, whose very name compels attention to its content, and whose content is but its name in fuller treatment. 2. THE BOOK IS WELL WRITTEN. Such books as this should be read slowly and pondered well; but this book by its fascination will tempt one to read too rapidly. Its line of argument is logical; its diction is as pure as the bubbling stream; its truths are evident and compelling. It presents the purest psychology stripped of all mystifying technicalities, and clothed in language which even a child can understand. The reason for this is plain. It is the "Beaten Oil" drawn from the rich and ripe experience of one of the best students of childhood and teachers of children in our land. 3. THE BOOK IS WELL TIMED. Teachers are seeking now as never before to understand the soil in which the living seed of God's Word is to be cast. Nothing can be more important than this. The author deals largely with the every day problems of the average home and Sunday School, thus rendering the highest service to the great army of ordinary teachers and mothers. While this book will be hailed with joy by all such, it will nevertheless command a place by the side of the highest grade books on the subject. There never was a time when any book on any subject was more greatly needed than this book is needed now. It would be a boon indeed to every home, and to every Sunday School as well, if all teachers, mothers, yes, and fathers too, would read and re-read "THE UNFOLDING LIFE." MARION LAWRANCE. Chicago, March, 1908. FOREWORD The greatest thing in the world is a human life. The greatest work in the world is the helpful touch upon that life. Here and there an artist in soul culture is found at the task, but the many are unskilled and the product of the labor is far from a manhood "perfect in Christ." In dealing with things, the vessel marred in the making can be set aside or fashioned anew, but a life is for eternity. The faulty work can not be undone. The mistake can never be wholly rectified, for life never yields up what is given it. The look, the word, the invisible atmosphere of the home and church, the sights and sounds of all the busy days enter the super-sensitive and retentive soul of the child and are woven into life tissue. Character has no other from which to fashion itself. Therefore its final beauty and worth will be determined in large measure by the quality of the material which entered in. It is with earnest desire to help some parent or teacher in the divine work of soul nurture, that this volume is offered. There is no attempt to add to knowledge in Child Study or Psychology, but rather to interpret certain of their fundamental facts and principles with reference to Religious Training. CHAPTER I FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT. Row upon row they stretched, fifteen acres of regal chrysanthemums, roses pink, yellow, white and red, fragile lilies of the valley, carnations and vivid orchids, no two alike, yet all expressions of plant life. Skilled gardeners from England and Germany were busy with these exquisite flower children, watering, pruning and training upon slender cords, that every bud might come to perfect unfolding. The laws of the plant world and the law of each individual flower were well known to them. They knew that all required sunshine and soil, warmth and moisture, but in varying amount. The chrysanthemums grew in the sunlight, while only a few days before cutting could the lilies of the valley be released from their darkened beds. All needed cultivation but not in the same way. Some were massed, while yonder were thousands of carnations, and every one sole monarch of its own little garden plot. Painstakingly and completely, day after day, the needs of each frail life were met, until the flowers grown in this greatest of Canadian greenhouses have become renowned far across the border for their unsurpassed beauty, coloring and size. The quiet walk between the glorious masses of bloom that October afternoon brought a vision of a greater Child garden, with an infinite variety of human plants to be tended, every one with its own individuality, needs, possibilities and a divine purpose for it cherished in the heart of the Heavenly Gardener. The work of nurture He has given to parents and teachers, longing unspeakably that it shall be so wise and tender that His plan for every life may be realized. But as the earnest soul takes up the task, it seems so bewildering. "Three little ones in the home, and every one different! Ten boys in the Sunday School class and no two alike! Where does nurture begin? How is it carried on?" Though the differences in human lives are countless, there are certain great likenesses. All have life, needs, possibilities; they all grow and develop in the same general way. From these common likenesses have been formulated a few principles which are as helpful to a child gardener as a knowledge of the laws of plant life to one who nurtures roses and carnations. Their understanding is not dependent upon physical parenthood. God will interpret the meaning to any one whom He calls into fellowship with Himself in the matchless work of soul culture. I. The First Principle deals with the nature of life--What is it? Some answer must be given in order to arrive at an aim, a method, and an inspiration for work. If a child is only a beautiful figure upon which to display dainty garments, the mother has a plain pathway marked out for her. If a boy is a capacity to be filled, or a machine to grind out facts or dollars, the teacher's course of action is clear. God's conception of life is surely greater than these, yet He never gave a definition. Jesus said it is more than meat, that it is worth more than all the world, that it does not consist in abundance of things, that it is eternal, but He nowhere tells us what it is, for He can not. It is a part of God. He can only make us understand it in any wise by giving its characteristics and values. Perhaps these may come to us more clearly through considering first what life is not. 1. Life is not merely "plastic clay" to be moulded, or a "block of marble" to be hewn according to the will of the sculptor. This poetic conception emphasizes rightly the tremendous power of environment and personality in shaping character, but it is really a dangerous half truth. If the child were a block of marble, he would be no different from the dead, inert lump that lies in the studio awaiting the will of the sculptor. They would both be things. But a child has life, and the difference between life and thing lies in an inner power or activity which life possesses and uses when and as it will. This activity has to be reckoned with. Sun and rain and earth can not make a plant grow if it does not use its own mysterious inner force upon them. No sort of influence can affect a life, if the life does not respond to it. This response will be either receiving or rejecting the influences that come, working with or against them. Assuredly this is a condition very different from "plastic clay." Two great tasks, therefore, are included in the work of nurture: the first, to see that all that comes to plastic life from the outside is what it ought to be; the second, to somehow arouse the power within to vigorous effort upon the best things. 2. Life is not a "pure white page," even in its beginning. There is here also a half truth, and an error. Life is unstained by guilt in its early years. It comes innocent from the hand of God, but fingers long since vanished have traced lines that mar the perfect whiteness. There are tendencies away from God as well as toward Him, and these are not the result of environment. Environment will cultivate tendencies but can not implant them. Favoring conditions will make an apple tree produce magnificent apples, but they will never implant in it any tendency to bear roses or produce thorns. Failure to recognize the fact of two sets of tendencies in the life will lead to a fatal mistake in nurture. Christ will be presented only as an Example and not as a Savior also, thus setting before a life its pattern and leaving it impotent to reach it. 3. A life in its beginning is not a "little man." The element of truth in this conception is perhaps less than in either of these preceding. It is indeed true that child life is that out of which man life is to come, but the difference is more vital than that of inches or strength. The bulb shelters a lily life, but the difference is greater than size. The chrysalis will bring forth the butterfly, but the two are not identical. Childhood will unfold into manhood, but each has its own characteristics and needs, differing in largest degree. The physiologist tells us that it would be hard to find many important points beyond the most fundamental laws in which the infant and the adult exactly resemble each other. (Oppenheim.) In bodily proportions, in actual composition of bones, muscles, blood and nerves, in size and development of the organs, the differences are wide. The psychologist proves that there is equal variance in mental conditions. The man has a sense of responsibility to his neighbor and to God, unknown to child life. He thinks and reasons and judges as the child mind can not. His whole outlook upon life is opposite from that of the child. We recognize this difference in caring for the body, and the babe is fed on milk and the boy on meat. But the difference must be recognized as equally important in caring for the soul. Just as meat is meat, whether minced or uncut, and therefore unsuited for a tiny life, so doctrine is doctrine, whether stated in words of one syllable or four, and equally unsuited to a beginning life. Paul refers to those who need milk and not solid food, spiritually, because they are "without experience of the word of righteousness," clearly indicating a difference in the kind of instruction, not the amount. The subject matter must be adapted to the life, not merely the number of syllables, the method of teaching, as well as the length of the lesson. Without this careful adaptation of food and method, the developing life will be under-nourished, and the most vigorous maturity be impossible. But these negative statements only safeguard against mistakes by telling us what to avoid. A real working basis must be found in a positive principle. The study of an unfolding life at any time in its development always reveals two supreme facts, possibilities peculiar to that period, and self activity. The First Principle of development combines these two facts and gives us our nearest approach to a definition. "Life is a bundle of possibilities and self activity." The block of marble has possibilities, so has molten metal and a tube of paint; but life has possibilities plus inner power. The three imperative "Oughts" for the parent or teacher are herein suggested. First, he ought to be able to recognize each possibility as it appears. Second, he ought to know how best to deal with it. Third, he ought to know how to stimulate the activity to greatest endeavor. II. The Second Principle states the relation of nurture to the unfolding of these possibilities. "The direction and degree of development are largely determined by nurture." Every possibility in a life, unless it die out, must develop either upward or downward, toward the best or worst. This development, whether in a plant or a boy, depends on what is given the life to work with and the use that is made of it, or, stated in more dignified terms--the development is a result of influences that come to a life and the response made to them by activity. The sort of influences and the sort of response given will determine the sort of development. When some one is consciously endeavoring to make both outer influences and the inner working of the life the best possible, it is called nurture. The responsibility that grows out of this thought of nurture is almost crushing, yet its opportunity is sublime. To make a boy strong for his life work, because the right word was spoken at the critical moment, the encouragement given just when his purpose was faltering, to help a girl reach glorious young womanhood because the inspiration came as she stood at the parting of the ways--surely this, in a very real sense, is working with God. The story of almost every life of marked power, reveals a human touch at the cross roads. Is this one meaning in the Master's words, "Inasmuch as ye did it," or "Inasmuch as ye did it not?" "I would have been on the foreign mission field seven years ago," said a splendid young man, "had not my Sunday School teacher laughed at me when I told him my new born desire. I expect to go now, but what of those seven years?" If the home and the church should begin at once to obey God's command to nurture the children "In the chastening and admonition of the Lord," with all that means, the next generation would see the kingdoms of this world given to Christ and the advent of the King. III. The Third Principle defines the work of nurture. "Nurture must care for both nourishment and activity." 1. The Watch Care over Nourishment. Nourishment is the general term for all that upon which the life feeds. It is given both consciously and unconsciously and is absorbed in like manner, but in its effect upon the life, the unconscious nourishment has greater power. (1) Unconscious Nourishment. (a) The first factor in unconscious nourishment is personality. Just as truly as the physical life is nourished by life, so is the mental and the spiritual. Standards of living, ideas, a sense of values, opinions, do not come from text-books but fathers and mothers. The lesson from the printed page may fail to gain entrance, but the lesson from the teacher's life, never. This explains the success of many a humble mother and the failure of many an intellectual teacher. It is at the very heart of all work for another. Its first message is a personal one. It tells the worker that his life is more compelling than his voice; that the Word must again become flesh to give it authority. It tells him further that if he is to be the bread of life to growing souls, his own pasturage must not be things, but in reality, the living Christ. The other message applies to his work. While every life that touches his will always carry away something from the contact, the most helpful human life can never suffice for another's nourishment. Each soul needs the complete Christ for itself. The amazing thing among parents and teachers is their unconcern over His absence from the lives of the children. Years pass, and precept, lesson and admonition are given, while Christ, the Life, is not definitely and personally offered. "According to their pasture so were they filled." Is not this the explanation of so many meagre lives? (b) The second factor of unconscious nourishment is environment with its subtle atmosphere. The importance of environment is found in this great law, that life tends to become like that which is around it. So strong is the tendency that the only escape from conformity lies in real struggle. This a little child rarely puts forth, and an adult not always, for it is far easier to follow the line of least resistance and "be like other people." Growing out of this power of environment comes the problem of all philanthropic and religious work--how to overcome the influence of harmful surroundings. The need is obvious when the surroundings are vicious, yet the home does not need to be in the slums to injure a growing life. It only needs to be Christless. This may seem a very radical statement, but it is nevertheless true. Arresting the highest development is as truly an injury as giving to life wrong direction. Has not a plant been positively injured when its most beautiful possibilities are unrealized because of unfavoring conditions? Is not a body, undersized and stunted because of lack of fresh air and food, as truly deformed as though the back were bent? Has not that soul received the most cruel of all injuries, when its divinest possibilities can never be attained either because of spiritual starvation or misdirection? The Church and the Sunday School attempt to furnish a counteracting environment, but it is infrequent and brief. The only power which can render this temporary, religious environment mote effective in influencing character than a harmful, permanent one, is the Divine. A church building or a Sunday School session of itself, can accomplish little, placed over against a home. Methods of grading and forms of worship are impotent in themselves. It is only a living Christ, actually vitalizing the lesson and the sermon and the plan of work Who makes them efficacious. If this be so, then the teacher who goes to the home itself to press the claims of a personal Savior on the father and mother, has after all reached the heart of the problem of environment. (c) The third factor of unconscious nourishment is the Superhuman Power. This thought has been suggested in connection with personality and environment, but it demands separate emphasis. It is not an easy thing in the stress of the visible to remember the greater power of the Invisible. The most earnest Christian worker is sometimes overwhelmed by discouragement or, again, unduly confident because of the perfection of system and method, forgetting that God knows no obstacle, and that He alone can put life into a plan of work. But though God uses men and methods, He does not always so approach a life He deals directly with a soul through the influence of the Holy Spirit, and life receives its most holy nurture in those sacred hours. Therefore, the highest service permitted a Sunday School teacher is to pray effectually for the brooding Spirit to rest upon the pupils in his class. The mother can do nothing which shall mean so much for the precious life in her arms as learning, herself, the secret of prevailing prayer, for, "If we ask anything according to His Will, He heareth us; and if we know that He heareth us, whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions which we have asked of Him." Therefore, O Lord, "Teach us to pray." (2) Conscious Nourishment. This is definite instruction so given to a life that it is appropriated. A large part of attempted instruction is never taken in. "I have told you over and over again," says the despairing mother, but telling does not always involve receiving. Placing nourishing food before the boy does not necessarily mean stronger muscle and purer blood. He must eat and digest it. Teaching, to be nourishment, requires first, careful adaptation of the subject matter, then presentation in such a way that the mind will voluntarily reach out, lay hold upon and assimilate it. God again gives the key to real teaching in the word "engraft." Its process in the physical and mental world is identical. First, the delicate adjustment, then a vital union, and lastly, new life resulting. 2. The Watch Care over Activity. We have considered nurture in its work of supplying the best nourishment to growing souls, and now its care for activity must be noted. Since the subject will be discussed more fully in a succeeding chapter, only the necessity for the nurture will be considered here. This necessity appears in the four-fold result of activity. (1) New Experiences. This is the first result to the child from ceaseless movement of hands and feet and eager eyes. In early life he is not conscious of seeking the new experience, he only wants to be in motion. In later life, energy is definitely put forth for some desired end. But whatever the motive, experiences helpful or harmful, according to the sort of activity, result, and they enter character at par value. (2) Growth or Increase in Size. Activity is necessary before anything given to the body or the soul can become a part of life. Food must be acted upon by the digestive, circulatory and assimilative organs to make it bone and muscle and nerve. The mind must think upon the fact in order to add it to the store of knowledge. The heavenly vision must be obeyed before Christian experience is enlarged by it. But there is another aspect of this same thought. Just as truly as activity must precede assimilation, so truly does assimilation follow activity. It may be stated more simply in this way. Nothing can become a part of the life until it has been acted upon; when it has been acted upon it can not be taken out of the life. When digestion is finished and the food is bone and muscle, it can not be withdrawn. When the idea has been thought in or acted upon, it has by that process become a part of the life, and though it may fade from memory its influence is abiding. (3) Development or Increase of Power and Skill. Every muscle exercised gains greater freedom. Every knotty problem mastered means increased mental ability. Every victory means greater power in resisting temptation. Whatever the action, whether good or bad, helpful or harmful, greater skill and power in that direction follows it. This other very important fact needs to be clear, that no amount of energy put forth for another will mean development for him. He must exercise his own arm for strength and solve his own problem. Development only comes through the effort of each individual for himself; hence the best teacher is the one who can rouse the pupil to the greatest endeavor. (4) Habit Formation. It is impossible to act, physically, mentally or spiritually, without making it easier to repeat the action, and soon ease passes to tendency, then tendency to compulsion, and life is in the grip of a habit. This is the inevitable outcome of activity, until "nine-tenths of life is lived in the mould of habit." If it be true that habit is "ten times second nature," the importance of directing activity toward the formation of right habits needs no discussion. IV. The Fourth Principle of unfolding life deals with its crises. "The crucial points in development are those times when new possibilities begin to unfold." The life comes from God complete in its possibilities, but at the beginning all is in germ. As life progresses, development of these possibilities proceeds, but it is not uniform. The body acquires ability to control the larger muscles before it can adjust the finer and more complex ones, as instanced in the child's ability to walk before he can thread a needle. The mind is able to imagine before it can reason clearly. The feelings center on self before they reach out to the world around. As every new possibility begins to develop, two serious facts must be remembered: (1) Direction must be given in the beginning before tendencies are fixed. A beginning is always a time of easy adjustment and flexibility. Business corporations can readily alter a course of action before a policy has been established. The nurseryman can easily secure the straight trunk of the mature tree in the yielding sapling. The law is just as true when it touches human life. The trend of any possibility is determined largely in the beginning of its unfolding. After that time has gone by, conditions are practically fixed, and he that is unjust will be unjust still, and he that is holy will be holy still. (2) Future strength and vigor are largely determined in the beginning of development. It is well nigh impossible to overcome the effect of early neglect. If the culture of the growing stalk is passed over, the corn in the ear can not be full. If the bodily needs of the boy are unmet, he can not reach his full development as a man. If his budding intellectual life, his awakening feeling life, or the delicate unfolding of his spiritual life is neglected, a complete, rounded out maturity is impossible. A starved childhood is always the prophecy of a stunted manhood, while life nourished in its beginning foretells vigorous maturity. V. The very important question now arises, "How may these crucial times be recognized?" The answer is given in the Fifth Principle. "A new interest always accompanies an awakening possibility." The increasing love of a story discloses a growing imagination. The passionate hero worship of a boy's heart reveals the fact of a budding ideal. The interest in clubs and desire for companionship tell of awakening social feelings. Life is always the exponent of its own need to one who cares to know, and it further reveals what should be given it, and how. VI. The Sixth Principle has already been touched upon in the preceding discussion, but it needs the emphasis of special statement, because of its importance. "Development is from within, out, through what is absorbed, not from without, in, through external application without absorption." If development were a matter of external application, the post would grow and the stone and the stick, because they have earth and air and moisture around them. If it came from without, in, the most admonished child would be the best, the most talked to pupil the wisest, but the reverse is usually true. That which adheres simply to the surface of rock and child is veneer, which the testing circumstance will rub off. Only that which is assimilated is of any value to the life. These are the great principles revealed in the development of life from infancy to maturity. The factor of human contact appears in every one. The question, "What is my touch upon this unfolding life?" can not be evaded. The stonecutter takes the marble and hews out the rough block; the sculptor finds its hidden soul. The artisan takes the canvas and the common sign appears; the artist makes it immortal. But God gives life to parents and teachers to fashion. Will hands clumsy and unskilled, miss the perfect beauty, or the touch of master workmanship bring forth a likeness to the Christ? CHAPTER II EARLY CHILDHOOD The first period of life, Early Childhood, includes the years from birth to about six or, in Sunday School phraseology, the "Cradle Roll," from birth to three, and the "Beginners," from three to six. It is a temptation to note at length the marvelous achievements of a little life in its earliest years, as it comes, "Out from the shore of the great unknown, Blind and wailing and alone, Into the light of day. * * * * *. "From the unknown sea that reels and rolls, Specked with the barks of little souls, Barks that were launched on the other side, And slipped from Heaven on an ebbing tide." The wealth of material, however, clustering around each period of developing life is so great that selection must be made. Therefore only those facts illuminating the chosen theme of religious nurture will be considered. The baby's world is a "big, blooming, buzzing confusion," according to James, but gradually, cosmos emerges from chaos. The senses, clouded at first, become clear and active. Adjustment and voluntary control of the larger muscles are secured. The art of walking is mastered, and the great feat of learning a language practically unaided, is well under way. The awakening mind learns to know certain objects and simplest relationships within a very limited sphere, and through ceaseless activity, new experiences are constantly coming in to the soul. Guided by instinct and impulse, responding to any wind that blows, sensitive and retentive as the plate of a camera, "Just a-yearning To be learning Anything at all," can any religious nurture be given to this tiny little bundle of possibilities? Manifestly, it will not be through precept and admonition, for they are meaningless, yet never will life be more open to the influences of impression and atmosphere than at this time. The child can not understand their import as they come, but he will feel them. He does not understand love, but he feels it. He can not comprehend personality, but his restless little body grows quiet in the tender arms of a strong father. He responds to the fretfulness or gentleness of the mother, the noisy confusion or peace of the home. These multitudinous impressions become his life, though he can not grasp their meaning. Just as surely does he drink in impressions which have the Divine element. What they speak to him only God knows, but some message is theirs. The picture of the "Good Shepherd," of "Jesus Blessing Little Children," of the "Madonna and Child," perform their silent ministry to his soul. He is peculiarly sensitive to the reverence and worship in lofty music. In the evening tide of a Sabbath day, a father was seated at the piano, while the two older children stood near, and a wee one of two and a half years listened from his mother's arms. The songs used in Sunday School were sung one after the other, and then came the baby voice, "Papa, sing about Dod." "Do you mean, 'Holy, Holy, Holy is the Lord'?" he asked. "Yes," was the answer, and in the hush of the twilight, the worship of the children blended with the worship of the angels, and who shall say they did not all behold the Father's face? The nurture of these years is as silent as that of the dewdrop upon the blade of grass, but it is as real. God's voice is the still, small voice that ever speaks in quietness. The stillness of the moment at the mother's knee, the prayer repeated in the reverent, low tone of the mother's voice, the earnest prayer for him offered in his presence, the Christ-like living in the home, all carry their holy influence to his soul. He feels God, without knowing Him. But there shall come a day when the Voice that has gently called him will be recognized, and he will say, "Speak, Lord, for thy servant heareth." But general nurture must be supplemented by the definite nurture of each growing possibility. Though the principles underlying this careful watch care and training are stated in connection with Early Childhood, they are applicable to every succeeding period where the same power is developing. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY The most marked characteristic of the entire period of early childhood is physical activity, manifesting itself largely in restlessness. The nervous force which later will be used in complex mental processes, now seeks expression through hands and feet and tireless body. In early infancy activity is entirely purposeless and unwilled, merely the instinctive movement of every part of the body. Gradually, however, through the contact with different objects brought about by his restlessness, the baby learns to reach out for what he wants, and purpose in the activity begins to appear. Later, play affords an outlet for the constant flow of this pent-up power, and the child lives over again those activities of the busy life around which appeal to him. From the previous discussion of activity, we know that the child is bringing about far-reaching results, all unconscious to himself, through this never ceasing restlessness of every waking moment. He is growing, through the kneading process of constant movement; he is developing freer use of his muscles; he is building new experiences into character, and he is forming habits of life. How then may this great force be nurtured so that greatest results shall follow? The law of activity must first be understood. It has been very succinctly stated, "Activity must act, explode or cease to generate." If it cease to generate entirely it means death, for every organ of the body is using it. If it lessen in amount, it means lowered vitality, and indicates illness or abnormal conditions in some way. The over-strained mother who says to a little one of this age, "I wish you could keep still for five minutes," does not realize what she is expressing. It has been demonstrated in scientific tests, that the perfectly normal child under six can keep absolutely still but few consecutive seconds, therefore the desire could only be fulfilled through some disturbed physical condition which would lessen the amount of life itself. Any diminution is everywhere felt, for the same activity which impels hands and feet, impels also the hungry senses, the eager curiosity and every part of a growing mental life. Fortunately for the child, God's finger is on the dynamo of his life, and as long as He wills the activity can not cease to generate. There are but two alternatives left, an action or an explosion, for activity can no more be confined than steam in an engine. If the explosion has occurred, it has resulted from successful repression. The stopper, "Don't," has been inserted in the last opening through which the nervous force could expend itself, and after a moment of dangerous calm, the inevitable occurs, and the happiness and peace of the entire home is for the time destroyed. The result is just as sure as that of confining an expanding gas, while its disaster is wrought in the mental and moral as well as the physical realms. Fortunately again for the well-being of the child, it is difficult to secure the last outlet, so fertile is his busy brain. But without the explosion, the results that come to a child from a policy of repression are very serious. Briefly stated, they are first, irritability and nervousness. The refinement of cruelty is dealt to a little child, compelled by superior force to act contrary to God's law for him and "Keep quiet." Activity which should normally be expended, when confined, reacts upon the cells of the body so that soon there are physical reasons beyond the child's control for his nervousness and crossness. Second, Friction, in which defiance and stubbornness appear. The severest test which could be imposed upon adults would be a constant and apparently arbitrary thwarting of their desires. Is it to be wondered at that a little, unreasoning life which hears "don't" by the scores of times from morning till night, grows rebellious, vindictive and obstinate? Third, Unhappiness and a sense of alienation. Sympathy between two persons is impossible when they are at cross purposes, and happiness which is God's gift to childhood can never be realized when souls are out of touch. Further, discouragement and consequent loss of incentive to effort must inevitably overwhelm a little life that never does anything right. Fourth, weakened will and character. This is the most serious result of all. One of the great principles already stated makes it clear that development can come only through the activity of the individual himself. If the child is constantly withheld from doing by the word "don't," he can not reach the fullest development of character. Furthermore, character is not built negatively but positively. A building can never be erected by merely keeping out of it all unworthy material. There must be an actual putting together of brick and mortar, and the great truth is evident that whenever a place is filled by the good, the bad is in that very act kept out, whether in buildings or character. The motive back of many a "don't" is worthy, and often there may be no alternative but to instantly check an action, but for the effect on character building there is a more excellent way than repression. It lies in the expression suggested in the law of activity, but expression under direction. Some parents realize the necessity of allowing the child's activity to be expended, but fail to see the other side of the matter, namely, that while activity means development, the sort of development that follows will depend on the character of the activity. It is important that a boy's energy be given an outlet, but it is more important whether it make of him a gentleman or a hoodlum. The guidance or neglect of the activity will determine which it is to be. Too frequent emphasis can not be put upon the fact that every outgoing activity traces a little deeper some pathway that tends toward a habit. The mistake is often made of thinking that habits can be formed only by "taking thought." It is true that some of the finest habits of life are built into character with painstaking effort, but untidiness and selfishness and irreverence and all their kin reach fullest unfolding in the thoughtless outflow of activity, when no one is attending. But activity, untrammeled, means more than wrong habits. It means lawlessness and undisciplined character. The child who has learned no higher authority for his acts than his own erratic whims, has laid good foundation for future disregard of the laws of man and God. The converse of all that has been said concerning both repression and neglect of activity characterizes its wise direction. When the child, ignorant and unskilled, hears a voice saying, "This is the way, walk ye in it," his willing response means activity going out in right channels or the formation of right habits. It means a dual joy for him, the joy of activity itself and also the joy from the approval and sympathy of the parent or teacher. Under encouragement he puts forth greater effort, which means constant development of greater power. Yet more than all, it means that he is learning the greatest lesson of early life, obedience. Obedience is only activity under law. It begins with submission to the will of the parent, but when at last it is a response of the whole life to the will of God and rendered of voluntary and loving choice, it has reached its highest unfolding. This is the goal toward which all nurture of activity must be directed, else no life is safe after it goes out from the restraints of the home. In the heart of the parent who is a seer, the mere closing of the door or putting away of the toy in response to a request is not the thing most desired, for that is external and true obedience is internal. The father, possessing insight, wants the heart as well as the hand of the boy to close the door or put away the toy. Without this, no victory is gained. The act itself is the least of all. "Sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire. ... Then said I, Lo, I come. ... I delight to do Thy will, O my God; yea, Thy law is within my heart." This attitude of voluntary heart acquiescence to the will of another is never the product of compelling power, else God would force His children to obey, since obedience is the thing He most desires. Force can sway the hand but not the heart. Paul, whose tireless activity spent itself out under the direction of his Master, discloses the great secret when he says, "The love of Christ constraineth us." The eternal Father says to His child, "I have loved thee with an everlasting love; therefore with loving kindness have I drawn thee." It is by love, by words of approval, by patient encouragement and help, and also by experiencing the consequences of each act, whether joyous or painful, that the child is led to follow the one who points out the path for his activity. Soon he faces the words, "right," and "wrong," and though knowing only at first that "right" is the thing permitted, and "wrong," the thing denied, he feels the difference in the results of each. Then he learns that the pathway of the thing called "right," is not an arbitrary one laid down by mother or teacher, but the pathway traced by God Himself, wherein we all must walk, parent and child, teacher and pupil alike. When with dimmest understanding but loving heart, he first sets faltering foot in that path, because he catches glimpse of its shining light, that "shineth more and more unto the perfect day," the one who has nurtured him will hear God's voice speaking to his soul, "Well done, good and faithful servant." HUNGRY SENSES Hungry senses, directed in their quest by a hungrier mind, mark the second great characteristic of early childhood. These are the channels through which the world around comes into the life of the child. The sights and sounds of the physical realm, when carried beyond the portals of the senses, under the marvelous transmutation of God's touch, become ideas. The process, in so far as its secret has been revealed, will not be discussed at this point, but rather the relation of these impressions to character. In early years the senses are undiscriminating as far as the real worth of an impression is concerned. The vulgar picture will be admired as quickly as the beautiful one, if its colors are attractive. The impure word is caught as readily as the pure. There is no standard of values; even taste is not yet formed, and eyes and ears hungrily reach out for anything to satisfy their voracious appetite. Each sensation which is reported to the mind through the senses and intricate nervous system, supplies an idea, embodying itself. It is with these that all the thinking of the child is done, these rouse his feelings and prompt his actions and, finally, mean character. Manifestly, then, his life can be no better than the things he sees and hears, handles and tastes, for he lives in a world of sensations and not of ideas. This was the thought of the mother who said, "I never wash my little children's faces at night, and put them to bed all sweet and clean on the outside, that I don't think that I would give all the world if I could somehow get inside and wash that too." But the inner cleansing from the influence of sight and sound no hand can perform. God forgives sin, but even His touch does not remove the impression of the picture or the word which memory has put away. The only hope of beautiful character lies in bringing to the unfolding life helpful influences which shall be stronger in their power than the vitiating. When some definite counteracting impression is needed, it is in the sacred confidences of the twilight hour, and at the confessional of a mother's knee, that it can be most effectively given. Aside from the moral import of the impressions, there is a vital relationship between the senses and the quality of the intellectual life. Since knowledge can come to the child only through his senses, the amount of knowledge, as well as its sort, depends upon the story the senses tell. If they be dull, the knowledge is meagre and life has little with which to build. If they be defective, the impression is either falsely reported or not at all. Tests have revealed the amazing fact that over fifty per cent of children have imperfect sight and hearing. This means that the first idea given through eye or ear may be wrong; consequently each subsequent idea growing out of it is wrong, at least in part, and ultimately, false conceptions and mistaken courses of action appear, all traceable directly to the ear that did not hear accurately and the eye that told a false tale. There is also a direct connection between defective senses and conduct. Naturally, the boy who can't see the blackboard, pays no attention to the work placed upon it, and the child partially deaf, disregards the words of the teacher. The overwhelming number of personally observed cases of difficult discipline, disclosed the unvarying fact of defect, either in the senses or the body itself. Therefore a teacher or parent should be very sure that the "bad boy problem" is not physical rather than moral, lest cruel injustice be done. While the dull senses call for limitless patience, that life be not pitifully narrow, and the defective senses call for wise and remedial attention, the normal, keen, wide-awake senses exact the most from the conscientious parent or teacher. Eternal vigilance is the price of beautiful building material for the character in such an unfolding life. Each day adds to the store put away in the brain, to reappear later. "We must soon be careful what we do before the baby," says the mother who half grasps the connection between impressions and character building, not realizing that the work is already far under way, that foundations are in. Nurture of the senses must begin with the first dim reaching out for impressions, that only the best may enter, that right tastes may be formed, and self control in this fiercest battle-field of life be learned. CHAPTER III THE PERIOD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD--Continued. As we come to consider the soul of the child, using this term not in its religious sense, but to include all of life but the physical, we understand that in reality it is indivisible. There are no separate parts or faculties possessing unique powers such as reasoning, remembering, feeling or willing. The whole soul remembers, feels and wills. However, for the sake of clearness and convenience, when it is reasoning, we are accustomed to speak of soul power in that direction as reason, or imagining as imagination or willing as will. We must understand, also, that the soul of the child is as complete in its possibilities as the soul of the adult, only they are undeveloped. As life and environment grow more complex, new needs arise and these new needs awaken soul power in a new direction. The expression "I didn't know he had it in him," is frequently heard, as some one has shown unexpected ability under sudden pressure of circumstances. Every brain has millions of undeveloped cells, scientists affirm, signifying that every life is infinitely poorer than it might be. The need is something to arouse its latent power. CURIOSITY The little child is at first in a world of total mystery. Sights, sounds, sensations from contact come to him and all are unintelligible. As they are carried to his brain, somewhere, somehow, they awaken a desire to know their meaning, and as the tiny fingers are extended toward objects the soul is reaching also. This soul reaching is curiosity, one of God's most gracious and wonderful provisions for the life, but so often its significance is misunderstood. If there were no curiosity, there would never be any eager attempt to explore the field of knowledge. The disciplined spirit of inquiry that makes for the world's progress, is only a fuller development of the untutored and disastrous effort of the child to find out about things. We forget that before there can be a flower there must be a bud. Before there can be a scientist who shall pick the rock to pieces to learn its secret, there must be a child who picks a doll to pieces to see what is inside. The pathos of childhood is its bowed head and mute lips under the blow and the stinging word, because judgment is passed, not on motives, as the parent demands for himself, but on the external appearance of the act. We look into our Heavenly Father's face, out of the wreckage and mistakes of a day, and say, "I meant to do it aright, but I am so ignorant," and we are comforted that He looks at the heart and understands. Can we be less pitifully tender toward His little ones? There are three marked manifestations of curiosity during this period of childhood. (1) Questions. In the wordless years of earliest life, mysteries around the child can receive only partial solution. But the day comes when language gives him a key whereby to unlock the doors, and he begins to ask, "What is it," then "Why," and "Where," and "How." This questioning period commences about the age of three, and is in strong evidence for some time. The answers involve for the most part nouns and verbs, not adjectives nor adverbs, signifying that the child is not yet ready for abstract qualities and characteristics. Simple facts only are sought at first. Questions concern the names of things, activities connected with them, causes and ends and the age-long mystery of origins. Passing by reluctantly any further discussion of this most fascinating subject of children's questions, four great facts bearing upon nurture must be noted. 1. Repression of the sincere questioning of a child tends to weaken his effort to acquire knowledge. 2. Questions reveal a need felt by the child, and are a guide to the kind of instruction he is ready to receive. 3. A question not only reveals a need, but is also an assurance that the instruction given will be received, for what the mind wants to learn, it will learn. 4. A sincere question demands a sincere answer. This statement would seem superfluous, if its need were not apparent in questions dealing with the origin of life. God gives to the mother, first, the sacred privilege of investing these most holy mysteries with purity and sanctity, and through this confidence drawing the life of the child into closer fellowship with her own. If the opportunity be cast away through the evasive or untruthful answer, the facts may come with a taint upon them which can never be wholly removed. (2) Mischief. (3) Destructiveness. A word must suffice upon these other manifestations of curiosity. When truly understood, they reveal only an eager mind trying to obtain new experiences to add to knowledge. It is not total depravity that leads a child to pull the articles from the workbasket, or tear the book, or demolish the toy. He merely wants to see the object under as great a variety of conditions as possible, to find out all he can about it. It is identical with the spirit of the scientist who essays new combinations to see what the results may be, only in its inception it is crude and unskilled. Assuredly, instead of dealing harshly with an instinct which in later years may make the whole world richer, it would be wiser to give it legitimate outlet. Toys and blocks which admit of being taken apart and readjusted may begin the training of an Edison or a Stephenson. INTERESTS Just as in the realm of the physical, appetite for one sort of food may be greater than for another, even in hunger, so a varying appetite appears in connection with the soul hunger of curiosity. It is strongest in the direction of that in which the life is naturally interested at any given time. The interests of early childhood are primarily in things which exhibit or suggest activity and in simplest relationships, found in the little world bounded by home, neighborhood, Kindergarten and Sunday School. Nature makes strong appeal, not on the aesthetic side of tint and shadow, but through the charm of her multiform movements and family life akin to the child's. The bird's nest fascinates because there is connected with it the story of the building and the hungry little brood it sheltered. Tales of animals, fairies and real folk, busy in simple and familiar occupations hold him entranced, and he will watch with rapt attention the performance of most common tasks. It is noteworthy that his interest in all this is not so much in the end to be accomplished, as in the activity itself. Even in his play, the preparations are often more delightful and satisfying than the game which follows. All this has a deep meaning for one who is trying to help the little life in its unfolding. 1. "Wise education takes the tide at the flood," says James. These interests reveal the fact that in this period, instruction should deal with things, not with statements of ideas, apart from things, or, in other words, with the concrete, not the abstract. 2. The greater the knowledge of things gained while interest attaches to them, the greater the resources for clear, broad thinking as life matures. 3. When instruction is in line with interests, attention and consequent learning are assured. 4. The child's religious interests will be identical in character with the other interests of this period. He will not be interested in the Being or attributes of God, but God in His great activities as Creator and Wonder-Worker, and in His relation as Father. Jesus will make appeal, not in His discourses, but in His acts of helpfulness and power, and His love. The great law of teaching is here involved, that interest in and knowledge of the unknown can come only through interest in and knowledge of something which is like it. Paul says in Romans, "For the invisible things of Him since the world began are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even His everlasting power and divinity." Therefore the first definite religious instruction which the child receives, must be upon spiritual truths illustrated in his own known world of interests. IMITATION The result of the efforts of curiosity, senses and activity is a constantly increasing store of ideas in the child's mind, relating to these things in which he is interested. As these ideas enter his mind, applying this term to the "intellectual function of the soul," he immediately wants to act upon them, according to a law inborn that an idea always tends to go out into action, unless it is held back. Adults have fixed habits of expressing ideas that come to them, but not so the child. An interesting activity is always a suggestion to him to reproduce it exactly, if possible. This difference between habit and suggestion in action is illustrated in the case of a long-suffering kitten in the hands of a resourceful child. The sight will arouse in another child an irresistible impulse to try the same experiment, while it always leads his mother to attempt a rescue. This tendency to exact reproduction of activity is the instinct of imitation, and is a marked characteristic of childhood. As these words are written, a glance through the window discloses surveyors at work with tape and red chalk. Following in their wake is a five year old with diminutive string and piece of red crayon, laying out distances and taking measurements, in exact copy of his predecessors, a genuine "pocket edition" of the original. While such elaborate exactness characterizes imitation in this period of childhood alone, the impulse to conform is never entirely lost. The desire grows more complex and general as the years go on, and from reproduction of definite acts, the life tries to emulate the spirit and achievements of its hero, and later to be in some harmony, at least, with public opinion. Brave, indeed, is the soul that dares to be a nonconformist in regard to the standards "they" have established. The results of imitation are profoundly important in character building. 1. When a child re-enacts what he sees, he comes to a better understanding of its meaning. This is one purpose of the imitation of common activities in Kindergarten games. 2. The idea which is acted upon becomes an inseparable part of the life. 3. Habit is the outcome of repeated imitation. 4. Life grows like what it imitates. With these facts in view, the application to the work of nurture is too obvious for discussion. IMAGINATION The child is not content alone to imitate activities. He likes to transform objects and make over familiar situations. This he does through that power of his soul called imagination. The imagination of this period is "fancy-full," crude, and unbridled by reason or will. The child lives in a world of make believe. He sees whole menageries in the back yard, and performs exploits worthy of a David or Samson. He gives soul to inanimate objects, and endows them with feelings like his own. He plays with companions of his own creation, and peoples the dark with weird forms. Things are changed at will to suit his whims, the stick becoming the untamed steed and the rocking chair the storm-tossed boat. The magic of his alchemy may extend to himself, and make him for days another person, or even an animal. This world of make believe is as real to him as the world which is seen through his eyes, and often he can not distinguish between the two. Many a little heart has quivered over the punishment inflicted for "lying", when willful misrepresentation was not in his thoughts. However, harsh treatment of a vivid imagination may result in real deception later on, for the child can not help "seeing things," too wonderful to be enjoyed alone, and then, perforce, there must be deliberate planning to escape the punishment. This harshness also begins to raise an invisible barrier between the child and parent. It was felt by a little maiden of rare fancy, who said in a whisper at the conclusion of one of these marvellous tales, "But don't tell Mamma." The impassable wall between many a mother and daughter in later years, once consisted of but a scattered stone here and there. Passing by the play life of the child where the imagination has fullest scope, the question arises as to the meaning of this power in character building. One purpose stands paramount over every other. It is the "ideal making factory" of the life. From transforming sticks and chairs, the soul will one day pass to transforming memories and thoughts, putting away the unattractive features and investing the attractive with even more charm, through dreams of what might be. From constructing houses out of blocks, the soul will begin to construct ideals out of its experiences and visions, according to a pattern shown on some mount. As childhood recedes and manhood beckons, the soul unveils this ideal, fashioned in its secret workshop out of all that appeared most desirable, and with strange, magnetic power, it begins to draw the life after it. Worthy or unworthy, the years to come will see some part, at least, of the ideal, a reality. The character of the imagination, therefore, becomes a matter of supreme concern to nurture. It will be healthy or diseased morally, according to the quality of the material supplied for its use. The two great sources of this material are every day experiences and the story. The meaning of these experiences to the child's life has already been emphasized in various connections, and repetition is unnecessary, but the story holds a unique place in point of influence. Since it comes with deepest significance to the child in the next period of development, when imagination is less mixed with fancy, its discussion will be reserved for that time. MEMORY The child has an unfortunate experience with a hot stove and tender fingers bear the cruel scar. Must some one always watch him, year after year, to save him from a succession of burns? He is taken to school by his mother; must she forever accompany him to insure his safe arrival? Is there no way of understanding a present experience except by passing through it? Life would be an unsatisfactory thing indeed, if this were true, but the soul has the power of retaining past experiences in order that they may throw light upon the present. The business man does not deliberately do again that which was disastrous before, for he remembers the past misfortune. The child will not tomorrow press his little burned hand against the heated iron, for he recalls the pain of yesterday. This gracious gift of God to life, we call memory. Without it, there could be no understanding, no reasoning, no imagination, no knowledge, no growth. The physical side of memory is most interesting. On the covering of the brain, each in its own place, the images or impression brought in by the senses and the activity are registered. So sensitive and susceptible are the brain cells during childhood, that these impressions are received as clay receives the touch of the sculptor's finger, and under right conditions, they are ineffaceable. When the soul acts upon these images, they live again, and we say, "We remember." Two important questions are suggested by these facts. First, what kind of impressions should we attempt to store in the memory during childhood? Second, how may these impressions be made permanent? To the first question, the child himself makes answer through what he most easily retains and through his needs. Since he is interested and curious in regard to things, since he spends all his physical activity upon them, since he desires them and thinks about them, we would expect that things, together with experiences and ideas associated with them, would naturally fill his memory. Any observer of childhood knows that this is true. The memory of a little child is overwhelmingly for the concrete, the impressions through the senses and from what he does being far more easily retained than ideas alone. A child will recall the story of the Good Samaritan more readily than the isolated verse, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." The reward or punishment of an act makes a more lasting impression than the dissertation upon it. Since the concrete must be the starting point of thinking, it must come to his soul at some time, and, judged by every condition, this is God's time for it. The child's needs are also a guide in this matter. The soul is growing in every direction, intellectually, emotionally, and spiritually if properly nurtured, and memory holds the constantly increasing food for its growth. Is it to be treated as a stockroom, where packages unavailable for the present are to be laid away until needed, or as a store-house supplied with nourishing food for the present? If memory is a stockroom, then it should be filled with definitions, statements, terms, facts, anything which may be needed sometime. This can be done, for the brain will retain the sound of the words, but meantime, what shall the child feed on? What shall he use? The soul can feed on or make use of only that which is at least partially understood. This means largely the concrete, for abstract statements can be understood only through the experience or reason, and the child has meagre resources in either direction. Only when a thought embodies what he has experienced, can he grasp and use it. Is it not the work of nurture to see that memory is provided with that out of which it can supply every need of the developing life today? That, "Faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen," may mean much to his mature heart, but what if the child should be frightened tomorrow and need to have his budding faith strengthened from memory? Would not the story of God's care over the baby Moses, Jesus' care for the disciples in the blackness of the storm, with the words, "He careth for you," if these were stored in memory, quiet more quickly the beating heart, and more surely increase his faith? True nurture will not starve life in the present to hoard for the future. Memory now requires all its store for immediate use. Later, after growth is well under way in every direction, memory not only can supply present needs, but it will also demand a surplus for future use. The second question, relating to the permanency of these impressions, is answered in meeting the following conditions: 1. A healthy, non-fatigued brain when the impression is made. 2. Close attention. 3. A clear, easily understood and forceful presentation of the thing to be remembered. 4. The use of as many senses as possible. When an impression has been given through eye and ear and touch, for example, it is more definite in the mind than when it has come only through the sense of hearing. 5. A natural association of the new impression with others well known and interesting to the child. 6. Immediate and frequent recall. CHAPTER IV THE PERIOD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD--Concluded THE FEELINGS A child receives a coveted toy and his face is aglow with delight. He is sharply reproved and anger or grief appears. Another child comes to play with him, and he may assert that all his guest desires "is mine," and tears, and even blows ensue before amicable adjustment can be made. And so through the hours of a kaleidoscopic day, the emotional pendulum keeps swinging from love to anger, from pride to humility, from selfishness to sporadic and angelic bits of generosity. What is the significance of it all in the life of the child? Before considering this vital question, shall we note some characteristics of the feelings in Early Childhood? They center about self, and instinctive feelings, such as hunger and thirst, pain and pleasure, fear, pride and anger, are strongest. Love is present in its first stages, not the self sacrificing sort, but love given in response to love and attention. The child's feelings are easily aroused, fleeting, and usually more or less superficial. Abstractions, such as beauty, duty, responsibility, and relationships in general have but slight effect upon his soul, and the lack of feeling in these directions is commonly expressed by saying that the higher feelings are not yet developed. The child's feelings in response to religious truth can not, therefore, be those of the adult. He will feel love for God as he feels it for his mother, because of His love, provision and care for him. God's power and the mystery that envelops Him will awaken a response of awe and wonder in his soul, and absolute confidence that He can do anything. But this same power and majesty, carelessly presented, may call out fear, not the godly sort that is afraid of grieving Him by sin, but the physical fear that casts out love. He does not have the sense of moral obligation to God, for that again goes into the abstraction of thought. His religious life begins in feeling, pure and simple, and his creed is in I John, "We love Him because He first loved us." Most interesting lines of discussion open out from the subject, but they are not pertinent to the chosen theme of this book. The only legitimate question is, "What is the work of nurture in connection with the feelings?" Before this can be answered, the purpose of the feelings in character building must be clear. Then we shall know what nurture must do. No feeling has a right to exist for itself. There is a task for it to perform, namely, to lead the soul to action. If unhindered it will always do this. The careful analysis of any action will reveal a motive power in some feeling, ranging from the lowest desires for self gratification to the sublime heights of love that denies self for the Master's sake. Knowledge alone does not suffice for action. A man may be familiar with the claims of Jesus and even acknowledge them, but until he feels a great need of Him, he will not become a Christian. The sermon may compel the admiration of the mind, but unless it move the heart no man will practice it. Jesus summed up his commands in "Love," not "Know," for He knew that loving meant God-like living. It is significant that the fruitage of the Spirit appears in the feelings of "love, joy, peace," before it can be manifest in the acts of "long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, self control." This indissoluble relation between feeling and action gives deep meaning to the words of Dr. W.H. Payne, "At least the half, and perhaps the better half of education consists in the formation of right feelings." The work of nurture in connection with the feelings is now apparent. It must endeavor to develop right feelings in order to secure right actions and consequent strong character. This development is secured through repeatedly arousing the feelings, and giving them expression in action until they are habitual. 1. How may the Feelings be Aroused? Passing by all the physiological and psychological processes involved, and using the term, feeling, as it is popularly understood, the law that governs its appearance may be stated thus: "A feeling is occasioned by the touch of an impression upon the soul." With older people, these impressions may come from without or from a thought within, but with little children they come almost entirely from without. The sort of feeling aroused will evidently depend upon the sort of impression that comes, as well as the condition of the soul that receives it. This difference in conditions, or difference in lives as we ordinarily say, explains why the Sunday School lesson has such varied effects in the same class, or even upon the same child at different times. Keeping in mind the law that some impression must precede a feeling, true nurture asks, "In what way can these impressions best be given, that desired feelings may be aroused?" 1. They are not given through command. Common sense would recognize the absurdity of attempting to awaken anger by saying to a group of happy children, "Be angry." But why is the absurdity not equally apparent in saying, "Be loving," "Be sorry," "Be reverent?" Yet this is a method on which countless teachers and parents place their dependence. Suppose, for instance, reverence be the feeling desired; a thought of God's greatness and power and holiness must be given. If, to the sensitive soul of the child, the teacher bring the story of Sinai, or the story of Majestic Power as it is set forth in the 104th Psalm, or the glory of the Heavenly throne with the adoring multitudes, following with the words, softly sung, "Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Hosts, Heaven and earth are full of Thee, Heaven and earth are praising Thee, Oh Lord, most high." the result will be true reverence. 2. Suggestion is a most effective way of conveying these impressions. Instead of saying to the child, "This is the thought you should have, and this is what you should feel, and this is what you ought to do," he is allowed to draw meanings and have feelings of his own, for then they are genuinely a part of his soul, not something foisted upon him. But even though the application is not made, nurture will consciously present impressions intended to suggest certain feelings. The Sunday School lesson, the missionary story, the visit to the poor family, the song carefully selected, all fall in this class. Special mention should be made of the great effect upon the child in making attractive in another, the feeling desired for him. A single incident will illustrate this: A frightened little candidate for the Beginners' Class and his stern mother stood one Sunday morning before the Primary superintendent. "He's got to stay in here by himself today," she said; "I won't have such nonsense. Look at him, with his first trousers on! I'm ashamed of him!" The superintendent did look and saw the new trousers, and in them the trembling little body, and a soul speechless with terror at facing for the first time, alone, the unknown experience of a great world, even though it was enclosed in four walls. There was no trace of relenting in the mother's face, and any plea for pity was useless. But the new trousers gave a possible key to the situation. "Why, so he has new trousers on!" the superintendent said. "I want to see them," and very thoroughly and enthusiastically they were inspected. "I didn't know that he was so nearly a man that he could wear trousers instead of dresses. I am sure he will stay alone today because men do and are not at all afraid." She waited. Gradually the little head lifted as the thought of bravery began to make its appeal. He put his hand into the hand of the superintendent, and without hesitation started on the perilous journey across the room to the Beginners' section, where no punishment could have driven him a few moments earlier, and proud and heroic sat by himself through the hour. Such is the power of suggestion. Two points, however, must be carefully guarded in deliberate effort to arouse a feeling. 1. Care must be exercised not to over stimulate feeling, as an excess beyond that which can be expended in action has an after weakening and reactionary effect. This has its illustration in certain methods of evangelistic work with children, where results are measured by their hysterical condition when the meeting concludes. Contrast with this the gentleness which breathes through the story of the Master's touch, as He took them in His arms and blessed them, laying His hands upon them, when He had said, "Suffer the little children to come unto Me." 2. It is as injurious to a child to attempt to force a feeling before its normal time, as to a bud, to pry open its petals to hasten God's processes. Even the Divine Child "grew." "That is not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural, then that which is spiritual," is God's law of unfolding life. But these consciously presented impressions form only a small part of the sources of suggestion to the child. The countless sights and circumstances of his everyday life all have a voice for him, and a feeling follows their message. Every mother who has suffered mortification over the unaccountable behavior of her child toward a guest, knows the sometimes untoward as well as helpful working of suggestion from personality. Atmosphere has the same power. "I don't know what there is in your home," said a visitor to her hostess; "I can't define it, but it makes me want to be good." Music may be suggestive, aside from what it actually says. It would seem as if no sane superintendent would prepare for prayer by a two step song, or follow the lesson on, "The Washing of the Disciples' Feet", by, "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean," but it was done. It would seem as though no primary teacher could be so insensible to suggestion from objects, as to try to teach worship in giving by taking the offering through a hole in the tail of a jointed tin rooster, but that self-same rooster is no myth. The subject expands into endless ramifications. True nurture essays the difficult task of analyzing the impressions that come from suggestion--guarding against the harmful, and multiplying the helpful. 3. Impressions may be given and feelings aroused through doing the act which would naturally result from the feeling. This is the reason why a reverential attitude helps to arouse real reverence, and a smiling face and cheery tone actually bring cheerfulness in a case of the blues. Little children are so imitative that they quickly copy the outward manifestations of a feeling, and the inner state tends to follow. This is further a reason for leading them into acts of loving service, that love and kindred gracious feelings may gain strength through the reflex influence of the action upon the soul. One word should be spoken on the negative side. Since each recurrence of a feeling strengthens its power, nurture will seek to avoid the conditions which would arouse wrong feelings. "But should not the child control himself?" some one asks. Instinctive feelings are stronger than the power of self control in the beginning, and life needs shielding more than testing. God says, "Fathers, provoke not your children to anger," or, literally, "Fathers, irritate not your children beyond measure, but nourish them fully in the instruction and admonition of the Lord." 2. The Expression of the Feelings. Every normal feeling tends irresistibly to express itself in action unless it is held in leash. The story of the poor family needs the addition of no impassioned appeal; the child is already wondering whether he can empty his bank for their help. If expression is denied to the feeling, it tends to die out, and continual repression means a lessening either in power to act or power to feel. "Sentimentalists" have lost power to act except in tears or ejaculations when their emotions are stirred, and "hardened" people have lost the power to feel under ordinary stimulation. Therefore nothing is more fatal to vigorous development of the feelings of the child than to allow them to be dissipated without expression in the action they naturally suggest. But nurture will see that little hands are allowed to hinder by "helping" to make the beds, or dust the room or carry the package, not simply that love may grow stronger, but that in after years there may be the desire to lift the burdens in reality from wearied shoulders, for the higher feelings of life develop from the instinctive feelings, if they have proper expression in the beginning. Love that is almost barter in early years, since it is bestowed for value received, if given constant expression in acts of helpfulness, will become the self-denying love of later years. Love for self, which is so strong in a child, can be developed toward its manifestation of self respect, by using it at first in childhood, "to help this good body grow both strong and tall." Childish hate may be directed against wrong things, in preparation for indignation against sin of future years. It must not be forgotten, however, that in God's economy every feeling, if properly used, has its work to do in character building in every stage of its development, so that even the foundation stones may be laid in beauty and strength. THE WILL The power of the soul to make deliberate choice of action, and unwaveringly to execute it, is undeveloped in this period of Early Childhood. The child does not balance reasons or desires. Instead, he acts impetuously and unthinkingly, as the feeling of the passing moment impels him. Often one desire so completely absorbs his mind as to obscure everything else, and he will make any effort to gain his end. His case is like that of a man who "sets his heart" on a thing, or who harbors an alluring temptation too long, until it overpowers him. This is the explanation of most cases of obstinacy and strong will, as is proven by the disappearance of the "will" when the mind is diverted. One of the deepest desires of every parent and teacher is that there shall in truth be a strong will as the life matures, and so its training is sought. But just what is meant by it? We know there is no separate faculty to be strengthened as the arm is strengthened. What can be trained? The only training possible is in helping the soul to form the habit of choosing to do the right thing, or, analyzing still more closely, of following the promptings of the noblest feelings of the heart. The inseparable relation between feeling and action has been noted. If the noblest feelings can be made the strongest, they will be followed. The previous discussion shows that their strength is increased every time they are aroused and acted upon, and this leads to habit in both feeling and action. The nurture of the will or executive power of the soul is seen, therefore, to be most intimately connected with the nurture of the feelings, and its work will consist in making the right course of action so appealing that the child will desire and choose it for himself, until it becomes habitual, and consequently, undebatable. Forcing him to follow it, secures the action; it does not arouse the feelings that would lead him to choose to do the act himself. An act compelled is like an apple tied to a fruit tree; it did not grow there and has no connection with the life of the tree. A fruit tree that can not bear its own fruit is worthless, and a life that does not reach the point of producing its own right actions, independent of human coercion, is a failure. The comparison may be pressed still further. No quantity of apples tied upon a tree will ever make it produce apples, and even so, no number of right acts imposed upon a child will, in itself, make him do right things voluntarily. This can only come through strengthening in his own soul the processes that lead to right action. The truth of this is proven in the case of thousands of boys who did the right things at home because they were compelled to do so, but when they left home they went wrong. The one who should have nurtured was too busy, or too thoughtless, to take the time to lead into strength and uprightness the thinking and feeling and choosing of the soul while it was developing. It was easier to say peremptorily, "Do this," with the inevitable result, that when compulsion was removed character gave way because it was weak. But some one is saying, "That is a very questionable doctrine; 'Let the child do as he pleases, if he don't want to do the right, don't force him.'" Such a deduction from the argument entirely misses the point. The child must do the right, but, in a nutshell--which is the stronger constraint--outer or inner? Which makes character surer, the voice without, saying, 'You must,' or the voice within which says it? No external power could have made Paul's record of service, or Brainerd's or Paton's. All the force of the Russian government was powerless to obtain that which each Japanese soldier poured out upon his country's altar in the fight for supremacy in Manchuria. These deeds are the soul's response to the most irresistible power in the world--a consuming passion. It was such a passion, intense beyond earthly fathom, that led the Savior through Gethsemane to Calvary. Because this is so, the Heavenly Father's effort to secure right action from His children is not evident in external compulsion. Through His favor and fellowship, the joy of His approval, the peace that passeth understanding, the "Well done," the eternal reward, He endeavors to arouse love for Himself and what He desires, in order that His will may be chosen. According to this Divine pattern human nurture labors. At the very first, the parent must make choice for the child, but earlier than is usually appreciated, definite training may be begun. The loving smile of the mother and her known wish, her approval or disapproval, her recognition and encouragement, the knowledge that, "Whatsoever a man soweth that must he also reap," gained through bearing the penalty or enjoying the reward of each choice, the right course made attractive in the story of some one who chose it, or, most magnetic of all, in the life of the one who is nurturing, all these will begin to arouse the inner constraint that compels, and with glad acquiescence the soul will say, "Necessity is laid upon me." When the life shall learn that the most blessed joy that inheres in right actions is not human approval but God's favor, and for His sake, with face steadfastly set, the right is followed, even though shorn of all external attractiveness, the highest development possible for a soul has been realized. APPLICATION TO SUNDAY SCHOOL WORK The Sunday School is such an important factor in religious training that a special application of the foregoing discussion to its methods and work seems wise. It is evident that plans can not be detailed, but only some principles underlying the methods be suggested. THE CRADLE ROLL In the first department known as the Cradle Roll, nurture can be given by the Sunday School only as it touches the parents. Any Cradle Roll work that culminates in the sentiment of securing the babies' names and calling them, "Our Sweet Peas", has missed its purpose. A peculiar opportunity comes with the flood tide of new parental love. "If I had not been a Christian when my boy was born, I could very easily have been led to Christ, my heart was so tender and full of gratitude," said the father of an only son. The Sunday School will nurture its babes through choosing as Cradle Roll Superintendent, a consecrated Christian woman, trained in the school of life's experience, who can come close to other mothers because she, too, has known the valley of the shadow and the sacred joy of a new born life in her arms. A unique opportunity is hers to lead the parents to Christ or into closer fellowship with Him, and to help them understand the meaning of the life He has lent them. THE BEGINNERS' DEPARTMENT The Beginners' Department will care for the years between three and six. Nurture will be concerned first with the teacher. The Teacher.--The child's conception of Christ will be what he sees in the teacher. He can not conceive of any love or tenderness or gentleness greater than appears in her. A mother came to the teacher of her little boy one day and said, "John was playing on the floor this afternoon, and all at once he stopped and watched me, and then said, 'Mamma, I wish you were as much like Jesus as my teacher is'" The lesson, the music, the prayer and all the differentiation of the day and place tend to elevate the teacher above those who share his daily life, and envelop her with an atmosphere more mystic and holy. She is connected not with clothes and bread and butter episodes, but wholly with the thought of Jesus, and stands by His side in the child's thought and love, and if he love not the teacher whom he has seen, he can not love God whom he has not seen. Even the physical charm of the teacher will make his picture of the Christ more beautiful. Nurture demands above all else that the teacher of a Beginners' Class suggest "One altogether lovely," to the sensitive, imaginative and imitative soul of the child, for her message to him is ever silently, but irresistibly, "Be ye imitators of me as I am of Christ." The Place.--The place of meeting must fulfill certain conditions to give proper nurture. Because of the restlessness of these years, it ought to afford opportunity for physical movement. Even if a separate room is not available, screens or curtains should make it possible for the children to change their position frequently. The separation will also remove the temptation for curiosity to obtain satisfaction through roving eyes. The place should provide comfortable seating arrangements, for impressions carried within from strained muscles and tired limbs are far stronger than from ideas that the teacher gives, and these will consequently receive the attention. But it is not sufficient to plan for seclusion and comfort. Nurture thinks beyond and deeper than this. The child is gaining his first impressions of religious things during these years, and his ideas will be derived from what his senses give him. There is no way to give him the thought of the beauty of holiness, and the joy that the religion of Jesus Christ brings, except to make every thing associated with it as glad and beautiful as may be. Choice pictures, flowers, sunshine, order, all mysteriously transmit their beauty to the child's thought of God. The more attractive the visible things, the more magnetic the charm of the invisible. "Out of Zion, the perfection of beauty, God hath shined." The Equipment.--The equipment is not to be a heterogeneous collection of things, and yet the child must be taught through his senses. A Bible which can be kept before the children and reverently handled, to teach reverence by suggestion, is of first importance. Little chairs, or an equally comfortable substitute, a blackboard and an instrument, if possible, will give good working capital. Since taste is forming at this time and every thing has an influence in determining its direction, the beautiful pictures in black and white are gaining favor through their artistic execution and subdued coloring. To this equipment may be added special objects designed to make the facts of special lessons clearer--the sand table occasionally, or models. Thoughtful teachers are more and more convinced that while Kindergarten principles should obtain, the Kindergarten should not be moved bodily into the Sunday School. Values must be balanced, and over against the reasons which might be given for bringing in all the equipment of the week-day environment, there is this great fact:--the child is to be taught that religion is the supreme thing in the world, and he can learn it only by differentiating it in a tangible way from other things. This means that the methods, music, material and beauty associated with it ought to make it distinctive, and more attractive than any of the week-day surroundings. After he learns that it is the chief thing in the world, he can learn how to bring it down to the common things of life without sacrificing its supremacy, instead of dragging the every-dayness into it. The Program.--The program must be varied, because self control is weak, and attention will be given to one thing only so long as interest is active. Music should have a prominent place, provided it is meaningful, choice, and suggestive of the thought desired, in music as well as words. Since this is the rhythmic and imitative period of life, motion songs can be occasionally used, provided the motions are not mechanical and artificial. The foot notes which say that at I the hands should be clasped, at 2 they should wave, and at 3 be raindrops, miss the point of a motion song. Unless the child spontaneously expresses the thought which the song suggests to him, the motions have no value, aside from a rest exercise. The entire program should be planned around the thought of leading the child into a genuine love for God. Nature is beautiful, but its place in Sunday School is subordinate to Him. The most exquisite song that ends with birds and flowers falls below the highest nurture. Love must be both aroused and expressed during the hour's session. Music, Scripture, the enumeration of His blessings, the joy over birthdays and new scholars He has sent, the lesson, the carefully selected pictures and stories of what His love has done for other boys and girls unlike them, an atmosphere of gladness and reverence will kindle it; the offering service, the prayer, Scripture and music will express it. The suggestion from teacher, place, program and lesson combined, should be a great, wonderful God who loves little children, as well as a Christ who took the children in His arms. The Lesson.--The course known as "The Two Years' Course for Beginners" affords the best subject matter for the lessons for the following reasons: 1. Bible truths needed first in the life of a little child have been carefully selected and arranged in their logical order. 2. As many lessons as are needed to make each truth clear and to fix it in memory are devoted to it. 3. The setting for the truths to be taught is given in stories, not abstract statements. 4. The same Golden Text is used for all the lessons teaching one truth, is simple, intelligible and, by repetition in connection with several lessons, can be fixed. 5. The pictures accompanying the lessons are very choice both in theme and execution. Since the only ideas the child will receive of the lesson must come through his senses and bodily activity, and since, of his senses, sight and touch make a clearer impression than hearing, large use should be made of them. Further, as this is the period of imitation of definite acts, the lesson should present forcibly and fascinatingly, an activity within his power to imitate. The end sought, as a result of the nurture of this period, is that the child may become truly a child of God, and never know a time when he did not love Him. This may be achieved, for the heart of a little child is open and peculiarly sensitized to the matchless story of Jesus Christ. When it is presented to him aright, he always responds in faith and love. In this response, the conditions upon which spiritual sonship is conferred are met, for, "As many as received Him, to them gave He the right to become children of God, even to them that believe on His name." CHAPTER V CHILDHOOD--SIX TO TWELVE No abrupt change marks the transition from the period of Early Childhood to Childhood, but development is continuous and rapid in every direction. The larger social world, entered through school life, and the new intellectual world, revealed through ability to read, widen the child's vision and develop possibilities hitherto latent, because unneeded. The Sunday School divides the period of Childhood into the "Primary Age," from six to nine, and the "Junior Age," from nine to twelve, basing the division as accurately as is possible upon the awakening of these latent possibilities. The development of this period will therefore be considered according to this classification. THE PRIMARY AGE--SIX TO NINE During these years the characteristics of Early Childhood remain in more or less modified form. Physical growth is still rapid in all parts of the body, the brain reaching almost full size by the ninth year. Parallel with this vigorous physical growth is a mental growth and development equally rapid and many sided. Curiosity is as hungry as ever, still more eager concerning things than abstract ideas, and still a goad to active senses. The mind has increased power to retain what is given it, and about the ninth year enters upon its "Golden Memory Period." The ability to reason is gradually increasing, though it is used more upon relationships between things than between ideas. The child's feelings are still self-centered, yet development of the social and altruistic feelings is apparent. Children enjoy companionship more than in earlier years, but the longing for others does not reach the intensity which demands the club and gang until later. A feeling of sympathy and desire to help must still be awakened by definite cases of need, plus the influence of parent or teacher, as the child does not yet know life's hard experiences well enough to read their meaning and give response to them of himself. If nurture has met its opportunity in the preceding period, the child's love for God and confidence in Him have grown stronger. The Heavenly Father will be as real to him as an earthly friend, and His help a living experience. "How is it that you always have a perfect spelling lesson at school?" a primary teacher asked of one of her boys. "Why, don't you know that Jesus sits in the seat with me every day and helps me?" he replied. The teacher's face betokened her surprise, and the child emphatically reiterated, "He truly does sit with me and help me." Would that God's older children could live as actually in the Presence that was promised for "all the days." Actions continue to be largely impulsive, carried out according to the strongest present desire, and though right and wrong are more clearly understood than formerly, they do not often determine an act unsupported by other considerations. This is evident in the matter of obedience, whose strengthening into a habit is one of the most imperative tasks of nurture during childhood. Abstract laws and principles of right, so weighty in middle adolescence, have but slight influence over the child, unless joined with them is a strong personality whom the child loves or fears, and whose favor he desires to win through obeying. There are certain modifications of earlier characteristics, which demand more than a passing notice, because they necessitate greater change in the methods of nurture. ACTIVITY Though the restlessness of the preceding period is still in evidence, more and more activity is becoming purposeful and willed. While the child continues to love activity for itself, he is more interested in what it will accomplish than formerly, but an end is not yet sufficiently attractive in itself to hold him to an unpleasant activity for its achievement. For example, he enjoys both the weaving and the basket, the pasting and the scrap-book, but if pasting and weaving were laborious and difficult, he would not voluntarily go through them to obtain the basket or the scrap-book. It must be noted further, that activity still expends itself more readily in the realm of the physical than the mental, though there is increasing pleasure in the quest for knowledge, if wisely directed. The Sunday School is beginning to recognize what the day school has learned, that the child both enjoys and masters a lesson which can be approached through physical as well as mental avenues. In consequence, hand work is being introduced to aid in religious instruction, as manual work in the public schools for secular education, with most gratifying results in both cases. THE SENSES More skill, more accuracy and more discrimination characterize the work of the senses than in Early Childhood. The impressions are richer in detail and meaning, because of the increased knowledge possessed by the child. It is a commonplace that we receive from anything in proportion to what we bring to it. The ear of the musician hears in an orchestra what the child or the adult without the knowledge of music could never detect, because he listens with more than they. The child can see in a picture or circumstance, and hear in a conversation or a song, what once he could not, because he brings a larger experience to bear upon it. Criticism of others in the home, the lapses from Christ-like living, the scenes of the street, things pernicious as well as helpful have greater significance in character building than ever before. This gives still graver emphasis to the work of nurture in guarding these wide-open doorways to a hungry soul. Growing out of the fact that the senses are the greatest source of information to the child's mind, the method of teaching by means of objects has arisen. Rightly used, there is great value in this mode of instruction, but a serious perversion of its legitimate use has developed in connection with religious instruction of little children. Though the discussion of this may be a possible digression, it seems necessary in order to safeguard nurture from a mistake. There are two helpful methods of using an object with children in the Beginners' and Primary age. The first is to explain an unfamiliar fact, or make it clear. A model of an oriental house or curios from a mission field are examples of this. The second use is to illustrate a fact. The flower is the visible expression of God's loving care; the table, heaped high with grains and fruits and vegetables at the Thanksgiving service, teaches as no mere words could the fact of God's provision for our need. Objects used in this way require no reasoning power to make their meaning clear. It is only a matter of perception. The use of an object, however, in order to deduce spiritual truth therefrom for children with reasoning powers undeveloped, is a mistake. Instead of making the thought clearer to their minds it obscures it. Close examination reveals the reason for this. A child is both imaginative and literal. Through his imagination he can transform one object into another object, as we have already observed, but in this case he is asked to transform an object into an abstract idea. This he does not easily do, since such transformation is made by reason, not by imagination. Further, the spiritual teachings are drawn from the abstract idea which the object is supposed to represent, not from the object itself. Manifestly, therefore, if he does not get the idea he will not get the deductions from it. His mind does not follow beyond the point where he can understand, consequently, his thought remains with the object as it literally is. To illustrate, take the familiar object lesson of a cup overflowing with water, used to teach the thought of God's manifold blessings in the life. The child is asked to change the cup into the abstract thought of life, and water into the thought of blessing. This is difficult, for it involves reason and deals with resemblances which are artificial, not real. The child's literalism, therefore, asserts itself, and the cup remains a cup and the water is still water, and while the teacher is drawing conclusions, the child is probably wondering whether her dress will get wet or how he can get a drink. The same principle obtains in regard to certain types of blackboard illustrations. The child is asked to change a cross into suffering, a crown into victory, a red cardboard heart into life, and a picture of Jesus Christ pinned upon it into regeneration. He does not make these transformations until reason is more fully developed than in this period. Lines remain lines, cardboard is still cardboard and spiritual deductions do not reach his understanding. The fact that an object or drawing is always interesting does not alter the principle at all, for being interested and being instructed are not necessarily equivalent terms. The lesson must always be interesting, but it must also gain entrance according to the laws of the mind to be instructive. INTERESTS The interests of this period include those of the preceding period, but they are more diverse and far-reaching than in Early Childhood. They still center around the concrete, and especially physical activity. Crude and amazingly heterogeneous collections begin to make their appearance in boys' pockets and girls' treasure boxes. Dolls are never so dear to their fond mothers as in this period. Games and active outdoor sports appeal to both boys and girls, those games being particularly enjoyable which give the individual an opportunity to shine. Real team play is impossible at this time, since in honor each prefers himself. Any scepticism upon this point will be dispelled by listening to the modest aspirants for office when the positions in a football game are being assigned. The explanation for this lies partially in the instinct of rivalry, which arrays individual against individual, all through the early years of life. When the social feeling which welds individuals into groups becomes strong, rivalry will appear between gangs and clubs rather than between individuals. A significant change occurs in connection with that which the child desires to imitate. At first, definite acts focused the most of his interest and aroused imitation, now, interest begins to attach itself to the actor as well, and the child not only desires to imitate the deed but also to emulate the doer. Out of this a little later comes real hero worship, an incentive to action than which life holds no greater. Another fact in connection with this is also significant; those whom he desires to resemble need not be in the home circle nor in his environment, as at first, but may be distant in time and place. This new interest in people whom he can not see lends added charm and value to Bible stories and, if told aright, they will do for his life what can be done in no other way so effectively. Surely Agur, the son of Jakeh, saw no eager little faces upturned to his, pleading, "Tell me another," or he would have added to the things that are never satisfied, nor say, "It is enough," the hunger of a child for a story. Since hunger is always indicative of a need in the developing life, there must be a reason for this craving. It is found in connection with the rapid development and requirements of the imagination. There are two ways in which a truth may be taught. One is through an abstract statement, such as, "Intemperance destroys the happiness of a home." The other is through the concrete, or the story of a home blighted by liquor. The first appeals to reason, and can be understood only in the light of experience; the second requires simply the exercise of a vivid imagination. Of reasoning power, the child at this time has little, but he has an imagination vivid, strong and hungry, eagerly reaching out for something to feed upon. The well-told story fully satisfies his hunger, and at the same time meets the greatest need of the whole soul, namely, the placing of right ideals before it in such a way that they will be worked out into character. To accomplish this result three things are necessary: first, the thought suggesting the ideal must be understood; second, it must rouse the feelings; third, it must lead to action. The story meets every demand. 1. It makes the truth concrete. The statement, "Love will endure hardships for the sake of Jesus Christ," is only a thought in the brain. The story of Paul or Livingston brings the truth out of that intangible world, puts flesh upon it and the breath of life within, and the child can in imagination exercise his sense of sight, of hearing and of touch upon it. 2. It makes the truth visible, and therefore to be grasped through the senses or imagination. A thought can not be seen by itself, but if lived out in the life of a person it may be seen by the physical eye, or, if mountains and centuries intervene, still by the eye of the soul--the imagination. When it is seen, the fact itself is understood, though the reasons for it may not be comprehended. While no man may ever know why God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, we understand that He does love us, as we see the Babe in the manger and the blessed Savior upon the cross. Only when a truth is so seen does it become real and, consequently, of any worth to the life. Herein lies the need and the power of "Living Epistles," not only in the material world, but also in the world of the imagination. 3. When the truth is seen it always arouses feeling. A thought which is merely known does not move men. It is possible to read of a terrible tragedy with measured pulse and indifferent heart, but if the reader was an eye witness, or allows imagination to picture it for him, his soul quivers in its presence. One of the greatest needs of our teachers is to see the Master among the hills and by the blue waters of Gennesaret, to look into His face, to hear His voice till hearts burn. Then they will not repeat words, but, "Looking upon Jesus as He walked," say, "Behold Him!" in such a way that the children will see Him also, and a great love for Him be born in their hearts, and a longing to follow. 4. The truth that is seen and felt impels to action. This has already been discussed in connection with the feelings, and an illustration will suffice at this time. A mission Sunday School was listening to a talk on the fixedness of habits formed in youth, and to make it clearer the speaker said, "Boys, do they ever lay cement walks in this neighborhood?" Every eye was riveted on him, as they answered, "Yes!" "Did you know," he continued, "that if you were to take a sharp-pointed stick and write your name in the cement while it was soft, it would harden and remain there as long as the walk lasted?" "Of course," he hastily added, as a significant expression appeared on their faces, "no boy here would be mean enough to do such a thing," but it was too late--the picture had done its work and the purpose of handing autographs down to posterity would be executed at the first opportunity. Such is the power of the image or picture to lead to action. Only the Father knows how many sons have come home from the far country because of the matchless story of the prodigal. Only He knows how many consecrated men and women are in Africa and China and Japan because they saw the heroes in God's Hall of Fame. Surely this is why the Holy Spirit inspired Paul to write, "Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honorable, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report, if there be any virtue, if there be any praise, think on these things." 5. If the imagination steadily hold the picture, some day the life will be like it. It is impossible for the soul to look day after day upon anything without unconsciously being changed into its likeness. Hawthorne has exquisitely portrayed the transformation of Ernest into the image of the Great Stone Face, and, in so doing, has told the story of every life that gazes fixedly on its ideal. Herein lies the blessed secret of Christ-likeness: "We all, with unveiled face reflecting as a mirror the glory of the Lord, are transformed into the same image, from glory to glory even as from the Lord, the Spirit." In the light of these wonderful possibilities growing out of "seeing the invisible," the oft-quoted words of Stanley Hall are most significant, "Of all the things that a teacher should know how to do, the most important, without any exception, is to know how to tell a story." APPLICATION TO SUNDAY SCHOOL WORK The requirements of the Primary department in regard to teacher, place and equipment are similar to those in the Beginners' class, save that a song roll may now be helpfully added, since the children are learning to read. In the matter of instruction, however, some variation from preceding methods is necessary, owing to the rapid mental development of the children. I. General Program. In addition to the thought of making the service worshipful and joyous, the program must be planned with reference to three important things: (1) The Truth to be presented in the lesson. This should be a guide to program building in the preceding department as well, but it becomes imperative in this and the Junior departments, since the truth to be taught changes weekly, and therefore must be fastened during one hour's work. Memory in this period depends upon the force of the impression rather than upon association, as in later periods, hence all songs and exercises should emphasize the one thought to be given in the lesson. This does not require new songs and services weekly. It merely requires that the old songs and exercises be approached from the standpoint of the lesson, that which is pertinent to it being developed in each. The results of this plan are two-fold: first, a freshness in the program each week, even with familiar features, and second, cumulative emphasis upon one truth, thus fulfilling the conditions of memory, and therefore of nurture. (2) The Activity of the children. The increased mental ability will permit interesting exercises to take the place of some of the physical outlets for activity necessary in the preceding period, but they must be brief and compelling in their attractiveness. The use of motion songs is outgrown, especially with boys. During many years there has remained in memory the expression in the face of a boy, head and shoulders taller than any other child in the primary department, as he stood pointing to pedal extremities, not less than number fours, and singing, "Little feet, be very careful where you take me to." The sentiment could not possibly have been wrung from him had not the superintendent been his mother. Hand work suggestive of the lesson, such as pasting, coloring, tearing, cutting and simplest writing for the older ones, is growing in favor as a means of utilizing the activity and impressing the lesson. An outline of the methods of this work is impossible here, but three words of caution must be spoken. First: Choose the time for hand work carefully. While it will give wise outlet for activity and aid memory, if used in the wrong place it will tend to dissipate the influence of the lesson. Even the pasting of a picture when the feelings are deeply stirred could give them sufficient expression so that they would be satisfied without further action. They ought to impel to imitation of the action in the story with all the intensity that has been aroused, instead of being expended in a mechanical way. In view of this fact, the proper subject of the hand work would seem to be the lesson of the week preceding, and the best time for it, just prior to the beginning of the session, if that be of the usual hour length. This time is practicable even where the session immediately follows the church service, and it has three advantages. It will counteract lack of punctuality, will utilize activity at its most disastrous stage--the unoccupied minutes before the program proper begins--and will not crowd out from the hour any other training equally important. Second: Remember that valuable as the hand work is in clarifying and impressing the lesson, it is only a shell containing the truth. Therefore, a teacher who occupies a large part of the hour in this way is not giving the child sufficient spiritual nourishment. Third: This work must be raised above the level of similar week-day occupations. This may be done through emphasizing the fact that the child is making a book of Bible stories, and special care must be used to make it beautiful and worthy. A mission of help or cheer to some one else may also be held out as a climax to its completion. (3) The program must be planned with reference to training in habit formation. Though the latter part of Childhood is the habit forming period of life, pre-eminently, yet habits of Christian activity must be begun during these earlier years. The children in this department are not too young to lay the foundations of regular and punctual attendance, bringing of Bibles, giving to church expenses and benevolences, interest in and gifts for missionary work, daily prayer and, under proper conditions, church attendance. II. Instruction. While special teaching must be given in connection with each habit to be formed, the supplemental work and the lesson constitute the principal subjects of instruction. 1. Supplemental Work. Scripture for memorization in this period should be chosen primarily to help the children in habit formation. Information about the Bible and storing for future use belong in the next period of "Golden memory." Verses that give the thought of God's love, and incite loving obedience to Him and to their parents, and loving service to others, are fundamental and should predominate. The Twenty-third Psalm and Lord's Prayer will have real meaning, and therefore help for the child at this time, if carefully taught. A few of the great stories of the Bible, including those of Christmas and Easter, may be added, and some of the hymns of the church expressing God's majesty and the thought of service. 2. The Lesson. Every principle of nurture already discussed bears upon the presentation of the lesson. (1) The lesson must bring an ideal to the child in concrete form. This will be the truth connected in some way with a person. Where the lesson gives the negative side, or the absence of the truth in life, the positive side must also be presented and made more attractive, since the child's impulse to imitate, even when warned against it, is stronger than the warnings. He must always be sent away with something to do, rather than not to do. (2) This ideal must always be given in a story. When the lesson material is abstract, like the Epistles or Psalms, a truth to be taught should be selected from it, and then made concrete and living in some Bible story. (3) The story itself is the mainspring to action, not the application. The forceful, vivid and realistic presentation of the story, made possible as the teacher lives in it, impels the child to imitation; the application, or "ought," appeals to his reason and compels him, and action is always more hearty when impelled than when compelled. The only after touch upon the story which is helpful to little children lies in plans for imitating the activity which has been pictured. Even this is not always to be done. Jesus left the most wonderful story He ever told with no words of application, for they were unnecessary. He knew that every prodigal would feel a tug at the heartstrings and an impulse to go home. At the conclusion of the story of the Good Samaritan He merely said, "Go thou and do likewise." Allowing the children to suggest what they would like to do if they so desire, or making the suggestion indirectly by song, or prayer, or the teacher's announcement of her own purpose will carry far more weight than any injunction to act, for, "The deepest spring of action in us is the sight of action in another." CHAPTER VI THE JUNIOR AGE--NINE TO TWELVE The years we are now to consider are among the most interesting in all the period of development, and among the most exacting, as well, in the problems they present. These problems are related, in the main, to the "new invoice of energy" which has come into the life, the social feelings, habit formation and hero worship, and knowledge and patience are almost exhausted in their solution. A general survey of the period reveals much that we are already familiar with, together with certain new conditions. We find that some of the winsomeness and much of the demonstrativeness and dependency of earlier childhood are gone. The sense of approaching manhood or womanhood is beginning to stir in the soul and, coincident with it, a growing independence is manifest. While the child must still be under authority, the wisest nurture will consult his feelings and wishes as far as possible, for just beyond this period lies life's crisis, and every bond of sympathy and confidence must unite the helper to the one to be helped as the stormy passage is entered upon. With all this growing independence, however, life is very far from possessing the marks of maturity. It is careless and care free, irresponsible in general, yet proud to carry definite responsibilities. There is delight in anything which suggests pre-eminence over others, such as badges, buttons and regalia of any kind, or public recognition and reward. Frankness almost to the point of brutality is a frequent trait, particularly of boys of this age, for they do not lend themselves as easily as the girls to the polite usages and subterfuges of society. This characteristic must have its counterbalance in genuineness and freedom from any affectation, especially a pious one, on the part of those dealing with the children, in order to win their love and respect. A marked literalism is also apparent, and instead of the delicately imaginative child of earlier years a matter of fact young person stands out with a desire for exact statement and, if need be, under such oath as, "Upon your word," or "Cross your heart and hope to die." There is a strong sense of honor connected with such asseverations, and woe betide the one who swears falsely or tinkers with the truth. There are certain conspicuous characteristics which demand a more detailed consideration, and the first to be noted is the energy. ENERGY The very sound of the word is indicative of the nervous force that dominates the life during these years. It is well nigh impossible for action to be noiseless or measured in this period, especially during the latter part. The energy continues to be more vigorous in the physical realm, and active sports of all kinds are attractive. One of the greatest problems of nurture at this time, as has already been suggested, centers around the wise use of this energy in the home, the day school, the Sunday School and, most important of all, in the hours unoccupied with definite tasks, for habits are forming through its outgoing. THE SOCIAL FEELINGS Another striking characteristic of this period appears in the rapid development of the social feelings. No longer is the child content with one or two playmates, but he craves the companionship of several of the same age and sex. This desire finds expression in the coterie of bosom friends, the gang and the club so prevalent between the ages of ten and fourteen. The bonfire with its circle of kindred spirits, the cave with its password and dark plottings, the street corner and recruiting whistle have almost irresistible fascination. What one boy does not dare, the gang will attempt, and the composite conscience may fall far below that of the individual. The sense of honor already mentioned is very strong among the members, and in absolute loyalty to one another they stand or fall. These organizations exist among the girls as well as boys, but differ in the purpose for which they are formed, the girls organizing more as adults, while the boys' clubs are overwhelmingly to expend energy, lawfully or otherwise. The dangers and opportunities growing out of this strong tendency toward segregation can not be overestimated. A walk along a city street in the evening reveals the fact that the nurture of the sidewalk and the ice cream parlor has largely supplanted the nurture of the home on the social side. The table with the evening lamp--"the home's lighthouse"--and the family circle complete about it, are an almost unknown experience in the life of the average American child. In a recent convention a speaker, who is in charge of a great penal institution filled with human derelicts, said he believed it to be as much a duty of the church to preserve at least one evening a week sacred to the home, as to designate another for the prayer meeting or preaching service. The home ought to be the center of the child's social life. Why can not the lights and music and companionship there be made as attractive as the lights of the corner store, or billiard hall, or the sound of the street piano, which pave the way to the saloon and the dance hall later? That boys and girls will congregate during this period and the next is a law unchangeable as the laws of the Medes and Persians. Nurture asks whether the home does not furnish a better environment during this energetic, habit forming and irresponsible period than the corner store or the "gang?" It asks whether the society of those invited within its doors for a good time, under the sympathetic and watchful eye of the father and mother, is not apt to be more conducive to true character building than the society of the chance acquaintance with no credentials save his skill in story telling and initiation into fascinating mysteries? It asks still further, in this age of hero worship, whether the home should not erect the ideals of manhood and womanhood through example, through books, through honored guests who have achieved true distinction instead of delegating this privilege to the group around the bonfire or the man who gathers the admiring circle to listen to the salacious tale? The home which provides for this social craving within its sheltering walls, blending the faces of father and mother with those of companions in the most joyous of good times, and, after the evening altar, when the lights are darkened, knows that each pillow is pressed by its own pure face, that home is a bulwark of the nation and the ante chamber to one of God's many mansions. May God have pity on the thousands of children who live in houses, but are homeless. HERO WORSHIP In this new interest in his fellows, all figures do not stand out in equal proportion against the child's horizon. Some loom very high, and in the inner chamber of the soul, incense is burning at their shrine. Out of the earlier interest in people, and desire to imitate their actions, there begins to emerge the great passion of hero worship with all its power in shaping ideals and determining character. If it be true, indeed, that life grows like what it gazes fixedly upon, then nurture has here an important work. The hero of any period must inevitably embody that which the life most admires at the time, hence physical strength and skill, courage and daring will be prominent factors in a boy's hero in this period. This hero may be, perchance, the physical director of the Y.M.C.A., the champion baseball or football player, an explorer or adventurer, a desperado, or--happy case--a father who has not forgotten how to swim and fish and hunt and play ball. A boy always longs to place his father on the throne of his heart, if he is given a chance, but the fathers who covet that place enough to pay the price for it are too few. A hard working mechanic said to a friend, "I made up my mind I would rather have a backache when my boys were little than a heartache later on," and so no day's task was so heavy, up toil so exhausting that when he came home at night his two boys could not claim him. The cramped muscles would unlimber behind the bat, the tired limbs would forget their weariness in the jaunt that had been planned with father, and during the hours of freedom the three were chums in sports, in interests, in confidence. They say there is no more beautiful sight in that town today than two stalwart, manly fellows arm in arm with the father, who counts it the joy and pride of his life to have mounted the hero's throne in the hearts of his sons. While boys always choose a man as their hero, girls may choose either the masculine or feminine character. They are still near enough Nature's heart to glory in wildness and abandon, and the subtle delicacy of true womanhood has not the charm for them now it will have later. Yet it is part of the priceless dower of motherhood to so share in the daughter's life through sympathy and understanding that, to "be like mother" will embody all the aspirations of a girlish heart. "THE READING CRAZE" The flame of hero worship is fed from two sources--the life of some one near to the child and the passionate delight in reading which characterizes the years from about ten to fifteen and is especially marked from twelve to fourteen. The choice of books will naturally be governed by the strongest interests. We are not surprised, therefore, that every page must teem with life and chronicle some achievement, preferably in the physical realm, for in the thought of the junior, "Greater is he that taketh a city than he who ruleth his own spirit." Toward the latter part of this period the sentimental novel, with all of its froth and perverted ideals of life, appeals to the girl, and it is an open question which is more pernicious, "Deadwood Dick and the Indians" or "Love at Sight." When it is remembered that during these years the desire for reading is so great that it will be satisfied, surreptitiously if not openly, that the heroes and heroines strengthen ideals of their own type in the soul of the child, that these are the years in which taste is being formed, not only in reading but in living, nurture again has a great task outlined. "What is the best way to keep a boy from eating green apples?" a prominent Sunday School worker often asks in a convention. The answer never varies: "Give him ripe ones to eat." The child who has plenty of well-selected, wholesome literature will have no appetite for the baneful. Biography of the heroic type, exploration, adventure and charming romances like the "Waverley Novels" will help to lay sane and pure foundations of character. The missionary boards are now putting out books as thrilling and stirring in their situations as any yellow-backed novel. These the children devour and the spiritual heroism makes its silent appeal along with the physical. This delight in reading makes comparatively easy the formation of the habit of daily Bible reading. If the life is more than meat, then the time taken by the father or mother to select fascinating Bible biographies and stories, and tactfully to supervise the reading, is at least as wisely expended as that used in training a grape vine or sewing a lace edge on a ruffle. Is it not strange that there is such distorted perspective and false balance of values in regard to what is worth while? The cares of this world crowd out so many supreme things. Many a temptation in later life would have its antidote if the Holy Spirit could bring the needed Scripture to mind, but because some one substituted the lesser for the greater, solicitude for external appearance instead of inner furnishing, the Word is not there to be recalled. HABIT FORMATION The discussion of these marked characteristics of the life is given added import when we realize that these years are in the height of the habit forming period. All through Early Childhood and Childhood every act has left its faint tracing upon the plastic cells of the brain, and some of the markings are deep ere now. Just as water will follow its channel rather than cut a new course, so activity will expend itself in the well-traced pathways unless prevented from so doing, and the same thought or stimulus will always tend to go out in the same action. No thinking is necessary upon these habitual acts which constitute "nine tenths of life"--they have become mechanical. Not only in the body does life acquire fixed habits, but also in the soul, in thinking, feeling and choosing. The seriousness as well as the value of a habit lies in its tenacity. No harder task ever confronts a life than to break up one habit and substitute another after the brain cells grow hard. The process requires not only that activity be directed away from the pathway that irresistibly draws it, but at the same time a new groove be traced upon the hard, unyielding cells. The task is difficult beyond expression. This is why reformed men always have a hidden fear of lapsing into the former life. It is the call of the old pathway, traced so deeply in the brain. A mature woman, brought up to the strictest Sabbath observance, came to believe that "the Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath," and therefore essayed to act on that day according to her reason and judgment. The attempt was soon abandoned. "There is no pleasure in it," she said. "I am constantly fighting the old habits of my girlhood life, and they will not cease their call to me." This is what the wise king meant when he said, "Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it." The whole tendency is to "ask for the old paths," that there "may be rest to the soul." A part of the miracle of conversion in later life appears in God's power to trace new pathways when the brain is hardened, and to keep life in them, moment by moment, against the tug of the old. Three statements will crystallize the discussion. First: The years up to twelve present two conditions for habit formation--plastic brain cells and action easily secured--as no succeeding years present them. Second: Habit formation, either right or wrong, is constantly going on, for every action leaves its impress and makes repetition easier. Third: Right habits may be formed as easily as wrong, if the task is definitely undertaken. Since the importance of these years is clearly evident, the method of habit formation may be briefly stated. First, secure the desired action; second, secure its successive repetition without a lapse, as far as possible. We have already learned that action is the natural result of an aroused feeling; therefore, nurture will endeavor to make the act attractive and appealing where it can be done, that the cordial co-operation of the child may be had. Hero worship may aid here, the example in the home is imperative and future considerations begin to carry weight. Encouragement, recognition, new interest and new motives will all contribute toward securing repetition, until unconsciously the action carries its own constraint and outer influence is unnecessary. THE "GOLDEN MEMORY PERIOD" During the years from about nine to fifteen memory is in its most glorious period for storing away. In early life a fact is retained chiefly through its impress on the soft brain cells, for the power of association is little developed. In later life a fact is retained almost wholly through association with other facts, for the cells grow hard and an imprint therefore is faint. In the "Golden Memory Period" the fact has the double hold of impress and association, for the cells are still plastic and associative powers are developed. The task and its haste are evident, for this dual condition never recurs. The brain will now receive everything, the abstract, that which is not understood, the uninteresting, as well as that which is pleasing. This is the drill period, when mechanical repetition will fix anything, regardless of the child's desire to learn, and full comprehension is unnecessary. It is also the period of verbal memory, and that which ought to be memorized exactly should be given now. RELIGIOUS LIFE If nurture has cared for the spiritual life of the child, he will probably desire during this period to publicly confess his love for Jesus Christ. Even if he has not been so nurtured, every condition in his life makes it easier now than it ever will be later to lead him to acceptance of Christ. Though there comes a great spiritual awakening in adolescence, there is at the same time more in the life to oppose the decision for Christ than in childhood. The Christian life has not the meaning for him that it will have later on, spiritual vision is not broad nor deep, but if the child genuinely loves the Savior and wants to use his energy for Him, he is laying at the Master's feet all he has now to give, and if Christ accepts the gift, the church ought to accept the giver. There is no greater crime against childhood than to bar the doors to these babes in Christ, nor, assuredly, can any act bring keener pain to the Passionate Lover of little children, who said, "Let them come unto me, and forbid them not." APPLICATION TO SUNDAY SCHOOL WORK Perhaps a resume of the conditions which the Sunday School must meet in this period will make the situation more definite. The child is increasingly independent and outspoken, but easily won by love and confidence. He responds to responsibility, craves recognition, glories in show and regalia, wants to know the truth about things. He is a hero worshipper, abounds with energy and considers it his inalienable right to have fun with his chums. He devours books and magazines, retains what he reads and memorizes as never before. He is forming habits of life. He ought to be a sincere child Christian before he leaves the Junior department. Manifestly, in dealing with this period, the problem of nurture must find a large part of its solution in the teacher himself. Three things must be vitally true of the one holding this responsible office: first, an abiding touch with God that shall mean Divine wisdom, moment by moment, for the exegencies of Junior work far outnumber the tread mill experiences; second, an understanding of and genuine sympathy with the life of the children; third, a personality that shall meet the conditions of hero worship. Some day the church will give to every boys' class, in this and succeeding periods, a trained Christian man to be hero first, and then teacher, for no boy aspires to be like a woman, no matter how much he may love her. But, though a woman may not reach up to a boy's ideals along physical lines, nor should she attempt it, there is abundant opportunity through outings, tramps, picnics and genuine interest in their sports to touch even that side of the life of both boys and girls. The social needs must be met through frequent class and department gatherings, preferably in the homes, for the habit of reverence in God's house will receive almost fatal counteraction in the average social gathering of this age held in the church. Organizations like the "Knights of King Arthur," for boys, and the "Sunshine Club," for girls, are to be highly commended because of their social features, their appeal to the love of uniform, password and secrets, to hero worship and to activity through the ideals of life and service they make concrete and alluring. Discipline of these independent, outspoken boys and girls is easy if the teacher will only lay hold of the heart instead of the coat collar, but, alas, the latter method takes less time. The world holds nothing truer and sweeter than the love of a child at this age, free as it is from all affectation and policy, and it is there in every heart, awaiting the touch of the teacher who can find the hidden spring. The contact on Sunday is not sufficient, however, to reveal it. The child must know through the letter, the call, the invitation to the teacher's home, the loving sympathy in his life and interests that the teacher wants him, not his Golden Text and offering, and in this knowledge the magic spring is found. Besides the social life, the teacher should feel a responsibility in regard to what the children are reading. Papers like the Youth's Companion circulated among the members, suggestions as to books in the Sunday School or public library, books loaned to the children and questions as to their reading may save many a soul from the slimy trail of the serpent coiled in the dime novel. A few suggestions may be added relative to the work in the School itself. PLACE The Juniors should have a separate department and place, for their work is distinct in character and methods from the Primary and Intermediate departments. Maps and charts should be added to the equipment, individual and personally owned Bibles, and where they can be had, tables for each class. ORGANIZATION For two important reasons the department should be divided into classes and the teaching done by the teachers, presupposing they have risen to their privilege and are trained. First, the week-day shepherding becomes an increasingly serious matter as the child is broadening in his relationships, and no superintendent can give it alone. Second, the recitation must give large opportunity for individual work on the part of the pupil during the lesson, and this is impossible in a department taught as a whole. PROGRAM The program should give prominence to supplemental work taught largely through drills, including--during the Golden Memory Period--the Books of the Bible, passages, chapters, facts concerning the Bible and training in its use, geography of the Holy Land, the catechism where used and the hymns of the church. Public recognition in badges, certificates and roll of honor will aid in securing the desired work along this and other lines. Systematic and careful training in habits of Christian service ranks with the lesson in importance. Responsibilities in various committees through the week may be used to strengthen habits and utilize energy. Missionary heroes should be made as familiar to the children as their own personal friends, and there should be regular contributions to definite objects, not abstractions like "Missions" or "Benevolences." Music of a martial type is greatly enjoyed by the children, also that suggesting action, but never the meditative, introspective sort. Great care should be taken to guard the voices from overstrain in loud singing, as irreparable damage may be done for all time to come. THE LESSON The Junior lesson should be prepared to meet the children's interest in facts and love of a hero. They are not ready yet for truth in the abstract--it must be seen in a person. Instead of the story, as in the Primary class, there must be a mingling of vivid word pictures by the teacher and question and answer. The children should not be told to "study the lesson," for they do not know how, but rather have assigned to them one definite thing to prepare for the recitation. Make use of their love of reading in this connection. Use energy and hold attention by means of pad and pencil, written answers in the books they are making on the current lessons, map drawing, looking up references and a stereoscope if possible. Time before the session and in the social gatherings of the class can be most fascinatingly and profitably used in making pulp and sand maps and models of Oriental objects. Toward the latter part of this period, a questioning in regard to Divine things may come, but a questioning unmixed with the doubt of later years. "And when He was twelve years old, ... they found Him in the temple, sitting in the midst of the doctors, both hearing them and asking them questions." With this desire to know reasons for belief comes the teacher's golden opportunity for strengthening the foundations of faith through history and the testimony of ancient monuments, where it can be adduced, through experience and through God's Word itself. May nurture be so true to God and the life that the child shall leave his childhood and face the dawn of manhood as that One of old with the eager heart and heavenly vision, "Wist ye not that I must be about my Father's business?" CHAPTER VII ADOLESCENCE Between the quiet unfolding of childhood and the full development of maturity, there lies a period so fraught with danger and so filled with opportunity, that it is rightly considered life's crisis. A mistake at this point is more disastrous than at any other, while wisdom in dealing with the soul never has such rich reward. In a general way, this period, known as Adolescence, extends with boys from about twelve to twenty-four, and with girls from about eleven to twenty-one, or from the beginning of manhood and womanhood to full maturing. A study of the conditions that obtain during these years clearly reveals the reason for their crucial character. 1. It is an awakening time of new possibilities, physical, mental, moral and spiritual. We are already familiar with the peril and opportunity that attend the first stages of any development, because the future direction and strength of the possibility are then so largely determined. When we realize that the highest possibilities of the soul, as well as some of the lowest, are now unfolding, the gravity of the period is apparent. The changes that come with the soul's awakening are so great, that often the youth becomes a stranger to those who know him best. Ideals, ambitions, feelings, thoughts and power only dimly, if ever, recognized in childhood take possession of the life. A new conception of God is born and a larger sense of responsibility to Him, to the neighbor and to the world. In these awakening possibilities are heard the siren voices of passion, society, wealth and fame and the clear call of self-sacrifice and duty, and the soul is bewildered, not knowing which to heed. Surely nurture is needed, for the choices of Adolescence are in all probability the choices of eternity. 2. These are the years of the greatest susceptibility to influence. Everything that comes to the life now has an impelling force that it did not have in childhood. Life is in a state of unstable equilibrium, and a touch may move it. The influence of one book, of one friend, of one hasty word of criticism or passing word of encouragement may determine the future of a soul. 3. During this period habits become permanent. The pathways traced through childhood and adolescence become settled, the cells gradually lose power to change, and by the close of Adolescence, character is practically determined, unless a Divine power "makes all things new." 4. The influence of heredity is strongly felt during the early part of Adolescence. A child may be defrauded of his inheritance in stocks and bonds and estates, but the bequest of tendencies to which his parents and grandparents and the long line back have made him heir, can not be diverted. There is danger of over-emphasizing the doctrine of heredity and lessening the sense of personal responsibility for conduct. There is also danger of minimizing it, and consequently failing to give the help that many a life needs in its effort to overcome an evil inheritance. Heredity means simply a pull upon the life in a certain direction, because of the way those before have lived. It is easier to climb upward, if "the hands of twenty generations are reached down from the heights to help, than as if they reached up from below to drag down." But whatever the inherited tendencies, any life may have the "antithetic heredity," which is a part of its glorious inheritance in Jesus Christ. 5. This period contains the largest number of first commitments for crime. Three coincident facts demand serious and careful consideration. First. The greatest number of first commitments occur from twelve to sixteen. Second. The greatest spiritual awakenings occur between twelve and sixteen. Third. "Girls are most susceptible to influence for good or evil between eleven to seventeen, with the climax about fourteen, and boys from twelve to nineteen, with the climax about sixteen." Is not the work of nurture plain? 6. During the early part of this period, by far the heaviest losses from church and Sunday School occur. "While thy servant was busy here and there, he was gone." Who was gone? A soul in its crisis, making eternal choices, easily influenced by a word, a look or a touch, in the grip of fierce temptations, but catching sight of Divine possibilities, needing help as at no time before or later, this is the soul that slipped away, in all probability, not to be brought back. You who let it slip, "How will you go up to your Father and the lad be not with you?" In turning to a more detailed consideration of Adolescence, we find the wealth of material so far exceeding the limitations of our space, that the study must be selective, not analytic. Only those conditions in the life, therefore, which seem most imperative in their demands upon nurture will be chosen for discussion. EARLY ADOLESCENCE The first period of Adolescence covers about four years, approximately from twelve to sixteen with boys and eleven to fifteen with girls, and is perhaps the most trying of all to deal with. The crisis in these years is a physical one, arising in connection with the functioning of new physical powers. Coincident with this the passions are born, bringing to many lives the severest of temptations. If ever a close intimacy is needed between father and son and mother and daughter, it is at this time of mystery and question, when the life does not understand itself nor the meaning of what God now gives it. The sacred confidence between parent and child is infinitely better than the best intended book upon the subject, which arouses further curiosity and kindles the imagination. When the home fails in nurture at this point, the Sunday School teacher must earnestly consider what of responsibility falls upon him. The rapid physical growth of these years is often accompanied by awkwardness, due to the fact that the muscles are developing faster than the bones, making delicate adjustment impossible. There is painful sensitiveness over this, especially with boys, as hands and feet must be in the open, and they will easily construe any criticism or ridicule into a desire to be rid of their presence. " ... And what if their feet, Sent out of houses, sent into the street, Should step round the corner and pause at the door Where other boys' feet have paused often before; Should pass through the gateway of glittering light, Where jokes that are merry and songs that are bright Ring out a warm welcome with flattering voice, And temptingly say, 'Here's a place for the boys!' Ah, what if they should! What if your boy or mine Should cross o'er the threshold which marks out the line 'Twixt virtue and vice, 'twixt pureness and sin, And leave all his innocent boyhood within? Ah, what if they should, because you and I, While the days and the months and the years hurry by, Are too busy with cares and with life's fleeting toys To make round our hearthstone a place for the boys." There is a sense of pressure and nervous excitement throughout the whole life, for the "invoice of energy" is not exhausted. Athletics afford physical relief, and slang, which is at its height from about thirteen to fifteen, offers somewhat of an emotional safety-valve. Experiences are never commonplace during this period, nor any individual ordinary. The strongest superlatives and most extravagant metaphors will scarcely do a situation adequate justice, but nurture can afford to be patient, for "this, too, will pass," and of itself, as life grows calmer. The feverish excitement is not at all to the distaste of the adolescent but, on the contrary, he courts it. The "reading craze" is at its height in this period, and books which give "thrills" are sought by both boys and girls. There is increasing necessity of wise oversight in the choice of reading when the mind is so inflammable and easily led, and the fact that a book is on the shelf of the Sunday School library is unhappily not always a guarantee against the need of further parental inspection. The abounding energy of this period, when brought into conjunction with the enlarged vision of life, often gives rise to a restlessness and desire, to leave school and go to work. This is augmented by the new money sense, which is strong about the age of fourteen, and leads to an effort to secure money to save as well as to spend. This desire ought to be met by a regular allowance or an opportunity for earning a stipulated sum. Its neglect is often the explanation for the breaking open of Sunday School banks or theft from household funds. But even the satisfying of this desire will not allay restlessness, and many a school-room seat becomes vacant in the early teens. If, instead of the harsh measures so often used, the boy could know he had not only the loving sympathy but also the pride of his parents in this harbinger of approaching manhood; if, in place of force, he were given choice, after all the considerations had been carefully weighed; if he could feel the confidence of father and mother that he would do the manly thing because he is almost a man, he would rarely fail to meet the issue, for "at no time in life will a human being respond so heartily if treated by older and wise people as if he were an equal." The result will be not only renewed zest in the erstwhile hated task, but a new bond between parents and son that will help to hold him true when greater crises come. The strong appeal that sympathy and consideration now make to the adolescent is due to the new consciousness of self that has come to the life. It has many manifestations. There is a welcome external one that is evident in care for the personal appearance. The days of maternal solicitude for linen and ears come to an end in this period, and it is well, for the new standard of correctness is so high as to be unattainable by any one save the individual himself. A new sense of pride in one's family and position appears, and an aristocracy based on the accidents of birth succeeds the democracy of childhood. The girl who was sincerely thankful that she was not as others and assumed Pharisaic superiority because she had been born a Republican, an Allopath and, crown of all, a Baptist, lived in this period some years ago. This consciousness of self and of approaching manhood and womanhood tends to make the life independent, and "any attempt to treat a child at Adolescence as an inferior is instantly fatal to good discipline." In this super-sensitive state, a public reproof, even in the home circle, carries with it humiliation beyond expression, and inevitably arouses resentment and not penitence. "At no time in life does a word of encouragement mean so much, or criticism leave such an ineffaceable scar." If those who touch a life through its unfolding only realized that what they sow of gentleness and consideration or of harshness and neglect when that life is defenceless and they are strong will be reaped when they in turn are without recourse and the child has become a man, would there not be more tenderness and love in some homes? "For with the same measure that ye mete, withal, it shall be measured to you again." Another condition of great import to nurture appears in the increasing power of the social feelings over the life. Society begins to fascinate, and the problem of a High School education is complicated with the problem of secret societies and school dances. Friends are chosen not so much for real worth as for clothes, position, attractive features or, where there is no interchange of confidences between parents and children, for sympathetic understanding. The longing for companionship is God given and must be fostered, else the youth will enter maturity a recluse and self-occupied, but nurture must carefully deal with it while life is in a state of flux. The only course to be at all considered is a substitutive, not prohibitory one, giving opportunity for social intercourse under proper conditions. The development of the affectional side of the life during this period must be briefly noted. Hero love and worship are more passionate than before. The object of admiration is usually some one outside of the home, often a favorite teacher who understands the heart of a boy and a girl. The patterning of the life after its ideal is most seriously undertaken, even to imitation of personal mannerisms. The privilege and responsibility of being the lode star of an unresisting, unpoised life is tremendous, for this influence overpowers all others at the time. Strange manifestations of that which will later be love, holy and beautiful, between man and woman characterize these years. At first there is a mutual repulsion between the sexes. The boys are "so rough and horrid," and as for the girls--the masculine sentiment concerning them was voiced by one young cavalier in the words, "Oh, mush!" when his Sunday School class was asked if they would like to invite their "lady friends" to the coming class party. But this stage does not continue, and soon nurture must deal with notes written by foolish maidens and the first glamour of the great passion, "sicklied o'er" with callowness and sentimentality. There is no more perplexing problem in Adolescence than how to handle wisely this vernal manifestation of love. Blessed is the home where there are congenial and sympathetic brothers and sisters, and wholesome and absorbing occupations. It is the vacuous, roaming soul which is a prey to the multi-temptations of this period. If the tastes and wishes of the young people can be satisfied in the home, and a hearty and natural companionship of the sexes be welcomed in this healthy environment, nurture will be bringing sanest measures to bear upon the situation. Against this complex background, the necessity of a personal acquaintance with the Lord Jesus Christ stands out in startling relief. Though God comes to a soul in a marked way during Adolescence, nurture is taking a dangerous and often fatal risk in allowing life, as far as human effort can go, to enter its crisis without Him. The spiritual awakening of this period (to be considered in the succeeding chapter) would seem to be God's call to larger service, rather than His first summons to "Follow Me." With the Master's authority to let the children come, and with every condition in child life God prepared for their coming, there is no tenable position but belief that our Father meant every life to enter its period of "storm and stress," in step with Jesus Christ. APPLICATION TO SUNDAY SCHOOL WORK Sunday School work during Adolescence and maturity lays less emphasis upon methods and equipment than in the earlier periods, and more emphasis on the personal relation between teacher and pupil. For this reason the preceding study, in so far as it interprets the lives of the boys and girls, applies directly to Sunday School work, for a sympathetic understanding is the key to the relationship. "There is no greater blessing that can come to a boy (or girl) at this age when he does not understand himself, than a good, strong teacher who understands him, has faith in him, and will day by day lead him till he can walk alone." Far more than a pedagogue, the adolescent needs a friend in his Sunday School teacher, who shares his ambitions, knows his temptations, sympathizes with his successes and failures and, through it all, trusts him. This understanding and confidence, made long-suffering and tender by the love that never fails, will be a binding cord that can not be broken even by the most restless, wayward life. Because of the close relationship to be sought between teacher and pupil, other things being equal, it is wise for a class of boys to be taught by a man, and girls by a woman. The counsel of one who has passed through the same experiences and known the same temptations and difficulties always comes with especial helpfulness. But the question of sex is not as vital as that of sympathy, nor the manner of previous experience as the manner of present love. The new consciousness of distinction will make the class work difficult, if there is any marked difference in the social standing of its members. The leader must be won to the right attitude in private, the appeal being based on personal feeling for the teacher and on the new ideals of relationship to others, which are beginning to take form. An organization of the class in this and succeeding periods is necessary for the best work. It should place definite responsibilities upon each member, either as officer or committee-man, for habits of Christian service must be solicitously nurtured during these days. Frequent social gatherings are very important. This is the age when the young people begin to think that, "a Christian can not have any fun," and it rests with the church and Sunday School to prove to them the contrary. The only convincing proof is in experiencing the fact itself that the best times have a religious association, therefore a class party should be as carefully and as prayerfully planned as a Sunday School lesson. As these years are included in the Golden Memory-period, supplemental work of more advanced type should be continued. Note books are helpful in amplifying and impressing the lesson, and brief essays upon pertinent topics add interest. The teaching itself must deal more and more with the relationships of life. To the majority of young people, the Bible belongs to an uncertain and remote past. The goal of work in these unsettled years is to help them see how the Book solves all problems of present-day living, and how Jesus Christ meets every personal need of the life. CHAPTER VIII MIDDLE AND LATE ADOLESCENCE The crisis of adolescence may be said to culminate about the years from fifteen to seventeen with girls, and sixteen to eighteen with boys, or the period of Middle Adolescence. During these years the feelings and the imagination are a great storm center, largely because of the rapid development of the altruistic feelings, and the enlarged conception of life with the new ideals it has given. Divine Wisdom in the order of the soul's unfolding can be seen nowhere more clearly than in connection with the growth of responsibility for another. There must first be the self feelings in the little child, to help him learn his own individuality. When that knowledge comes, his life must be related to other lives, hence the social feelings awaken, yet it is for his personal pleasure that contact with others is sought. But God's plan for a life does not leave it self centered, and under His touch through these lives a sense of responsibility toward them begins to be felt, and the realization comes that "No man liveth unto himself." Ideals which make the good of others first, enter into conflict with childish ideals which made personal gain first. A new impulse to forget self in loving service confronts the old self seeking and self love. Then the truth that "No man can serve two masters," fastens itself upon the soul and decision waits between self and selflessness. In a struggle that often shakes a life to its foundations, the great choice is made and the soul yields itself servant to obey. Though a reversal of either choice is possible, it rarely occurs. This decision usually determines destiny. A new meaning and value in early nurture is revealed in the light of this struggle. If love for Jesus Christ has grown through the years in the heart of the child and the youth, a decision that means fuller allegiance to Him and greater blessing to the world is assured. If also during these years nurture has traced pathways of service, as an expression of child love to God and to others, habit adds the influence of its tendencies to the choice of ministering life, and offers channels already prepared for the outflow of sacrificial love. The years preceding have not been utterly devoid of altruistic feeling, but adolescence presents marked difference in its manifestation, other than that of intensity. In early life, the willingness to consider others before self was usually aroused through the influence of some one else; now the longing and constraint is within the individual himself. Again, in childhood, these feelings were called out only by some definite, concrete object; now they are stimulated by great ideas as well. Patriotism, humanity, suffering, duty, art and science have power to kindle flame on the altar of sacrifice. The more difficult the task suggested, the greater the power of its wooing. It is doubtful whether any Christian life ever passes through this period without considering the ministry or the mission field, or whether every life does not at some moment long to go in quest of a Holy Grail. The issues growing out of this crisis are too momentous to leave with even the wisest human nurture. God Himself must deal with the soul face to face, and lead it to this higher love and complete surrender. In early years He revealed Himself as Creator, Heavenly Father and Friend to the loving, trusting heart of the little child. Now the time has come to make His glory pass before the soul. The marvels of creation in Nature, in constellation and atom, the infinities of eternity and space, the mysteries of life and death, His own holiness and justice and all the attributes of His matchless character, the unspeakable love that gave a Bethlehem and a Calvary to a sin sick race are revealed in new light and meaning, and the revelation is overwhelming. Existence that had been accepted without question now becomes complex and baffling. God is no longer the gentle Lover and strong Protector of childhood days, but the great "I AM," and in the terrible crystal of His presence the soul is prostrate. With deep, added meaning the Cross stands out. Its message of salvation, not only to this soul conscious of its need, but to a sinning world, is heard anew; but with it comes the voice of the crucified and risen Lord, "If any man will come after Me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross and follow Me." The answer cannot be returned in emotional love. It must be the love of all the heart, soul, mind and strength, born in self surrender. If this be the soul's response, the final triumph and glory of the life of self losing is pledged, not in the fluctuating efforts of a human will, but in the changeless strength of the Son of God. It is not to be wondered at that when a soul is in the throes of such experiences as these, it is a time of storm and stress. Yet often the struggle is carried on alone, in silence, for life becomes secretive. The open frankness of childhood is gone, and only to one in close sympathy will thoughts and feelings which sound foundation depths be revealed. It does not at all follow that because there is a physical tie between two lives, that there will be union of spirit in this time of need. The tragedy of so many homes is disclosed in the distance between father and son, and mother and daughter, that has widened almost imperceptibly through the years from lack of sympathy and confidence. This close relationship which admits to the Holy Place of the soul in its crisis cannot be lightly cast away, and as easily renewed at will. It is a growth of the years, to be nurtured patiently, prayerfully, watchfully, steadily. A guest in the home of a busy physician noted the peculiarly tender and close relationship which existed between the father and his son, a splendid boy of about ten years of age. In answer to her comment upon it, the father said with moist eyes, "We are very close to one another. I know there is a time coming in his life when he will need a father as he has never needed him before, and I mean to be ready. I never take a long drive in the country, that I do not have him excused from school to go with me. He wants to be a surgeon, so whenever I have to perform an operation, I always have him help me in some way. Up to this time there is nothing that weighs for a minute with him over against an opportunity to be with me, and I am trying to keep his life so close to mine that nothing can ever come between us." When that boy reaches his crisis and life closes up, his father will be shut inside with him. Is there any question as to the outcome, with a father and a father's God within? If, in the busy cares of life, the intimacy that God intended in the home has been lost, it may be found again if the price of its recovery be paid, but it is often a dear price, payable in the coin of self humiliation, sacrifice and tears. The need of this close touch with another is apparent in the unspeakable longing of the adolescent heart for understanding and sympathy, for appreciation and recognition, for help in choosing the life work, and for love that is patient and deep. Perhaps the greatest longing of all is to be trusted, to feel the strong grip of a hand and hear a voice vibrant with encouragement and assurance say, "I know you can do it." If the greatest successes in reformatory work come today through loving confidence in the one who has started wrong, who can measure the energizing power of such confidence in a life already striving toward the best? The pathetic side of this craving for confidence appears in the distrust of self which is almost universal at times during these years. A great wave of ambition and enthusiasm will sweep over the soul, and nothing seems too great to be attained, nor any obstacles unsurmountable. As suddenly it will recede, the ideals become impossible, the individual but an atom in God's great universe, the sky grows gray and hope dies out. In the vacillation between energy and indifference, enthusiasm and apathy, self loving and self hating, goodness and badness, confidence and despair, the ebb and flow of the tide in the soul is revealed to understanding eyes. For this fluctuation of purpose and failure to reach its high ideals, stern sentence is passed at the inner bar of judgment, and though the censure of another is resented, the soul bears great scars of flagellation, self inflicted. The standard of measurement by which the life tests itself and others is a new consciousness that there is absolute right and absolute wrong apart from all external coverings. The statements of others are examined, their actions are stripped of all veneer, profession and practice are balanced, and death sentence is passed upon the influence of any life that fails to meet the test. The compassion that remembers that we are but dust has no place in the heart as yet. Suffering will call out sympathy, but not failure to reach the mark. A life must ring true to God, true to its fellow men and true to the ideals conceived as belonging to it by these self-appointed judges, if it is to be of any help to them. It is therefore not a question whether the professing Christian, be he parent, teacher or church member, can indulge in doubtful amusements or uncertain practices without injury to himself. It is rather, "Are these things included in the ideal of a Christian life, as it is held by those whom I want to touch?" If they who bear the name of Christ exemplified more completely the ideals by which they are measured, would there be so many who question the reality of divine things? It is during the closing period of Adolescence, ending with young men about twenty-four and with young women about twenty-one, that doubt most frequently appears. It comes rather as a questioning and bewilderment to the Christian, and scepticism to the one who has had no experience of divine things. Spiritual truth is not accepted because another has said it is so, but each desires to know for himself the foundation upon which he stands, that he may have a reason for the hope that is in him. Investigation seems to show that at least two out of three pass through this period of intellectual unrest, young men being in the majority. Many causes contribute to this condition, but chief among them is the maturing strength of reason and will. The new power to think God's thoughts after Him, to trace cause and effect, to understand subtle relationships, intoxicates the soul. Everywhere in the world around, the pre-eminence of reason is acknowledged. The atmosphere of the university and the college which surrounds the favored young men and women is an atmosphere of scientific accuracy, where reason applies the tests. The world of business, of finance and of statecraft all bow to reason,--why not the spiritual world, and then by searching, the soul attempts to find out God. As in the wisdom of God divine things do not yield up their treasures in intellectual investigation but in revelation, the thick darkness gathers. Even that which had been once known by faith seems strange and unreal from this new view point. It is a critical time for a soul when it is learning that in one realm reason does not go before, but faith. Any harshness or lack of sympathy on the part of another or evident disappointment in the life is very serious at this point. The will asserts itself under such measures and from the pliant attitude, "I cannot believe what I cannot explain," it takes the defiant attitude, "I will not believe what I cannot explain." The marvelous dealing of our Lord with Thomas is a picture of His gracious dealing with every doubting heart, and ought to be the perpetual model for every one who attempts to give help at this time. When the Master stood before that disciple who said he would not believe unless he had the indubitable proof of a physical testing, He spoke no words of censure, no words of His pain that Thomas had been so long time with Him and yet did not know Him in faith. "Jesus said, 'Peace be unto you. Reach hither thy finger, and see My hands, and reach thither thy hand and put it into My side and be not faithless but believing,' and Thomas answered and said unto Him, 'My Lord and my God!'" With like patience and infinite tenderness, the Spirit deals with the troubled heart today. He makes the past days with God live again in memory, if the life has known Him, and the soul can not deny in its reason the reality of what it has lived through in its experience. He uses every Christian life that can bear the search light as an irrefutable argument of the verity of the unseen. He brings the peace of God that passeth understanding, yet fills and thrills the soul as every service for Him is rendered even in the darkness. He calls through hard experience where reason can bring no comfort and the will is palsied, through the abiding unrest and longing of a heart that is feeling after God in its own way, instead of His, and through the drawing of childhood habits of love and trust. When at last, spent out with struggle and longing, the soul is willing to come back to the Heavenly Father as the little child who used to be, asking only to walk hand in His, in dark or light, a new consciousness dawns, clear, sure and absolute that, "Thus saith the Lord," is more than reason, and the triumphant song rings out, "I know whom I have believed, My Lord and My God!" APPLICATION TO SUNDAY SCHOOL WORK The Sunday School touches a life just entering maturity at the focal point toward which all nurture has been tending. Enriched by years of absorption, with ideals defined and channels of expression traced, the soul faces an open door, bearing the inscript "Service." It is that each soul may enter the door and give back to a waiting world its best, that nurture has brooded and guarded through the years. The great work of the Sunday School is to impel the soul to take this step, and taking it, say, "I am debtor." This can not be done through any system of methods, neither are narrow interests or unexacting tasks sufficient to arouse all that the soul has now to give. The great sweep and mighty force of world movements are alone adequate for a soul in touch with God and infinities. There has never been a time in the history of Sunday School work when there were such far reaching, thrilling movements through which to appeal to manhood and womanhood as at the present time, and God's Hand is not hidden in the matter. The Adult Bible Class movement, enlisting the greatest company of thinking men and women ever gathered for the study of the Word, is a call to open loyalty to the Book and to the church, that is winning recruits by the thousands. The great Teacher Training movement, with its exacting standards and high ideals of preparation, is leading the choicest young people to seek the holy service of teaching. The world encircling Missionary movements, the definite plan to give the gospel to every man, woman and child in this generation, the marvellous ingatherings already reported from the foreign field, the unparalleled opportunities to make richest investment of life in the waking Orient, these arouse the enthusiasm and conviction which issue in prayers and gifts and pledge of Student Volunteers. In our own land, the ethical awakening with its triumphs for Temperance and civic righteousness, the great conventions and conferences held for the Kingdom, the sweeping evangelistic campaigns with their trophies for Christ, and the new life stirring in the church, movements all, God initiated, God directed, throbbing with His Almighty power and revealing the oncoming of His triumph, these give the challenge and the inspiration to men and women, and response is coming in ever swelling volume, "Here am I, send me!" It is the crowning mission of the Sunday School to relate these great interests to individual lives, and interpret for them the meaning in terms of love and service. To whom shall the task be given? To the teacher of transparent life, who can hold the world and the one in his heart, who can read the signs of the times and the signs of the soul, and who has nurtured with the Divine One through the years, to him shall be given God's crowning task with an Unfolding Life. 
31323	----	Occasional Papers, No. 13. THE AMERICAN NEGRO ACADEMY. (FOUNDED BY ALEXANDER CRUMMELL) The Demand and the Supply of Increased Efficiency in the Negro Ministry. BY JESSE E. MOORLAND. Price 15 Cts. WASHINGTON, D. C. PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY, 1909. Press of R. L. Pendleton 609 F St. N. W. Washington, D. C. 1909 The Demand and the Supply of Increased Efficiency in the Negro Ministry. BY JESSE E. MOORLAND. In the discussion of this subject I fully recognize the opportunity men have to serve God in any honorable vocation. The Christian lawyer or physician is called of God as truly as a minister. Such men are putting the emphasis on service and not on getting. The condition confronting us is alarming and this warrants the earnest plea in this paper for a greater number of efficient ministers. This is probably the most important question confronting the colored people to-day. After all, a race or a nation is measured by its religion, and the greatest fact about a people is its religion. The efficiency of a nation depends in a large degree upon the character of its religious principles. When the good Queen Victoria was asked what made her realm so great, it was expected that she might point to her well-equipped navy or her efficient army, but she modestly held up a little book, called the Bible, and said: "By adhering to the principles contained in this Book, greatness has come to Great Britain." China is what she is to-day because she adheres to certain principles taught by her religious teachers, and Africa is still in darkness because led by blind, superstitious, religious teachers. In a larger sense than many people are willing to give credit the Negro minister has been responsible for the progress of our race and is also responsible for much that cannot be counted as progress, for no other single class of individuals has had, and still has, so large and far-reaching an influence as our ministers. You have only to go to a community where there is a well-trained, honorable, upright, and efficient minister to see the marked improvement among the people along every line. On the other hand, when you find a community where there is an immoral, ignorant minister, wielding a large influence, you will find a community that is full of despair. It is pleasant to read the short story written by Paul Laurence Dunbar some years ago, entitled "The Ordeal at Mt. Hope." This story possibly gives one of the most vivid pictures of real, genuine service rendered by a man of splendid parts in a needy section of the South, bearing out the practical demonstration of the power the minister has over a community. It is one thing to lay down principles; it is another thing to show that these principles are correct and true by the practical work which is based upon these principles. It is no hard thing to see how true it is that of all men throughout the history of the world, none have had greater influence than the religious teachers of a people, and it is just as true to-day, and it is a waste of time to argue that a race or nation can be lifted any higher than the religious principles of that race or nation will allow it to go. History fails to record an instance of this sort, and it is very evident there never will be an instance of the kind. Man is bound by his religion. He may not profess it, but he has a belief; even though he may declare that he believes nothing, the very fact of his declaration proves him to have a dogma. You had as well expect to find lions without courage as to find men without some form of religious conviction. It is a something in man that has to be reckoned with, and where it is most wisely directed and cultivated, there we find the highest culture and development along every line. Hence the great importance to a new race like ours in America that the most careful attention be given to this very important phase of our development. This is no time for mere fault-finding. It is a time, however, for sober, considerate thought. It is a time when the best of the clergy and the best of the laity of every denomination need seriously to face a question which is not alone common to themselves but is a serious one confronting the entire Protestant Church. In some ways our churches are suffering, (and it seems will suffer more for sometime than others), for the reason that we have not had, and have not now, so large a number of trained men to draw upon as others who have had better advantages than ourselves. With an honest purpose, it is our business to courageously take this matter up and get at the facts, and then find a way to remedy the alarming condition. We are at a crisis, and the future of our race is involved,--yea, the future of our nation, for one-eighth of the population of any land has a tremendous influence upon the whole. In the first place, the demand for increased efficiency is emphasized by increased intelligence of the people. Forty years ago we were just entering school as a race; to-day we have the second generation in our public schools, secondary schools, and colleges. These parents and children read the daily papers, read the magazines, buy some books, and are beginning to think, and as soon as an individual begins to think independently all sorts of problems rapidly crowd in on the mind and put it in an attitude of questioning many of the things which have always beforehand been taken for granted as correct and true. Along with this goes the fact that much of the literature of to-day, (including newspaper editorials and many magazine articles), has a tendency to undermine Christian faith rather than help it. Much of it comes from brains well saturated with Pagan philosophy rather than the principles laid down in the Holy Book. The swing away from Puritanism to what is called liberty has the effect of loosening many of the well-fixed principles of morality and right-living, and makes splendid soil for just such practices as we are constantly reminded of by the glaring headlines in our newspapers giving every detail of murders, and lax family relations and divorces, and every conceivable thing that human nature can devise for the uprooting of many of the essentials of real progress and decent living. This brings a spirit of unrest and doubt, and the question whether life pays, and whether it is worth while to make an effort, and whether the Church is of any effect. The minister is looked upon as a professional parasite drawing a salary and having a good time, and in the thought of many is cast aside as of but little consequence. To meet such conditions as mentioned above, there must be increased efficiency in the ministry, the demand to meet which is greater to-day than ever before. I am finding no fault with the efficient men we now have at work. Many are doing valiant service. They are heroes on the home field in the same sense that Carey, Judson, Livingstone, Pitkin, Lott Carey and others were heroes on the foreign field. Some of these men are laying their lives down in the great work to which they have been called. All honor to these men! But their numbers are too few. The disproportion is too great in our professional schools. For example, when a medical school can boast of four hundred young men preparing to care for the physical life of the people and the theological school in the same institution can report barely one hundred men preparing to care for the moral and spiritual life of the same people, it is time to stop and consider whither are we tending. Then at a closer glance we see something else which is worse still. With all due respect to the men in the theological school, it is an alarming fact that the men in the medical school, in most cases, have a higher average in scholarship and natural force than the men in the theological school. Why is this? It is because the training in our colleges, the teaching from the platform, and the training in most of our homes is such that our boys to-day are led to believe that the route to greatest success is along the material highway. It is a current saying now that the quickest way for a colored man of ability, at this time, to get out of the reach of immediate want, materially, is to study medicine. There may not be too many men entering medicine, but certainly not enough are entering the ministry. In some cases well-meaning men have been disgusted with certain types of ministers which they have met and have cast the whole profession aside, giving it no respectful consideration, and have felt that they could better themselves, socially as well as materially, by entering some profession other than the ministry. I am well acquainted with not a few men who entered college with the express purpose of preparing themselves to enter the ministry, who turned aside to some other calling for the reason mentioned. Sad to say, very few of the most capable men in our colleges to-day are looking forward to the ministry as a life work. In order that we may cope with such conditions as those just mentioned, none can gainsay the great need of greater efficiency in the ministry, that we do not cut the tap-root of all our progress and become of none effect in the world. The wisest leaders of Japan to-day are deeply concerned about the propagation of Christian principles among the people. The recent past has changed a nation in a day, and while the people have taken on the ways of western civilization, the larger number of them have not accepted the principles which have made western civilization great, and these far-seeing prophets of the Sunrise kingdom well understand that their glory will be ephemeral unless they are able to plant their feet firmly upon the eternal Rock of Ages. As lightly as it may be regarded, there is a similar danger confronting the rising young race of colored men in this land. It is not reassuring that our strongest men, who are able to make their way through northern universities, have in some cases come out of these institutions with a shattered faith and are not found in places of leadership either as ministers or laymen, in our churches and other religious institutions. A man cannot excuse himself by saying that he spends his time during the week in the schoolroom, in the law office, or in the sickroom. The great men of the world and the great races and nations of the world have done all these things but did not leave the other undone. To meet this condition a larger number of efficient men must be led into the ministry. In order that the supply may be commensurate with the demand, it is necessary to ask the question where and how shall we begin to meet the demand for an increased efficiency in the ministry? First, with Christian parents. It is interesting to note that Paul, in his second letter to his beloved son, Timothy, 1st chapter, 5th verse, makes use of these words: "When I call to remembrance the unfeigned faith that is in thee, which dwelt first in thy grandmother, Lois, and thy mother, Eunice, and I am persuaded that in thee also," and he thus shows his belief in spiritual heredity. The foregoing passage teaches that we must not shut our eyes to the responsibility of Christian parents in this matter. Many of the great preachers of the world were consecrated to this service by godly mothers, in some cases before they were born, even as Hannah, Samuel's mother, consecrated him to the Lord before his birth. Forty years ago, it was a passion with many Christian parents to have at least one son enter the ministry, and yet I am sorry to say to-day I have many, many times made inquiry of ministers' sons and have found very few of them who were willing to give even a respectful hearing to the claim of the ministry and few parents of such sons who seemed concerned about the matter. The first remedy is to go back to first principles and let the people who claim to love the Lord and His Christ be willing to make an offering of the very flower of their families to this, the highest and noblest service ever given to man to perform. Then our various churches must take a larger interest in leading the most promising young men into this great service. Some churches have done nobly at this and have stood by their spiritual sons by furnishing the means by which they might attend college and fit themselves for service, and have taken peculiar interest and pride in seeing them return to the mother church and in listening to them, and in bidding them God speed; but most of our churches, though able, have paid hardly any attention to this important phase of service at all, and many of our churches cannot mention a single successful minister who commands the respect of any large community because of his ability and power, which they have sent out. On the other hand, many times men are allowed to come into the ministry through our churches who are always calculated to do more injury than good,--men with no preparation and no chance of getting proper training. God never calls a man to preach unless He also provides the way for him to make due preparation for that service. This is a principle which cannot successfully be disputed. When God called Moses He led him out of the land of Egypt, and he spent years and years communing with God under the canopy of heaven; and Paul spent three years somewhere in preparation for his great work, and even the Father's own Son for thirty years was in preparation to do three years' work. It is a harmful thing to have a church full of inefficient, licensed preachers with no hope of ever entering actively into the ministry, but in most cases are just a worry of the flesh to a progressive pastor. When a man comes before a board for a license he ought to be given to understand that this license will be granted only on condition that he prepare himself intellectually as well as spiritually for the great work of the ministry, and when prepared that he will enter into the field which is white and ready and waiting for the reaper. Possibly the Church has no larger opportunity for advancing the Lord's kingdom than in just this phase of service. Sometimes a narrow-minded minister is to blame. He fails to encourage the promising young man for fear some day he will come back as a rival too much for him. I wish it were possible to utter these words with sufficient emphasis to arouse many of our dormant, sleeping churches to a sense of their duty. One organization in our colleges has the largest opportunity over any other to help furnish an increased supply from our college men, and that is the Student Department of the Young Men's Christian Association. Already the leader of this Department, Mr. John R. Mott, has written a book, "The Future Leadership of the Church," published by the International Committee, 124 East 28th Street, New York. In this volume Mr. Mott takes up this whole question of the supply of leaders in our churches. Though a layman himself, for some years, he has been lecturing in the leading colleges of our land and calling the strong men (as only a true leader can call men) to consider the calling of the ministry, facing squarely all of the difficulties connected therewith, problems of faith, problems of training, and the problem of support, which is entirely too meagre to-day; but with a strong purpose he has been making an effort to lead some of the best and ablest men into this, the highest of all callings. The same thing is being done in many of our colored colleges by our colored International Secretaries; some time during the year the claim of the ministry is presented to the students. We feel sure that in due time results will be seen. Capable ministers among us and college professors also need covet the opportunity, in a larger way than they have been doing, to appear before bodies of students, to mingle with them, to impress them with the importance of at least considering this calling, in order that we may get the supply which is so greatly needed. Do you wonder at my urgency when I tell you that Bishops and presiding elders have many times sadly declared to me that few men of any class are applying for admission to the many annual conferences, and in many cases not a single candidate applies in a single year; and when they do, oftentimes they are weak men. In one case eighteen men applied for admission to an annual conference in a certain State and not one of them was intellectually qualified to pursue the course of study prescribed for the first year, and to the credit of the conference they were not admitted. Certainly the Baptist brethren are not more blessed than their Methodist friends. The smaller denominations are confronted with a similar lack of men to pioneer the enterprises which are theirs to do. The Master's words are as true to-day as ever they were: "The harvest is great, but the laborers are few." The pastors of training and vision are themselves alarmed; the best of the laity are overwhelmed with the magnitude of their task when it is theirs to call a pastor. There was a time when the most choice men of the race entered the ministry. No other door was open, but to-day practically every door open to anybody else is open to the man of ability of the Negro race. This of course depletes the number from which the supply must come. Even in the days of slavery the great leaders on the plantations were generally preachers, and they were in many cases feared and respected by both white and black. If this preacher chose to be, he was a dangerous man to the institution of slavery and ofttimes was sold. On the other hand, he was usually the source of great blessing to large communities, so much so that there were instances where some such men were given their freedom and commissioned to preach from plantation to plantation, not only to colored people, but oftentimes to white people. The story of the lives of these men reads like romance, and they were the men at the close of the Civil War, who were ready to welcome the school and did their best to lead the people into the ways of true progress. They had great power and influence,--not always sufficient intelligence for their arduous tasks, but they were giants in their day and deserve well-merited praise. To meet the demands of these modern times other giants must be raised up, who can hold the respect of the best trained portion of our people, and at the same time may maintain the confidence of the most humble of every community. We have some men like this. They stand like giant oaks in the forest, towering above the shrubs and undergrowth about them. They are lonely in their work. Here and there, about the great centers of population, there may be groups of them, but eighty per cent of our people are not in the great centers but are scattered throughout the length and breadth of the land in small hamlets and the country districts. These people are too often as sheep without a shepherd. No doubt not many of the shepherds there are doing the best they can. Give them credit for all they do, but the demand is such that a more efficient ministry must enter into every hamlet, and there lift and inspire the people; and possibly the greatest thing to be done in this lifting process is to provide a more efficient and practical training for the men we desire to lead into the ministry. Merely to have men enter this great work without a training, which fits them to cope with the problems of the day, is but a waste of effort. The Negro minister ought to be the best trained man among us in order that he may be able to assume his rightful place as a leader of the people. The training needed for the ministry of to-day must be comprehensive and practical. This will be the means of attracting men of ability and will insure increased efficiency. The emphasis for the training of the ministry to-day needs to be placed upon teaching; not mere oratory, but teaching. Jesus Christ was a great teacher. Nicodemus said: "We know thou art a teacher sent from God." Very seldom is it said that Jesus preached, but it is commonly said that he taught the people. The minister who is to be His true representative on earth must also be a teacher, and it is of the greatest importance that his training be such as shall broaden his views of life and shall enable him to understand the relations of human society sufficiently well to warrant his instructing the people in the most helpful way. Unfortunately a great deal of the training of the past has been entirely too narrow. Usually the theological seminaries have been very slow in utilizing the most improved educational methods and have been very active in maintaining the old order of things. What we need to-day for our ministers is a training which will put them in possession of the knowledge of human society just as it is. It is of the greatest importance that a minister should be given a correct training according to the principles of Jesus Christ to treat these conditions. The people are waiting and hungering for this type of leader. There was never a time when the colored people were so willing to be taught from the pulpit as they are to-day. No ground will be gained by mere denunciation, but what is needed is a splendid constructive method which will build the people up in every phase of life and sweeten human relations. All the people demand of such a teacher is that he should be as good as the doctrine he proclaims and should fully comprehend what he is about. There certainly is no place where larger opportunity is offered for service than in the high calling of the ministry. The average course of study in seminaries provided for both white and colored candidates for the ministry is not calculated to bring them in touch with the problems which are to confront them as it should. The following is a course of study covering three years, and a fair sample of courses provided by seminaries established for colored ministers: First year: Biblical Introduction; Hebrew Language; Greek Interpretation; Sacred Rhetoric and Elocution; Vocal Music. Second year: Church History; Hebrew Interpretation; Greek Interpretation; Sacred Rhetoric and Elocution; Vocal Music; Homiletics; Christian Theology. Third year: Pastoral Duties; Theology and Ethics; Biblical Introduction; Homiletics and Church Polity; Christian Theology; Sacred Rhetoric and Elocution; Electives. There is not much in this course that inspires men with the gravity of the problems of human society in the beginning of the twentieth century. Too many times in our seminaries men speculate about theories of salvation and various other things labelled doctrines, which are of little or no value to men whose business it is to bring the kingdom of Jesus on earth as it is in heaven. Why spend a term on the theory of salvation when Jesus said, "He that believeth on me hath everlasting life." One man with faith in this and a comprehensive training will do more to save the world than a dozen men can possibly do battling over the theories which have grown up with the church during the past ages. It is unfortunate that many of our ministers have had no systematic training at all, and it is surprising that so much has been accomplished with such poorly equipped men as many of them have been. They are not to be too severely censured. Again I repeat, no band of men in our race has been more self-sacrificing and more desirous on the whole for race uplift and development than these men, and there is no intention at this time to do anything more than to call attention to the great need of a better trained ministry to reenforce the present ranks in an effective way for good. It is encouraging to note a new departure in two leading theological seminaries. Yale Divinity School changed its course very much a year ago. It strengthened the old course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, known as historical, also adding a philosophical and lastly a practical course, both of which lead to the B.D. degree. "The practical course will emphasize the relation of the minister to the problems of modern society, giving special attention to Christian sociology, ethics, and methods of Christian activity. As a preliminary discipline students who take this course will receive in the junior year special instruction in sociology and instruction in elementary law in one of the courses furnished by the University for law students." The Chicago Theological Seminary has made a similar change and says in a recent catalogue: "The subjects for instruction are those directly relating to the work of the ministry, and courses in the English Bible, the psychology of Christian living, religious pedagogy, evangelism, missions, Christian sociology and citizenship are included in both the prescribed and elective work. Hebrew and Greek have been made almost entirely elective, and much that is traditional in systematic theology, church history, and other departments has had to make room for new subjects. But the seminary authorities, believing that such changes are necessary, hold that the mere fact that a subject has a traditional place in the curriculum of the divinity school should not be a sufficient reason for retaining it. Each subject must continually prove anew its right to be taught and justify itself under modern conditions." This does not mean less study or a less scholarly man as the finished product; but it does mean that the seminary is to take its place along with other professional schools in fitting men to meet present needs. The action of the above schools is most encouraging, and no doubt before a great while many other seminaries will follow the same course. This will do for the minister what our medical schools are doing for the physician; it will bring him in daily contact with the conditions which he must meet out in the world. Who would think of running a medical school without a laboratory and a clinic? Young men might know all the books have to say about the property of drugs or the symptoms of diseases, but such men will be handicapped if they are to wait until they go out into actual life before seeing these drugs tried, or the peculiar manifestation of diseases as they make their inroads on the human system. A thorough knowledge of sociology makes it possible for young men who are in our theological seminaries to get some practical knowledge of human relations and conditions of the present time and thereby be better able to apply the potent Gospel as a remedy. What is needed is a greater breadth of view possessed by the leaders of our seminaries and in many cases more practical men, such as our great and successful preachers are, ought to be on the teaching staff rather than some men who could not succeed in any eminent way as pastors; example has its effect on theologies as well as medicos and the man with the green bag. Every provision should be made for ministers to be well-equipped teachers and leaders of the people. Such training will make our ministers able to place the emphasis on their work where it belongs. Such men will as carefully consider the financial strength of their people as a physician considers the physical strength of a patient; and no more should we see churches built which are out of all proportion to the financial ability of the people who worship in them. We should not see a great debt hanging over the heads of a poor people, the most of whom do not own their own homes but live in narrow streets and alleys under very unsanitary conditions. But we should see neat houses of worship arranged so as to meet the needs of a given parish in its largest way and within the reach of the people's financial ability. Further, we should see radiating from this center influences which will inspire people to own their own homes, to take proper care of their children, and to realize what it means to walk with God as men of old here on earth. This training will enable men to be brought near enough to see that it is a waste of time merely to preach narrow denominationalism, but good men of all denominations will unite in combatting evil and in making a given community a desirable place for the habitation of the children of men. Greater care will be taken of the poor and orphans and more energy will be spent in building up the moral life of the young men and women of the community. This will be done by these trained men who will come fully as well equipped to discern what these problems of society are as the physician who comes to heal our bodies and who must necessarily understand disease and remedy. Such a minister's thought will not be centered on making a great name for himself at the expense of an ignorant people. It will not matter to him whether he has the name of having built the largest church or the finest church, or whether he has the biggest congregation in his church, but it will be centered upon the most important thing, and that is the establishing of the kingdom of Jesus Christ among men on earth. His efforts will be to lift the burdens from the poor and unfortunate and make their lives happy and sweet and pleasant. He will be a leader in devising ways and means to get our people out of the crowded alleys into the bright sunshine of life that they may be where their little children may have a chance for true development. He will gather around him a band of faithful, trained men and women, who will visit the jail, the sick, the poor, and the oppressed. And he will call to mind the requirements which Jesus Christ laid down for all men who wish to walk with Jesus here and to enter with Him in eternal rest. "For I was hungered, and ye gave me meat; I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink; I was a stranger, and ye took me in: naked, and ye clothed me: I was sick, and ye visited me: I was in prison, and ye came unto me. Then shall the righteous answer him, saying, Lord, when saw we thee a hungered, and fed thee? or thirsty, and gave thee drink? When saw we thee a stranger, and took thee in? Or naked, and clothed thee? Or when saw we thee sick or in prison, and came unto thee? And the King shall answer and say unto them, Verily, I say unto you, Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me." The above words are from the Master's own lips and make plain and clear the duty of the church, the duty of Christian society as well as that of the individual. It is a clear indication that Jesus meant for his followers to acquaint themselves thoroughly with the conditions of society as He did himself. He was thoroughly familiar with all the evils and the needs of humanity which surrounded Him. And His work was the healing of every ill. Too long have men talked about the Father in such a cold, metaphysical way as to forget their brethren who are next door to them. Too long have men thought merely of individualistic religion. Our religion must be more effectively social in its aim and practice. It must so act and react on society that the whole lump will be leavened. Christianity has done more for the world than any other religion or principle and yet it has never been given the chance it should be given to do its complete work among men. When you look about you and behold the suffering and misery, the sin and shame, can you but offer a prayer that the day will soon come when a large number of our strong men shall receive a training for the ministry which shall fit them to battle effectively with these great problems which confront us in this modern age? Unless it is done we go backward. Here is the Negro's great opportunity, viz: To let Christianity have a chance through him. Will he lose it? The great reformers of the church have always been men of the broadest training. Luther and Calvin were not only preachers as we think of preachers, but also were men of splendid legal training. Dr. F. J. Grimke, (who is highly esteemed and respected as a minister), not only is a high honor man of the Divinity School of Princeton University, but also is a graduate in law as well. Henry Ward Beecher, the greatest preacher America ever produced, had a law library that any young lawyer would be glad to have, and a medical library that would be a credit to any young physician. There was not a phase of knowledge with which he did not have some acquaintance. The broad training these men had gave them the mastery of difficult problems. When we shall have a large number of thoroughly trained men of unquestioned character whose hearts are warm with the love of God and whose eyes behold the true condition of their people, and whose hands shall be ready to work for the good of an inspiring race, then we shall see the kingdom of God come among men in a larger way than it is possible for us now even to imagine. While many have not had the privilege of securing the training which fits us to understand in the most comprehensive way many of the problems which are round about us, it is still possible for every minister to qualify himself so that he may be a workman which needeth not to be ashamed. Unfortunately a great many of our ministers do not do what they might. For some cause they do not purchase books at all, or do not purchase them as wisely as they should. It is a poor plan to spend money for books which agents carry about from place to place. They are generally high-priced and little used after they are bought. Find out what you ought to buy by reading reviews and by consulting with men who certainly know. Every preacher should own, read, and ponder the following books and extend his reading as he may see fit: "The Social Crisis" by Rauschenbusch (published by Macmillan, New York); "The Social Message of the Modern Pulpit" by Brown (Scribner, New York); "The Religion of a Mature Mind" and "The Spiritual Life" by Coe (Revell, New York); "The Psychology of Religion" by Starbuck (Scribner, New York); "Elements of Sociology" by Giddings (Macmillan, New York); "United States Census Bulletin No. 8" (Washington, D. C.); "Proceedings of the Religious Education Association" (153 La Salle Street, Chicago); "Charities and Commons" (153 East 22nd Street, New York); "U. S. Census Bulletin on Religious Bodies." Again: Is it too much to urge those in charge of the training of our ministers to consider seriously the compelling need of so recasting the course of study that a higher grade of men shall be attracted to the ministry and that a thorough, comprehensive, yet practical, training shall be given which shall fit men to preach the Gospel of Christ with real meaning to men in the twentieth century? We ought to stop putting the good new wine in old skins. The hopeful sign is that there are picked men in seminary faculties, in the pulpit, and among laymen all over the country who are thinking about this most important question. May these thinkers soon crystallize their thoughts in a forceful movement which shall ever bless the people. After many years of observation and of contact with almost every class of men and some different races, I come to the conclusion that there is nothing quite so interesting to the people as religion. People will go in crowds to hear a man like Gypsy Smith talk to them about their every day problems and will hear respectfully what Jesus Christ taught about these problems and their relations one with the other. In no place in life does a man of parts have so large opportunity to wield a helpful influence with his fellowmen as in the ministry. When we can show the great army of college men that they can be natural men, real men, with natural voice and methods, in the ministry, when they can be made to understand that it is the man under the garb and not the garb which designates the real minister to men, and that they have a chance and a right to go everywhere, finding out the conditions of society, touching it at its highest and at its lowest level, and that they will be supported in their work, morally and materially, there will be a larger supply than we have to-day, if not sufficient to meet the demands of the times. I have not dealt in statistics. This I leave for a future study. I have been as one crying in the wilderness, sounding the alarm, calling attention to our most vital need, to a problem which is worrying our best men. I plead with Christian parents to lay their promising sons on the Master's altar, and to the Church and college I cry awake! and behold ruin of home and country if you fail to lead many of the ablest and best of those under you into the Master's service. Can we do better than carry away with us the words of the chief Shepherd of the sheep, the Master and Teacher of men, when he said: "Pray ye, therefore, the Lord of the harvest, that He will send forth laborers into His harvest." 
16305	----	CRAYON AND CHARACTER Truth Made Clear Through Eye and Ear or Ten-Minute Talks With Colored Chalks B.J. GRISWOLD MEIGS PUBLISHING COMPANY INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA 1913 First Reprint 1918 FOREWORD. Any earnest Christian who is capable of addressing an audience or a Sunday school class, can, by the aid of this book, give a helpful chalk talk. The book has been designed to meet a growing need of this important phase of teaching. Any parent, with this book in the home, can use it not only to teach the boy or the girl a simple method of drawing, but may implant in the life of the child the good seed of the Tree of Life. In the preparation of these talks, "Life" has been the keyword. The thought permeates both the text and the style of illustration used. It is also a feature of the arrangement of each talk whereby a "developing" or "living" picture holds the attention of the listeners through two "scenes" or "steps" of unfolding. Many of the time-honored symbols will not be found in these pages. The Anchor as the emblem of Hope, and the Crown as the type of Victory or Kingship have given place to symbols and types from nature and from the every-day life of common folks. Many a smile has been introduced. And why not? We proclaim the Gospel as the Good News, the message of joy and gladness. The New Testament, with its glad tidings of great joy, is one continuous song. Always, however, it has been the aim to lead the thoughts of the listener to Him whose Light we are to reflect among men. The title of each chalk talk appears twice in the index, in order to provide a wide range of subjects from which to select an appropriate lesson for each occasion. In his years of experience as a newspaper writer and illustrator, the author has endeavored to cultivate the art of saying as much as possible in a few words and drawn lines. In this book (and in your chalk talk work) the same thought applies. As a Sunday school superintendent and a teacher, the author hopes that many may not be afraid to undertake the use of chalk after studying the easy method here described. As a means of enlarging your usefulness as a teacher of the Eternal Truth, the book, we believe, contains much that will help and encourage. Fort Wayne, Indiana. B.J. GRISWOLD. "BEFORE TAKING." There are too many books published which are GOOD for _two things only_: FIRST--They are good sellers, possibly "Best Sellers." SECOND--They are good at keeping people out of bed till midnight--because they make such "mighty interestin' reading." Such books may make their authors famous and their publishers rich, but if that is all they are good for, we would not care to sell, much less to publish, them. The book which the reader holds is put out, not because it is bound to be a _good seller_ nor because it is _interesting_, but because of its power to HELP Christian work and workers, and of its own ability to give instruction in righteousness to its readers, old and young; to sow seed thoughts of truth in human minds and hearts. And who will it help? All Christian platform workers in general and the Sunday School Superintendent in particular. The Superintendent, especially on all "Special Days." The Pastor, especially in the prayer meeting where any kind of help, _so it is help_, will be welcomed by most pastors. It will be useful to all because of its wealth of material and illustration for expressive and impressive _little, big, ten-minute talks_, whenever opportunity offers. We commend the book with all earnestness, to these various classes of people, and will insist that no father or mother will ever be the poorer, but the richer, who will part with the price and get in exchange for it a copy of this book, as a birthday or Christmas gift to a son or daughter between ten and twenty years of age. It will help parents in the uncertain and difficult problem of rearing their children in a way that will make them and keep them a joy in the home, rather than a heartache, a heart break, and the saddest kind of a bereavement, which is too often the case. Surely a dollar spent which may help avert this, is worth far more than a hundred cents lying unused in a bank. There are sixty-two picture outlines in the book, and with every picture a ten-minute talk, with chalk illustration, which recites and impresses, now, a great and noble deed of a truly noble man; now a kindly act with a double blessing in it; again, a warning to those who unknowingly set foot upon the devil's ground and find it a miry or slimy pit; or, it may be a lesson from one of the world's great poets or historians, for the author has evidently been a reader of great books with a mind to recall many lessons learned therefrom. THE PUBLISHERS. CONTENTS. Page. INTRODUCTION: The Plan of the Book .......................... 7 The Value of Chalk Talks ...................... 7 The Two-Scene Method .......................... 8 Chalk Work on Paper ........................... 8 Materials Are Cheap ........................... 8 Important to Beginners ........................ 8 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS: The Drawing Board ............................. 10 The Drawing Paper ............................. 10 The Chalk ..................................... 12 PREPARING TO GIVE THE CHALK TALK: The Method Explained .......................... 12 Outlining the Right Picture ................... 13 Not an Artist, But a Teacher .................. 14 Finishing Part of the Drawing in Advance ...... 14 The Value of Individuality .................... 14 International or Graded Lessons ............... 14 Talks for Special Days ........................ 14 Talk vs. Chalk ................................ 16 Strive Only for Good .......................... 16 Recording Your Talks .......................... 16 A Word to Parents ............................. 16 A Final Word to Pastors ....................... 18 INDEX: Talks for Special Days ........................ 205 Subject Index ................................. 207 His pictured morals mend the mind And through the eye correct the heart. --GARRICK, _on Hogarth_. INTRODUCTION. ~~The Plan of the Book.~~ In the preparation of this book the author has had two great plans in mind: To prepare a work which will enable _any person, who can speak to a class or an audience, to give a helpful, inspiring illustrated talk_; to place in the hands of parents everywhere a book to enable them to teach the children a simple, fascinating method of drawing and, at the same time make the great truths of life a part of their every-day learning. Clear instructions are given as to the method of doing these two things. Then come sixty-two complete talks of special appropriateness for Christian teaching. If you are included in the following classes of workers, the book should be of special value to you: (a) Speakers who earnestly want to give illustrated talks, but who feel that they "can't draw a straight line." (b) Those who are experienced in chalk talk work and are seeking new material. (c) Teachers of the Uniform Lessons. (d) Teachers of Graded Lessons. (e) Sunday school superintendents, for platform work. (f) Pastors, for use in prayer meetings and many other services of the church. (g) Temperance workers. In this department of work this book is especially worthy of consideration. (h) Those who need suggestions to help them work out their own addresses. (i) Parents for giving instruction in the home. It is a great truth that such teaching is far more effective than any which the church or the schools may provide. ~~The Value of Chalk Talks.~~ Scientists tell us that _nothing which completely occupies the mind for any length of time is ever forgotten_. This, then, is the reason that the chalk talk method of teaching is so lastingly impressive. People forget everything else while watching a speaker draw a picture. And if they do that, they can never completely forget the words of the speaker or the picture he draws. A baby that doesn't know one letter from another can understand some pictures as well as _you_ can. Try him once and see. And if he lives to be a hundred years of age, he will receive more lasting impressions from pictures than from what he reads. Your audience, therefore, may be depended upon to be "right with you" from the beginning. ~~The Two-Scene Method.~~ Added to this feature of securing strict attention, we find in this book another help in the same direction: Every talk is given in two "scenes" or steps. The speaker draws part of the picture, while he speaks, and then, at a little later period, adds the lines to complete the drawing and bring the scene to a climax. In each talk, the upper picture is the first scene, and the lower picture is the second scene, or completed drawing. ~~Chalk Work on Paper.~~ The book is planned to encourage the use of sheets of book- or news-paper instead of the blackboard. Paper is used by all leading workers with chalk. To discard the blackboard is to take a forward step. However, if you are "wedded" to the use of the blackboard and can handle it effectively, you will find all but a small number of these illustrations adapted to your method. ~~Materials Are Cheap.~~ Probably your school or church is already supplied with the necessary apparatus to do all the work as planned in this book. However, for any who may need to provide for himself a drawing board and easel, instructions for making them are here given. It is only necessary, then, to procure drawing paper and chalk. These are cheap in price and easy to get. You are urged, therefore, to proceed with the use of drawing paper as here instructed, and to lay aside the blackboard for the more advanced method. ~~Important to Beginners.~~ Each drawing in the book, as already stated, is given in two "scenes," in order to show you how your drawing will look _when it is partly finished_ (first scene), and how it will look _when it is completed_ (second scene). If you are at all "bashful" about taking up the work, let us make this suggestion: In the seclusion of your home or elsewhere, draw the _first scene_ of your talk completely. Thus you will have plenty of time to make it to suit you, with no one to look on and fluster or confuse you. Then cover up the completed work, by placing another sheet of paper over it. When you appear before the audience to give your talk, give your spoken introduction and lead up to the _first scene_. At this point, remove the cover paper and expose your drawing. Proceed with your talk until you reach the climax in the _second scene_, at which time you give the picture the final lines with your crayon. Many will find this an easy, satisfactory way to give these talks--indeed many of the illustrations in the book are most effective if given in this way. Experience, however, brings greater confidence, and many will prefer to do most of their drawing in sight of the audience. Devote yourself to a thorough understanding of essentials, and you will be pleased at the ease with which the field opens. The encouraging words of your associates and the echoes of the good you are doing will strengthen your confidence. ~~Equipment and Materials.~~ The necessary equipment and materials for the work include the drawing board, the drawing paper and the chalk (or lecture crayons). ~~The Drawing Board.~~ Probably your school has a reversible blackboard mounted on an easel, like that shown in Fig. 1. If so, you will find it amply sufficient for your use. The two or three little holes made by the thumb tacks, to attach your drawing paper to the board, at the top, will not injure it in the least. If you haven't such a board, it would be well to procure one, as it can be used for many purposes. The writer has often used a board of this kind in giving chalk talks. The publishers of this book will be glad to give full information as to size and price of such a board. [Illustration: Fig. 1] [Illustration: Fig. 2] Another convenient and cheap equipment is an ordinary square board, Fig. 2. If you take six boards, each 45 inches long, 7 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick, and attach them to two cleats at the back, you will have a good, serviceable drawing board which can be hung against the wall with screw hooks and screw eyes; or, it can be set on an easel or other convenient holder. It is only necessary that the board be smooth and the wood be well-seasoned soft pine or bass wood to keep it from warping. If screws are used to fasten the boards to the cleats, screw them through from the back, leaving the front perfectly smooth. Be sure that the screws aren't too long. It would be well to stain the board brown or some other dark color. [Illustration: Fig. 3] A combination drawing board and easel is shown in Fig. 3, a back view of which is given. Take six boards of well-seasoned soft pine, 45 inches long, 8 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick. For the rear legs, use two pieces 5 feet and 8 inches long, 2 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick. A wire should be attached to each rear leg to avoid spreading. Fig. 4 shows this board and easel in use. [Illustration: Fig. 4] ~~The Drawing Paper.~~ The most inexpensive paper for chalk talk work is the kind on which newspapers are printed. It may be purchased from printing houses, paper dealers or newspaper offices. A cheap quality of book-paper is also good, and may be bought from printing houses and paper dealers. Ordinary light-colored, light-weight manila paper, such as is used for wrapping, is very satisfactory; it may be procured from paper dealers, or, if you want but a small quantity, probably any merchant would be glad to supply you. The lines which you intend to place on it may be worth infinitely more than the goods he plans to wrap in it. ~~The Chalk.~~ The writer is accustomed to using chalk made by the American Crayon Company, which can be had at any time from the publishers of this book, and, doubtless, from other publishers. Ask for "lecture crayons." A complete price list, together with samples of colors, will be furnished on request. For general work it is well to have on hand a half dozen sticks of black and a stick each of green, brown, red, yellow, orange and blue. The lecture crayons come in two sizes, one measuring one inch square and three inches long; the other is one-half inch square and three inches in length. If you choose the larger size, the sticks can, when advisable, be cut to the smaller size. PREPARING TO GIVE THE TALK The instructions here given are for the beginner. Others will follow their accustomed methods. In our introduction we make the claim that any earnest Christian worker, who is capable of addressing an audience or a Sunday school class can, by the aid of this book, give a helpful chalk talk. Your response may be, "But, I can't draw." Listen! The following instructions will teach you how to do the work without a technical or practical knowledge of drawing. Let us take up the matter step by step. When you understand the process, it will be "as easy as falling off a log," and it won't jolt you half as much. ~~The Method Explained.~~ THE FIRST STEP--Before the time comes to give your talk, attach half a dozen sheets of your drawing paper to your drawing board, making a smooth drawing surface. It is well to use thumb tacks for this purpose. Open the book to page 26, for we will prepare to give the chalk talk entitled "The Two Faces." The upper picture. Fig. 7, shows the picture partly finished; the lower picture, Fig. 8, shows how the picture will look when completed. You will note that the lower picture is cut up into squares measuring one-fourth of an inch each way. THE SECOND STEP--By the use of a yardstick and lead pencil, draw pencil lines on the large sheets of drawing paper, so as to separate the drawing paper into the same number of squares as there are on the picture in the book. Your paper is much larger than the page of the book; therefore the squares on your drawing paper must be made much larger than the squares in the book. It is easy to calculate the size of the squares you should draw on the paper. Measure the width of the paper in inches and divide by sixteen (the number of squares across the picture in the book), and this will give you the figure representing the size of the squares you are to draw on the paper. If your drawing paper is thirty-two inches wide, your squares will measure two inches each way. THE THIRD STEP--Select one of the squares in Fig. 8 as a starting point, and then find the corresponding square on your drawing paper. Having done this, draw a pencil line on your drawing paper, which will cross your enlarged squares in just the same places that the line crosses the small squares in the book. Continue the process until both faces have been outlined on your paper in the enlarged form. Then, with a piece of soft rubber, erase all of the straight pencil lines which form the squares, and the remaining outlines of the two faces will stand out clear and distinct. Already you will have found that you are more of an artist than you thought you were! This sheet of paper, with its dim pencil outlines of the picture, is now ready to be brought before your audience. You must, however, be sure of one thing: the pencil outlines must be just plain enough for _you_ to see them without difficulty, but they must be dimmed with the eraser to such an extent that your audience _cannot_ see them. Thus you have before you a complete outline of the picture you are to draw, and, as you speak, you merely trace over these dim pencil outlines with your chalk. Isn't it simple? THE FOURTH STEP--All of the preparations up to this time have been done in the quietude of your own room. You are now ready to place your drawing board before your audience. After a smile of greeting you begin your talk. "Let us," you say, "talk for a little while about our thoughts," and then you proceed until you reach the reference to the sour-faced man. "Here, for instance," you continue, "is a man with a face something like this:" and you begin your drawing, starting anywhere you choose. Take your time, and when you have finished the sour face, the audience will show its appreciation with a heartily responsive smile. This completes Fig. 7. Proceed then with the talk until you reach the reference to the man with the sunny face. "Here comes a man who looks something like this:" Draw the second face, and you will have completed Fig. 8 and reached the climax of the drawing. As you make the application of the lesson, you will feel that your effort has already repaid you for the work you have undertaken, and each succeeding attempt will make the work easier until it becomes a pleasing habit. [Illustration: Fig. 5] In Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 are shown a section of each of the faces of the talk just referred to. Here they are enlarged four times. A-A shows the preliminary pencil lines forming the one-inch squares, B-B indicates the pencil outlines of the faces, and C-C illustrates the tracing of the pencil lines with the chalk. In this instance black chalk only is required. [Illustration: Fig. 6] ~~Outlining the Right Picture.~~ In some of the talks in the book, the dotted squares cover the upper picture; in others, they are drawn over the lower picture. In either case, the one containing the squares is the one to be outlined on your drawing paper. ~~Not an Artist, But a Teacher.~~ There should be no hesitation on your part to trace with chalk the pencil lines which you have placed on your drawing paper. Remember, always, that you are posing as a humble teacher of God's Word and not as an artist. Your pencil outline holds the same relation to your chalk talk that the minister's notes hold to his sermon. Both are prepared in advance to enable the speaker to best present his message. Do not try to conceal your method. There is nothing about it of which you need be ashamed. ~~Finishing Part of the Drawing in Advance.~~ Now that the process has been explained in detail, a thorough understanding of the suggestion under the heading, "Important to Beginners," seems most essential as a still easier way to do the work. Finishing part of the work in advance still leaves the speaker something to do, and the audience will always be interested in finding out what that "something" is to be. ~~The Value of Individuality.~~ It is well for the beginner to cultivate an individual style of speaking. Substitute your own methods of expression in place of the language of the book. The more you do it, the larger will be the feeling that the message is a personal one from you to your hearers. Whenever you can do so, substitute a "home" illustration for the one in the book. As you become more accustomed to the work you will doubtless use pictures and subjects entirely outside of the book. Remember that any outline picture may be enlarged after the method here shown. Cut your picture into squares with drawn lines, and enlarge it in the same manner. Many Bible scenes may be shown in this way. ~~International or Graded Lessons.~~ The book has been provided with two indexes. One directs you to fitting talks for special days. The other serves as a guide to talks and illustrations suitable to the application of any lesson. Determine the central thought of the lesson and consult the Subject Index. It will help you choose a talk appropriate for the day. The talk may need a little revision to enable you to give it the proper application, but the main thought will be readily apparent. ~~Talks for Special Days.~~ The index for suitable talks for special days includes some which are not yet generally observed but which are of growing importance. Introducing some of these into your school or church as novelties, they may become as permanent as Easter, Children's Day, Rally Day and others. ~~Talk vs. Chalk.~~ No matter how little preparation you may need for your talk, remember that the words you speak are of greatest importance. It is to your words that you must give careful study, or your audience may lose the force of your thought while centering their attention upon the developing picture. Never apologize for the appearance of your drawing or of your ability as an artist. Strive to present truth only. Truth needs no apology. Do not draw in a sketchy manner. Determine on the place to begin your drawing and then use a continuous, easy line, without lifting the chalk from the paper, except when necessary to start in a new place. ~~Strive Only for Good.~~ The design of this book has been to present brief, impressive talks which hold attention for from ten to twelve minutes. It is advisable never to speak longer than this, especially when children form a part of your audience and are the special object of your words. If you cease speaking just when the audience wants to hear more, you will always be assured of a hearing the next time. If you leave one single wholesome thought with your audience you will have accomplished the greatest good. Avoid mannerisms. Cultivate an easy style of speaking and working. Don't become discouraged if everything doesn't go to suit you. Your audience is not a critical but a sympathetic one. All are striving to do the Master's work, and the field you have undertaken will bring you the interest and the kindliest co-operation of all who are working with but one great object in view. ~~Recording Your Talks.~~ It is suggested that each talk, as you give it, be so marked in the book as to indicate the time and place of its use, so you will avoid possible repetition before the same audience months or years later. ~~A Word to Parents.~~ The same general principles of procedure as those here given are suggested as the best method of using this book in the home. For the very little children, the parent will find it well to enlarge the outlines upon paper and tell the stories in such a way as can be understood best, but for the boys or girls who are in the younger grades at school the book describes a method of drawing which will delight and instruct them. Of course, the parent will have to teach the method to the children, as they will be incapable of understanding it from the printed description. With this instruction will come the unfolding of the stories of the book and their application. A child, when he sees a picture of a face or a house or any other object, wants to know all about it--whose it is, what it is or what it is for. This is true especially if it be a picture which he is asked to draw for himself or which he sees drawn. This enables the parent to give into expectant and waiting ears the great truths of Christ as expressed in pictures which the child understands. It is best, we believe; in instructing those who are old enough to do the drawing themselves or watch the parent do it, to select paper of such a size as can be used on a desk or table. Ordinary letter-size unruled tablet paper is convenient to get and easily handled. Let the child square off the page, under the parent's directions, and then let him do his part in tracing the picture from the book. Doubtless, some of the enlarged pictures will be "fearfully and wonderfully made," but it is a start in a splendid direction--a start which may have its ending in the happiness for which every parent longs and which cannot come unless the children begin in childhood to become the companions of their parents--companions who cannot be separated in later years by distance or the disturbances of the earthly life. ~~A Final Word to Ministers.~~ Do not forget that there is no earthly or heavenly reason why a minister should not have a blackboard or an easel on the pulpit platform or in the prayer meeting room to help him keep his audiences awake while he tries to drive truth home to heart and mind. It is every preacher's duty to be _interesting_, and if this book and the blackboard, or the equipment for chalk talk work, will help him to be so, then it is his plain duty to buy the book and secure the chalk and easel and _"get busy" being interesting_! And there is one more thing: Don't forget you can do it--_if you try_! And now, with these general instructions and observations, the book is commended to the use of all who have the love of Christ in their hearts and who, as faithful workers, may wish to add one more working tool to those they have used so well. THE TWO FACES --Our Thoughts. --Optimism. "As a Man Thinketh in His Heart, So Is He"--A Lesson in Character Building. THE LESSON--That our thoughts determine the kind of life we live, and often proclaim character in the face. If the teacher succeeds in impressing upon the pupil the great need to "guard well thy thoughts," for "our thoughts are heard in heaven," he will have accomplished a work of immeasurable good in the life of the child or youth who is the fortunate object of such interest. ~~The Talk.~~ "Let us think a while about our thoughts. Do you know it is a fact that a man, seated quietly in an easy chair on his front porch on a summer evening, may be sinning against God and man? Yes, it's true, for, as he sits there in the silence, he can hate another man with a bitter hatred; he can plan to rob him or burn his house or slander him or even take his life. And the worst of it all is that if he allows such thoughts to rent a room in his head it may not be long before his evil designs have become awful deeds. "Not many boys or girls think such terrible things, but thoughts of this kind are only the little bad thoughts allowed to grow year after year in the head and in the heart. And do you know, also, that if you allow these little bad thoughts to live in your head and heart for a while, they get so bold and 'sassy' that they insist on taking possession of the best room of your head and the parlor of your heart and defy you to put them out? The only thing to do is to throw them out the very first time they come in. [Illustration: Fig. 7 (In each instance, the upper picture shows how the drawing will look when partly finished.)] "Let us take a walk down-street and mix with the crowd. Every person whom we see is thinking about something, even though he doesn't say a word, and we believe, as we look into the faces we meet, that we can tell just what kind of thoughts some of them have. Here, for instance, is a man with a face something like this: [Draw the sour face, completing the first step, Fig. 7.] He looks grouchy; perhaps he is vicious, and we avoid brushing against him. Perhaps he has lost money in a business deal; perhaps he wanted a political position and didn't get it; perhaps a supposed friend has proven untrue; perhaps his disappointment, whatever it is, has made him sour and crabbed. But he passes on, and we meet other faces. Here comes a man who looks something like this: [Draw the happy face, completing Fig. 8.] He doesn't look as if he had a care in all the world, does he? And yet we may find that he, too, has lost money in a business transaction that was full of promise--that he, also, has failed to win a political race; that he has been mistreated by a supposed friend. And yet, through it all, he has never lost sight of the sunshine. He has learned many a valuable lesson from each of his disappointments, and perhaps he has had a good many more of them than the other fellow ever knew. [Illustration: Fig. 8 (The lower view shows the appearance of the drawing completed.)] "Now, what has made the difference in these two men? Their thoughts have made the difference. The grouch has, for years, entertained grouchy thoughts. The sunshiny man has cultivated the habit of seeing the bright side of things. That's all there is to it. "How about you, boys? And you, girls? What kind of thoughts do you think? I said, you remember, that if bad thoughts get into your head and heart, they stick there defiantly. But, listen! If you let good thoughts into your head and heart, they, too, will settle down and make their home with you and your happiness is assured. "Don't get into the habit of growling because the street car is two minutes late. Thank your lucky stars that there is a street car to come at all! "Learn to be happy. A smiling face is welcome everywhere. People scamper away from a scowling countenance, especially if the owner of it insists upon telling his woes and troubles. "Remember that happiness depends not upon how many burdens we worry about, but upon how many blessings we are glad about--it depends not upon what we have, but upon what we enjoy. God says, 'Let the wicked forsake his ways and the _unrighteous_ man _his thoughts_'--that is, his unrighteous thoughts. Why? Because God knows that vulgar thoughts make vulgar men, and evil thoughts make evil men. So boys, make a practice of chasing them out of your heads as you would drive a snake out of your bedroom." THE CHRISTMAS STOCKINGS --Christmas --The Needy It Is Well to Remember the Poor at Christmas, but it is Infinitely Better to Be a True Friend Every Day. THE LESSON--That the true Christmas spirit is that which causes us to remember the needy always, whether their need be for the necessities of life or for the love of a real friend. Too many of us are inclined to shower our gifts and our good wishes upon the needy at the glad Christmas season, and then neglect this great field of service throughout another twelve-month period. ~~The Talk.~~ "As we go out upon the street today everybody seems to be happy and full of laughter and good cheer. People who usually pass us by without speaking at all or who merely nod without as much as a smile, act today as if they knew us very well; they smile real widely and say 'Merry Christmas!' just as heartily as they know how, and we respond to the greeting with a 'Same to you!' with an inner feeling of friendliness that somehow surprises us. It is a time when nearly every heart is warmed, and we find our greatest joy in seeing how happy we can make other folks. In every home where children are to be found--and there the Christmas spirit is the merriest--we see the stocking all hung in a row, and we are just as anxious to fill them as the owners are to have them filled. [Draw the three stockings, completing Fig. 9.] [Illustration: Fig. 9] "Here they are. And when Susie and Johnnie and little Bob come scrambling downstairs on Christmas morning their eyes sparkle with delight and our hearts warm with Christmas gladness as we join in their merriment. "But there are other homes. And other stockings--stockings not so warm, not so good--stockings that are darned and patched and worn like this. [With broad side of black crayon change the stockings of Fig. 9 to resemble those of Fig. 10.] In the atmosphere of Christmas joy in our own comfortable homes, do we sometimes over-look the boys and girls in the poorer homes who won't have much of a Christmas unless we fill these poor, patched little stockings with gifts to show that someone cares? I don't believe there is a boy or a girl here who is selfish enough to refuse to do such a little thing to bring a glad Christmas into a poor home. All we need is to be told where to go and what to do. [Doubtless you will have planned a way for the children to give remembrances to the poor; this may be presented in a word at this time, reserving the details for the close.] [Illustration: Fig. 10] "'At Christmastide the open hand Scatters its bounties o'er sea and land; And none are left to grieve alone, For Love is Heaven and claims its own.' "Truly, the Christmas spirit is upon us today. But stop--! Will it vanish tomorrow? Will we forget to be kind to those about us next week, next month, next summer? Will we forget that these same little worn, patched stockings are there in the same needy homes, and that the boys and girls may need our friendship and help more when it is summer than they do now when so many willing hands are extended to help them? "I hope we shall not forget. Let us remember that the best gifts, ofttimes, are not those which we can see and touch. The truest gifts are those of love and companionship and service--the same fellowship which Jesus gave to the poor when he was among men. It seems as if His heart always went out to those in need, and He helped them, not with gifts which fade and wear out and are soon cast aside, but with words and deeds which told them that He would be a true friend even to the end of the world. 'Christianity,' says Henry Drummond, 'wants nothing so much as sunny people, and the old are hungering more for love than for bread. The Oil of Joy is very cheap, and if you can help the poor with the Garment of Praise, it will be better than blankets." Dr. Henry D. Chapin expresses the same thought when he says, 'The cry of the ages is more for fraternity than for charity. If one exists, the other will follow, or, better still, will not be needed.' "Says J. R. Miller, 'Wanting to have a friend is altogether different from wanting to be a friend. The former is mere natural human craving. The latter is the life of Christ in the soul.' "At no better time than today can we choose to plant again the seed of true friendship in our hearts. Let us cultivate it and nurture it until it blooms forth into friendship for everyone who may be helped by the love of Christ through us." THE KEY TO FAILURE --Temperance Day --Appetite Strong Drink Opens the Gate to Destruction and Bars the Way to Success. THE LESSON--That strong drink robs its victims of the ability to solve the problems of life. This temperance lesson deals with the curse of strong drink in especial reference to its connection with the material success of the individual. Specific opinions of several well-known representative men are quoted. ~~The Talk.~~ "Nearly every man carries in his pocket a bunch of keys. [Write the word 'Key,' completing Fig. 11.] When a professional man, for instance, reaches his office in the morning, he may unlock his office door with one key; with another key he may unlock his desk; with another he may unlock a drawer in the desk; and then, having opened his safe, he may use still another key to unlock his strong box. At night he may look carefully to see that each of these things is again carefully locked before he goes home. And so, we see, keys are for two purposes--to unlock and to lock. [Illustration: Fig. 11] "Most keys are made of metal and are in our own keeping and subject to our own will, but there is another key of which I shall speak, which goes before many a man, working entirely independent of him. And as it goes, it locks the doors which he wishes to enter, and it unlocks many another door which he does not want to enter and forces him to go through it. I will draw the picture of this key. [Starting at the final stroke of the letter Y, continue the line, and ending with the letters W-H-I-S. Then add the lines to complete Fig. 12.] [Illustration: Fig. 12] "Let us see for a moment what this key does. It locks the door to health and opens the door to disease. Sir Andrew Clark, one of England's greatest physicians, says: 'I am speaking solemnly and carefully in the presence of truth, and I will tell you that I am considerably within the mark when I say to you that, going the round of my hospital wards today, _seven out of every ten_ owed their ill-health to strong drink.' "And again: This key bars and locks the way to good positions, where men may earn the money needed to keep themselves and their families provided with the necessities of life. Many of the great corporations are refusing to hire men who drink. Whiskey has locked the door to opportunity for them. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company, operating one of the greatest systems in the world, has issued a statement to the men who run the trains on its lines which includes these words: 'Taking one drink of intoxicating liquor is like running passed the red light. It is unsafe. The possible line between safety and danger in the use of alcoholic drink is dangerously unstable. _Safety_ lies back of _total abstinence_. The normal man has no legitimate use for alcohol as a beverage, and he has no right to render himself abnormal by its use when lives are dependent upon his efficiency. None but normal men should run railway trains. The traveling public has unqualified right to demand and expect none less safe.' This statement deals, not with the moral side, but with the fact that a man who drinks unfits himself for any position of responsibility, especially if entrusted with human life. "This key also locks and bars the way to a life of purity and honor. Says the chaplain of the Ohio penitentiary, Dr. Starr: "The records show that 1,250 persons have been received into this institution during eighteen months; of these, 930 acknowledged themselves to have been intemperate.' And the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor adds the statement that of 27,000 crimes committed in that state, eight out of every ten were due to intemperate habits, or occurred while the criminal was under the influence of liquor. "We need not go further to show that this key is truly the key to failure--failure in the attempt to attain to anything pure, right and honorable. "No one knows this better than the manufacturer of strong drink. 'The handwriting is on the wall,' says T.M. Gilmore, president of the Model License League. 'Our trade today is on trial before the bar of public sentiment, and unless it can be successfully defended before that bar, I want to see it go down forever.' "In no better way can we help to bring this victorious end than by lending our every influence to cause the world to turn to the true Christian life, for then follows 'love out of a pure heart and a good conscience and faith unfeigned.' Paul does not say, 'Shun that which is evil;' he says _abhor_ it. May this ever be our attitude toward this giant evil." A BUSY LIFE --Pluck and Luck --Industry A Plucky American Boy Whom the Whole World Delights to Honor. THE LESSON--That pluck and perseverance and a "Try--Try--Again" Spirit can laugh at obstacles and change them into stepping stones. The following talk may suggest to many of the younger hearers the secret of the true greatness of Benjamin Franklin, who is considered by many our foremost American. ~~The Talk.~~ "Some people trust to luck to carry them through the world. Like Dickens' Micawber, they're 'always waiting for something to turn up.' I have heard of a man who was so pleased at finding a big horseshoe that he placed it over his bedroom door. The next morning, as he closed the door, he jarred the horseshoe from its place and it fell and struck him such a blow on the head that he was in the hospital for a week. Such results as this are likely to come when we depend upon luck. Let us remember that luck never figures in God's calculations. "I have seen people looking for something like this in their front yards. [Quickly draw the outlines of the four-leaf clover in black, and fill in the outlines with broad sweeps of green. With black, trace the veins lightly, and then put in the letters to spell 'Luck.' This completes Fig. 13.] What is it? Yes, a four-leaf clover. And when I saw them looking for it, I thought that they could have been doing a great deal more good by pulling the weeds in their back yards. [Illustration: Fig. 13] "But today we shall talk about a boy who never depended upon luck at all. This boy had a pair of sharp eyes, and whenever he saw anything to do, he did it. His name was Benjamin Franklin. Did you ever hear of him? Yes, I thought so. This boy worked for his older brother in a printing office in Boston, but the brother used to flog him and treat him roughly. Benjamin knew that they could never get along well together, so he went away to Philadelphia. "In this great city he saw many things which other boys before him had not seen. He saw that the printing art had wonderful possibilities in it; he studied and worked hard to improve the business, and today all of the printers call him the father of the art of printing. He saw that he ought to know other languages besides English, and so he became a master of French, Italian and Latin--and luck' hadn't a thing to do with it! He saw on every hand many chances to help other people. This prompted him to organize the first police force and the first fire company in the United Colonies; he organized a military company; he paved the streets of Philadelphia and taught the people how to keep them clean; he founded a hospital; he invented the first practical stove; he accepted many public positions in his earlier years, including that of member of the general assembly of the colonies, deputy postmaster of Philadelphia and commissioner to treat with the Indians. "He saw that the common people should have a better chance to get an education, and so he published for many years Poor Richard's Almanac, which provided them with much that they should have known; he founded the first circulating library, helped to establish the University of Pennsylvania, and brought into existence the American Philosophical Society. "He saw the lightning, just as millions before him had done; but, unlike the others, he believed the brilliant display was the evidence of a great and unseen power--electricity. By the use of his now famous kite and key he proved it to be so, and for a time he was the only man in the world who knew what lightning really is. "He saw at the time of the impending Revolutionary war the need of someone to go to England to intercede in the interests of the colonies; and so, when the choice fell upon him, he did not shirk the responsibility. "He saw many later duties which caused him to become a member of the Continental Congress which made George Washington the commander-in-chief of the Colonial army; he helped to write the Declaration of Independence; he was a commissioner of peace to confer with the British General Howe; he was a member of the commission to seek the aid of France; he was America's first postmaster general. [Illustration: Fig. 14] "_Did Benjamin Franklin depend upon luck?_ Never! His was, rather, a five-leaf clover, like this: [Quickly add the fifth leaf to the drawing, and insert the letter P, completing Fig. 14.] 'Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do,' says the Bible, 'do it with thy might.' I believe Benjamin Franklin fulfilled this command; and we can do it ourselves, if we will. He never stopped to 'knock on wood' to prevent bad luck! He had better sense. And I hope we have, too." THE KEG and the BUCKET --Temperance Day --Purity A Temperance Talk Devoted to the Teaching of the Principles of Purity of Life. THE LESSON--That water as a beverage stands for purity and blessing, while spirituous liquors are always an emblem of impurity and blight. The chalk talk here outlined contains in its illustration an interesting transformation which always commands close attention. The truth it presents cannot fail to leave an impression. It may be well to vary the application of the temperance thought to suit your local conditions. ~~The Talk.~~ "I am going to outline for you a picture of an object which is everywhere recognized by good people as a symbol of defiance of the law, a suggestion of immorality, of poverty, depravity and death. [Draw beer keg, completing Fig. 15.] In plain words, it is a beer keg, and its close companions are the whiskey barrel, the wine cask and the demijohn! It well represents the liquor traffic as a whole--that terrible curse which holds in its grip so many men and boys, whose lives might be bright, happy and successful but for its blighting, fatal grasp. [Illustration: Fig. 15] "No right-thinking man has a good word for the business which makes good men into brutes, transforms honorable citizens into murderers, and brings many a prosperous family to rags and misery. The saloon-keeper himself has no good word for the business; he merely defends it because it makes for him a good living with little work on his part. Ofttimes he will not drink a drop himself or allow any of his employes to touch liquor. He is in the business for the money he can get out of it, not caring how much poverty and penury others get. With a low idea of his duty toward his fellow-beings, he argues that as long as men and boys will drink the deadly stuff which he sells, he as well as anyone else, has a right to profit by their weakness and degradation. "'Oh,' says Shakespeare, 'that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains!' "Whenever we hear of a state of lawlessness and anarchy in a city or a nation, we can rightly conclude that the government of that city or that nation has lost control of its people. When a man becomes a drunkard and does things which he never thought of doing before, we can rightly conclude that his brain has failed to govern him and that it has been deposed by the forces of base appetite. He has lost control of himself. That is why a drinking man cannot in these days secure a good position with the large corporations, railroads, manufactories and the immense commercial institutions. The great employers of men have learned that they cannot trust men who, as Shakespeare says, have 'put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains.' Brains are in demand everywhere--brains and steady nerves. "So, wherever we look, we see young men learning that the way of the saloon is the way of failure. If they can only be halted in their way and be made to look for a moment upon another symbol--a symbol of purity and true service--they might be saved from the bitter path into which they are stepping. [Revise drawing by adding the bail and the lettering, completing Fig. 16. If time will allow of the singing of a verse of 'The Old Oaken Bucket,' the innovation will prove a pleasing touch.] [Illustration: Fig. 16] "Perhaps the warnings against liquor have become commonplace to you. Perhaps you feel that you do not need to be told the story of the great curse. But if the warning comes echoing back to you in the time of temptation you will bless the hearing of it, for it may mean everything to you and your loved ones and the generations to come. "It is the Master who said, 'And whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a cup of cold water only in the name of a disciple, verily, I say unto you, he shall in no wise lose his reward.' But what may one lose when he puts the drunkard's glass to the lips of a young man? "Hear the voice of Solomon: 'The drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty, and drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags.' 'Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging, and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise.' "If Jesus held up to us a cup of cold water as the emblem of purity, let us never bring dishonor upon one of earth's greatest blessings. "'Traverse the desert, and then ye can tell What treasures exist in the cold, deep well; Sink in despair on the red, parched earth, And then ye may reckon what water is worth.'" --ELIZA COOK. TURN OVER A NEW LEAF --New Year's Day --Gladness The Psalmist Truly Says that "A Merry Heart Maketh a Cheerful Countenance." THE LESSON--That the wearing of a gloomy countenance is unpardonable and that "the smile that won't come off" is the kind that ought to come on. Laughter is catching. The following chalk talk will capture an audience and bring genuine smiles as nothing else, perhaps, in this book. It has been prepared for that purpose. While it is arranged here as especially appropriate for the beginning of the new year, it may be used with varying applications on many other occasions. ~~The Talk.~~ "There is a good deal of consolation in the words of Cowper, who truly declares that "'The path of sorrow, and that path alone, Leads to the land where sorrow is unknown.' "Nevertheless, most of us ask for as little real sorrow as possible while we are treading the pathway that leads to eternal peace. [It is advisable to begin the drawing of Fig. 17 at this point, and continue the talk as the picture develops. It is suggested that the eyes be drawn first, then the mouth and nose, and, finally, the outer portions. It adds to the effect, too, to stop drawing at this point, allowing the people to study carefully the dull, gloomy expression of the face. Then, as if to put on the finishing touches, draw the lines of the forehead. These, of course, are the lines of the nose and mouth of the reversed face, but the audience will not suspect the 'trick' until it is revealed.] [Illustration: Fig. 17] "And yet, to judge from the way some of us act and look, it would seem that we rather enjoy a protracted case of the miseries! Some folks begin to fret as soon as they are out of bed in the morning; the early day brings its worries and cares, the noontide and the afternoon are filled with problems, and night finds them all fagged out and longing to take rest in sleep so as to get into condition to repeat the round of sorrows and cares which they are preparing for themselves for the next day. Little jealousies, petty rivalries, senseless envyings and useless fears bring wrinkles of care, which are very unbecoming; and, before we are aware of it, the years have overtaken us, and we advertise our inner selves by this outward kind of sign. [Display Fig. 17 complete. This finishes the drawing of both scenes or figures, since the second part is merely an inverting of Fig. 17.] "But, friends, you know, and I know, that all this--or most of it--is all foolishness. We know that 'as a man thinketh in his heart so is he.' If he thinks gloomy things, he will be a gloomy man. If he thinks glad things, he will be a happy man. So, let us consider this matter now at the beginning of the new year. Strange to say, smiling is a serious thing! It affects our influence, it means much to the happiness of those about us, it has a direct connection with the state of our health, and, therefore, with our material prosperity. It is true, of course, that we are bound to have our little annoyances and our depressing sorrows as we go through life; but, surely, we can avoid most of the troubles which keep us unhappy if we will but lift our thoughts above ourselves and employ our time in seeking to comfort and brighten the lives of those about us. Happiness is largely a habit, and we can do no better than to 'get the habit" and let others catch it from us. "Let us learn the truth that peace of mind is health to the body, and that it is worth more than we ever imagine. Joy is essential to the truly Christlike life. When the angel proclaimed to the shepherds, 'Behold, I bring you tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people,' you and I were included, and we have not accepted that message of great joy, and Christ abides not in us if we do not reflect the sunlight which has come from above. "And so I am going to ask that we join together today in 'turning over a new leaf.' What do I mean? Simply this: To meet our troubles fairly and squarely, grasp them firmly and then completely overturn them; when lo! we shall find their threatenings, their warnings and their fearful aspects shall have faded away, and brightness and peace shall have taken their place. [At the beginning of this paragraph grasp the drawing at the bottom, tear it loose from the top, and hold it up before the audience, inverted, as in Fig. 18.] [Illustration: Fig. 18] "Truly, 'a merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance.' May yours remain so throughout the new year and ever after." TRUE SUCCESS --Lincoln's Birthday --Discouragement It is Exemplified by the Life of Abraham Lincoln--Stumbling Blocks and Stepping Stones. THE LESSON--That the very things which are obstacles in the way of many should be their stepping stones to the higher life. The life of Abraham Lincoln is so fraught with good lessons that it is difficult to select that which is of the greatest inspiration to the young. The illustration here given, however, points the way to true success as illustrated by the story of Lincoln's life. ~~The Talk.~~ "Every one of us is anxious to be a success. [Draw the word 'Success' in red, and the rays of light in orange.] "But many of us are discouraged and disheartened by seeing before us so many big 'ifs' in the way that we give up trying to gain the height toward which our eyes were once lifted. [Draw the wall, with the rocks obstructing the way; put in the letters 'I' and 'F,' and indicate the pathway. Your drawing will now resemble Fig. 19.] [Illustration: Fig. 19] "Some of us may say, 'IF I had not been born in such an obscure place or in such an obscure family, I might have been a great success.' "Another might say, 'IF my father had only had the means to give me a lift at the right time, I might have been a great success.' "Another might say, 'IF I had only had the chance to go to school when I was a boy, I might have obtained the education necessary to make me a great success.' "One other might say, 'IF I could only work out my plans without meeting with the discouraging opposition of those who ought to help me and co-operate with me, I might be a great success.' "Still another might say, 'IF I had only had the opportunities that other men have had, I might have been a great success.' "And so we might stand and look with discouraged hearts at the 'ifs' before us and stop dead still. "Well, now, let us look into this a little. Let us search the Scriptures and find a word of comfort. But search as we may, we find the word 'Success' there only once. Why only once? Probably because the Bible has a much bigger and better word, and that word is 'Life.' 'I am the Way, the Truth and the Life,' says the Master; and again, 'I am the Resurrection and the Life.' This wonderful word was often on His lips. To Him, success was life. To live was all that earth could desire. To live was to see in these stones--[Indicate the stones in the drawing]--not stumbling-blocks but stepping-stones to success. [Add the letters 'L' and 'E,' completing the word 'Life.'] When you and I see the true life, then will all our 'ifs' depart. [Illustration: Fig. 20] "Abraham Lincoln was one who saw these stones before him. How did he look upon them? "The obscurity of his birth was no 'if' to him--it was the foundation of his noble character. "The poverty of his early years was no 'if' to him--it was the thing which caused him to appreciate every blessing of after life. "The denial of his means to an education when a boy was no 'if' to him--it caused his maturer mind to hunger after learning, even in his later years. "The bitter opposition which he met throughout his tempestuous political career was no 'if' to him--it softened his nature and drew him nearer to the God of love in whom he placed his trust. "No one should envy him his opportunities, for he made every one of them himself, just as you or I may do. "It would seem to me, as I look at the life of this great man, that the secret of his success lay in his determination to make every stumbling block a stepping stone. In order to do it, he held steadfastly to the hand of God, when, it seemed, all other friends had failed. It was then that he said, 'I do the best I know--the very best I can--and I mean to keep right on doing so until the end.' "God has not yet given us wings to fly with, but He has given us feet to climb with, and if we use them for all they are worth, we can climb near enough to heaven's gate to step right in when the summons come. "Boys and girls, men and women, the opportunity for success--for Life--is given to each one of us, just as truly as it was given to Abraham Lincoln. We could not have taken his place. Perhaps he could not have taken yours or mine. It is for each of us to work out his own success, just as he did." THE FRUITS OF RICHES --Humility --Wealth If the Love of Gold Controls the Life Naught but Poverty of Soul Can Result. THE LESSON--That while wealth, honestly earned, may be a blessing, the life devoted to the getting of riches cannot hope for true happiness. The Scriptures do not condemn the possession of riches, but they do have some strong things to say against the wrongful attainment of wealth and the harmful use of money. The talk here presented is designed to impress this thought. In outlining the drawing be sure to place the lettering exactly as shown in the design. ~~The Talk.~~ "The Bible has a good deal to say about rich people and poor people. Solomon, it seems, thought it best to be neither poor nor rich, for he wrote, 'Give me neither poverty nor riches," and I believe that this sentiment would be that of most of us. At any rate, the richer he got, the farther he went from God. But we must have money--enough to meet the needs of our lives. We need it for the buying of our food, our clothing, our homes, our books and in a thousand other ways. But I hope that none of us will ever reach the point where the governing principle in our lives will be to get money for money's sake. "Money-madness seems to be the dominant characteristic of many people. They appear to think that wealth will gain for them all that may be desired to make life happy. We might illustrate the thought by saying that they sow or plant their money and hope that it will bring forth a fruitage of the blessings for which they long. [Draw the bag of money, the earth line, the stalk of the plant and the outline of the foliage, all with black.] And what do the possessors of riches expect as a harvest in return for the sowing of their wealth? First, let us put down Pleasure. [Put in the word Pleasure, using red for the lettering.] And they expect to be leaders in smart society, so we will add to the list Social Prestige. [Add Social Prestige.] They expect their associates to be impressed with the evidence of luxury in their palatial homes and in all they have and do. So we will add Luxury to the list. [Add Luxury.] And through it all they think they will possess that degree of satisfaction and contentment which we call comfort, so we will add this to the list. [Add Comfort.] And, finally, let us add a word to indicate that element which the wealthy sometimes possess in a worldly sense, representing their ability to direct the happiness or unhappiness of those who are less fortunate in their possession of worldly goods. That word is Power. [Add Power, completing Fig. 21.] [Illustration: Fig. 21] "Here, then, is the picture of the result as longed for by the possessors of riches, whose lives are devoted to the attainment of things of this world alone. "But, alas, how often are bright hopes shattered! 'He that maketh haste to be rich,' says Solomon, 'shall not be innocent.' A glance at the daily paper tells us how true it is that when the love of money takes possession of the heart, pleasure is driven out. How often, too, does the aspiring social leader find himself outrivalled in the foolish race, and social prestige vanishes. And with such experiences as these, the home of wealth loses the longed-for luxury, comfort and worldly power. And what has come to take the place of these which were only dreams? [With the broad side of the black crayon fill in solidly the portions of the foliage area, leaving only the word Sorrow. Add the words, "The love of money is the root of all evil," completing Fig. 22, which shows the root and the trunk of a tree that looks more like the tree of death than "The Tree of Life."] [Illustration: Fig. 22] "Such is too often the result of the love of money, which, as Paul tells us, 'is the root of all evil.' But, happily, there is another side to the matter. Many of the wealthy of the earth have blessed and are blessing mankind and in return are themselves blessed. In harmony with the thought, Dr. Van Dyke says: I do not mean to say that the possession of much money is always a real barrier to real wealth of mind and heart. Nor would I maintain that all the poor of this world are rich in faith and heirs of the kingdom. And if some of the rich of this world (through the grace of Him with whom all things are possible) are also modest in their minds and ready to be pleased with unbought pleasures, they simply share in the best things which are provided for all.' "None of us may ever be rich in earthly possessions, but even the strife after the money necessary for our actual needs may shut out our vision of the things of greater value. Let us always hold fast to that which is good, remembering always that a good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. "Let us put out of our lives all envy, all jealousy, all desire for the artificial, and learn the lessons of humility, patience, confidence and good cheer which are all about us if we but turn our faces and our hearts toward them." THE CHRIST-CHILD --Christmas --Giving A Lesson From the Story of the Shepherds and the Wise Men. THE LESSON--That the Light that was shed when the Christ-Child came to earth now brightens the farthest corners of the world. Nothing is more beautiful and impressive than the story of the Christ-Child. It cannot be repeated too often, and it is essential at Christmas time. ~~The Talk.~~ "Let us hear once more the wonderful story of the shepherds who played such a large part in the first Christmas. [Read Luke 2:8-18. When you reach the words, 'Let us now go even unto Bethlehem,' draw the lines representing the city, using brown crayon. On completing the reading of verse 18, continue the narrative by reading Matthew 2:1-2 and 2:9-11. When you reach the words, 'the star which they saw in the east went before them and stood over where the young child was,' draw the star, with its rays, in orange, completing Fig. 23. This ends the reading.] [Illustration: Fig. 23] "I wish we could picture to ourselves the scene in Bethlehem when Jesus was born. We are told that there was such an immense crowd there that Joseph and Mary could find no shelter in the inn, but we should know that this does not mean a hotel, for they had nothing of this kind in Bethlehem. Indeed, it would not have been required, because all that the thousands of visitors needed was the permission to sleep on the floor on their own mats which they brought with them. This is the custom even today. It was a sacred duty of every Jew to give shelter to his countrymen who were on a journey, so, instead of an inn, the real meaning is that there was no room for them in any house in Bethlehem. It is probable that the stable in which they sought refuge was a rough cave, such as are to be found in that neighborhood now. So, let us note at the beginning that Jesus, the Savior, was born amidst the most humble surroundings, and also that when the angels came to announce His birth, they did not choose to tell the good news first to the rich and the powerful, but brought the wonderful story to the humble shepherds who watched their flocks by night on the hillside. But it was not to stop there. No, God wanted the world to know that the kingdom of love which came with the birth of Jesus was for the high and the lowly alike. So, by the brilliant star He guided the wise men from the east to worship Him and place at His feet the precious jewels and costly gifts, which show that they were men of great wealth and wisdom. "So, we see, the coming of Jesus was to bring a blessing to all men. It was to be a kingdom of love which would include the whole wide world, 'for God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, that _whosoever_ believeth in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life.' "Let us remember that God 'gave' His Son to the world--it was the first and greatest Christmas Gift. We can never repay Him for this marvelous expression of His love. All we can do is to endeavor every day of our lives to do good and thus give as best we can of the blessings which have come from Him. "At Christmas time we seem to have no difficulty in showing kindness to those about us. The earth is filled with His spirit, so that in millions of churches and homes throughout the world today we find a reflection of the star of Bethlehem in the countless shining candles and glittering electric lights which adorn the Christmas trees. [Draw candle flames and rays in orange. Draw tree in green, and use brown to fill in the trunk and the foundation. This completes Fig. 24.] [Illustration: Fig. 24] "Yes, everywhere that we see the sparkling candles or little electric lights, let us think of them as reflecting the light of the star of Bethlehem, to guide us to Him, just as the wise men were guided to that humble manger-cradle in Bethlehem. Many there are, we know, who make merry at Christmas, while shutting Jesus out of their lives. They know not the blessing of the warmth of Christian love which He brought into the world, which is for them, if they will only accept it. "But let us look at our own lives and see if we are reflecting the true spirit of Christmas. Some one has said that true Christmas _giving_ is true Christmas _living_--living not merely at Christmas time in fellowship with all, but throughout the year, with no difference in days excepting that with their succession we may grow more and more humble and faithful--more like Him." SEEDTIME AND HARVEST --Sowing --Reaping "Whatsoever a Man Soweth, That Shall He Also Reap." THE LESSON--That the happiness or the unhappiness of middle life and old age are the result of the thoughts and deeds of early life. The teacher who can help the little children to avoid the entertainment of wrong thoughts and the teacher who can eliminate from the minds of the youth the belief that the "sowing of wild oats" is a harmless--perhaps necessary--touch of life, may feel that he has accomplished much. The teaching carries with it the necessity of supplanting wrong thoughts with right ones. ~~The Talk.~~ "Some of the great declarations of the Scriptures have become so familiar to us that we speak the words and lose much of their significance. One great truth which seems to have lost its power with many is that verse in the letter of Paul to the Galatians, in which he says, 'Be not deceived; God is not mocked; for whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap.' "What does Paul mean? He means simply this, that your life and mine, like the life of the world of nature about us, has its seedtime and its time of harvest--that if the seedtime of our early life finds us planting good thoughts, kindly deeds and loving words, the harvest of the later life will be peace and blessedness; if the seedtime of life finds us sowing evil thoughts, bad deeds and ungodly words, the harvest will be remorse, bitterness and the suffering which must come from such a sowing. "Everybody who lives fifty years or more has two looks at life; first, a forward look, and, last, a backward look. It is wise to plan in advance for the backward look by living so that the retrospect will be gratifying and satisfying and comforting, and not of a kind to bring mourning over wasted years and lost opportunities for doing good. [Illustration: Fig. 25] "Let us consider the lesson of nature for a moment. In the springtime the farmer plants the kernels of corn shelled from ears like this. [Draw the ear of corn, making first a solid yellow background for the ear and then putting in the fine lines with brown or black.] He has every reason to believe that when the harvest time comes he will reap a crop of many hundredfold, because each kernel is expected to send up a little green shoot, like this, and each stalk is capable of bearing at least one ear of corn. [Quickly draw the ground line in brown and the corn shoot in green, completing Fig. 25.] And this shoot will grow larger and larger until the stalk is completed, and as time goes on and the harvest time comes, the corn will hang in generous ears thereon. [With broad sweeps of green, and, if you wish, a touch of brown, complete Fig. 26. This includes covering part of the ear with green to form the husk.] Note especially this fact, that the farmer, when he plants the seed, believes that God will send the summertime, when the corn will grow to its fullness, and also the autumn, when the harvest is ready. Just think what would happen if we had no summer or autumn--just the springtime. Do you not see that we would soon starve? We would plant the seed and there would be no harvest. [Illustration: Fig. 26] "Let us see how very much like this are our very own lives. We do not have a springtime and a summer and an autumn and a winter of life every year. No, we have but one of each during our lives, if we reach old age. Springtime is our childhood, summer is our young manhood and young womanhood, autumn is our middle age and winter comes when the hair is white and the footsteps faltering. The first part of a full life is the seedtime, and the latter half is the harvest-time. Some of us may think that we may, while we are young, form habits that are bad and expect to get rid of them before the harvest-time. Still others of us do not seem to find out very early in life that there is a seedtime and a harvest-time, and we realize it only after we have reached the harvest period, and then we cannot change the character of the seed we have to reap. "But that which is true of the one who has sown the seeds of wrong in his younger years is just as true of him who has sown good seeds in his childhood and youth. There is no more comforting thought than that which comes with the assurance that God will send the rich harvest if we sow early in life the seeds of purity of living and the seeds of loving kindness. "The wrong thoughts which try to crowd into our childhood and youth are like the weeds which threaten to destroy the good grain, and sometimes succeed. Let us watch them carefully and uproot them. "The Christian welcomes the thought that there is to be a harvest-time. The sinner hates the thought; he would that his entire life be a seedtime; but it cannot be. The law of seedtime in life is just as firmly fixed as are the seedtime and harvest of nature. Let us learn the lesson. It means life or death to you and to me." THE TWO FLAGS --Rally Day --War Both of Them Inspire Us to the Best Living--An Illustration with Music. THE LESSON--That the same spirit which brings success in war must animate the fighters against evil. Rally Day, which is observed at the opening of the autumn activities of most schools, has become one of the greatest days of the Sunday School year. It should be made a glad occasion of reunion and resolution. This talk is unique, in that it combines music with the speaking and the drawing. ~~The Talk.~~ "It was fifty years ago, boys and girls, that the terrible war between the North and the South was in progress. On both sides the soldiers were bravely loyal to their cause, for the reason that each great army believed it was right; each side rallied round its flag--and loyalty was the thing most necessary. In most conflicts, as in the case of one nation fighting with another, it is only necessary to bring a war to a point where the weaker is convinced of the superior strength of its enemy. Then the war ends and the weaker is still a nation and has lost only that which was destroyed during the course of the struggle, together with that which may he demanded as concessions by the victorious army. Both nations retain their existence as before. It was not so with the struggle between the North and the South. Before this terrible war could end, it was necessary that one or the other of the fighting governments be wiped out entirely _as a nation_. Otherwise there could never have been any peace. This is what made the war one of the most terrible in the history of the world. "It was a time when loyalty was demanded by both sides to the conflict, when men were summoned to rally round their flags. On the side of the North the soldiers bravely gathered in hosts of hundreds of thousands around this flag, which is now beloved throughout our reunited states (while the South was just as true and brave and sincere in the belief that they were right, in their convictions, and for which they fought). [As you draw the United States flag, in red, white and blue, Fig. 27, have the school sing "The Red, White and Blue," or have the song sung as a solo or played by orchestra, pianist or organist. This makes a very effective feature, as some time is required to draw the flag. Be careful to construct the flag properly. To save time, use only thirteen stars.] [Illustration: Fig. 27] "Why did the boys in blue rally round this flag? It was not because of its beauty, even though we think it the handsomest flag in all the world; it was not because it was made of valuable materials. No--it was because it stood for something--for liberty, for unity. And they knew that in order to uphold the principles for which it stood they must cling together and fight manfully. Each might fight bravely by himself, but disaster would come unless they worked together and in harmony. "We, today, are like the boys in blue in the dark days of the war. We, too, have a flag which we love dearly--the banner of the cross. [While you draw the conquest flag, use the song "The Banner of the Cross" in the same manner as before. When completed your drawing will resemble Fig. 28. Use blue for the body of the flag and red for the cross.] [Illustration: Fig. 28] "This is the banner round which our school rallies today. We have come together once more to strengthen our army of boys and girls to fight against wrong. And our littlest fighters are the best fighters we have. Why? Because it is a warfare that never ends and the little ones have many more years in which to fight than the older ones have. And, strangest of all, the weapons most effective are kindness, love, prayer and steadfastness--these will drive away the great enemy of us all--sin. The boys in blue rallied around their flag because it represents our country, the land we love so well. We rally around this flag because it represents everything that is best here on earth and in heaven. Let us be loyal to these two beautiful banners. We cannot be true to one without being true to the other. "Let us make this school year the best we ever knew. We can do it if we will be true to everything for which these two flags stand--the red for love, the white for purity and the blue for loyalty." [It is suggested that the pupils be presented with small American and conquest flags as souvenirs. These are inexpensive and may be procured from Sunday school supply houses. Celluloid buttons, displaying the two flags, would be acceptable souvenirs of the day.] THE CROSS --Salvation --Repentance An Illustration Which Has Inspired Many to Hopefulness and Victory. THE LESSON--That a complete surrender to Christ is the only successful way to purify a sinful life. This illustration, in varied form, has been used by speakers for many years. It is here given, however, in a new presentation, with a hope that the revision may be helpful to others in spreading its usefulness. If paper is used, attach several thicknesses to your drawing board and provide yourself with a sharp penknife. If used as a blackboard illustration, an eraser will be needed. ~~The Talk.~~ "It is a good deal safer, boys, for you to walk the streets with your thumb in your mouth than with a cigarette there. The thumb can't hurt you, but the cigarette is bound to. I heard, once upon a time, of a young man who lived in a good home--maybe just as good as yours--who fell into the cigarette habit. I can't understand why a boy, when he knows what a terrible thing the cigarette habit is, will not leave the thing alone. But, like some whom you may know, this boy failed to heed the many warnings and, before he was aware of it, the deadly habit had him firmly in its grasp. I will ask one of the boys to please spell the word 'Habit' for me. [As each letter is repeated put it down on the drawing sheet. If you have previously outlined the entire picture, the location of the cross will determine the location of the letter T, in the center, as the T is later changed into a cross. Place the other four letters in proper relation to the letter T, completing Fig. 29.] [Illustration: Fig. 29] "Now, then--one day this young man awoke to the fact that he must rid himself of his terrible habit if he would amount to anything in the world. He was working in a distant city, and there, alone, how do you suppose he started in to get rid of his habit? He did it this way: He made up his mind to wipe it out gradually by cutting down the number of cigarettes which he smoked each day. So he started in. The first day he smoked two less than he did the day before--cut out some, you see. [With your penknife cut out the letter H and throw it away.] You will observe that although he cut out some of his habit, he had A BIT left. The next day he did the same thing, by cutting out two more. [Cut away the letter A.] Although he had a BIT of the habit left, he felt somewhat encouraged and declared to himself that he could cut it all out if he kept at it. But he didn't know how hard it would be to 'keep at it.' The next day he cut out a little more [Cut away the letter B], but the desire to smoke the deadly cigarette was still strong. He was inclined to give up in discouragement, for he had now found that cutting _out_ wasn't cutting _off_ and that he still had IT. Not until now did he feel his helplessness, for the habit was still strong upon him. He needed a friend--a friend who could help him in his earnest wish to become once more true and pure. And a friend came. It was one who knew Christ and His power to save everyone who turns to Him for help. Clearly this friend revealed to him the truth, that if he would master his habit he must master himself. Boldly he took the glad step, and, like all humble followers of Jesus, he gave himself into His loving care, to guide and to direct his life. With this step came active work for Christ, and it was then that the letter I was removed [Cut out the I] and a new vision burst on his sight, for the last remnant of his enemy faded away in the transformation of his life to Christian service. [Give the T a touch with black, converting it into a cross; then continue the drawing to complete Fig. 30. Use black for the hill and circle; outline the cross in red; use orange in broad strokes for the rays emanating from the cross.] [Illustration: Fig. 30] "This was the vision. It can come to every boy and girl. It has come to countless thousands. To this boy of whom we speak it came to save him from failure and death. No longer did the dread habit control him. The battle was won, not by his own strength, but through Christ, who strengthened him. Such strength will be yours every time you need it to help and to keep you. "And let us think for a moment of the great service of the friend who led this young man to see the vision. Are we a friend to those who need us? 'Brethren,' says Paul, 'if a man be overtaken in a fault, ye which are spiritual restore such an one in the spirit of meekness, considering thyself lest thou also be tempted. Bear ye one another's burdens.' "May we ever be ready to lend a helping hand." EASTER LILIES --Easter --Resurrection Their Introduction into America has Spread Perfume and Beauty Everywhere. THE LESSON--That, like the lily, Christ gave up His life that His followers should multiply in the earth. It is difficult, as teachers of children are aware, to impart the significance of Easter to those who are too young to be acquainted with death and the hope of a resurrection. Many teachers find it best to confine the thought to the phenomena of nature as revealed in plant life and to make such applications to the spiritual as conditions seem to permit. Easter is the most precious day of the year, for without it there would be no Christmas, because Christmas is celebrated only as the birthday of Him who arose from the dead. Without it, the world would be in the darkness of despair and disappointment which possessed the disciples as they turned from the cross to resume their former occupations or to hide themselves from the taunts of their tormentors. Hence, we must make the best possible use of it. This illustration possesses no new thought; in fact, there is nothing new except as we put into it the newness of our own enthusiasm and earnestness. ~~The Talk.~~ "On this beautiful Easter morning I want to tell you of a lady who has done a good deal to help us enjoy this day. But for her, I believe, we would not have had any of these lovely lilies which represent the purity of the life of the risen Savior. I do not know the name of this lady. But I do know that one day she stepped from a steamer at a wharf in her home city of Philadelphia, and that she had been on a visit to the Bermuda Islands, which are six hundred miles out in the Atlantic Ocean. Perhaps you know that the Bermuda Islands are noted as the place where they raise very large onions, which are imported to the United States. An onion, you know, is a bulb. Well, this lady carried with her two bulbs. They weren't Bermuda onions, either, as they were too small for that. She took these two bulbs to a friend who was a florist and asked him to plant them. [Draw the bulb in black. Fig. 31.] This was in the year 1875. The bulbs soon sent up strong green shoots and after a while blossomed as beautifully in their strange surroundings as they would have done in their former home. [Complete the drawing of the lily stalk in green; also the lilies, using fine black lines as outlines.] To us these beautiful flowers seem like old friends, because we have known them so long, but these Easter lilies, blossoming in Philadelphia, were the first to spread their sweet perfume in this country. [Illustration: Fig. 31] "Before that time, there was a lily known as the Easter lily, but whose right name is the lilium candidum or Madonna lily. This latter name comes from the fact that in one of the paintings of the Madonna she holds one of these lilies in her hand. It, also, is pure white, and similar in form to the Easter lily of today except that it is more bell-shaped. "During the first four years, these two bulbs in Philadelphia produced one hundred new bulbs. But what had become of the original bulbs? Ah, don't you know that when the bulb produces new bulbs the original bulb dies? Yes, when the new bulbs form at the sides of the old bulb, the one which gave them life perishes--in fact, the first bulb gives up its life that the others may live. [Draw the outer bulbs as in Fig. 32.] And while it does so, it spreads the perfume and the beauty of its flowers to delight everyone who sees them. [Illustration: Fig. 32] "From these first bulbs brought to America has come much of the beauty which is now so widespread at Easter time. The earth is full of the perfume of the Easter lily today. "How typical is this little illustration of the Savior whose resurrection we celebrate today. While He was on the earth, the beauty of his life brightened everyone, and all that time He knew that He must give up his life that we might live. "How typical also of our lives may this Easter lily be. What seems more lifeless than the bulb of a lily? Plant it, bury it, and lo! it is resurrected into a thing of wondrous beauty. That which seemed like its tomb has proven to be the gateway into true life. Thus our faith gives us the blessed assurance, with Paul, that 'if we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so them also which sleep in Jesus will God bring with Him.'" THE WOUNDED TREE --Steadfastness --Constancy It Tells the Story of Courage and Patience that Approaches the Sublime. THE LESSON--That steadfastness in the right not only keeps the life upright but it restores the repentant one to righteousness. Each one of us needs the quality called steadfastness--not the obstinacy which denies us the right to judge fairly every condition about us, not the bigotry which prevents us from a charitable consideration of the views of other people--but the steady adherence to positive Christian principles which keep us constant in our faith and unwavering in our hold on heavenly virtues. ~~The Talk.~~ "Today, we are going to talk about steadfastness. And what does it mean to be steadfast? It means that with God's love to protect us against every temptation, we shall never willingly do anything to grieve Him. A life ruled by this power may grow to be so truly in harmony with the spirit of the Master that even though the waves of trouble dash wildly against it, it will continue to stand firmly, because it knows that 'Jehovah will give grace and glory and no good thing will He withhold from them that walk uprightly.' "We shall turn to Nature for our object lesson today. We might select the mighty oak, 'the king of the trees,' to represent the stalwart Christian life which not only withstands the storms, but which, as it strives against the winds, sends its mighty roots ever deeper into the earth; and we might choose as the type of the weak and sinful life the bay tree which does not send its roots deep into the earth and which is in danger of being torn away by every passing storm. But we shall look not at these but at two other trees which are described by Julia Ellen Rogers in her beautiful book, 'Among the Trees.' Says this author, 'There is something almost sublime in the patience and courage of plants!' Doesn't that sound strange? The idea of claiming that plants are courageous and patient! But the writer goes on to prove her words. One tree of which she writes was thrown prostrate upon the ground, crushed down by another tree which fell upon it. There it lay, with some of its roots torn loose from the earth and drying in the heat of the sun. It was left there in the forest to die. [As you speak, draw Step A of Fig. 33.] The writer tells also of a small poplar tree which grew on the sloping side of a mountain. One day, when there was a heavy landslide, the rush of boulders and earth tore the tree from its place and carried it a considerable distance down the side of the mountain. When it stopped sliding, it was left with its top downward, while its roots were lifted toward the sky. [Draw Step B of Fig. 33.] In the rush of the earth, a quantity of soil was spread over a part of the roots. If anyone had seen the tree then, he would have declared that it must surely die. [Illustration: Fig. 33] "But let us turn again to the book. The writer says, 'A tree thrown down may die of its wounds, but if it does not die it seeks to assume an erect position. As long as there is life, there is inspiration,' and, we might add, a reaching upward! Do you get the idea? Even if a tree is thrown down, wounded near to its death, _it tries its best to rise, to rise again--to stand upright_! This truth is shown by what these two trees did. This first one sent an entirely new tree straight up from the roots, while the old part lay on the ground dead. [Add lines to complete Step C of Fig. 34.] This second one was so determined to grow that it sent out a little sprout and started it to climb straight upward toward the sky; it developed into a strong tree. [Draw lines to complete Step D of Fig. 34; this finishes the drawing.] [Illustration: Fig. 34] "What a splendid lesson there is for us in these true stories from the forest and the mountain. Perhaps, in our weakness, we have not lived as closely to the Master as we should have done, and have become prostrated by our temptations. But there is one mighty to save. It is for us to reach upward in thought, in word and deed. Then will come the sunshine of his loving kindness to give us strength to rise toward Him. The tree, wounded and cast down, can never return to its first condition, but it does its best to rise. We, if we be prostrated by sin, can never rise to be as perfect as we would have been if we had shunned the evil thing; but in humility and service we may rise to receive the Master's 'Well done,' and we may be assured of His tender care if we do our best. "Let us ever keep our thoughts on Him who 'is able to succor them that are tempted.'" A FIRM FOUNDATION --Lincoln's Birthday --Fortitude The Secret of Lincoln's Steadfastness in the Midst of Tremendous Trials. THE LESSON--That the Bible teaching of childhood fortifies manhood. If it is not your custom to observe Lincoln's birthday, you will find this illustration valuable for Mother's day and other occasions. ~~The Talk.~~ "Probably no public man in America has ever been so severely assailed, so mercilessly scourged through the public press, as was Abraham Lincoln. Yet, through it all, while thousands were dying on the field of battle, while pestilence and want stalked through the states, and while the finger of hatred and scorn was pointed at him as the man who had brought devastation and death upon the nation, he stood steadfast, with a firm, unimpassioned face, never swerving an inch from the path of right and duty. Warring factions all about him, who tried in many ways to sidetrack him, failed in every attempt. To them he said, 'Let us have faith that right makes might, and in that faith let us do our duty as we understand it.' "In his memorable second inaugural address, he said, 'With malice toward none, with charity to all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us finish the work.' "In those tumultuous times, he often seemed to stand almost alone, like a lighthouse away out from the rock-bound coast, lashed by the fierce waves, driven by furious winds. [Draw the lighthouse in brown and the waves in blue, completing Fig. 35.] [Illustration: Fig. 35] "But the fiercest storms never moved our human lighthouse! Nor did the light which was to finally guide the Ship of State into a safe and peaceful harbor fail to send out its clear, pure rays. "The lighthouse which we have drawn must stand upon a firm and solid foundation to endure the force of the storm. Abraham Lincoln must have stood upon a firm and solid foundation in order to endure the fierce storms of the darkest years of the nation's history. Let us see what this foundation was made of. "We must go away back to the early days of his life until we come, in 1816, to a little cabin in Gentryville, Indiana--a one-room log cabin with a dirt floor and with no glass in the windows. Here lived Thomas Lincoln and his wife and two children, Sarah, aged ten years, and Abraham, eight years old. They had recently come from Kentucky. "Although Thomas Lincoln could neither read nor write, the mother taught her children to read the one book which they had, a Bible. The sweetness of the character of this gentle mother was reflected in the lives of her children. For three or four months, Abraham managed to attend the rude school of the neighborhood. He soon learned to know much of the Bible by heart. When he was ten years of age, the greatest calamity of his life occurred; his mother, always frail and delicate, passed from earth. Abraham Lincoln never recovered from the shock. The rude casket was placed in a grave near the cabin. Nine months after that sad day, Parson Elkins, whom the family had known in Kentucky, answered the repeated appeal of Abraham to come one hundred miles on horseback to preach a funeral sermon at the grave of Mrs. Lincoln. "Many years afterward, when the cares of state weighed heavily upon him, President Lincoln spoke the words which tell us the secret of his wonderful calmness and steadfastness. Listen to them: 'All that I am and all that I hope to be, I owe to my mother. Blessings on her memory!' "Do you understand, boys and girls, that it was the thing which this mother put into the life of her boy that made him a great and a good man? Do you now understand what Paul meant when he said that there is no other foundation on which to build your life 'than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ?' "Let us, then place the word, Christ, upon this rock, the unseen foundation upon which this great life stood so steadfastly. I leave with you the picture as a memory of the secret of a wonderful life. [Draw lines of rock and lower portion of the lighthouse; add the word "Christ," completing Fig. 36.] [Illustration: Fig. 36] THE BLESSEDNESS OF WORK --Labor --Diligence The Truly Happy Life is the One Filled With Honest Employment. THE LESSON--That in childhood and youth we should train ourselves to work. Work is the keynote of the successful life. "An idle brain is the devil's workshop." The talk is designed to catch the attention with a smile and then give an opportunity to present some valuable thoughts in the matter of diligence and the fulfillment of life's mission through honorable employment of the mind and the hands. ~~The Talk.~~ "Very often we read some very curious things. The manufacturer of one of the well-known breakfast foods, has placed this strange statement on the outside of each of the packages: 'Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are.' It seems impossible to do this, and the writer of the words probably had an entirely different way of explaining how he would do it from the way we will demonstrate it here on the drawing paper today. Let us suppose that we make the statement that we can tell what a man is if we know what he eats. All right, then, here is a case: There is a certain man who eats three meals a day out of a dish shaped something like this: [Draw lines representing Step 1 of Fig. 37.] [Illustration: Fig. 37] [Illustration: Fig. 38] "And then, let us suppose that the food he eats is heaped up like this: [Add lines to change the drawing to Step 2.] "Now, what do you think this food is? Ice cream? Ah, no, because when I tell you that this is steam rising from the food you will know it isn't ice cream: [Add lines to change the drawing to Step 3.] "But you will begin to see what it is when I tell you that these two lines represent chopsticks: [Add lines to change the drawing to Step 5.] What is it? Rice? Yes, it is rice, and we will label it in this way. [Add the letters, to change the drawing to Step 5.] "And now, having found out what the man eats, let us see if we can find out who he is. [Remove the sheet from the drawing board, hold it up and turn it over, exposing Fig. 38 to the audience. With the attention thus centered upon your work, the boys and girls will listen with eagerness to whatever else you may have for them.] "And so, I tell you of another thing that we can do. "Listen! Tell me what a boy thinks about, and I will tell you what kind of a man he will grow up to be. "The man who swears, thought of bad things and used bad words when he was a boy. The man who is a thief thought about dishonest things when he was a boy. The man who is happy and who finds it his delight to do good, formed the habit of thinking and doing good things when he was a boy. The man who loves his work learned to like to work when he was a boy. "And it is work that I want to speak about today. "There is no place in the world for a lazy boy or girl. Nobody wants them. Boys who hate to work are the kind that loaf around poolrooms and pollute the air with vile cigarette smoke and language which bespeaks an empty mind and a corrupt heart. "As Jesus is our great example in every way, He stands out strongly as our example of how a workman should delight in his employment. We should first find the thing which God intends that we shall do, for we are all fitted to do some things better than others, and we should then put forth our best efforts to learn to do that one thing as well as we can. We must center our thoughts upon the things we want to do. Life will then become a delight, because the world is always crying for workers who know how to do their work. The other kind is always to be found but never wanted. The demand is for the ones who know how. It is a significant fact that the first recorded words of Jesus Christ are, 'Wist ye not that I must be about my father's business?' This makes of Jesus a _Business boy_, and it was God's work he began so soon. "Gladstone, an inspiring example of the true workman, says, 'The thrift of time will repay in after life with usury of profit beyond your most sanguine dreams, and the waste of it will make you dwindle alike in intellectual and moral stature beyond your darkest reckoning.' "The happiest people in the world are those who are busy at something worth while, and the most miserable are those who are in idleness for lack of ambition or else are engaged in work which they themselves loathe because of its baseness." THE DOORWAY --Easter --Death The Resurrection of Christ the Hope of the World--An Easter Thought. THE LESSON--That death is but the doorway between the earthly life and the heavenly life of the believer. There is no new thought or theory concerning the dead in Christ. The most profound thinkers of the ages consider death as the entrance to a future life. The illustration here presented has been employed in various forms, but is given with the hope that it may, at Easter, help someone to a clearer conception of the reward which awaits the faithful. ~~The Talk.~~ "James Russell Lowell, dwelling upon the darkness of the cloud of sorrow which death brings into the home, wrote: "'Console, if you will, I can bear it, 'Tis a well-meant alms of breath; But not all the preaching since Adam Has made Death other than Death!' "How true! And God intended it should be so. Surely, it is His desire that we should love to live in the earth which He has given us. Surely, it is His desire that we should love those who are about us, and that we should mourn when the earthly parting comes. And yet, 'it is impossible,' as Jonathan Swift has said, 'that anything so natural, so necessary and so universal as death should ever have been designed by Providence as an evil to mankind.' With this thought, we may lift our faces once more, and as we dry our tears, forget the problems, the sorrows and the triumphs of earth as we ask ourselves the question, 'What shall _we_ be in the coming ages?' Compared with this question, all others sink into insignificance. Science, discovery, commercial achievement, social problems, the rise and fall of nations--all come to us and claim attention, but we brush them aside as we repeat, with passionate earnestness: What shall _we_ be--_we, ourselves_--in the coming time? "No matter how long we ask the question, no matter how earnestly we seek the solution, we shall not be satisfied with an answer, for God has not intended that we should know. The Apostle John, 'whom Jesus loved,' admits that 'it doth not yet appear what we shall be.' "Does it mean, then, that we should look ahead, and see nothing before us but the grave--the end of all? [Draw the grave, the headstone, and the word, "Death," with black, completing Fig. 39.] [Illustration: Fig. 39] "Perhaps the disciples, their hearts bowed down with grief and disappointment, held this thought as they saw the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea sealed upon the body of their beloved Master. But three days pass, and lo!--all is changed! The stone is rolled away and Christ has risen! How the message spreads! He is with them once again, and blessed days they are! But it is not for long, for heaven receives Him from their sight. Clearly, then, came to them again His words, 'I go to prepare a place for you, that where I am ye may be also.' What! They, too? Yes, for did he not say, also, 'Marvel not at this, for the hour is coming, in which all that are in their graves shall hear His voice and come forth; they that have done good, unto the resurrection of life.' "Today, there comes to us anew the revelation of the truth which came to the disciples on that wonderful resurrection morn. True, it may be that our pathway may lead more quickly than we think to this place which we call the grave. [Draw pathway to the grave.] True, there is a wall between human vision and the mysterious beyond. [Draw the wall.] But true, also, and gloriously true, is it that the grave opens to us the mysteries beyond the wall. [Draw line to change headstone to door]--while the pathway leads to--what? We can only suggest it here, with a few feeble lines. [Draw distant city, in red, using orange for rays of light. Add the word "Life," completing Fig. 40.] [Illustration: Fig. 40] "Someone has said that the night of life is the dawn of peace. Browning says that 'you never know what life means till you die.' Another has said, 'The dead are glad in heaven; the living 'tis that weep.' And all, though they point to the pathway beyond the wall as that toward which we should push forward, are firm in the knowledge that the earthly pathway of peace and love is more essential than this, for without it we cannot reach the other. 'There is but one way to get ready for immortality,' says Van Dyke, 'and that is to love this life, and live it as bravely and cheerfully and faithfully as we can.' And I know it is our prayer that we may do this in the fullness of the meaning of the words." THE PUZZLE PICTURE --God's Love --Nature When We Have Solved It, Let Us Learn to Find God in All His Works of Nature. THE LESSON--That we shall find the loving presence of God everywhere in nature, if we but seek Him. This illustration, dealing with a popular pastime, points to a great lesson, the fact that God is to be found in all our natural surroundings, if we but seek for Him in the same manner that we endeavor to find the unseen in other ways. ~~The Talk.~~ "How many of the boys and girls are fond of puzzle pictures? Hold up your hands. Ah, I thought so. I believe nearly everyone likes puzzles; we are attracted to many things which possess an element of mystery. So I am going to draw a little puzzle landscape today and see if we can get a lesson from it. [Draw the landscape, naming the objects as you complete them--the tree, the land, the water, the distant foliage, and so on, finishing Fig. 41. This completes the drawing for the entire talk.] [Illustration: Fig. 41] "Here is the story: A farmer, living near this spot, came down to the shore of the lake, untied his boat from its fastening, and rowed out onto the lake to fish. With the approach of dinner-time, the farmer's son came down to the shore to call his father to dinner. It seems that the father had rowed so far away that he could not hear the lad's voice, so the boy is still waiting here for him. Can you see the boy? Ah, yes, here he is. [Remove the sheet from the drawing board, reverse it, and hold it up for the inspection of the school. Fig. 42. After all have discovered the face of the boy, do not return the sheet to the drawing board, but lay it on the floor or elsewhere out of sight, as it has served its purpose and should not be allowed to detract from the attention needed for the remainder of the talk.] [Illustration: Fig. 42] "Yes, it is interesting to study puzzle pictures to discover in them the persons and objects which we may not see at the beginning. But I wonder how many of us do a similar thing when we see the real woods, the real lake and the real flowers? As in the picture, the boy's face was made by the outline of the tree and the shrubbery, and the hair was shown by the shading of the grass, so also may we find great hidden truths in nature all about us. The poet Bryant, in Thanatopsis says that "'To him, who in the love of nature holds Communion with her visible forms she speaks A various language.' "And Shakespeare tells of finding 'tongues in trees, books in running brooks, sermons in stones, and good in everything.' "Greatest of all is the fact that God is there. Every tree, every bush, every blade of grass, every flower, speaks of His presence--of His love and care for us. Dr. Van Dyke, in many beautiful passages pleads with us to turn our thoughts from the things which make us unhappy--the wild rush for fame and fortune, for the attainment of that which disappoints and discourages--to the quietness expressed by nature. In his book, 'The Ruling Passion,' we find this beautiful sentiment: 'It is the part of wisdom to spend little of your time upon the things that vex and anger you, and much of your time upon the things that bring you quietness and confidence and good cheer. A friend made is better than an enemy punished. There is more God in the peaceful beauty of this little wood-violet than in all the angry disputation of the sects. We are nearer heaven when we listen to the birds than when we quarrel with our fellow-men. I am sure that none can enter into the spirit of Christ, His evangel, save those who willingly follow His invitation when He says, 'Come ye yourselves apart in a lonely place and rest awhile.' "It is a most beautiful thought. Let us ponder it in our hearts. Let us seek to find God and His goodness to us in everything that He has placed about us. Many a man who says he has not found God in nature has failed to see the blessings which have come to him--which are his every moment of his life. The fruit, the flowers, the grains--everything that supplies him with the necessities of life and earthly happiness come from the hand of God. Let us feel that _all nature is a sort of puzzle picture_, and that by looking, looking, looking, we can find God in everything. And in finding Him, let us learn from nature the lessons of humility, of sacrifice, of joy and good cheer; for it is for this that God has given us these blessings. It is only when we thus seek Him that we may look 'through nature up to nature's God.'" THE HEART of the TROUBLE --Temperance Day --Sobriety A Temperance Talk in Acrostic--One Great Evil Power--Beware! THE LESSON--That the deadly drink evil appears to its victims in the most alluring and deceptive form. The following talk necessitates the use of lettering only, but it affords an opportunity for the audience to take a part, especially if the company of hearers is made up largely of children. The climax is not to be anticipated, and the effect cannot be other than lasting. The talk may be varied to suit local conditions; specific incidents make the best impressions. It is suggested that you watch your newspapers for a period preceding the talk and make clippings of incidents to fit the points of the first seven paragraphs. It is well to ask the children to repeat each word as it is placed on the drawing paper. ~~The Talk.~~ "The thing I am going to speak about today is not a pleasant one. The fact is that nothing good can be said about it, for it deals with sorrow and death. You may wonder, then, why we do not speak of something bright and happy; and I answer that if you learn the lesson about this thing of sorrow and death, your lives will escape its influence and you will be many more times likely to be happy; and if you do not learn the lesson, you may suffer distress and anguish all the years of your later life. This thing is known as a great evil power. Sometimes we hear of it coming into the home and making a brute out of a loving husband. Where there was happiness and joy there is now sorrow and despair. [Place the word Sorrow on the drawing paper. When adding the succeeding words, be sure to place them exactly as indicated in Fig. 43.] [Illustration: Fig. 43] "Again, this evil power creeps into a home and fastens itself upon a young man who had before him every promise of a bright, successful life. So relentless is it that the young man, in despair, takes his own life. [Add the word Death.] "Again, we see a man, successful in business, with no seeming obstacle in the way of greater achievement, when, one day, we find his doors are closed. This evil power has come upon him and he is a bankrupt and a failure. [Add the word Failure.] "Again, we hear of a man who has been a leader among men--a brilliant lawyer, a keen thinker--taken from his place and confined in a hospital for the insane. The same evil power has done this. [Add the word Insanity.] "Again, we know of a young man who was strong and robust, a splendid specimen of physical manhood; now he has lost his health and strength. The same evil power has come upon him and has placed him on a bed of sickness from which he cannot rise. [Add the word Sickness.] "Again, how often do we hear that a man, respected and honored, has in a moment of passion, taken the life of another man, just because this evil power came in and caused him to do it. [Add the word Murder.] "But more common than all the other terrible things which this great evil power does is the bringing of wretchedness and want to the wives and the children of the men who are its victims. These innocent ones suffer for the common comforts of life, food and clothing. This we call poverty. [Add the word Poverty. This completes Fig. 43.] "Many more words could be added to this list, representing the misfortunes which come to the victims of this great evil power. In every instance it deceived its victims into believing it was harmless--that in accepting it there was no danger or risk. "What is this great evil power? [With red chalk draw the heavy line, completing Fig. 44, to bring out the word Whiskey.] [Illustration: Fig. 44] "Now, boys and girls, consider this not as a puzzle drawing. It represents a truth almost as old as the world. Concerning strong drink, the Bible cries out, 'Beware!' Remember that every drunkard believed he could taste liquor and then leave it alone if he wished. You, in your happy homes, may think you are safe from it. Beware! Some day, the temptation will come to you; someone will test you. Beware! 'Whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise.' 'Who hath woe? Who hath sorrow? Who hath babbling? Who hath wounds without cause? Who hath redness of eyes? They that tarry long at the wine.' Beware! Be not one of these. "No, let us keep our minds on the pure, the upright, looking ever to Jesus, who is our strength and who will keep us from the power of this evil thing. 'Then shalt thou walk in thy way securely, and thy foot shall not stumble.'" IF WASHINGTON LIVED TODAY --Washington's Birthday --Character The Principles Which Underlie Success Are the Same at All Times. THE LESSON--That true success will attend those who found their lives on the principles which governed the life of Washington. Properly handled, the illustration designed for the following talk will prove a revelation to young and old. The application fits the illustration so well that the talk should prove of absorbing interest and lasting impressiveness. ~~The Talk.~~ [Before beginning the talk, make the following preparations very carefully: Attach several thicknesses of your drawing paper to your board, leaving the outer sheet free at the bottom by tacking at the top only. Next, with a sharp pen-knife, cut a hole in the outer sheet, indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 45, and throw away the piece which has been cut out. The object of this preparation is this: When you draw the portrait of Washington, represented in Fig. 45, a portion of your drawing will appear on the outer sheet and part of it--the face--on the next sheet beneath. If your preparations have been well made, the outer sheet will lie flat against the one beneath, and the audience will not see the hole until the proper time comes.] [Illustration: Fig. 45] "I am going to draw first an outline portrait of George Washington, copied from the profile crayon sketch of St. Memin. [Draw Fig. 45, complete, being careful, in moving the crayon from one sheet to the other, not to tear the outer sheet.] This view shows plainly the style of wig and military clothing of a gentleman of the revolutionary days, and, as we look at it we note what a difference there is between this and the dress of the men of today. Do we also feel that there is a great difference between the men of colonial days and the present time--the same difference in character that there is in dress? If this thought has come to us, we have also asked ourselves, perhaps, this strange question, 'What kind of a man would George Washington be if he were living at the present time?' "Of course, if he had not performed his great work in helping to shape the destiny of our nation, it is probable that America would have had a vastly different history. We will assume, however, that Washington were a product of the present day and that the present conditions prevailed. What, then, would Washington be like? How would he act? What would he do? "Perhaps we can best transplant him to our day by dressing him in the clothing of the man of the present. [Slowly fold back the outer sheet, so the audience may see that you have already drawn on the under sheet a portion of the second "scene"--the most important part, in fact. As you continue the talk, add lines to complete Fig. 46.] In the first place, Washington, with his abundance of natural hair, would not wear a wig just for style, so we will draw his head as we think it would appear naturally. Nor would he wear the colonial style of clothing, so we will substitute the coat, collar and tie of an American gentleman of today. And here we have Washington as he would look if he lived in our own time. [Illustration: Fig. 46] "I do not believe Washington would be a military leader in this latter day. He was essentially a man of peace, and everywhere in his writings we find expressed a longing to return after the strife of battle and the weary days in the presidential chair, to his quiet, beloved Mount Vernon, to carry on his extensive private business and enjoy his friends and the sweets of home life. "But we cannot doubt that he would be a great leader in the struggle for right against wrong in every form. From his childhood, he loved truth and honesty. He was a deep and careful student. He worked hard at his duties as a surveyor of the wilderness and then came the call from Governor Dinwiddie to carry a message to the French over hundreds of miles of unknown land, in the dead of winter. It was the most perilous undertaking ever entrusted to any man in the new land of America up to that time, but he met the task manfully. It was such victories as these in his youth that made him the Father of His Country. It is the meeting of our own problems in the same spirit that means our own success in life. "If Washington lived today, his career would be vastly different from what it was, yet he would have made his place, and the world would have been eminently better for his work. Let us study to apply to our own lives the principles which made Washington truly great." [In closing, restore the outer sheet to its first position, thus presenting the original portrait. It may be necessary to fasten it down with a thumb-tack.] EVOLUTION OF THE JUG --Temperance Day --Slavery While Strong Drink Makes "Poverty and Rags," the Pure Life Brings Earthly Prosperity. THE LESSON--That intemperance is the chief cause of the world's poverty and misery. This talk deals especially with the point that the use of strong drink consumes the income of the wage earner, unfits him for his work, and brings suffering and want to himself and those dependent upon him. ~~The Talk.~~ [Illustration: Fig. 47] "It is a common belief that slavery was wiped out of America by the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln, sustained by the victory of the union armies in the war of the rebellion. And so it was as far as the negro is concerned; but there is in America today another form of slavery which no clash of arms can eradicate, and this is the picture of the slaveholder: [Draw Fig. 47 complete.] The 'little brown jug,' which we use as a type of the saloon power, holds millions of men and boys in its grasp, consuming their brains, their bodies, and their money, and bringing misery and hopelessness to them and to those who love them. From Europe comes many a cry of anguish, showing that the same powerful slaveholder holds sway across the ocean. Listen to the words of the great English statesman, Joseph Chamberlain: "'If there is in this whole liquor business any single encouraging feature,' he says, 'it is to be found in the gathering impatience of the people at the burden which they are bound to bear, and their growing indignation and sense of shame and disgrace which this imposes upon them. The fiery serpent of drink is destroying our people, and now they are waiting with longing eyes the uplifting of the remedy.' "Again, from the island of Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa, we hear the queen of that island declaring herself in bitterness of spirit, in these words: "'I cannot consent, as your queen, to take revenue from the sale of liquor, which destroys the souls and bodies of my people.' "The Hon. Carroll D. Wright, while United States commissioner of labor, tells, from observation, of the slavery of strong drink in his own country and in Europe. He says: 'I have looked into a thousand homes of the working people of Europe; I do not know how many in this country. In every case, so far as my observation goes, drunkenness was at the bottom of the misery, and not the industrial system or the industrial surroundings of the men and their families.' "And so the testimony goes on. It is the same everywhere. There is no need of more proof that strong drink is the world's greatest curse. To every one of you boys, I am going to say that success in life cannot come to you in its fulness if you ever allow yourselves to get this deadly habit. Let it not break into the abode of your soul--and by this I mean your own bodies--and make you depraved captives for life. The first taste of strong drink, even though it may seem to be a very little thing, may mean that you will become banished from God forever. Remember, boys, that Satan is deceitful. He never tells you the truth. He is always trying to juggle you with his jug and to make you believe that black is white and wrong is right, and even that sorrow is joy and 'a good time.' It is against those who would tempt you that Jesus said, 'And fear not them that kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul; but rather fear him that is able to destroy both soul and body.' Such a destroyer is strong drink. "As the years go by, you will find that you need all your energy, your brains, and your physical strength to enable you to meet the problems of life. You will find that your later years will be filled with battles; the defeats will be bitter; the victories sweet. One of the necessary victories is the successful earning of a living. Money is a splendid thing. It is the love of it and the wrong use of it that is 'the root of all evil.' In the later years, if you are a slave to strong drink, you may recall with bitterness the warning of the Psalmist who declares that 'the drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty, and drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags.' But true prosperity comes most surely when the life is pure. I know you are resolved that yours shall be such lives, so we shall change the drawing to indicate something more acceptable to the life that well deserves a reward for right living. [Add lines to complete Fig. 48.] [Illustration: Fig. 48] "Paul pictures to us the successful man when he uses these words, 'Not slothful in business, fervent in spirit; serving the Lord.'" THE CIGARETTE FACE --Temptation --Evil Habits A Unique Presentation of a Truth Important to Every Child and Youth. THE LESSON--That Indulgence in injurious habits undermines the moral and physical structure and is a barrier to true success. The chalk talk here presented is certain to prove of enduring value in impressing upon young minds the truth of the deadly effects of the use of cigarettes. The talk may form a part of a program given on Temperance day, as the cigarette habit and liquor-drinking are very closely allied. ~~The Talk.~~ "We are going to talk for a few minutes about our food. Of course, we all know that when we are very young children our food consists very largely of milk, and the physicians say that boys and girls should not be allowed to drink tea and coffee or to eat meat and other solid foods until they have reached a certain age when their bodies demand such food. But ofttimes we find that parents do not know about this or else they try to please their children, for they frequently allow them to eat and drink the forbidden things. The result is that as they grow older, their bodies, having become accustomed to the foods which were too strong for them, demand still stronger food. So it is, often, that a young man possesses a craving for a stimulant which is unnatural at his youthful age, and we find him turning to drinking and cigarette smoking. But this does not satisfy the hungering and thirsting for stronger and more exciting things. Many times the life of the young man is ruined in his mad search for something to meet the demands of his physical nature and he goes down to the grave a physical, mental and moral wreck! "And now, with this thought before us, I want to speak for a few minutes particularly about cigarettes. And in this, also, I want to speak only to the girls. Will every girl please listen and do as I ask? Now, then: I am going to ask you to take your paper and pencils, if you have them, and copy the picture that I shall draw, and, if you haven't them, carry the picture with you in your mind so that you may use it when the occasion comes. "Here we go! Whenever you see one of your boy friends with a cigarette in his mouth, ask him if he ever saw the picture of the 'Cigarette Face.' Of course, he will say, 'No.' Then you will ask him to spell 'cigarettes' for you, very slowly, and as he pronounces the letters, you put them down, just like I shall do. Now, watch: [Illustration: Fig. 49] "'C' [Step 1, Fig. 49]. "'I' [Step 2]. "'G' [Step 3]. "'A-R-E-T-T-E-S' [Step 4]. "And now, we will draw the cigarette itself [Step 5]. "And finish the picture by drawing the encircling smoke. [Step 6, completing the final scene]. "Is it a true portrait? Go and ask any physician. Go and ask the warden of any insane asylum. Go and ask many a heartbroken mother. "Does cigarette smoking make criminals out of boys? Magistrate LeRoy B. Crane, of New York City, says that three hundred boys were brought before him, charged with crimes. All but five of them were cigarette smokers, and that report ought to _cure forever_ every boy in this town of the expensive _curse_. "Does cigarette smoking make failures out of boys? Once, when he was asked about it, the late E.H. Harriman, one of the greatest railroad managers in the history of America, said that railroads might as well go to lunatic asylums for their employes as to hire cigarette smokers. Yet some boys I know haven't a bit more sense than to smoke them. Girls, isn't it a pity? "Let us remember that habit is the very foundation of our lives. Everything that we do repeatedly becomes easier for us to do each succeeding day. This would be a most discouraging condition if it applied only to bad habits. But, thanks be to God, the rule applies equally well to good habits. Diligence, economy, perseverance, gentleness, pure thoughts--may all become the governing habits of our lives if we will but center our attention upon them repeatedly and crowd out the evil tendencies. We are so constituted that we must form habits. We cannot think or say or feel anything without leaving an effect which will influence every succeeding thought or action or feeling. Let us, therefore, look carefully to the forming of our own habits and to helping others form theirs." CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS --Prayer --Faith Although He Died Believing His Mission Had Failed, His Prayer Was More Than Answered. THE LESSON--That "the effectual, fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much." The life of Christopher Columbus contains much to inspire the present-day youth. In studying it, however, one should always take into account the prevailing superstitions, darkened by the bigotry of the times. But above and beyond all this shone the steadfast belief of Columbus that his every act was directed by God. The talk is suited to all ages, for the mere mention of the name of Columbus will excite the interest of young and old. ~~The Talk.~~ "Every one of us knows that Columbus discovered America, but unless we have studied the life of this wonderful man we do not know of the great difficulties and hardships he endured before he was able to do it. We know that Ferdinand and Isabella, rulers of Spain, furnished him with the ships with which he came to the new land; but we should also know that for years and years he worked and struggled through sickening discouragement until he finally succeeded in procuring the support of the Spanish monarchs. We know that he found a great continent, and that his name is honored above all others of his time; but we should also know that he himself never knew that he was the discoverer of a new land, and that he died a broken-hearted, ridiculed man whose mission had failed miserably. "And what was that mission? What was Columbus trying to do when he discovered America? He was simply trying to find a short way to reach India. Ferdinand and Isabella provided him with the ships only with the hope that he would find rich deposits of gold for them in some strange land. Both missions failed! But God was directing the life of Columbus. He put into his heart the firm belief that the world is round, and made him anxious to prove his theory to be true. Finally, down through years of hardship and discouragement, God brought Columbus to the age of maturity and wisdom, fully equipped for the great task which was before him. Then the Spanish monarchs provided the required vessels for the voyage. Here we have one of these quaint caravels, the Santa Maria. [Draw Fig. 50 complete, or, on account of the detail, prepare it in advance.] There were two other ships, the Pinta and the Nina. What curious looking boats they were! They left the coast of Spain on Friday, August 3, 1492. Where were they going? Nobody knew. But there was one man in that company who, deep in his heart, believed that God was directing the course of those three little caravels across the vast ocean. Washington Irving, in his Life of Columbus, says, 'He was a devoutly pious man. Religion mingled with the whole course of his thoughts, and shone forth in his most private and unstudied writings. Whenever he made a great discovery, he celebrated it by solemn thanks to God. The voice of prayer and melody of praise rose from his ships when they first beheld the new world, and his first action on landing was to prostrate himself on the earth and offer thanksgiving.' [Illustration: Fig. 50] "Such a man was Christopher Columbus--_a man of faith and prayer_; He had prayed that God would direct him in the discovery of a new route to India. God answered that prayer in a richer, greater measure than Columbus ever knew, for to him whose life had been one of devotion and communion with God, was given a name above all other names written in the world's list of navigators and discoverers! He prayed for a great blessing. God gave him a greater one. As the Santa Maria entered the harbor of the little island of San Salvador and the crews of the three vessels, numbering 120 in all, knelt and thanked God for His great mercies, Columbus believed he had reached a distant coast of India. [Draw the ground and trees, Fig. 51.] But, in truth, it was infinitely more than that--he had found A NEW WORLD! [Add "A New World," completing Fig. 51.] Such was the blessing which God gave to Christopher Columbus. Such is the blessing he will give to all who trust Him and love Him. Always does the true Christian receive more than that for which he asks, for the human mind cannot know the thoughts of God or of His love for those who give their lives wholly into His keeping." [Illustration: Fig. 51] THE THIEF OF CHARACTER --Meditation --Conscience The Unholy Thought Robs Life of Its Choicest Treasures--The Voice of Conscience. THE LESSON--That as we use care in the selection of our confidential friends, so, also, should we guard the choice of our thoughts. It was Lowell who said: "Ah! let us hope that to our praise Good God not only reckons The moments when we tread His ways, But when the spirit beckons-- That some slight good is also wrought Beyond self-satisfaction, When we are simply good in thought, Howe'er we fail in action." The truth that good thoughts must be encouraged every moment of our lives, if we would really live, is expressed by every great mind that the earth has known. It is here reviewed once more. ~~The Talk.~~ "I am going to place on the drawing paper today the picture of a young man of the type which we admire--a young fellow of upright life, good habits and Christian principles. We want him for our friend. [Draw Fig. 52, complete.] [Illustration: Fig. 52] "But there is another type of man whose character we can well illustrate by changing the lines in this first portrait. [With the broad side of your black crayon make the changes needed to produce Fig. 53. Shade the face with a light touch of the broad side of the crayon.] He is a dishonest man--he is willing to risk his life in taking from us that which does not belong to him. Do we welcome such a man to our homes? No. The hand of every man is against a thief and a robber. He is an outcast. The law seeks to protect us from him by putting him in prison if he can be caught. [Illustration: Fig. 53] "I know that we agree that we should be very careful about the kind of people whom we welcome to our homes. But, nevertheless the hand of forgiveness and uplift should be extended to every repentant sinner, for Christ has so taught us. But if we should be so careful about the people whom we admit into our homes, why should we not be still more careful about those other visitors--our thoughts--when we admit them to our minds? Did you ever think of your thoughts as your visitors? No, I suppose not; but we are going to consider them as visitors today. "Ah, here comes a nice-looking thought that wants to enter into your head. Fortunately, you have a faithful servant who answers the doorbell every time a visitor comes. It is your Conscience, and if it is well trained, it will admit to your mind only the pure thoughts, and it will slam the door in the face of all harmful intruders. But, alas! we are the master of the house and sometimes when Conscience would close the door to an unholy thought, we tell the servant to step aside, and we admit the visitor. It is a shame! And the worst of it is that Conscience, like an obedient servant, finally lets us have our own way and then we have thrust out our best friend! "Here is a boy who has lagged behind in his school work. A nice-looking little thought comes along and says, 'Why not cheat just a little? No one would know anything about it.' In a jiffy, Conscience is on hand trying to shut the door. But the boy welcomes the thought into his head. Conscience, made bold by the threatened disaster, tries to show the lad that he can succeed more surely by remaining true and honest, but the thought prevails, and before the boy knows it, the door is opened to a multitude of other thoughts, and the ones which came last are worse than the little one which entered first. When such a boy is grown to young manhood he finds himself robbed of character, robbed of honors, robbed of noble ambitions. He is a failure. No one trusts him for he cannot trust himself. He is completely at the mercy of his evil thoughts, and Conscience can no longer serve him. "How gladly, then, should each one of you boys and girls welcome good thoughts. Make Conscience your door-keeper. The same good thought will come again and again, bringing other splendid, helpful, delightful thoughts, and they will become the greater part of your life. Every one of you has a thinker in his head. Be careful to keep it clean and pure." JENNIE CASSEDAY --Children's Day --Service A Children's Day Story of What One Girl Did to Make Others Happy. THE LESSON--That one little act may multiply to bless countless thousands. The story of Jennie Casseday is one of the sweetest narratives of humble service that can be told to children and their elders. It is a chapter from real life which may be copied in varied form by each one of us. Its use is suggested for Children's day, but it is good for many other occasions. ~~The Talk.~~ "This morning, while we are surrounded by these beautiful flowers, and while our hearts are light as we think of all the beauty and brightness that God has given us, I want to tell you the story of Jennie Casseday and what she did to bring beauty and gladness into the world. You may think that Jennie couldn't do very much, because she was a poor little cripple girl. She lived at Louisville, Kentucky. When she was small, she was just as lively and happy as any other little girl; but one day she suffered from a terrible accident and from that time she was helpless. I am going to draw a picture of Jennie's crutch to represent her suffering and her helplessness. [Draw crutch with brown, Fig. 54.] [Illustration: Fig. 54] "Have I said she was helpless? Well, this is what I mean: She could not help herself, but she could help others, and this is how she did it: For several dark, painful years Jennie Casseday suffered and waited--waited for something which she could do to enable her to send some ray of light out into the world which would brighten other hearts. One day she read in the New York Observer how a young girl school teacher, who lived in the outskirts of the city of Boston and was employed in one of the down-town schools, was bringing brightness into the homes of many poor people by taking with her large baskets of beautiful roses and lilacs and snowballs and many other kinds of flowers from her suburban home and giving them to the children whom she met. It was a simple little act, but the reading of it by Jennie Casseday brought a transformation in her life. I wish I knew the name of this young school teacher in Boston, but I can't give it to you. But it was she who gave to Jennie Casseday the thought for which she had longed. Jennie's suffering was almost forgotten in her planning and determination to raise flowers and give them to the sick and the needy in Louisville. Her friends soon learned of her plans and there were many willing hearts and hands to help her. Under her guidance the Louisville Flower Mission was established, and it soon proved to be a great and growing blessing. It had been doing its beautiful work for four years when Miss Frances E. Willard, head of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, visited Louisville. There she heard of the mission and the noble young woman who founded it. Miss Willard visited Jennie Casseday in her sick room, and when the conference had closed, Jennie had been placed at the head of the Flower Mission department of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, which was at that time brought into existence. This was in 1882, and Jennie continued in this great work until the time of her death in 1893. June 9 is observed as the Red Letter day of the Flower Mission department of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, for this is the birthday of Jennie Casseday. Every year, thousands of bouquets of beautiful flowers find their way into homes of the sick and the poor throughout the land. And so, with the forgetting of the sufferings of Jennie Casseday and the remembrance of her beautiful life, I think we may well change this crutch to something more commemorative of her life. [With green chalk, change the crutch to a stem of a carnation, and with pink draw the blossom, Fig. 55.] [Illustration: Fig. 55] "In Louisville, the people have sought to honor the memory of this young woman by the establishment of the Jennie Casseday Infirmary and the Rest Cottage Home for Working Girls. The school children of Louisville erected a beautiful monument to her memory bearing an appropriate inscription. "Some of us who have our health and strength may well wonder if we are fulfilling all of God's demands. Boys and girls, let me impress upon you the thought that it is not the great, showy thing that makes people love us, but the careful doing of the seemingly little things, which, when summed up, make a magnificent whole. Jennie Casseday did what she could. No more is required of us. But that much is certainly expected, and we will fall short if we fail to meet the expectation." [A beautiful close to this talk would be the recitation or reading of Dr. Van Dyke's poem "Transformation," which may be found in "The Blue Flower" or in "The Builders and Other Poems."] MOTHER --Mother's Day --Home Training The Great Men of the World Pay Her the Highest of Tribute--A Carnation Day Thought. THE LESSON--That the welfare of the church and of the home rests more with the mothers than with the Sunday School teacher. It is interesting to read the recorded words of some of the world's greatest minds in tribute to motherhood. The following talk, quoting some of these, should be an impressive lesson to the young and to the mothers as well. ~~The Talk.~~ "Who are these mothers for whom we have decorated our school room and ourselves with these beautiful flowers? [Draw, in black outline the carnation blossom; add the stem in solid green, and place the lettering in purple, red or blue, Fig. 56.] [Illustration: Fig. 56] "Surely these mothers must be of great importance or we would not be having a special service for them today. I have been reading a little about mothers, to see if they are really of much value to the world, and I want to repeat some of the things I have read. [It is well to have all of these quotations in note form to be read with accuracy.] "I find that John Randolph, one of America's greatest statesmen, said, 'I should have been an atheist if it had not been for one recollection--and that was the memory of the time when my departed mother used to take my little hand in hers and cause me on my knees to say, "Our Father who art in heaven."' "I find that Abraham Lincoln said of his mother, 'All that I am and all that I hope to be I owe to my mother. Blessings on her memory!' "I find that George Herbert said, 'One good mother is worth a hundred schoolmasters.' "I find that Oliver Wendell Holmes said, "'Youth fades; love droops; the leaves of friendship fall; A mother's secret hope outlives them all.' "I find that Coleridge said, "'A mother is a mother still, The holiest thing alive.' "I find that Beecher said, 'A mother's heart is the child's school room.' "I find that Benjamin West, the great artist, said, 'A kiss from my mother made me a painter.' "I find that General Wallace, in Ben Hur, said, 'God could not be everywhere, so he made mothers.' "I find everywhere the great men of the world paying loving tribute to these mothers, and after all there is only one real perfect, true and faultless mother in all the world and that is our own mother, whether she be gone before or whether she be still with us. I am sure that every one of us older ones will find ourselves in tune with the expressive words of George Griffith Fetter, who wrote: "'The noblest thoughts my soul can claim, The holiest words my tongue can frame, Unworthy are to praise the name More sacred than all other. An infant, when her love first came-- A man, I find it just the same; Reverently, I breathe her name, The blessed name of mother.' "And so, I answer the question that I asked at the beginning, who are these mothers? Really, it seems to me that the mothers of the world are the power which keeps it moving toward all that is good and high and holy. Mother love has been a power in the world since history commenced, and the scriptures are filled with beautiful demonstrations of it. How we love to read the story of the mother of Moses who hid her child in the bullrushes and then succeeded in being engaged as his nurse. How often has the heart thrilled at the hearing of the story of Samuel and his mother! How strongly the mother love manifested itself at the time of the judgment of Solomon who was called to determine the possession of the child claimed by two women. And what could be more beautiful than the pictures of the devotion of the mother of Jesus to Him who was to be the Savior of the world? "Verily, 'the hand that rocks the cradle is the hand that rules the world,' through the love of good which the mother hopes for her child. The mother of today in America has a greater problem than ever before. The boys of today are the men of tomorrow. The boys will be what the mothers make them; and with this thought, I want to change our drawing slightly to indicate the ever-present problem which is never safe except in the hands of the right kind of mothers of the boys of today and of the future generations. [Add the words to complete Fig. 57.] [Illustration: Fig. 57] "May God bless you, mothers, and help you to help these boys and these girls to meet the great problems which are before them. You must help them. Without you, they are on unsafe ground, treading perilous paths." NEW YEAR'S RESOLUTIONS --New Year's Day --Watchfulness Most of Them May be Rolled into One--"Hold Fast to That Which Is Good." THE LESSON--That the positive life, rather than the negative life, knows true happiness. While this talk is planned for the special application to the opening of the fiscal or the school or church year, it may be revised very easily to fit many other occasions. ~~The Talk.~~ "Right now, at the beginning of the new year, we hear a great deal about making resolutions, 'turning over a new leaf,' and so on. In many cases, these things are spoken of lightly and laughingly, and yet, I know that many of us, away down deep in our hearts, are thinking of things which we are resolving to do during the new year and also of things which we have made up our minds not to do during the coming twelve months. "What does it signify when we do this? It means that we have made mistakes and that we do not intend to make the same mistakes again. It is a strange thing to say, but it is true, nevertheless, that a man is a good deal like a fish in some respects. Whenever you go fishing, you use just the kind of bait which you think will fool the fish the most easily. You should know where a certain kind of fish is likely to abound and then use the style of bait which that kind of fish is most apt to mistake for something which it is not. Here, for instance, is a cork bobber on the surface of the water of a lake, with the line attached to it, and here, below, is the hook, nicely concealed from view by the bait in the form of an angle worm. [Draw the lines to follow the talk, completing Fig. 58.] [Illustration: Fig. 58] "It is evident that the fisherman who holds the line is not after the kind of fish which are to be captured by trolling or casting, for he is using the method known as still-fishing. And, sure enough, he has attracted a victim, a blue gill, which is making straight for what he thinks will mean more life to him but which probably means sure death unless he succeeds in getting away again. [Draw fish, completing Fig. 59.] So, the ingenuity of man is kept active in devising means of capturing game of all kinds. [Illustration: Fig. 59] "And are we not like the fish? Haven't you bitten into any baited hooks during the past year? Haven't you been fooled into thinking something was good for you when it turned out to be bad? Hasn't some alluring amusement or pastime brought disappointment or shame when you thought it would bring delight and satisfaction? Ah, yes. All of us have been fooled in one way or another, and when we come to this time of the year and decide to start anew we find that it isn't so easy as we thought, to get rid of many errors or vices which we would eliminate from our lives. Perhaps some have fallen victims to habits which grip us relentlessly, and if so we can doubtless agree with Pope that "'Vice is a monster of so frightful mien As to be hated needs but to be seen: Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face. We first endure, then pity, then embrace.' "As Shakespeare says, 'There is no vice so simple, but assumes some mark of virtue on his outward parts.' There's where the trouble starts. We're completely fooled. And when we come to purify our lives by eliminating this thing and that, we are discouraged with the result, and in many instances we give up in despair. "How, then, are we to make our resolutions good? How are we to be sure that the new leaf which we turn over will not be blown back again by the first wind of passion or discouragement which comes? "I believe we can do it by making our resolutions positive and not negative. Let me explain what I mean. We are normal human beings. We demand activity. There must be something doing. If we are giving our time wastefully to society, to the theater, to the many other forms of amusement we shall find ourselves most miserable if we simply resolve to eliminate these things from our lives. To do this is to make a negative resolution. No, the thing to do is to resolve that hereafter our time will be spent in busying ourselves at those things which are wholesome, helpful to others, and of such a character to bring delight to us because of the service we can render to the world. What can you do? Why, the field to do good is never overcrowded. The church and the Sunday school offer many avenues of activity. Find out the thing you can do best--uncover your talent. Get busy at good works, and then there will be no room for the objectionable things and they will die out because good habits are growing in their stead. "To do this is the surest way to 'set your mind on the things that are above, not on things that are upon the earth,' and when this is done we need have little concern about our happiness." THE MOUNTAIN CLIMBER --Light --Danger All Light, Shining in the Darkness, Is Either a Guide or a Warning. THE LESSON--That the Bible sends out two kinds of light, guiding and warning, and that all who neglect it are groping in the dark, "loving darkness rather than light, because their deeds are evil." The word Light, appears very frequently in the scriptures as a type of the highest human good. All of the most joyous emotions of the mental and physical natures of man are described in the imagery of light. Throughout the Book it is used to typify the true religion and happiness. ~~The Talk.~~ "When we go riding in an automobile after dark, we light the lamps at the front and at the rear. Why do we light the lamps? So the light will shine on the roadway and we will be able to see where we are going and thus avoid mishap and injury? Yes, but how about the lamp at the rear? Oh, we light that one so other people will not run into us. Yes, and that, too, is one of the great reasons why we light the front lamps. If we were to start out on a night journey with no lamps burning, there would be great danger of accident, and especially if we were to meet another automobile which had no lights burning. We would be apt to bump into each other. The law recognizes all this and compels us to keep our automobile lights brilliantly shining. "Dwight L. Moody, the great evangelist, tells the story that as he was walking along a dark city street one night, he met a man, who carried an object in each of his hands. Something about the man's actions excited the curiosity of Mr. Moody, and he stopped to speak to him. The thing that caused Mr. Moody to wonder was this: The man held in one hand a lighted lantern, and in the other a cane with which he was feeling his way along the street. As he stopped, Mr. Moody saw that the man was blind. He was so much interested that he spoke to the man, saying: "'Since you are blind, why do you carry a lantern? It doesn't help you to see your way.' "'No,' replied the man, 'I carry it to keep people from running into me.' "So, here, you see, was an instance of carrying a light, not to enable one to see his way but to guard himself against harm from those who would be warned thereby. "Ofttimes, you have seen red lanterns placed along streets where dangerous obstructions are left in the pathway of travel. These lights are to warn people of possible harm. "As Christians, we, too, must have a light on our pathway to guide us through life, and this same light will also guard us against harm. That light comes from Jesus Christ through his word. With the light of his love within us we can never mistake the way. If we have that light, temptations may come to us, but they cannot harm us because that light warns them away. This light is our guide and our guard. God's word, the Psalmist declares, 'is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path.' "The story is told of a traveler in the west who, separated from the other members of his party, was climbing slowly up the rocky side of a rugged mountain. [Draw the man and the lines of the mountain.] His progress was slow, not only because of the difficulty in climbing up the slippery and treacherous rocks, but because the mountain top was shrouded in a heavy mist or cloud, which made it impossible for him to see more than a few feet ahead of him. [Draw the cloud line to complete Fig. 60.] [Illustration: Fig. 60] "All at once, the bright sunlight broke through the mist, and the man was horrified to find that he was on the very brink of a high precipice and that a climb of a few more feet would have meant death and destruction to him. [Draw lines to complete Fig. 61.] [Illustration: Fig. 60] "Everywhere in life does our pathway lead toward danger. The saloon would claim the young man. The Light says, 'Whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise.' Perhaps the temptation comes to be dishonest in dealing with other people. The Light says, 'All things therefore whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, even so do ye also unto them.' Whatever the temptation, whatever the perplexity, however deep the darkness, this Light is ours, not only to brighten the way but to warn the evil thing to depart from us. And, having received this light, let us remember continually that Christ said, 'Ye are the light of the world. Let your light so shine before men that they may see your good works and glorify your Father which is in heaven.'" THE OPEN SALOON DOOR --Temperance Day --Destruction The Young Man Who Enters Therein Endangers His Whole After Life. THE LESSON--That both the soul and the body are threatened with destruction by indulgence in strong drink. This temperance lesson possesses one of the "surprise" features which are permissible only when they lose themselves in the greatness of the truth they present. In preparing for the talk, be sure that your guide lines are properly placed. You must be provided with a sharp penknife to use in cutting the "doors" in the picture. The dotted lines for enlarging the picture are omitted for fear of confusion, but these may be drawn over Fig. 62, with a hard pencil, and the desired purpose be accomplished. ~~The Talk.~~ "To us who realize the terrible results of the use of strong drink, and who are trying to do our part in protecting the boys and young men from the blighting influence of the saloon, there is something most discordant in the way in which these places parade their false attractiveness; for many there are who do not realize that they are a trap which, to enter, may prove fatal to life and hope. "The great question is, why can they not see the danger? That is the mystery, for down through the ages has come the thunder of warning against this great enemy of mankind. 'Look not thou upon the wine when it is red,' cries out King Solomon. 'At the last it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an adder.' 'Who hath woe? Who hath sorrow? Who hath wounds without cause? Who hath redness of eyes? They that tarry long at the wine.' "One look at the saloon door should cause the young man to recoil in horror, for he may see there, if he but heed, the very warning of death. Let him look upon it. Let us see what he may behold. [Draw the outline of the windows, the sign and the lower horizontal line of Fig. 62, omitting, for the present, the lettering.] This, let us suppose, is the front of the saloon which invites him to enter its doors. [Draw very lightly the lines indicated by the dotted lines A.] Prominently displayed are the evidences that intoxicating liquors are sold there. [Draw with red chalk the words, "Dealers in Wine, Porter, Whiskeys, Bourbon, Etc.," completing Fig. 62. There is no more drawing to do; the remaining step is taken by the aid of the penknife.] Here we have the front of the saloon. [Illustration: Fig. 62] "There is one thing about the drink habit that we can easily understand, and there is one thing about it that I suppose we shall never understand. We can realize why the man who is bound by this awful curse does not break his bonds; how willingly would he do it _if he believed he could_. But, as we have observed, it is a mystery why a boy or a young man, with numberless powerful and convincing proofs before him, will deliberately enter the doorway of a saloon. But once within, all may seem bright and happy and joyous--perhaps the victim is led to believe that father and mother are misinformed, since there seems to be nothing but gaiety there. But he finds, all too soon, that the liquor which seemed at first to make little difference in his life, is becoming his master, and never does he realize it so well as when he tries to free himself. Why and how has the saloon changed his life? The story is a simple one, and he should have seen the reason before he entered, because there it is, written plainly upon the outside of the place which has meant his ruin. [With your penknife cut the paper along the lines A. Do _not_ cut on the lines B. Fold back the two "doors," at B, as if they were hinged. It may be necessary to hold them back with thumb tacks or pins. To heighten the effect it is well to have placed a blackened sheet of paper beneath the top sheet, so as to produce the effect illustrated. Add "And Poison Kills!" This completes Fig. 63.] [Illustration: Fig. 63] "The saloon may try to hide its real self, but every time it opens its doors to allow one of its victims to come out, it proclaims to the world that it traffics in _poison_--poison fatal to happiness, fatal to hope, fatal to health, fatal to all the higher and nobler aspirations of life. Everywhere is this truth proclaimed. From the insane asylums come the testimony. The jails cry out that it is true. The poor houses tell of its blight. Poverty-burdened homes and broken hearts everywhere proclaim the awful truth. "And yet, the land is cursed with these dram shops whose owners care only for the money which comes to them and which should go to the advancement of the happiness and the uplift of him who is their victim. Boys, may we plead with you today never to allow this thing to enter your life to keep you from being all that God wants you to be?" THE SIMPLE LIFE --Haste --Quietness The True Christian Life is the Safe, Sensible, Simple Life. THE LESSON--That speed and greed must of necessity end in dire disaster. It is a splendid thing to teach the boys and girls the lesson that true happiness attends the quiet, yet active life, while the race after vain things brings only bitterness and disappointment. ~~The Talk.~~ [Because of the details in the drawing of the boat, it is advisable, we think, to complete Fig. 64 before beginning the talk.] "In these days the very air seems filled with the 'speed germ.' Automobiles whiz here and there, and many a hen which now tries to cross the country road never gets more than half way. We who live in town have to keep a sharp lookout or we are apt to share the fate of many a valuable Buff Cochin or Plymouth Rock. Trains speed along their glistening rails faster than ever before. Great ships skim across the ocean in days instead of weeks. The aeroplane, which needs neither steel rails nor water to glide upon, darts through space still more rapidly. Everybody seems to be in a hurry, whether he is or not. We are impatient if the street car is half a minute late, when we are fully aware that we have plenty of time to reach our destination. "Again, we fret and work because we aren't getting rich fast enough. We get mad at our neighbor because he buys an automobile and despise him because we can't figure where he got the money with which to do it. We aren't satisfied with having $50,000. We want $500,000. And if we should get it, we would be just as dissatisfied and go chasing after a million. What's the matter with us? Are we crazy? Some women spend $50,000 a year on their clothes, whose mothers dressed better, looked better, felt better and were better on $500 or even a single hundred! In our mad chase after vain things how blind we are to the things of true worth and usefulness! "Every little while we get a shock that ought to bring us to our senses. When we learn of a terrible railroad wreck, we may expect to find the blame placed on someone for disobeying orders, or for other carelessness, but the true cause in nearly every instance is the cry of the public--of you and me and the other fellow--for speed--more speed--and still more speed! [Illustration: Fig. 64] "The greatest marine disaster in the world's history was the staking of the magnificent White Star line steamship, the Titanic, in April, 1912. [Remove your cover sheet and display Fig. 64.] Larger, faster and more costly than any vessel ever before built, it left its docks with its hundreds of passengers and members of the crew--a floating city in itself. Among the passengers were many whose names are recorded on the rolls of the world's greatest scientists, financiers, artists and authors. With eager, happy hearts, they looked forward to the celebration in New York which awaited the arrival of this foremost of the world's floating palaces. Alas, it was never to be! The story is too horrible for repetition. The fatal collision with the great iceberg--the heroism, the sacrifice, the loss of hundreds of precious lives as the vessel plunged into the depths of the ocean, are known in all their horror. [Add lines to produce Fig. 65.] The few in the lifeboats, looking toward the sinking vessel, heard the ship's band playing 'Nearer, My God, to Thee,' as the great ship, with its living load sank from sight. Hundreds of broken hearts still mourn the loss of dear ones, and all because the big, loaded ship was forced to run a race with time! Those in charge knew of the presence of the icebergs. They could have saved the loss by changing their route or slackening their speed, but the cry was, 'Hurry! Hurry! Break the record!' [Illustration: Fig. 65] "Aren't we all doing the same thing! The speed mania possesses us. The senseless race for worldly wealth and honor blinds us to the presence of threatened disaster. Let us quickly change our course. Christ our Master, points the way of safety. He has gone that way himself, and he asks each humble follower to take the course which He has so plainly marked out. It is the way of truth and peace. If we take it, we shall avoid every danger of a spiritual crash, which may mean disaster for soul as well as body." WARMTH AND COLDNESS --Sunday --Rest A Talk on Sunday Observance and Its Relation to the Christian Life. THE LESSON--That the things we think and do on the Lord's day are a true index of our character. The importance of the matter of Sunday observance must not be underestimated by the teacher whose endeavor it is to mould into true manhood and womanhood the lives of the boys and girls in her care. ~~The Talk.~~ "How many of you boys and girls ever played the game called 'Hide the Thimble?' Ah, I thought so--nearly everybody. One person bides the thimble and all the others try to find it; the one who discovers it first gets the chance to hide it the next time. Sometimes, the one who has hidden it assists the others to find it by saying, 'You are warm' or 'You are cold,' depending upon the nearness to or the distance from the hidden thimble. "When we stop to think about it, we find that many things in the world are just like this game. Your life and mine are a great deal like it. Sometimes there is something within us that tells us we are wandering away from God--that tells us we are _growing cold_. And then, if we heed the warning, we hear the same voice saying we are _growing warmer_, and we know it to be true for we feel the assurance that we are nearer to the Master than before. "I am going to draw on the paper this morning a thermometer, and with this thermometer we shall make some tests to see just what it means to be warm Christians or cold ones. [Draw the thermometer, Fig. 66, complete, excepting the liquid in the bulb.] [Illustration: Fig. 66] "Now we are ready to make the test, and we are going to do it by finding out how we spend our Sundays. Why? Because if you can know just how a boy or girl or a man or woman spends the Lord's day, you can tell pretty nearly just what kind of a person that one is in the sight of Jesus Christ. "God gave us this one day for our greatest good. He wants us to use it as a day which shall make us strong and well, bright and happy. If we use it any other way, we are sure to make one of the greatest mistakes of our lives. So certain is God that we must have a day of rest and upbuilding once in each seven days that he made a law concerning it. It is one of the Ten Commandments, which says that we must 'remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy.' God knows best. When He establishes a law, _it must not be broken or the one who breaks it will suffer_. If the child touches fire with his hand, after being warned by his mother not to do it, his suffering is the result of doing what the mother forbade. When God tells us to keep His day holy, every one of us who disobeys that command must suffer. Let us see how it works. Bishop Vincent says: 'Sunday is ill-spent if it sends us back to our weekly work irritated, weary and reluctant'--and Sunday will never do that for us unless we misuse the day which God has given us. If we spend the day in worrying about our everyday affairs, if we spend it in chasing around after senseless amusements which weary the body without enlightening the heart and the mind, if we allow ourselves to follow paths which lead away from truth and right, then we will show up Monday morning irritated, weary and reluctant and our Sunday observance temperature is low indeed. [With red chalk, fill the bulb and a portion of the thermometer tube, completing Fig. 66.] "But Bishop Vincent also says, 'Sunday is well spent if it sends us back refreshed in body, mind and spirit to take up our duties with new inspiration of hope, patience and courage.' And we can all do this; and, as we do it, we shall find a growing delight in it. If we have been wasting our Sundays--spending them in such a way that when Monday morning comes we look back upon the Sabbath with regret--let us begin right now to form habits which shall make Sunday a delight--the brightest, the most restful, the most interesting, the most refreshing of all times. And let us be thankful that a day of this kind can come to us so often. It is then that our Sunday observance temperature will rise to its highest point. [With red chalk add lines to complete Fig. 67.] [Illustration: Fig. 67] "Dr. Lyman Abbott, like many others points out the folly of attending church services in the morning and then passing the remainder of the day in noisy or wearisome celebration. He calls it a 'weekly composite of Thanksgiving and Fourth of July,'--Thanksgiving in the quiet of the morning, and Fourth of July in the noisy afternoon. "Such an observance of the day is displeasing to God who gave us the day for our greatest good and not to be wasted in idleness and folly. "Keeping the Lord's day holy doesn't deprive us of activity, but it changes the course of our action from paths of wastefulness to fields of the greatest good. There are many things to do on Sunday, and in the doing of some of them right at your hands, you will have discovered the best way for you to get the most out of one of God's greatest gifts to his children." THE DESERT and the MOUNTAIN --Decision Day --Conversion A Decision Day Illustration From the Far West--"Living Water." THE LESSON--That as the desert cannot become productive until it receives the waters of irrigation, so the arid soul, if it is to become fruitful, must receive the water of life. While this illustration is especially applicable to the service of Decision Day, it is recommended for any occasion where there is opportunity to speak of conversion or a returning to Christ. ~~The Talk.~~ "A gentleman, a little past middle life, was traveling from the east in a luxurious passenger train crossing one of the far western states. As he gazed from the car window, his face wore an expression of interest, which developed into one of wonder and excitement. "'Can it be,' he exclaimed, addressing the man who sat with him, 'that I am passing through the very same country which I saw but a few short years ago? It seems impossible!' "Now, why did it seem impossible? Let us find out. It appears that when the man traveled the state before, he looked out of the car windows upon a scene of barrenness and desolation. [As you speak, draw Fig. 68 with brown crayon. Be sure to leave the mountain peaks white, but, in order to secure an impressive pastel effect use the broad side of your brown and your yellow crayons lightly over the entire area of desert and mountain side.] The earth was dry and parched, and in all directions, as far as the eye could see, grew only the sage brush--the mark of the desert. There was no life, excepting an occasional coyote, and the reflected heat and light made travel almost unbearable. The monotonous earth was composed of the leveled deposits of the mountains which the sun had baked for centuries. [Illustration: Fig. 68] [As you continue, change the scene by covering the brown with green. Draw the foliage of the trees with green and the trunks with brown. Life may be added by touching the trees with the red and the yellow and the orange to indicate the fruit. The thought is to transform the desert into a place of fruitfulness. This completes Fig. 69.] [Illustration: Fig. 69] "But now, all was changed as if by a magic touch. In place of the sage brush and the broad wastes of baking earth, the man beheld here great orchards, with hundreds of fruit trees, laden with glistening apples, oranges and pears, and wide fields were covered with bounteous crops of grain. The once arid wilderness was now the fertile dwelling place of many happy families. "What had wrought this great change? Nothing but the hand and mind of man, guided by the maker of the universe, who seems to have stored rich treasures everywhere for those who will reach out for them. It happened in this way: "One day, a certain man beheld the snow-capped mountains--cold and forbidding--and then he turned his gaze to the earth--parched and dead. He knew that if he could only unite the waters of the snow-capped mountains with the dead earth below them, 'the desert would blossom as the rose.' Before this thing happened, two-thirds of the entire area of the United States was a desert waste. But the waters were brought down, and the great transformation followed. Gradually, the arid waste is disappearing and the forces of irrigation are expanding; and the vast western country is unfolding to the millions who are spreading over its newly-discovered areas of wealth. "Let us turn quickly to the application. There are, in every community, many human deserts--men and women, boys and girls, whose unproductive lives need the waters of life to make them blossom and bring forth fruit in His kingdom. Perhaps they have beheld Him only as a cold, forbidding mountain peak, and if this is true, they should catch the spirit of the Psalmist who cried, 'My soul thirsteth for thee; my flesh longeth for thee in a dry and thirsty land where no water is.' "In the case of the desert, it is conversion, pure and simple. May the heavenly waters of His grace come to each one of us today, whether it be a first decision to be united with Him, or whether it be a decision to return to Him whom we have deserted. "Our duty toward our fellow men conies before us happily in these words from the prophet Isaiah, 'If thou draw out thy soul to the hungry and afflicted soul, thou shalt be like a spring of water whose waters fail not.'" REFLECTING AND BLESSING --Helpfulness --Testimony Those Who Are "The Light of the World" Should be a Guide to Those Who Are in Darkness. THE LESSON--That those who have received the light from God's Word should gladly reflect that light to those about them. The central thought of this illustration is the responsibility which rests upon God's children in the spreading of the brightness of Christianity to those who must receive it through them. It is appropriate for many occasions and will fit audiences of all ages in which the children form a part. ~~The Talk.~~ "It is said that once upon a time a teacher asked a boy to tell her whether the sun or the moon is of the greater importance to the world. "'The moon,' replied the boy. "'Why,' inquired the teacher, 'do you think the moon is of more benefit to the world than the sun is?' "'Because,' said the boy, 'the moon shines at night when we need it, but the sun shines only in the daytime when we do not need it.' "That was certainly a strange kind of an answer; wasn't it? I will draw the earth and the moon to show more plainly just how mistaken the boy was. [Draw the earth circle and the moon circle, and show the shaded parts as you proceed.] "Here we have the earth with one-half in darkness, and here is the moon with one-half in darkness. This side of the earth is light, while this other side would be very dark indeed if it were not for the rays of light coming from the moon, like this: [Draw dotted line showing rays of light going from the moon to the earth, completing Fig. 70]. [Illustration: Fig. 70] "Now, then we ask, can the moon shine upon the earth all of itself without any help? Ah, no--and that is the thing the boy didn't know, or he never would have answered as he did. Where does the moon get its light from? Yes, from the sun. I will draw part of a circle to represent the sun. [Draw the sun.] And this dotted line [draw dotted line from sun to moon, completing Fig. 71] shows how the sun sends its brilliant light to the moon, so that the moon may reflect part of it back to the earth which would be enshrouded in darkness if it were not for the sun. The moon acts just like a mirror which you hold in your hand and use to reflect the sun's rays wherever you please. [Illustration: Fig. 71] "Sometimes the moon gets between the earth and the sun, and it is then that it does not reflect the sun's light and it is then that we have nights of inky blackness. "I wonder if we have ever stopped to think how very much we Christian people are, or ought to be, like the moon. Just as the sun warms and lights everything about it, so the love of God lights and warms those who turn their faces toward him. We can truly say with the Psalmist, that 'the Lord is my light and salvation,' but we have not fulfilled our mission on earth if we are willing merely to receive this light of happiness, of contentment, of trust and of faith, without reflecting it in every possible practical way. When Jesus said to those about him, 'Ye are the light of the world,' he also said, 'Let your light shine,' and He pictured to His followers their duty of spreading the light of their blessings to the world of darkness about them. Paul touched upon the same great truth when he wrote to the church at Rome that its members should be 'a light to them which are in darkness.' "How may we best reflect this light of heaven? It is for each of us to determine this for himself, being governed entirely by his circumstances, his abilities and his opportunities. But, first of all, we must be sure we have received that light as God would have us receive it. None of us can be perfect, but we can live close to our great ideal and by learning constantly from Him, we shall find the light coming to us more clearly and more beautifully as the days go by. We shall find a deeper sympathy for those who suffer, warmer love for those whom we may have condemned, and an increasing desire to be of greater help to those who really need help. When we have reached this condition--when we have truly received the light--we need give little thought to the manner in which we shall reflect it. "Abraham Lincoln once said, 'I do the best I know, the very best I can, and I mean to keep right on doing so till the end.' Such a life sends its rays down through the generations that are to follow, and its reflected light never fades away." HIDDEN SUNSHINE --Missionary Day --Love How the Warmth and Brightness Stored Away Ages Ago Are Now of Service to Man. THE LESSON--That the true missionary spirit is the spreading abroad of the warmth of God's blessings which we have received. The principles governing missions are permeated with the elements of love, unselfishness and self-sacrifice. This talk may be used, therefore, as a missionary day topic or on any occasion in which it is appropriate to dwell upon any of its attributes. ~~The Talk.~~ "Once upon a time, long before there were any people on the earth and perhaps before there were any animals or birds or reptiles here, the world was covered with an immense, luxuriant growth of vegetation. How do we know it? The geologists tell us so. They have dug deep into the earth and they have examined what they found, and they have long ago determined that this condition is true. It would seem that in those ages of long ago the world must have been very different from what it is now, for the seas flowed over vast areas which are now solid ground. Immense trees grew in those times, and the great ferns and palms and tropical plants grew in portions where now they cannot grow because it is too cold. I want to draw some trees and bushes to represent this great growth. [Draw trees and bushes of Fig. 72 in green.] And also the bright warm sun which, together with the abundance of water, caused them to grow so profusely. [Draw the sun in orange, completing Fig. 72.] Then, the geologists tell us, there came a great change. There were awful volcanic disturbances which caused the sea to overflow great areas of these trees and bushes and ferns, and they were buried from sight by a vast expanse of water. Gradually, though, another change came. The waters receded into lesser areas and the ground arose from beneath the waves. But the trees and the bushes and the ferns were gone. Where? They had been buried deep beneath the mud and sand and stones which the waters had washed over them. Then, after that, God created the monster mastodon and the mammoth and many other beasts which have since disappeared from the earth, and finally man was created to have dominion over the earth. For many centuries afterward, no one knew that the earth was once the place of immense trees and ferns and rank vegetable growth which had since been buried beneath the surface. But one day, some of this old, buried vegetable matter was found and brought to the surface of the earth. By that time it was not green any longer. It was hard and compact and looked very much like black stone. Someone seemed to think it would burn if fire were applied to it. And, strange to say, it did burn. [Illustration: Fig. 72] "Thus was coal discovered. "Ever since then, we have been digging from the depths of the earth the coal which was deposited there in those ages of the past. And it is blessing the world everywhere. [With the broad side of your black crayon, quickly cover the vegetation of Fig. 72. Then, with broad strokes of the orange chalk, or with a combination of the yellow and the red, draw the flames, completely covering the sun, and finishing Fig. 73.] Coal is now the chief of the elements which bring warmth to our homes, our places of business and everywhere that we are spending our time indoors; it is the great factor in our great manufacturing and transportation enterprises. God laid it all up for us millions of years ago! [Illustration: Fig. 73] "Thus do we find a splendid example of what real service is. Jesus came to the earth to be of service to the world. When he departed, He left behind Him the command that the gospel should be preached to every creature--that the light and warmth from His life should not remain buried in us but that we should take that warmth to every portion of the earth, that it might, like the hidden sunshine in the coal, bring life to those in the cold and darkness of heathenism. "Not many of us are able to carry this word to foreign lands or to the distant parts of our own land; but we have an important part in it in contributing our money, our encouragement and our prayers. "And not only may we do this but we may begin right here in our midst to make our school and church a missionary blessing to those nearby ones who need its warmth. Remember that 'we are ambassadors, therefore, on behalf of Christ, as though God were entreating by us.'" "JOHNNIE APPLESEED" --Boys' Day --Devotion Story of the Man Who Braved the Dangers of the Wilderness to Bless the Early Settlers. THE LESSON--That the influence of a well-spent life is its best and most enduring monument. It always adds fame to a good name. The story of "Johnnie Appleseed" is dear to the hearts of thousands of boys and girls throughout America. The writer has listened interestedly to narratives of the late George W. Brackenridge, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who remembered clearly the visits of "Johnnie" to his early home. The story is abundant in good lessons, and ought to be of special interest on Boys' Day. ~~The Talk.~~ "I am going to talk to you today about a man who paddled his canoe along the rivers in the middle west and roamed the wild forests when there were very few settlers in that country and while the hostile Indians brought terror to the hearts of many who had braved the dangers of the frontier. This sounds like a dime novel tale, doesn't it? Yes, but it is a true story. It is the story of 'Johnnie Appleseed.' How many of you ever heard of him? [Govern yourself in the following remarks, by the acquaintance of your audience with the subject.] "It was in the year 1801, that John Chapman then a young man of twenty-six years, aroused some interest by appearing with several sacks of appleseeds which he had procured from the cider mills in western Pennsylvania. The first orchard he planted was on the farm of Isaac Stadden in Licking county, Ohio, and, from this beginning, his enthusiasm developed until he decided to go all through the wilderness as far as he could reach and plant apple orchards wherever they could be made to grow. "One day a lone settler near Marietta, Ohio, saw a strange craft floating down the Ohio river. The boatman was John Chapman, but from that time forward he was known as 'Johnnie Appleseed' by the settlers between the Ohio river and the Great Lakes and as far west as the territory which is now the State of Indiana. I will draw a map to show you where he was and where he went. [In the drawing of the "map," which is, in reality, at the last, the branch of an apple tree, use brown crayon for the "rivers" and green for the "orchards," carrying the drawings forward as the various points are mentioned. Strict accuracy has not been observed in the map drawing.] [Illustration: Fig. 74] "Here is the Ohio river, where he first appeared. [Draw the Ohio river. Do not label the rivers. The names are given for your guidance only.] He had two canoes tied side by side, and they were filled with apple seeds. He paddled against the stream as he turned his canoe into the Muskingum river, and then up into the Walhonding river, and then into the Mohican and finally into the creek called the Black Pork. It took a long time to go this short distance, for he stopped off every little while to find suitable places in the wilderness to plant apple seeds. And these, of course, grew up, in later years, to fruitful orchards. [Draw the orchards in green. Your drawing will now resemble Fig. 74.] This was but the beginning. From that time until 'Johnnie Appleseed' was 72 years of age he devoted his life to converting the waste wild land into orchards. During the war of 1812 he warned settlers against the Indians and helped to save many lives. He dressed in skins and was respected by the Indians, who considered him a very wise medicine man. Many trips he made back to Pennsylvania, whenever his seed supply was exhausted. In every rude cabin home which he visited, 'Johnnie Appleseed' read the Scriptures, and hundreds were helped to better lives through his teachings. He was noted for his gentleness and kindness. He died, in 1847, near Fort Wayne, Ind. "Here was a man, boys, who devoted his life to helping others. Dr. Hillis, of New York, has woven his life into a most beautiful story, 'The Quest of John Chapman,' and others have sung his praises in verse and narrative. Let us learn from him the lesson of devoting one's life to making other people happy. I will add a few lines to indicate all that John Chapman tried to do. [Add apples in red, converting the map into a branch bearing apples, Fig. 75.] But he did vastly more than this. He brought brightness into many a heart during his long years of usefulness, and while he helped to make the Middle West a fruit-growing country, the real fruit of his work was that of helpfulness, sympathy and brightness through Christ, who guided him in his strange work. [Illustration: Fig. 75] "'A sower went forth to sow.' If the kind of ground in which he sowed did not bring forth fruit, it was not the fault of the tireless sower." PUBLIC SENTIMENT --Home Department Day --Unity It is a Powerful Element--An Illustration for Home Department Day. THE LESSON--That the earnest prayers and work of the stay-at-home members are a great inspiration to the active workers in the school. Home Department Day in the Sunday School may be made a most helpful event in the life of the school and in the lives of those who do not enjoy the privilege of attending the services regularly. Many who are usually employed on Sunday, in hotels, boarding houses, railroad positions, and the like, can ofttimes arrange to attend this session prepared especially for them. It is assumed that you have been supplying the members of the Home Department with lesson helps, and that you have kept in touch with them. Souvenirs may be sent to invalids and aged people as well as to other members who cannot be present. The colors are purple and white; the flower, the violet. ~~The Talk.~~ "I am going to draw for you today the portrait of one who exerts the most powerful influence in this community. [Draw the outline of the head, omitting the facial lines. Fig. 76.] [Illustration: Fig. 76] "But before I finish the portrait I want you to know that if it were not for this one we would never have had our beautiful parks or our magnificent court house. It was he who attended to the paving of our streets. We would have had no public library but for him. There would have been no public schools here, and no church spires would be pointing heavenward, if he had not sanctioned them. We would never have had our water works system, our sewerage system or our electric lights. In short, we never would have had any of the great public benefactions but for him. And I am sorry to add, too, that we would never have had any saloons but for him.[Footnote: Substitute words describing local conditions.] [Draw the letters composing the words, "Public Sentiment," completing Fig. 77.] [Illustration: Fig. 77] "Yes, this is Public Sentiment. And what is public sentiment? I think it may be described best as the expression of the will of the greatest number of people in a community. It is the voice of the majority. It is only when people want things that they get them. As the years go by, the people themselves are becoming more and more mighty in directing the work of those whom they have chosen to represent them. "A contractor is not the builder of a public library or a public school. These are built by the people who are united in sentiment for a library or a school; the contractor is only the hired man who does the bidding of the people. The residents of a city themselves bring into existence beautiful streets, magnificent public buildings and ideal health conditions; or else they bring to themselves the saloon and other degrading institutions, all depending upon public sentiment. "And so it is with the church and the Sunday School. The human factor which keeps this school prosperous comes not from the superintendent or the officers or the teachers alone. Its success is due largely to the public sentiment outside of the school. It is the sentiment of the fathers and mothers of these boys and girls, many of whom, while their hearts are with us, cannot attend the sessions regularly. It is the sentiment of you who are so loyal to us and whose prayers for the school have been so effective. It is the sentiment of you members of the Home Department who have shown in every way the appreciation of this school. The knowledge that you are with us is a powerful help. "During the dark days of the civil war there were two armies fighting the battles of the North and of the South--the army that was in the field and the army that stayed at home, the great silent partners in the awful conflict. The latter was composed largely of the noble mothers and sisters, whose daily prayers ascended to heaven while their sad hearts and nimble fingers provided the comforts for the brave boys at the front. "So, with the members of the Home Department, we have come to think of you as 'silent partners' in the work of our school. And as occasion develops, we want you to feel that here is your place of activity--your school. "But we shall remember the words of Paul, 'We have many members in one body, and all the members have not the same office,' and we shall not forget the important places in our school of those who are enrolled in our Home Department." THE BROOK --Gossip --Our Words The Life Which is Tainted by the Habit of Speaking Unkind Words Falls Short of Its Highest Mission. THE LESSON--That the subtle practice of speaking carelessly concerning other people poisons many an otherwise worthy life. The teacher who leads the child to cultivate the strictest care in his thoughts and in his words, as they relate especially to those about him, has helped to lay the foundation of a life of true worth to his fellows. The tendency is toward a habit of fault-finding criticism which not only harms the object of the disparaging words, but which injures and undermines the usefulness of the life of the habitually unfair critic. ~~The Talk.~~ "Marion Lawrance, whose influence permeates much of the work for the advancement of the Sunday School of today, uses a most striking illustration to show the baneful result of the use of words which harm those about whom they are spoken. Standing before his audience, he displays a rose in full bloom. Mr. Lawrance then deliberately destroys the beautiful flower by removing one daintily tinted leaf after another until only the bare stem remains and the delicate petals litter the floor and the speaker's table. During the process, the speaker explains that none but God could have made such a rose; it speaks of His love and His power, of His tenderness and of His care for His children. But any human hand can destroy it. So it is with that treasure which we call our good name--our reputation among men. Through the grace of God we may live so true that we deserve the respect and honor of our fellowmen; and yet, that good name, that reputation, may suffer irreparable injury at the hands of one who, through deliberate design or careless habit, speaks words concerning us which cause us to be misjudged or misunderstood. Says Samuel Butler: "'The feeblest vermin can destroy As sure as stoutest beasts of prey; And only with their eyes and breath, Infect and poison men to death.' "Let us illustrate the point by placing on the paper a little landscape. [Draw Fig. 78 complete leaving the right half of the paper blank.] We have before us a great, wide river, a stream which forms an important channel of commerce. Each year, traffic is carried over its waters which amount to many hundreds of thousands of dollars. Cities have grown up along its banks; in many ways it has been a wonderful blessing. Its silent waters flow on and on through the years, blessing generation after generation of men. [Illustration: Fig. 78] "But, as we turn from the big silent stream and wander through the woods our ears catch the sound of falling waters, and then we come suddenly upon a scene like this. [Draw the second landscape, completing Fig. 79.] It is a pretty little brook, you say. Yes, it is, but we smile as we compare the noisy little stream with the mighty silent river, and our minds dwell upon the fact that they are but reflections of life itself. Just as the little brook makes more noise than the big river, so do many people with small minds cause more agitation and trouble in a community than people whose lives are governed by the principles of charity, kindness and common sense. [Illustration: Fig. 79] "Let us watch, therefore, to see that our thoughts as well as our words are such as to add to the happiness of those about us. Calmness and carefulness will accomplish this. Let us guard well against the ill-spoken word, however harmless it may seem. "Said one girl to another, 'Don't you think Julia is a splendid girl?' "Oh, yes,' responded the other, 'but I have sometimes wondered whether or not she is always sincere in what she says.' "How easy it is to attach a sting to an innocent remark! Our lightly-spoken words may blight the life of an innocent one, for words repeated are like the rolling snowball which grows larger as it is pushed over the fallen snow. As one dog, howling in the night, causes all the other dogs in town to howl, so we may start a needless alarm by a single unfair word. "Let us praise the good, always, for none--not even ourselves--is perfect." THE DECEITFULNESS OF SIN --Sin --Allurement The Modern Artificial Fishing Bait As an Illustration of Seductiveness. THE LESSON--That sin gains its victims through the most alluring deception. This illustration should prove valuable in presenting to the minds of boys of all ages the truth of the seductiveness of sin, as the treatment of the subject brings in a discussion of a sport with which all are more or less familiar. ~~The Talk.~~ "At the beginning of our talk today, I am going to place on the drawing paper the picture of a fish. [Draw Fig. 80, complete.] It looks like a very large fish, but, as a matter of fact, it is a very greatly enlarged picture of a very little fish. In reality, it is a minnow only about three inches long, the kind which the bigger fish like for dessert, and which, therefore, are usually pretty careful where they go. [Illustration: Fig. 80] "Now, I want to see, by having you hold up your hands, just how many of you boys like to go fishing? One, two, three--why, nearly all of you. Some, I suppose are fond of still-fishing--that is to fish from the bank or from an anchored boat, and not move around very much. And some like to troll, I suppose--that is to use an artificial bait and let the line drag in the water quite a distance back of the row boat as you propel it through the water. And others, perhaps, like to cast--that is, to throw the bait away out into the water and then bring it in again by winding up the line on the reel. And some, I suppose, like to use other methods of catching fish. But I am going to speak only of the artificial bait which is used by those who troll and cast. "Nearly always, the fisherman buys his artificial bait from a store which sells all sorts of artificial minnows and other false bait which have been made by experts. And who are these experts? They are men who have spent years trying to find out the best way to fool the fish into believing they see their prospective dinner, when in reality they are going to their death. One kind of bait is the artificial minnow. The manufacturer makes a wooden minnow, shaped like the real minnow, whose picture I have drawn; then he paints it in the colors of the live minnow, and sometimes he puts on some bright metal which whirls in the water and attracts the attention of the fish. If the deception were to stop there, very little harm would be done, but to all this the manufacturer adds a lot of ugly hooks, sometimes as many as fifteen. [It is well to draw the lines suggested as the talk proceeds, and finish by drawing the hooks at this point, completing Fig. 81.] When this attractive artificial minnow is made to glide through the water, the fish, seeing nothing of the hooks or else knowing nothing of their harmfulness, opens his mouth wide and tries to swallow the bait. Immediately, the ugly hooks catch him, and unless he can tear loose he is doomed. He is deceived. He finds out his mistake when it is too late. [Illustration: Fig. 81] "Sometimes, the fisherman uses a spoon hook or other bait in which the hooks are hidden beneath some bright-colored feathers or other material which looks tempting to the fish. The intended victim dashes after the alluring bait, seeing nothing but the glitter of the bright metal or the brilliancy of the colors. He loses his life as a result. "It seems strange--doesn't it--that fish can be fooled in this way? And yet, I am not sure but that people are just as foolish themselves, very often. Ask the drunkard how he happened to reach the low depths to which he has fallen, and he will tell you that when he, as a young man, took his first glass, it was in a brilliantly-lighted place where, it seemed, the air was filled with good fellowship, and he thought he was happy. At that very moment, he was pursuing the glittering, attractive bait which later proved to be his utter ruination. _He had not seen the hidden hooks._ Ask the thief, confined in his lonely cell, how he happened to become an outcast, and he may tell you that it started in school when he thought it a very happy thing to cheat in his examinations and thus acquire the habit of being dishonest. He did not see the hidden hooks which the evil one had placed there to deceive and catch him. "Jesus wants all the boys and girls to be watchful of the snares of life and to live so truly that they will easily escape the temptations which abound everywhere. 'Take heed,' he said, 'Watch ye, therefore, and pray always, that you may be accounted worthy to escape all these things.'" THE MASK --Sincerity --Truth Let Us Ask Ourselves Earnestly if We Are Guilty of Wearing It. THE LESSON--That the world honors and respects an honest man, one who does not fear the opinion of those about him. We recall the words of Jesus, who, in His Sermon on the Mount, warned his hearers to "beware of false prophets which come to you in sheeps' clothing, but inwardly are ravening wolves," and we reflect how applicable are the words in modern times. Everywhere, one must beware the snares and deceit of the servants of Satan, who, with pleasing outward appearance, entrap their victims. It is a delight and a satisfaction, then, to find real truth and sincerity in the earth, and it is to be found if we but look for it. ~~The Talk.~~ "It is said that when a thief wants to rob a house, he tries to find the home of an honest man. Why? Because he thinks that the honest man, who never takes advantage of his fellowmen, will be least apt to suspect that anyone will take advantage of _him_. "But the same truth holds good when one honest man seeks to deal with another honest man. A true man, when he comes to us with any plan of work or investment may be relied upon to say just what he thinks and believes. He is dependable. It is a pleasure and a satisfaction, when we are listening to the words of another person, to know that that other person is speaking the truth. But not everyone is to be depended upon in this way. There is another kind of man who tells you something in apparent sincerity, but when he calls upon the next person he may tell the story in an entirely different way. Why? Because he believes that the second person will be better pleased with the revised version. [Illustration: Fig. 82] "How often do we find an attractive face which gains our entire confidence, a face, pleasant to see and agreeable in every way. [Draw face, completing Fig. 82.] And then, how often are we pained and shocked and disappointed when something happens which allows us to look into the real character of the person and we find that his real self is anything but agreeable and worthy of confidence. [Draw lines to complete Fig. 83.] Such a discovery, however, should not cause us to lose faith in our brothers. Truth, character, and a splendid degree of manhood abound everywhere. [Illustration: Fig. 83] "Boys and girls, begin now the formation of habits which will make you strong, honest, worthy men and women. Sometimes you see a man who is fiery, cross, ill-tempered and surly. Again you will find one who is fawning, over-polite, subservient and altogether wearisome because, in trying to make himself agreeable he becomes a bore and a nuisance. Both of these kinds of men have failed to reach the right goal of manhood. We must have backbone, firmness and stamina, but we must be willing to bend sometimes or we are apt to get some pretty hard bumps when we hold our heads too high. Remember that you can't please everybody. Sometimes it is best to say 'Yes' when people ask you to do certain things, and sometimes a flat-footed 'No' is the thing. Remember that if you agree with everybody who expresses an opinion, you have the respect of nobody. Think for yourself, but think carefully. If you choose to grovel at the feet of those about you, you must expect to get stepped on and run over. Above all, cultivate a habit of being so straightforward and above-board that no one will ever doubt your sincerity. Don't wear a mask of sincerity when the real character is less honorable. To do this is to cheat yourself more than anyone else, for the deception is ofttimes but thinly veiled. "In his early life, in the year 1844, Lord Beaconsfield, said, in an address before the Literary and Scientific Institution of London: 'A man can be what he pleases. Every one of you can be what he desires to be. I have resolved to hold a certain position, and if I live I will.' It is not known to what position Benjamin Disraeli referred, but he attained to the highest position possible to any man in England, notwithstanding that his status as a Jew was a strong barrier against his progress. On his deathbed he said, 'Nothing can resist a will which will stake even existence for its fulfillment.' "That is determination. Such determination will make any man what he wants to be. It will enable every one of us to reach his highest ideal. And may that ideal be to shun the dishonest and seek the honest life in its every element." WASHINGTON'S STRENGTH --Washington's Birthday --Trust Through His Great Trials He Remained Steadfast in His Hold on God. THE LESSON--That trouble either adds to our spiritual strength or else casts us down, depending on the stability of our character and our hold on God. This illustration, especially useful on the occasion of the birthday of George Washington, on the 22d of February, is adaptable to the needs of the younger boys and girls, but its significance may give hope and strength to the older ones as well. ~~The Talk.~~ "Boys, how many of you ever flew a kite? Well, that's fine! You will be able, then, to answer the question I am going to ask you. Now, listen. If the wind is blowing from the west, which way do you run to make the kite go up? Yes, you run toward the west, right against the wind. If you run with the wind, the kite won't go up at all, will it? [Draw the kite as in Fig. 84; black outline, red tail.] [Illustration: Fig. 84] "One might think that when a strong wind blew against the kite, it would be blown away like a piece of loose newspaper; but that isn't so. And when a gentle breeze increases to a strong, steady wind, the kite goes higher and higher, PROVIDED it is made of good material, and PROVIDED, also, that someone holds tightly to the other end of the string. But if the string breaks, down comes the kite! Why? Because the very thing which holds it down is the same thing which holds it up! "You may never have thought of it, but each of us boys and girls and each one of us men and women is a good deal like a kite. When the winds of trouble and worry blow against us they may cause us to rise higher or they may blow us down. Today, I want to tell you how George Washington acted when troubles came to him, and if any man in the world's history was loaded down with soul-trying troubles it was 'the Father of His Country.' Listen while I read for you a few sentences from private letters which he wrote during the Revolutionary war. [It will be well to have these and other extracts written so you may read them verbatim.] 'I am wearied almost to death with the retrograde motion of things, and I solemnly protest that a pecuniary reward of twenty thousand pounds a year would not induce me to undergo what I do, and, after all, perhaps, lose my character.' Again: 'Our affairs are in a more distressed, ruinous, and deplorable condition than they have been since the commencement of the war,' and he adds that unless congress comes valiantly to his assistance at once the country will sink into irretrievable ruin. Again he writes: 'Every idea you can form of our distresses will fall short of the reality. I have almost ceased to hope.' These were dark days, and the winds of adversity were beating mercilessly against the man into whose hands had been placed the cares of the great struggle for national existence. He was like the kite bravely battling against the wind. But he was made of good stuff, and there was a strong hand holding the string, for we read again from his letters: "'How it will all end, God in his great goodness, will direct. I am thankful for His protection to this time. I have a consolation within that no earthly effort can deprive me of, and that is that neither ambitions nor interested motives have influenced my conduct. The arrows of malevolence, therefore, however barbed and well pointed, can never reach the most vulnerable part of me; though, while I am set up as a mark they will be continually aimed.' "His trust was in God, and so shocked was he when he learned that the habit of swearing was growing in the army that he issued a general order calling upon officers to set the men a good example, and added, 'The practice is foolish and wicked--a vice so mean and low, without temptation, that every man of sense and character detests and despises it. We can have little hope of the blessing of heaven on our arms if we insult it by our folly and our impiety.' "No, George Washington was not the man to give way under severe trials. He was not like the kite whose framework breaks or whose paper covering is torn by the force of the wind. Under these conditions a kite must dash to the earth. [Draw the rent in the kite with black. Remove the drawing from the board, invert it, and then re-attach it to the board, Fig. 85.] But when the trials came to Washington he arose in his might to meet them, knowing that God would be with him. [Illustration: Fig. 85] "Let us ever remember that God is our strength, just as he was the strength of George Washington." "A MERRY HEART" --Cheerfulness --Smiles To Cultivate the Spirit of Cheerfulness is to Bless and Brighten Other Lives. THE LESSON--That in no way can we serve those about us better than by the kind of service which reveals the true gladness of the Christian life. The Christian religion is based upon principles which lift us from sin and its attendant evils of discouragement, unrest, despondency and suffering, to the higher plane of confidence, hope, praise and love. It is a religion of good cheer, which God's children must reflect to a darkened world if they are to fulfill their earthly mission. ~~The Talk.~~ "I wonder how many of us are getting too busy or too lazy to smile. I see some, who were looking pretty solemn before I made the remark whose faces look a little brighter now--and some have already broken into a most gladsome smile. I'm glad of it. Smiles, they say are the least expensive things we can give to other people, and sometimes they value them more than silver or gold. But how can we smile unless we feel like it? That's the question. Well, we will feel like it if we think right things and do right things, living close to the Master, even if things do go very, very much awry sometimes. The Bible has a good many things to say about smiles, and it isn't at all guarded in declaring that smiles are worth a good deal more than words, unless those words are very carefully spoken. Here is what we find in the book of Proverbs: 'A merry heart maketh a cheery countenance.' So, we find, it is necessary to feel happy within before we can show it on the outside. And then it says: 'He that is of a merry heart hath a continual feast,' which shows that if we are truly happy, everything about us will appear brighter and more delightful. Again, it says: 'A merry heart doeth good like a medicine.' How true this is; you never saw a sour, gloomy pessimistic person who was in real good health, while the one who shows the most gladsome face is either in splendid physical condition or else has risen above his pains and distress in his appreciation of God's blessings. They are always believing that 'it might be worse." "But is this cheerfulness for the sole benefit of the one who smiles? Not a bit of it. We cannot do evil without harming someone; neither can we cultivate cheerfulness without proving a blessing to others. Here, I want to draw for you the picture of a boy who doesn't seem to have this happy disposition of which we have been speaking. [Draw the lines to complete Fig. 86.] Perhaps he looks this way most of the time--it is a bad beginning. We see him here, coming down the street; perhaps he will meet one of the other boys. Ah, yes, here comes another boy; and this boy has a merry heart, if we are to judge from his facial expression. [Draw the second boy.] [Illustration: Fig. 86] "We have no way of knowing what this second boy said to the first boy, but we can tell from his face that he has a merry heart. And what about the first boy? Ah, he, too, has caught it, for his face reflects the smile of the second boy. [Add line to change the facial expression of the first boy, completing Fig. 87.] [Illustration: Fig. 87] "We refer again to the book of Proverbs, and there we find that 'a word spoken in due season, how good it is!' It must have been such a word that the first boy spoke to the second. 'A word fitly spoken,' we read again, 'is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.' But we must choose the right words to go along with the smile, and the greatest danger seems to be that we will say too much, for the same book of Proverbs says that 'he that hath knowledge spareth his words.' He knows how to choose and when to stop. Let us remember that the smile counts for more than mere words. The smile is a universal language understood everywhere on earth. It is the badge of friendship, and that is the thing which the world craves. "A friend of Haydn, the great composer, once asked him how it happened that his church music was so full of gladness, and Haydn replied, 'I cannot make it otherwise. I write according to the thoughts I feel; when I think upon my God, my heart is so full of joy that the notes dance from my pen.' "To the one who needs your smile there is nothing else in all the world, perhaps, that will prove so life-giving. Many a despondent one has been thrilled with vital power, lifted, and ennobled by the knowledge that another heart beats with it in tenderness and sympathy." WHAT IS BEST? --Success --Work Success Means the Constant Employment of Our Best Faculties in the Noblest of Service. THE LESSON--That true success does not depend so much upon what you get out of this world, as upon what you accomplish for others. The magic word, "Success," is before each one of us to inspire us to larger deeds; but let us not forget that many a rich man has made a great failure of life, while many a poor man has made a great success of it. The talk deals with the subject in a commercial way, as an illustration of success in the truest sense. ~~The Talk.~~ "Every one of us desires to be successful. But some of us have one definition of success while others have an entirely different view. Many are sure that the attainment of wealth is the measure of success; some are equally sure that the achievement of political or social honors marks the arrival at the goal of success; and so on. But, no matter how we may have defined success, many of us who have fallen short of our ideals declare in the bitterness of disappointment that we could have reached the top if we had only had the advantages that others enjoyed; if we had been helped at the proper time, or if we could have had enough money or strength. "Let us take the example of the young man who occupies a high position in the commercial world. We will draw a picture of him seated at his desk. [Draw Fig. 88, complete.] This young man is at the head of an important department of a great manufacturing concern, and there are rumors that he is about to be advanced to a place of greater responsibility. He receives a large salary. It is a part of his duties to direct the work of many men in his department. These men come to him for instructions. We will draw one of these men. [Draw man to complete Fig. 89.] What is passing in the mind of the man who stands here receiving his instructions? This is what he is saying to himself: 'I cannot understand why this other man, who is no older than I am, should have such a good position, while I must stay in a place of less importance. He must have a pull.' And he goes away with bitterness in his heart. [Illustration: Fig. 88] [Illustration: Fig. 89] "The fact is that the man with the lesser position spends his time, his energy and his talent in pursuing the trivial, temporary things, the so-called pleasures of life. He is a time-waster. The successful one has won his way by concentrating his efforts on learning how best to do his work. "Do you ever harbor such thoughts about people who have made good in the commercial life? Have you ever, for example, thought that the high place in the world of commerce held by Andrew Carnegie was attained through some strange chance or luck? If you have, perhaps it might be well to take a glance at the main points of his early life. In Scotland, his father was a weaver, whose business was destroyed by the introduction of power looms. One day, when the father came home, he said to his boy, 'Andy, I have no more work!' The lad knew what it meant, and immediately he decided to meet his father's problem to keep the wolf of hunger from the door. He was then but ten years old. It was decided to come to America, and here Andrew Carnegie, at the age of eleven, obtained a place in a mill as a bobbin boy, at $1.20 a week. He writes as follows concerning the great lesson he learned at that time: 'I was no longer dependent upon my parents but at last was admitted to the family partnership as a contributing member and able to help them. I think that makes a man out of a boy sooner than anything else.' At the age of fourteen, he was a stoker in the boiler room of a small factory, and then took employment as a telegraph boy at $300 a year. When he advanced to a place of greater responsibility as a telegrapher, he made his first investment in the purchase of an interest in an express company. While still engaged in this capacity he met Woodruff, the inventor of the sleeping car, and seeing the value of the invention he later engaged in its manufacture. From then forward, as superintendent of the Pittsburgh division of the Pennsylvania railroad, in the oil fields and in the steel industry of which he has long been regarded as the king, his rise has been the result, not of good fortune, but of hard work looking toward a desired object. "The story of the success of the lives of Lincoln, of Moody, of Mozart, of thousands of the world's great men is the story of work and hope, of poverty and inspiration. "So, in the Christian life, Jesus asks us to cast out of our lives the pursuit of the vain, transient things and to center our minds and hearts upon the truest, the loftiest and the best. Success may mean a most humble place in the world. But the 'pearl of great price' is the blessing of peace, of faith, of hope and of love which come to him to whom the Master says, 'Well done.'" MESSAGES to the CHILDREN --Cradle Roll Day --Children The Scriptures Are Full of Beautiful Thoughts for Cradle Roll Day. THE LESSON--That God loves a baby; that both the Father and the Son, through their recorded words, constantly express their love of the little ones. This somewhat "unusual" chalk talk will not fail to accomplish its object in getting the attention of the children and causing them to consider some of the especially beautiful thoughts appropriate to Cradle Roll Day. ~~The Talk.~~ "I want to see the hand of every boy or girl who likes to get a letter. Yes, and you like to get pretty post cards, too; don't you? And the reason you like to get them is that you know, then, that someone thinks of you and cares for you. "Well, then, on this Cradle Roll day, I am sure we would all like to get a letter from someone who cares for us, and so, I will first draw the envelope and then see if there is a message in it for us. [Draw the envelope on the paper in black outline and then, with the broad side of your crayon give it an even tinting of pink, light blue or other dainty color. Then, with your black crayon, address the envelope to your own school, by revising the wording as here shown. Add the stamp in brown, and the postmark in black, completing Fig. 90.] [Illustration: Fig. 90] "Well, here is the envelope. Now, I wonder if there is anything in it for us. [With a sharp pen knife or scissors cut a slit in the paper at the end of the envelope as if you were opening it. Thrust in your hand and bring forth a sheet of paper like a letter only much larger--folded to fit the envelope (Fig. 91). This, of course, is placed there in advance, beneath the outer sheet, attached with thumb tacks so it will tear loose readily. The action will arouse much interest.] [Illustration: Fig. 91] "Well, surely we have something here that looks like a letter or a message. Ah, yes, it is a message of love to the little ones from the Savior Himself, for it was Jesus who spoke these beautiful words: "'Suffer the little children to come unto me, for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven." "And let us see if there is a message for the little boys and girls of the Sunshine and the primary classes. Ah, yes, here it is; and it is from the Bible, too (Eccl. 12: 1), and this is what it says: "'Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, when, the evil days come not nor the years draw nigh when thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them.' And this means that if you are faithful to your Sunday school and will remember the beautiful things you learn here and carry them through life with you, you will be more than grateful in the years that are to come. "I wonder if there is anything here to let these boys and girls know whether God thinks they are worth anything or not. Yes, here is a message from the Psalms which says: 'Lo, children are an heritage of the Lord. As arrows are in the hand of a mighty man, so are children of the youth. Happy is he whose quiver is full of them!' And so a man is rich if he has those about him who call him father, and a mother is blessed in the love of her children. "Does the message say anything about how the boys and girls should treat their fathers and their mothers? Let us see. Yes, it says: 'Honor thy father and mother, that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.' And again it says: 'My son, heed the instruction of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother.' And then, too, it adds this word: 'Children, obey your parents in all things, for this is well pleasing unto the Lord.' "And is there a message for us older ones on this Cradle Roll Day? I believe there is, for I find here this message: 'Except ye become as little children, ye shall in no wise enter the Kingdom of Heaven.' "And is there a message to the parent which sheds any light on the way they should treat their children? Yes, here it is: 'The rod and reproof give wisdom, but a child left to himself bringeth his mother to shame.' When we are boys and girls we must obey father and mother or suffer punishment to keep us in the right pathway. "And is there a message to the grandfathers and grandmothers on this glad day? I think so, for I find here this message, 'Children's children are the crown of old men.' "Let us remember all of these messages which have come again to us on this glad Cradle Roll Day." THE PERFECT LIFE --Thanksgiving Day --Perfection The Love of God in Our Hearts May Be Perfect, Even Though Our Lives Fall Short of Perfection. THE LESSON--That if we "hunger and thirst after righteousness," as did the Pilgrim Fathers, our lives, though imperfect, will be well pleasing to the Father. Many of us are discouraged because we cannot, or do not, attain to the high ideal of life which we find before us. God's Word seems to bring comfort to the disappointed one by showing him that if he earnestly desires to attain to the highest ideal, his acts are well pleasing to God, even though he falls short of his hopes. In using the Pilgrim Fathers as an illustration, the talk is well fitted to the observance of Thanksgiving Day, but it is also appropriate for many other occasions. ~~The Talk.~~ "Any one of us who wants to find something beautiful about us, needs only to take a good look. Here, for instance, we may see a tall, straight tree. [Draw the tree, of Fig. 92.] And over here, nearer by, we may find a rosebush in bloom. [Draw the bush and rose.] And here is the sun shining in all its glory. [Draw the sun, using orange. Any suitable color may be used for the rose. The trunk of the tree should be in brown and the foliage in green. Draw the distant foliage, completing Fig. 92.] And as we look upon these things we may think of them as perfect in every way, because they are all God's handiwork. [Illustration: Fig. 92] "And yet-- "Let us take a closer look. We find that when the tree is cut down for lumber it is marred by many imperfections, and that a great deal of it has to be thrown away as useless. Somehow, we are a little bit disappointed in the tree, for we thought it was perfect. As we turn to the rose, we are reminded by a sharp pain in our fingers as we examine it, that the stems are covered with ugly thorns. [Add the thorns.] And then we notice, too, that many of the leaves on the bush are deformed and unshapely. As we turn to look upon the sun, we are dazzled by its brilliance, at first, and then we discover that even this brightness is clouded by spots which seem to make it imperfect. Then too, as we look away from it, we find that the sun, in its passage through the sky not only brightens many a dark corner, but it casts many a deep, gloomy shadow as well. [Draw the shadow of the tree, completing Fig. 93.] [Illustration: Fig. 93] "Well, now, wouldn't it be foolish for us to go about finding flaws in God's creatures, like this? Ah, yes. But it is just this way that some of us study our own lives. Just because we don't find perfection there, we are disheartened and discouraged, forgetting that God's Word is the authority for the assertion, that 'there is not a righteous man upon earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not.' But we must not forget that other assertion which is equally true, namely, that they are blessed 'who hunger and thirst after righteousness,' and nothing short of this desire for godliness is pleasing to the Father. "We have before us the inspiring, the ennobling example of the Pilgrim Fathers, who, denied the right to worship God after their own manner in their home across the seas, made the perilous journey to the new world to establish here the beginning of a mighty church and a mighty pattern for all who were to come after them. They were men and women who hungered and thirsted after righteousness. But were they perfect? No. It would be impossible to find, in the world's history a life in which some imperfection did not lurk? Should the discovery of faults and imperfections in ourselves or in others discourage us from trying to follow in the footsteps of the Perfect One? Surely not. We should see in the shortcomings of others an inspiration to live our own lives more closely to the measure which we know to be right and true. The knowledge of our own faults and imperfections should make us more sympathetic, more helpful to others and induce a spirit of comradeship with those who need a strengthening band on the pathway of life. "We know, too, where to take these faults and imperfections of ours. How often has He answered the prayer, 'Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within me.' To become wearied, to lie idle and despair because we have not attained to the ideal is to commit a grievous error. Get busy! In true work for Him is the surest cure for the trouble. Faulty? Yes. But let us not forget the truth in Dr. Van Dyke's words, 'the best rosebush, after all, is not that which has the fewest thorns but that which has the finest roses." "Let us not lose heart because of our shortcomings, but give thanks that we may attain to the highest if we but do His will." BRING FORTH FRUIT --Children's Day --Fruitfulness A Children's Day Thought for the Entire School--The Live Branch. THE LESSON--That as the fruit tree fulfills its mission only when surrounded by proper conditions, so, also, must the child be provided with the conditions which will help him to bring forth fruit in the Christian life. The illustration here given possesses the unusual qualities of entertainment for the very littlest children of the school, of enlightment for the juniors and intermediates and of personal appeal to the seniors and adults--especially those visitors who may be attracted on the occasion of Children's Day. The use of the colored chalk makes the picture especially attractive. ~~The Talk.~~ [Before beginning the talk, draw the bare limb in brown.] "What is this? A dead branch, did you say? Perhaps. Perhaps not. We are supposed to be looking at it in the winter time, and, of course, it isn't real easy at first to tell whether it is dead or merely sleeping; but if we examine it closely we can tell, because the leaf-buds are formed in the autumn, and if the limb is alive we shall find the little leaf-buds there. [Examine the branch.] Yes, the branch is alive, for the little leaf-buds are clustered everywhere, waiting to burst forth into full-grown leaves. [As you speak, touch the limb here and there with green and then draw the clusters of full-grown leaves.] And here, too, I find some little pink buds, and a little later they open into pretty flowers, for this is the limb of an apple tree. [Add the flowers, completing Fig. 94.] [Illustration: Fig. 94] "And then, as time goes on, we witness another interesting change, because God intends that the tree shall do more than bear leaves and flowers. We find that the pretty pink flowers which have filled the air with their fragrance and gladdened our eyes with their beauty have gone away, and in their places have come little green apples. [With green chalk draw the green apples just large enough to cover the blossoms.] Green apples are good things--to leave alone, so we will not pick them. We will watch and see them change into something else. [With red chalk draw the large ripe apples, covering up the green surface. This completes Fig. 95. If the green doesn't disappear entirely, it doesn't matter. It is well, however, in drawing the green apples, to use as little of the color as possible.] And now we have the ripened fruit of the apple tree. [Illustration: Fig. 95] "This part of the story is for the little boys and girls. But we must say a word also to the boys and girls of the junior and intermediate classes. It is this: That the branch of the apple tree, in bringing forth in its time the leaf-buds, the leaves, the blossoms, the green apples and the ripened fruit, has done nothing excepting that which God planned that it should do. He asks of it no more and no less. That is its duty. The lesson for us is this: He expects us to do our full duty, just as the branch of the apple tree has done. He asks that we bring forth the fruits of service, of sacrifice, of cheerfulness, of kindness, of love and of humility. He has surrounded us with the things which make it easy to do this. Let us find out the best way for us to do it and enjoy real living as we bring forth fruit for Him. "And I would also add a word to the seniors and the adults of our school, as well as to the visitors of the day. We all know that the branch cannot bring forth its fruit unless it be a part of the tree. Christ has said, 'I am the vine,' and unless we get the children, attached to this true vine, their lives cannot bear Christian fruit. He is our support and our life. Just as the branch must have the sunlight and the warmth for its development, so must each one of these children have His love and our love and our help to live Christian lives. "It was the Master who said, 'Herein is my father glorified, that ye bring forth much fruit' In helping these little ones we are ourselves bringing forth fruit. I believe that in this service, side by side with these children in the Sunday school, we shall find our Christian experiences enlarged and blessed. Let us pray, then, that each of these precious lives may be 'like a tree planted by the streams of water, that bringeth forth its fruit in its season, whose leaf doth not wither, and whatsoever he doeth shall prosper.'" "YOUNG MEN, AHOY" --Temperance Day --Dissipation John B. Gough's Thrilling Word Picture a Remarkable Temperance Lesson. THE LESSON--That we dare not trifle with the devil's poison. The world has known no greater foe to intemperance than John B. Gough. No words of this great leader have left a more lasting impression than those which he used in his striking picture of the young men drifting in a boat on the Niagara river. Happily, it adapts itself to the requirements of a chalk talk. ~~The Talk.~~ "The great temperance leader, John B. Gough, devoted the best years of his life to an earnest endeavor to save hoys from the evil of strong drink, of which he knew so much through long, bitter experience. Familiar to all of us, perhaps, is the thrilling word picture of the young men who launched their rowboat upon the quiet, smooth waters of the broad Niagara river a few miles above the mighty cataract. [Draw the boat and the young men, completing Fig. 96. It might be well to prepare this first scene in advance.] [Illustration: Fig. 96] "'Now,' says Mr. Gough, as he enters into the narrative, 'launch your bark upon the Niagara river. It is bright and smooth and still; there is a ripple at the bow; the silvery wake you leave behind you adds to your enjoyment. Down the stream you glide; you have your oars, and you think you are prepared for every emergency--and thus you go on your pleasure excursion, thinking naught of dangers ahead. Some one cries from the bank! Hark! "'Young men, ahoy!' "'What is it?' you ask. "'The rapids are below you!' "'Ha, ha! We have heard of the rapids below us,' you laugh, 'but we are not such fools as to get into them. When we find we are going too fast, we will pull for the shore.' "'_Young men, ahoy_!' "'What is it? "'The rapids are below you!' "'Ha, ha! We will laugh and quaff; all things delight us; what care we for the future? No man ever saw it. "Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof." We will enjoy life while we may, and catch pleasure as it flies. This is the time for enjoyment. It is time enough to steer out of danger when we find we are going too swiftly with the stream.' "'YOUNG MEN, AHOY!' "'What is it?' "'The rapids are below you! Now see the water foaming all around you! See how fast you go! _Quick_! QUICK! Pull for your very lives! Pull till the blood starts from your nostrils and the veins stand like whipcords on your brow!' [At this point, quickly detach the drawing from the board, turn it one-fourth around and re-attach with thumb tacks; then, add the lines to complete Fig. 97.] [Illustration: Fig. 97] "'Ah, it is too late! Shrieking, cursing, blaspheming, over the falls you go!--and thousands thus go over every year by the power of evil habits, declaring, "When I find it is hurting me, I will quit." But these latter do not go by the water way, but by the whiskey way, which is a thousand times worse! No man today fills a drunkard's grave who did not once think he could quit--but he found, too late, that he couldn't.' "'Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging, and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise,' says Solomon, and he might have made it ten times as strong and still kept within the truth. Everywhere, and at all times, when a young man starts to do evil, he hears plainly and clearly the cry, 'Young man, ahoy! The rapids are below you!' It is the voice of conscience, his true and faithful servant. But, unfortunately, as the voice is unheeded and bad habits grow stronger, conscience grows weaker, and, after a while, it cannot serve us at all, for Satan has taken possession of it. The evil one can do as much mischief with a man's conscience as he can with his heart. He can 'sear it with a hot iron.' (I Tim. 4: 2.) He can 'defile' it. (Titus 1: 15.) He can kill it. (Eph. 4: 17-19.) And how can a seared, defiled, dead conscience help him to shun temptation and sin? Many a man, honest in his dealings with those about him, is dishonest with himself when he begins to allow bad habits to rule his life and to allow Satan to defile and kill the conscience which has been provided to guide him in caring for his own body--the earthly temple given to him by God as the earthly abiding place of his immortal soul." VALUELESS THINGS --Boys' Day --Ability They May Not Remain So if We Give Them Proper Attention--A Thought for Boys' Day. THE LESSON--That our seemingly useless, or even harmful, traits may prove to be our most valuable talents. This little fragment of industrial history should impress a lesson upon all young people, though it is especially adapted to Boys' Day. ~~The Talk.~~ "During the period extending from the time that people first settled in America up to the time of the civil war those who chose to live in some portions of the area which are now the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia selected their land with great care. In some parts of the land they found a disagreeable kind of oil in the ground which oozed from the rocks below. When a man bought a piece of ground he was very careful to find out for sure that there was none of this oil about the place, and if he did find any of it, it is probable that he made this fact known: [Draw the signboard and the letters, Fig. 98, complete.] To him the ground was worthless. [Illustration: Fig. 98] "It may be that some of the people knew that this oil was the same kind that the ancient Jews used in the preparation of their cement for building purposes, and that it was the same that the more ancient Egyptians used in the preservation of the mummified bodies of their dead; but, as the Americans did not need oil for such purposes, they considered the oil a nuisance. At one time, while a man was drilling for water, he struck such a strong artesian well of oil that it gushed out all over the ground; then it ran down to a river and caught fire as it spread out over the swiftly flowing water. The flames spread down the river and it looked for all the world as if the river was burning up! "They called this oil petroleum--rock-oil. "One day, in 1859, after there had been a good deal of talk as to whether or not this oil was good for anything, Col. E.L. Drake hired some men to drill a well at Titusville, Pennsylvania. The drillers at first refused to work for a man who was so foolish as to spend his money in this way, but, finally, they set at work on the job under the belief that they were really drilling for salt! But the oil began to flow, and some men soon learned how to make kerosene out of it. This took the place of tallow candles, and from that moment the world has been much brighter. The men kept right on with their experiments, until now we have not only kerosene, but gasoline, benzine, rhigoline, naphtha, mineral sperm oil, lubricating oils, paraffins wax, carbon oil and a variety of medicinal products--all made from this once-useless petroleum. These discoveries have brought also the gasoline and oil stoves, gasoline and gas engines and the automobile. Prom the industry has grown the Standard Oil company, one of the richest and most powerful commercial enterprises in the world. So now, in these eastern states, it is vastly different from what it used to be when a man discovered oil on his land. If he finds oil now, and if be puts up a sign at all, it is apt to read like this: [Revise Fig. 98 to Complete Fig. 99.] [Illustration: Fig. 99] "From this little fact of industrial history I want to draw a lesson, especially for the boys, today. Perhaps we cannot own any stock in the Standard Oil company, but we have something just as good, and better. Perhaps we have found in ourselves what we think is a useless talent--useless unless we refine it and cultivate it. One day some people living on a certain street in New York raised a big row because a small, ragged street boy drew pictures all over their sidewalks with chalk. To them, he was nothing but a nuisance. However, a prominent man came walking by one day. He looked at the chalk drawings and knew at once that the boy had real artistic talent. He became interested, gave the boy an education and now he is one of America's celebrated painters. "Study yourselves, boys. Do you love music? If you do, and if you have the talent to become a musician, don't throw away your talent by using your ability for any low purpose. Make music, like Haydn, who praised God through every note! "Do you like to draw? If you are to be an artist, do not use your talent for low purposes. Let your work be of a kind to reflect credit upon you--work which will make other people better for having seen it and for having been influenced by it. "Do you like to speak? Do you plan to study medicine, or law, or to be a teacher? Whatever your plans may be, based on what you believe your best talent to be, do not let your talent go to waste like this oil did for so many years. Treasure it up, refine it, and in whatever direction God may lead you, you may be sure that you will have ample opportunity to let your talent bring greater brightness into the world. And then you, too, would not part with your possession for any price!" THE STORY OF A HAT --Politeness --The Common People A thought for the Thoughtless Who Have But Little Politeness and Respect for the Common People. THE LESSON--That every one who truly fills his high or lowly place In the world is deserving of respect and honor. This story contains a splendid lesson for all of us. There is much in it to start the boys and girls to thinking of the worthiness of doing the humble things in life, and of the respect due those whose place may be more lowly than theirs. True worth is the measure of our value in the world, whether our work be great or little. ~~The Talk.~~ "This morning I am going to tell you 'The Story of a Hat,'--and this is the hat. [Draw only the hat, A, completing Fig. 100. This is the same drawing as that of the lower right-hand corner of Fig. 101, before the face is added.] I don't wonder that you smile. It's a seedy-looking old hat, isn't it? It looks as if it ought to be burned up or else dumped in the ash barrel; but, before we do that, let us hear the story. [Illustration: Fig. 100] "Once upon a time Mr. Brown, a college president, was passing a clothing store when he saw, displayed in the window, a hat like this. [Draw only the hat as in B.] Mr. Brown went into the store and tried on the hat. It fitted him, and when he came out he looked like this in his new four-dollar hat. [Add the head of Mr. Brown, completing B.] Everybody respected the college president and was polite to him. After a while Mr. Brown's wife told him that his hat was getting just a little bit shabby--perhaps just a little bit out of style, too. And so the college president gave the hat away to a poor but respectable preacher, Mr. Green, and this is the way Mr. Green looked in the hat. [Draw C complete.] Mr. Green was not a 'D.D.,' by any means, but he was a good man who was made to suit and fit a certain class of people who could not have understood the big words of a 'D. D.' Well, Mr. Green wore the hat for a while, and then he gave it to the janitor of his church, a man named Mr. Blue. The janitor wore it for a while, until it looked about like this: [Draw D, complete.] You will notice that it was somewhat indented by this time, but it was all right for Mr. Blue and he was glad to get it. There was a man in the town by the name of Mr. White, who had a job cleaning the streets. He was a friend of Mr. Blue, and the janitor gave him the hat. This is the way Mr. White looked in it: [Draw the face under the hat, A; this completes Fig. 101.] Mr. White had a little cart and a big shovel and an old broom, and he worked all day sweeping up and carting off the old paper, the stubs of cigars and everything else which, if allowed to accumulate, would soon make the streets look disgraceful and the town unhealthful. [Illustration: Fig. 101] "And so, we see, this poor old hat had done good service for four different kinds of men. Remember this--that every man who wore the hat was a useful man in his place. Each one was a necessary man. We must have him. Especially is this true of the man who kept the streets clean, for he, just like the man who collects and takes away the garbage, helps to keep away the scourge of typhoid fever, and cholera and other dread diseases, by being willing to do the dirty work and to wear the old hat. Why, just suppose everybody was a college president. Who would wash our clothes? Who would scrub our floors? Who would clean our streets? Who would cart away our garbage? "Now, don't you see that the street cleaner and the 'garbage gentleman' are far more useful than any wealthy man's son who doesn't do a lick of work, who rides around in an automobile at his father's expense and who spends his time at night in wasteful or sinful ways so that he gets to bed at one or two o'clock in the morning and sleeps until nine or ten o'clock the next day? Why, bless your soul, the street cleaner and the 'garbage gentleman' are worth a dozen good-for-nothings like that! "Then why look down upon the poor man--the laboring man? Why not be just as polite and respectful to him as to the college president? God made them both, and each is filling his place in life. Each man whose picture we have drawn belonged to a different class of people, just as God designed they should, and each, if he did his duty in life, had just as important a place in the community as the other. "Abraham Lincoln said that 'God must think more of the common people than He did of any other kind, because He made so many more of them.' "Surely, all this is reason enough for the best of us to be kind and considerate, respectful and polite toward people whose hats would not suit us at all!" OUR COUNTRY'S FLAG --Flag Day --Patriotism A Little of its History and of its Meaning--Some Interesting Facts. THE LESSON--That loyalty to the flag means the fulfillment of duty to God and to our fellowmen.~~ "Flag Day" suggests a patriotic demonstration, and this talk will harmonize well with your decorations and the other features of your program. The talk calls for the drawing of four flags. It is suggested that you prepare in advance of the talk all four flags of Fig. 102, as the drawing may require more time than you can spare during the talk. ~~The Talk.~~ "We have about us today some of the flags of the United States of the present time. I believe you will be interested, though, in seeing some of the flags of our country of earlier days. I will present them to you. "Before the Revolutionary war was begun, and at the time of the beginning of the trouble, some of the colonies had flags of their own, and some of them were very curious indeed. However, when General George Washington took command of the troops at the beginning of the war it was decided to adopt one flag for all the united colonies, and so a committee was chosen and a flag like this was designed: [Indicate flag "a."] These two crosses represented the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew, and the thirteen stripes represented the thirteen colonies. You see, they patterned the crosses after the British flag, because there was no certainty at that time that the colonists would break away from England. This is the flag that was raised over the camp of Washington at Cambridge, January 2, 1776. [Illustration: Fig. 102] "But in 1777, after the colonies had proclaimed the Declaration of Independence, congress ordered that the flag of the thirteen United States be composed of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that thirteen white stars in a field of blue be substituted for the crosses. It was also decided to add one star and one stripe as each new state was admitted. Congress, then in session in Philadelphia, named George Washington, Robert Morris and Colonel Ross to call upon a widow who had been making flags for the government and ask her to make this first real American flag. And this is the flag that Betsy Ross made: [Indicate flag "b."] It is said that Betsy Ross suggested that the stars be five-pointed, as she could fold her cloth so as to make a five-pointed star with one clip of her scissors. Can you make a five-pointed star with one clip? Betsy could! [Note: The writer has seen the simple process described in a sketch of Betsy Ross; it is too long for repetition here, but a demonstration of the method would be an interesting innovation.] "Well, this flag was carried throughout the remainder of the Revolution, and it was present at the surrender of Burgoyne and the fall of Yorktown. But when Vermont and Kentucky were admitted as states, the flag was changed, so there were fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, like this: [Indicate flag "c."] "This flag waved throughout the war of 1812. It was this flag that Francis Scott Key saw 'through the dawn's early light,' and which inspired him to write 'The Star-Spangled Banner.' "It was not until 1818 that congress saw that a mistake had been made and that it would be necessary to confine the number of stripes to the original number, thirteen, though we have continued to add a star for each new state. This is the flag of today: [Indicate flag "d."] "As we look upon this flag, our hearts grow warm with love for our country. We honor it and the memory of those who brought it into being and who died to preserve it for us. I know of no better closing picture than this, which indicates the true spirit of the patriots who died beneath its folds upon the fields of battle--a picture which speaks to us of Him who said, 'Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends.' [With heavy black put in the outline of the cross; fill in with orange, completing Fig. 103.] [Illustration: Fig. 103] "Boys and girls, what does the flag stand for? _Loyalty to country_. What does the cross stand for? _Loyalty to Christ_. Which is the more important? You are not asked to answer--only to _think_. Being loyal to Christ makes people truly loyal to country; but, alas, there are many who profane His name while they pretend to be loyal to their country. It cannot be done." THE LITTLE ONES --Cradle Roll Day --Teaching A Word of Appreciation to the Parents on the Occasion of Cradle Roll Day. THE LESSON--That the proper early home training of children for Christ will save future heartaches and anguish. It is well to make of Cradle Roll Day an occasion of profit and inspiration to the parents of the little ones. Perhaps you don't get a chance to speak to them very often. Your words to them on this occasion, when a day has been set aside for the special consideration of the children in whom their hearts and hopes are centered, will best serve their purpose if they are directed to make the parents feel sure that you, also, are deeply interested in their little ones. ~~The Talk.~~ "We are delighted today to see so many of our little Cradle Roll boys and girls--and we are just as pleased to look into the faces of their fathers and mothers. Why? Well, just because we want these parents to know that we love their children and that we are grateful to them for coming with them today to observe this happy time together. "We want these fathers and mothers to know that while we are trying to teach the way of unselfishness and love to these older boys and girls, and while we are waiting for the time to come when these little visitors of today will be old enough to be with us regularly, we are convinced that the home training for seven days in the week is higher and more lasting than an hour of teaching in the Sunday school under the best of teachers. So it is with joy that we know that these parents are beginning with the babyhood of their children to tell them of Him who blessed the little ones and said, 'of such is the kingdom of heaven.' We are glad we may look forward to the time when we, in the Sunday school, may also have a part in this training. "Let us hear a little story this morning: Once upon a time a young lad, while idly spending his time in a grove surrounding his eastern home, carved with his knife in the bark of a young birch tree three words which his mother had taught him to say. [As you continue the narrative, draw the small tree and merely indicate the words and the heart next referred to, completing Fig. 104.] The first word had three letters, the second had two letters and the third four letters. And around them he drew a little heart, as his mother had taught him to do. And when he had finished it, he ran away to his play and forgot all about it. [Illustration: Fig. 104] "Years afterward, when he had grown to young manhood, he returned to the home which he had not seen for a long time. As he went once more to the grove, he came upon a birch tree and stopped to look at some words carved upon its bark, with a heart drawn about them. Memory carried him back to the days of his childhood--it was the same tree, grown big and strong, and with it the heart had grown large and the words were there strong and plain. They could not be removed without greatly marring the tree. Here are the heart and the words: [Add lines to revise Fig. 104 to Fig. 105.] As he looked upon the words, they thrilled him with tender emotions as he remembered that it was his mother who had taught him this beautiful sentiment. 'If I had written there an unkind word,' he reflected, 'that, too, would have been as permanent and lasting.' [Illustration: Fig. 105] "And now for the application: We are told that some fathers and mothers, through a false idea of what is of lasting good to their children, permit them, in their inexperience, to learn to do things in a way which will mean sorrow and anguish in the end. Of course, I understand that this could not ever happen to any of these fathers and mothers and these children! The application is for those who aren't here! If the boy rebels against school, he will bless, in later years, the hand which made his attendance compulsory. If he can see no harm in the use of unkind or offensive words, but is compelled by a loving parent to turn his mind and his speech to lofty things, he will later bless that one who saved him from his error. If, in the years when he has grown through babyhood and childhood to youth, a strong, but gentle, hand bars for him the way which leads to evil companions and bad habits, he will praise and bless that restraining hand when the years of discretion show him how close was his step to the brink of a fatal precipice. "With the same hand which bars the way to wrong must the parent write the words, 'God is Love,' on the heart of each little one. The clear, pure truth cannot be told too often. In after years, as memory brings these children back to your loving arms, back to their little downy beds, they will be comforted with the realization that the words have become so deep-seated that nothing can eradicate them, even after death has closed their eyelids. "Some one has described the eyes of a child as 'clear wells of undefiled thought,' and God forbid that as their eyes are lifted to ours, full of innocence and confidence, we should give them anything but the purest, most helpful truth as Christ reveals it to us. We pledge ourselves earnestly to do this." THE BURNED BOOK --Patience --Adversity How Thomas Carlyle's Work of Many Years Was Destroyed in a Few Seconds. THE LESSON--That there is such a thing as success through patience, and that the Christian should so live that he may rejoice in his tribulations. One of the crying needs of every-day life is the cultivation of patience. Modern life, with its hustle and bustle, and the ever-present contest for supremacy in its commercial and social phases, displays a growing unrest and nervousness. Patience is a rare quality which should be treasured and nurtured. ~~The Talk.~~ "Paul once wrote a letter to the church at Rome in which he said, 'We glory in tribulations, also, knowing that tribulation worketh patience, and patience experience, and experience hope, and hope maketh not ashamed because the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts." "But we're not all like Paul. If we had been saying it, we might have put it this way: 'We despair that we have tribulation, knowing that tribulations work impatience, and impatience discouragement, and discouragement makes us feel sure that God doesn't care for us.' Nevertheless, just the opposite is true, for we know that 'whom the Lord loveth He chasteneth.' "Everybody has trouble. It comes to all of us in many forms. Ofttimes it is a blessing in disguise. If it were not so, we would not find so many of God's people afflicted in the ways which the Scriptures describe. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph and all of the great leaders of the New Testament, as well as of the Old, had their deep troubles and sorrows. And it is so today with God's people. "Patience is a virtue of which the poets sing. 'How poor are they,' says Shakespeare, 'that have not patience! What wound did ever heal but by degrees?' And Milton said: "'Patience is more oft the exercise Of saints, the trial of their fortitude.' "So, let us try always to understand, in the midst of seeming great trouble, that sorrow and trial have their place in our lives. Whether they are for good or for bad depends largely upon ourselves. "I want to tell you the tragedy of a book--a great book. We all know of Thomas Carlyle's great work, 'The French Revolution.' Of this wonderful production it has been said that 'It is a history of the French Revolution and the poetry of it, both in one; and, on the whole, no work of greater genius, either historical or poetical, has been produced in England.' I wonder if we have all heard of the tragedy of this great book and the sorrow which came to its author? "One day, after Mr. Carlyle had finished the manuscript of the first volume of the work, completing the labors of months and years, and when he felt at last the relief which had tied his hands and his mind through this long period, he loaned the work to his close friend, John Stuart Mill. Before Mr. Mill had finished reading the manuscript, and as it lay scattered about his study, his servant girl, thinking the pages were nothing but waste paper, gathered them up and stuffed them into her kitchen fire! Thus was the labor of weary, toilsome years destroyed in a few moments. On his discovering the awful state of affairs, it was Mr. Mill's duty to go to Mr. Carlyle's home and break the news to him. Mr. Carlyle tells of the interview in these words: 'How well do I remember that night when he came to tell Mrs. Carlyle and me, pale as Hector's ghost, that my unfortunate first volume was burned. It was like a half sentence of death to both of us. We had to pretend to take it lightly, so dismal and ghastly was its horror!' "If the description of the scene were to end here, I am sure that some of us would see only the darkest, gloomiest side. Let us make a sketch to illustrate this condition. [Draw Fig. 106 complete.] But the description does not stop here. Carlyle goes on to tell how, with the sympathy of his wife, he began anew the great task, and, although it was, as he says, a 'job' that nearly broke his heart, the result was a work superior in every way to his original effort, and he lived to rejoice in what he once considered to be a disastrous misfortune. He received ample reward for his overmastering patience! [Illustration: Fig. 106] "'If thou faint in the day of adversity,' says the Psalmist, 'thy strength is small.' Remember this: _Every shadow has a light behind it!_ It is toward that light that the discouraged one must turn his face. Look up, not down! [Add lines to complete Fig. 107; the hair covers the face of Fig. 106.] No man ever saw the highest success who 'looked down his nose' when trial came. Look up--like the man in the picture!" [Illustration: Fig. 107] THE MAN WHO FINALLY HEARD --Kind Words --The Tongue The Restoration of His Hearing Brought to Him Pain as Well as Pleasure. THE LESSON--That we should guard well our tongues against speaking careless, useless or vulgar words. This illustration is based on the actual experience of an Indiana man. It contains a lesson of such great importance that a chapter of one of the strongest moral epistles of the New Testament is devoted to it. The speaker would do well to study carefully the third chapter of the Epistle of James as a foundation for the preparation of the talk. ~~The Talk.~~ [Before beginning the talk, draw the picture of the man, completing Fig. 108.] [Illustration: Fig. 108] "The face I have here drawn represents the portrait of a certain business man living in an Indiana town. Ever since the time of an illness in childhood this man had been almost totally deaf. For years he tried in vain to secure the aid which would restore to him his hearing, and during all the period of his boyhood and young manhood he could hear only those words which were spoken very distinctly, close to his ear. Sometimes he could hear the thunder and other loud, sharp sounds. [Illustration: Fig. 109] "Then, one day, came a great change! All at once he could hear almost perfectly. What a great time it was! Once more he heard the songs of the birds as he remembered them when he was a child; the voices of the members of his family and the voices of his friends, new and strange, came to him! What had brought the change? It was merely a new invention, by which a disc containing a diaphragm was placed over his ear. This diaphragm gathered the sound waves, just as the natural ear-drum was intended to do. The disc fitted over his ear, like this: [Add the disc and attachment, as in Fig. 109.] Was he happy? Of course he was--but soon it was noticed by those about him that his gladness seemed to fade away from his face and a kind of sadness took its place. [Add the lines about eye and mouth, completing Fig. 109.] What was the matter? Some one asked him the question. And this was his answer--listen to it: 'I never knew, during those years when I could not hear the sound of people's voices, that those about me were so unkind to each other!' "'Unkind?' "'Yes,' said he; 'ever since my hearing was restored I have been surprised and pained and shocked to hear the careless words--the harmful words--which people speak concerning even those they love. I have thought about it a good deal and have made up my mind that the people do not speak these words because they always mean what they say, but because they have grown into the habit of saying unkind things. And the profanity! And the vulgarity! It is dreadful to listen to the language used by many men, and even boys, in their ordinary conversation!' "The man had spoken a sad, sad truth. How careless we are! Even the best of us speak too many thoughtless, unkind words--words which may affect the entire after life of the one who is the subject of their utterance. And how many there are all about us who blaspheme the name of their Maker! "All of us are familiar with the words of Shakespeare, who, in 'Othello,' causes Iago to say that 'he that filches from me my good name robs me of that which not enriches him and makes me poor, indeed.' Our slighting word may rob some one of his good name and leave him poor, indeed; while the kind word which rises to our lips, but remains unspoken, may retard the progress of the person of whom we might have spoken it. "'Be not rash with thy mouth,' says the writer of Ecclesiastes; 'let thy words be few.' "'Behold also the ships,' says the Epistle of James, 'which, though they be so great, and are driven of fierce winds, yet are they turned about with a very small helm, whithersoever the governor listeth. Even so the tongue is a little member, and boasteth great things. Behold how great a matter a little fire kindleth! And the tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity; so is the tongue among our members, that it defileth the whole body, and setteth on fire the course of nature, and it is set on fire of hell. For every kind of beasts and of birds and of serpents and of things in the sea is tamed, and hath been tamed of mankind; but the tongue can no man tame.' "Let us, friends, watch this unruly member. Profanity and vulgarity bespeak a vile mind. We trust that our trouble is not so serious as this; but we still have the unkind word, the hotly-spoken word, to watch and to avoid. "Boys, watch your thoughts and words. Do you know, I would rather see a boy with jam smeared all over his cheeks than to hear a 'smutty' remark from his lips? Yes--the jam wouldn't hurt him a bit, but the smut can't be washed off. You all want clean hands and a clean face. It is still more important to have a clean mind and clean speech." FLYING --Perseverance --Courage The Aeroplane Illustrates the Necessity of Going Forward Constantly. THE LESSON--That a life, if it is to progress, must not falter at difficulties, but push steadily forward. This illustration is especially appropriate for occasions which interest the juniors and their elders, for the reason that anything which teaches perseverance and steadfastness in the right can be heard with profit at any time. ~~The Talk.~~ [Because of the details in the drawing of the aeroplane, it may be well to finish Fig. 110, complete, before beginning the talk. In opening, refer to the aeroplane in such a manner as will fit your locality. For instance, if the aeroplane is a common sight, say, "We have all been interested in seeing the aeroplane glide through the air," etc., while, if it has not yet made its appearance in your locality, you may refer to the fact that all have seen pictures of the modern invention. The talk assumes that the aeroplane has not yet visited your neighborhood.] "Every one of us is interested in flying. Ever since God created man, man has been trying to learn how to fly, but always, until of recent years, he has suffered the sad fate of 'Darius Green and His Flying Machine.' For many centuries man has been impatient because he has had to stay down on earth or else go up in a clumsy balloon, which is not a flying machine at all! But, at last, he has made for himself a machine which he calls the aeroplane and the tedious problem has been solved quite satisfactorily, so that we now hear a great deal about monoplanes and biplanes, all of which are classed under the general heading of aeroplanes. I will draw the outlines of one of these flying machines. [Illustration: Fig. 110] [If you have drawn the picture, Fig. 110, in advance, merely indicate the parts as you proceed; otherwise, point them out as you finish each part of the machine.] "This style of machine is known as the biplane, or two-plane. This upper part is one of the planes, and this lower part is the other. This part out in front is that portion of the steering apparatus which enables the aviator to guide the machine up or down, and this part at the back is to govern the side-to-side movements. When the machine stands on the ground it rests on these three little wheels, which are like bicycle wheels. Here sits the aviator, and directly back of him is the powerful little engine which sets the propeller whirling at the rear. The machine makes a noise like a swift-running motor boat or a motorcycle. It starts off on its wheels and rapidly increases its speed until it rises from the ground and sails away gracefully into the upper air. [Your drawing of Fig. 110 should now be complete.] "As you look at this machine, remember that it is not at all like a balloon. The bag of a balloon, filled with gas, is lighter than the air; hence, it stays up without any trouble, unless the bag breaks and lets the gas out. But the aeroplane has no gas bag; it is heavier than the air and it must '_keep a-goin'_' in order to stay up at all. Remember this: _Just as soon as the aeroplane stops, it comes crashing to the earth_, like so many have done, bringing death and destruction. [Quickly detach your drawing paper from your board, turn it one-fourth around and re-attach it with thumb tacks. With broad strokes of black crayon indicate the foreground. Add lines of mountains, completing Fig. 111.] [Illustration: Fig. 111] "You boys know how it is when you are riding a bicycle. Your wheel will stay upright as long as you are pushing ahead, but as soon as you stop the wheel topples over. "Sometimes the aeroplane engine fails to work, sometimes a wire or rod breaks, sometimes the aviator attempts to do some fancy flying which throws the machine out of balance, sometimes the wind prevents the machine from going on in its course. Any of these things may cause the machine to stop going forward and come dashing downward. "You, boys--and you, girls--and we older men and women, are just like the aeroplane in one great particular. In the Christian life, in our work, in our study, in our efforts to do good, we can never hope to succeed and progress if we let anything stop us in the way. How truly does all this apply to the Sunday School. The stand-still boy and the stand-still girl never get anywhere. The stand-still Sunday School is 'a dead one.' Life in Sunday School means movement, forward and upward. If the flying machine stops, it comes crashing to the earth. If the Sunday School stops, you will also 'hear something drop.' And the same thing is true of us as Christians. Praying and psalm singing are not enough. Backsliding begins when Christians stop working--stop going forward. If we would _grow_, we must _go_! And '_keep a-goin'_!" THE PLUM TREE --Mothers' Day --Training The Responsibility of Motherhood--A Lesson From the Tree Nursery. THE LESSON--That constant training and cultivation are necessary to the attainment of excellence in plant life; so, also, the quality of the child depends upon the home training. Mothers' Day, usually observed on the second Sunday in May, is becoming valued more and more in the Sunday School as the years go by. Miss Anna Jarvis, of Philadelphia, is said to have originated the idea in her effort to commemorate the anniversary of the death of her mother. She saw, in the wearing of a carnation on a selected day, a silent and beautiful tribute to motherhood throughout the world. The custom is usually followed by the wearing of a white carnation in memory of the mother departed, while a colored flower is worn for the mother living. The school decorations should be worked out in a manner appropriate to the day and its significance. The present talk deals specifically with the responsibility of motherhood. ~~The Talk.~~ "We have come today with our hearts filled with tender memories of the mothers who have gone--memories as sweet as these beautiful flowers, whose whiteness tells of their purity; whose form brings back the thought of their beauty; whose fragrance tells again of their love, and whose enduring qualities remind us of their faithfulness and constancy. "But today I want to speak especially of the mothers who are still with us, those whose hair is tinged with silver, and especially of those other younger mothers who are today the close companions of their children. "The carnation, as we see it today, was not always such a perfect blossom--no, it is a development of the modest little old-fashioned pink. Men everywhere are devoting their attention to the betterment of things in the vegetable and animal world. We are constantly bringing forth more splendid cattle and horses and sheep, through cultivation; Luther Burbank and his followers are giving us each year more perfect vegetables and fruits and flowers, through scientific cultivation. Here, for example, we find in a northern state a plum tree bearing fruit such as no other northern tree ever produced before. We ask the nurseryman how it is possible to transplant this fruit from a warmer zone to the region of rigorous Winters. He replies that this tree was not brought from a warmer locality, but that it grew here from the beginning. How, then, can it be made to produce such big, splendid plums when no other tree in the neighborhood grows such luscious fruit? [Illustration: Fig. 112] "Here is the explanation: The tree was found growing wild in the woods. [Draw the branch of Fig. 112 in brown and the leaves in green.] And there in the woods it produced only very small, sour plums. [Complete Fig. 112 by drawing the plums in purple or a combination of red and blue.] But with this hardy tree to work on, the fruit experts, through grafting and cultivation, have caused it to bring forth this large, luscious fruit. [With purple, or a combination of red and blue, enlarge the plums, completing Fig. 113.] These men knew what to do and they did it. If they hadn't done it, the tree, worthless and neglected, would still bear little, sour plums instead of big, sweet ones. [Illustration: Fig. 113] "Mothers, the nursery of your home is like the nursery where the fruit experts do their wonderful work. God has placed in your keeping these little ones. You are the expert whose business it is to see that as they grow older they will not bear the small, sour fruit of wrong living, but the large, sweet fruit of Christian service. What they are to be depends upon _you_. The plum tree in the woods could not grow better of itself. _It had to have help._ And yet, we find mothers everywhere who seem to think that the child can develop into a high type of manhood and womanhood if he is provided with a plenty to eat and wear and with the public school and the Sunday school at his disposal. "Within the heart of each mother God has implanted a natural knowledge of how to care for the child. To fail to apply this knowledge is to fail to reach up to a parent's highest privilege. "The Sunday school can do much, but we must remember that home was God's first and holiest school. It is in the home that the child receives his first and most lasting lessons. Let us not misjudge the ability of the child to perceive the inconsistency, the insincerity, of father and mother. Even though the parent be a teacher in the Sunday school, her influence cannot be for the best if her everyday life is wasted in society and unworthy amusements. The father's praise of the Bible loses its gilt edge when the boy sees him bound up in the Sunday paper for two hours, without ever finding time to read the Scriptures. "Let us all, therefore, look at this whole matter seriously. We may each have a part in this training, this cultivating, this producing of better minds, better hands and cleaner lives, but after all, mothers, the great responsibility is yours, for it is into your hands that God has placed the children, these innocent little ones who are a type of heaven itself." THE HOLLOW TREE --Decision Day --Honesty A Figure of the Deceitful Life--The True Test of Character. THE LESSON--That stability or weakness of character are revealed when the supreme test comes. This lesson from nature is planned to impress the truth that we must be worthy "through and through" if we are to endure the test of character which comes to every life. ~~The Talk.~~ "I want every one of you to stop looking at me and to take a good look at the wood out of which the pew ahead of you is made. [If necessary, revise the following sentences to meet your immediate conditions.] You will notice that the pew is made up of a good many pieces of oak fastened together so nicely that you can hardly tell where they are joined. And so it is with all this other furniture, and with the tables and the chairs and the bookcases in your homes and everywhere else. A great many fine trees must be cut down every day to furnish the wood from which all the things are made. The furniture manufacturers buy the wood in the form of heavy lumber. The companies which sell this lumber to the furniture factories send their expert tree buyers into the forests to pick out the trees which will make the best lumber. These tree experts go into the forests and select the trees that they want, and leave all the others standing. "One day a tree buyer, after examining an oak grove, told the owner that he would pay him a certain amount of money for a specified number of trees, and at the same time he pointed out the trees which he wanted. "'But,' said the owner of the forest, 'you have overlooked one of the nicest-looking trees of them all. Don't you want this one?' [Draw outlines of tree, Fig. 114.] [Illustration: Fig. 114] "'No,' replied the buyer, 'I can't use that tree. It is no good for our purpose.' "'No good!' exclaimed the owner, 'why that tree looks to me to be a good deal better than some that you selected.' "But the buyer was an expert and knew what he was talking about. To show the owner what was the trouble with it, he cut the tree down, and this is what they found: [Remove the paper from the drawing board; turn it one-fourth around, and reattach to the board; add lines to complete Fig. 115.] [Illustration: Fig. 115] "What was the matter with the tree? Yes, it was hollow. The owner was a much-surprised man. The expert, by tapping the tree with the blunt side of his ax, could tell that the tree was not solid. We might call it a deceitful tree because it seemed to be better than it really was. "Sometimes we hear of deceitful men and women--deceitful boys and girls. None of us wants to be called deceitful, for the world has no more use for a deceitful person than this man had for a hollow tree. Some may think that they may deceive their friends and everyone else around them, but they get found out sooner or later, and, worst of all, their lives are an open book to the Lord, who sees and knows their every thought. The hollow tree in the forest is certain to come crashing to the earth when a severe storm breaks. The deceitful man or woman suffers a like fate when something happens to reveal their hollow lives to the world. "On this Decision day, let us resolve anew to make our lives of solid worth through and through. We can do it only by coming close to the Master and learning from Him how to live. "The trouble with the tree in the forest was that it was not sound. It lacked _inside strength_. Even a slight tap of the ax proved that it was a sort of 'hollow mockery.' It was a good-looking tree on the outside, but its heart was not right. And isn't that exactly the case with a lot of good-looking, well-dressed people? Why, even a boy or a girl can be all wrong at the heart, though their faces and hands and clothes are clean and beautiful. "Have you ever stopped to think what good eyes God has? He never needs a telescope or a microscope, for 'the eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholding the evil and the good.' God never beholds evil where there is none, but no boy or girl, man or woman, can hide it so well in their hearts but that God sees it and knows it. "Let us, therefore, on this Decision day, resolve never to let deceit come into our hearts, to make our lives hollow, but to be sound in character through and through." TWO MEN --Ideals --Error Know Your Man Before You Trust and Follow Him--Our Ideals. THE LESSON--That we cannot safely choose an example of true living from among those about us, without knowing their real character. The accompanying illustration is offered for occasions in which children--especially boys--above the primary age are interested. ~~The Talk.~~ "There are a good many boys and girls who make a great mistake in trying to imitate older people; and there are a good many older people who make a great mistake when they try blindly to make a success of things just because other people have been successful in doing them. It is a splendid thing to want to have in our lives the same great governing principles which rule the lives of people who stand before us as splendid models of character; but it is not always a good thing to try to do the very same things that these people do. Why? Because it is likely that we are not cut out to do their kind of work. The Lord may have intended that we should follow an entirely different line of effort. Let us, therefore, cultivate in our own lives the great and true principles which we find in other people, but let us also try to find out what the Lord wants us to do, and then let us learn to do it just the very best we can." "'Blessed is he,' says Thomas Carlyle, 'who has found his work; let him ask no other blessing.' The surest way to find what our life work is to be is to '_do the common things uncommonly well_.' If we do this, our life-work will be pointed out to us clearly and plainly. Therefore, in selecting our ideals in life, let us be careful how we choose." [Illustration: Fig. 116] "A boy, whom we will call John, worked in a certain downtown office. Two men used to pass the window of his place of employment very frequently. These two men were never together--in fact, they were not even acquainted with each other. Here is one of the men who passed John's window. [Draw Fig. 116, complete.] He was evidently a laboring man, as John judged from his clothing, which showed the effects of hard work of a rather rough character. He carried a dinner bucket. John merely noticed that this man passed and repassed his window every day, but gave him very little thought. But there was another man who did attract John's attention. Here he is: [Draw the second man, completing Fig. 117.] This second man was always well dressed, and he appeared to be a prominent business or professional man. Everything in his appearance and manner attracted the admiration of the boy. Without knowing it, John was selecting an ideal--he was studying the people whom he saw and hoping to be unlike this one and to be like that one. [Illustration: Fig. 117] "'Some day,' he said to himself, as the prosperous, well-dressed man walked by, 'when I grow up, I hope I shall be just like him.' He had chosen his ideal. The man was one of the leading merchants of the city, and when John found this to be so, he was still more firmly determined to pattern his life after the man whom he admired. "A short time after this John's folks--his father, mother, brothers and sisters--removed to another part of the city--and to the boy's great surprise, he found that the merchant lived just a square away. Incidentally, too, he found that the laboring man lived right next door to his new home. "And, right then and there, John learned one of the great lessons of his life. What did he learn about the merchant? He learned that the man, while he looked pleasant and kindly, was selfish and unkind. He learned that the making and hoarding of money was his great object in life. He learned that he cared but little for the comfort and welfare of other people. He learned that the man's family was unhappy because no home can be happy when selfishness and unkindness reign. "What else did he learn? He learned that the laboring man who lived next door was one of the finest men he ever knew. He learned that the whole family was so kind and helpful that he soon forgot the merchant and his fine clothes. He learned that the laboring man with his wife had been willing to live humbly and work hard in order that their children might be kept in school and then go to college. He learned that all the children of the neighborhood liked to go to this man's home where everybody seemed to have such a jolly good time. He found that the Bible was opened every day while the Scriptures were read, and that the dust never had a chance to gather on its covers. "So one day, when John was looking out of the window of his place of employment, and received a happy smile from his friend, the working man, he said to himself, 'I've changed my mind. Clothes don't count for everything. To be a good man depends upon what's _inside_, and not what's on the outside. When I grow up, I want to be just as good and kind as this man is.' "Let us all be careful in choosing our examples of how to live. The life of Christ is full of help to us, and the lives of many of His true disciples all about us today give us a practical illustration of the best way to live." TREE SURGERY --Rally Day --Obstacles Trees Need Skillful Surgery More Often Than People Do--Superfluous Branches. THE LESSON--That the life which wastes its strength in unnecessary efforts cannot bring forth the best fruits. That the boys and girls may realize the sad results of forming habits which hinder growth, development and fruit-bearing, is one of the great objects of the teaching of the Sunday school. Rally Day is an especially appropriate time for a lesson along this line of thought. ~~The Talk.~~ "A stranger from the East was visiting a large fruit farm in the celebrated Hood River Valley in Oregon. He was astonished at the size and appearance of the growing apples, and he asked the owner of the fruit farm to tell him the secret of such wonderful results. "'There is no secret at all,' responded the fruit raiser. 'You see, if a tree is allowed to do as it pleases, it usually covers itself with a vast number of useless branches and a multitude of leaves, which are of no benefit whatever except to make shade; and when a tree has too many branches and too many leaves it requires so much strength to keep them alive that there isn't enough left to put into the fruit. In other words, the tree can't bear large, fine fruit if it must also support a lot of useless branches and leaves.' This is the way an apple tree will grow if it is allowed to have its own way. [With the broad side of your green chalk, draw the general form of the tree, Fig. 118; add the trunk and dead branches in brown, and draw the grass with green, and the apples in red, completing Fig. 118.] [Illustration: Fig. 118] "'Such a tree can never bear good apples,' continued the fruit man. 'Many of its branches die, because the tree simply can't support so many limbs and leaves. Notice that all our trees are carefully trimmed.' And he pointed the visitor to trees that looked like this: [Draw the second tree, using the same colors as in Fig. 118, completing Fig. 119.] [Illustration: Fig. 119] "'It is an absolute fact,' added the fruit man, 'that if we allow these unnecessary leaves and branches to stay on the tree they absorb the life and strength which must go into the fruit if we are to raise fruit for which there is a market. So we cut off everything that can be spared, and we get the best fruit that grows.' "'Then it doesn't all depend upon the place where the fruit is grown?' observed the visitor. "'No,' laughed the fruit man. 'Many people think it does. Of course, the soil and climate have a good deal to do with it, and we must prepare the ground and keep it in the proper condition; we must also keep the trees free from disease and insects. But all of this same work has to be done, no matter where the apples are raised, and the soil and climate in many other parts of the United States are just as good as they are here. _It depends upon the know-how!_ "Ah, that's the secret! It depends upon the know-how! "Boys and girls, on this Rally Day, let me ask you: Are you going to let your life grow to be like this tree? [Indicate the first.] Or is it to be like this one? [Indicate the second.] What do I mean? Here is what I mean: "If a girl lets her thoughts run too much to clothes and parties--if she worries about her failure to do the things which other girls can do, and which God never intended she also should do--if she is spending her time reading books which can never be of any possible good to her--if she is becoming fault-finding, cynical, cross, selfish--if she is doing any of these things which keep her from being what she ought to be--her everyday life _needs trimming_! Think it over. If you find any useless, strength-absorbing thing in your life, _cut it out_! "Boys, are you letting any bad habits grow into your life? Are you wasting your time running after pleasures and amusements that don't help you to be better boys? Are you getting chummy with other boys whose companionship is not good and whose words and deeds you would not dare to talk about at home? Are you reading useless books and letting the treasures of literature on mother's bookshelf at home go untouched? Are you trying to find short-cuts to success, when there isn't any such thing, and neglecting the hard work which has brought honor and success to all who have reached a high place? If you are doing any of these things, get out the pruning hook of good resolution and the sharp ax of determination. Trim off all these useless things. Gather them in a heap and burn them. Then, in the years to come, will you find that you have been able to be of use to the world and to yourself. But you can't do it with these useless, strength-robbing things growing on your lives. Among the last words of Jesus on earth were these: 'Herein is my Father glorified, that ye bear much fruit.' If we are to bear much fruit, we must trim off the useless things and allow the bright sunshine of His approval and guidance to come into our lives." THE PILGRIMS --Thanksgiving Day --Bravery The Story of Their Steadfastness of Faith is an Inspiring Study for Thanksgiving Day. THE LESSON--That the blessings for which we are thankful today have come through those whose faith was firmly grounded. Thanksgiving Day should be one of mixed seriousness and smiles. This chalk talk endeavors to meet this combination in its treatment of the character of the Pilgrims and of the present-time observation of the day which had its beginning in Plymouth colony. ~~The Talk.~~ "The thoughts of Christian people all over America should turn today back to the twenty-second day of December, 1620, when that company of noble men and women, after battling with the ocean waves for two months, succeeded in getting ashore from their sturdy little boat, the Mayflower, and set their feet upon the new land of America. The spot where these Pilgrims landed is now a sacred one. We call it Plymouth Rock, and there we may still see the rock on which they are said to have stepped as they came ashore in their row-boats. "Who were these people? And why did they come to America and start a colony when there were no white people anywhere around; when savage Indians would surely try to kill them; when they would have to labor hard to get any food or clothing, and where they would have to live in the wild country in huts which must be made from the logs which they would cut out of the forest? "The Pilgrims were people from England who loved God and wanted to do His will. But there were other and more powerful people in England who punished them and treated them shamefully because they did not choose to do things which they knew would not please God. Finally, to get away from their persecutors, they left England and went over to Holland where they tried to live as they believed the Lord would have them live. But there they found a rough, immoral lot of people--mostly sailors and soldiers who had left the service of their country and were leading reckless lives. For the good of their children, they decided not to remain there. They then bade farewell to all that was near and dear to them in the old country and started across the ocean to America--the new land. After a voyage of two months, they reached the bleak, rocky coast of Massachusetts, and they knew that if they could come ashore safely, they could here worship God just as they wished to do. "We are glad that they kept a diary of what they did. When they asked the London company to let them start a colony in America, they said, 'We verily believe that God is with us and will prosper us in our endeavors. We are men who will not be easily discouraged.' That's the kind of people they said they were--the women as well as the men--and they proved it to be so. After they had signed the constitution which was the foundation of the first democratic government in America, while the Mayflower was standing in the harbor, the brave company of one hundred and one disembarked from their little vessel and commenced at once to chop down the trees needed to build homes and to provide fuel, for it was in the dead of winter. Before the first winter had ended, forty of their number had died from exposure, famine and disease, but when the Mayflower started back on its return trip to England, not one of the survivors would go with the ship's crew. Here, then, on this bleak, forbidding New England coast these Pilgrims set up the first model government. [Draw a little of the outline of the New England states at the upper right-hand corner of Fig. 120.] They had trouble with the Indians, but the Red Men soon came to respect them, and peace continued for many years. Three years after they had landed, Governor Bradford proclaimed a great feast--the feast of Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving! How dear the word has grown. 'Out of small beginnings,' says Governor Bradford in his history of the colony, 'great things have been produced by His hand that made all things out of nothing; and, as one small candle will light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shone to many, yea, to our whole nation.' [Illustration: Fig. 120] "And, today, this nation, the greatest nation on the earth, still looks back to that first Thanksgiving Day. [Draw the remaining lines to complete Fig. 120.] "To us, it is a day of worship and feasting, and in both of these features we are following the example of Governor Bradford, Elder William Brewster, John Carver, Edward Winslow, Miles Standish and the other brave men and women who formed that early company. We do not go out into the woods for the wild turkey as they did. But we get the turkey just the same. I have no doubt that your thoughts of thanksgiving to God for his many blessings to us this year are already mingling with thoughts of scenes like this: [Detach the map drawing from the board, turn it over and re-attach it with thumb tacks. Change the map into a steaming roast turkey by adding the lines to form the wing, the "drumstick," the garnishment and the plate. Use black for all but the garnishment. This completes Fig. 121]. [Illustration: Fig. 121] OUR HANDS --Visitors' Day --Conduct Actions Sometimes Speak Plainer Than Words--The Important Part Which Our Hands Play. THE LESSON--That we should watch carefully "the work of our hands." This chatty little talk about the hand may be given added force if the speaker will, by the use of his own hands, illustrate the characteristics and emotions as they are mentioned. ~~The Talk.~~ "Today, we shall talk a little about our hands--these most useful 'tools' that are fastened to the outer ends of our arms. "Helen Keller, who has been deaf and blind ever since she was a little child, tells us that her hands are a splendid substitute for eyes and ears, and that their sensitive touch has revealed to her the beauties and wonders of the world. In other words, she _has seen the world with her hands_! "Did you ever see a palmist read a hand? It is a very interesting thing, although most of us haven't a great deal of confidence in the revelations which the palmist finds there in the lines and the high places and the low places. [Draw the hand and put in the lettering of Fig. 122.] We laugh at the mistakes which the palmist makes, even though we think seriously of the true things she speaks. [Illustration: Fig. 122] "But we don't need to go to the palmist to find out what is really in our hands--to find out the real story they have to tell. Look at your own hands a moment Let us see what we find there. "Are your hands the kind that clasp other hands in warm friendship? Are they hands which are busy every day doing good, honest work? Are they hands that take food and clothing to the poor? Are they hands that stroke the fevered brow? Are they hands that help to lighten the burdens of other people? Are they hands that lift up the fallen one and point him to Him who said, 'Come unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden?' Are they hands that help wherever and whenever they can? _Think about it! Are they?_ "Or, are they hands that clench in anger? Are they hands that crush heartlessly? Are they hands that drag downward? Are they hands that pull backward? Are they hands that strike in cruelty? Are they hands that slap insultingly? Are they hands that tear pitilessly? Are they hands that grope into the dark places and do more harm than good? _Think about it! Are they?_ "Or, are they hands that drop lazily? Are they hands that lie idly and fold indolently? _Think about it! Are they?_ "In God's word, we find the hand mentioned more than a hundred times. It appears constantly as an index of character. So, you see, there is more than one way to determine character than by the 'reading' of the hand. Of the industrious, busy hand, Solomon says, 'The hand of the diligent shall bear rule, but the slothful shall be under tribute.' And again of the lazy hand, he says, 'How long wilt thou sleep? When wilt thou rise out of thy sleep? Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep.' What a picture of laziness! "But in no other place in the Bible do we find such striking references to the hand as in the words of the Psalmist. [Insert the letter "S" in Palmist, changing it to Psalmist.] Here is what the Psalmist says: 'He that hath clean hands and a pure heart shall receive the blessing of the Lord. Let the beauty of the Lord our God be upon us and establish the work of our hands; yea, the work of our hands, establish thou it." [Add the words, "The Work of Our Hands, Establish Thou It."] [Illustration: Fig. 123] "This is a splendid prayer for all of us. To our visitors today, we extend a warm hand, because you are as welcome as the flowers in May. Ours is the 'right hand of fellowship,' as Paul calls it. Here we have a plenty of work for many more hands to do--willing hands, busy hands, loving hands. If yours are not busy doing a work of uplift and helpfulness somewhere else, remember that we shall be glad to enlist them in service here. The lines of E. A. Houseman, in his poem, 'A Shropshire Lad' show most beautifully the thought which we should give the work of our hands as the days bring new problems and opportunities: "'Hand,' said I, 'since now we part From fields and men we know by heart, For strangers' faces, strangers' lands, Hand, you have held true fellows' hands; Be clean, then!--rot, before you do A thing they'd not believe of you!'" HELEN KELLER --Girl's Day --Seeing Her Wonderful Experience Furnishes an Inspiring Thought for Girls' Day. THE LESSON--That our physical eyes cannot reveal to us the precious gifts of God; only our spiritual eyes can tell us of His loving kindness. Helen Keller's wondrous life is full of inspiration, and a study of it will provide the conscientious teacher with many helpful thoughts. The illustration is especially appropriate for Girls' Day. ~~The Talk.~~ "It happens very often that two people look at the same thing at the same time, and each of the two sees something entirely different from the other. Somebody has described the optimist as the man who sees the doughnut, while the pessimist sees nothing but the hole. So, also, you and I might see before us nothing but an unshapely block of marble, while the sculptor would see the angel in the stone! "All of this proves to us that what we see doesn't depend upon our eyesight, but upon the mind which is back of the eyesight and which receives the impressions not only through the eyes but through the senses of hearing, tasting, smelling and feeling. In fact, our eyes and our ears may be tightly closed--we may be totally deaf and blind--and still we may be able to 'see' things more clearly than we might with our eyesight and our hearing. "We have all heard about Helen Keller, the deaf and blind girl. I will draw an outline of her portrait. [Draw Fig. 124, with eye closed, complete.] [Illustration: Fig. 124] "This young woman has been deprived of her eyesight and hearing ever since she was a young child, and yet her ability to learn, to comprehend, to understand, to really 'see,' is developed to such a high degree that she is advanced far beyond most well-educated people who possess all of their natural faculties. "Helen Keller, now grown to womanhood, has written many wonderful things. Here is one of them: 'It does not matter where we are, so long as we have light in our hearts and make our dark ways ring with the music of burdens cheerfully borne and tasks bravely filled. They say life is a closed book to me. One critic doubted that I could feel the sun, and I believe he thought others felt it for me. But if, indeed, I had so little share as that in the life of others, it would still be true that "'The least flower with brimming cup may stand And share its dewdrops with another near.' "Truly, the eyes of Helen Keller are widely opened to the great truths and wonderful beauties around her--[change lines of the eye slightly, completing Fig. 125]--whereas, the eyes of many of us which are supposed to be wide open, are indeed closed to many of God's blessings. Many of us have eyes to _see_ with, but we use them only to _look_ with. Helen Keller has seen more and done more without eyes than thousands who have perfect eyes, but have never learned to use them. [Illustration: Fig. 125] "Helen Keller should be an inspiration to every girl here today. Learn from her life the great principles of true living. "Let us first ask the question, 'How did she reach the high place to which she has been able to attain?' She must have had help. Yes, she did have help. It came chiefly through a dear friend, Miss Sullivan, who, through patient years, sent the light into the darkness which enveloped the poor deaf and blind girl. And listen: "Never, during those years of patient endeavor, did Miss Sullivan allow Helen Keller to receive a wrong impression of things about her. "Stop a moment and think what all that means! Nothing came into the life of the girl but clear, certain truth. The false, the unlovely, the hideous, the deceitful, the unreal, never came in to distort her view while she was a child, and so, when she later learned of the sadder side of life, through her extensive reading, she was well prepared to sympathize with those whose youth was not so well favored as her own. Let us be careful in helping to shape the lives of the children, never to leave with them a wrong impression which may require a lifetime to remove from their minds. "'It must be,' says Helen Keller, 'that when the Lord took from me one faculty, He gave me another, which is in no way impossible. I think of the beautiful Italian proverb, 'When God shuts a door, he opens a window.' "Truly, God has opened a window to let in the sunshine of His love and care, and this blind girl is one of His brightest children. "What an example to the world is Helen Keller! What an example to every girl who has heard of her great success. Up with a monument to her memory! Build it high and strong! She has shown the world how difficulties can be overcome by determination and perseverance, and to what rugged, lofty heights one may attain, even though he carry the heaviest of burdens!" THE STORY OF A KITE --Conceit --Vanity A Fable Talk to Children About the Ambitious Flier Which Broke the String. THE LESSON--That sometimes the things which seem to be hindering us and holding us down are the very things which we need to hold us up and build us up. In the days of our grandfathers and grandmothers, the children were taught from the beginning to perform many household duties which the children of today know nothing of. Whether it be a cause or an effect, the truth of the matter is that the modern tendency is to get away from the home influence and home responsibilities at a very early age--to break loose from "mother's apron strings." The talk deals with this phase of modern life. ~~The Talk.~~ ~~(By Chas. D. Meigs.)~~ "I am going to draw you a picture this morning, and I am wondering which one of you will be able to tell me first what it is a picture of. I will go a little slow, so you can all follow every line and think real hard what it is going to be! [Begin drawing Fig. 126, at the lines indicating the distant foliage; then draw the tail, and finally the kite frame and string.] [Illustration: Fig. 126] "No, no, no! It's not a wood pile! It's not a gridiron! No, it is not a trap! Where's the boy who said 'kite?' He's the smartie, for he got it right. Yes--it's a kite, and it was John's kite. "One day the wind came up just right for the kite, so John got it out, called to his chum, Harry, across the street, and said, 'Say, Harry, come on--let's go out and fly the kite; the wind is just dandy today.' "So, away the boys went, and before they reached the open lot three or four other kids had fallen in line, and they went along to help have the fun. 'Now, Harry, you take the kite and run out there towards that old stump,' said John, 'and when I pull the string, you stop and hold the kite up over your head as high as you can and when I say 'ready' you let her go.' Away went Harry, and he held up the kite. [Let speaker hold up a song book, high.] 'Are you ready?' 'Yes.' 'Well, then, let her go.' And with that, along came a gust of wind which laid hold of that kite and began to climb right up towards the sky with it. Higher and higher it went till the kite which was really as tall as the boy who owned it, didn't look much bigger than his hat But Harry kept on letting out the string, till the hat looked like a bird with a great long tail.' [Let speaker here shade his eyes with his hand and peer and point steadily up towards the sky and occasionally take a peep at the audience and see the boys and girls also looking up through the roof at the kite. The writer has so caught them at it many a time.] Then John looked down to see how much string he had left, and he let out more and more, and when he looked up at the kite again he didn't look at it at all--because he could not see it. It was out of sight! But he knew it was up there all right for he _felt it pull_! "Now, I guess this kite story is a fable, because in fables kites can talk as well as the boys who fly them. So when the kite got up so high, the story says that it began to want to talk, and as there was nobody up there to talk to, it began to talk to itself, and here is what it said: "'My! but ain't I high today? Never got so high in all my life before. How beautiful the world looks below me! How beautiful the sky looks above me! Dear me, I can't be so very far from the man in the moon! I have often heard of him, but have never met him. Gee! I wish that boy would let go of that string; if he would, I'd go up and shake hands with the man in the moon and ask him how he is. I just hate to be _held down_ all the time. I heard Harry say, the other day, that he didn't went to be tied to his mother's apron string, and that he'd like to be his own man.' Yes, and I'd like to be my own kite, too, and then I'd show these boys where I'd go.' And the more the kite thought of being 'held down,' the madder it got and finally it said, 'If that boy don't let go of that string, I'll _break it_--that's what I'll do, and I'll go on up to the moon, now see if I don't!' And with that, the kite gave a sudden jerk--and--_snap went the string_! "And what do you think, children--did the kite reach the man in the moon? Not much it didn't!' It began to act crazy and silly and drunk all at the same time! And it wobbled, and wobbled and stumbled and tumbled and finally it fell in the dirt, battered and broken like that! [Detach your drawing, reverse it and reattach it to the drawing board; add the lines to complete Fig. 127.] [Illustration: Fig. 127] "Now boys, why did the kite fall, when the string broke? Because the very same _string_ which had _held it down_ was the very same _thing_ which _held it up_! And now listen--don't you boys and girls get as silly as the kite was. Don't you jerk, and pull and tug at your mother's apron string and try to break it, so you can be 'your own man' while you are nothing but a boy or a girl? If you break that string too soon, you are liable to tumble in the dirt as the kite did, and go all to pieces as it did; for--don't forget this--the things which _hold you down_ to Sunday School, to Church, to Young People's Meeting, to _School_ and to _work_, are the things which hold you up and lift you up, and keep you up and build you up into _strong_, hopeful, helpful, useful, happy men and women. Don't forget what a fool the kite was, and what happened to it! Go as high as you can in the world but _don't break the string_!" A STRANGE OLD EPITAPH --Narrowness --Broadness A Talk to Boys Concerning the Narrow Life and the Broad Life--A Contrast. THE LESSON--That it is all wrong to be satisfied to be a Mr. Nobody. Do your best and be a Mr. Somebody. The boy whose days in school and whose hours of serious thought in the home have opened his eyes to future years of responsibility, will drink in the sentiment of this talk and remember the lesson when he reaches the twists and corners of life's pathway which lies before him. ~~The Talk.~~ ~~(By Chas. D. Meigs.)~~ "I am going to tell you today of a very _narrow man_. Suppose we call him Mr. Slim Jim. Later on, I will tell you about Mr. Broadman, and ask you which one you would rather be when you grow up. [Illustration: Fig. 128] "But first, we will turn our minds to a strange old graveyard over in England, a burying ground where there are a good many old tomb-stones like this: [Draw Fig. 128, complete]. If you were to walk among these old gravestones, you would find one there which would make you laugh, even though you were in a cemetery, because the epitaph, on it is the funniest you ever saw or heard of. It says: "'Here Lies the Body of John Blank. He Was Born a Man But _Died a Grocer_!' [As you speak the words slowly, draw them on the tombstone, completing Fig. 129.] [Illustration: Fig. 129] "Did you ever hear anything to beat that? Now, that isn't anything against grocery men. A grocery man may be just as good a man as the preacher himself--and just as respectable. We can't get along in this world without groceries, and we just have to have men who will sell them to us. Then what was the matter with John? Well, just this: His business had swallowed him up! He had given it his whole time for years, and he did nothing else. It was groceries, groceries, groceries, and nothing but groceries. It was groceries on Monday, groceries on Tuesday, groceries on Wednesday, groceries on Thursday, groceries on Friday and groceries till eleven o'clock Saturday night, and if John went to church Sunday morning, sat on the front seat, and looked straight at the preacher all the time (so the preacher would say to himself, 'John seems to be very much interested in the sermon this morning, bless the Lord'). Ten to one John wasn't thinking of the preacher or his sermon at all--just only of groceries--or some big bill he had to buy or pay on the morrow. "Now, if the epitaph had said, 'Here lies the body of John Blank; he was born a man and died a banker,' it would have been just as bad. Or, if he had died an undertaker, and buried himself, it would not have been any better. "Now, John, Harry, Willie, if you want to be a grocer when you grow up, _be a grocer_ and a big one--a wholesale grocer if you wish, and be a _good one_--the very best in town, if you can, but say--don't let your grocery business _swallow you up_ till you are _not good for anything else_ but to buy and sell groceries! Be a _good grocer_, but be a _better, bigger MAN!!_ "Perhaps you would like to be a lawyer; very well, be a _lawyer_, but see to it that you don't _die a lawyer_, and nothing but a lawyer. Don't let your profession swallow you up, and be bigger than you are yourself! Yes, be a lawyer, be a judge, if you will; the world doesn't seem to be able to get along without them--some of them to get people into trouble and others to get them out of it! "Yes, but no matter how big and how good and just a judge you are, be a bigger, better, juster MAN. "Here is another example. We have had Mr. Slim Jim; now let us have Mr. Broadman--broad-shouldered--broad-backed--broad-minded--big-hearted, open-pursed MAN--born a man and died a MAN. [Write last seven words on the blackboard.] Remember this: It is every man's duty to provide for his family, but it is no man's duty to provide a _million_ for them and provide nothing for those who are aged and sick and lame and blind and poverty stricken, and helpless. "That kind of charity which 'begins at home' and _stays there_ is a shame and disgrace to its possessor. It is the kind Mr. Narrow Minded Slim Jim dispenses! "Every man owes some of his time, his talent and his money to the town, the state, the nation to which he belongs! He gets their help and protection when needed. Protection and aid perchance in time of fire, flood or cyclone, and police protection as well. And now let me close where I begin with the gravestone and the epitaph." [Here draw picture of grave and gravestone with the epitaph, "Here Lies John Blank, He Was Born a Man But Died a Grocer."] "Let us read together once more this strange and curious epitaph, and make up our minds that no one will ever have a chance to write such a sentiment on _our_ gravestones." Read it in concert. INDEX TALKS FOR SPECIAL DAYS. Page. ~~Boys' Day:~~ "Johnnie Appleseed" ........................... 121 "Valueless Things" ............................ 157 ~~Children's Day:~~ "Bring Forth Fruit" ........................... 151 "Jennie Casseday" ............................. 91 ~~Christmas:~~ "The Christ-Child" ............................ 43 "The Christmas Stockings" ..................... 22 ~~Cradle Roll Day:~~ "Messages to the Children" .................... 145 "The Little Ones" ............................. 166 ~~Decision Day:~~ "The Hollow Tree" ............................. 181 "The Desert and the Mountain" ................. 112 ~~Easter:~~ "The Doorway" ................................. 67 "Easter Lilies" ............................... 55 ~~Flag Day:~~ "Our Country's Flag" .......................... 163 ~~Girls' Day:~~ "Helen Keller" ................................ 196 ~~Home Department Day:~~ "Public Sentiment" ............................ 124 ~~Lincoln's Birthday:~~ "A Firm Foundation" ........................... 61 "True Success" ................................ 37 ~~Missionary Day:~~ "Hidden Sunshine" ............................. 118 ~~Mother's Day:~~ "Mother" ...................................... 94 "The Plum Tree" ............................... 178 ~~New Year's Day:~~ "Turn Over a New Leaf" ........................ 34 "New Year's Resolutions" ...................... 97 ~~Rally Day:~~ "The Two Flags" ............................... 49 "Tree Surgery" ................................ 187 ~~Thanksgiving Day:~~ "The Pilgrims" ................................ 190 "The Perfect Life" ............................ 148 ~~Temperance Day:~~ "The Key to Failure" .......................... 25 "The Evolution of the Jug" .................... 79 "The Keg and the Bucket" ...................... 31 "Young Men, Ahoy!" ............................ 154 "The Open Saloon Door" ........................ 103 "The Heart of the Trouble" .................... 73 ~~Visitors' Day:~~ "Our Hands" ................................... 193 ~~Washington's Birthday:~~ "If Washington Lived Today" ................... 76 "Washington's Strength" ....................... 136 SUBJECT INDEX. Ability--"Valueless Things" ..................... 157 Adversity--"The Burned Book" .................... 169 Allurement--"The Deceitfulness of Sin" .......... 130 Appetite--"The Key to Failure" .................. 25 Bravery--"The Pilgrims" ......................... 190 Broadness--"A Strange Old Epitaph" .............. 202 Character--"If Washington Lived Today" .......... 76 Cheerfulness--"A Merry Heart" ................... 139 Children--"Messages to the Children" ............ 145 Common People, The--"The Story of a Hat" ........ 160 Conceit--"The Story of a Kite" .................. 199 Conduct--"Our Hands" ............................ 193 Conscience--"The Thief of Character" ............ 88 Constancy--"The Wounded Tree" ................... 58 Conversion--"The Desert and the Mountain" ....... 112 Courage--"Flying" ............................... 175 Danger--"The Mountain Climber" .................. 100 Death--"The Doorway" ............................ 67 Destruction--"The Open Saloon Door" ............. 103 Devotion--"Johnnie Appleseed" ................... 121 Diligence--"The Blessedness of Work" ............ 64 Discouragement--"True Success" .................. 37 Dissipation--"Young Men, Ahoy!" ................. 154 Error--"Two Men" ................................ 184 Evil Habits--"The Cigarette Face" ............... 82 Faith--"Christopher Columbus" ................... 85 Fortitude--"A Firm Foundation" .................. 61 Fruitlessness--"Bring Forth Fruit" .............. 151 Giving--"The Christ-Child" ...................... 43 Gladness--"Turn Over a New Leaf" ................ 34 God's Love--"The Puzzle Picture" ................ 70 Gossip--"The Brook" ............................. 127 Haste--"The Simple Life" ........................ 106 Helpfulness--"Reflecting Our Blessings" ......... 115 Home Training--"Mother" ......................... 94 Honesty--"The Hollow Tree" ...................... 181 Humility--"The Fruits of Riches" ................ 40 Ideals--"Two Men" ............................... 184 Industry--"A Busy Life" ......................... 28 Kind Words--"The Man Who Finally Heard" ......... 172 Labor--"The Blessedness of Work" ................ 64 Light--"The Mountain Climber" ................... 100 Love--"Hidden Sunshine" ......................... 118 Meditation--"The Thief of Character" ............ 88 Narrowness--"A Strange Old Epitaph" ............. 202 Nature--"The Puzzle Picture" .................... 70 Needy, The--"The Christmas Stockings" ........... 22 Obstacles--"Tree Surgery" ....................... 187 Optimism--"The Two Faces" ....................... 19 Patience--"The Burned Book" ..................... 169 Patriotism--"Our Country's Flag" ................ 163 Perfection--"The Perfect Life" .................. 148 Perseverance--"Flying" .......................... 175 Pluck and Luck--"A Busy Life" ................... 28 Politeness--"The Story of a Hat" ................ 160 Prayer--"Christopher Columbus" .................. 85 Purity--"The Keg and the Bucket" ................ 31 Quietness--"The Simple Life" .................... 106 Reaping--"Seedtime and Harvest" ................. 46 Repentance--"The Cross" ......................... 52 Rest--"Warmth and Coldness" ..................... 109 Resurrection--"Easter Lilies" ................... 55 Salvation--"The Cross" .......................... 52 Seeing--"Helen Keller" .......................... 196 Service--"Jennie Casseday" ...................... 91 Sin--"The Deceitfulness of Sin" ................. 130 Sincerity--"The Mask" ........................... 133 Slavery--"The Evolution of the Jug" ............. 79 Smiles--"A Merry Heart" ......................... 139 Sobriety--"The Heart of the Trouble" ............ 73 Sowing--"Seedtime and Harvest" .................. 46 Steadfastness--"The Wounded Tree" ............... 58 Success--"What is Best?" ........................ 142 Sunday--"Warmth and Coldness" ................... 109 Teaching--"The Little Ones" ..................... 166 Temptation--"The Cigarette Face" ................ 82 Testimony--"Reflecting Our Blessings" ........... 115 Thoughts, Our--"The Two Faces" .................. 19 Tongue, The--"The Man Who Finally Heard" ........ 172 Training--"The Plum Tree" ....................... 178 Trust--"Washington's Strength" .................. 136 Truth--"The Mask" ............................... 133 Unity--"Public Sentiment" ....................... 124 Vanity--"The Story of a Kite" ................... 199 War--"The Two Flags" ............................ 49 Watchfulness--"New Year's Resolutions" .......... 97 Wealth--"The Fruits of Riches" .................. 40 Words, Our--"The Brook" ......................... 127 Work--"What is Best?" ........................... 142 
7338	----	STUDIES IN THE LIFE OF THE CHRISTIAN His Faith and His Service By HENRY T. SELL, D.D. PREFACE These studies consider the questions: What did Christ teach? What is the standpoint of Christianity? What is a Christian? What ought he to believe and why? How shall he regard the Bible and the church? What should be his relations to God, to his fellow men, to his home, to society, to business, and to the state? The strength and reasonableness of the great main positions of Christian faith and service are constructively presented. Careful attention is also given to the practical application of Christian principles to the perplexing problems of modern life. This book is for use in adult Bible classes, Bible study circles, pastors' training classes in the essentials of Christianity, educational institutions and private study. It is uniform with the author's "Bible Studies in the Life of Christ," "Bible Studies in the Life of Paul" and his other Bible study books. HENRY T. SELL. Chicago. CONTENTS I. CHRIST, THE GREAT TEACHER II. THE CHRISTIAN'S GOD III. THE CHRISTIAN MAN IV. THE CHRISTIAN'S FELLOW MAN V. THE CHRISTIAN FAITH VI. THE CHRISTIAN'S BOOK VII. THE CHRISTIAN PRAYER VIII. THE CHRISTIAN SERVICE IX. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH X. THE CHRISTIAN HOME XI. THE CHRISTIAN BUSINESS WORLD XII. THE CHRISTIAN SOCIETY XIII. THE CHRISTIAN STATE XIV. THE CHRISTIAN'S HOPE STUDY I CHRIST, THE GREAT TEACHER Scripture references: Matthew 4:23; 5:1,2; 7:29; 13:54; 26:55; 28:19,20; Mark 1:21,22; 4:1,2; 6:6; Luke 5:3; 11:1; 19:47; John 6:59; 7:14; 8:28. THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY The heart of the Christian religion is found in Jesus Christ. If we desire to know what Christianity is and of what elements it is composed we must look to Him and His teachings. He is the great source of our knowledge of what God, man, sin, righteousness, duty and salvation are. Our interest in the books of the Old Testament lies in the fact that they lead up to Him. We study the books of the New Testament because of their vivid portrayal of His life, teachings, death and resurrection. With Jesus Christ a new era dawned for the world with new principles, ideas and aspirations for humanity. His teachings touch every department of human life and, where they are accepted and followed, they show their marvellous transforming power. There can be no more important study than what Jesus Christ said and did while upon this earth. "Never man spake like this man" (John 7:46). WHAT CHRIST TAUGHT There are five great lines which His teachings followed; they have to do with God, man, sin, salvation and the future life. The Right Relation of God to Man and Man to God.--How does God regard man? and, How shall man look upon God? are questions upon which the best thought of men in all ages has been expended. Upon the answers given have been founded all sorts of religious and philosophical systems. Man in this great universe desires to know in what relation he stands to the Author of it. Is man only a creature of fate? What does God care, great as He is, for one man? Jesus Christ recognized this desire of man to know his standing with God and He proclaimed not only the power, but the Fatherhood of God. When He taught His disciples how to pray He began His immortal prayer not with "Great God of the universe," or "Creator of all things," but "After this manner therefore pray ye: Our Father which art in heaven" (Matthew 6:9). Here was a new conception of God. Through Christ man comes into personal relations with God as the Father (John 16:27) who cares for him as a son. Man is to love and forgive as God loves and forgives in this relation of Father (Matthew 22:37; 6:14,15). Man is to do all that he does as in the sight of his Father in heaven (Matthew 6:1-26). God is made known as supreme love (John 3:16). The Right Relation of Man to Man.--There are many causes which divide men into classes, castes and nationalities. Once divided men begin to develop a class feeling and pride which tend to deepen and widen the gulfs which separate them from each other. With the truth proclaimed by Christ of the "Fatherhood of God" came also the great truth of the "Brotherhood of Man." The true relation of man to man, no matter what the caste, class, employment or nationality, is that of sons who have a common father. The second great commandment given by Christ is, "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (Matthew 22:39). When He took the example for a good neighbour He selected a Samaritan, a man of an alien race. Men are naturally inclined to do good to those who treat them well and whose help they need; but Christ, in carrying out this new law of brotherly love said, "Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you, that ye may be the children of your Father which is in heaven" (Matthew 5:44-48). It is only through this love of man for man, no matter what the class or condition, that right relations between men can ever be established and maintained. The Right Relation of Man to Sin.--Man violates his sense of righteousness and justice. He transgresses the laws of God and his nature. Man's sin is everywhere doing its destroying work. There is individual, social, corporate and national sin (Romans 3:23). This fact of sin is not only set forth in the Bible in unmistakable terms, but every government recognizes it in its laws and courts of justice. Society puts up its bars to protect itself against the sinner, and all literature proclaims the evil results of sin. What ought to be man's attitude to sin? Shall he make light of it and call it a necessary part of living? Shall he continue in it, although he recognizes its evil results, and draw others with him into greater and larger violations of the laws of God and man? These are practical questions. Some temporize with sin and say, "Let us lead outwardly correct lives, but within certain bounds we will do as we please"; hence arises the practice of secret sinning. Christ came declaring that man's relation to sin should be uncompromising. He used vigorous language in regard to sin. He said, "Woe unto the world because of offenses! for it must needs be that offenses come; but woe to that man by whom the offense cometh! Wherefore if thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off and cast them from thee: it is better for thee to enter into life halt or maimed, rather than having two hands or feet to be cast into everlasting fire" (Matthew 18:7,8). But Jesus in thus advocating heroic treatment for sin was but doing what eminent surgeons are advising every day in regard to certain dangerous bodily diseases. Jesus also laid His finger on the source of sin when He declared, "For out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts, false witness, blasphemies: these are the things which defile a man" (Matthew 15:19). A man must think evil before he does evil, and hence the emphasis which Jesus placed upon keeping the heart clean. The Right Relation of Man to Salvation.--Man feels his inclination to do evil and, seeing also the degradation wrought by it, desires to be saved from it. The cry has gone up from many hearts to be free not only from the power of sin but from the desire to commit sin. No man can save himself. He may succeed in a certain outward reformation and correctness of habit and speech, but he cannot control the thoughts and inclinations of his own heart. The special mission of Jesus Christ was to place man in the right relation of salvation from his sins and to show Himself the Saviour of Man. It was declared of Him before His birth, "He shall save His people from their sins" (Matthew 1:21). He said at the last supper, "This is My blood of the New Testament which is shed for many for the remission of sins" (Matthew 26:28). He had power to forgive sins (Mark 2:10). He said not, "I show you the way," but "I am the way, the truth and the life" (John 14:6). There is here a mighty spiritual power which can save man from sin and can keep him from the desire to sin. It is only as man enters into personal relations with Jesus Christ, repenting of his sin and having faith in Him, that the burden of sin is lifted from his heart (Matthew 6:33; 11:28,30). The Right Relation of Man to Death and the Future Life.--The facts of death and of what comes after cannot be set aside; they must be faced. All forms of religion and systems of philosophy have striven to sustain and comfort men at their trying hour of need. The trouble has been, however, to find any certain ground of the hope of a future life upon which to rest. No man has been able to do more than present a good argument, in regard to the hereafter, which might or might not be true. But when Jesus Christ came He was able to speak with authority and power. He plainly, in His description of the last judgment scene (Matthew 25:31-46), showed the relation of man's faith and actions in this world to his state in the world to come. He declared that a man need have no fear of death or the hereafter who trusted in Him. "I am the resurrection, and the life: he that believeth in Me, though he were dead yet shall he live: and whosoever liveth and believeth in Me shall never die" (John 11:25,26). "In My Father's house are many mansions, if it were not so I would have told you. I go to prepare a place for you" (John 14:2). In a supreme trust in Jesus Christ all dread of death and the hereafter may be taken away and man may enter into a right relation to immortality in this life. FORMS OF CHRIST'S TEACHING He used many forms in placing the truth before men. He paid great regard to the timeliness and the manner of presenting what He had to teach. Upon many occasions the multitudes were so captivated by His words and works that they followed Him out into desert places. Direct Discourse.--The Sermon on the Mount is a good example of this teaching. Here He taught plainly, (1) "The nature and constitution of the Kingdom" (Matthew 5:1-16); in itself (blessedness, vs. 1-12) and in its relation to the world (vs. 13-16). (2) The law of the kingdom (Matthew 5:17-7:12); general principles (vs. 17-20), the moral law (vs. 21-48), religious duty (6:1-18), and duty in relation to the world and the good and evil things in it (6: 19-7:12). (3) Invitations to enter the kingdom (Matthew 7:13-29). He was equally plain in regard to His own mission. He declared Himself to be the Son of God and claimed equality with the Father (John 5:18-23). He said, "I and My Father are one" (John 10:30). He affirmed His preexistence and that He had glory with the Father before the world was (John 17:5) and whoever had seen Him had seen the Father (John 14:9). At His trial, in answer to the question of the High Priest, He declared that He was the Christ, the Son of God (Matthew 26:63-66). After His resurrection He told His disciples, in sending them forth to their mission, that all power was given Him in heaven and in earth (Matthew 28:18-20). Parables (Mark 4:2; Matthew 13:3).--Christ spoke in parables to convey and send home to the hearts of His hearers the truth, just as Nathan employed the parable of the lamb in the case of David to make him acknowledge his sin. They were adapted to the capacities of His hearers. Each parable had some great central truth. The parables have been classified as: 1. The Theoretic, which teach general truths concerning the kingdom of God, such as, "The Sower" (Matthew 13:3-23), "The Treasure" and "The Pearl" (Matthew 13:44,45). 2. Grace, setting forth the divine goodness and grace as the source of salvation and law of Christian life, such as, "The Lost Coin," "The Lost Sheep" and "The Lost Boy" (Luke 15). 3. The Prophetic or Judgment parables, which proclaim the righteousness of God as the supreme ruler, rewarding men according to their works, such as, "The Wicked Husbandmen" (Matthew 21:33-41), and "The Ten Virgins" (Matthew 25:1-13). Miracles (John 3:2; 2:23; 6:2; Mark 1:32-34).--Christ appealed to His works as an evidence of His divine mission (John 10:38). Miracles are possible, probable and credible, when we believe there is a personal God, who is the Supreme Ruler of the universe and that He cares for man. The thirty-six miracles of which an account is given in the four gospels have been divided into three classes; their teaching is important: 1. The Nature miracles show the divinity of Christ. The feeding of the five thousand men (Matthew 14:15-21) reveals His creative power, and the stilling of the storm on the Lake of Galilee (Matthew 8:23-27) His divine command over Nature and its forces. 2. The Healing miracles reveal not only His divinity but His humanity and compassion. They set forth the one being who loves the human race with His whole heart. This class of miracles shows the mission of Jesus to be the extinction of sin and disease, and the redemption of man, body and soul. 3. The Moral miracles are the life of Christ and its effect upon the world. Example of Living and Dying, the teaching of which is elaborated in the Acts and Epistles (Acts 1:8; 2:31-41; 13:23-42; Philippians 2:5-11; Colossians 1:13-20). HOW CHRIST TAUGHT With Authority (Matthew 7:28,29; Mark 1:22).--He declared that "All power is given unto Me in heaven and in earth" (Matthew 28: 18). He did not quote precedents but said, "I say unto you." With Persuasiveness and Love (Matthew 11:28-30; 19:13,14; John 3:17; Luke 9:56).--People of all classes gathered about Him, in the marketplaces, in the fields and by the seaside. They followed Him into desert places to hear the gracious words that fell from His lips. With Originality (John 12:46).--He taught a new philosophy of sorrow and suffering, a new law of self-sacrifice and a new law of love for fallen humanity. With Promise (Matthew 28:20; John 14:12-19; 16:1-14; Acts 1:4-8).--His work He declared was not to end with His resurrection and ascension, but was to continue. He promised to endue His disciples with power from on high in their task of converting a world. This promise of divine help was also extended to all His disciples in their effort to lead pure and righteous lives. QUESTIONS What can be said about the Founder of Christianity and His teachings? What did Christ teach; about the right relation of God to man, man to man, man to sin, man to salvation and man to death and the hereafter? What can be said of the forms of Christ's teaching; direct discourse (give examples), parables (give the teaching of the three classes), miracles (give the teaching of the three classes) and example of living and dying? How did Christ teach? What can be said of His authority, persuasiveness, originality and promise? STUDY II THE CHRISTIAN'S GOD Scripture References: Genesis 1:1; 17:1; Exodus 34:6,7; 20:3-7; Deuteronomy 32:4; 33:27; Isaiah 40:28; 45:21; Psalm 90:2; 145:17; 139:1-12; John 1:1-5; 1:18; 4:23,24; 14:6-11; Matthew 28:19,20; Revelation 4:11; 22:13. WHO IS GOD? How Shall We Think of God?--"Upon the conception that is entertained of God will depend the nature and quality of the religion of any soul or race; and in accordance with the view that is held of God, His nature, His character and His relation to other beings, the spirit and the substance of theology will be determined." When one man says, "I believe in God" he may have in mind an entirely different conception of God from another man who uses the same expression. There is a Christian idea of God and there are many non-Christian ideas about God; it is the latter which keep men from heartily engaging in the service of the Lord Jesus Christ. Wrong Conceptions of God.--Some of these are: 1. That He is a blind fate or unknowable force. Personality is denied, and it is asserted that this great force neither sees, cares nor even knows what men do or do not do. 2. Even if this great force be personal, and knows what is going on amongst men, He is perfectly indifferent to right or wrong actions. 3. God knows and sees all that is going on, but He has wound up this universe like a great clock. To help or succour any man in his distress would disarrange the whole system. Natural law must have its course; it is useless to pray. 4. God is revengeful or weak; in the first place men seek to keep out of His way, in the second they do not care. When men adopt these wrong ideas of God and cherish them they are fashioned after them in life and character. Here are the stumbling-blocks which need to be removed before men, who think this way, can be brought into sympathy with the Church of Christ. Man can never come into personal loving relations with a Universal Substance or Force, no matter how mighty it is. Right Conceptions of God are necessary for the true worship of the Almighty, for the exercise of proper conduct to our fellow men and for the upbuilding of our own spiritual life. Never was there a time when the great fundamental positions of the Bible, in regard to God, needed to be more plainly stated than to-day. When men stand firmly upon these positions a whole host of perplexities and anxieties will take their departure. The Christian Conception of God has been thus expressed, "God is the Personal Spirit, perfectly good, who in holy love, creates, sustains and orders all." The essential matters covered in this statement are: 1. The nature of God. He is the Personal Spirit (Exodus 3:14; John 4:24) who can enter into personal relations with man, and who hears and answers prayer. 2. The character of God. He is perfectly good, pure and holy (Psalm 25:8; Nahum 1:7; Romans 2:4). Man may have perfect confidence, however matters may seem to him to go wrong with his imperfect vision of the world and the happenings in it, that there is a good God who governs all in the interest of righteousness (Matthew 13:24-30,36-43). 3. The relation of God to all other existences. He creates, sustains and orders all (Genesis 1:1; Psalm 19). 4. The motive of God in His relation to all other existence; it is holy love (1 John 4:8). Supreme power, personality, intelligence and perfect goodness are then the great revealed truths which the Bible presents to us as the proper conceptions which we should have of God. But if it is desired to know what God is like we look at once to Jesus Christ. He is supreme intelligence. He has power over nature and men and He uses all with the motive and purpose of a holy love. We know that He controlled nature, when on earth, and not nature Him. He taught the great love of God for man. He made it plain that men were not in a relation as atoms of matter in a whirlpool of action, but as sons to a loving father. GOD IS SUPREME God's Attitude to the Universe.--The Scriptures are consistent in the statement, many times made, that God is the source of all things. He brings all things into being and sustains all by the word of His power. His is a work of perpetual administration. But God is not wholly occupied in conducting the affairs of the universe, neither does it exhaust His possibilities (Psalm 8:1; 148:13). He is greater than the universe. God, says Dr. Clarke, in his "Outline of Christian Theology," is like the spirit of a man in his body, which is greater than his body, able to direct his body, and capable of activities that far transcend the physical realm. God is a free spirit, personal, self-directing, unexhausted by His present activities. This statement affirms both the immanence and the transcendence of God. By the immanence of God is meant that He is everywhere and always present in the universe, nowhere absent from it, never separated from its life. By His transcendence is meant--not as is sometimes represented--that He is outside and views the universe from beyond and above, but that He is not shut up in it or limited by it, not required in His totality to maintain and order it. By both together is meant that He is a free spirit inhabiting the universe, but surpassing it, immanent as always in the universe, and transcendent, as always independent of its limitations and able to act upon it. God's Attitude to Man.--God has not only placed man at the head of the animal world, but has endowed him with qualities which make him its lord and master. God is more than the Creator of man. He is his Father, Saviour and Friend. God comes to man in the attitude, of The Supreme Spiritual Being, approaching a spiritual being who is of priceless value. Jesus Christ makes this truth very plain. He everywhere teaches the great worth of the life of a man and that God is seeking to come directly into touch with this life which is so precious in His sight (John 3:16; Matthew 10:30,31). This life is not the physical but the spiritual which is the real life of a man. "Not what one has, but what one is, gives the true measure of a man." He said, "For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul? Or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul?" (Mark 8:36,37). "Is not the life more than meat and the body than raiment?" (Matthew 6:25). "In harmony with this view of the worth of life," Professor Stevens in "The Theology of the New Testament," says, "Jesus taught that the most humble and insignificant person, on whom men set no value, is precious in the sight of God. These little ones, be they children or humble believers, are not the despised (Matthew 18:10). The least important person who goes astray from goodness excites the pity and solicitude of God, and He seeks him and brings him back as the shepherd, leaving his ninety-nine sheep, goes into the mountains in eager search after the one that has wandered away" (Luke 15:14). The hope of everlasting life is bound up with the recognition by man of the priceless value of the spiritual life and of the necessity of his coming into harmony (in thought, will and action) with God's plans for him (John 17:3; Luke 12:16-21; John 1:4; 3:15,34-36; 6:35,47; 14:6). "GOD IS THE PERSONAL SPIRIT" "God is Spirit," these words of Christ, uttered to the Samaritan woman (John 4:24), have reference to the nature of God and show us how we are to think of Him. He is not limited to a particular place of worship, but is to be worshipped "in spirit and in truth" (John 4:23). When we speak of a spirit we mean a being who has intelligence and will; one who thinks, feels and wills. God the great intelligence and will can enter into communication with man who, while he has a body, has also a spirit possessing intelligence and a will. We need not define the difference between God and matter, "if only we give full weight to this vital and practical difference, that He is one who thinks and feels and wills. The composition of spirit we may never understand, but this is the action of spirit and this is intelligible." God is everywhere represented in the Scriptures as exercising intelligence and will (Genesis 1:1,2; 6:3; Job 26:7-14; 38:1-41; Psalm 2; 19; 72; Isaiah 61:1; Mark 10:27; 12:27; John 3:34; Acts 3:26). God is Personal.--Personality has two characteristics; self-consciousness and self-direction. When it is said that God is personal, the meaning is that He knows Himself as God and directs His own actions. In the Bible He is represented as saying "I" (Exodus 20:2; 3:14) and as directing all things. Personality does not limit God. He is the one perfect personality. Personality in man exists only in a more or less imperfect degree. Personality is understood here not as "bodily," but as belonging to the spirit. GOD IS GOOD The Character of God is a subject of great importance to man. God is the Supreme Personal Spirit, yet to know only this is to leave out a very vital part in our estimation or knowledge of God. We desire to know and feel that God is not only the greatest, but the best being in the universe. Hence God is shown to us in the Bible to be inwardly perfect and outwardly consistent with this perfection. The Old Testament shows a struggle between God and man; God seeking to bring man to the thinking of right thoughts and doing of right actions and man resisting Him. The history of Israel is a story of a nation whom God would make a righteous people; all the laws given to it, civil, sanitary and ceremonial, were with the end in view to make it "a holy nation"; all its prophets and teachers proclaim the righteous and just character of God (Exodus 19:6; Leviticus 11:45; 19:2; 20:7, 8; Numbers 15:40; Deuteronomy 14:2,21; Joshua 24:19; Psalm 22:3; 99:3; 111:9; Isaiah 6:3; 57:15). In Jesus Christ and His life upon earth we see the goodness of God in its largeness. "In His gospel holiness is the ideal, the substance of Christian character and the end in view in Christian experience." He says, in the Sermon on the Mount, "Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect" (Matthew 5:48). In Christ we have the one perfect ideal of moral excellence. In Him we can see what goodness in God means (John 14:9). The standard for the conduct of man is that of God's goodness, righteousness and truth; this is not a double one--the Old and the New Testament--but a single one and applicable to all men of all races and climes. "If sin exists holiness in God must absolutely and forever oppose it. From the holiness in God's character we can understand His righteousness and justice. The man who does evil sets his will against God's will and against the principle upon which He conducts the universe. Such a man has placed himself where he must either turn back and forsake his sin or take the inevitable consequences of resisting the purpose which God is fulfilling." God's love for man is bound up with His goodness. God, foreseeing the fearful consequences of man's sinning, seeks in every way to warn and turn him back from the evil way. He knows the great worth of the soul and desires to save it to everlasting joy (John 3:17; Luke 9:56; John 14:1-3). GOD'S MANIFESTATION The Manifestation of God in Jesus Christ.--Paul says, "when the fullness of time was come, God sent forth His Son" (Galatians 4:4); "That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth; and that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father" (Philippians 2:10,11). This personal manifestation of God in Christ is in perfect harmony with the nature and character of God as we know Him through the Scriptures. This manifestation of God is not only subject to a historical test, but may also be made the subject of a personal experience test, "If any man will do His will he shall know of the doctrine" (John 7:17). Soon after the resurrection and ascension of Jesus the disciples, who had been with Jesus when He was upon earth, began to urge others to make a test of personal experience in regard to the manifestation of God in Christ (Acts 2:14,31-47; 3:19-21; 7:56). Paul, who had a special experience (Acts 9:1-8), preached this test of personal experience throughout the Roman Empire. Ever since those early times there has been the same urgent appeal for men to come to a knowledge of God through Jesus Christ and to make the test not only historical, but one of personal experience. The "Threefold Self-manifestation of God."--Christ in instructing His disciples after His resurrection, said, "Go ye therefore and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost" (Matthew 28:19). In the Old Testament we have the manifestation of God as the one living God of all. He was specially known as the God of Israel in preparing that nation for the great part it had in the divine economy. In the New Testament Christ is recognized by His followers--and so taught Himself--as the personal manifestation of God, to whom divine honour was and is to be given. Christ told His followers that He would "pray the Father and He shall give you another Comforter, that He may abide with you forever" (John 14:16). This Comforter (16:7-15), the Holy Spirit, would guide them into all truth. The Holy Spirit, upon whom they were to wait for His manifestation (Acts 1:8), came in wonderful power on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4), thus beginning the great work which was to spread around the world. When Paul and Barnabas were ready for their large missionary task, the Holy Spirit called them to it (Acts 13:2). The early Church felt the presence of that mighty indwelling Holy Spirit. "As God Himself had come in the Son so it was felt that He had come in the Spirit. The one God of all known to the fathers, had manifested Himself in the divine human Christ, and in the invisible Spirit of truth and life. Both was His and yet each was truly Himself." QUESTIONS Who is God? How shall we think of Him? Give some of the wrong conceptions of God. What can be said of the right conceptions of God? What is the Christian conception of God? How can we know what God is like? What is God's attitude to the universe and to man? What do we mean when we say, that "God is a Spirit"? How is God personal? What can be said of the character of God? How is God manifested, in Christ, and in the threefold manifestation? STUDY III THE CHRISTIAN MAN Scripture references: Genesis 1:26-28; 2:7; 9:6; Job 33:4; Psalm 100:3; 8:4-9; Ecclesiastes 7:29; Acts 17:26-28; 1 Corinthians 11:7; Ephesians 4:24; Colossians 3:10; 1 Corinthians 15:45; Hebrews 2:6,7; Ephesians 6:10-18; 1 Corinthians 2:9. WHAT IS MAN? What Shall We Think of Man?--Who is he? What is his place on the earth and in the universe? What is his destiny? He is of necessity an object of thought. He is the subject of natural laws, instincts and passions. How far is he free; how far bound? How is he linked with the physical and the spiritual worlds? These and a host of other questions press upon us for answers, when we begin to think about man and his destiny. Taken in detail the inquiries lead investigators in many different directions and result in many contradictory systems of thought. Taken, however, in a general practical way all questions about man may be considered from two standpoints; the physical and the spiritual. The danger is in making the physical alone interpret the spiritual and in declaring that "man is simply a ripple on the sea of human events and human life, merely on episode marking a particular stage in the cooling of a nebula." This method of interpretation leads to the ruling out of any personal responsibility on the part of man for his thoughts or actions, the obliteration of the distinction between right and wrong and the denial of a personal God and personal immortality. The right standpoint from which to consider the many questions about man, as he appears upon this earth, is that of a personal spiritual being with a physical body. There is here no denial of the physical part of man, but it is made subordinate to the spiritual. Man is personal and responsible for his thoughts and conduct; upon this conception of man is founded human society and the state. Man is spiritual, knowing the distinction between right and wrong, capable of knowing God who is The Personal Spirit and looking forward to a personal immortality. The Christian Thought of Man recognizes him as a personal spiritual being with a physical body; he has large responsibilities, and a great destiny to attain--if he so wills. There are six heads under which the Christian conception of man may be considered: 1. Man is mortal (Psalm 90:5,10; Ecclesiastes 12:5). The physical part of man is quite definitely limited in years. His body is formed of the same elements as that of any other animal and is subject to the law of decay and death. This linking of man with, what we call, the material universe is asserted at the very opening of the Bible (Genesis 2:7). Man is a member of a race of men with all that this membership implies (Acts 17:26). 2. Man is immortal (1 Corinthians 15:53,54). The physical body is the house of the spirit of man. All the appeals in the Scriptures are addressed to this personal spirit of man (Matthew 6:25,33; John 14:1-4). There is in the New Testament a great forward look to the things that shall come to pass after the passing away of the physical body (Matthew 25:31-46; Revelation 21,22). 3. Man is a moral being (Romans 2:14,15). There is a law of conscience impressed upon man when he comes into the world, which makes him a moral being capable of distinguishing between right and wrong. Man knows when he sins against the law of his conscience. 4. Man is a responsible being (Romans 2:1-11). He is self-conscious and self-determining. He knows himself as himself and he can determine his actions; it is these characteristics which make him responsible for his sins. He has the power of choice and in willing to do right or wrong he brings the consequences of his doing upon himself. 5. Salvation for man is through Jesus Christ. Man sins and violates his moral nature; he feels the responsibility for his sin; he desires forgiveness for his sin and to be freed from its power over his spiritual nature (Romans 7:23,24). But he finds no earthly help. Such help can come to man only through a spiritual being who, subject to all the assaults of sin (Matthew 4:1-11), has triumphed over them all (Romans 8:1-4; 2 Corinthians 5:21). Jesus Christ, the manifestation of God the Father, is the Spiritual Being through whom man can receive forgiveness for sin (Luke 5:23,24; Acts 2:38; 13:38,39; 16:30,31). 6. Large possibilities are everywhere asserted for man in the Scriptures. This earthly life is looked upon as the beginning of a greater and fuller life (1 Corinthians 13:9,12). Yet in doing the will of God man may even here enter upon a life full of joy (Hebrews 12:1,2). MAN MADE IN THE IMAGE OF GOD The Statement of the Case.--In Genesis 1:26 we are told that God said, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness." In Genesis 2:7 the narrative relates, "And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and man became a living soul" (see Psalm 8:4-8). These passages have a great representative character and the truth expressed in them has lived and will live under all theories of the appearance of man upon this earth. In the Bible man is shown as the latest and highest creation of God, the last and best of His work in the animal world, but with a difference that is world-wide between him and the brute creation. Here is an animal, coming up out of the dust, endowed with spiritual qualities which place him not only at the head of the animal kingdom, but dominating it. The most radical evolutionist must admit that man is the last in the list of uplifts in the animal world, that he has qualities which elevate him far above it and by which he dominates it. Somewhere back there, again, he must admit that there came a change and the dust-born animal was changed into a God-born soul. The great truth then remains, man is an animal but endowed with a growing marvellous self-conscious, self-determining personality. As the Bible is a progressive revelation, showing us more and more the greatness of spiritual truths, it represents man as starting from no high plane of civilization and as a learner through the ages. Man is even now in the process of making; he has not yet come to his best estate. The Image of God.--What is the likeness of God? "God is Spirit" (John 4:24) and that part of man which counts is his spiritual kinship to God. Man's intelligence, moral nature and will constitute "the image of God" in him and make it possible for him to come into communication with God and to occupy his unique place in the universe. Only a person can understand a person. "Man is dear to God because he is like Him. Vast and glorious as it is, the sun cannot think God's thoughts; can fulfill but cannot intelligently sympathize with God's purposes. Man, alone among God's works, can enter into and approve of God's purpose in the world and can intelligently fulfill it. Without man the whole material universe would have been dark and unintelligible, mechanical and apparently without any sufficient purpose. Matter, however fearfully and wonderfully wrought, is but the platform and material in which spirit, intelligence and will, may fulfill themselves and find development." The Bible seeks to show men in how many ways they resemble God and to urge them to be worthy of their likeness to God. There is a certain philosophy on the other hand, sometimes called "the dirt philosophy," which seeks to show men in how many ways they resemble the brute and to urge them to live the life of the brute. But a great practical question which demands an answer of us--as we look out upon the world of men taking them as they are--is, Did God make the evil man "in His likeness" as well as the good man? The Good Man.--The best things bear the stamp of their maker. If a good judge of pictures is taken into some famous art gallery it is not necessary to point out to him the excellencies of the paintings, they tell their own story. There are men in the Bible who manifestly bear the image of God; Abraham, Isaac, Enoch, Moses, David, John, Paul and others. There have been many men in ancient and modern times who, when some great crisis has come in the state or church, have conducted themselves as men born in the image of God; men who have sacrificed their own interests to be loyal to the truth. We all recognize such men as God-born. The Evil Man.--The difficulty is however to recognize any image of God in a certain class of evil men who have low instincts and desires; men who lie, cheat, steal and break every commandment of God and man. Did God make the worst and the lowest of men? If we are to consider fairly the question of the making of man in the image of God we must not shun this problem, which the vilest of men and the most degraded savage presents. What can be seen in these men that reminds us of "the likeness of God"? We are to judge men, however, by what they are capable of and are, at their best, rather than at their worst. The art world regards Michael Angelo's statue of Moses as one of the greatest creations of the sculptor's genius. Suppose, however, some one should maliciously deluge this masterpiece with ink, smash it into fragments with a huge hammer, and then ask as he looked upon the marred and blackened bits of marble, "Is that a masterpiece of Michael Angelo's genius?" So we look upon a man who has been marred and broken by sin and ask the question, "Was that man created in the image of God? Lo, this only have I found, that God hath made man upright; but they have sought out many inventions." Trace back the cause of the degradation of the individual or society or state and we always find the root to be in some transgression of a righteous law of God. The Bible uniformly asserts that God is not the author of sin or man's fall into evil ways, but that he has sufficient light to follow right ways, if he will. But that an evil man has this marvelous heritage of being God-born is shown by the fact that even when he has marred "the likeness of God" in him, by sin, beyond human recognition there is still a possibility of its being restored. Jesus Christ said, "For the Son of man is come to seek and save that which was lost" (Luke 19:10; Matthew 15:24; Luke 15:4); the most evil men came to Him and, confessing their sins, were brought back into sonship with God. The incentive to Christian work, in the slums of the cities, amongst the most degraded savages and everywhere, is the finding of men broken and marred by sin and the possibility of bringing them back to God. God disapproves the sin but loves the sinner. "God commended His love towards us in that while we were yet sinners Christ died for us" (Romans 5:8-11). THE CHIEF END OF MAN The Bible declares the divine origin and the divine destiny of man, and that he was made in the image of God and for His glory. A Threefold Obligation rests upon man to serve and glorify God, "1. On account of his creation by God, the Father. "2. On account of his redemption by God, the Son. "3. On account of his regeneration and sanctification by God, the Holy Ghost." The Great Concern of Man should be conformity with the divine likeness (John 5:30; Matthew 6:10,33; 16:26; Romans 14:8; I Corinthians 10:31). "Be not conformed to this world: but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind, that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will of God" (Romans 12:2). It is only when man succeeds in bringing his will to do God's will and makes God's plan his plan of life that he comes to his best and highest estate. The world is full of sin and misery, and there are many burdens heavy to be borne, because man insists upon having his way instead of seeking God's way. Many great civilizations have gone down and many forms of society have been disrupted because, in them, man strove to set up his glory, rather than God's glory, as the standard to be striven for. Man has repeatedly attempted to attain to "the dominion" promised him only to fail because he has desired such "dominion" to spend it upon himself. God desires to crown man with glory and honour and to do exceedingly large things for him, the Scriptures are filled with great promises, but man only grasps at the shadow of power, when he might have the substance. All great inventions and discoveries but point to still greater ones, when man shall be fitted by spiritual grace and goodness to be intrusted with them. The kingdom of heaven must come in man's heart before any great material or spiritual advancement can come in the world. Education, commerce, art, science, in all their majesty of strength, can never do what the Christian religion can do for men when it shall succeed in getting them to seek to be conformed to "the divine likeness": this is a truth too little emphasized, but it is fundamental and necessary to any real progress in the world. "There is a higher law for life than self-will and unregulated impulse; the real world goes deeper than things of sense; this temporal life is related to eternity; and God is the central verity of all." THE PERFECT EXAMPLE God's Measure of a Man.--What is the standard by which man is to compare himself? Great things are expected of a man but how is he to work them out? These are fair questions. Jesus Christ has two titles in the New Testament, "The Son of God" and "The Son of Man." If we want to know what God is like we look into the face of Jesus Christ. If we want to know what man ought to be we look into the face of Jesus Christ (John 14:5-9; Matthew 5:48). Jesus Christ is the Perfect Example. He is the Perfect Example of a Physical Man.--The test here is bodily endurance and perfect control over the body. Look at Jesus Christ and note His physical endurance tests. He was forty days without food (Matthew 4:2); this is not a weakling's task. A man must have a strong body to endure through such a starvation period. For a man to be crucified upon a cross, after being scourged, was to undergo the most terrible agony; yet Christ so had His body under control upon His cross that He could speak forgiveness for His enemies and commend His mother to the care of a disciple. "How can I start a religion?" said one great Frenchman to another. "Go and be crucified," was the reply. If we want to behold the perfect physical man, who had His body in complete control and made it do His will, we must look to Jesus Christ. How many sins come to man through a weak physical control! He is the Perfect Example of an Intellectual Man.--What man can compare with Jesus Christ in the power of His intellect? He stands ready before all to state and defend His precepts and principles. He so spoke to the people that they listened with growing conviction. "Never man spake like this man." Difficult questions were brought to Him, questions which would make the wisest judges hesitate in their answers, and at once He gave His replies which stand unimpeached to-day for marvellous wisdom and power. Living in an age long before modern science had its birth, He handles Nature as her Master and makes no mistake. His words to-day are a power in the court, in the senate and the marts of the world, as well as in the pulpit. He is the perfect intellectual man for our example. He is the Perfect Example of a Moral Man.--Many intellectual and physical giants fail upon the moral test; but in Christ we find no moral flaw. He is the standard of moral perfection. He is the perfect moral example for all men. Here is the foundation for physical and intellectual progress, but without a true moral foundation they will both fail. No man ever so ministered to men as Jesus Christ. QUESTIONS What is man? What shall we think of him? What is the Christian thought of man? Give the five points in the Christian conception of man. Man made in the image of God; give a statement of this case. What is the image of God? Did God make the good man, the evil man? What is the chief end of man? What threefold obligation rests upon man to serve and glorify God? What should be the great concern of man? What can be said of God's measure of a man? What can be said of Jesus Christ as the perfect physical, intellectual and moral man? STUDY IV THE CHRISTIAN'S FELLOW MAN Scripture references: Luke 10:29-37; Matthew 7:12; 5:16; Luke 12:13-15; 1 Corinthians 13; Matthew 7:3-5; 5:42-49; John 21:21, 22. MAN AND OTHER MEN The Question of Relationship.--One of the most important questions is that of the relation which a man shall hold to other men. 1. It is fundamental in every system of philosophy and religion. The answers, which are given, show their widespread practical bearing in the social, industrial and political spheres, as well as in the religious. 2. It is imperative from the fact it demands a reply which becomes at once the basis of action. A man, amongst men, is under the necessity of deciding how he will conduct himself towards his fellow men. There are many divergent opinions, in regard to the relation which a man should sustain to his fellow man, which lead to widely divergent courses of action and largely affect the world for good or ill. Jesus Christ was outspoken on this matter. His words (Luke 10:29-37; Matthew 22:36-40) go at once to the heart of the question and give its only possible solution. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN The Inequalities in the Lives of Men are many and far reaching. They divide men from each other and tend, if brooded over, to make them live lives apart, with a lessening sympathy and a growing hostility. They pertain to race, education, business and society. They may be natural, or artificially induced. The great inequality to-day, however, upon which men place an acute emphasis is that of wealth or the lack of it. A man once came to Jesus and said, "Master, speak to my brother, that he divide the inheritance with me" (Luke 12:13); there is the same demand to-day. Men are not seeking to share the responsibility of a self-denying service to their fellow-men, such as Jesus gave; neither are they greatly desirous of advancing the cause of righteousness in the world, but they are too largely looking to the betterment of their material condition. It is this state of affairs which often spurs men on to accumulate wealth by the oppression of their fellow men. Many men work and plan for certain great results in financial matters (as though these were the supreme things), only to be disappointed and in consequence lose their interest in life. It is the making of the struggle for material betterment the chief thing in life which causes strikes, lockouts and most of our modern industrial troubles. Here we find also the cause of heart-burnings and jealousies and deep-seated hatreds. It is said that out of these struggles between competitors, and employer and employee, there is coming a better understanding between the contending parties and also new adjustments which will do away with these destructive strifes. This may all be true, but so long as men seek simply and only for material betterment, ignoring the spiritual and moral in their lives, any readjustment of hours of labour or scale of wages or agreements will only be of a temporary character, for the real cause of the whole trouble is left untouched. One of the ablest writers upon "The Social Unrest" says, "At the heart of the larger labour movement is the race longing for a society in which at least the spirit of equality shall be realized. Most radical remedies are only means to this end. Beyond, and deeper than all the machinery of social reconstruction, is this master passion of democracy." But this same writer also, after a survey of the whole question, declares that before this equality can be realized there must come a character founded on love. Cause and Remedy.--Selfishness is often the real cause of the sting of inequality and of the keeping of men apart; until this is eradicated and replaced by the master passion of love--employer for employee and employee for employer--no agreements and no legislation, between the contending forces will serve the purpose. It was the master passion of a supreme love which produced the first social equality society (Acts 4:32-37); it was selfishness which broke it up (Acts 5:1-13). This selfishness is also at the root of the arrogance which causes men to despise men of an inferior race, culture or social position and seeks to use them for purposes of gain. Perfect equality amongst men, however, outside of equality before the law and God, hardly seems a realizable thing; certainly all men cannot be of the same age and of the same stature at the same time; there are gifts of talent; there are different races, but where supreme love is it takes out the sting of a sense of an inferiority and the jealousy and hatred of superior gifts; under its benign influence the rich and the poor, the talented and the untalented, work together as brethren. The brotherhood of love is the only true brotherhood and the only solution of this vexed question. THE TRUE RELATION OF MAN TO MAN Who is My Neighbour?--The answer which Jesus gave to this question (Luke 10:29), which a certain lawyer asked of Him in order to justify himself, shows the true relation of man to man. The lawyer doubtless supposed when he put this question to Jesus that he would silence Him. The Jews in their proud isolation considered themselves the chosen people of God and despised other races, even looking with a certain contempt upon their Roman conquerors. How would the Jewish Messiah, if not put to silence, answer a question like this? Doubtless the reply would be that only a Jew could be neighbour to a Jew. The race spirit is a strong one and men born to a certain nationality have many stout binding ties of speech and customs, which are not easily broken. Mark, however, the large mindedness of Jesus. He breaks at once through race ties and without so much as mentioning the Jew, he takes the Samaritan as the example of a good neighbour. Now the Jews and the Samaritans had no dealings with each other, their animosity was well known; at this distance of time we can hardly realize how startling a thing it was to take a Samaritan as an example of a good neighbour. But it is right here that Jesus begins to show us the true relation of man to man and that this relation is superior to race, caste, language, social distinctions, customs and organizations. My neighbour, then, is not only the man who lives next door, or is in the same business, or belongs to the same church or labour organization, or political party, but all men are my neighbours and I am to seek to do them good (Luke 10:30-37). This definition of neighbour does away with all clannishness and exclusiveness, and man comes face to face with his fellow man as a man. How Shall I Treat My Neighbour?--A number of answers may be given: 1. Investigate the claims of my neighbour when I see him in a sad condition. The good Samaritan did this at considerable personal risk, for he could be by no means sure that the robbers would not return and rob him. Too many men, when they see their neighbours in want, pass by on the other side, as the priest and Levite did. Adversity has been described as "a deep pit, into which a man has fallen, which is surrounded by his near-sighted friends." 2. Sympathize and succour my neighbour in trouble and do what is needed to help him get upon his feet. 3. Interest myself in the well being of my neighbour after the immediate and acute necessity for aid is past. There are many who are willing to aid when a pressing call comes, but who are unwilling to keep up that aid through the convalescing stage; here is where the summons comes to be not weary in well doing to one's neighbour. Outside of money help and aid in times of disaster and sickness there are many who are lonesome for words of cheer and acts of kindness on the part of those with whom they daily come in contact. There is a deeper meaning in the parable than that which relates to physical pain. There is a suffering of the soul and a mental trouble which beseech the kindness of the Christlike neighbourly touch. 4. There is also the larger work, which is fundamental, of bringing one's fellow man into the fellowship and communion of Jesus Christ; this is the greatest benefit which any Christian man can confer upon his brother-man (John 1:40-42,45). CHRIST'S LAW OF LOVE Statement of the Law.--"Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (Matthew 22:39). A certain lawyer asked Jesus, "Master, which is the great commandment of the law? Jesus said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." The kingdom of God will come when this commandment is fully obeyed by men. Exposition of the Law.--It would seem as if a law so plainly stated would need no explanation or exposition. But before men can rightly love each other they must have certain principles and a certain character. It is not desirable that evil men with depraved thoughts and bad lives love us as they love themselves; for they love that which, if accepted by men, would lead to deep corruption of character. Jesus Christ well put it that God must first be loved, with all the heart, soul and mind, before a man is ready to love his neighbour as himself. This loving of God, first, implies an acceptance of the standpoint of God in regard to man and the looking upon one's fellow man as God looks upon him. This standpoint of God is best seen in the words and acts of Jesus Christ. A man in order, then, to love his fellow man aright must be thoroughly imbued with the principles of the Master. A man must look upon other men as having souls of eternal value. A man who would do as Jesus would have him do must first have His spirit of self-sacrificing love (Matthew 23:8-12; John 17:19; Philippians 2:5-7; Isaiah 53:3; John 13:12-15). Application of the Law.--The beauty of this law of love is that it may be universally applied. There is no condition of man that it cannot meet and satisfy. The crying wrongs of the home, society, the industrial world, the state, arise out of its neglect and condemnation. Men seek to make good their claims for things which they think belong to them, they fight for them, gain them or lose them, fight again or are fought, and in consequence race hatred, class and industrial hatred embitter the hearts of men. This law applied to the life of the individual, sweetens it in its lowest depths and makes the strongest kind of a character. Paul is an example of an able yet impetuous man, who let the gospel of the love of Christ have its supreme way with him. We find in him no shrinking from difficulties or death itself (2 Timothy 4:6-8). In the midst of sore trials he wrote that remarkable classic (1 Corinthians 13) upon love which has been the help and stay of many a burdened soul. This law applied in society is its only saving power. It is this Christ love which sends men into the slums of the cities to work for their fellow men. It is this love that is the moving power of the missionary of the cross, when he goes into the heart of heathendom. It is this love that has brought into the world all the reforms that are worth having and caused it to care for its sick and its poor. It is to be deplored that in some quarters we should hear voices talking about the inability of the Church to cope with the modern conditions of life and that these voices should be calling for new institutions to take its place. So long as the Church recognizes its duty to preach and practice the love of God to man, man to God, and man to his fellow man, no institution can take its place; for it has in this preaching, and the application of it, the supreme remedy for the ills of mankind. Where there is no love or regard of man for his God or fellow men all agreements and all laws however stoutly made, with and for contending parties, have in them a fatal weakness. It is love that sent Jesus Christ into the world (John 3:16,17) and it is its proclamation, and acceptance as the ruling power of life, that has caused all the real advancement in civilization since His advent. QUESTIONS What can be said of the question of the relationship of man to other men? What can be said of the inequalities in the lives of men and the great inequality? What is the cause and remedy of the sting of inequality? Who is my neighbour? How shall I treat my neighbour? What is Christ's law of love? Give the statement, exposition and application of the law. STUDY V THE CHRISTIAN FAITH Scripture references: Hebrews 11; Matthew 9:29; 17:20; Mark 10:52; 11:22; Acts 2:38; 3:16; 10:43; 16:30,31; Romans 1:17; 5:1; 10:17; Galatians 2:20. FAITH AND PRACTICE Belief Controls Action.--"As the man is, so is his strength" (Judges 8:21), "For as he thinketh in his heart so is he" (Proverbs 23:7). "According to your faith be it unto you" (Matthew 9:28,29). "Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life" (Proverbs 4:23). The Scriptures place stress upon the fact that a man's actions are largely dependent upon what he believes or disbelieves rather than upon his environment (Proverbs 4:23; Romans 10:10; Acts 8:21; Matthew 9:4; 12:34; 15:11,18-20; 23:25). There is the will to believe and there is the will not to believe (Matthew 15:28; 16:24; Luke 9:23; John 5:40). Man grows from the inside out. What he believes in his heart will sooner or later manifest itself in his acts. If a man thinks evil in his heart and cherishes that evil, while outwardly his life is moral and upright, it is only a question of time when the inner badness will break through the thin crust of outer goodness. The real battle of life is in a man's soul and if a man sets himself to win this battle he need have no fear of outward evil circumstances; he will have to set no guard upon his words or acts for he will speak and act from a pure and upright heart. It is not what he disbelieves, but what he believes, his conviction of truth, that makes him strong. Hence the necessity for the vigorous and living faith which Christ urged upon His followers (Mark 11:22-24; Matthew 17:19,20; Luke 8: 24,25), a faith that could not be daunted by mountains of difficulty or great storms of afflictions. Jesus came into the world with a positive program. He had a constructive gospel to preach to men. His disciples after His death followed in the footsteps of their Master and carried out His commands. The result was that faith was translated into action; the old world was changed and myriads of men gave in their allegiance to the Christ. The positive setting forth of the Christian faith always brings definite results. BASIS OF CHRISTIAN FAITH The Christian Faith is Founded Upon the Fact and Experience of Jesus Christ.--Without Him there would have been no such faith. 1. The fact of Christ. This faith bases itself primarily not upon reason or feeling, but upon Jesus Christ, a historical person, and what He said and did while upon this earth in bodily form. The early disciples and preachers declared themselves to be witnesses. They were sent forth as witnesses (Matthew 28:18-20; John 15:27; Acts 1:8; 2: 32). The speeches of Peter (Acts 2:14-40; 3:12-26; 4:8-12), Stephen (Acts 7:1-56) and of Paul (Acts 13:16-41; 22:1-21) are recitals, of certain well attested occurrences, which have for their chief point the setting forth of the fact of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, as the Saviour of men and hope of the world (Acts 2:38,39). 2. The experience of Christ. By this is meant the experience which men have who receive Christ as their Saviour and Lord. There is a historical Christ; and there is a spiritual Christ who enters into a communion of happiness and joy, with believers in Him. Jesus Christ, when on earth in bodily form, promised the coming of the Holy Spirit who should glorify Him (John 16:13,14); He also declared to His disciples, "Lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world" (Matthew 28:20). Wherever this gospel of Jesus Christ is preached and men under its power truly repent of their sins and accept Him as their Saviour, as in the past so now, men may enter into personal relations with their risen and glorified Lord (Acts 2:40-42; John 7:17; Acts 8: 5-7; Romans 8:1-10; Colossians 1:27; Acts 26:15-19). Essential Elements.--In the Christian faith there are six component elements. 1. Belief in God as The Spirit, "infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in His being, wisdom and power, holiness, justice, goodness and truth" (John 4:24; Exodus 20:2-7; Deuteronomy 6:4; Isaiah 44:6; John 17:3; 1 Corinthians 8:4,6; Psalm 19; 104:24). 2. Belief in man, as a child of God, whose spirit is destined to live forever (Genesis 2:7; 2 Corinthians 5:1; Ecclesiastes 12:7; Matthew 6:25; 5:29,30). 3. Belief in sin which taints and corrupts the heart of man, making it finally, if unchecked, the dwelling place of all evil. The effects of sin are everywhere plainly manifest. Men not only sin through ignorance and carelessly but willfully. The worst sins are those which are of the spirit, anger, pride, malice and envy (Isaiah 53:6; 64:6; Romans 3:23; 1 John 1:8; Romans 1:18-3:23; 8:7). 4. Belief in Jesus Christ, the Son of God and the Saviour of men, who can cleanse the heart of man and save him from his sins. Jesus Christ came not only to reveal God, the Father, to man but also to purge his heart from evil. "He is the propitiation for our sins" (1 John 2:1,2; Romans 8:34; Hebrews 7:24,25; Matthew 20:28; Romans 3:24,25; 5:8; 8:3; Galatians 3:13; 2 Corinthians 5:21; 1 Corinthians 1:30; Matthew 9:2-6). 5. Belief in the sanctifying power of the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 6:11; Ephesians 3:16; Galatians 5:22) who "testifies of Christ, as the Saviour of sinners, unites us to Him by faith, and makes us partakers of all His benefits." Jesus said, "When the Comforter is come, whom I will send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit of truth, which proceedeth from the Father, He shall testify of Me" (John 15:26). "The Spirit of truth ... will guide you into all truth.... He shall glorify Me: for He shall receive of Mine and shall show it unto you" (John 16:13,14; 14:26; 1 Corinthians 12:3; Titus 3:5,6; Matthew 28: 19; John 3:5,6). 6. Belief in the resurrection and the life to come, the issues of which are declared to be eternal. "The hour is coming in which all that are in the graves shall hear His voice, and shall come forth; they that have done good, unto the resurrection of life; and they that have done evil, unto the resurrection of damnation" (John 5:28,29; Matthew 25:31-46; 25:1-13). The great rainbow of promise that spans the future, for those who trust in Christ, is in the fact that He said, "I am the resurrection and the life: he that believeth in Me, though he were dead, yet shall he live. And whosoever liveth and believeth in Me shall never die" (John 11:25,26; I Thessalonians 5:23; John 6:47; 14:2,19). The resurrection body "will be spiritual, immortal, incorruptible, and like unto the glorious body of Jesus Christ" (Philippians 3:20,21; 1 Corinthians 15:20-23,35-57). Definiteness.--There is a marvellous directness and definiteness in the statements of the New Testament writers, in proclaiming the Christian faith, because they believe that they are dealing with the tremendous facts of life and destiny. God has manifested Himself and spoken in Jesus Christ as He has never manifested Himself before. "God who at sundry times and in diverse manners spake in time past unto the fathers by the prophets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by His Son, whom He hath appointed heir of all things" (Hebrews 1:1,2). The eternal things of God, kept secret from the foundation of the world, are now made known to man; why should he not, in spite of any punishment or threatened ignominious death, proclaim these truths definitely and plainly to his fellow man (Acts 4:13-20)? The keynote of all of Paul's work is sounded in a very definite and direct way in his first Epistle to the Corinthians (2:2,5) where he says, "For I determined not to know anything among you, save Jesus Christ and Him crucified.... That your faith should not stand in the wisdom of men but in the power of God." Paul consistently maintains throughout his Epistles that the sole basis of salvation is the grace of God through Jesus Christ, to be appropriated by faith on the part of man. TESTS OF CHRISTIAN FAITH Effects Upon Men and Institutions.--Jesus Christ was ever urging His disciples to test His words and principles. He declared the difference between true and false prophets could be known by their fruits. He said, "Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles? Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit ... wherefore by their fruits ye shall know them" (Matthew 7:15-20). When Thomas expressed doubt of His resurrection, Christ gave him ample opportunity to test its reality (John 20:24-29). Christ's challenge to the world is, "Try Me!" "Come and see what I can do!" What kind of men has the Christian faith made? What kind of communities has it produced? Two pertinent questions are asked in a recent book of sermons, What would be the effect upon this world if everybody was a consistent Christian? What would be the effect upon this world if everybody was a consistent infidel? "The argument is a crushing one, for of a truth Christianity can stand such a test with a glory that would astonish even the most ardent enthusiasts. And it is the one test, let it be admitted with sorrow, that a reviling world is not willing to have it judged by." A Saving Faith which meets men at their extremity of need and gives them a new heart. It is not only a faith that did save men when Christ walked the earth and healed the sick, giving sight to the blind and raising the dead, but it is a faith which saves men now. Christ is still performing His miracle of cleansing the hearts of men of evil. He is saying, "Come unto Me," and men are coming as of old. The question whether He can save now is being put to the test every day and every day it is being answered in the regeneration of men. Wherever this gospel is preached amongst the wealthy and learned or the poor and ignorant, it shows its splendid fruitage as it did of old. USES OF CHRISTIAN FAITH To Make Plain the Great Cause of All as Father.--We live in an immense universe, in the midst of giant forces of which, after science has made its most searching investigation and said its last word, we know comparatively little and that little imperfectly. No set of men is more ready to admit this state of affairs than that which has made the closest scrutiny of the phenomena of nature. There is a host of questions to which the most painstaking investigation on the part of the philosophers can afford us no answer. Without this Christian faith which tells us of a revelation from God and His plan and purpose for man we should be helpless, ever seeking for light in this universe which we could not find. Then again we might believe in a first great cause of all things, but without a revelation we could not know God as the Creator of all things and as our Father who cares supremely for us--made known in the manifestation of Jesus Christ. By faith in Christ we are brought into communion with God the Father. To Show the Importance and Value of Human Life.--How could man know that he was more than an atom in a whirlpool of atoms, his life of sense but a transitory thing, if it had not been for the Scriptures which seek to impress upon him the value of his life in the sight of God (John 3:16,17; Matthew 16:26)? Without the pale of the Christian faith men hold life but cheaply, they squander it and waste it in sin; they too often say, "Let us eat, drink and be merry for tomorrow we die"--forever passing out of existence. The Christian faith holds human life as a very precious thing, something to be cherished with infinite and loving care, for the spirit in man is to live forever. Here is a new significance given to life which, when the individual accepts it, gives him new and great ideals, which lift him to a higher level of living. By faith in Christ we are brought into proper fellowship with our fellow men, and their lives are made precious in our sight. To Show the Way to Happiness and Joy Through Jesus Christ.--If there is one thing more than another which man is seeking it is happiness, but it is the kind of happiness which frequently destroys the body and soul--still he seeks it. Many men seek happiness through relaxation of their moral nature. Christ came preaching the happiness of a conqueror, the victor who sings the song of rejoicing over some victory won; He set forth a joy which celebrated a conquest over evil desires and made a man noble and pure in his thoughts and aspirations. Jesus did His work for the joy that was set before Him (Hebrews 12:2). The Christian faith was never intended to make a man gloomy or downcast, but to put joy in his heart and a song upon his lips. No one has more right to a cheerful countenance than the sincere Christian, for he can be sure that he knows the way of happiness here and nothing can come to him hereafter save peace and glory in the redeemed life. QUESTIONS How does belief control action? What is the basis of Christian faith? Give the six component elements of the Christian faith. What can be said of the definiteness of the Christian faith? Give some of the tests of Christian faith. Give three uses of Christian faith. STUDY VI THE CHRISTIAN'S BOOK Scripture references 2 Timothy 3:16,17; 2 Peter 1:20,21; John 5:39; Romans 15:4; 2 Samuel 23:2; Luke 1:70; 24:32,45; John 2:22; 10:35; 19:36; Acts 1:16; Romans 1:1,2; 1 Corinthians 15:3,4; James 2:8. WHAT IS THE BIBLE? What is the Bible? How shall we regard it? Where shall we place it? These and many questions like them at once come to the front when we begin to discuss the Bible as a book. It is only possible in this brief study, of a great subject, to indicate the line of some of the answers. It is not Like Other Books.--Although its last paragraph was written and the canon completed many hundreds of years ago, it is still one of the freshest and newest of books and its moral precepts and admonitions are far in advance of the world's practice. It has an adaptability to all sorts and conditions of men and a flexibility in meeting the most radical changes of thought, which is possessed by no other volume. It has been attacked and denounced and seemingly demolished only in the end to lead its critics captive and to come forth from the fray stronger than ever. It is a God-filled and God-inspired book. It is the most lasting in its popularity of all books. It is Like Other Books in that it is cast in the mold of the literature of a certain people. We find here all the forms of literature, history, philosophy, poetry, letters, etc. There is much plausibility in the plea for the study of the Bible as literature for it is the best of its kind. It Leads the World's Thought of Righteousness and Purity of Life.--The Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-17), The Beatitudes (Matthew 5:1-12) and The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:1-7:29) set forth the highest ethical standards known to man. It is the Record of a Revelation from God. The theme is, "the entrance of God into the spiritual life of man." This makes it superior to all other books and invests it with a unique character which commands our most earnest attention. God, who is speaking to men through this book, says, "Thou shalt have no other gods before Me." God is not only the God of the Israelites but of all nations and peoples. The great men, whose life stories are given in the Bible, were God called to, and God guided in, their work of uplifting the world. We have only to look at the record to see how the initiative is declared to have been taken by God. Here is the roll call, Abraham (Genesis 12:1-3), Moses (Exodus 3:14), Joshua (1:1-6), Samuel (1 Samuel 3:4-21), David (1 Samuel 16:3,11-13), Isaiah (1:1), Ezekiel (1:1), Jeremiah (1:2) and all the prophets, John the Baptist (Luke 1:13-17; Matthew 3:1-12), Peter, John and Paul (Acts 1:8; 2:1-4; 13:1,2). The Old Testament shows the looking forward to the Christ and the New Testament records His coming as the Spiritual Light of the world. No other book or set of books announce "the entrance of God to the spiritual life of man" through Jesus Christ (John 1:1-18), who came speaking of the new spiritual birth of man (John 3:1-21). The only key to the understanding of the Bible is this plan of God to enter into the spiritual life of man. We may easily look in the Bible for what is not there and read into its pages what is in our own thoughts or read out of them that which we do not wish to see, but back of all we must acknowledge this peculiar purpose of God. Back also of all theories of revelation and inspiration--and giving rise to them--stands the great thought of God for the spiritual redemption of men. For this end He enters into covenant with the Israelites, He sends them prophets and teachers, and at last He sends His Son. Continually God is calling to men, "Be ye holy for I am holy." STRUCTURE In any book, after the consideration of the theme, we look for the form and the plan. In order to study a book to the best advantage, the different parts and their relation to each other and to the whole must be made plain. The Bible readily lends itself to an investigation of its structure. The Bible is One Book with one thought running through it, God's purpose to redeem man, and may be so read and studied. The Bible is Composed of Many Books written by different authors in different languages, at different times. Some of the books were circulated separately before they were gathered either into the canon of the Old or New Testaments. The gathering together of the books and the placing them in the order that we have them now was a slow process, but all in the order and interest of a progressive revelation of God and because of a common sympathetic subject. The books take different forms and have different classifications, such as books of the law, wisdom, history, poetry, etc. In studying any book it is necessary to attend to its classification; there has been much misunderstanding of the Bible books because of the interpretation of a book of poetry as history or the holding the free style of a letter to the hard and fast standards of a carefully worded court document. The standpoint of the author of a book, and some consideration for the age in which he lives, must always be taken into consideration; in this way a book, which may seem to us now to be behind the age in its thought, will be seen to be far ahead of the age in which the author lived and making and marking an important epoch in a progressive revelation. Each Bible book has a well considered plan, a special aim, a historical setting and a practical value. For instance, in Genesis we have a book of beginnings; a broad explanation of the origin of the world, man, sin, salvation; and the revelation of God as Creator, Preserver, Lawgiver, Judge and Merciful Father. After the introduction the book, if we look into the book itself, is divided into ten parts with the recurring formula, "These are the generations of." This book cannot be overestimated from a religious standpoint. The fact of a Creator is the fundamental teaching of its cosmogony. God, one God, is here clearly distinguished from a host of heathen gods. He is over and above matter, everything in the universe is subject to Him. Again in this book we have the early history of the human race shown in large outline and also the story of the fathers of the Jewish race from the calling of Abraham to the death of Jacob. Behind any theory of the construction of Genesis the great representative truths stand firm. Every Bible book can be considered and its plan and purpose shown in this way. Even a small book like Ruth, which seems to be only a little pleasant story, has an important part to perform. Without it the times of the judges would present only a very somber picture, but with it we can see that in those dark and troublous times there were noble, God fearing men like Boaz and true women like Ruth. We could not spare a single book of the New Testament, for with one lacking something would be wanting in the picture of early Christianity. The Bible is Composed of Groups of Books Which Relate to Special Eras.--They show God revealing Himself and also dealing with the chosen nation, under different forms of administration; they indicate the steps leading up to Christ and His appearance on the earth. First Era, the Time of Beginnings (Genesis 1-11:32). This extends from the creation of the world to the call of Abraham. We have here set forth the connection of the world with God, the beginning of life and beginning of sin, which rendered salvation necessary. Second Era, the Theocracy. The record is found in the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth and 1 Samuel. This period is known as the Theocracy because it marks the direct rule of God over His people. It lasted from the covenant of God with Abraham to the anointing of Saul as king. We here see the beginning of the chosen family, and nation, what laws and precepts were given it and what fortunes befell it. This training time shows God's high standards in the laws and precept given this Israelitish people. Third Era, the Monarchy. The record is found in the books of 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Psalms, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Micah, Joel, Isaiah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk and Jeremiah. We have here the story of the rise, glory, division and fall of the Jewish monarchy. The people desired a king and the king sought to rule by his own will rather than the will of God. We note God's desire to make this nation a "Holy Nation" and its sin and failure. The function of the prophets was to declare the sin of the nation, to set the right way before it and seek to lead it back to God, but the nation would not heed the voices of the prophets, hence the fall of the monarchy. The coming of the perfect king and kingdom under the Messiah is prophesied. The work and place of Christ is foretold by the prophets. Fourth Era, the Captivity. The record is found in the books of 2 Chronicles, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel and Obadiah. The people rejecting God are taken into captivity. In this captivity the people turn to God in their affliction, their worship is purified and the hope of the coming of the Messiah grows very strong. Fifth Era, the Restoration. The record is found in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The people purified by their captivity and uplifted by their hope of the coming Christ are restored to their own land. Sixth Era, the Christian. The record is found in the books of the New Testament. The Christian era is ushered in by the coming of Christ and the fulfillment of God's promises. The mission of the Jewish nation finds its fruition in Christ and the coming of the Saviour of all mankind. It will be seen from this very brief summary of the eras how God gradually revealed Himself and His plan for the spiritual enlightenment of all men. The necessity also of studying each book, not only in its own plan but in its group place, in order to find its meaning, cannot be too earnestly commended. CREDIBILITY It is natural that a book demanding our belief in such great things should be asked for its credentials and that these credentials should be subjected to the most searching investigation. The Bible has nothing to fear, however, from the keenest scrutiny of any scholar who has only the desire to get at the truth. The trouble begins when a critic, who is hostile to its spiritual truth or who has a theory to maintain, takes a part in the investigation; even then the truth is sure, in time, to assert its rightful claim (Acts 5:39). The fact of different interpretations of the same set of facts in different times, but leading to the same practical results, must also be taken into consideration. All men do not receive the same truth in the same way while they may be one at heart in the fundamentals (1 Corinthians 12:4-14). The Bible welcomes any and all searching of its claims; it stands out in the open; it has won its way amongst mankind not by the might of those who advocate its claims, but by the power of the truth within its pages. Some of the arguments for the credibility of the Bible are here given. The Argument from History.--Back of all questions of authorship, date and composition of the books of the Bible, is the one great question, Are the records true to the facts? Is the Bible, in plain words, true history? The writers of the New Testament use the historical argument. They speak of the things most surely believed amongst us and of the testimony of eyewitnesses (Luke 1:1-4; John 19:35; 21:24,25). The disciples were not to go forth preaching a subtle philosophy, but were to be witnesses of certain facts and were to testify of the things which they had seen and heard (Acts 1:8). Peter's speech upon the day of Pentecost is a recital of facts. Paul's argument for the resurrection of Christ is based upon the testimony of eye-witnesses (1 Corinthians 15:1-20). If God has manifested Himself in the person of Jesus Christ we need to know it through the best of testimony in regard to the fact. The record of the New Testament is made to this end. The writers of the Old Testament profess to give us statements of facts in regard to God's dealings with the Israelitish people. The critical dealing with each of the books of the Old Testament is all to the intent whether it fairly represents a historical situation. The older scriptural narratives show of the doings of other nations than the Israelites, they describe situations in times long past, where owing to broken and imperfect records, it has been difficult to get at the exact facts. Unfortunately in some quarters the tendency has been to cast doubt upon the Old Testament writings where the statements were not corroborated by a research in the archives, often very imperfect, of other nations. But happily this state of affairs is being changed and confidence in the historicity of the Old Testament records is being greatly strengthened by the investigations of the archaeologists in the ruins of the great empires of Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia with which Israel came so closely in contact. Until recently the Old Testament stood alone in its assertion of a comparatively high civilization antedating Moses and Abraham, but now we know from excavations made in Nippur and other buried cities that the contention of the Bible is true to the letter. The situation in Egypt and Palestine about the time of the Exodus is made plain by the Tel-el-Amarna tablets. The history of first and second Kings is not only corroborated but amplified by the monuments. Much yet remains to be done along this line, some views may have to be changed, but the period of destruction has passed and that of construction has begun. The Argument from Prophecy.--The Old Testament prophets were not only the preachers of righteousness for their own times and their own nation, but they had a mission to other nations and times as well. Their ruling idea was the establishment of God's kingdom upon earth. They taught the unity, spirituality, holiness, justice and goodness of God. They made predictions in regard to Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Syria, Moab, and their cities, when they were at the height of their power; these predictions were remarkably fulfilled. They foretold the captivity and restoration of Israel. Their great subject was the expectation of the Messiah and the Messianic Kingdom. The prophecies in regard to the Christ became more and more explicit as the time drew near; they declared His mission, His prophetic power, His kingly office, His priestly activity, the circumstances of His coming through a man, a nation, and in a definite place. The Arguments from Vitality, Adaptability and Growth. 1. Vitality. The religions of Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Rome died with the nations which gave birth to them. The religion of the Bible, shows its divine author in its vitality and power to outlast the religions with which it has come in contact. Empires, systems of thought, mighty kings, great men rise and have their day and pass away, but this book lives on. Here is a vitality which persists in spite of any and all adverse circumstances and influences. 2. Adaptability. The Bible is at home with all races in all climes. It adapts itself to all conditions of life, the most humble and the most exalted. The Asiatic, the African, the European, the American accept it as their book. It finds men, as men, in the deepest needs of their nature and shows them the all loving Saviour. 3. Growth. The multiplying power of the book is shown by its translations into hundreds of languages and dialects. It makes its own way into the remotest quarters of the globe and is found wielding its power in the hut and the palace. More popular than any book that has ever been published, its sales, of millions of copies a year are ever increasing, because it comes with a message from God direct to the heart of man. QUESTIONS What is the Bible? How is it not like and how is it like other books? How is it the record of a revelation from God? What can be said of its structure? What can be said of its books, of its groups of books? What can be said of its credibility? Give the arguments from history, prophecy, vitality, adaptability and growth. STUDY VII THE CHRISTIAN PRAYER Scripture references: Matthew 6:5-15; Luke 11:1-13; John 17; Matthew 26:41; Mark 11:24,25; Luke 6:12,28; 9:29; 1 Thessalonians 5:17,25; 1 Corinthians 14:13,15; Psalm 19:14; 50:15, Matthew 7:7; 1 Timothy 2:1; Ephesians 3:20,21; John 16:23; 14:14; James 5:16. THE PROVINCE OF PRAYER Definition.--Prayer is the communion of man with God. It is not first of all the means of getting something from God, but the realization of Him in the soul. "Seek ye first the Kingdom of God and His righteousness" (Matthew 6:33). The glory of a man is in his uprightness of character, the purity of his spirit and his nearness and likeness to God. Man becomes like that which he thinks about the most often and with which he most frequently communes in the secret recesses of his heart. Prayer is not merely, then, a matter of stated times and seasons, although these should be observed, but a constant walking with God and a realization of His presence at all times and in all places (Luke 18:1; Romans 12:12; 1 Thessalonians 5:17). The man who thus communes with God will lay before Him his plans and purposes and will ask for direction and guidance in them; he will expect help from God as a partner in all his enterprises; he will grasp the power unseen to work great things in the seen. There will be special needs and occasions when a man, in harmony with God (James 5:16), will require special help and for this aid from God he will make strong and earnest petitions to Him. "Call upon Me in the day of trouble: I will deliver thee and thou shalt glorify Me" (Psalm 50:15; James 1:17; Psalm 19:14; Ephesians 3:20,21). The Different Kinds of Prayer.--They are adoration, thanksgiving, intercession, petition and praise (1 Timothy 2:1). The Different Places of Prayer.--1. In the public assemblage (Psalm 122:1,2; Acts 3:1; Hebrews 10:25). 2. In the social and family gathering (Matthew 18:19,20; Acts 1:14; 2:46; 12:12). 3. In private (Matthew 6:6; Mark 1:35; Psalm 55:17; Daniel 6:10). The Approach of Man to God.--"All men pray at some time or other, whether fitfully or constantly, in weakness or in strength, in sorrow or in joy. Some men pray because it is their chiefest delight to do so, and some pray because necessity drives them to it; but they all pray. Prayer is a constant element, and the impulse to pray is ever present to human nature." Man has been called "a religious and praying animal," because of this universal desire of men to come into some touch with the power over them. This tendency is shown in lands where the true spiritual knowledge of God is lacking and where men deify and adore objects of nature. The sun, the earth, the stars, trees, mountains, waters, winds and carved images have all been made divine objects of adoration and prayer, because of the desire of man to find or place the supernatural in them. Paul said to the men of Athens when he saw the altar to the "Unknown God": "Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship Him declare I unto you" (Acts 17:23). All the research of natural science is to find out what is the Ultimate Power behind all the phenomena of nature. Man by his very nature seeks to approach God. He is driven by an inward impulse to come to Him. Hence, where men do not have the true light by which to approach God or reject it there are found all sorts and kinds of caricatures of religion. What are the proper means of approach to God through prayer? 1. Right knowledge and faith. "He that cometh to God must believe that He is, and that He is a rewarder of them that diligently seek Him" (Hebrews 11:6). "This is life eternal that they might know Thee the only true God and Jesus Christ whom Thou hast sent" (John 17:3). God is above all and in all. There are no other gods before Him. He is supreme, manifested as Father, Son and Holy Spirit. We come at once here to the Great Personal Power, beyond whom there is no greater. We do not look upon Him as a cold abstraction or blind force, but as a loving, kind Father. He desires to do more for us than we can ask or think. No man prays to God in the right way who does not first of all have a proper conception of God. 2. Right attitude of the heart. "If I regard iniquity in my heart the Lord will not hear me" (Psalm 66:18). Again the prayerless prayer of the Pharisee began with "I" and the burning of incense before himself. No man, cherishing something in his heart which he knows to be contrary to the will of God or who only seeks to foster and advance his own selfish interests, will come, or desire to come, or can come into a very close communion with God. A wrong attitude of the heart keeps many men from the enjoyment of God's presence, and makes them choose to remain away from His sanctuary. No matter what the sin, however, if a man truly desires to get it out of his heart that man can come at once into close touch with God (Isaiah 1:15-19; Psalm 51; Revelation 7:14). 3. Right subjects of prayer. The advancement of the Kingdom of God and the spiritual interests of man come first. Too many prayers move in the narrow circles of self and purely physical wants; they take no wide sweep out over larger interests. God knows that we have physical needs that must be supplied (Matthew 6:26). Jesus said, "Is not the life more than meat and the body than raiment" (Matthew 6:25)? And by His urgency He would have our prayers rise higher than our physical wants into an infinitely larger sphere. Then God will more than bless us and take care of those things about which we are now so anxious (Matthew 6:26-34). 4. Persistency (Matthew 11:12). It is difficult to deny a persistent man who, when thwarted in one way, begins to plan and act for the object which he seeks in another way and who will not be put off. Christ commended the way of the persistent man to those who sought God in prayer. He gave examples of the widow who continually importuned an unjust judge until he listened to her plea and gave her justice (Luke 18:1-8), and of the man who would not take "no" for an answer when he wanted to borrow bread from a neighbour at midnight (Luke 11:5-8). He said, "Ask, and it shall be given unto you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you" (Luke 11:9). Men who do not persist in their praying will fail to receive the higher blessings and the larger benefits which otherwise God would gladly bestow upon them. If men know how to give good gifts to their children when they ask for them, then much more God knows how to grant the best things to men when they ask Him. "The kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent take it by force" (Matthew 11:12). The Approach of God to Man.--How does God come near to man? Does He hear when men pray to Him? Can He and will He answer prayer? These questions are all simply and plainly answered in the Scriptures. There is no doubt expressed here that God comes near to men and will hear and answer when they pray to Him. "The Lord is nigh unto all them that call upon Him, to all that call upon Him in truth" (Psalm 145:18; 139:7-12; Ephesians 3:20). Christian experience answers these questions in the same affirmative way. Multitudes of Christians testify that God comes near to them and that He hears and answers their prayers; there are many recorded and remarkable answers to prayers. It is only when the testimony of the Bible and the experience of Christians are set aside that difficulties appear which seem very formidable. One of the chief objections urged against God hearing and answering prayer is the discovery of the widening sphere of what is called natural law in the ordering of the universe. Where God was formally looked upon as directly controlling in certain things, it is pointed out that we now can plainly state the causes and the working of the laws which produce certain results. According to one theory God is shut out of His universe; and according to another, He is shut up in His universe; on either hypothesis the direct control is out of His hands. Hence, "why pray?" when our prayers even if they reach God cannot be answered. This objection from the domination of law annuls the freedom of God. It is like looking at a great piece of complicated machinery, and having it explained how part depends upon part and, because the dependence is plainly shown, being asked to believe that the maker and controller is under its power. We are asked to-day to concentrate our attention upon the levers, the springs and the pulleys and all the machinery of the universe rather than upon the first great Cause and Ruler of all. It is assumed in this objection that much more is known of the laws and forces which govern the universe than really is. Prof. John Fiske says in his lecture on "Life Everlasting," I once heard Herbert Spencer say, "you cannot take up any problem in physics without being quickly led to some metaphysical problem which you can neither solve nor evade." Again he says, "The more things we try to explain, the better we realize that we live in a world of unexplained residua." Widening knowledge is throwing back into the lumber room many much vaunted theories of origins. Many wrong conceptions of the order of nature have in recent years been radically changed. It is freely acknowledged to-day by the foremost men of science that no man fully understands the order of nature. Under the present limitations of human knowledge God cannot be shut up in or out of His universe. Further research may show that such shutting up to be impossible; for in the end we are to depend not upon our ignorance but upon our knowledge of the universe for God's free control of all things. Already the light begins to dawn when it is seen that all the natural forces and matter itself are beginning to reveal their origin and control in one Great Master Force. But in this we but return to the biblical statement "In the beginning God" (Genesis 1:1). We are perfectly justified in believing, in the intelligence of God when we see so many evidences of intelligence in the world, and the freedom and personality of God, when we note the freedom and personality of man; for however we may argue that man is not free or personal we believe that he is and act upon this belief in all the practical affairs of life. The created thing is not greater than its creator or the law greater than the lawgiver. God is greater than the universe or man. God as all powerful, and as intelligent and personal can be approached by man and comes near to him through his communion in prayer with Him. It is perfectly possible for God, in His providential wisdom and power, to answer the prayers of His people. It is an every-day occurrence for man to deflect the beams of the sun and make nature's laws do what they would not have done if left to themselves. We know men to be personal and to be changed by petitions to their mercy and entreaties to use their power in certain directions. We believe that God, infinitely greater than man, can be entreated and will use His power for the benefit of the petitioner. It is not unreasonable for men to pray for material and spiritual blessings. While the sphere of prayer may be narrowed in certain directions by what we know of nature's processes, it has been greatly widened in other directions. THE MODEL PRAYER This is the Lord's Prayer which Christ gave His disciples when He preached the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 6:9-13) and when one of His disciples said to Him, "Lord teach us to pray" (Luke 11:2-4). "It is the prayer of prayers. It is the best and most beautiful, the simplest and yet the deepest, the shortest and yet the most comprehensive of all forms of devotion. Only from the lips of the Son of God could such a perfect pattern proceed. It embraces all kinds of prayer--petition, intercession and thanksgiving; all essential objects of prayer, spiritual and temporal, divine and human, in the most suitable and beautiful order." It has been divided, and this is the natural division, into three parts, an address, six petitions and a doxology. The Address.--"Our Father who art in heaven" (Matthew 6:9). This phrase "Our Father" shows the paternal relation which the Almighty sustains to us in Christ and the filial relation which we bear to Him through faith in Christ. It also reminds us that since we have a common Father in God, we are all brothers in Christ. The phrase, "Who art in heaven" shows us our heavenly origin and that our home is in our Father's house. We use the word "our" before Father and by it mean to embrace in prayer all the children of God. In using the word, "Father" we at once say we believe in a personal good God at the heart of all things and controlling all, one who loves and cares for us supremely (Galatians 3:26; Ephesians 2:19; Psalm 103:13; Matthew 7:11; John 1:12,13; Romans 8:14,15). The first three petitions refer to God. First Petition.--"Hallowed be Thy name" (Matthew 6:9). God's name stands also "for His word, His day and His commandments." God's name is hallowed when we think and speak of Him with reverence and love. Any man who speaks of God's name with contempt or takes it in vain at once shows his position in regard to God. The character of a man and of a community is shown by the respect or disrespect in which God's name is held. Hence in praying "Hallowed be Thy name" we pray not only that God may be rightly worshipped but for the upbuilding of the character of men and communities. "Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts: the whole earth is full of His glory" (Isaiah 6:3; John 17:3; Matthew 5:16; 1 Corinthians 10:31; Exodus 20:7). Second Petition.--"Thy Kingdom come" (Matthew 6:10). "This is the spiritual kingdom of grace and glory." The supplication is here for the reign of righteousness in all hearts throughout the world; this includes the building up of the home church, and home and foreign missions. It expresses the desire for the conversion of all nations and bringing them under the dominion of our Lord (Revelation 11:15; 1 Corinthians 15:28; Matthew 9:37,38; 6:33; 13:31-33; Luke 17:21). Third Petition.--"Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven" (Matthew 6:10). The will of God concerning us is that we should be holy as He is holy (Leviticus 11:44) that we should be perfect as He is perfect (Matthew 5:48) and that we may believe on His Son (John 6:40). In proportion as God's will is done on earth, evil, want, misery, oppression, hate, jealousy, vanity and evil speaking will disappear from the earth. We might then, when His will is done on earth as it is in heaven, shut up our jails, dismiss our police force, close our courts, and reduce taxes to a minimum. When we offer this petition we are asking for large things. The last three petitions refer to man and his needs. Fourth Petition.--"Give us this day our daily bread" (Matthew 6:11). This supplication calls our attention to the fact that we are dependent upon God for daily food and that we are to ask Him to supply our bodily wants. Daily bread includes food, raiment and shelter and all that belongs to our temporal necessities. The answer to this prayer may be in health, bodily and mental strength to procure daily bread, but nevertheless it comes from the hand of God and He should be thanked for it as well as asked for it (Deuteronomy 8:10; Psalm 145: 15,16; Proverbs 30:8). Fifth Petition.--"Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors" (Matthew 6:12). The word debts here means sins. In asking for forgiveness of sins, we acknowledge that we have sinned and are in need of forgiveness. We pray the Father to forgive us and seek in this way to be reconciled to Him. But it is through Jesus Christ that the Father forgives men their sins. "Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world" (John 1:29; 1 John 1:7-9; John 3:16-19; Ephesians 1:7). In repeating the latter clause of the petition, "as we forgive our debtors" we acknowledge that we have not only sinned against God but also against our fellow men and that they have sinned against us and caused us to cherish enmity in our hearts. If we desire God's forgiveness we must forgive our fellow men and be reconciled with them before we can expect to come to God and receive His full forgiveness for our transgressions. "Be not overcome of evil but overcome evil with good" (Romans 12:20,21). "If ye forgive men their trespasses your heavenly Father will also forgive you, but if ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses" (Matthew 6:14,15; 18:21,22; Luke 17:3,4). Sixth Petition.--"Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil" (Matthew 6:13). In this petition we acknowledge our weakness and proneness to go astray. We seek for God's strong power to guard us from and in all temptations of the flesh and spirit. We ask for final deliverance from the power and effects of all evil. We look forward to an abode with God where no evil can come to us. "The Lord shall deliver me from every evil work and will preserve me unto His heavenly kingdom" (2 Timothy 4:18; Psalm 31:5; 1 Peter 5:8; 1 John 5:4; 2:15; Matthew 26:41; 2 Timothy 4:7,8). The Doxology.--"For Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory forever. Amen" (Matthew 6:13). This is an ascription of praise showing that in God is vested all power and glory, that there is no kingdom above His kingdom and that He is supreme over all. Before Him must come all things for judgment. He alone is to be worshipped, for in Him is all power and truth and goodness. "Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty: for all that is in the heaven and in the earth is Thine; Thine is the kingdom, O Lord, and Thou art exalted as head above all" (1 Chronicles 29:11,12; Psalm 115:1; Ephesians 3:20,21). ANSWERS TO PRAYER Nothing could indicate more plainly that God cares for and loves men, and is not indifferent to their wants, than the great stream of prayer flowing through the Bible. He is not a God afar off, neither has He wound up the universe as a great machine and left it to its fate. He is in touch with His people. He hears them when they cry to Him. He is long-suffering, merciful and righteous. Happy is the man who loves God with all his heart and who seeks constantly to commune with Him. Notable Instances of Prayer, and the response of God, are shown in the following passages of Scripture. Abraham (Genesis 20:17), Jacob (Genesis 32:24-31), Moses (Numbers 11:2), Samuel (1 Samuel 12:18), Elijah (1 Kings 18:37-46), Hezekiah (2 Kings 20:2-6), Ezra (9:5-15), Daniel (9:3-27), Jesus Christ (Matthew 6:6-15; John 17), The Apostles (Acts 1:14; 4:31), Peter (Acts 12:5-11), Paul and Silas (Acts 16:25-32), Prophets and teachers at Antioch (Acts 13:1-3) and Paul and the elders at Ephesus (Acts 20:36). QUESTIONS The province of prayer; give a definition of prayer. What are the different kinds and places of prayer? What can be said of the approach of man to God? What is right knowledge of God? Right attitude of heart to God? Right subjects of prayer? What has persistency to do in praying to God? What can be said of the approach of God to man? How does the Bible and Christian experience testify of this approach of God to man? What is the great outside difficulty urged against God's approach to man and what can be said of it? What is the model prayer? Give the divisions of the model prayer and explain them. What can be said of answers to prayer? STUDY VIII THE CHRISTIAN SERVICE Scripture references: Matthew 28:18-20; Luke 10:1-17; Matthew 25:14-30; 23; 13; John 13:4-17; Hebrews 12:1-3; Matthew 5:16; 1 Corinthians 3:13-15; James 2:14-26. THE CALL TO SERVICE All Christian belief must culminate in service or else the belief itself will wither away. Jesus said in His Sermon on the Mount, "Let your light so shine before men that they may see your good works and glorify your Father which is in heaven" (Matthew 5:16); again, in giving His parting instructions to His disciples, He commanded, "Go ye therefore and teach all nations" (Matthew 28:19,20). "Faith, if it hath not works, is dead" (James 2:17). The New Testament rings with an optimistic trumpet call to service; there is not a single pessimistic note sounded. A man expresses his belief and he at once goes to work. To the fact that men were so willing to lead a strenuous Christian life in those early times is due in large measure the marvellous spread of the gospel faith. The Object of the Call was not a cause but a Person (Acts 1:8; 2:22,36,38; 4:12; 10:43; 16:31); to set forth Jesus Christ as the Saviour of men. The world was full of evil. Society was corrupt. The state was bad. There were many giant wrongs crying out for the reformer. The apostles might have devoted themselves to the causes of social and political reform with splendid success. They might have bought only a gradual and purely friendly approach to the people whom they wished to influence, as we often do now, with some success, but the New Testament writings show that they believed that in the person of Jesus Christ they had a more powerful remedy for bad social and political conditions than any other which they could urge. In Christ they found a supreme object of service; for Him they were willing to give up houses, lands, position, even life itself (2 Timothy 4:6-8); for only through Him, they preached, could the world be truly reformed. Why then potter with temporary and minor remedies when the permanent and great remedy was at hand? Times have changed since the apostolic days, but for any lasting good in reform work Christ is still the great remedy. He must be at the centre of all social, political and temperance betterments or they are destined to fall short of the largest success. The Place.--Where shall men serve the Christ? 1. In the heart; there is a goodness of conduct on the part of some men which has no relation to their heart's desire and is simply a cloak worn for appearance's sake. With this sort of goodness Jesus had no sympathy and denounced it as hypocrisy (Matthew 6:1-34; 23:27, 28). Christ's service must commence with an inward conformity to the law of God. This necessity for a new heart is very clearly brought out in His conversation with Nicodemus (John 3:1-21). 2. In the home. Jesus said to a man whom He had healed, "Go home to thy friends, and tell them how great things the Lord hath done for thee" (Mark 5:19). Anything that strengthens the home strengthens society and the state. Good homes are essential for the bringing up of children and the making of right characters. But it is in the home that the real testing often comes of a professed Christianity; if a Christian life can be lived and manifested here it is quite sure to stand the outward strain. 3. In the community. The disciples of Christ were commanded to begin their first service in Jerusalem (Acts 1:4,8), where Jesus had been the most persecuted and was finally crucified. It was no easy task for them to begin to preach Jesus, where they were the most looked down upon. But the command was justified when the day of Pentecost came with the marvellous moving power of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2). There can be no clearer teaching from this than that a Christian man should begin to serve Christ, testify for Him and work for Him in the community in which he resides no matter what the adverse conditions are. Here is the sanction for home missions. 4. Abroad. "Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature" (Mark 16:15; Matthew 28:18-20). The field of service broadens out from the heart until it takes in the whole world and every class and condition of men. Man under the guidance of Christ is led not only to think of saving himself, his home, his community, but all homes and communities however remote they may be from his own. Here is the sanction for foreign missions. The urgency of the call is everywhere manifest in the New Testament. In the three years of His ministry Jesus Christ is incessant in His labours, calling upon men to turn to Him (Matthew 11:28-30). He urges watchfulness, prayerfulness, and earnestness in seeking to enter the kingdom of God (Matthew 11:12; 25:13; 26:41; Mark 14:38; Luke 11:9,10). Paul declared, "Woe is me, if I preach not the gospel" (1 Corinthians 9:16), and he urges Timothy to "preach the word" and to be "instant in season and out of season" (2 Timothy 4:1,2). A conflict is going on in the world and those who believe in Christ are besought to take every possible opportunity and every means to advance His gospel and cause men to accept Him as their Saviour (Ephesians 6:10-18). THE PATTERN OF SERVICE The world of men is frequently more easily moved by the force of example than by precept. Christ declared Himself to be the great exemplar of the Christian life. He said, "I have given you an example that ye should do as I have done to you" (John 13:15; 12:32; 1 Peter 2:21). He practiced what He preached. Personal Work.--In winning persons to the new life there is an admitted need of a work of the individual for the individual, but it is a task from which many draw back. Yet it is right here that the most effective service may be accomplished. Every man who receives Christ becomes in a certain sense a trustee to enlist others in His service and to give to them the light of life. Christ said to His followers, "Ye shall be witnesses unto Me" (Acts 1:8). Jesus was no recluse, He went out amongst men and sought them (Mark 10:45) in the market-place, in the fields and by the lakeside. Everywhere He entered into personal conversation, with those whom He met, about the kingdom of God; now it was with Nicodemus (John 3:1-21), then again with the woman of Samaria (John 4:4-26) and others. This personal work of Christ with individuals shows the importance He attached to the winning of persons one by one to Himself. Many of the most important teachings are brought out in His personal conversations. "The win one movement" which has been inaugurated in certain churches is very important. It had its incentive in the narrative of John (1:40-51), who tells us how Andrew won Peter and Philip won Nathanael by personal appeals to follow Christ. If all the followers of Christ in all the churches would each win one soul for Christ every year there would be no more complaints about decadent churches. Training Others for Service.--Personal work has its limitations in the time and strength of the individual who does it. Jesus thoroughly understood this fact and at the outset of His ministry began to train a band of followers who would carry on His work after His resurrection. Not only did He train a select company of twelve but also other men. We read in Luke, the ninth chapter, that He sent out His twelve disciples to do the work which He had been doing, and in the tenth chapter we are told that "other seventy" were also appointed to carry on a similar work. Careful instructions were given the seventy as to what they should do. The need (Luke 10:2) and the danger (v. 3) of the work were impressed upon them. They were instructed how they were to approach the people, what they were to teach and what they were to do in case they were rejected (vs. 4-11). They returned from their journey with great joy over its success (v. 17). This multiplication of self through the inciting and training of others to do work in which the individual is interested often leads to far-reaching results. There are many people who desire to advance a cause and are willing to devote themselves to it, but they have no power to set about it themselves. There is any quantity of this usable and helpful material, in our churches, ready to be made of service for the Master. Here is the waste that every professing Christian is not set to advance the kingdom of God. It is not only what a Christian may do himself, but what he can get others to do, which counts. Teaching.--Many men go wrong from erroneous thoughts about God and the importance of a right character. Too frequently those who have come to a saving knowledge of Christ are content to rest satisfied with it. No effort is made to instruct others in a belief which has helped them. The church believes in a teaching ministry, but has not yet come to fully believe in a teaching laity. The laity for the most part assumes a receptive attitude. Our Bible-schools might be doubled in numbers and effectiveness if Christian men and women, well qualified for the task, could be induced to respond to the strong demand for more teachers. There is no reason why Bible instruction and Christian teaching should be wholly confined to Sunday. It is time that the church made an aggressive move upon the week-days and began the establishment of night schools (for a definite term) for the systematic study of the Bible for adults and short after day school catechetical classes for children. These classes could and should be made auxiliary to the Sunday Bible-school. In them there would be time for that larger instruction which is so much needed and for which no opportunity is found under the present arrangement. Besides, much talent not available upon Sunday, at the time of the session of the Bible-school, might be utilized. This is an age of clubs organized for the study of ancient and modern secular literature, where careful and scholarly papers are read upon subjects given out long in advance. This study-club idea ought to be utilized by the church for the investigation of the best literature which the world knows, namely, that found in the Bible. Jesus said, "Go teach" (Matthew 28:19,20), and He Himself taught the people in large and small groups (Matthew 5:1,2), on a mountain, in the synagogue (Matthew 4:23; Mark 1:21), by the seaside (Mark 2:13), in the temple (Matthew 26:55), as He walked through the fields and when He went to feasts and social gatherings. He had ever in mind His teaching mission. He set an example of persistent and painstaking instruction of the people under bitter opposition and in adverse circumstances. He said, in encouraging His disciples to persevere in their teaching, "Remember the word that I said unto you, the servant is not greater than his Lord. If they have persecuted Me they will also persecute you; if they have kept My saying they will keep yours also" (John 15:20). Works of Mercy and Love.--Jesus was the supreme embodiment of mercy and love. Possessed of almighty power He used it not for honour or for selfish purposes, but to heal and help men (Matthew 11:5; 9:36; 14:14; 15:32; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 6:34; Luke 7:13). Modern philanthropy had its origin in Him. All the modern state institutions for the care of the poor, the blind, the crippled, the sick are in existence to-day because of the teaching and example of Jesus Christ. Before He came to earth and taught men how to be compassionate towards the unfortunate ones there were no such institutions. Wherever Jesus went, when He was in bodily form upon this earth, the people thronged Him for the healing touch. This is another way in which the followers of Christ may reach men, namely through the healing touch. In the fierce struggle in the world, for a living and a position, many men are worsted and trampled upon; such men need the brotherly help of those who have been with Christ. There are many sick, discouraged and poor; here is a large field for this service of mercy and love. Suffering.--There is a ministry of suffering in taking and bearing the burdens of others. "For it became Him (Christ), for whom are all things and by whom are all things, in bringing many sons unto glory, to make the captain of their salvation perfect through suffering" (Hebrews 2:10). This suffering of Christ is represented by the New Testament writers as having an object in the salvation of man and bringing him to glory (Romans 8:18; 2 Corinthians 1:5-7; Hebrews 2:9; 1 Peter 1:11; 4:13; 5:1; Philippians 3:10). Isaiah said of Christ, "He was wounded for our transgressions, He was bruised for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon Him; and with His stripes we are healed" (Isaiah 53:5). We are urged to follow the example set by Christ (Philippians 2:5-11) in His humility and suffering for a great purpose. "In every age Christ's sufferings attract to Him the hearts of men; for they prove the boundless extent of His love, His absolute unselfishness, and His loyalty to truth and principle even unto death. Thus they have power with men." In following Christ, and placing Him in a right light before men, Christians must have a devotion to Him which will endure and stand steadfast through suffering. It is often only through the sacrifice of self that the best things in life are attained. "If so be we suffer with Him that we may be also glorified together. For I reckon that the sufferings of the present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory which shall be revealed in us" (Romans 8:17,18). THE JOY OF SERVICE Jesus is represented as doing His work through love (John 3:16), and for the joy that was set before Him (Hebrews 12:2). The Search for Happiness.--How can I be happy? This is the great question with multitudes of people. Men seek joy with the same eagerness that they dig for gold. Yet this world is a sad one, full of care, sickness, anxiety and sorrow. Many are the railers at fate and circumstances which keep them from realizing the object of their search. The failure to find happiness arises in large part from going wrongly about it. Men seek happiness through relaxation and the lowering of the moral standards. Men ask, why should we obey this or that law of God, man or our moral nature, if it bars the way to our enjoyment? "Let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die"; and eating and drinking they go out into a wild and barren land of sorrow. Again men seek happiness through the abundance of things; as if a human soul, born in the image of God, could be satisfied with mere things. The Conditions of Christian Happiness.--Christ, as the Great Pattern of life, showed that true happiness must be attained through the mastery of the situation, the victory over temptation (Matthew 4:1-11), and the hardest and most adverse circumstances of life (Hebrews 12:3; Philippians 2:8-10; 2:1,2; Matthew 16:21-27). There is no greater joy than that of the victors in a hard fought battle. Heaven is for conquerors (Revelation 15:2,3; 17:14). It is the man who has gone down into the tumult and uproar of the arena of life and fought and conquered in some good cause who tastes the supreme cup of happiness. The master words of the Christ were, "fight," "watch," "pray"; here is the entrance to the Utopia so long sought by men. The man who has no control over his appetites, passions and temper, and who cannot endure hardness in a service in which he is interested, can never know what genuine joy is. Read the roll call of the heroes in the eleventh chapter of Hebrews. 1. A great object in view. There can be no greater object than to serve Christ in all the relations of life (Matthew 6:33; 10:38; 8:22; 16:24; 19:21). 2. Harmony with the will of God (Matthew 6:10). 3. Endurance. Paul exhorts Timothy, "Thou therefore my son, be strong in the grace that is in Christ Jesus. And the things that thou hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also. Thou therefore endure hardness, as a good soldier of Jesus Christ" (2 Timothy 2:1-3). It was this quality of endurance in service which Jesus sought to set before His followers in the strongest light (Matthew 10:22; 24:13). Here then are the elements of the greatest human happiness and a divine joy. It is only as the human heart is thus prepared for the reception of the enlightenment of the Holy Spirit that He can be received in His glory, which He desires to impart to men and to bring them into joyous fellowship with the Father and the Son. QUESTIONS What is the call to service? What is the object of the call? Where shall men serve the Christ? How shall men serve the Christ in the heart, home, community, abroad? What can be said of the urgency of the call to service? What is the pattern of service? What can be said of personal work, training others for service, teaching, works of mercy and love, suffering? What is the joy of service? What can be said of the search for happiness? What are the conditions of Christian happiness in service? STUDY IX THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH Scriptures references: 1 Corinthians 3:11; 3:6-9; Colossians 1:18; Acts 2:47; Ephesians 5:23-27; Matthew 16:16,18; 18:17; Acts 5:11,12; 13:1,2; 14:23; 16:5; 1 Corinthians 11:18-34; 12:28-31; 1 Thessalonians 1:1; 2:14; 1 Timothy 3:15; Hebrews 12:22,23; Revelation 1:4,11,20; 2:7,11; 22:16; 22:12-15,17. THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH What is the Christian Church?--One of the best definitions is as follows: "The church consists of all who acknowledge the Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, the blessed Saviour of mankind, who give credit to His gospel, and who hold His sacraments, the seals of eternal life, in honour." Another definition is: "The church is a holy kingdom established by God on earth, of which Christ is the invisible King." There are some organizations calling themselves Christian churches which have substituted certain philosophical doctrines in place of the principles of Jesus Christ, but it is a fact of history that in proportion as the Divine Lordship of Christ has been exalted the greater has been the growth of the church. The church has been able to meet the needs of the people as He has been lifted up (John 12:32) that men might turn to Him for light and life (John 1:4; 8:12; 12:46; Matthew 11:27-30). The Head of the Church is Jesus Christ. When Simon Peter made the declaration, "Thou art the Christ the Son of the living God," Jesus said unto him, "Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but My Father which is in heaven. And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My church" (Matthew 16:16-18; Ephesians 2:20). "The question is, What is this rock? The Romanists say, 'It is Peter'; but Christ did not so say. His statement was, 'Thou art Petros and on this petra I will build My church.' The words are cognate but not identical; the former is masculine and the latter feminine; petra is a rock; Petros is a stone hewn out of the rock." When Christ uttered these words He was on His way to Jerusalem where He was to be crucified. In the face of the cross, the Master was preparing His disciples for a great trial and the time when, in bodily presence, He should depart from the earth. It was necessary that He should now speak plainly in regard to Himself and His mission. Paul, in writing to the Colossians, said of Christ, "And He is the head of the body, the church: who is the beginning, the first-born from the dead; that in all things He might have the preeminence" (Colossians 1:18; compare Ephesians 1:22,23). However Christian churches may differ from each other in form of government and in other matters they are united in the great essential doctrine of the Headship of Christ, this is their strong bond of union. A Divine Institution.--The Christian church was not organized by any one man or a company of men, but was given to man as an expression of the compassion of God (John 3:16-21), that in it men might associate themselves together for the proper worship of God and that they might draw near to Him (Hebrews 10:19-25). 1. The beginning of the organization of the church was in the upper room, where Jesus partook of the last supper with His disciples (Matthew 26:20-30). Here He showed the significance of His death (v. 28), His relation to the Father (John 14:9), and the coming of the Holy Spirit (John 14:16,17; 15:26,27). In the last instructions given by Jesus, and His prayer (John 14:1-17:26) we have a body of teaching which constitutes the basis of the faith of the church. 2. The completion of the organization of the church was in the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-24,32,36-41), which the disciples had been commanded to await in the city of Jerusalem (Acts 1:6-8,14). Those who accepted the word which had been preached through the Holy Spirit were baptized (2:41). "The Lord," not men, "added to the church daily such as should be saved" (Acts 2:47). Ordinances and Faith.--The church, with its ordinances of the Lord's Supper and Baptism, its faith in God the Father, in His Son Jesus Christ and in the Holy Spirit, now begins its victorious career. Human Elements.--The divine institution of the church has been subject to the admixture of human elements, there was a traitor amongst the twelve apostles. The organization and the doctrines have been tampered with in the interest of human ambitions and the pride of human philosophy, but no institution has shown itself so adapted to satisfy the great needs of men of all conditions of life, to purge itself when the human elements proved too great a burden, and to outlast all man-made organizations. Authority and Teaching.--The church and its ministers have authority to teach through Christ and what He has commanded. There is a certain and quite definite body of truth. This body of truth, preached in the heart of heathendom or in the most fashionable church, in the most highly civilized country, is quite sure to produce certain definite results in awakening men from their sins and causing them to lead a new life. "By their fruits ye shall know them" (Matthew 7:15-20). Jesus said, "All power is given unto Me in heaven and in earth. Go ye therefore and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you and lo I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world" (Matthew 28:18-20; Luke 10:22; John 3:35; 5:32; 13:3; 17:2; Acts 2:36; Romans 14:9). Paul said, "For other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ" (1 Corinthians 3:11). Form.--The word church, in the New Testament, is used in three senses to denote the differences in the form. 1. The local congregation worshipping in a house (Philemon 2; Colossians 4:15) or a certain place as, "The church of God which is at Corinth" (1 Corinthians 1:2) and "the church of the Thessalonians" (1 Thessalonians 1:1). This is much the most frequent use of the word. 2. The entire community of Christians throughout the world or some portions of it (1 Corinthians 15:9; Galatians 1:13; Matthew 16:18). 3. The total company of the redeemed, the bride of Christ (Ephesians 5:23,25,27,30; Hebrews 12:23). The Life of the Early Church, as we have seen, had its origin in Jesus Christ. Those who came into the church, did so because of their belief in Him and acceptance of Him as their Saviour. 1. The organization was simple; each church looked to Christ as its head (1 Corinthians 1:2-18,30; Ephesians 5:23). 2. The officers were appointed for certain necessary duties (Acts 6;20:17-23; Titus 1:5-7); it was the Lord who called men into certain vocations for the edifying of the church (Ephesians 4:11,12; 1 Corinthians 12:27,28). 3. The time of meeting was upon the first day of the week (Acts 20:7; 1 Corinthians 16:2), thus commemorating the resurrection of the Lord (John 20:1,19; Luke 24:1; Mark 16:2; Matthew 28:1). 4. The aim was to build up pure and godly lives (Titus 2:1-15) and to bring all men into fellowship with the Master. There was an intense enthusiasm for the faith and propagation of it. There was an extraordinary religious elevation and purity of conduct. The churches set themselves to eradicate the selfishness in man, out of which all forms of injustice sprang and aimed to affect the moral renovation of the individual and of society. There were abuses which arose out of the former lives of believers; it is surprising, considering the evil influences surrounding the early churches, that they were so few. 5. But there arose in the midst of a gross heathenism, with all its great immoralities, a rapidly growing community, which demanded purity of life and conduct from its communicants and supreme allegiance to Christ, the Lord and Saviour; how strong it was is shown by the fact that the Roman Empire tried to stamp it out, failed, and was taken captive itself by the religion it had despised. THE WORK OF THE MODERN CHURCH The Chief End of the Church is to carry on the work which brought Christ into the world (Luke 19:10; 17:33; 15:1-24; 24:48; Acts 1:8). All things should be made to serve this purpose. The Activities and methods of work have a wide range. What is highly successful in one community may prove, however, a failure in another. The means, which produce large results at one time, tried again in the same place, at another time, sometimes show small or no results. The problem of each church and community needs to be studied, that means may be properly adjusted and adapted to the ends sought to be accomplished. It is remarkable how Jesus adapted Himself to the times and circumstances. He said to Peter and Andrew, "Follow Me and I will make you fishers of men" (Matthew 4:19); He spoke to them in a language they were able to comprehend; to fish for fish meant care, understanding of their habits and much toil to accomplish the desired results. In the conversations with Nicodemus and the women of Samaria Jesus arrives at the same end but uses entirely different means. The letters of Paul fit exactly the needs of the churches to which they are addressed. It is the really earnest spirit desiring to bring men to Christ which will produce the largest results; this spirit appeals to men and compels them to listen; hence it is the cultivation of this spirit which is most earnestly commended. Mere machinery of effort is doomed to failure, but when the living spirit is in the wheels and is adequate to the moving of them, the results are sure to be large. The disciples of Christ knew all the facts about Christ's life, death and resurrection, but they were not equipped for their great work until after they had spent much time in prayer and the Holy Spirit had come in power; then they became mighty men in the upbuilding of the church. Worship.--"Men not only need to be urged to be true to their consciences, but their consciences need to be informed." One of the great functions of the church is to teach men how to worship God aright; to do this they must have right thoughts about God. Jesus said, "God is a Spirit: and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in truth" (John 4:24). Men must be led in their worship by a proper exposition of the Scriptures, by prayer and by praise. The place of the church in this matter is clearly defined in the New Testament, it can be taken by no other institution; and no other organization has so high a mission as this, to bring man into harmony with God. Fellowship.--Man is a social being and he seeks contact with his fellow men. Many of the worldly ways in which this fellowship is sought are ways which lead to the wrecking of man, body and soul, or to the obliteration of all the finer feelings. The mission of the Christian Church is to strengthen the social bond by seeking to cultivate all the better impulses and finer feelings in man, and to place society on a firmer footing in love, purity and righteousness (1 John 1:3; 1:5; Acts 2:42; 1 Corinthians 1:9). Bible Study.--Christianity is a book religion as well as one in which God enters into spiritual communion with man. The Church has ever acknowledged its duty to teach the Scriptures, for in them it finds the truths which it desires to inculcate (John 5:39). Evangelization.--Beyond the bounds of the Church there are those, near and far away, who need to be taught about the gospel of Jesus Christ. More and more the church is feeling the responsibility for the welfare of individuals and of society and of the state. If there are great evils and giant wrongs which need to be remedied, they have their origin in the evil in men's hearts. For the cure of bad hearts there is no remedy in all the world save that given by Jesus Christ. Hence the activity of the church in seeking to evangelize men not only at home but throughout the world. There are three things which every church needs to realize in order that this work may be prosecuted with the utmost vigour and enthusiasm. 1. A clear conception of what the church is and its relations to God and man. 2. The opening of the eyes to the fact of sin in the world and its destructive power upon the soul of man, here and hereafter (1 John 1:8; Romans 5:12; John 8:34; Matthew 18:7-11). 3. That the only real help or salvation of man's soul is through our Divine Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ. "Neither is there salvation in any other: for there is none other name under heaven given among men, whereby we must be saved" (Acts 4:12; 16:30,31; Philippians 2:10; 1 John 2:12; Romans 10:13; 1 John 1:7,9; Matthew 9:6). The Equipment for the carrying on and extension of this work cannot be too good. The cause frequently lags from making it one of the interests of life and not the chief care. Every church building should express in usefulness and beauty, in all its appointments, man's thought of a temple erected to the great and living God. THE HOPE OF THE CHURCH The Establishment of the Kingdom of God Upon Earth.--The prophets of the Old Testament had two great thoughts which they continually presented, namely, the coming of the Messianic King and the establishment of the Messianic kingdom. Isaiah said, "Unto us a Child is born, unto us a Son is given: and the government shall be upon His shoulder and He shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, The Mighty God, The Everlasting Father, The Prince of Peace. Of the increase of His government and peace there shall be no end" (9:6,7). When John the Baptist came, he proclaimed the coming of this King and kingdom (Matthew 3:11,12; John 1:1-28) and when he saw Jesus he said, "Behold the Lamb of God which taketh away the sin of the world. This is He of whom I said, After me cometh a man who is preferred before me: for He was before me" (John 1:29-33). "And I saw and bare record that this is the Son of God" (v. 34). Jesus spoke much about His kingdom, the kingdom of heaven and the kingdom of God. He sought to explain by many parables and by direct discourse what this kingdom was like; it is mentioned by name many times in the New Testament (Matthew 13:11,19,24,31,33,44,45,47, 52; 22:2; 25:1). He claimed that He was the Messianic King (Matthew 26:63,64; 27:11,37; 26:53,54; 16:16,17; John 14:9; Luke 22:67,69; John 18:37; Mark 14:61,62), and the Son of God. He declared that before Him all nations should come to be judged (Matthew 25:31-46). As in the Old Testament so in the New Testament the world-wide character of this kingdom of God is plainly shown. There are Four Conceptions of the Kingdom of God set forth in the Bible. 1. The reign of God over all His creatures. 2. The reign of God over men and nations. 3. The reign of God over Israel. 4. "The reign of God as Divine Love over human hearts, believing in Him and constrained thereby to yield Him grateful affection and devoted love." It is this fourth conception which is most prominently set forth in the New Testament. The special work of Christ on earth was to reveal the supreme rule of Divine Love. The Church and the Kingdom.--It is the care of the church to forward the establishment of this kingdom of Divine Love everywhere, in the heart of the individual, in society, in the business world and in the national life. For this we pray, as Christ taught us, "Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven" (Matthew 6:10). QUESTIONS What is the Christian Church? Define it. Who is the Head of the church? How is the church a divine institution? What can be said of the beginning and completion of the organization? What are the ordinances? What can be said of the human elements? Where is the authority and ground of teaching? What can be said of the forms? What can be said of the life of the early church? What is the chief end of the church? What can be said of the activities of the modern church? What of the worship? What of the fellowship? What three things are necessary to keep clearly in mind, in the work of evangelization? What ought the church equipment to be? What is the hope of the church? What are the four conceptions of the Kingdom of God? What is the chief conception? What can be said of the church and the kingdom? STUDY X THE CHRISTIAN HOME Scripture references: Ephesians 6:1-9; 5:25-33; Colossians 3:17-25; 1 Corinthians 7:12-17; Mark 10:2-12; 7:9-13; 5:19; 1 Timothy 5:4; Luke 15:6; Titus 2:1-15; Exodus 20:12,17; Deuteronomy 6:1-9. THE HOME What is a Home?--It has been answered that, "It is the unit of society." It has also been pointed out that this unit must be kept clean, pure and right, in all its relations, or society and the state will suffer grave consequences. Certainly, in the past, the institutions of society and state have been seriously weakened only when the moral decay of the family has first set in. There are many organizations which have for their special care the fostering of the social and political life, while the strengthening of home ties has been sadly neglected. To the individual the good character of the home is of the utmost importance, for his growth in all the finer things which pertain to morality and spirituality. The Difference in Homes.--One ideal of a home begins and ends with the externals; a great house, a splendid service and fine furnishings. Everything is here made to bend to the more or less perfect realization of this material ideal. When all is attained that is possible in this direction, and this end, and only this end, is sought of outer adornment, it is found that the essentials of a true home life have been missed. Another ideal seeks for the cultivation of love between husband and wife, and all the members of the family. Care and forbearance are urged and commended in speech and action. There are set forth a mutual kindness, a careful consideration of the feelings and a helpfulness in bearing burdens, which exalt the soul and make life worth living. According as this ideal is striven for, and attained, will the true home be realized. Many a man has wrecked his business, betrayed his friends and gone down to a dishonoured grave in the struggle to surround his family with luxuries which he could not afford, but no man ever sincerely tried to cultivate the graces of love and kindness in himself and in his family, who did not succeed, in a large measure, in realizing the great purpose of the home. The True Home may be found, and is found, in great houses and in small houses, where there is large wealth and where there is dire poverty. It is not dependent upon circumstances but independent. The great essential is love for those things which make a beautiful and strong character. Low standards of truth and morality in the family tend to reproduce themselves in exaggerated forms in the social life of the community. Individuals, coming out of families where there is no love for the good and no regard for righteousness, often become a serious threat to peace and good order. No educational system can do very much for children with an evil family environment. On the other hand the world is full of examples of men, trained up in righteousness by their parents, who have strictly kept to the path in which their feet were started. THE IDEAL CHRISTIAN HOME Jesus honoured the home. His birthplace was mean (Luke 2:7) so far as external things go. The house and the city, where His parents lived, showed plainly the poor estate of the family which, while it was of noble lineage, was greatly reduced in circumstances. Jesus Himself learned and practiced the trade of a carpenter. In living in this home at Nazareth for thirty years of His life Jesus showed that it was possible under hard outward conditions to live a noble life and to cultivate and practice those virtues and qualities which were afterwards so greatly to bless the whole world. Duties of Husbands and Wives.--The beginning of every Christian home is in a supreme affection between two, a man and a woman. "For this cause," Christ said, "shall a man leave his father and mother, and cleave to his wife; and they twain shall be one flesh, so that they are no more twain but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder" (Mark 10:7-9). He honoured and sanctioned the marriage relation by His presence at the marriage in Cana (John 2:1-11). In the first century divorce was very common; Hillel, the Jewish teacher, held "that the bond was so loose and flexible that if a wife burnt her husband's food while cooking it, he was justified in procuring a writ of divorcement from her." Jesus denounces this practice and declares (Matthew 5:31,32; Mark 10:2-12) that there is only one cause that justifies divorce. 1. Love to one another. In the various vicissitudes of married life, and in the bringing up of children the bond which needs to be strengthened, and the duty which needs to be urged, is that of love. Love can alone carry husband and wife over the more difficult places of life. Paul says, "Husbands love your wives, even as Christ also loved the Church and gave Himself for it" (Ephesians 5:25-33; Colossians 3:18,19). "Let every one of you so love his wife even as himself; and the wife see that she reverence her husband" (Ephesians 5:33). No stronger language can be employed than Paul uses in urging husband and wife to love each other with a whole heart, yet he provides for cases where one or the other party in the married relation is not a Christian, and where a strong love may be absent (1 Corinthians 7:12-17). He further says, "Unto the married I command, yet not I, but the Lord, let not the wife depart from her husband; but and if she depart let her remain unmarried, or be reconciled to her husband: and let not the husband put away his wife" (1 Corinthians 7: 10,11). But a supreme love settles all troubles (1 Corinthians, chapter 13). 2. Forbearance and kindness towards children. "Provoke not your children to wrath but bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord" (Ephesians 6:4; Colossians 3:21). When Christ was upon earth, "a father had the power of life and death over his offspring. A weak and sickly child might be abandoned to death; and this was approved by such eminent authorities as Plato and Aristotle." Jesus declared for the rights of the children. He not only opened His arms for them, but He gave them a new standing in the world (Mark 10: 14-16; Matthew 18:5). He said, "See that ye despise not one of these little ones; for in heaven their angels do always behold the face of My Father, which is in heaven." (Matthew 18:10). 3. Hospitality. True Christian love will extend itself beyond the bounds of the household, and seek to do those outside of it good by drawing them within its charmed circle. This hospitality should be given not only to those who can return it again, but also to those from whom no return can ever be expected (Matthew 5:46). "Use hospitality one to another without grudging" (1 Peter 4:9; 1 Timothy 3:2; Titus 1:8; Hebrews 13:2). "But when thou makest a feast, call the poor, the maimed, the lame, the blind: and thou shalt be blessed; for they cannot recompense thee: for thou shalt be recompensed at the resurrection of the just" (Luke 14:13,14,11,12; compare Matthew 25:35,42). In the midst of our splendid charitable boards, which do such a needed work, individual charity and hospitality should not be forgotten and put out of its rightful place. 4. Commending the home to God. In writing to Timothy (2 Timothy 1:5) Paul calls to mind the unfeigned faith that is in Timothy, which dwelt first in his grandmother Lois and then in his mother Eunice. Paul himself was brought up by devout parents. The Bible has many instances of men, like that of Samuel, who have been trained for great parts in the world in a religious household. The old proverb has it, "Like father, like son." If God is honoured by the parents and the home commended to Him, the children will be quite sure to honour Him also. Bring up your children "in the nurture and admonition of the Lord" (Ephesians 6:4). Have them ready to meet Christ at any time (Mark 13:34-37). Duties of Children.--1. Honouring parents. "Children obey your parents in the Lord, for this is right" (Ephesians 6:1,2,3; compare Exodus 20:12; Colossians 3:20). The first necessary lesson in every human life is to learn the lesson of obedience; if this is not well studied and practiced in the home, the child, when he grows up and goes out for himself, will be quite sure to have a hard time of it and receive some severe buffetings. Those who break the laws of society and the state are those who have first broken the commandment to honour father and mother. 2. Care of parents. Children, when grown up, are sometimes apt to forget the love and care bestowed upon them when they were young. Their parents become old and feeble and are often unable to look out for themselves. In Jesus' time there was a bad custom of repudiating parents who for any cause needed to be helped. The children had only to say "Corban," that is, that their goods were dedicated to a sacred purpose, to secure release from their filial obligations. Christ denounced this custom in the strongest terms and declared that the children ought to honour their parents by caring for them. Thus He became an advocate for the rights of parents as He had of the rights of children (Mark 7: 11, 7-13; Matthew 15:3-6). When in His last agony, on the cross, Jesus provided a home for His mother (John 19:26,27). Duties of Dependents and Servants.--Jesus commended the honourableness of service. He washed the disciples' feet (John 13:4-16) and then told them that He had given them an example of the kind of service which they should render to each other. He took upon Himself the form of a servant, hiding His glory, that He might accomplish His great work (Philippians 2:6-9). Paul exhorted servants of the household to be obedient, serving, "not with eye service, as men pleasers; but as servants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart" (Ephesians 6:5-8; Colossians 3:22-25; 1 Corinthians 9:19). Masters are told to be just towards their servants, remembering that they have a Master in heaven (Colossians 4:1). When the runaway slave, Onesimus, is sent back to his master, by Paul, he is commended to Philemon as a brother beloved (Philemon 16). We should hear but little of strikes and lockouts if employers and employees would only take these principles, laid down in the New Testament, for the guidance of masters and servants, for their rules of conduct towards each other and seek to carry them out. Duties of Young and Old.--"That the aged men be sober, grave, temperate, sound in faith, in charity, in patience. The aged women likewise, that they be in behaviour as becometh holiness, not false accusers, not given to much wine, teachers of good things; that they may teach the young women to be sober, to love their husbands, to love their children, to be discreet, chaste, keepers at home, good, obedient to their own husbands that the word of God be not blasphemed. Young men likewise exhort to the sober minded" (Titus 2:2-6). THE ATTACK UPON THE HOME There are many influences at work which seek to minimize the importance of the home life and to undermine it. There are four quite well defined lines of the attack upon the life of the family. The Assault Upon the Marriage Relation.--The moral leper advocates that marriage be dissolvable at will, not by mutual consent alone, but when either party to the contract desires its conclusion. The church, in its different branches, stands as a unit against this iniquitous proposition. But how far the civil power has yielded, by the pressure which has been brought to bear, is made manifest by the fact that in the different states of the Union there are now recognized by the courts forty-six legal causes of annulling a marriage. Our courts are crowded with divorce cases and the suits which grow out of them in regard to property and the care of children. That the odour of scandal, going up from such cases is bad, is unquestioned. That the influence, of such proceedings upon the morals of the country, is evil is also sadly admitted. A blow struck at marriage is one which is felt not only by the family but by society and the state. The fall of the Roman empire was preceded by an extraordinary laxness of the marriage tie. It is time the church bestirred itself to oppose more strongly the theory and practice of the moral leper. The Assault Upon the Quiet of the Home.--In the modern stress and strain of life there is need of a quiet place in which to rest, to get acquainted with God, to know one's family, to live to the best things and to get ready again to engage enthusiastically in the daily battle of life. The home is designed to furnish such a place of rest, when the work of the day is done; it is here, in a Christian home, that there should be an atmosphere of supreme love and care. It is, however, when night comes that all the attractions, which appeal to the love of excitement, put forth their most strenuous efforts to draw to them the inmates of the home. There are amusements and amusements; a person, however, who looks only to be amused seeks by and by those of the strongest flavour and those which border very closely on the forbidden land. The love of excitement grows upon what it feeds and soon, to the habitual pleasure-seeker, the quiet atmosphere and love of the home no longer appeal; he has begun a chase for excitement and pleasure which will never satisfy him. Multitudes of wrecked homes and burned out characters, show the disastrous work of this assault upon the quiet of the home. The Assault Upon the Purity of the Body.--We are told by Paul that our bodies are temples of God and members of Christ and therefore they should be kept pure and clean (1 Corinthians 3:16,17; 6:15,16). Yet a certain class of so-called reformers are seeking to teach men that to sit in a saloon drinking the beverages there served out, and which defile the purity of the body, makes for manhood. The modern saloon, which destroys the purity of the body, is one of the most successful of all agencies for the demoralization and the destruction of the home. Once it has fastened its hold upon a man, the time which he should spend with his family is spent in defiling his body in this place; the money which should be spent, in clothing and feeding his wife and children, is squandered here; until the home loses its hold upon him and he selfishly indulges his appetite, no matter who suffers. We are faced with actual conditions and no substitutes of better kept saloons or purer beverages can help very much. It is a travesty of the truth to call a saloon a working men's club; it is his destruction. What is actually needed is a reform which will send men, who frequent saloons back to their homes. The real problem is not how to reform the saloon, but how to make the home better so that father, mother and the children may take delight in spending their evenings there. The policy of some social organizations, which work in the slums of our great cities, seems to be by providing great public dance halls and fostering the saloons to draw the people still further away from the home life and to make it harder to maintain it. After all the only real remedy for the saloon habit is Christianity. It is only when Christ comes into the heart of a man that he begins to care for his home and to spend his evenings there. The Church, then as possessing the lure for the home, ought to take more seriously to this work in the slums. But the trouble is that the slums do not receive very pleasantly those who seek to cleanse their hearts and bodies, but they do take kindly to the agencies, and often throng them, which look kindly on those things which really keep them down, and insure them miserable homes. Still it remains true that the teaching of Christianity, even when received with hostility, is the only leavening power for better things in the slums. It is one of the hard things to cleanse a man's body before his heart is made clean, but let his heart be purified, and the purity of the body will follow; then the first thought of that man will be for his home and its betterment. The Assault of Freedom of Speech.--In no place is there more need of kindliness of speech and manner than in the home, yet in no other place is there more plain speaking. The mask of pleasantness, which may be worn all day in business or social relations, may be in the home laid aside; and the character revealed and the vigour of language used may easily drive away every vestige of happiness. When people live together under the same roof the feelings become very tender and are easily hurt. What is said outside may be thought little of, but in the home it is different. "Take us the foxes, the little foxes that spoil the vines: for our vines have tender grapes" (Song of Solomon 2:15). Incompatibility of temper is a reason sometimes given for the breaking up of a home, but the real reason is an undue familiarity and freedom of speech. Because persons live together in families there should be no license to say everything and anything, no matter who is hurt. Home happiness is a tender plant, it needs much care and watching, but when it blooms the flowers are of a rare beauty of form and their fragrance exceeds that of all others. THE PRESERVATION OF THE HOME How may the home be preserved and made to serve its great end? There are three ways, amongst a greater number, which are here indicated. Personal Care.--All betterment of the home must begin with the individual and every individual has a chance to exercise this care as his lot is cast in some family. Thought, time, money, all need to be employed in working out in a practical way the ideal of the true home. Placing the Home Under the Care of God.--There is a need of the reinstatement of the custom of family worship; the place and time where and when the family is commended to God and placed under His care. As children of the great household of God we need constantly to keep in touch with our Father. The Obedience of the Golden Rule, as it is stated in a new form: I will not do unto others that which I would not have them do to me. I will not think of others that which I would not have them think of me. I will not say of others that which I would not have them say of me. QUESTIONS What is a home? What is the difference in homes? What is the true home? What can be said of the ideal Christian home? Duties of husbands and wives; what are the four lines? Duties of children; what are the two lines? What are the duties of servants and dependents; of the young and aged? What can be said of the attack upon the home; the marriage relation, the quiet of the home, the purity of the body, freedom of speech? In what three ways may the home be preserved? STUDY XI THE CHRISTIAN BUSINESS WORLD Scripture references: Proverbs 22:29; Romans 12:11; Psalms 24:1; 50:10-12; Haggai 2:8; Psalm 49:6,10,16,17; 62:10; Matthew 13:22; Mark 10:23,24; Job 31:24-26; Proverbs 3:9; Matthew 25:14-30; 24:45-51; 6:19-21; Luke 12:16-21. THE IDEAL IN THE BUSINESS WORLD There is often a wide difference between the methods actually employed in doing business and when they should be. Good men who are in the thick of the battle of competition and rivalry with other firms in the same line of trade, are the quickest to admit this fact. They would gladly see things managed so that every employee should be satisfied with his wages and hours of work and every competitor and customer gratified by the treatment he receives. Business as a Fight.--"The truth is," says a recent eminent writer on this subject, "modern business is a fight. At bottom it is a question of strength and courage." In this fight there are all sorts of men engaged; men, who are honourable and upright and who fight fairly, taking no mean advantage, yet nevertheless fighting strongly for place, power and wealth. Over against this company of men are those who are fair only when they are compelled to be fair and who contend with any means, good or bad, for the objects which they seek to attain. It is this latter class which upsets trade, causes great commercial and banking houses to fail, and casts suspicion upon all corporations, by the sale of watered and fraudulent stocks. It is this idea of business as a struggle which causes working men to strike sometimes rightly, against great abuses, and sometimes wrongly, over minor matters which might easily have been adjusted if they had been taken up in the right way. Business as a Service.--So long as the ideal of the business world is that business is a fight, little can be done to improve the present conditions under which capital and labour work and suffer. There is nothing which is so costly as war, nothing which is so far-reaching in its disastrous effects and which leaves such a trail of misery behind it. Industrial war is no exception to the rule. But why look upon business as a fight? Already a new ideal is before the world, that of service. This is what business really is, it carries things from the place where they are abundant to where they are not, it seeks to feed, to clothe, to house all mankind and to facilitate travel and commerce. Upon the earth, and in it, enough of all things has been provided for all the inhabitants--the table spread by God has been bountifully furnished--if only there were a proper distribution no one need want. It is this matter of unwillingness to unselfishly serve others which slows down commerce to-day. When, however, men shall cast aside all other ideals save that of being of the largest service to their fellow men we shall have a new order of things. Men will no longer seek to accumulate for themselves alone and the labourer will work with his full strength and a glad enthusiasm. No man ever did his best work without some great ideal before him which refreshed and quickened all his energies. If the business man would save himself from becoming sordid, and the poorest paid working man from becoming sullen and hardened, they should keep ever before them this vision of service. OWNERSHIP If the ideal of service is accepted in the business world as true, then the question arises, What or whom shall man serve? Shall it be a thing, silver, gold, house or land? Shall a man serve another man as a man? Whatsoever a man serves he becomes subject to. He is dominated by it and his thoughts go no further. Every man is tempted to serve the lower instead of the higher. Jesus was tempted (Matthew 4:1-11) by certain seeming great and temporal advantages to relinquish His service of His Father, but He made it clear once and for all that the supreme object of service should be God (Matthew 4:10), "Him only shalt thou serve." Paul also exhorts all men, in all occupations, to keep in mind first of all the service of God and of Christ, and to do whatever they do to God. Then if they administer great or small affairs, if they are masters or servants, they will seek to please God and, having this higher ideal, will do far better work, than they otherwise would, in every sphere of life (Ephesians 6:7; Colossians 3:17,23; 1 Corinthians 10:31; 2 Corinthians 8:5). God, the Owner of All.--God as sovereign, and over and in all, is the proper object of service (Exodus 20:3,4,5) for the business man. Nations have parceled out the earth amongst themselves and claim ownership. Men hold the titles of lands under the laws of the nations. Men dig, plant and reap and call the products of the soil their own. But back of the titles of men, and the claim of nations, God is the great proprietor. "The earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof; the world and they that dwell therein" (Psalm 24:1; 1 Corinthians 10:26). "For every beast of the field is Mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills" (Psalm 50:10-12). "The silver is Mine and the gold is Mine, saith the Lord of hosts" (Haggai 2:8). Man is a Tenant at the Will of God.--No man really owns the goods in which he deals or the lands to which he holds the deeds. He may be called away from the temporary ownership at any time. It was asked, when a certain very rich man died, "How much did he leave?" The reply was, "He left it all, he took nothing with him." "For we brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out" (1 Timothy 6:7; Psalm 49:17; Job 1:21). Christ emphasized the uncertain tenure upon which all property is held by the parable of a certain rich man who had much goods laid up, who congratulated himself upon this fact and proposed to pull down his barns and build greater, saying to his soul, "Take thine ease, eat drink and be merry," but God said, "Thou fool, this night thy soul shall be required of thee: then whose shall those things be which thou hast provided" (Luke 12:16-21)? TRUSTEESHIP Man as a Trustee.--There is no truth more clearly brought out and stated in many ways in the Bible than that man is in the position of a trustee. Jesus used the parable of the talents to illustrate this great truth (Matthew 25:14-30). It is plainly taught in this parable that man is under obligations to God. No man ever brought himself into the world. No man ever originated his own talent; some men have been endowed with what seems to be greater possibilities than others. To one man has been given the talent for administration, to another that of a ministering spirit, to another mechanical genius, to another that of wealth and to another the power of song or speech. But whatever the talent given, great or small, it is distinctly set forth in the New Testament that it is given in trust and is to be used in the service of Him who has bestowed it. The business man is expected, by his Lord, to buy and sell, not for himself alone, but as a trustee. In this office it is of great importance that a man be found faithful to the confidence reposed in him (1 Corinthians 4:1,2; Luke 16:2,11; Romans 14:12; Luke 19:11, 27). A man in a trusteeship, if he is honest, will not waste or squander the property entrusted to his care. He will treat fairly and honestly all men who work for him. The men working for him will feel that they are also trustees seeking to use their skill and time, so that the best interests of God and man may be served. Man's Right to Hold Property and Do Business is recognized by Christ. In the parable of the pounds (Luke 19:12-26) He commends those who used the money in trading to gain more and were ready when "the nobleman" returned to render a good account. He condemns the man who having received one pound made no effort to increase it. He says, "If ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches" (Luke 16:11). He made no demand of His disciples, so far as the record shows, to give up their property. The case of the young man of great wealth (Mark 10:17-27), who would follow Christ, and of whom Jesus required that he should divest himself of his property, is fully in accord with Jesus' teaching concerning wealth and the holding of property. The key to the whole matter, on this point, is found in what Jesus says of this very case, "How hard it is for them that trust in riches to enter into the kingdom of God" (Mark 10:24). This young man did not possess his wealth but his wealth possessed him, he was the servant of his money. Jesus' teaching is that a man should hold money in trust. Jesus warned men of the risk of possessing property, lest it become their master. Money, considered simply as money, is a hardening influence and in the restive desire to get more the best things in men are quite sure to be eliminated (Matthew 13:22). "The danger lies in the power of money to gather affection and to absorb trust, thus displacing God" (Matthew 6:19,20,24; Luke 18:24; 12:15). The Reckoning.--There comes a time when every trustee is called upon to render an account of how he has administered the business entrusted to his care (Matthew 25:19; Luke 19:15). This time may be long delayed, and in the meantime many abuses may grow up, and it may appear that no accounting will ever be demanded; these conditions are plainly pointed out by Jesus in the parables of the vineyard (Luke 20: 9-16) and the tares (Matthew 13:24-30), but it is also made equally clear that in the end every man's work shall be judged. In this reckoning there can be no making of things appear as they are not. There can be no juggling with the accounts. Every business man must show his books (Revelation 20:12) and how he has dealt with that which was entrusted to his care (1 Corinthians 3:11-15; Romans 2:16; Matthew 25:31-46). It is the looking forward to the time of reckoning which makes men, who are in offices of earthly trust, pay careful attention to the investment of funds and painstakingly investigate the security offered. Jesus would have every man equally careful in the investment of his time, labour, talent and money for he will surely be called upon to give an account of his stewardship. In the uncertainty of the time of reckoning every business man is expected to be ready for an investigation at any time when the examiner shall appear (Matthew 24:42-51; Mark 13:34-37; 1 Thessalonians 5:6). The Profit of business done, as a service in the sight of God, is declared to be sure and large. Whatever sacrifices may have to be made will be more than amply repaid (Matthew 19:27,29; Luke 19: 16-19). It is a well-known fact that, in the business world at large, there is a very great percentage of failures and too many mark not only wrecks of business, but of characters. The reason often given is that the eye is fixed too frequently and earnestly on immediate and large profits for self. But no man ever yet made a failure who openly and honestly sought in his business to be of service to God and his fellow men. Real failure in business is a failure in character. A business man may be carried down by unexpected circumstances or the fall of other firms but, if he keeps his character intact, he is no failure; on the other hand a man who has taken a selfish advantage of others may be made rich in goods, but he is a rank failure in character. The standard of character in business is after all that by which the small or the large dealer in any kind of goods is judged, and by business men themselves; business transactions are constantly being raised to a higher level by the enforcement of this standard. PRINCIPLES If employers and employees are ever to be brought into harmony, strikes and lockouts abolished, the industrial forces attain to their highest efficiency and the products of the world distributed with the utmost facility, it must all come about not by the invoking of courts of law, but by the bringing in of a new sentiment and the adoption of certain principles. A sentiment is at the base of the present troubles and, until it is changed, they will be likely to continue and the world at large will suffer the consequences. So long as men think only of the inequalities of life--and there are glaring inequalities--the unfair distribution of wealth and the comparatively obscure positions which they hold, they will be discontented and will fight to better themselves, no matter who suffers. The spirit of discontent and contention finds lodgment in the heart of the humblest working man, up through all grades, to that of the richest employer, for no man, however wealthy, ever thinks he has enough of this world's goods; those who have the most are often the most eager in grasping for more. Courts of law can only regulate the more flagrant outbursts of the prevailing sentiment, they do not and cannot remedy the causes. What are some of the principles which are destined to help the industrial world out of its difficulties? The Observance of the Golden Rule.--"Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them" (Matthew 7:12). Just before giving this rule Jesus was speaking of a man whose chief object was to serve God (Matthew 6:33) and in the beginning of the Sermon on the Mount, He showed the blessedness of the character which was to be sought (Matthew 5:1-16), before this rule could be rightly carried into practice in any life. "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (Matthew 22:39) is in the same line of thought as this rule, but, and here is the point, we do not want certain men to love us as they love themselves, the thief, the gambler, the drunkard, and we do not want them to do to us as they do to themselves. In order then that this rule be rightly observed there must be first an avowed allegiance to God. "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God" (Matthew 22:37) precedes the command to "Love thy neighbour." It is only when men love God aright and obey His commandments that they can come into proper relations with their neighbours. Hence, in seeking God first and obeying the Golden Rule, the whole outlook of employer and employee will be changed, the attention will not be fixed upon the inequalities of life or the making of a fortune, but upon the desire to be of service; each man will look into his work to improve it and seek to help his neighbour; whatever the compensation, he will seek to do his best, serving as in the sight of God. "A just consideration of the rights of others is the very beginning and end of true social economy." It is difficult to enforce any law which works against a public sentiment, but let the latter be in favour of the former and the law will enforce itself. Let the sentiment in the industrial business world be in favour of a supreme service and the difficulties and trials of strikes and lockouts would disappear; the energy, time and money now spent in fighting could be turned to the benefit of employer, employee and consumer. Cooperation.--Jesus never set class over against class. He mingled with the wise and the unwise, the rich and the poor. He sought to draw men together in a common brotherhood; this brotherhood was not composed of employers or of men who worked at a certain trade but of those who sought to build up the kingdom of righteousness. There is cooperation to-day amongst men but it is the coming together to build up some trade and make it strong that it may contend more stoutly for its rights. There have been various attempts for the federation of unions, but they have too often been for the purpose of coercing a like federation of employers' unions into taking a desired course of action. The world awaits a cooperation of all men in the business world upon the basis of love for each other and seeking for the best interests of all concerned. This again is a sentiment but it is one which must work against the prevailing sentiment of selfishness and looking out for self alone, if ever a better state of things is to be brought about. The Acceptance of Jesus Christ as the Great Example and Leader.--No man was ever so marvellously endowed with power as Jesus, yet that power was used for the good of mankind. He said "All power is given to Me in heaven and in earth" (Matthew 28:18). He made it a proof of His business on earth that the blind received their sight, the lame walked, the lepers were cleansed, the deaf heard, the dead were raised (Matthew 11:2-6). The man who follows Christ is the one who makes his business minister to the wants of men and helps them to better conditions, whether he be ruler or ruled. The glory is that, to-day, there are many men who are trying conscientiously, in the ranks of the employers and employees, to carry out the Golden Rule, cooperate with their fellow men and to follow Christ in His business of ministering to men. QUESTIONS What can be said of the ideal in the business world; fight or service? What can be said of the ownership of property? Who is the owner of all? Who is a tenant at the will of God? What can be said of man as a trustee? What can be said of a man's right to hold property? What can be said of the reckoning? What of the profit? What are some of the principles which can help the business world out of its difficulties; the observance of the Golden Rule, cooperation, the acceptance of Jesus Christ as the Great Leader and Example? STUDY XII THE CHRISTIAN SOCIETY Scripture references: Matthew 13:31-33; 5:21-24; Mark 8:1-9; John 2:1-11; Luke 5:29; 14:13; 1 Peter 2:17; Galatians 6:9; Matthew 11:28-30; 12:50; Luke 15:5,6,8-10; John 17:11-15; Luke 5:29,30; Mark 1:28-33; Matthew 6:33; Luke 12:13-15. THE SOCIAL CIRCLE The Word Society is used to designate the set of people with whom we are on more intimate terms of acquaintanceship--whom we call friends--and those whom we do not know so well, and whom we call acquaintances. The term society may also have other definitions, such as, "1. A collective body of persons composing a community, or the aggregate of such communities. 2. A body of persons associated for a common object. 3. The more favoured class or classes, or the fashionable portion of the community." The Extent of the social circle of any man or woman is largely dependent upon personal choice. There are persons who are exclusive in their preferences and who seek only the society of those of the same rank, wealth or profession as themselves. Hence the different classes in society at large. The pride of the poor often equals the pride of the rich in this matter. The Character of a social circle is also dependent upon the convictions and opinions of those who compose it. There is a social conscience which is very lax in one group and will allow almost any departure from the moral law, but in another group it is very strict in its requirements. The social conscience is constantly weakened in one case by persons joining the first group, who are weak in moral principle; and as constantly strengthened by those, joining the second group, who are strong in the things which make for a right life. The Example of Christ.--When Christ came upon earth He found that the rich and educated classes had largely withdrawn from all intercourse with those whom they considered beneath them. He also saw that the tone of society was arrogant and that of moral restraint there was none at all or it was exceedingly weak. The situation was such that many men despaired of anything better and were secluding themselves from intercourse with their fellow men. John the Baptist felt that he could not stem the tide of evil in society and retired to the desert to deliver his message. Those who contend for the regeneration of a corrupt society, and who are decidedly in the minority, always are prone to step outside and seek to do their work there, and sometimes it may be the best to do so. Jesus however entered into the midst of society. He went to feasts (Luke 5:29,30; 7:36; 19:5). He was present at a wedding (John 2: 1-11). He said that the kingdom of God was like unto ten virgins who prepared to attend a wedding (Matthew 25:1-13). So constantly did He enter into social intercourse with men that the Pharisees and the scribes criticised Him severely for it (Luke 15:2) but Jesus justified His course in being "social to save" by the three parables; the lost sheep, the lost coin and the lost boy (Luke 15:1-24). He gave a great feast at which about five thousand men were present besides women and children (Matthew 14:15-21). He told what garments a guest should wear at a wedding, what seat he should take and who should be invited (Matthew 22:11-14; Luke 14:7-24). He did not wait for men to come to Him, but He went out to meet them by the seaside, and in the city. He sent His disciples out also that He through them might do as wide a work as possible. There is no trace of the recluse in Jesus. He desired to meet people of all classes and mingle with them. At the last He gathered His disciples about Him, in an upper room, and instituted a memorial supper as the chief ordinance of His church (Luke 22:19; Matthew 26:26-30). Everything that Jesus did in meeting people in a social way had a purpose and that was to level up society and cause it to conform to the principles of the kingdom of God. Wherever He went He led the conversation to the better things of this kingdom. The man who quotes Jesus and His relation to society, as a justification of attendance upon numerous social functions, ought also to carry out the purpose of Jesus in bringing others to a better life; he ought also to lead the conversation to the same topics. If society sways any man from the right purposes of life, and he finds that he cannot breast its temptations he should remain out of it or increase his spiritual strength. The Christian Society, composed of a body of persons associated for the common object of exploiting Jesus Christ and His principles, at first was almost wholly social. The early Christians met in each others' houses. They partook of meals in common after which they observed the Lord's supper. The basis of organization was the fraternal equality of believers. The barriers between the rich and the poor, the learned and the unlearned, seemed to drop of themselves. No pressure was brought to bear to force men together in this fraternal organization, but they were united by a common love for Jesus Christ, their Lord, and like Him they were at home in all social circles. No law, no urgency of appeal, no pressure, can to-day abolish class distinctions or the conflict between capital and labour. It is only when men's hearts are filled with love for Christ that they cease to antagonize and begin to care for each other and a true social bond is formed. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS "There is no problem of importance to humanity which has not some relation to the Gospel of Christ." There is a social question and it is a live question. It is closely related to the wrongs and inequalities of life, in wealth, in position, in privileges and in opportunities. There is a social impulse which causes men to get together in smaller and larger groups and through these groups to found institutions which will aid in abolishing the wrongs and in lessening the inequalities. It is in and through social institutions that the larger life of the individual is expressed and he is able to bring about certain results, working in connection with other individuals, which he alone could not bring to pass. In the social organism there is specialization of work, one member performing one function and another another and all working in harmony for a common purpose (1 Corinthians 12:14-27). There are three great social institutions through which men seek the larger life, the family, the church, and the state. They exist in some form, elementary and crude it may be, wherever man is found. Christianity entering into all human relations, has much to say about their construction and specific powers and duties. Its mission is not only to regenerate the heart of the individual but to penetrate and transform society. "Its work is to leaven the whole mass of human interests with a divinely purifying power. It touches every act and every relation of humanity with a life from above, and interpenetrates all that a man can do with a new spirit and a heavenly light. It affects governments, moulds education, rectifies manners, sweetens fellowship, makes the common ways of men better, healthier, happier, as well as holier. Its endeavour is to realize a divine society not hereafter only, but upon earth; to have the kingdom of God come not in the skies alone or in the future merely, but here and among men." The Family.--This is the earliest and most primitive social institution. We are all born into some family, however imperfect its form. Upon the family depends in large measure the good or bad training of the children; here they receive their earliest impressions and what they are taught in the family often dominates all other instruction. If the bond between husband and wife is not regarded as binding and sacred the institution of the family becomes corrupt and a menace to the good order of society. Jesus spoke in no uncertain way about the sacredness of the marriage relation (Matthew 19:3-9; 5:32) and the obedience which children owed to their parents (Matthew 15:4-6). The Church.--Man has been called "a religious animal." His desire to worship is instinctive. He seeks the care and protection of a stronger power than himself. Even a man who says he has no religious opinions will often be found, when questioned, to hold most strongly to things which he believes. Individuals, then holding to certain religious beliefs, naturally come together and form groups in which they worship in common. This is the social impulse applied to worship, because man likes to do things in connection with his fellow men. Christ sought to direct men to the proper object of worship (John 4: 23,24; 14:6-11), the way to pray (Matthew 6:5-15), the way to enter into life with God (John 3:1-21) and the character which was required of those who desired to lead the divine life (Matthew 5:1-16; chapters 5-7). Men who believe in the principles of Jesus Christ associate themselves together in a Christian church. The Government.--Everywhere we find men uniting for mutual protection against their enemies, the guarding of property, the settling of disputes between individuals, the administration of justice and the exercise of other powers. This government may take different forms from the one man power in a monarchy to that of the most liberal democracy. The necessity for some form of government seems plain. Christ recognized the duties which a man owed to the state when He said, in answer to the lawyer's question, "Is it lawful to give tribute unto Caesar, or not?" "Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's; and unto God the things that are God's." He saw the corruption in the government of His times as plainly as any one, more plainly in fact, but He was showing the necessity of the functions of government. He submitted to the decree of the state condemning Him to death although He knew it to be unjust, and that the power was not with Pilate (John 19:10,11; Matthew 26:52,53). What Jesus sought to do was to usher in a new kingdom of righteousness. He taught His disciples to pray for the coming of this kingdom upon earth. "Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven." He was continually speaking of this kingdom (Matthew 13:24-52). He declared that all nations should come to Him finally to be judged (Matthew 25:31,32). One great theme of the prophets of the Old Testament was the righteousness, purity and justice of the new government which God desires to set up amongst men. Social damage comes to men and great evil is done to individuals when social institutions are not patterned after the plans given by Christ; these are divine institutions when they seek to approach to the divine ideal. Much of the unquiet and restlessness of the masses of men to-day and the great wrongs in the world are due to the tampering with the marriage relation, the substitution of the worship of wealth and worldly power for God, and the seeking of government positions, not to be of service to men under God but to rule over men. Social health and vigour will come in the family, church and government when men turn again to God and obey and serve Him through the social institutions with supreme love and enthusiasm for His service. SOCIAL AIMS In Socialism.--There are many schemes presented to-day under the broad term of Socialism which have for their proposed end the betterment of the people, the abolishment of all wrongs and the bringing in of a new order of things; where every man shall do a minimum amount of work and receive a large return for what he does. These plans vary from the mildest of reforms--and from "the public collective ownership of land and capital and the public collective management of all industries" with the recognition of certain private rights--to the taking of all land and capital absolutely from private control, the abolishing of the right to hold private property, the giving up of the marriage relation, the suppression of the church and the renunciation of the government. The trouble with extreme schemes of this sort is that they seek in the end to abolish the individual and private rights, even in marriage. But all social and moral health and wealth is but the aggregate of individual health and wealth. No community and no class of men are better than the men who compose them. If there are evils in the present system they would continue, in a magnified form, in the new. There is here the old political fallacy, made over into a new social fallacy, that by mere putting of the ballot into every man's hands the government would be purified of all its evils. We must begin with the individual to purify him before the state or society can be made much better. It is the levelling down, the bringing the better working man to the rate of work and quality of the poorer, which is sought, rather than the levelling up. The common goods scheme was tried early in the career of the Christian Church and it failed to work because of the element of selfishness which came in (Acts 2: 44,45; 4:34; compare 5:1-11); this has been the cause of the breaking up of numerous social and communistic settlements and communities. In Christianity.--When the precepts of Christianity have been accepted and lived up to by any man or company of men, they have never failed to stand all the social tests which have been applied to them. They seek the regeneration of the individual and the purification and usefulness, for him, of all the social institutions. They endeavour to abolish evil desires and practices in the individual and all social, industrial and political wrongs. They give full play to all man's powers in private and in public matters. They have never been proved inadequate to their task, but they have found much refractory material with which to deal. They level up not down and seek for every man a new moral and physical life; they present before him the very highest ideals of life and service. It is a fact that it is only where their light shines that the working man has anything like decent wages or hours of labour. In China, India and Africa we find the labourer gets little or nothing for his toil. It is only in Christian countries that we have anything approaching true social equality, in others no man may rise out of his caste or class. Take the United States and we find that a number of our presidents have come from the poorest families and most of our influential and wealthy men have risen from the ranks of the common people. It is the lack of Christian principles in individual, industrial and public life which is at the bottom of the present day social unrest. In Christ, the Social Reformer.--When He came upon the earth and before His time all labour was performed by slaves without pay and with but a dole of food. The mighty buildings of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Greece and Rome were all built by the unrequited toil of slaves. Such would have continued to be the state of things had not Christ said, "The labourer is worthy of his hire" (Luke 10:7; Matthew 10:10). That a working man should receive wages or any pay for his labour was revolutionary in that time for "Plato, Cicero, Lycurgus held that it was a disgrace to touch the implements of toil." Christ dignified labour by toiling at the bench as a carpenter. If ever labour is to gain any real advantage it must be through taking Christ as a leader (Matthew 11:28). He taught that the true bond of social equality was a moral and spiritual one (Luke 8:21; Matthew 23:8; Philippians 3:13-15; 4:8). In the Social Settlement.--What is a true social settlement? This question is not so easily answered. There are all kinds and sorts of social settlements. Some minister to the health of the community in which they are situated and some do not. The saloon has recently put forth its claim to the doing of social service, but no one ever slandered a saloon keeper by affirming that he had anything in view save a selfish motive. Whatever little social service he may render is more than counterbalanced by the social havoc wrought by his trade. Again there are social settlements where the principal thought and effort seems to be to provide somewhat questionable vaudeville entertainments and frequent public dances; the leaders say they are compelled to adopt these features to hold the people; here comes in again the question of social damage to the community in which they are situated. The true social settlement, with all its features of mental and physical culture, is one which places Christ at the front of all its work and keeps Him there. It is Christ and Christ alone who can really help the individual and the community and there are numbers of social settlements where Christ is kept at the head of the work. The church has changed its methods very much during the past few years. Seldom is a church now built which does not have its well appointed kitchen, dining-room and parlours and other social equipments. It is according as a church uses these adjuncts, whether they really help it, or not, to do its work. The church is powerful as a force for social betterment not as it does or does not open its doors to lecturers, plan social entertainments, give dinners and hold festivals--these may be helps--but in so far as it sways the inner life of the community. This inner life, influenced in right ways, finds expression in a better individual, home and community standard. This standard makes for the uplifting of the social state outside as well as inside the church. The principle is, not social for the sake of being social, but "social to save." It is quite certain that unless the church sets up its ideals in the community, a worldly community will set up its ideals in the church. The more spiritual a church as a social settlement is the stronger the social bond becomes between rich and poor, the learned and the unlearned. BROTHERHOOD The Christian Social Brotherhood is not a brotherhood of a class but of all classes and conditions of men. To-day the popular idea of brotherhood is the association of men of a certain trade. There is a strong tendency for social groups to be formed, which are exclusive of all who do not conform to a certain standard in the industrial world and inclusive of all who do. The members are looking for protection and mutual benefit. Christ said of His brotherhood, "One is your Master, even Christ and all ye are brethren.... One is your Father which is in heaven" (Matthew 23:8,9). We find here the great principle laid down that there can be no true brotherhood without a common fatherhood. Christians are brothers because they have a common "Master" and "Father" hence they seek to do good not only to the members of the brotherhood but to all men, because God is the Father of all. It is this thought that is to bring men up out of their selfishness. The employer and employee will strive to do all they can for each other when deep down in their hearts they believe they are brethren in Christ; we shall hear no more then of injustice upon either side. The church of Jesus Christ holds the only solution to the peaceful and happy settlement of the social unrest. QUESTIONS What can be said of the social circle, what does the word society signify? What is the extent of any social circle, the character? What can be said of the example of Christ in society, the Christian society? What can be said of social institutions; the family, the church, the government? What can be said of social aims; Socialism, Christianity, Christ, the social reformer, the church as a social settlement? What can be said of the Christian social brotherhood? STUDY XIII THE CHRISTIAN STATE Scripture references: Matthew 22:17-22; 17:24-27; Acts 23:5; John 6:15; Matthew 4:8-10; John 18:36-38; Mark 14; 61,62; John 18:33; 19:19; Isaiah 9:6,7; 60:3; Zechariah 9:10; Daniel 7:14; Matthew 26:64; 26:53,54; 16:16,17; 25:31,32. CHRIST AND THE STATE The Relation of Christ to the State.--He was an intense patriot. He loved His country. The names of His great countrymen, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joshua and David, were ever on His lips. He offered Himself as the national Messiah (Matthew 21:1-17), He was rejected (John 18:38-19:16; Luke 23:27-30; 13:34) and crucified (John 19:18), after He had been unjustly condemned to death both by the Jewish and Roman authorities. Upon the cross and over His head was placed the inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth the King of the Jews." What Jesus Taught About the State.--The ancient idea of the state was that it was everything and the individual nothing. The first question was, "Is the state strong and prosperous?" The happiness or unhappiness of the individual was not considered. The purity or impurity of the life of the individual was of little consequence. The citizens existed for the state and to serve it and its ruler. This idea has lingered long and is not entirely yet extinct. 1. Jesus discovered the individual in the state. He taught that the soul of one man is worth more than the whole world (Matthew 16:26). Jesus put the individual first and the state second. This teaching was entirely new and revolutionary. Christ's principle was make the man, the unit, right and the state will be right. He insisted that the test of the state is the kind of individuals it produces (Matthew 7:16). "By their fruits ye shall know them" (Matthew 7:20). Formerly the state was thought of as an institution to minister to the comfort or happiness of the ruler or ruling class. Christ reversed this when He declared that rulers existed to serve the state. He said, "Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles exercise dominion over them, and they that are great exercise authority upon them. But it shall not be so among you, but whosoever will be great among you let him be your minister; and whosoever will be chief among you let him be your servant. Even as the Son of Man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister and to give His life a ransom for many" (Matthew 20: 25-28). He is the greatest in the state who renders the greatest service. 2. "He laid the foundation of a true state." In the time of Christ the common people had no choice in the selection or election of any officer of the state, of high or low position. Popular government in any form was unknown. If things went wrong people must endure them. When Jesus laid the responsibility upon the individual He made a basis for a popular government of some form. If things are not right now in a Christian state the people have the power of protest and change. It is for the people to send their representatives to the legislature, to congress, to parliament, etc., and to make and alter the laws when new laws or changes are needed. 3. He was a civil reformer from the inside. Jesus taught the necessity for the moral and spiritual regeneration of men before much could be done by the state in weeding out its evils. He saw plainly the folly of trying to transform the character of the state solely by the coercive power of law. "Satan tempted Him to take the short cut,--seize power over men and then change the character in men (Matthew 4:8). To have become the kind of a king the Galileans proposed in John 6:15 would have frustrated His mission. He sought in society and politics what He sought in each man's life (Matthew 12:36; 23:26; Luke 6:45; John 10:10). Jesus was a true reformer." 4. Jesus taught obedience to the state and Himself strictly observed what He taught. He paid His taxes (Matthew 17:24-27). He declared that it was lawful to give tribute to Caesar (Matthew 22:15-21). When He was unlawfully arrested, on a trumped up charge, He made no resistance (John 18:1-9); this was not because He was not able to do so, for He could have summoned more than twelve legions of angels to aid Him (Matthew 26:53). Jesus thoroughly understood the corruption of His times, and the character of the rulers. He said of Herod, when it was told Him that he would kill Him, "Go ye and tell that fox, Behold, I cast out devils and do cures to-day and to-morrow, and the third day I shall be perfected" (Luke 13:32,33). He obeyed the law for a purpose and the bringing in of a new order of things--the abolition of force and the substitution for it of service in the kingdom of God. He suffered the Just for the unjust. He was a Martyr for His country. He died that it might live in a new order of men, under the banner of Christianity. 5. He taught the right principles upon which the universal state should be founded. Up to and at the time of Christ nations were separated from each other not only by natural boundaries of rivers, seas, plains, mountains, languages and racial differences but by religions. One people worshipped one set of gods, while another people bowed down to other gods. Jesus set forth the large ideal of uniting all races and all peoples in one great spiritual kingdom (John 18:37; Matthew 28:19,20; Acts 1:8; 17:24-27). It is only as different peoples and nations are united in a common religion that there can be a proper political federation or union (John 4:20-24; 10:16). Jesus taught His disciples to pray that God's kingdom, a reign of righteousness, justice and peace, might come, not to one people only, but to all peoples. This prayer, "Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is done in heaven" (Matthew 6:10) means that the earth and no one restricted part of it is to be occupied by the kingdom of God. Jesus looked beyond the Jewish state and the Roman state and saw the beginning of a kingdom of God which would embrace all nations. It is this kingdom which is to permeate, purify and control the governments of the earth. THE AUTHORITY The Source of Authority is in God. "There is no power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God" (Romans 13:1; Daniel 2:20,21; 4:32; Psalm 2). God is sovereign. He is the final basis of all authority. "Government has authority delegated to do its duties, but it has no inherent authority to do anything. God has inherent powers; institutions have that which is conferred upon them by law. Each one who exercises authority must derive it directly or indirectly from God" (Matthew 18:18; Daniel 7:13,14; Isaiah 9:6,7; Luke 10:22; John 3:35). This is one of the fundamental principles of the Christian state. This authority may be delegated to men and may be used rightly or it may be abused. In the Old and New Testaments it is distinctly taught that all nations--Christian and unchristian--are directly accountable to God. The Sanction of Authority is in the righteousness and justice of God. "Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right" (Genesis 18:25; Psalm 58:11; 67:7; 97:6; 9:8; 50:6; Proverbs 16:11,12; Romans 3:21,22)? The Old Testament prophets looked forward to the perfect state wherein righteousness and justice should rule. Sovereignty over a state may be initiated by force but it can never be made the permanent basis on which sovereignty rests. "States have been defrauded of their birthright with scarcely the grace of a contract for a mess of pottage, but the possession may be kept only by a return to justice. The strongest is not strong enough to be always master, unless he transform his strength into right and obedience to duty." THE LAW Reign of Law.--The philosopher, the natural scientist and the Christian theologian all believe that we live in a universe governed by law. Certain natural scientists may believe that the law is impersonal in its origin, but the Christian theologian believes that the origin of law, and the carrying it out, is "the expression of the will of a personal God." Law has been defined, as the necessary relations which pertain to the nature of things. When men come to associate themselves in a state they find it necessary to define and formally set forth their relations by certain enactments for the general good, which are called laws. But these laws naturally will be the expression of, and will rise no higher than, the social conscience of the people. The revealed will of God in regard to men and their political relations to each other, as given in the Scriptures, presents high ideals, which, if realized, go to make the perfect state (Micah 6:8). The Old Testament prophets were continually presenting these divine ideals of the state to the people of Israel and urging them to accept them. Christ had much to say about the higher political relations of men. Paul in his epistles also had much to say upon this topic. Moses urged not only the keeping of the provisions of the ceremonial, but also the moral and civil laws (Deuteronomy 6:1-9; Exodus 25:40; Joshua 1:7; Exodus 13:9; Nehemiah 9:13; Psalm 1:2; Isaiah 1:10-17; Jeremiah 8:7,8; Daniel 9:10,11; Matthew 5:17; 22:36-40; Hebrews 8:10; Titus 3:1,2; Ezra 7:25). God is the Lord of all nations and they are to be judged according to His law (Psalm 2; 47:2,3; Malachi 1:14; Psalm 67:4; Matthew 28:19; 25:32; Romans 16:26). The End of the Law is to make a holy nation, wherein righteousness shall reign. The effort of the Mosaic law was to make Israel a "holy nation." Even sanitary and dietary laws were not laid down as such but were made the distinctive marks of the consecrated life of a chosen people; details of ritual were prescribed to express the sense of the holiness of God in whose service they were exercised (Exodus 19:6). "And ye shall be holy unto Me; for I the Lord am holy, and have severed you from other people, that ye should be Mine" (Leviticus 20:26; Deuteronomy 7:6; 26:19; 28:9; Isaiah 62:12; 1 Corinthians 3:17). The effort of Christianity, under the leadership of Christ, is not only to perfect the church, but also the state. In so far as the principles of Christianity prevail amongst the people they reflect themselves in the laws of the state. In a community which is thoroughly Christian it is impossible for certain evil institutions to maintain themselves. The Duty of the Christian Citizen is to recognize the state, to give it loyal support and obedience and to seek to make its law conform to the law ordained by God. No man ought to hold himself aloof from the political interests of his community or country. In many towns and cities where Christian public sentiment has secured the passage of excellent laws for the suppression of certain evils, the evils flourish in spite of the good laws because they are not strongly supported by that sentiment which secured their passage. Never was there a time when the highest type of Christian citizenship, setting forth the ideals of Christ, was more needed than at the present day. The outlook for any true national greatness must necessarily be from an ethical and Christian standpoint, bringing to the front the principles of love, loyalty, service and sacrifice. FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSE Functions.--The Christian state is continually widening its sphere of care and action over and for the individual. It not only assumes the protection of life and property, but provides schools, from the primary grade to great universities; it cares for the sick and mentally deficient; it provides food, clothing and shelter for the destitute poor, it supervises the morals of the people, and enforces sanitary regulations. The more thoroughly Christian the state the more it seeks the betterment of the individual. The less Christian the state the less it cares for the good of the individual and the more it seeks to oppress and to use him as its slave. Purpose--This is the realization of the kingdom of God on earth. The Christian is working for a state, where the principles of justice and brotherly love shall prevail. QUESTIONS Christ and the state; what was His relation to the state? What did He teach about the state? What did Jesus teach about the individual and his relation to the state? In what way did He lay the foundation of the true state? In what respect was He a civil reformer? What did Jesus teach about obedience to the state? What did He teach about the universal state and the principles upon which it should be founded? What is the source of authority for the state? Give the sanction of its authority. What can be said of the law of the state, the reign of law, definition, end of the law and the duty of the Christian citizen? Give the functions and purpose of the Christian state. STUDY XIV THE CHRISTIAN'S HOPE Scripture references: 1 Timothy 1:1; Colossians 1:27; Psalm 130:5; 43:5; Proverbs 10:8; Acts 24:15; Psalm 71:5; Romans 5:1-5; 12:12; 15:4; 1 Corinthians 9:10; Galatians 5:5; Ephesians 1:18; Philippians 1:20; Colossians 1:5; 1 Thessalonians 1:3; 2:19; Titus 1:2; 2:13; 3:7; Psalm 31:24; 71:14,15. HOPE IN THE PRESENT LIFE That which a man ardently hopes for he strives to realize. If he desires fame, office or wealth he will seek to set forces in motion, here and now, which will bring him that which his soul covets. Back of every man's striving there is always some hope, an ideal, which he endeavours to make a reality. The man who enthusiastically believes in Jesus Christ cherishes the hope that every man may be brought to believe in his Lord and Master (Acts 26:27-29). He wants to see Christ not only rule and reign in the life to come, but in this present life. The urgency of the New Testament appeals to men is to, at once, believe in Jesus Christ, and to begin to live the Christian life (Acts 16:31-33; 2 Corinthians 6:1-10; Galatians 2:20). The attempt was made by the early preachers of Christianity to bring about upon the earth a new order of things. They prayed and laboured for the immediate conversion of men's souls and the betterment of the conditions under which men lived. A new kingdom (Matthew 10:32-42; Mark 1:14,15) was inaugurated with new ideals (Matthew 5:1-16), new principles and new aspirations, which was to supersede the old social and political orders. It was the preaching of this kingdom of Christ, and that men owed their first allegiance to it (Acts 5:28,29), which provoked the terrible persecutions of the first centuries. Christianity has much to do with this present life, it has a panacea for all its ills and evils and it has a certain definite programme to carry out. The Christian hopes and works for: The Regeneration of the Individual through faith in Christ (John 3:5,14-21). This is an inward change wrought in the soul by the grace of God. While this is a work of God, the responsibility for it rests with man. God does not desire the death of the sinner. By the sending of Jesus Christ God has shown His love for man while yet a sinner. Every unregenerate man either does not desire this new life or else feels that he never sought with all his heart to have God regenerate his soul (John 5:40; 1:4; 5:24; Isaiah 1:18). The regenerate man in Christ thinks and acts from a new basis (2 Corinthians 5:17; Galatians 6:15). It is only as the love of a man's heart is really changed and centred upon right things that he can be depended upon to walk in right ways. A man may act right, may be honest and upright from prudential motives, but if his heart is evil the way of the righteous will be irksome to him and he may depart from it at any time. The unmasking of the double life of a man, every now and then, shows how the heart's desire will have its way with a man who does not love God. Heart faith in Christ leads a man to follow and be like Him. Hence we have such a large emphasis placed upon work for and with the individual by Christ and His disciples. Christ Himself called His apostles to Him one by one and He was continually holding conversations of the deepest interest with individuals (John 3:1-13; 4:6-26). The possibilities of the work of the individual Christian for the individual non-Christian man are too largely left untried. If every follower of Christ should try to win one, who did not follow Him, to His cause every year the good effects of such a campaign would be felt not only in the church, but in every department of life. All true reform work must begin with the regeneration of the individual. The Enlightenment of the Social Conscience.--There is such a thing as a social conscience. It is possible to say and do things in certain communities which would not be tolerated in others. One town will not only sanction the liquor business within its boundaries but will resist all efforts to abolish it; another town right beside it will have none of this iniquitous traffic. Lawlessness and immorality find a hearty welcome in certain cities and in others they dare not show themselves. All this is due not to the perfection or the imperfection of the laws or to the large number or small number of men upon the police force, but to an evil, an apathetic or an enlightened social conscience. The progress of the gospel of Christ is often hindered or prevented by a hostile public sentiment (Matthew 13:58; 17:20; 10:14; Luke 10:10-12). When Christ sent forth His twelve disciples He recognized the strong opposition which their message and mission would often meet and said, "Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves; be ye therefore wise as serpents and harmless as doves" (Matthew 10:16). The disciples were taught to expect social ostracism and private and public persecution (Matthew 10:17-26). There were times when they were to flee before the gathering storm of opposition and there were times in which they were to maintain their position to the death, but even if they fled (Matthew 10:23) they were not to cease to preach the gospel. It is the duty and the right of Christians not only to seek for the regeneration of individuals, but also to protest and work against social and political wrongs and to seek to create and strengthen a strong public Christian sentiment. The Church of Christ should be the conservator and promoter of high moral ideals in every city and town where it has a name and place and seek to extend its good influence into regions where it has no standing. Better Conditions of Living.--The Bible is always upon the side of the oppressed and down-trodden. No laws ever enacted by any nation ever made it so easy for the working man as the Mosaic ordinances; every seventh day (Exodus 20:9,10) was a day of rest; there were seven feasts in seven months which called for many other days of rest; every seventh year (Leviticus 25:2-7) was a rest year; and every fiftieth year (Leviticus 25:10-17) was one of rest and restitution. Christ everywhere championed the cause of the poor and the heavy burdened (Matthew 9:36; 11:28-30; 11:4,5). But the Bible also clearly sets forth the fact that little can be done towards bettering even the material conditions of living when men's hearts are not right towards God. If a man lets the spirit of avarice reign over him, no matter how much money he may have he will still want more and he will not care whom he oppresses to get it. If the spirit of a purely worldly pleasure rules him his money will go into a bottomless pit and he will not care whom he makes suffer to get more money to gratify his insatiable desires. Better material conditions of work and living can only come from the adoption of high moral and spiritual standards and in advocating these the Christian Church to-day is the truest friend of the oppressed. The Maintenance of Law and Order.--It is not an unusual thing for political parties to elect men to offices of trust and then to have these same men refuse to enforce the laws which they have sworn to uphold. In consequence we have all kinds of abuses and evils growing up in the body politic. Too often the political race is for the honour and the spoils of position. Outside the political arena stands the Christian Church and it can, if it will, demand that clean and upright men, whatever the issues of the parties may be, be placed in nomination. Here Christians may hold the balance of power. If their loyalty is to Christ first of all they will vote for no man for any office who is known to be of an evil character. The maintenance of law and order depends in large measure, in any community, upon the Christian sentiment of that community. The Turning of the World to Christ.--The Christian's hope is that Christ may be Lord of and dominate the individual and the home life, the social, the business and the political worlds, as well as the ecclesiastical. The worship of God in Christ ought not to be only upon a particular day or in a certain place, but upon all days and in every place men should lift up their hearts to Him (John 4:21-24). If He is Lord of all (John 1:1-14; 14:9-13) He should be Lord of all; there is no matter too small and none too great to bring before Him. When Christ said, "Go ye therefore and teach all nations ... teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you" (Matthew 28:19,20) He meant that His teachings should be dominant over all the earth and in every department of life. And for this we pray "Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done in earth as it is in heaven" (Matthew 6:10). It is only as this kingdom shall come in power that we can expect to better the conditions under which men live and work. HOPE IN THE FUTURE LIFE Christianity is not small in its anticipations, its desires, its aspirations and its plans. It speaks of a large hope for the future, so large that many men fail to comprehend its magnificence (John 11:23-26; Mark 16:11). It declares that while the body may be placed in the grave, the real man never dies. Man in all that he thinks and does lives with two worlds plainly in view, the one that now is and the one which is to come. The disciples immediately after the ascension of Christ began to preach and teach the resurrection from the dead (Acts 2:30-32; 3:15; 4:10,33; 1 Corinthians 15:1-8). They used this fact of the resurrection as a reason for the belief in Christ as the Saviour of men, a forsaking of sin and an incentive to a life of righteousness. They taught, as Jesus Himself did, that this life, no matter how great its opportunities, was but the vestibule to a new and larger life beyond the grave. It is better to sacrifice everything in this life, if necessary, rather than to miss the glory of the life to come (Matthew 5:29; 10:28; Mark 9:47). No good deed done in this life, in the name of Christ, can fail of large reward in the life to come (Matthew 19:28,29; 25:34-40). By this emphasis, which was laid upon the future life, the horizon of thought and action was marvellously widened. Men were taught no longer that they were to exist for a few years and then go out forever into the darkness of annihilation, good and bad alike, but that they were to live forever. Conscious Personal Existence of the soul after death. This fact is conspicuously taught in the Gospels, the Acts, the Epistles and Revelation. In the world to come people are not shades or ghosts, but they have certain bodies (1 Corinthians 15:44), they know themselves to be and are known as the same persons who once lived on the earth (Matthew 17:2-4; Luke 24:36-48; John 20:24-28; 11:25,26; Luke 16:19-31; 23:42,43). Christ said, "But as touching the resurrection of the dead have ye not read, that which was spoken unto you by God saying, I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob? God is not the God of the dead, but the living" (Matthew 22: 31,32). Eternal Citizenship in heaven. The aim of Christianity is to make men righteous. The abode of the blessed hereafter is one wherein dwells holiness, purity and truth. There are conditions and hindrances to the entering of the abode of the blessed. 1. Conditions. The great prerequisite to entering into the joy of heaven is righteousness, perfect obedience to the law of God. But every man of himself, when he enters into an honest self-examination, feels that he comes far short of the perfect keeping of the divine commands (1 John 1:8,9; Romans 3:23). He needs forgiveness for past disobedience, he needs help to lead a righteous life. Hence Jesus Christ, the divine Son of God, came that through His life and death we might receive pardon for past sin and help to live the righteous life (John 3:16-23). What man could not do for himself Jesus Christ does for him (Romans 3:20-26). The disciples of Christ were rightly enthusiastic in proclaiming Him as the propitiation for man's sin and belief in Him, with all that it implied, as the entrance gate into the heavenly life. Jesus said of Himself, "I am the way, the truth and the life; no man cometh unto the Father but by Me" (John 14:6). "In My Father's house are many mansions if it were not so I would have told you. I go to prepare a place for you. And if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and receive you unto Myself; that where I am, there ye may be also" (John 14:2,3). 2. Hindrances. The great hindrance to the entering of heaven is disobedience of God, not only acts of disobedience but a state of disobedience, where the soul of man desires to have no fellowship with God or His righteousness. There is a disobedience of God through carelessness, through ignorance and through willfulness; there is little hope for a man when he deliberately turns his back upon God. It is wonderfully shown in the Bible how God has sought to make Himself known to man and to save him here and hereafter. Every possible appeal has been made to man to turn to God. The Scriptures give no answer of hope for a happy hereafter for those who deliberately reject all of God's invitations and pleadings in this world (Matthew 25:46; Daniel 12:2; John 5:29; Romans 2:1-6). The Glory of Heaven.--The New Testament writers vie with each other in striving to make plain the glory of heaven. John describes it, in a vision, as a magnificent city of gold and precious stones, wherein can come no evil thing (Revelation, chapters 21,22). "And the city had no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to shine in it: for the glory of God did lighten it, and the Lamb is the light thereof. And the nations of them which are saved shall walk in the light of it: and the kings of the earth do bring their honour and glory into it" (Revelation 21:23,24). The real glory of heaven, however, is not in its outward adornment or pageantry, but in the triumph of righteousness and the supreme reward of constancy to the truth of God (Revelation 7:9-17). The holiness of God is vindicated (Revelation 4:8,9). "The tabernacle of God is with men" (Revelation 21:3,4), and every good deed stands out glorified in the clear white light of eternity. Every saint in heaven will feel that he has the hundredfold reward for all the sacrifices he made when upon the earth for the kingdom of God. The effort of the New Testament writers is to make the followers of Christ joyfully do their work here, much of which may be distasteful and difficult. "Looking unto Jesus the author and finisher of our faith; who for the joy that was set before Him endured the cross, despising the shame and is set down at the right hand of the throne of God" (Hebrews 12:2). It is worth while to work for a limited future earthly reward; it is much more worth while to work for a heavenly reward which shall endure throughout eternity. QUESTIONS What can be said of the Christian's hope in the present life? What is the regeneration of the individual through faith in Christ? What is meant by the enlightenment of the social conscience? How can better conditions of living be secured through Christ? How can law and order be maintained through the advancement of Christian principles? What is the Christian's hope in turning the world to Christ? What is the Christian's hope in the future life? What is meant by conscious personal existence after death, eternal citizenship, the glory of heaven? 
41505	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by tilde characters is in bold face (~bold~). PICTURE=WORK by WALTER L. HERVEY, Ph.D. New York Chicago Toronto Fleming H. Revell Company London and Edinburgh Copyright, 1896, by W. L. Hervey Copyright, 1908, by Fleming H. Revell Company CONTENTS. Page I. The Problem and One of Its Solutions 5 II. Types of Picture-Work 9 III. A Picture-Book, and How to Use It 22 IV. Side-Lights 26 V. Stories and Story-Telling 31 VI. Some First Principles: Unity, Reality, Order 44 VII. How to Learn How 56 VIII. Books, Pictures, and Illustrative Material 71 IX. False Picture-Work 82 X. A Coöperative Study 87 Picture=Work. I. THE PROBLEM AND ONE OF ITS SOLUTIONS. A friend of the writer, who has since attained to the dignity of a teacher of teachers, relates to the honor of his wise mother that when he was a boy she did not make him promise not to smoke or chew or play cards--probably compassing these ends in other ways--but she did exert her influence to lead him not to read Sunday-school books. For this warning, he says, he has never ceased to be thankful. In these days of supervising committees and selected lists, when standard literature, undiluted, has found its way into the Sunday-school library, such a course would not be warranted. But there are still thoughtful persons who do not feel that in the matter of Sunday-schools they are out of the woods yet. "Do you know anything about Sunday-schools?" was asked of one of these, a representative woman. "I'm sorry to say that I do," was the reply. And there are other signs that the number is increasing of those who believe that in the choice of a Sunday-school the greatest care must be exercised. Some there are, who, it may be through over-conscientiousness, are fain to give up the search in despair, preferring to teach their children at home. There is probably no other Sunday-school that, in point of order, quiet seclusion of classes, professional preparation of (paid) teachers, can compare with the "Religious School" of Temple Emanuel in New York City. But there is no intrinsic reason why the mechanical and pedagogical difficulties might not one day be as successfully removed everywhere as in this model school; and why they may not be removed in every grade. In the infant classes, through the beneficent influence of the kindergarten, there are already signs of promise. In the senior departments the problem is less complicated. But in the classes where is found "the restless, wide-awake, active, intense, ingenious, irrepressible boy," or "the girl who is just beyond girlhood and yet can scarcely be regarded as a woman," and her awkward, self-conscious, misunderstood brother--here the problem remains, and no one denies that it is a hard one. Who cannot at this moment see with his mind's eye a picture of such a class--on the one side a vision of inattention, insubordination, irreverence, on the other, incompetence, blindly, consecratedly, painfully doing his--or her--best? In all things relating to the common schools there is a quickening of popular interest and of professional spirit. The time is at hand when none but trained experts will be allowed to teach. Is the instruction and guidance of young minds in matters pertaining to the Heavenly Father and the things of the unseen world a task less difficult, delicate, important, than the teaching of arithmetic and geography? The question answers itself. It follows that the religious and moral instruction of our children will one day be put on a firmer and more scientific basis. In this reform there are three steps: the securing of proper external conditions for thought and feeling--in blunter words, the banishment of hubbub; the systematic training of the teacher; the enrichment of the lesson by giving to it reality, meaning, and life. The last of these ends is the only one here under consideration. To this end there are doubtless several ways. "Picture-work" is one of these, and, it is believed, one of high importance. That it is neglected is beyond question. To point out its value and set forth its method are the aims of this little book. II. TYPES OF PICTURE-WORK. In the Dresden Gallery, the writer once saw two children, brother and sister, one ten and the other twelve, looking at the Sistine Madonna. They entered the room, and without heeding the crowd there gathered, almost instantly fixed their gaze upon the picture. For many minutes they seemed to be under a spell. They were drinking in something. The great picture was speaking to them--to their very souls. And they understood something of its message. At all events they felt its influence--which is much better than merely to understand. More striking, because more unexpected, was the influence of a large copy of the same picture upon a little boy not two years and a half old. Although this child was passionately fond of pictures, no other picture ever seemed to appeal to him as this one did. As soon as it was brought into the house he instantly began to examine it, and pass judgment upon it. He at once found the center of interest, the young child and his mother, then pointed to the angels, the "grandfather," and lastly to the "lady," but returned always to the "dear little baby Jesus." From this time the story of the birth of Jesus was the one story most loved by the child. And a collection of thirty or more madonnas ("mother-pictures," the child called them) by other great masters was a never-failing source of delight to him. Even very young children appreciate the best pictures and the best stories. In fact the younger they are the better sometimes seems to be their taste. Are we doing all that we may to gratify, and at the same time to form, this taste? But our term, "picture-work," includes more than pictures painted with the brush. Literature is full of pictures no less beautiful in theme and in execution, and even more important in meaning, than Raphael's masterpiece. The story of the good bishop, Monseigneur Bienvenu, as it is told for us in "Les Miserables," is a picture, and so are all such stories. Literature is full of them. The Bible is a treasure-house of masterpieces. More wonderful, too, are these story pictures, just as they are, if told so that they can be seen and felt, than they could ever be made with brush or pencil. How may we gain the power to paint these pictures, helping when help is needed, standing aside when our bungling efforts would only destroy the interest and the charm--rub off, as it were, the delicate bloom? To give help in finding the answer to these questions is the object of the chapters that follow. Meanwhile we return to our present theme. What is picture-work? There is the main story and the telling of it--a work of art as we shall see--and there are also the side-lights, without which no story-teller can capture and hold his audience. The story to be told, let us say, is the healing of the paralytic. But before the story begins, the ground must be cleared. The oriental house and bed must be pictured. Get a real specimen of each, if you can, of course.[1] Provide yourself with pictures in any case, but first of all, make an eastern house and bed yourself. A square paper box--a hat box will do--with a hole cut in the top, ready to be torn up when the time comes; a stairway made of paper, leading up the outside of the house to the roof; a small piece of felt--an old bed-quilt will serve equally well--with strings tied in each end, for the bed, to show how a bed could be let down, rolled, and "taken up"; with these accessories the teacher is ready to begin the work of sketching the real picture, the story of the miracle. [1] See Chapter VIII., last heading. Not merely for children, but for grown folk too is this kind of picture-work a means of teaching. In a densely populated quarter of New York City there is to-day a minister who is not content with mere word-pictures. He brings into the pulpit the objects themselves--it may be a candle, a plumb line, a live frog, an air pump. With him the method is a success, as it has been with others. Does this seem crude? So are the mental processes of every forty-nine out of fifty the world over. Dr. Parkhurst in the second of those memorable sermons with which he opened the public campaign against Tammany, carried into the pulpit and showed his congregation the very bundle of indictments with which he was to strike the first blow for civic purity. Ezekiel went still further, and not only used objects but actions to enforce and illustrate his terrible sermon: "To the amazement of the people, setting them all awondering what he could mean, he appears one day before them with fire, a pair of scales, a knife, and a barber's razor. These were the heads, and doom was the burden of his sermon. Sweeping off, what an easterner considers it a shame to lose, his beard, and the hair also from his head, this bald and beardless man divides them into three parts; weighing them in the balance. One third he burns in the fire; one third he smites with the knife; and the remaining third he tosses in the air, scattering it on the winds of heaven." Thus the prophet under divine direction foretells the disgrace, division, destruction, dispersion of his people. Not less striking is the story of Jeremiah's dramatic sermon as graphically told by Dr. Guthrie, from whom the preceding account has been quoted: "The preacher appears--nor book, nor speech in hand, but an earthen vessel. He addresses his hearers. Pointing across the valley to Jerusalem, with busy thousands in its streets, its massive towers and noble temple glorious and beautiful beneath a southern sky, he says, speaking as an ambassador of God, 'I will make this city desolate and an hissing' ... pauses--raises his arm--holds up the potter's vessel, dashes it on the ground; and planting his foot on its shivered fragments, he adds, 'Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, even so will I break this people, and this city as one breaketh a potter's vessel.'" It may have been the inspiration of such examples as these that moved Beecher when, in the stirring days before the war upon the platform of Plymouth Church, after taking up one argument after another against abolition and answering it, he carried each one to the side of the platform and threw it over into the pile with its predecessors, saying, "That disposes of you." And in his famous Liverpool address, did he not, when speaking of the freeing of the slaves, throw down and trample upon actual chains? At the heart of even the boldest of such instances of picture-work, there lies a true and universal principle. And we may be sure that we are more likely to err on the side of stiffness and conventionality (which is often sheer laziness and ignorance), than on the side of reality and life. The unaided imagination--the power of the eyes to "see pictures while they're shut"--will, however, often serve us more safely, and not less surely. That was a vivid and memorable action-picture, drawn for us by Bishop Vincent, at a vesper service at the close of a Chautauqua Sabbath, in the "Hall in the Grove." "What if the Master himself were again on the earth at this hour, here at Chautauqua, and should come up the hill, through the trees yonder, and should stand between these pillars and speak to us now...." The picture was complete and irresistible. We all saw and realized all that we needed to see and feel, in order to receive the lesson that followed. But the imagination must be strengthened and fed by plenty of sense material. It can be trusted to respond with its pictures, provided it has been given material enough and provided these materials are skilfully brought to mind. In the following extract from the wonderful "Story of Jesus,"[2] which should be in the hands of every parent and teacher, we find a type of picture-work which illustrates this point, for it quickens and makes many calls upon the imagination: "Imagine traveling through a state no larger than Vermont, and finding not only apples and pears, quinces and plums, waving corn-fields, maples and cedars, but orange-trees fragrant with snowy blossoms, and heavy with golden fruit in January; figs and dates, pomegranates and bananas--all within a day's journey! The fields over which you pass glow like gorgeous Persian carpets...." This is a part of the author's picture of Palestine. [2] See Chapter VIII. And here is a bit of Archdeacon Farrar's graphic word-picture of Nazareth, where Jesus spent nearly thirty years of his life on the earth: "Gradually the valley opens into a little, natural-looking amphitheater of hills, supposed by some to be the crater of an extinct volcano; and then, clinging to hollows of a hill, which rises to the height of some five hundred feet above it, lie, like 'a handful of pearls in a goblet of emerald,' the flat roofs and narrow streets of a little eastern town. There is ... a clear, abundant fountain, houses built of white stone, and gardens scattered among them, umbrageous with figs and olives, and rich with the white and scarlet blossoms of orange and pomegranates. In spring, at least, everything about the place looks indescribably bright and soft; doves murmur in the trees; the hoopoe flits about in ceaseless activity; the bright blue roller-bird, the commonest and loveliest bird in Palestine, flashes like a living sapphire over fields which are enameled with innumerable flowers." Who having once read, seen, and felt this picture can ever forget it or fail to feel the atmosphere of this place? It is thus we come to realize that Jesus Christ was really once a boy, a young man, a human being, on the earth. Even here, however, all possible helps in the form of pictures, maps, etc., must be called in as aids to the picturing power of the mind. The number of "likes" in the two foregoing selections (there are at least eight of them expressed or implied) suggests the remark of a humble woman regarding the parables, "I like best the likes of Scripture." This word lies at the root of all picture-work. Whether in the parables of Jesus, who was the prince of teachers, or in the discourses of great preachers whose sermons teem with "likes," or in the story-teller's skilful comparison of place with place, people with people--Palestine with Vermont as to size, with England, Scotland, and Wales as to its divisions--Galilee, Samaria, and Judæa being "united because they had one government, one ruler; separate because of their peculiar characteristics, their definite boundaries, and jealous claims to special privileges"--in all the notion of likeness is the central point of the thought. We never can know anything without having something to know it with. A "like" is the key that enables us to unlock and to enter the door of the unknown. It is through picture-work also--to go a step further--that we come to have revealed to us our own characters. This type of picture-work is at once the most difficult and the most important of all. An example of such picture-making is chosen from an account written by Miss Wiltse, setting forth her method of making stories in order to suit the needs of specific cases among her pupils. Not every one has the love or the genius of Miss Wiltse, and no one can hope to win such success as hers at once; but it may be that by catching some of her spirit, studying her plan, and patiently practicing, we may learn this royal way of reaching the hearts of our children. "There was in my kindergarten," she writes, "a little boy whose deceit and cruelty were quite abnormal; he would smile in my face with seraphic sweetness while his heavy shoe would be crushing his neighbor's toes.... He seemed incorrigible. At last I wrote a story entitled 'The Fairy True Child,' into which I put my strongest effort to reach this untruthful child. I told it to the class, and before it was concluded this boy's head was low upon his breast, his cheeks aflame with conscious guilt. No direct reference was made to him; no other child thought of him in connection with the story. The next day he asked to have it repeated, and his conduct was noticeably better; the story became his moral tonic, and one glad day he threw his arms about me, saying he wanted to keep his Fairy True Child always. "Another child who was feeble-minded was helped to be free from his mental inertia and day-dreaming by a story written expressly for him, in which 'I AM THAT WHICH WILLS' was pictured as a fairy, coming softly to the little boy whose power to try was lost, kissing his eyes, breathing softly upon his lips, putting her finger softly upon his ears--making each more ready and attentive--and finally enthroning the little boy's own fairy in its place in his brain, where the fairy grows more and more princely, and the little boy more and more manly, trying hard, so very hard, to keep the dear little fairy on his throne." Here, then, we have some of the types of picture-work: the picture and the story, the parable in its various forms, and the word-picture--whether of things or actions; illustrations or side-lights, the "likes" with which a skilful teacher illumines his teaching, and the objects, models, maps, and sketches on pad or blackboard, with which he re-enforces the lagging imaginations of his hearers. What, then, is a picture? A picture is anything that helps us to see more clearly, feel more heartily, and act upon more faithfully the truth which is not or cannot be immediately present to our senses. The truth to be pictured may be the truth of people, places, and actions--external things; it may be the truth of character and of inner life--the things that are unseen, which we could never see at all except by the aid of real things or pictures of real things; just as, for example, our idea of God is built out of our experience of mountains, flowers, thunder-storms, our mother's tenderness, and our father's strength. These pictures may be drawn or painted; they may be expressed in words or in deeds, with pen or brush, with actions, with things. Where to find our materials and how to use these tools with economy and effectiveness are the questions that next claim our attention. III. A PICTURE-BOOK, AND HOW TO USE IT. The Bible is a picture-book. It is history, literature, logic, philosophy; but, more than all these, for children and all who have the heart of childhood, it is a store-house of pictures. The first thing needful for a teacher, if he would touch his pupils, is to see these pictures himself. This, we must admit, is seldom done. For it is one of the sad things about the human mind that it possesses the power to read the words that set the picture forth without seeing the picture, and without being touched by the emotion which only the picture can arouse. We can seem to pray the Lord's Prayer, for example, while in reality we are merely making articulate--sometimes inarticulate--sounds. "I believe it would startle and move any one," said Robert Louis Stevenson, referring to the gospel of St. Matthew, "if he could make a certain effort of imagination and read it freshly like a book, not droningly and dully like a portion of the Bible." Who of us has not been thus startled and moved? It may have been on hearing a story read by one who read as though he had seen the men and the events face to face. It may have been by being helped to realize and see by pictures or by being ourselves on the ground made sacred by the story, or, perchance, by being in the same case as those described. It may have been on reading the old stories "freshly, like a book," perhaps after many years, when the old-time droning and the dulness are forgotten, and the simple beauty and power of the old stories come home to us. At such times we say, This is the very Word of God. Were ever pictures painted like these? Thomas Hardy says of one of his characters that, like every healthy youth, he had an aversion to the reading of the Bible. Some of us know what that means, though we did not know it was _healthy_. Better, we might almost say, that the child spent his time in some other way than to read the Bible or be taught it, only to conceive a dislike for its stories. Better a child never went to Sunday-school than that he should go to have interest deadened. He may wait many a year before the freshness returns. "Two grand qualifications are equally necessary in the education of children," said Horace Mann, "love and knowledge." The teacher of the Bible must indeed _know_--not know about, merely, but be personally acquainted with--the old patriarchs, their dress, occupation, country, way of life, and character; the judges, likewise, the prophets and kings, the children of Israel as a people, the apostles and their friends, and, above all, Christ himself. Does it make little difference whether we think of Christ as an oriental or as an Italian; whether as clad in the turban and flowing white robes of the East or in more conventionalized attire; whether as he is pictured for us in the vivid and startling colors of the artist Tissot, or in the cold conventional steel of our grandmother's best parlor; or the base wood-cuts of some modern lesson leaves? To us as well as to our Lord himself it makes a vital difference whether his youth was spent amid arid wastes--as many of us picture Palestine--or in the peaceful beauty of such a retreat as that described for us in Archdeacon Farrar's picture. We must indeed have knowledge, as full, as exact, as personal as it can be made for us or as we can make it for ourselves. And from this will come _love_. The more full, exact, and personal our vision, the more deep-seated will be our love. We should therefore seek our knowledge at first hand. We should look upon "helps" as we regard crutches--good until we can walk alone; bad the instant they keep us from using our own powers, seeing with our own eyes. In picture-work, as in everything else, love is the principal thing. A teacher of little children, whose privilege it is to help them to enter into loving appreciation of buds and leaves, soil and roots, winter and how everything prepares for it, spring and how it wakes everything to new life, must herself love nature. No "science" falsely so called will suffice. "_Do you really love nature?_" as President G. Stanley Hall has said with an indescribable emphasis on every word, is the question of questions to ask such a teacher. "_Do you really love the pictures of the Bible?_" is likewise the question of questions for the parent and teacher whose high privilege it is to lead children from the first of their acquaintance to love the great Picture-Book. IV. SIDE-LIGHTS. "Can you apply a parable?" says one of Robert Louis Stevenson's characters. "It is not the same thing as a reason, but usually vastly more convincing." The spiritual truth which we would have enter the child's mind--how is it to gain admittance? Not by a surgical operation; much less by the use of a foreign language or--what is quite the same thing--of abstract language. Not by any direct means, but indirectly, by objects, scaffolding, types, the story, and the illustration. "Every natural fact is a symbol of some spiritual fact, and no spiritual fact can be understood except by first knowing the natural fact, which is, as it were, its double." It is so with the child, it is no less true of grown folk. If it were not for the world of nature--of boundless horizon, ceaselessly flowing rivers, of deaths and resurrections, of parasites--we should be powerless to grasp the truths of the world of spirit. The circle in the water, for example, the apples on the plate, one specked, then all rotten, these all are but letters of the alphabet by which we spell out _Influence_. There must first be in the thing-world--to give one more example--the "rolling-stone," "the last straw," "the bird in the hand," "the leaven," the ore, worth seventy-five cents as ore, worth four dollars as bar-iron, worth $400,000 when worked up into hair-spring, before we can understand, or explain, or talk about the corresponding things in the realm of the unseen. Which is only another way of saying that he whose mind is not filled with the truths of nature is but ill furnished for understanding the truth of God. How may we gain this power to enrich our teaching with side-lights? 1. By studying the great masters of the art of illustration. Beecher, Spurgeon, Dr. Parkhurst, are all worthy of emulation. Beecher testifies that in his early preaching the power to illustrate was only latent. He found that he was not reaching his hearers and he began to search for "likes." He went about his farm, upon the streets, among mechanics, in fact everywhere, with the thought of the next Sunday's sermon in his mind, saying, "What is this like? what will that illustrate?" A glance at his sermons shows them full of side-lights from business, life at sea, from the farm and the home, from mechanical processes, as the cutting and polishing of precious stones, and very often from nature. In a recent sermon Dr. Parkhurst illustrated his single point from botany, physics, physiology, a ship, and from the actual experience of two men engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the same appetite. But the power of these great preachers is only the reflex of the method of Christ himself. No man had greater power in picture-work. In range, fertility, aptness, and result, the word-pictures of Jesus stand alone in the history of teaching, just as in respect of beauty and power they stand alone in literature. 2. The power of picturesque speech is acquired through earnestness and love of truth, as well as through rich experience of nature and of common life. This is hinted at by Emerson: "A man's power to think and to speak depends on the simplicity of his character, that is, upon his love of truth.... Picturesque language means that he who employs it is a man in alliance with truth and God. A man conversing in earnest, if he watch his intellectual processes, will find that a picture arises in his mind, contemporaneous with every thought, which furnishes the vestment of the thought. Hence good writings and brilliant discourse are perpetual allegories. This imagery is spontaneous, provided one have lived sufficiently to fill his mind with the raw materials of such pictures. One bred in the woods shall not lose his lesson in the roar of cities.... At the call of a noble sentiment, again the woods wave, the pines murmur, the river rolls and shines, and the cattle low upon the mountains, as he saw and heard them in his infancy. And with these forms, the spells of persuasion, the keys of power are put into his hands." And as it is with contact with nature, so it is with first hand experience of life in any form. 3. Practice. The effects of practice have already been cited in the case of Beecher. It is one of the mournful facts of human life that so many powers that might have been brought out by practice always remain in the latent state. Practice story-telling, practice finding "likes," and you will find before long that there is growing up in you a new power, just as if you were to discover in your organism a stop, by pulling which you could jump ten feet in the air. "Practice is nine tenths. A course of mobs is good practice for orators. All the great speakers were bad speakers at first." And a course of nephews and nieces is the best of practice for story-tellers, and for those who would be adepts in the use of side-lights. A word of caution. Great care must be used not to make the stories and illustrations more prominent than the truth we wish to illustrate. Dr. William M. Taylor tells of a conversation with a carpenter in which he advised him to use certain decorations. "That," said the carpenter, "would violate the first rule of architecture. We must never construct ornament but only ornament construction." So it is in story-telling. Never tell a story for its own sake, merely, but for the sake of the truth that lies embedded in it. A story or an illustration must grow as naturally out of the subject as a flower grows out of a plant. V. STORIES AND STORY-TELLING. That was a profound and true saying uttered by President G. Stanley Hall not long ago, that "of all the things that a teacher should know how to do the most important, without any exception, is to be able to tell a story." And a student pursuing a university course in education, after seeking to know what stories to choose, where to find them, how and to whom and wherefore to tell them, touched the same truth when he said, "It gradually dawned upon me that if I knew how to tell a story, I had mastered the main part of the art of teaching." For to know a good story is to have literary and pedagogic taste; to adapt or make a good story for children is both to know the secret of the mind of a child and to have creative power; to tell a good story is to be a master of a noble art. The child's thirst for stories--has it no significance, and does it not lay a duty upon us? And yet the insatiableness of the child's thirst is often paralleled by the inadequacy of the teacher's power to satisfy it, and by the parent's despair at being so bankrupt of material. In his admirable suggestions for making the Sunday-school able to appeal to the interest and the respect of boys and girls who are no longer children, and whom to treat as children is an offense against good taste and Christian charity, Bishop Vincent recommends, among other things, "lectures and outlines, and independent statements by individual pupils and teachers." Story-telling, both by teachers and pupils, is here suggested as a means of further enrichment. The "wholes" of Scripture narrative, whole books, whole lives, whole stories _told as wholes_ by the teacher or by a single pupil, and not picked out piecemeal by the teacher from halting individuals--these are the things that in the class give interest and that in the mind live and grow and bear fruit. "Moral power is the effect of large unbroken masses of thought; in these alone can a strong interest be developed," and from these alone can a steady will spring. He who has never read or heard as a whole, at one, or at most, two sittings, the story of an entire book of the Bible, as Jonah, Daniel, Job, or one of the Gospels, has missed one of the chief sources of interest and power. Our course through the Bible--incident by incident, verse by verse, here a little, there a little, years of "lessons," but no idea even of the life of Christ as a whole--is not unlike the toilsome road traversed by the boy "reading" Cæsar as his first Latin author: so many separate, mutually repellant parts, but no wholes, no idea of what it is all about; or it may be compared to the route of the milk-man--a stop at every other house, and never a good run. Not one of these plodders, the Sunday-school pupil, the young Latin student, the milk-man's hack, can be looked upon as a model of spiritedness or of continuity. A teacher of English in the old days, when literature was used chiefly as a clothes-line on which to air grammatical linen, was once guilty of giving out a lesson in Washington Irving--so many constructions, figures, analyses, so many pages, and no more. The end came in the _middle_ of the ride of the headless horseman. But by the time the next class studied Irving the teacher had met with a change. The limit of the first lesson was set according to the structure of the story. The pupils were told to read the story. "Only read it!" said they. "Aren't we to do anything with it?" "No," said the teacher, "you are to read it _for fun_." Should one be in danger of being misunderstood in saying that we do not have enough of reading the Bible for fun, for the pure enjoyment of its stories and of its matchless pictures? The rest will come in due course. It will come just so surely as the story is _realized_. But important as reading is, telling is incomparably better. The eye of the teacher is then fixed on the class, not on the book; the tone is conversational, the hand is free to gesture and to draw. One can grasp the whole of the story and the whole of the situation. One can bring out dramatic power. For there are few stories that do not have some dramatic quality, both in the making and in the telling. The following points kept in mind will aid the teacher: 1. The story must have a beginning, concrete, interest-compelling, curiosity-piquing. "All things have two handles; beware of the wrong one." 2. It must have a climax, properly led up to, easily led down from; and that never missed. 3. Many good stories have rhythm, recurrence, repetition of the _leit motiv_. "The Three Bears" is a favorite for this reason, among others. The commands of the Lord to Moses were regularly repeated thrice in the Bible story; in the book of Daniel the sonorous catalogue of flute, harp, sackbut, and the rest, comes in none too often for the purposes of the story-teller. 4. All good stories have unity; parts well subordinated; the main lesson unmistakably clear; the point, whether tactfully hidden or brought out by skilful questions, never missed. This use of stories by exactly reproducing them is naturally the teacher's first method. There follow naturally the _adaptation_ of stories and the making of _original_ stories. The latter way must be dismissed with a single word of caution. Beware of a certain fatal facility in reeling off "made-up" stories. Have you not heard such teachers and such stories? The latter at least are not true, or healthy, or wholesome. They are about unreal people who do unnatural things. They are a poor, ragged device for covering the nakedness of barefaced moralizing. No one who has tried to tell Bible stories to children, whether young or old, can fail to appreciate the need of adaptation: of enrichment and expansion on the one hand, of condensation on the other. Suppose the story to be told is the parable of the Good Samaritan. There must first be preliminary work. The minds of the children must be made ready, not merely for the lesson, as, for example, by a talk on the meaning of "neighbor," but also for the story. This latter kind of preparation for three reasons: 1. To give your hearers something of the same knowledge about the road from Jerusalem to Jericho, the relations of Jews and Samaritans, the standing and dignity of high priests and Levites possessed by those who heard the parable from the lips of Jesus. 2. To give the setting of the story--time, place, people, customs, atmosphere. 3. To make the language, the steps, the moral, as intelligible to your hearers as they were to the young lawyer to whom the story was first told. The need of the first way of filling in the picture is brought out by Mrs. Gaskoin in the "Children's Treasury of Bible Stories," Part III.: "Pages might be written about this parable, for every line is full of teaching, wrapped in beautiful words. But my object just now is only to draw your attention to the circumstance that the third person who passed the wounded man--and the only one who cared about his sufferings and took pains to relieve them--was a Samaritan. On this the point of the story turns. First a priest, and then a Levite, whose very offices alone should have made them ready helpers, had shunned their poor countryman, and had passed on without even a word of sympathy. But the person who did pity him, and, indeed, showered kindnesses upon him, was, not only neither priest nor Levite, not only a mere stranger--but a Samaritan. Now to say this was the same thing to the "lawyer" who was listening to the tale as to say that he was an enemy. The Lord could have chosen no stronger expression; in using it he spoke quite as plainly as when, once before, his words had been these: 'I say unto you which hear: Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you, bless them that curse you!' Clearly, then, it is only by understanding how the Jews felt toward the Samaritans, that we can grasp what the blessed Savior meant when he said that every disciple of his must love his 'neighbor' as himself." A striking example of the mode of using a full knowledge of customs and people to enrich the story is given by the same author in the following vivid word-picture of the thrilling experience of Zacharias. After describing the method of choosing by lot the priests to take charge of the temple services, the narrative continues: "To Zacharias, however, one autumn, the coveted lot did fall, and leaving his quiet home, he went up to Jerusalem, and there entered at once upon his sacred duties. They lasted for eight days, including two Sabbaths.... Every morning at nine o'clock, and every afternoon at three, a priest entered the Holy Place to sprinkle the incense-offering on the golden altar. He was accompanied by an assistant priest, who withdrew as soon as he had made the necessary preparations. The privilege of sprinkling the incense-offering, like the other priestly functions, was bestowed by lot. One day, during his week of attendance in the Temple, the lot fell upon Zacharias. So, in his white robes, with bare feet and covered head, he went slowly up, through court after court, to the entrance of the Holy Place. Then a bell rang, all the other ministrants on duty in the Temple took their places, and the people assembled in the various courts composed themselves for prayer. Zacharias disappeared within the sacred enclosure, and in due course his attendant left him alone there, separated from the Holy of Holies itself only by the splendid Veil-of-Partition. Silvery clouds of fragrant smoke presently arose from the kindled incense--then, kneeling before the altar, he paused, in prayer and adoration. Suddenly he became aware that he was not alone. Lifting his eyes he saw, to the right of the altar, a glorious angel, who thus addressed him, dispelling his gathering fear: 'Fear not, Zacharias, for thy prayer is heard, and thy wife Elizabeth shall bear thee a son, and thou shalt call his name John.' ... 'Whereby shall I know this?' he asked, hesitatingly. And the angel, answering, said unto him, 'I am Gabriel, that stand in the presence of God, and am sent to speak unto thee, and to show thee these glad tidings. And behold thou shalt be dumb and not able to speak, until the day that these things shall be performed, because thou believest not my words, which shall be fulfilled in their season.' "Meanwhile the people were anxiously waiting for Zacharias to return. His reappearance would be the signal for the laying of the sacrifice upon the altar, accompanied by a joyous outburst of the beautiful Temple music. Great, then, was their uneasy wonder at the unusual delay. But at last he did appear." An illustration of what is meant by re-telling the old story in a modern way for modern hearers is found in the following characteristic extract from a sermon of Dr. Parkhurst's on the text, "And he arose and came to his father": "The prodigal had not enjoyed nearly as much as he expected--what he had arranged to enjoy. His scheme had collapsed; his experiment broken down. Going away from home and living as though he had no home had not worked as he expected that it was going to. Lonely, ragged, hungry, he thought the thing all over and said to himself: 'I think I had better go home.' He had let go of home, but home had declined to let go of him. He had been his father's boy for twenty years or more, and his experience in the far country had not been quite able to cure him of it. Home still had a pull upon him." While many of the stories both of the Old and of the New Testament need expansion rather than contraction--think of trying to bring the masterly story of Jonah or the wonderfully simple tale of the Shunemite's son into any smaller compass!--yet the need of condensing the long stories, of Abraham, Joseph, David, Daniel, for instance, is obvious, for we must give the children a picture of the whole life and character of these great and simple figures. To this end selection and suppression are necessary. The various books mentioned in a later chapter are all more or less successful in the attempt to recast the old original story. So perfect is the original form, however, that the task is one of extreme difficulty. Yet it must be attempted by every teacher, and it is certainly worth a trial. The following suggestions may prove helpful in both modes of adaptation: 1. Use direct discourse. It will require an effort to keep yourself (in your embarrassment) from taking refuge behind the indirect form, saying, for example, "And when he came to himself he said _that he would_ arise and go to _his_ father and tell him _that he had_ sinned." 2. Choose actions rather than descriptions, the dynamics rather than the statics of your subject. Those of us who have grown away from childhood tend to reverse the true order, to place the emphasis on the question, "What kind of a man was he," and not on, "What did he do." Let what he did tell what he was. Your story will thus have "go," as all Bible stories have. 3. Use concrete terms, not abstract; tell what was done, not how somebody felt or thought when something was being done; be objective, not subjective. 4. A story-teller should, in short, have taste. To form this taste it is indispensable that he should not read, but _drink in_ the great masters: Homer, Chaucer, Bunyan, Hawthorne ("The Wonder Book," for example), and above all the Bible itself. No one can absorb these without unconsciously forming a pure, simple style and getting a more childlike point of view and way of speech. Modern writers and modern ways of thinking are, in general, too reflective, self-conscious, subjective, and, where children are concerned, too direct, bare, "preachy." 5. But the secret of story-telling lies not in following rules, not in analyzing processes, not even in imitating good models, though these are all necessary, but first of all in being _full_--full of the story, the picture, the children; and then, in being morally and spiritually up to concert pitch, which is the true source of power in anything. From these comes spontaneity; what is within must come out; the story tells itself; and of your fulness the children all receive. Finally, the points of practical story-telling may be thus outlined: 1. See it. If you are to make me see it you must see it yourself. 2. Feel it. If it is to touch your class it must first have touched you. 3. Shorten it. It is probably too long. Brevity is the soul of story-telling. 4. Expand it. It is probably meager in necessary background, in details. 5. Master it. Practice. Repetition is the mother of stories well told; readiness, the secret of classes well held. 6. Repeat it. Don't be afraid of re-telling a good story. The younger the children are, the better they like old friends. But every one loves a "twice-told tale." VI. SOME FIRST PRINCIPLES: UNITY, REALITY, ORDER. _Unity._ One of the greatest of American preachers never goes beyond "firstly." He makes but one point in each sermon. But he makes that point, drives it home, burns it in, wears a crease in the brain that nothing can ever iron out. Every picture--and those sermons are full of pictures--bears upon that one point, and every argument and lesson, for which the pictures have been laying the foundation, is a part of the same unity. You never hear him say, "And we learn further," but always, "The same truth comes out in another way." One is never more than two bases away from the home plate. It is not a cross-country run, but a game of score and tally. At the opposite pole from this intensive method is the typical Sunday-school lesson. The typical Sunday-school lesson is--is it not?--hodge-podge. Does the last lesson always bear upon the lesson of to-day? Is to-day's aim single? Do you hold before your mind the one point, the one picture, that your pupils shall carry away with them as an everlasting possession, or do you have in mind to display so many pictures, so many points, that some must needs take effect? It is easier--at least it is lazier--to provide _many things_ than to prepare _much_. One can rake over an acre more easily than dig one post-hole. And the deeper you go the harder grows the digging. But it's the last six inches of hole that makes firm the top two feet of post. Now pictures help toward unity of aim in a lesson in two ways: they help to elaborate the one main point--twenty illustrations of one point, not twenty points from one illustration; they help to teach us the law of unity, for a true picture has but one theme, is always simple. _Reality_. "The great trouble with the stuff taught in our schools is that so much of it always remains _stuff_, and never gets worked up into _boy_." So said Dr. Parkhurst, in a sermon from the text, "Taste and see that the Lord is good." The only way to work up the raw materials of a boy into real boy is to bring him into touch with them, to have him taste, see, handle. But in order to be tasted these materials must be real. And to make them real is the first duty of the teacher. It is also his hardest task. For consider what it costs to make a thing so real to yourself that it can't help being real to some one else! Ah! there's the rub. It costs to do that--costs time, pains, life. How long did the Lord make Ezekiel lie on his left side, and how long on his right side, without the relief of turning over from one side to the other, before he judged him ready to deliver his message with a due sense of the reality of its import? Three hundred and ninety days "for the iniquity of the house of Israel," forty days more "for the iniquity of the house of Judah"; each day for a year. After that there was no lack of a "realizing sense" in Ezekiel. He had "been there" himself. And was it by way of mere luxury or was it from pedagogical necessity that the Lord showed himself last of all to Paul also, and sent him into the desert, for a year or more, to think it over and get a real grip on the experience? It was a true instinct that made Thomas, the doubting one, want to reinforce a sight-picture by a touch-picture. A dose of the same "doubt" would be a tonic to much of the pale "faith" in the world. When I was a boy I wrote, after the fashion of the day, an "essay" on a subject about which I had the slenderest knowledge. A tannery lay on my way to school, and the tanner would have been friendly and communicative, but the encyclopedia article, "Leather," was my sole authority. You may imagine the result: a cold, dead thing, not in the least savoring of real leather. On the other hand, when I became a man, I traveled a thousand miles merely to see, and hear the voice of, a master whom I admired and whose picture I wished to have hanging in my mind. Who has not, when freed from the dead atmosphere of the schools, done a like thing? And with what gain to the precious sense of reality! The whole country, not long since, was touched--many people were shocked--by the news that a Christian minister had dared to see with his own eyes the evils he was fighting, the existence of which he had been challenged to prove. Many good people at that time thought he had made a mistake. He said, "It is necessary that some one see these things. Do you think that I would be so base as to ask another to do what I would not do myself?" The result has proved the soundness of this position. No one now doubts that Dr. Parkhurst was in the right. For not only were the facts shown to exist as alleged, but (and this is the point) the man himself who had seen them was so filled with a burning sense of their terrible reality, that he clung to his point with an everlasting grip, carried it triumphantly, and laid the foundations of our "civic renaissance." The vast audience who heard Bishop Thoburn, missionary to India for thirty years, at Chautauqua, was stirred to its depths by the simple power of the man. What was the secret of his power? It did not lie in his bodily presence; it grew out of what the man had done. He was a man of action. He had given his life, and had lived. His speech was of that which he had lived. You felt that he had a right to speak--for every sentence had behind it weeks of real life. Who has not felt the same when listening to one who speaks of that which he does know? And who has not felt the difference when trying to listen to one who talks, but whose words are not loaded with life? You must have seen, acted, felt, if you would make your hearers see and feel and act. Talk is cheap, especially borrowed talk. It is not the story in the lesson quarterly that you can build into the lives of your class; it is the story in you. It is the picture that has become a part of your life, that will be most likely to be built into the fabric of theirs. _Order._ The way in which a subject lies in the mind of an ordinary, unregenerate adult, one may be safe in saying, is just the wrong way--the way in which it should not be presented to a child. The order of exposition is in general the reverse of the order of acquisition. The natural man who has forgotten how things look to the eyes of a child has a tendency to put things wrong end to; word first, thing last; precept first, example last; to plunge _in medias res_ without introduction--in short, to put the mental or spiritual cart before the horse. And it requires self-sacrifice to reverse the order, enter into the limitations of a little child's mind, see with his eyes, think his thoughts. It is a favorite simile among writers on education that the mind is not unlike a field, and that the steps of instruction answer to the successive stages of the farmer's work. First there is the preparation of the soil, then come the planting, the cultivating, and in due time the harvest, the mill, and the market. Two of these steps, the preparing and the applying, concern us here; the work of presenting and elaborating is a theme by itself, and has been treated in a separate chapter. 1. Preparing the ground: Approach. The art of "getting a good ready" is an art worth mastering. In sermon or Sunday-school lesson alike the beginning is the main concern. It is a good plan to seem to waste time at the start. Nine tenths plowing, harrowing, marking out, one tenth sowing, and (as we shall see) no looking for a crop at all, is a just proportion for the most of our lessons. We shall be always safe in counting upon a sufficient number of stony-ground hearers to justify us in clearing the ground, and making it mellow with interest and expectation. And even those who would receive the word with gladness cannot take it in unless they have something to grasp it with, cannot hear without something to hear with. And this must be given them by the teacher. We are here at the very heart of the science of teaching. A little two-year-old child will serve us as an example. He is to be put in bed in a strange room, and is to go to sleep alone. Spring the idea upon him and he will reject it. Prepare him for it, by telling him a story of a little boy who went to bed in a new room, a new bed, and all alone, and he is eager for the hour of bed-time. When the time comes, the picture already in his mind, of a little boy, a new room, a peaceful going to bed, welcomes the actual experience, point for point. The wise mother has made a nest for the experience. So might a teacher prepare the minds of his pupils to receive the idea of ninety millions of miles. "If any one there in the sun fired off a cannon straight at you, what should you do?" "Get out of the way," would be the answer. "No need of that," the teacher might reply. "You may quietly go to sleep in your room, and get up again; you may learn a trade, and grow as old as I am--then only will the cannon-ball be getting near, then you may jump to one side! See, so great as that is the sun's distance!" So writes a German teacher--explaining the law of apperception, of making a nest for the idea. We cannot understand--cannot even see or hear--the absolutely new. Every new plan or way of looking at things, or doctrine, is received into the mind on one condition only--that it be introduced by a comrade already there. Then when the new idea calls from without, its fellow answers from within, and an entrance is effected. The bearing of this upon our theme is illustrated by the plan of a school principal, recently described to me, to eradicate the plague of stealing that had broken out in the school. He talked to the pupils of giants, drew out the children's ideas, and by effective picture-work made the creatures out to be an ugly, uncanny crew. He then was ready to declare to the children that he had discovered a giant in the school, and in due time told them his name--Selfishness, I think it was--and then described his evil works. The moral of this story is that the plan worked, and stealing disappeared from the school from that day. Who of us teachers might not be emulous of becoming thus skilful in mellowing the soil and making it warm in the genial sunshine of true picture-work? 2. Gathering the crop: Taste. qIf deliberation is a virtue at the start, brevity and patience are a necessity at the finish. When the teacher has planted an interest-awakening picture in the minds of the children, his main work is done. He may safely leave them to make the application. He has supplied the cause; the effect will take care of itself. It is often convenient and suggestive to remember that children are not fools. "A child knows a thing or two," 'tis said, "before he knows much of anything." And one of the very first things he knows is how to put his finger on the moral in a story; and he can feel it long before he knows it. But that is when he is left to himself. If you take the helm, ten to one he'll know without feeling, which is the curse of us all. Better, if we must choose, that he feel without knowing in terms, than indulge in mere intellectual casuistry. In your childish haste to have a crop or to see what was going on under ground, did you ever unearth the newly-planted row of peas? And was that row ever so green and straight and thick-standing as those that had been let alone? But the plants of love to God and moral taste are tenderer than these. They must be shined upon, warmed, and watered many days before they are ready to give an account of themselves. Love is a silent thing before it is outspoken. True feeling has few words, is not self-conscious, likes not to be asked questions. In its own good time it wells up and finds vent in deeds, and even in words. The deepest thing a teacher does is to form taste. But all taste grows slowly, by unconscious accretion. The Chinese money-changer sets his apprentice at work handling good money only. For ten Years he touches nothing else. He can then detect a counterfeit coin. How? Perhaps he cannot tell how. His way is surer, deeper. He feels it. He has taste. So with the building of the taste for good books, for pictures, for nature. It is a slow process--many a book to be absorbed, picture seen and loved, and mountain and flower and sunset gazed upon, before taste is formed. And the taste for godliness, for religion, is no exception. It is the finest and rarest of all tastes, and hence is the slowest and quietest of all in its development. But did you ever see, in the hot house, shall we say, of the Sunday-school, seed sown, harvest reaped, yes, and cakes taken from the oven, within the limits of a single half hour? Does the figure halt, or was it a miraculous quickening of the processes of nature, or was it in truth a great mistake and a sin against natural spiritual growth? There need be no fear, then, that the children will not feel, and in time know, the meaning, for them, of their stories and pictures. And a wise teacher well knows the ways of helping them: by questioning, _not_ directly, and by hiding the moral so near the surface that it will come forth of itself. VII. HOW TO LEARN HOW. The foregoing chapters have dealt chiefly with the theory of picture-work, answering the questions what and why. But practical teachers will go a step further and ask where to find and how to use materials, what to do first, what next, in becoming expert in using and making pictures, stories, and illustrations; in short, how to learn how. Those who are not of the practical sort should omit this chapter, and no one should expect to enjoy or profit by it who has not the time and the will to go through the exercises described. _Models._ A study of some of the remarkable pictures of secular literature will reveal many points in story-telling. Mark how Chaucer made such a picture of his Canterbury pilgrims that not only the color, the action, and the characters of the scene, but also the very atmosphere of the jolly crowd has been clear and vivid for more than four centuries. Macaulay boasted that he would write a history which would supersede the latest novel on the tables of the young ladies of the day. How did he accomplish this? Read his "History of England" and learn the secret of the power to picture. Study George Eliot's "Silas Marner" to learn how to tell a story. The interest never flags, the proper perspective is always maintained, light and shade are in due proportion, and the lesson to be learned is taken, not as a bitter dose, but as one drinks in the fresh air of a clear May morning. Study pictures of Bible scenes by great masters to see what aspect of the scene--what moment of the event--the painter chose as the climax of interest and meaning. Although the aim in Sunday-school work is spiritual and not artistic, the heart will be reached more surely if the eyes are appealed to and a subordinate artistic aim is kept always in mind. What is the favorite view-point in picturing Noah's ark (the procession--a source of never-failing interest to old and young--is a conspicuous feature); in Abraham's sacririfice (Andrea del Sarto seizes the moment when Abraham is about to slay Isaac and the ram appears in the thicket); in the early life of Moses? Note also the subjects in the life of Christ oftenest chosen by the artist. In what parables does Christ choose a definite locality well known to his hearers, definite characters, a definite point and only one, a definite purpose, and a clearly defined and applied moral? In the presentation of which parables do we _not_ find simple language, direct discourse, a dramatic style, and a question in order to drive home the point? Try the effect of substituting in any one of the parables indirect discourse for direct, statements for questions. Make a study of the Sermon on the Mount with a view of finding opportunities for picture-work. On how many and on what occasions did Jesus use objects in his teaching? Might he not have gotten along without using the objects themselves on those occasions? What seems to have been his purpose? What was the result? _Seeing._ Suppose that you were an artist searching in the Bible for scenes to paint: 1. What picture would you find in Matthew VIII., verse 1? verse 2? verse 3? verse 4? Can you see (and hear) each of these? 2. What is _the_ picture in the whole passage (verses 1-4)? How many elements has it, in respect of number, form, color, sound, atmosphere? 3. Which of these should be chosen in telling the story to children, and in what order? 4. How many pictures are there in verses 5-13? What is the central picture? 5. In verses 23-27. How many pictures are there in this passage? Which is the central picture? How would you lead the pupils to see it? What first? what next? what last? 6. In Matthew, chapters ix. and xiii. How many separate pictures are there? Which are the most important to try to see? What objects, pictures, drawings, maps, would you use in making it real to your class? _Construction._ In the previous chapter there was brought out the need of adapting the stories of the Bible to the comprehension of modern hearers. Suggestions were given both for cutting down and filling in. Choose a story, as of the brave Hebrew boys who stood by what they thought was right even in captivity; the young king who asked God to give him wisdom and whose way of ruling showed that his request had been granted; the shepherd boy whom the Lord chose; or choose an incident, or a period of a year of the life of Christ (as the "Year of Beginnings," the "Year of Popularity," the "Year of Opposition"). Subdivide each of these into smaller stories or incidents (Daniel, for instance, had three great tests, each complete in itself, and lived under three kings), then combine into a whole, applying the principles of story-telling and of adaptation. Test your story by telling it to a child or a group of children. Tell the same story not once but many times. _Choice._ Do not pad. Avoid diffuseness. Put in only those details that are salient--that leap out at you--that are necessary to the picture and the meaning. Any one can put in everything. It is only the born story-teller, or the one who will sit down by the side of a child and patiently observe the points that the child sees and likes to hear, that can be trusted to put in and to leave out just the right points. Try writing out the story of Jonah, without the book. Compare your work with the original. How might you have been less diffuse? What necessary points did you omit? Did you use more or fewer general terms than the original? Were your words and expressions so picturesque as those in the text? _Examples._ By way of illustrating the meaning of the foregoing points, it may be interesting to note the difference in concreteness, _i.e._, in the _picture_, to be found in the following paragraphs, all of which are intended to mean practically the same thing. (_a_) One bidden to obey and refusing, but afterward obeying, is a better example of obedience than one who obeys in word but not in deed. (_b_) Some one who was requested to do something refused in word, but obeyed in deed; another complied, but only in word. Which was the better example of obedience? (_c_) If some one in authority should tell some one to do something and he should refuse but afterward comply, and should tell another to do something and he should say that he would without doing so, which of these really would perform the will of the one who gave the command? (_d_) A certain man had some children. One day he told one of them to go and do some work that he wanted him to do. But the child said that he wouldn't, etc. (_e_) Compare with these the same thought clothed in the concrete and picturesque words of our Lord himself: "But what think ye? A certain man had two sons; and he came to the first, and said, Son, go work to-day in my vineyard. "He answered and said, I will not: but afterwards he repented, and went. "And he came to the second, and said likewise. And he answered and said, I go, sir: and went not. "Whether of them twain did the will of his father?" It would be equally possible to take the same clear-cut, dramatic picture and load it down--smother it--with words. But this kind of picture-work it is unnecessary to illustrate. _Expression._ Read each of the parables of Jesus, picturing in your mind everything that can be seen, heard, or felt. "Put yourself in his place" regarding every one spoken of. When you have thus pictured the story, and while you are picturing it, read aloud, or tell the story. The expression will take care of itself--_if only you see and hear_. In this simple principle is contained the whole art of expression, _i.e._, of giving forth something which is within. _Environment._ What kind of country was Palestine? If Palestine were taken up from the shore of the Mediterranean and planted on your state, where would Dan and Beersheba lie respectively? Wherein did its divisions differ, in respect of people, surface, products, occupations? The four routes of Christ's principal journeys are given as follows: Bethlehem to Jerusalem, 6 miles north; Bethlehem to Egypt, 250 miles southwest; Nazareth to Jericho, 60 miles southeast; Nazareth to Jerusalem, 65 miles south. Trace these routes on a sand map and on the blackboard. Describe the country passed through, the occupations of the people, the mode of travel, the length of time required. Account for the roughness of the road from Jerusalem to Jericho. What kind of place was Cæsarea Philippi, and what kind of stream is the Jordan at that point? _Sketching._ The teacher should practice until he can make, with the flat crayon, something that looks like a mountain, a road, a tree--a scumble for the foliage and a stroke or two for the trunk, a man--two strokes will do for him (some teachers prefer to cut out pictures and pin them on the board). It must be admitted that this method of trial and error is dangerous. But there are self-taught teachers who do pretty well. _Map-drawing._ To learn to sketch a map is a more hopeful task. Every one should be able to follow on pad or blackboard a campaign, a flight into Egypt, and a march up into Canaan; and to trace the journeys of Jesus and of Paul. The following directions will be found helpful in drawing, free-hand and with only two construction lines, the map of Palestine: Draw a horizontal line, and on it with the span of the hand, or with any convenient unit, measure three units, indicating their extremities by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, from left to right. At the right extremity of this line, which we designate 4, draw a vertical line five units in length (4-9). From the upper extremity of this line draw to the left a line parallel to 1-4, one unit in length (9-10). Join points 1 and 10 with an irregular line, thus indicating the coast. A perpendicular let fall from 10 to 3 would indicate the course of the Jordan, the source lying nearly opposite 8, the Sea of Galilee opposite 7, the Dead Sea between 4 and 5; and Judæa, Samaria, Galilee, and Phoenicia will each occupy, roughly speaking, one and a half units. The principal mountains, cities, routes, may be indicated by initials, signs, or in any other appropriate ways. Each unit being 40 miles in length, the dimensions of Palestine and its parts may be derived. This same system may, of course, be used in drawing any map. Miss Lucy Wheelock says that "the most satisfactory map is one which the teacher makes herself, drawing the outlines with a blue marking crayon on a sheet of white silesia, or finished cotton cloth, and putting in thin strips of wood or rollers at top and bottom, so that it will hang easily." _The sand table_, especially with work for younger children, is indispensable. This every one can learn to make and manage and can fit out with the needed materials. Let no one shrink from the simple task of getting together the equipment and learning to model a map of Palestine. The following description of the way of making a sand map of Palestine has been kindly furnished by Miss Juliet E. Dimock of Elizabeth, N.J., whose theory and practice in primary classes are alike admirable: "Any carpenter will make for you a board, four feet six inches long, and two feet six inches wide, with a raised edge of one and one half inches. Paint the surface a bright blue, to represent the waters of the Mediterranean. Procure about fifty pounds of molders' sand from a stove foundry. The new sand is preferable to that which has been used for casting, owing to its lighter color. Study a good map of Palestine until you have a clear idea of the coast-line, the sea-coast plain, the mountain region, with its principal peaks, the Jordan valley, and the eastern table land." (A relief map is desirable as a guide. The relative heights of mountains are given in Hurlbut's "Bible Geography." A cross-section of Palestine showing relief is given in the "Bible Study Union Lessons," Old Testament History, Progressive Grade, First Quarter, Appendix pp. (V.), (VI.). The Bible Study Publishing Co., 21 Bromfield Street, Boston, Mass.) "Cut a paper pattern of the rivers and have them cut out of tin by a tinsmith. Use mirrors for the waters of Merom, the Dead Sea, and the Sea of Galilee, and white cord for the roads. "When you are ready to go to work, place the board on a table and empty upon it your box of sand, which should be dampened until it can easily be molded by the hand. Raise the head of the board, until the children can see your work; if the sand is damp enough to keep its place, it can be inclined at an angle of forty-five degrees. At first the children will be interested in seeing you form the map; the coast-line, with its "camel's hump" for Mt. Carmel, the mountains, with snow-capped Hermon towering above them all, the seas, rivers, roads, and finally the white paper boats on the Mediterranean. "Take five minutes every Sunday for a supplemental lesson on the history of the land, beginning with the first settlement of the country by the Canaanites, the family of Noah's grandson. Use the map also, whenever it is possible, to illustrate the lesson for the day; either as a map, or by building up the sand into a city, a garden, a temple, or a palace. The supplemental course might begin with the Garden of Eden, with as great a variety of trees, flowers, and animals, as may be easily obtained. And by turning the board around, the map of the ancient world may be made, and the stories of Noah, Babel, and Abram's journey from Ur of the Chaldees. Use small objects to make the places on the map, and replace them with initial blocks when the children are sufficiently familiar with the story to tell it to you. A very little ingenuity on the part of the teacher will suggest the objects to be used, which can be readily cut out of colored card-board. "After school, return the sand to its box and pour at least a quart of water over it. It will then be in good condition for next Sunday's use." _Specifics._ True picture-work has, as we have seen, a true bearing upon the question, How to help children conquer their faults. "Don't," even "Please don't," is ineffectual and unpedagogical. So is every means that is direct and negative instead of indirect and constructive. It is a thousand times easier to empty a tumbler of air by filling it with water than by the use of the air pump. And so, just as we know that singing has a marvelous power to sweeten and calm the spirit of a young child, so a story is often the shortest and the most effective means to bring him to himself. A story is a specific. The right story will heal its proper disorder. There is danger here, 'tis true; "the intent to teach," as Herbart writes, spoils it all. Stories should be given as food rather than as medicine. There is all the greater need, therefore, for practice. Find, adapt, make up stories to meet the needs of a child who is idle; of one who is mean, lacks self-control, is slovenly, careless, untruthful, etc. _Texts._ On the other hand, it is just as necessary that illustrations attach themselves to their proper principles, as that principles find the concrete key that will serve as their open sesame into the child's mind. Mr. Barrie tells of a newspaper writer who never conversed five minutes with a friend without getting a suggestion for a leader or a "story." The teacher ought to be no less fertile in finding texts, and in pressing everything he meets--whether in books, in newspapers, or on the street--into the service of the Sunday-school lesson. For example, the street car on which you ride to school or to business in the morning suddenly stops. It stands still three, five, fifteen minutes. You are late. Twenty others are late. Reason, a careless truck-driver has driven an inch too near the track. What does this illustrate? A pound of cotton, worth a few cents, may be made into yarn and become worth more; into chintz and be worth still more, etc. What is the truth hidden in this fact? A thoughtful teacher, in reply to the question, "What stories have you found especially helpful?" contained in the blank on story-telling (Chapter X.), gave the following: "Cato's words, 'Carthage must be destroyed' (the power of words); Hercules at the parting of the ways (the necessity of choice); Macbeth's 'I have lived long enough' (the end of a wasted life); The Ancient Mariner--'He prayeth best' (the secret of prayer); the parable of the wicked husbandmen (irreverence)." VIII. BOOKS, PICTURES, AND ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL. The teacher should be a capitalist. He should not run dry every Sunday, and fill in during the week only enough for the next lesson; as a schoolboy who fills his mind with facts and empties it on examination day. The true teacher is independent of the "Quarterly." He uses it but does not lean on it. For the facts there given are, as a rule, isolated, and so half dead; the illustrations are at best warmed over. Neither can give a strong head of steam. There is not enough, and what there is is cold. Other remedies for this condition are suggested elsewhere. Here it is urged that the teacher must be a reader of books. The following are given as types. They have been selected after searching the lists of many publishers, and are recommended only after a personal examination: _Books Telling the Story of the Bible._ There are many Bible stories for children, some of them good, but most of them far from ideal when both the story and the pictures are considered. Those with highly colored, gaudy pictures should be shunned as they tend to give low ideals morally and spiritually as well as to corrupt the child's artistic taste. To publish a story of the Bible with illustrations taken only from great masters is a good work waiting for some one who wishes to be of service to the world. "The Story of the Bible from Genesis to Revelation," by Charles Foster. Charles Foster Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 75 cents. Of the many Bible stories published this is the most complete and the most popular. In the matter of pictures, however, it is poor. "Children's Treasury of Bible Stories," by Mrs. Herman Gaskoin. Macmillan & Co. Three parts, 18mo, 30 cents each. The best Bible story we have found. It is most suggestive and interesting, showing how to picture Bible scenes. "Stories from the Bible," Rev. Alfred J. Church. Macmillan & Co. 256 pp., $1.25. Excellent as giving a condensed account of the Bible narrative in Bible language. The teacher who uses these stories will often find it necessary to supplement them with suitable introductions and side-lights. "The Sweet Story of Old," by Mrs. Haskell. Dutton. 4to, 50 cents. A small book of Bible stories for young children, with pictures which are quite good. "First Steps for Little Feet," by Charles Foster. Charles Foster Publishing Co. 50 cents. Bible stories told in simple language for the youngest children. Fair outline pictures. "The Story of Jesus," by Louisa T. Craigin. Illustrated with one hundred full-page illustrations from the designs of Alexander Bida, together with many other pictures of the Holy Land. Fords, Howard & Hulbert. $10.00. A beautiful and sympathetic account of the life of Jesus, especially rich in descriptions of Palestine and in other materials for word-pictures. The numerous pictures of landscapes and scenes from the life of Christ are helpful. The same in paper covers in 15 numbers, 50 cents each. "From Olivet to Patmos." The First Christian Century in Picture and Story. By Louisa Seymour Houghton. American Tract Society. $1.50. "The Life of Christ in Picture and Story," by Louisa Seymour Houghton. American Tract Society. $1.25. The last two books contain some poorly executed but well-chosen pictures of Bible lands, showing architecture, costumes, street scenes, etc. _Books About Palestine._ "The Land and the Book," by W. M. Thomson. Harper & Bros. $8.00, $6.00. Recommended by a high authority as the best book on Palestine for a teacher who can own only one. "Boy Travelers in Egypt and the Holy Land," by T. W. Knox. Harper & Bros. $3.00. "Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their History," by Dean Stanley. A. C. Armstrong. $2.50. An excellent standard work. "Pictured Palestine," by James Neill. Anson D. Randolph. $2.25. Shows the contrast between eastern life and our own. Very good pictures illustrating many phases of oriental life. "In Scripture Lands." Scribner's. $3.50. Beautiful pictures. "Earthly Foot-Prints of the Man of Galilee," by Bishop John H. Vincent, D.D., LL.D., Jas. W. Lee, D.D., Robert E. M. Bain. New York and St. Louis: N. D. Thompson Publishing Co. $4.75. Four hundred fine, large photographic views and descriptions of places connected with the earthly life of our Lord and his apostles. _Books on the Use of Stories and Illustrations._ "The Use of Stories in the Kindergarten," by Anna Buckland. Ginn & Co. 15 cents. "The Place of the Story in Early Education," by Sara E. Wiltse. Ginn & Co. 132 pp., 50 cents. Two suggestive and helpful essays that every teacher should read. "Yale Lectures on Preaching," by Henry Ward Beecher. Fords, Howard & Hulbert. $2.00. An inspiring book. The chapter on "Rhetorical Illustrations" is especially applicable, but the entire work, although written for preachers, has rich stores of instruction and guidance for teachers. "The Art of Illustration," by C. H. Spurgeon. Wilbur B. Ketchum. $1.25. A book by a master giving the secret of his art. _Stories and Themes._ "Parables from Nature," by Margaret Gatty. Macmillan & Co. 2 vols., 18mo, $1.50. A wonderful book, in which nature is used to typify spiritual truths. It should be owned by every mother and teacher. "Parables. Laws of Nature and Life, or Science applied to Character," by Louisa Parsons Hopkins. Lee & Shepard. 15 cents. Brief and suggestive. "Stories of the Saints," by Mrs. C. Van D. Chenoweth. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. Supplies a want which should be more "felt" than it is. Is it not as important that our children should know the story of Christian saints and martyrs as that of Greek gods and heroes? "Kindergarten Stories and Morning Talks," by Sara E. Wiltse. Ginn & Co. 212 pp., 75 cents. "Stories for Kindergartens and Primary Schools," by Sara E. Wiltse. Ginn & Co. 50 cents. "A Brave Baby and Other Stories," by Sara E. Wiltse. Ginn & Co. 50 cents. These three books are storehouses of inspiration and models of story-telling. "Child Stories from the Masters," by Maude Menefee. Kindergarten Literature Co., Chicago. $1.00. An excellent selection of themes from poets, dramatists, and the Bible. The teacher will do well to study the originals and try to improve upon the stories given. "Child's Christ-Tales," by Andrea Hofer. Woman's Temple, Chicago. $1.00. Choice illustrations from the masters. Suggestive tales and parables. "The Kindergarten Sunday-School," by Frederika Beard. Kindergarten Publishing Co., Woman's Temple, Chicago. An attempt to solve the infant class problem. Three series of lessons, each having sequence and unity. Suggestive in its plan, and likely to help teachers to improve upon the models given. _Books to be Read for the Sake of a Better Understanding of Child Nature._ "Study of Child Nature," by Elizabeth Harrison. Chicago Kindergarten Training School. $1.00. "Children's Rights," by Kate Douglas Wiggin. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00. "A Boy's Town," by W. D. Howells. Harper & Bros., New York. $1.25. "Being a Boy," by Charles Dudley Warner. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.25. "The Story of a Bad Boy," by T. B. Aldrich. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.25. "The Mill on the Floss," by George Eliot. Harper & Bros. Popular ed. 75 cents. "Cuore, An Italian Schoolboy's Journal," by Edmondo de Amicis. N.Y. Crowell. Illustrated edition. $1.50. _Pictures and Books from which Pictures may be Culled._ "The Life of Christ as Treated in Art," by F. W. Farrar, D.D., F.R.S. Macmillan & Co. $8.00, $5.00. "The Christ Child in Art," by Henry Van Dyke. Harper & Bros. $4.00. "Sacred and Legendary Art," by Mrs. Anna Jameson. Longmans, Green & Co. 2 vols., 16mo. $2.50. "The History of Our Lord as Exemplified in Works of Art," by Mrs. Anna Jameson. Illustrated. 2 vols. Longmans, Green & Co. $8.00. All the above are standard works and are excellent. "The Earthly Footprints of Our Risen Lord," by Fleming H. Revell. 4to. $1.50. A continuous narrative of the four gospels according to the revised version, illustrated by numerous half-tone pictures. The selection is not so choice as one could wish, yet many of the pictures are by the best artists, and present a consecutive pictorial story of the life of Christ. "The Photographs of the Holy Land." Globe Bible Publishing Co., Philadelphia. $3.00. The same in cheaper style in eight portfolios at 10 cents apiece. Photographs of classic and modern pictures of the child Jesus and of other Biblical subjects. Unmounted, card size, 3-3/4 cents each; cabinet size, 7-1/2 cents each. A catalogue in German will be sent on application. R. Tamme, Dresden, Germany. There is no duty on pictures. Blue print copies of pictures of Biblical scenes by the old masters and by modern artists. Mr. Alfred A. Hart, 221 West 109th Street, New York City. Card size, one cent each. Clear, durable, excellent; of a kind likely to develop good taste. The low price makes it possible to encourage children to make collections of their own. A single secular school has used over twelve thousand of these pictures. The Christmas catalogues of publishers often contain serviceable pictures. The standard histories of art are full of illustrative material. The teacher should be ever on the alert. _Objective Helps; Blackboard Sketches._ Cards for children to prick and sew. Bible Study Publishing Co., 21 Bromfield Street, Boston, Mass. Scroll of history. See "The Modern Sunday School," p. 297. John H. Vincent. Sunday-school Museum. Read description of one at Akron, in "The Modern Sunday School," p. 301. Illustrative Blackboard Sketching, by W. Bertha Hintz. E. L. Kellogg & Co. 53 pp. 30 cents. A helpful guide designed for those entirely ignorant of the art of drawing, who nevertheless like to work out their own way of putting a lesson, for the eye as well as for the ear, in preference to ready-made blackboard exercises and "pictured truth" at second hand. IX. FALSE PICTURE-WORK. A book on helps, to be truly helpful, must deal with negative as well as with positive matters--those things which we ought to leave undone as well as those we ought to do. Any treatment of true picture-work is lacking in completeness, not to say in candor, which does not say a word about false picture-work. If there were only some way of crawling into the inside of the children's brains, and marking the effect of the alliterations, juxtapositions, and symbolisms of what goes by the name of picture-work! Can't we devise a meter for estimating the precise emotional and spiritual value of a board filled with marks in various colors in the form of anchors, hearts, keys, crosses, not to mention other less sacred things? I once saw a "chalk talk" given to two hundred Sunday-school children. _Dramatis personæ_: three parrots; one unrecognizable, it was so badly drawn; a second, indifferent; the third, capital, a speaking likeness. The last was perched on S. T. Moral: "Honesty is the best policy." The children were as delighted as if the text had been taken from the Bible and as interested in the display as if it had possessed the slightest value. "But," it is urged, "the children are always interested in such things." Yes, and they would be more interested still if you showed them a monkey or displayed red, green, and blue lights. The law of interest tells us what shall _not_ be placed before the children--"Nothing that is not interesting"--but as a guide to what we _shall_ give them it tells but half the story. The other half is, "_Not everything that is interesting, and not anything just because it is interesting_." Let this caution not be misunderstood. The children must use their eyes. To expect children to follow your stories by ear, and make up their mind-pictures out of whole cloth or from the few objects and pictures that can be shown them, or to remember texts and lesson points out of hand, is to suppose them ready to graduate into the senior department. Let us have more blackboards. An individual board for every pupil, if possible, and the more use--wise use--of blackboards the better. But many "blackboardists" have yet to learn that it is possible to be apt without being alliterative, that one may be extravagant without being effective, sensational without being spiritual. In short, they seem not to understand that common sense applies even to blackboard work. What are the points in good blackboard work? To be quite dogmatic, for the sake of brevity, good blackboard work is: 1. Simple. "Blackboard ingenuities, dissolving from acrostic into enigma, and from enigma into rhyme are not necessary" and they are harmful besides. They distract, distort, make dizzy. The best blackboard work has the fewest lines, the most unity in its variety, the least approach to anything like a maze. 2. Clear. The best blackboard work is that which is easiest to follow, hardest to forget. 3. Varied. Our stock symbols are worked to death. Is it _right_ to use the cross as commonly as you would a letter of the alphabet? Find something new or give the blackboard a vacation. It is not necessary that there be a quarter hour on every day's program for blackboard work. Who has not spent a "bad quarter of an hour" when the "exercise" was perfunctory? 4. Descriptive. All maps and plans, sketches of roads and rooms, of mountains and rivers, are good, because they help us to form for ourselves the picture which we must see in order to grasp the meaning of the story. For example, we may illustrate the Mount of Transfiguration; first with four figures, then six, then four; the winding road to Emmaus, two figures--straight lines, merely--and a little farther on, a third; the upper room, its occupants represented by marks or initial letters. Anything is helpful that gives a notion of position, number, form, contrast, sequence, change. 5. Free, living, personal. The best blackboard work is that which is freest. Children are impressionists. For them the broad side of the crayon is better than the point; two strokes better than twenty. The best blackboard work is that which grows before the children's eyes, which is made, not unveiled. Two minutes of rough sketching in the lesson hour is better than two hours of patient putting in of finishing touches beforehand. The best blackboard work is that which is original, personal. That which is given in the "lesson helps" is just what you should not use. It is not yours. If it does not help you to find your own way, it is useless--and worse than useless, because it tempts you to borrow without inspiring you to create. 6. In fine, the mission of the blackboard, as of all picture-work, is to help us to see the truth in the world or the truth in our own selves by showing us a truth that is easier to see or that is nearer at hand than that which we would learn. Like all picture-work, it fulfills its mission when it serves as a scaffolding, when it is kept subordinate. It fails when it obscures the truth, not helps to build it. False picture-work is anything that stands in the way of our seeing truth; as when we cannot see the woods for the trees--cannot see the Sunday-school lesson for the bizarre exhibitions on the blackboard. X. A COÖPERATIVE STUDY. In order to find out what Sunday-school teachers are doing in the matter of stories, illustrations, and picture-work generally, the writer prepared and distributed to a thousand teachers the following blank: _One response NOW is worth twenty a month hence._ STORY-TELLING. _To Sunday-school Teachers:_ For the purpose of devising means for the better preparation of Sunday-school teachers, the President of the Teachers College, New York, requests the teachers in your Sunday-school to answer the following questions. To save time and trouble use both sides of this sheet. Whenever possible answer by crossing out the term that does not apply. In every case where the answer is based on experience with children, state the age of the children. Please do not hesitate to return this blank, even if you have answered but a few questions. _Sources._--To illustrate the lesson do you use Bible stories, stories from good literature, or stories invented by yourself? _Subject._--Do you find your children more interested in stories of people or of nature? _Kind._--Which of the stories have you found more effective, modern or classic? Stories told or read? True or fictitious? Those based on poetry or prose? Stories in which the moral is set forth or hidden? _Experience._--What stories are you going to use in the Sunday-school lesson for next Sunday? _Precept._--If you do not use stories, what other means do you employ to enforce religious and moral lessons? Do you "moralize," and if so, with what obvious result? _Environment._--What means do you use of making the dress, customs, etc., of Bible people seem real to children? _Picture-work._--Do you use blackboard illustrations? What other objective helps? _Examples._--What stories have you found especially helpful? _Purpose._--What is your purpose in using stories in the Sunday-school? _Principles._--Do you succeed in having such unity in the lesson that the stories all contribute to one main thought? Mention five requisites for a good story-teller. Mention five qualities in a good story. To these questions fifty-eight replies were received. Very few, however, gave the ages of the children, and the smallness of the number of replies--which after all is by no means discouraging--tends to vitiate the data as bases for generalization. Space forbids giving more than a single group of typical answers. Some of the most helpful of the suggestions have been embodied in the foregoing. Further replies from thoughtful teachers will be welcome. _Question_--Mention five requisites for a good story-teller. _Answers:_ Sympathetic voice, manner, and face. More knowledge of the subject than one wants to use. The teacher must be interested, bright, imaginative, clear in thought and expression. Clear apprehension of the point to be made, clear knowledge of the subject, understanding of the peculiarities of his hearers, tact in making application, and dramatic power. Power in word-painting--with a sense of perspective. Unconsciousness of self. A gift for mimicry. Graphic description. Sympathy with children. Power to hold attention and keep to the main thought. Animation, personal magnetism, originality, wit. Conciseness, force. Pleasant manner. Ability to repeat a story without hesitation. Power to put one's self into the time, circumstances, etc., of the story. Love of story-telling. Quiet manners. Gestures, good voice. Small [easy?] words. Ability to make the children help tell the story, by making them gesture, point, express sorrow, surprise, etc., and answer questions. A good story-teller asks intensely interesting questions at exactly the right point. A passage from Herbart forms a fitting close to this study: "The intent to teach spoils children's books at once; it is forgotten that every one, the child included, selects what suits him from what he reads, and judges the writing as well as the writer after his own fashion. Show the bad to children plainly, but not as an object of desire, and they will recognize that it is bad. Interrupt a narrative with moral precepts, and they will find you a wearisome narrator. Relate only what is good, and they will feel it monotonous, and the mere charm of variety will make the bad welcome. Remember your own feelings on seeing a purely moral play. But give to them an interesting story, rich in incidents, relationships, characters, strictly in accordance with psychological truth, and not beyond the feelings and ideas of children; make no effort to depict the worst or the best, only let a faint, half-conscious moral tact secure that the interest of the action tends away from the bad toward the good, the just, the right; then you will see how the child's attention is fixed upon it, how it seeks to discover the truth and think over all sides of the matter, how the many-sided material calls forth a many-sided judgment, how the charm of change ends in preference for the best, so that the boy who perhaps feels himself a step or two higher in moral judgment than the hero or the author, will cling to his view with inner self-approbation, and so guard himself from a coarseness he already feels beneath him. The story must have one more characteristic, if its effect is to be lasting and emphatic; it must carry on its face the strongest and clearest stamp of human greatness. For a boy distinguishes the common and ordinary from the praiseworthy as well as we; he even has this distinction more at heart than we have, for he does not like to feel himself small, he wishes to be a man. The whole look of a well-trained boy is directed above himself, and when eight years old his entire line of vision extends beyond all histories of children. Present to the boy therefore such men as he himself would like to be." Printed in the United States of America. _THE PRIMARY DEPARTMENT_ ~Old Testament Stories~ For Little Children. Illustrated, 12mo, cloth, net $1.25. ~By LAURA ELLA CRAGIN~ More "Kindergarten Stories" from the Old Testament in language little tots can take in. The value of the book apart from the excellence of the manner of telling the stories, lies in the fact that Miss Cragin has made these stories follow closely the events of the Old Testament. ~Experimental Object Lessons~ Bible Truths Simply Taught. 12mo, cloth, net 75c. ~By CHARLOTTE E. GRAY~ "The simple and instructive character of this book including its adaptation to young minds and hearts, makes it the "very thing" for Sunday school scholars and teachers."--_Religious Telescope._ ~Object Lessons for Children~ Or Hooks and Eyes, Truth Linked to Sight. Illustrated, 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By C. H. TYNDALL, Ph.D.~ "For busy Sunday-school workers and others, we know no better work of its kind."--_Cumberland Presbyterian._ ~Talks to Children~ 12mo, cloth, net 50c. ~By T. T. EATON: D.D.~ "It Reproduces Scripture History in the terms of modern life, and gives it both a vivid setting before the youthful imagination and a firm grip on the youthful conscience."--_Independent._ ~The Shepherd Psalm for Children~ With half-tone Frontispiece and 13 outline Illustrations, 16mo, cloth, net 35c. ~By JOSEPHINE L. BALDWIN~ "Equally adapted to teach the teacher how to teach, to teach the child how to learn, and to teach what ought to be learned."--_Christian Advocate._ ~The Lord's Prayer for Children~ Illustrated. 12mo, cloth, net 50c. ~By MARTHA K. LAWSON~ "Miss Lawson is a specialist in the science of child study. The book is invaluable to Primary teachers and leaders of Junior classes."--_N.Y. Observer._ ~Seed for Spring-time Sowing~ A Wall Roll for the use of Primary, Sabbath School and Kindergarten Teachers. Compiled by MRS. ROBERT PRATT, 75c. ~Practical Primary Plans~ Illustrated with diagrams. Revised and enlarged. 16mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By ISRAEL P. BLACK~ "The author goes through all the material, physical and spiritual requirements for successful primary teaching."--_Christian Advocate._ ~Our Children for Christ~ A Series of Catechetical Lessons on the Religion of Our Lord Jesus Christ. _New Improved Edition._ 16mo, paper, net 10c. ~By REV. DOREMUS SCUDDER~ ~The Conversion of Children~ 12mo, paper, net 25c. ~By E. PAYSON HAMMOND, M.A.~ _FOR THE SUPERINTENDENT_ ~The Sunday School of To-day~ A Compendium of Hints for Superintendents and Pastors, with Suggestions and Plans for Sunday-School Architecture by C. W. STOUGHTON, A.I.A. Graphically illustrated, 12mo, cloth, net $1.25. ~By WM. WALTER SMITH, A.B., A.N.~ "A veritable mine of information and inspiration. It is not too much to say that no pastor, superintendent, officer, or teacher of the Sunday-school, can afford to neglect this volume."--_Standard._ ~Secrets of Sunday School Teaching~ 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By EDWARD LEIGH PELL, D.D.~ The key-note of this book is given by the author in his Preface, where he says: "I have tried not to lay too much stress on methods." While he puts "motives" first, however, he does not ignore "methods," but presents those which modern practice has proved to be effective. ~How to Conduct a Sunday School~ 12mo, cloth, net $1.25. ~By MARION LAWRANCE~, _General Secretary of the International S. S. Association._ "Every superintendent, teacher, pastor, officer, should own it. A perfect mine of hints and plans from the most experienced Sunday-school leader of the day."--_Sunday School Times._ ~Thirty Years at the Superintendent's Desk~ Lessons Learned and Noted. A _multum in parvo_ of practical suggestions. Net 25c. ~By J. R. PEPPER~ ~The Working Manual of a Successful Sunday School~ Cloth, net 50c. ~By MARION LAWRANCE~ "Valuable suggestions for superintendents, ministers."--_S. S. World._ ~The Modern Sunday School in Principle and Practice~ 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By HENRY F. COPE~ "We know of no more scholarly nor practical manual. Thoroughly scientific, intelligible to the man of average experience, it gives the newest experiments with all grades."--_Heidelberg Teacher._ ~The School of the Church~ Its Pre-eminent Place and Claim. 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By J. M. FROST, D.D.~ "Commended for its careful analysis of the relation of the Sunday-school to the Church, the teaching function of the spiritual factors in that function."--_Standard._ ~The Church and Her Children~ A practical Solution of the Problem of Child Attendance. 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By HENRY W. HULBERT~ "Pierces to the heart of one of the most important and significant concerns of the present-day church--the problem of fixing the habit of church attendance in children."--_Continent._ ~Sunday School Success~ 12mo, cloth, gilt top, net $1.00. ~By AMOS R. WELLS~ "The best hand-book on methods of work and mastery of difficulties we have yet seen. There is not a dull chapter in it."--_Evangelical Messenger._ ~The Work of the Sunday School~ A Manual for Teachers. 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By RAY CLARKSON HARKER~ "A manual for teachers. Treats of some of the supremely significant factors that must be properly handled in every school."--_United Presbyterian._ ~Three Years With the Children~ 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By AMOS R. WELLS~ "Abundant and suggestive methods for all sorts of addresses to children, blackboard talks, object lessons, conversations, etc."--_Baptist Union._ ~Children's Story-Sermons~ 12mo, cloth, net $1.00. ~By HUGH T. KERR, D.D.~ "The story sermons are so attractive, so simple, so full of action, and interest and incident, that they will be valued for the re-reading" and re-telling to the delight of the child."--_Sunday School Times._ ~Little Ten-Minutes~ Talks of a Pastor to His Children. 12mo, cloth, net, $1.00. ~By FRANK T. BAYLEY~ The _Advance_ says: "Dr. Bayley seems to be able to create a good story out of the commonest experiences." _FOR THE BEGINNERS_ ~Kindergarten Bible Stories~ Old Testament. Illustrated, 12mo, cloth, net $1.25. ~By LAURA ELLA CRAGIN~ "Altogether it is the best book of Bible stories we have seen in a long time. The author's gift in bringing out the lessons of the stories is especially noted."--_Christian Observer._ ~Old Testament Stories for Little Children~ Illustrated, 12mo, cloth, net $1.25. ~By LAURA ELLA CRAGIN~ "Insight, historic imagination, graphic fancy and tender love in these narratives are combined with faithfulness to Scripture."--_Western Recorder._ ~Bible Stories to Tell Children~ Illustrated, net $1.00. ~By W. D. MURRAY~ "The idea in re-telling some of the old Bible stories by means of conversations carried on by the actors is to make the children feel what the heroes thought and felt."--_Christian Endeavor World._ ~Tell Me a True Story~ Tales of Bible Heroes for Children of To-day. Illustrated, cloth, net $1.25. ~By MARY STEWART~ _Henry van Dyke_ says: "It brings the meaning of Christianity to the children's level." ~The Shepherd of Us All~ Stories of the Christ Retold for Children. Illustrated, net $1.25. ~By MARY STEWART~ There is a touching beauty and clearness about Miss Stewart's pictures of the Christ life which will ineffaceably impress itself upon the child heart. * * * * * * Transcriber's note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. 
17307	----	Principles of Teaching BY ADAM S. BENNION _Superintendent of Church Schools_ Designed for Quorum Instructors and Auxiliary Class Teachers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Published by THE GENERAL BOARDS OF THE AUXILIARY ORGANIZATIONS OF THE CHURCH 1921 1952 Reprint of the original FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING RELIGION Copyright, 1921 By Adam S. Bennion For the General Boards of the Auxiliary Organizations of the Church PREFACE to the 1952 Edition Two texts have been written for the teacher training program of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints since Dr. Adam S. Bennion's Book _Principles of Teaching_ was published, yet in spite of the fact that this book has been out of print several years so many requests for it have poured in that the General Superintendency has decided to satisfy the demand with this new edition. This book with its classic qualities in many ways fits Shakespeare's description of a beautiful woman when he said, "Age cannot wither her nor custom dim her infinite variety." Anyone who knows Dr. Bennion or has read his writings knows that neither custom nor age has dimmed his infinite variety. Furthermore, a glance at the table of contents of this book will reveal the fact that the problems and principles treated herein are just as real today as they were when the text was written. This little volume is republished in the hope that it again will become one of the basic texts in the teacher training program and fulfill its mission as an instrument in the hands of sincere people who have the devout wish of learning how to teach the principles of the gospel by the power of the Holy Spirit. H.A. Dixon, Chairman Teacher Training Committee _Contents_ Chapter Page Preface vii I Purposes Behind Teaching 1 II What Is Teaching? 7 III The Joys of Teaching 14 IV Personality 20 V Personality 26 VI Attainment 33 VII Native Tendencies 40 VIII What to Do With Native Tendencies 46 IX Individual Differences 53 X Individual Differences and Teaching 61 XI Attention 68 XII What Makes for Interest 74 XIII A Laboratory Lesson in Interest 80 XIV The More Immediate Problems in Teaching 88 XV Organizing the Lesson 96 XVI Illustrating and Supplementing a Lesson 103 XVII The Aim 111 XVIII Application 116 XIX Methods of the Recitation 126 XX Review and Preview 134 XXI The Question as a Factor in Education 142 XXII The Problem of Discipline 149 XXIII Creating Class Spirit 157 XXIV Conversion--The Real Test of Teaching 164 Bibliography 171 _Preface_ That ever-old question, "How to Teach," becomes ever new when made to read, "How to Teach Better." This volume aims to raise those problems which every teacher sooner or later faces, and it attempts to suggest an approach by way of solution which will insure at least some degree of growth towards efficiency. These chapters originally were prepared for the course offered to teacher-trainers in the Summer School of the Brigham Young University, in 1920. The teachers in that course were an inspiration to the author and are responsible for many of the thoughts expressed in the pages of this book. The successful teacher ever views his calling as an opportunity--not as an obligation. To associate with young people is a rare privilege; to teach them is an inspiration; to lead them into the glorious truths of the Gospel of Jesus Christ is heavenly joy itself. This little volume hopes to push open the door of opportunity a little wider, that more of that joy may be realized. "Perchance, in heaven, one day to me Some blessed Saint will come and say, 'All hail, beloved; but for thee My soul to death had fallen a prey'; And oh! what rapture in the thought, One soul to glory to have brought." ADAM S. BENNION. CHAPTER I PURPOSES BEHIND TEACHING OUTLINE--CHAPTER I The worth of souls.--The Father's joy in the soul that is saved.--The teacher's responsibility.--Teaching, a sacred calling.--Our Church a teaching Church. Our three-fold purpose in Teaching: a--To guarantee salvation of the individual members of the Church. b--To pass on the wonderful heritage handed down by our pioneer forefathers. c--To make more easily possible the conversion of the world. "Remember the worth of souls is great in the sight of God; "For, behold, the Lord your Redeemer suffered death in the flesh; wherefore he suffered the pain of all men, that all men might repent and come unto him. "And he hath risen again from the dead, that he might bring all men unto him, on conditions of repentance; "And how great is his joy in the soul that repenteth. "Wherefore, you are called to cry repentance unto this people; "And if it so be that you should labor all your days in crying repentance unto his people, and bring, save it be one soul unto me, how great shall be your joy with him in the kingdom of my Father? "And now, if your joy will be great with one soul that you have brought unto me into the kingdom of my Father, how great will be your joy if you should bring many souls unto me?" (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 18:10-16.) "For behold, this is my work and my glory--to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man." (Moses 1:39.) If this is the work and glory of the Lord, how great must be the responsibility of the teachers of Zion, His copartners in the business of saving humankind! Next to parenthood, teaching involves us in the most sacred relationship known to man. The teacher akin to the parent is the steward of human souls--his purpose to bless and to elevate. The first great question that should concern the Latter-day Saint teacher is, "Why do I teach?" To appreciate fully the real purposes behind teaching is the first great guarantee of success. For teaching is "no mere job"--it is a sacred calling--a trust of the Lord Himself under the divine injunction, "Feed my sheep" (John 21:15). For the teacher who has caught a glimpse of his real responsibility there is no indifference, no eleventh-hour preparation, no feeling of unconcern about the welfare of his pupils between lessons--for him there is constant inspiration in the thought, "To me is given the privilege of being the cupbearer between the Master and His children who would drink at His fountain of truth." The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been variously designated by those not of us: "The Great Industrial Church," "The Church of Pioneers," "The Church of Wonderful Organization." It might well be called "The Teaching Church." There is scarcely a man or woman in it that has not at some time been asked to respond to the call of teacher. Our people have been a remarkable people because they have been remarkably taught--taught of the Lord and His prophets. Our future can be secure only as it is guaranteed this same good teaching. Every teacher must come to realize that "Mormonism" is at stake when he teaches. "Why do I teach?" goes to the very heart of teaching. The answer to this question is to be found, in part at least, in the three-fold objectives of our Church. First, the salvation and exaltation of the individual soul. As already pointed out, this is the very "work and glory" of the Father. Man is born into the world a child of divinity--born for the purpose of development and perfection. Life is the great laboratory in which he works out his experiment of eternity. In potentiality, a God--in actuality, a creature of heredity, environment, and teaching. "Why do I teach?" To help someone else realize his divinity--to assist him to become all that he might become--to make of him what he might not be but for my teaching. Someone has jocularly said: "The child is born into the world half angel, half imp. The imp develops naturally, the angel has to be cultivated." The teacher is the great cultivator of souls. Whether we say the child is half angel and half imp, we know that he is capable of doing both good and evil and that he develops character as he practices virtue and avoids vice. We know, too, that he mentally develops. Born with the capacity to do, he behaves to his own blessing or condemnation. There is no such thing as static life. To the teacher is given the privilege of pointing to the higher life. He is the gardener in the garden of life. His task is to plant and to cultivate the flowers of noble thoughts and deeds rather than to let the human soul grow up to weeds. This purpose becomes all the more significant when we realize that the effects of our teaching are not only to modify a life here of three-score and ten--they are impressions attendant throughout eternity. As the poet Goethe has said, "Life is the childhood of our immortality," and the teachings of childhood are what determine the character of maturity. The thought is given additional emphasis in the beautiful little poem, "Planting," by W. Lomax Childress: Who plants a tree may live To see its leaves unfold, The greenness of its summer garb, Its autumn tinge of gold. Who plants a flower may live To see its beauty grow, The lily whiten on its stalk, The rambler rose to blow. Who sows the seed may find The field of harvest fair, The song of reapers ringing clear, When all the sheaves are there. But time will fell the tree, The rose will fade and die, The harvest time will pass away, As does the song and sigh. But whoso plants in love, The word of hope and trust, Shall find it still alive with God-- It is not made of dust. It cannot fade nor change, Though worlds may scattered be, For love alone has high repose In immortality. If the teacher, as he stands before his class, could project his vision into the future--could see his pupils developed into manhood and womanhood, and could see all that he might do or fail to do, he would read a meaning well-nigh beyond comprehension into the question, "Why do I teach?" A second answer to this query lies in our obligation to pass on the wonderful heritage which we here received from our pioneer forefathers. The story of their sacrifice, devotion, and achievement is unique in the history of the world. Only recently a pioneer of 1852 thrilled a parents' class in one of our wards with the simple narrative of his early experiences. His account of Indian raids, of the experience with Johnston's army, of privations and suffering, of social pastimes--all of these things rang with a spirit of romance. None of his auditors will ever forget the story of his aunt who gave up her seat in her wagon to a sick friend for whom no provision had been made, and trudged across the plains afoot that one more soul might rejoice in Zion. Every pioneer can tell this sort of thrilling story. Could our young people enjoy the companionship of these pioneers there would be little need of alarm concerning their faith. Unfortunately, each year sees fewer of these pioneers left to tell their story. It is to the teacher, both of the fireside and the classroom, that we must look for the perpetuation of the spirit of '47. The ideals and achievements of the pioneers are such an inspiration, such a challenge to the youth of the Church today--that teachers ought to glory in the opportunity to keep alive the memories of the past. Our pioneer heritage ought never to be forfeited to indifference. It is a heritage that could come only out of pioneer life. Such courage to face sacrifice, such devotion to God, such loyalty to government, such consecration to the task of conquering an unpromising and forbidding desert, such determination to secure the advantages of education, such unselfish devotion to the welfare of their fellows--where could we turn for such inspiration to one who would teach? Nor is it enough that we strive to perfect the individual membership of the Church and preserve the social heritage out of the past--we assume to become the teachers of the world. It is our blessing to belong to a Church built upon revelation--a Church established and taught of the Lord. But with that blessing comes the injunction to carry this gospel of the kingdom to every nation and clime. "Mormonism" was not revealed for a few Saints alone who were to establish Zion--it was to be proclaimed to all the world. Every Latter-day Saint is enjoined to teach the truth. Whether called as a missionary, or pursuing his regular calling at home, his privilege and his obligation is to cry repentance and preach the plan of salvation. The better we teach, the sooner we shall make possible the realization of God's purposes in the world. The two thousand young men and women who go out each year to represent us in the ministry should go out well trained, not only that they may represent our Church as an institution which believes that "the glory of God is intelligence," but also that they may win intelligent men and women to the truth. Only he who is well taught may become a good teacher--hence the need of intelligent, devoted service. "Why do I teach?" far from being an idle question, goes to the very heart of the future of the Church. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER I 1. How many of the members of your ward are actively engaged in other than parental teaching? 2. What significance is attached to calling our Church a teaching Church? 3. Discuss the significance of Jesus' being a teacher. 4. Compare the responsibility of teaching with that of parenthood. 5. Enumerate the chief purposes behind teaching. 6. In your opinion, which is the greatest purpose? Why? 7. To what extent does the following statement apply to the welfare of our Church: "That nation that does not revere its past, plays little part in the present, and soon finds that it has no future." 8. Discuss our obligation under the injunction to teach the gospel to the world. 9. Discuss the need here at home of better teaching. 10. In what sense are we trustees of the heritage left by the pioneers? HELPFUL REFERENCES Doctrine & Covenants: James, _Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Strayer, _A Brief Course in the Teaching Process_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Sharp, _Education for Character_. CHAPTER II WHAT IS TEACHING? OUTLINE--CHAPTER II Teaching a complex art.--What teaching is not.--What teaching is.--What it involves.--Presentation of facts.--Organization and evaluation of knowledge.--Interpretation and elaboration of truth.--Inspiration to high ideals.--Encouragement and direction given to expression.--Discovery of pupils' better selves.--Inspiration of example as well as precept.--Application of truths taught in lives of pupils. The query, "What constitutes teaching?" cannot be answered off-hand. It is so complex an art, so fine an art, as Professor Driggs points out, that it has to be pondered to be understood and appreciated. It is often considered to be mere lesson-hearing and lesson-giving. The difference between mere instructions and teaching is as great as the distinction between eating and digestion. The following definition of _teaching_, contributed by a former state superintendent of schools, is rich in suggestion: "Teaching is the process of training an individual through the formation of habits, the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of ideals, and the fixing of permanent interests so that he shall become a clean, intelligent, self-supporting member of society, who has the power to govern himself, can participate in noble enjoyments, and has the desire and the courage to revere God and serve his fellows." Teaching does not merely consist of an inquisition of questions with appropriate answers thrown in; it surely is not mere reading; nor can it be mistaken for preaching or lecturing. These are all means that may be employed in the process of teaching. And they are important, too. We have been cautioned much, of late years, not to lose ourselves in the process of doling out facts--but that rather we should occupy ourselves teaching boys and girls. That all sounds well--the writer of these lessons has himself proclaimed this doctrine--but we have discovered that you cannot teach boys and girls _nothing_. They no more can be happy _listening_ to _nothing_ than they can be content _doing nothing_. And so we now urge the significance of having a rich supply of subject matter--a substantial content of lesson material. But the doctrine holds that the teacher ought not to lose himself in mere facts--they are merely the medium through which he arrives at, and drives home the truth. "It is the teacher's task to make changes for the better in the abilities, habits and attitudes of boys and girls. Her efficiency can be evaluated fairly only in terms of her success at this task. In other words, if a teacher is rated at all, she should be rated not only by the clothes she wears, or the method she chooses, but by the results she secures."--_Journal of Educational Research_, May, 1920. We have said that teaching is a complex art. It consists of at least these eight fundamentals, each one of which, or any combination of which, may be featured in any one particular lesson: 1. Presentation of facts. 2. Organization and evaluation of knowledge. 3. Interpretation and elaboration of truth. 4. Inspiration to high ideals. 5. Encouragement and direction given to expression. 6. Discovery of pupils' better selves. 7. Inspiration of example as well as precept. 8. Application of truths taught in lives of the pupils. I. PRESENTATION OF FACTS Facts constitute the background upon which the mind operates. There may be many or few--they may be presented in a lecture of thirty minutes, in the reading of a dozen pages, or they may be called forth out of the mind by a single stimulating question. But we ought not to confuse the issue. If we are to discuss any matter in the hope of reaching a conclusion in truth, we must have material upon which the mind can build that conclusion. We are not concerned in this chapter with method of procedure in getting the facts before a class--the important thought here is that the facts in rich abundance should be supplied. A certain young lady protested recently against going to Sunday School. Her explanation of her attitude is best expressed in her own words: "I get sick and tired of going to a class where I never hear anything new or worth while." Exaggerated, of course, but students are crying for bread, and ought not to be turned away with a stone. II. ORGANIZATION AND EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE We have hinted that a lesson may not have facts enough to justify the time it takes--there is, on the other hand, danger that the whole time of the class may be consumed in a mere rehearsal of facts as facts. Only recently a significant complaint was voiced by a young man who has gone through training in practically all of our organizations. "I don't seem to know anything at all," he said, "about the history of Israel, as a whole. I can recall certain isolated facts about particular persons or places, but I can't give any intelligent answer at all to such questions as these: "Who were the Israelites? What were their big movements relative to the Promised Land? What is the history of Israel up to the time of the Savior? What is their history subsequently? Are we of Israel and how?" The young man was not complaining--he merely regretted his ignorance on points of vital interest. He was in need of further organization of the knowledge he had. He had not been given the big central ideas about which to build the minor ones. Relative importance had not been taught him through that organized review that is so valuable in review. The teacher ought to come back time and again to pause on the big essentials--the peaks of gospel teaching. III. INTERPRETATION AND ELABORATION OF TRUTH It is really surprising how many various notions of an idea will be carried away by the members of a class from a single declaration on the part of a teacher. A phase of a subject may be presented which links up with a particular experience of one of the pupils. To him there is only one interpretation. To another pupil the phase of the subject presented might make no appeal at all, or linked up with a different experience might lead to an entirely different conclusion. Truths need to be elaborated and interpreted from all possible angles--all possible phases should be developed. An interesting discussion recently took place with a young man who had "gone off" on a pet doctrinal theory. His whole conception built itself up about a single passage of scripture. Satisfied with a single notion, he had shut his eyes to all else and "knew that he was right." Properly to be taught, he needed to be trained to suspend his judgment until _all the evidence_ was in. IV. INSPIRATION TO HIGH IDEALS Men and women like to be carried to the heights. They like to be lifted out of their lower selves into what they may become. It is the teacher's delight to let his class stand tip-toe on the facts of subject matter to peep into the glories of the gospel plan of life and salvation. In 1903 Sanford Bell, of the University of Colorado, reported the results of a survey conducted with 543 men and 488 women to ascertain whether they liked male or female teachers better and just what it was that made them like those teachers who had meant most in their lives. The survey showed that the following influences stood out in the order named: Moral uplift. Inspiration. Stimulus to intellectual awakening. Spur to scholarship. Help in getting a firm grip on the vital issues of life. Personal kindness. Encouragement in crises. What a testimonial to the force of inspiration to higher ideals! V. ENCOURAGEMENT AND DIRECTION GIVEN TO PUPILS' EXPRESSION Most pupils in class are ordinarily inclined to sit silently by and let someone else do the talking. And yet, everyone enjoys participating in a lesson when once "the ice is broken." It is the teacher's task first of all to create an atmosphere of easy expression and then later to help make that expression adequate and effective. The bishop of one of our wards in southern Utah declared, not long ago, that he traced the beginning of his testimony back to a Primary lesson in which a skillful teacher led him to commit himself very enthusiastically to the notion that the Lord does answer prayers. He said he defended the proposition so vigorously that he set about to make sure from experience that he was right. The details of securing this expression will be more fully worked out in the chapter on Methods of the Recitation. VI. DISCOVERY OF PUPILS' BETTER SELVES One of the most fascinating problems in teaching is to come to know the real nature of our pupils--to get below surface appearances to the very boy himself. Most of the work of solving this problem necessarily must be done out of class. Such intimate knowledge is the result of personal contact when no barriers of class recitation interfere. It involves time and effort, of course, but it is really the key to genuine teaching. It makes possible what we have named as factor number eight, which may be disposed of here for present purposes. We read of bygone days largely because in them we hope to find a solution to the problems of Jimmie Livingston today. How can we effect the solution if all that we know of Jimmie is that he is one of our fifteen scouts? We must see him in action, must associate with him as he encounters his problems, if we would help him solve them. Our discovery of our pupils' better selves, and intelligent application, go together hand in hand. VII. INSPIRATION OF EXAMPLE AS WELL AS PRECEPT When Emerson declared, "What you are thunders so loudly in my ears that I can't hear what you say," he sounded a mighty note to teachers. Hundreds of boys and girls have been stimulated to better lives by the desire "to be like teacher." "Come, follow me," is the great password to the calling of teacher. The teacher conducts a class on Sunday morning--he really teaches all during the week. When Elbert Hubbard added his new commandment, "Remember the week-days, to keep them holy," he must have had teachers in mind. A student in one of our Church schools was once heard to say, "My teacher teaches me more religion by the way he plays basketball than by the way he teaches theology." It was what Jesus did that made him Savior of the world. He was the greatest _teacher_ because he was the greatest man. Surely teaching is a complex art! * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER II 1. What is teaching? 2. Why is it essential that we get a clear conception of just what teaching is? 3. Discuss the importance of building the recitation upon a good foundation of facts. 4. Why are facts alone not a guarantee of a successful recitation? 5. What is the teacher's obligation in the matter of organizing knowledge? 6. Discuss the significance of teaching as an interpretation of truth. 7. Discuss the teacher's obligation to discover pupils' better selves. 8. What is the relative importance of expression and impression in teaching? HELPFUL REFERENCES Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Gregory, _The Seven Laws of Teaching_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. CHAPTER III THE JOYS OF TEACHING OUTLINE--CHAPTER III The Joys that attend Teaching: Enrichment of the spirit.--Guarantee of the teacher's own growth and development.--Restraining and uplifting influence on the moral character of the teacher.--Satisfaction that attends seeing pupils develop.--Inspirational companionship.--Contentment that attaches to duty done.--Outpouring of the blessings of the Lord. Chapters one and two emphasized the thought that the purposes behind teaching impose a sacred obligation on the part of those who aspire to teach. But lest the obligation appear burdensome, let us remind ourselves that compensation is one of the great laws of life. "To him who gives shall be given" applies to teaching as to few other things. Verily he who loses his life finds it. The devotion of the real teacher, though it involves labor, anxiety and sacrifice, is repaid ten-fold. Only he who has fully given himself in service to others can appreciate the joy that attends teaching--particularly that teaching enjoined upon us by the Master and which is its own recompense. It is difficult to enumerate all of the blessings that attend the service of the teacher, but let us consider a few that stand out pre-eminently. If there were none other than this first one it would justify all that is done in the name of teaching; namely, "the enrichment of spirit." "There is a spirit in man: and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understanding." To feel the thrill of that inspiration is a compensation beyond price. The Lord, having commanded us to teach (see Sec. 88:77-81, Doc. & Cov.), has followed the command with the promise of a blessing, one of the richest in all scripture. "For thus saith the Lord, I, the Lord, am merciful and gracious unto those who fear me, and delight to honor those who serve me in righteousness and in truth unto the end; "Great shall be their reward and eternal shall be their glory; "And to them will I reveal all mysteries, yea, all the hidden mysteries of my kingdom from days of old, and for ages to come will I make known unto them the good pleasure of my will concerning all things pertaining to my kingdom; "Yea, even the wonders of eternity shall they know, and things to come will I show them, even the things of many generations; "And their wisdom shall be great, and their understanding reach to heaven: and before them the wisdom of the wise shall perish, and the understanding of the prudent shall come to naught; "For by my Spirit will I enlighten them, and by my power will I make known unto them the secrets of my will; yea, even those things which eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor yet entered into the heart of man." (Doc. & Cov. 76:5-10.) This constitutes a promissory note signed by our heavenly Father Himself. A blessing beyond compare--a dividend unfailing--and our only investment--devoted service! Companionship with the Spirit of the Lord! That is what it means, if we serve Him in faith and humility. "Be thou humble, and the Lord thy God shall lead thee by the hand, and give thee answer to thy prayers." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 112:10.) Like all other gifts and attainments, the Spirit of the Lord has to be cultivated. Teaching insures a cultivation as few other things in life can. An enriched spirit, then, is the first great reward of the teacher. A second satisfaction is the guarantee of one's own growth and development. Teachers invariably declare that they have learned more, especially in the first year of teaching, than in any year at college. A consciousness of the fact that it is hard to teach that which is not well known incites that type of study which makes for growth. A good class is a great "pace-setter." Intellectually it has the pull of achievement. The real teacher always is the greatest student in the class. The "drive" of having a regular task to perform, especially when that task is checked up as it is by students, leads many a person to a development unknown to him who is free to slide. "Blessed is he who has to do things." Responsibility is the great force that builds character. Compare the relative development of the person who spends Tuesday evening at home with the evening paper, or at some other pastime, and of the person who, having accepted fully the call to teach, leads a class of truth-seekers through an hour's discussion of some vital subject. Follow the development through the Tuesday evenings of a lifetime. How easy to understand that there are varying degrees of glory hereafter. A third value of teaching lies in the fact that the position of teacher exercises a restraining influence for good on the moral life of the teacher. He is sustained by a consciousness that his conduct is his only evidence to his pupils that his practice is consistent with his theory. His class follows him in emulation or in criticism in all that he does. "Come, follow me," lifts the real teacher over the pitfalls of temptation. He cannot do forbidden work on the Sabbath, he cannot indulge in the use of tobacco, he cannot stoop to folly--his class stands between him and all these things. A teacher recently gave expression to the value of this restraining force when she said, "I urge my girls so vigorously not to go to the movies on Sunday that I find my conscience in rebellion if anyone asks me to go." Many a man in attempting to convert another to the righteousness of a particular issue has found himself to be his own best convert. He comes to appreciate the fact that the trail he establishes is the path followed by those whom he influences. He hears the voice of the child as recorded in the little poem: I STEPPED IN YOUR STEPS ALL THE WAY "A father and his tiny son Crossed a rough street one stormy day, 'See papa!' cried the little one, 'I stepped in your steps all the way!' "Ah, random, childish hands, that deal Quick thrusts no coat of proof could stay! It touched him with the touch of steel-- 'I stepped in your steps all the way!' "If this man shirks his manhood's due And heeds what lying voices say, It is not one who falls, but two, 'I stepped in your steps all the way!' "But they who thrust off greed and fear, Who love and watch, who toil and pray, How their hearts carol when they say, 'I stepped in your steps all the way!'" Still another joy that attends teaching is the satisfaction of seeing pupils develop. The sculptor finds real happiness in watching his clay take on the form and expression of his model; the artist glories as his colors grow into life; the parent finds supreme joy in seeing himself "re-grow" in his child; so the teacher delights to see his pupils build their lives on the truths he has taught. The joy is doubly sweet if it is heightened by an expression of appreciation on the part of the pupils. Few experiences can bring the thrill of real happiness that comes to the teacher when a former student, once perhaps a little inclined to mischief or carelessness, takes him by the hand with a "God bless you for helping me find my better self." An officer of the British army, in recounting those experiences which had come to him in the recent world war, and which he said he never could forget, referred to one which more than compensated him for all the effort he had ever put into his preparation for teaching. Because of his position in the army it became his duty to discipline a group of boys for what in the army is a serious offense. In that group was a boy who had formerly been a pupil under the officer in one of our ward organizations. Chagrin was stamped on the face of the boy as he came forward for reprimand. Regret and remorse were in the heart of the officer. They soon gave way to pride, however, as the boy assured him that worse than any punishment was the humiliation of being brought before his own teacher, and he further assured him that never again would he do a thing that would mar the sacred relations of pupil and teacher. A further compensation attached to teaching is that of inspirational companionship. It is a blessed privilege to enjoy the sunshine of youth. Every pupil contributes an association with one of God's choice spirits. To live and work with children and adolescents is one of the finest of safeguards against old age. The teacher not only partakes of the joy of his group--they constitute him a link between his generation and theirs. Their newness of life, their optimism, their spontaneity, their joy, they gladly pass on to their teacher. Moreover, the teacher enjoys the uplifting associations of his fellow teachers. Among those consecrated to a noble service, there is a spirit unknown to him who has not enjoyed such communion. Whether he is conscious of it or not, the teacher responds to the pull of such a group. Scores of teachers have testified that the associations they have enjoyed as members of a local board, stake board, or general board, are among the happiest of their lives. And finally there is the contentment of mind that comes as a result of a duty well done. The human soul is so constituted that any task well performed brings a feeling of satisfaction, and this is doubly heightened when the duty performed is of the nature of a free will offering. Still more so when it is shared in by others to their blessing. Just as we hope for an eventual crowning under the blessing, "Well done, thou good and faithful servant," so we treasure those benedictions along the way that attend the discharge of a sacred obligation. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER III 1. Quote some of the promises of the Lord to those who do His will. 2. How is teaching one of the surest guarantees of the blessings of eternal life? 3. What are the immediate joys attached to teaching? 4. Discuss the application to teaching of the truth--"He who loses his life shall find it." 5. What types of companionship are assured him who teaches? 6. As you now recall them, what distinct pleasures stand out in your teaching experience? 7. Discuss Section 76 of the Doctrine & Covenants as one of the most valuable promissory notes ever given to mankind. 8. Discuss the force of a duty done as a guarantee of joy. HELPFUL REFERENCES Doctrine and Covenants: Slattery, _Living Teachers_; Sharp, _Education for Character_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_. CHAPTER IV PERSONALITY OUTLINE--CHAPTER IV The worth of a great teacher.--Good teachers not necessarily born.--Some boys' observations on teachers.--A high school survey.--Clapp's _Essential Characteristics_.--Betts' _Three Classes of Teachers_.--His list of qualities. "A great teacher is worth more to a state, though he teach by the roadside, than a faculty of mediocrities housed in Gothic piles."--_Chicago Tribune_, September, 1919. We may stress the sacred obligation of the teacher; we may discuss in detail mechanical processes involved in lesson preparation; we may analyze child nature in all of its complexity; but after all we come back to the _Personality of the Teacher_ as the great outstanding factor in pedagogical success. _That something in the man_ that grips people! Very generally this _Personal Equation_ has been looked upon as a certain indefinable possession enjoyed by the favored few. In a certain sense this is true. Personality is largely inherent in the individual and therefore differs as fully as do individuals. But of recent years educators have carried on extensive investigations in this field of personality and have succeeded in reducing to comprehensible terms those qualities which seem to be most responsible for achievements of successful teachers. Observation leads us all to similar deductions and constitutes one of the most interesting experiments open to those concerned with the teaching process. Why, with the same amount of preparation, does one teacher succeed with a class over which another has no control at all? Why is it that one class is crowded each week, while another adjourns for lack of membership? The writer a short time ago, after addressing the members of a ward M.I.A., asked a group of scouts to remain after the meeting, to whom he put the question, "What is it that you like or dislike in teachers?" The group was a thoroughly typical group--real boys, full of life and equally full of frankness. They contributed the following replies: 1. We like a fellow that's full of pep. 2. We like a fellow that doesn't preach all the time. 3. We like a fellow that makes us be good. 4. We like a fellow that tells us new things. Boylike, they were "strong" for pep--a little word with a big significance. Vigor, enthusiasm, sense of humor, attack, forcefulness--all of these qualities are summed up in these three letters. And the interesting thing is that while the boys liked to be told new things, they didn't want to be preached at. They evidently had the boy's idea of preaching who characterized it as, "talking a lot when you haven't anything to say." Still more interesting is the fact that boys like to be made to be good. In spite of their fun and their seeming indifference they really are serious in a desire to subscribe to the laws of order that make progress possible. A principal of the Granite High School carried on an investigation through a period of four years to ascertain just what it is that students like in teachers. During those years students set down various attributes and qualities, which are summarized below just as they were given: _Desirable Characteristics_ Congeniality. Broadmindedness. Wide knowledge. Personality that makes discipline easy. Willingness to entertain questions. Realization that students need help. Sense of humor--ability to take a joke. Optimism--cheerfulness. Sympathy. Originality. Progressiveness. Effective expression. Pleasing appearance--"good looking." Tact. Patience. Sincerity. Among the characteristics which they did not like in teachers they named the following: _Undesirable Characteristics_ Grouchiness. Wandering in method. Indifference to need for help. Too close holding to the text. Distant attitude--aloofness. Partiality. Excitability. Irritability. Pessimism--"in the dumps." Indifferent assignments. Hazy explanations. Failure to cover assignments. Distracting facial expressions. Attitude of "lording it over." Sarcasm. Poor taste in dress. Bluffing--"the tables turned." Discipline for discipline's sake. "Holier than thouness." _Desirable Capabilities_ They also reduced to rather memorable phrases a half dozen desirable capabilities: 1. The ability to make students work and want to work. 2. The ability to make definite assignments. 3. The ability to make clear explanations. 4. The ability to be pleasant without being easy. 5. The ability to emphasize essentials. 6. The ability to capitalize on new ideas. 7. The ability to be human. A number of years ago Clapp conducted a similar survey among one hundred leading school men of America, asking them to list the ten most essential characteristics of a good teacher. From the lists sent in Clapp compiled the ten qualities in the order named most frequently by the one hundred men: 1. Sympathy. 2. Address. 3. Enthusiasm. 4. Sincerity. 5. Personal Appearance. 6. Optimism. 7. Scholarship. 8. Vitality. 9. Fairness. 10. Reserve or dignity. George Herbert Betts, in his stimulating book, _How to Teach Religion_, says there are three classes of teachers: "Two types of teachers are remembered: One to be forgiven after years have softened the antagonisms and resentments; the other to be thought of with honor and gratitude as long as memory lasts. Between these two is a third and a larger group: those who are forgotten, because they failed to stamp a lasting impression on their pupils. This group represents the mediocrity of the profession, not bad enough to be actively forgiven, not good enough to claim a place in gratitude and remembrance." Mr. Betts then goes on with a very exhaustive list of positive and negative qualities in teachers--a list so valuable that we set it down here for reference. _Positive Qualities_ _Negative Qualities_ 1. Open-minded, inquiring, broad. Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry for truth. 2. Accurate, thorough, discerning. Indefinite, superficial, lazy. 3. Judicious, balanced, fair. Prejudiced, led by likes and dislikes. 4. Original, independent, Dependent, imitative, subservient. resourceful. 5. Decisive, possessing convictions. Uncertain, wavering, undecided. 6. Cheerful, joyous, optimistic. Gloomy, morose, pessimistic, bitter. 7. Amiable, friendly, agreeable. Repellent, unsociable, disagreeable. 8. Democratic, broadly sympathetic. Snobbish, self-centered, exclusive. 9. Tolerant, sense of humor, Opinionated, dogmatic, intolerant. generous. 10. Kind, courteous, tactful. Cruel, rude, untactful. 11. Tractable, co-operative, Stubborn, not able to work with teachable. others. 12. Loyal, honorable, dependable. Disloyal, uncertain dependability. 13. Executive, forceful, vigorous. Uncertain, weak, not capable. 14. High ideals, worthy, exalted. Low standards, base, contemptible. 15. Modest, self-effacing. Egotistical, vain, autocratic. 16. Courageous, daring, firm. Overcautious, weak, vacillating. 17. Honest, truthful, frank, Low standards of honor and truth. sincere. 18. Patient, calm, equable. Irritable, excitable, moody. 19. Generous, open-hearted, Stingy, selfish, resentful. forgiving. 20. Responsive, congenial. Cold, repulsive, uninviting. 21. Punctual, on schedule, capable. Tardy, usually behindhand, incapable. 22. Methodical, consistent, logical. Haphazard, desultory, inconsistent. 23. Altruistic, given to service. Indifferent, not socially minded. 24. Refined, alive to beauty, Coarse, lacking aesthetic quality. artistic. 25. Self-controlled, decision, Suggestible, easily led, uncertain. purpose. 26. Good physical carriage, dignity. Lack of poise, ill posture, no grace. 27. Taste in attire, cleanliness, Careless in dress, frumpy, no pride. pride. 28. Face smiling, voice pleasant. Somber expression, voice unpleasant. 29. Physical endurance, vigor, Quickly tired, weak, sluggish. strength. 30. Spiritual responsiveness, Spiritually weak, inconstant, strong. uncertain. 31. Prayer life warm, satisfying. Prayer cold, formal, little comfort. 32. Religious certainty, peace, Conflict, strain, uncertainty. quiet. 33. Religious experience expanding. Spiritual life static or losing force. 34. God a near, inspiring reality. God distant, unreal, hard of approach. 35. Power to win others to religion. Influence little or negative. 36. Interest in Bible and religion. Little concern for religion and Bible. 37. Religion makes life fuller and Religion felt as a limitation. richer. 38. Deeply believe great Lacking in foundations for faith. fundamentals. 39. Increasing triumph over sin. Too frequent falling before temptation. 40. Religious future hopeful. Religious growth uncertain. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER IV 1. Think of the teachers who stand out most clearly in your memory. Why do they so stand out? 2. Name the qualities that made the Savior the _Great Teacher_. 3. If you had to choose between a fairly capable but humble teacher, and a very capable but conceited one, which one would be your choice? Why? 4. What is your argument against the idea, "Teachers are born, not made"? 5. Discuss the relative significance of the qualities quoted from Betts. HELPFUL REFERENCES O'Shea, _Every-day Problems in Teaching_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Palmer, _The Ideal Teacher_; Slattery, _Living Teachers_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_. CHAPTER V PERSONALITY OUTLINE--CHAPTER V The six major qualities:--a. Sympathy.--b. Sincerity.--c. Optimism.--d. Scholarly attitude.--e. Vitality.--f. Spirituality. To set about to cultivate separate qualities would be rather a discouraging undertaking. As a matter of fact, many of the characteristics named really overlap, while others are secondary in importance. For practical purposes let us enlarge upon five or six qualities which everyone will agree are fundamental to teaching success. The class in Teacher Training, at the Brigham Young University, in the summer of 1920, named these six as the most fundamental: 1. Sympathy. 2. Sincerity. 3. Optimism. 4. Scholarly attitude. 5. Vitality. 6. Spirituality. No attempt was made to set them down in the order of relative importance. 1. SYMPATHY This is a very broad and far-reaching term. It rests upon experience and imagination and involves the ability to live, at least temporarily, someone else's life. Sympathy is fundamentally vicarious. Properly to sympathize with children a man must re-live in memory his own childhood or he must have the power of imagination to see things through their eyes. Many a teacher has condemned pupils for doing what to them was perfectly normal. We too frequently persist in viewing a situation from our own point of view rather than in going around to the other side to look at it as our pupils see it. It is no easy matter thus "to get out of ourselves" and become a boy or girl again, but it is worth the effort. Along with this ability at vicarious living, sympathy involves an interest in others. Sympathy is a matter of concern in the affairs of others. The rush and stir of modern life fairly seem to force us to focus our attention upon self, but if we would succeed as teachers, we must make ourselves enter into the lives of our pupils out of an interest to see how they conduct their lives, and the reasons for such conduct. Coupled with this interest in others and the imagination to see through their eyes, sympathy involves a desire to help them. A man may have an interest in people born out of mere curiosity or for selfish purposes, but if he has sympathy for them, he must be moved with a desire to help and to bless them. And, finally, sympathy involves the actual doing of something by way of service. President Grant liked to refer to a situation wherein a particular person was in distress. Friends of all sorts came along expressing regret and professing sympathy. Finally a fellow stepped forward and said, "I feel to sympathize with this person to the extent of fifty dollars." "That man," said President Grant, "has sympathy in his heart as well as in his purse." 2. SINCERITY Surely this is a foundation principle in teaching: "Thou must to thyself be true, If thou the truth would teach; Thy soul must overflow, If thou another soul would reach." A teacher must really be converted to what he teaches or there is a hollowness to all that he utters. "Children and dogs," it is said, are the great judges of sincerity--they instinctively know a friend. No teacher can continue to stand on false ground before his pupils. The superintendent of one of our Sunday Schools, having selected one of the most talented persons in his ward to teach a Second Intermediate Class was astonished some months later to receive a request from the class for a change of teachers. The class could assign no specific reasons for their objections, except that they didn't get anything out of the class. A year later the superintendent learned that the teacher was living in violation of the regulations of the Church, on a particular principle, and it was perfectly clear why his message didn't ring home. The sincere teacher not only believes what he teaches--he consecrates his best efforts to the task in hand. He urges no excuse for absence or lack of preparation--"he is there." He lets his class feel that for the time being it is his greatest concern. He meets with boys and girls because he loves to and reaches out to them with an enthusiasm that cannot be questioned. 3. OPTIMISM is the sunshine of the classroom. It is as natural to expect a plant to develop when covered with a blanket as it is to expect a class to be full of activity and responsiveness under an influence of unnatural solemnity. Lincoln is quoted as having declared, "You can catch more flies with a drop of honey than with a gallon of vinegar"--a homely expression, but full of suggestion. A grouch is no magnet. A little girl when questioned why she liked her Sunday School teacher said, "Oh, she always smiles at me and says, hello." There is contagion in the cheeriness of a smile that cannot be resisted. Children live so naturally in an atmosphere of happiness and fun that teachers of religious instruction may well guard against making their work too formally sober. Frequently teachers feel the seriousness of their undertaking so keenly that they worry or discipline themselves into a state of pedagogical unnaturalness. There is very great force behind the comment of the student who appreciated the teacher who could be human. The experience is told of a teacher who continued to have difficulty with one of her pupils. He so persisted in violating regulations that he was kept in after school regularly, and yet after school hours he was one of the most helpful lads in the school; in fact, he and the teacher seemed almost chummy. Struck by the difference in his attitude, the teacher remarked to him one afternoon, as he went about cleaning the blackboard, "Jimmie, I have just been wondering about you. You're one of my best workers after school--I can't understand how you can be so different during school hours and after." "Gee, that's funny," put in Jimmie, "I was just thinking the same thing about you." To be cheerful without being easy is a real art. Liberty is so often converted into license, and a spirit of fun so easily transformed into mischief and disorder. And yet cheerfulness is the great key to the human heart. An attitude of looking for the good in pupils will lead to a response of friendliness on their part which is the basis of all teaching. 4. SCHOLARLY ATTITUDE If a teacher would cultivate an appetite for learning among his pupils he must himself hunger for knowledge. Most young people will "take intellectually if sufficiently exposed." A scholarly attitude implies first of all a growing mastery of subject matter. To quote an eminent writer on religious education, "A common bane of Sunday school teaching has been the haziness of the teacher's own ideas concerning the truths of religion." Fancy the hostess who would invite her guests to a dinner, and upon their arrival indicate to them that she had made only vague plans to receive them. No special place for their wraps, no entertainment for their amusement, and then fancy her asking them to sit down to a warmed-up conglomeration of left-overs. Of course, it is only in fancy that we can imagine such a service. Yet reports frequently indicate that there are class recitations, intellectual banquets, for which the preparation has been about as meagre as that indicated. Surely he who would feast others upon His word should prepare unceasingly. Let us keep in mind the comment--"We like the fellow who tells us something new." Along with this mastery of subject matter, a scholarly attitude implies both broadmindedness and openmindedness. Seekers after truth should welcome it from all available sources, and ought not to be handicapped by bias or prejudice. Tolerance and a willingness to entertain questions--a constant effort to view a subject from every possible angle--a poise that attends self-control even under stress of annoyance--these things are all involved in a truly scholarly attack upon any given problem. 5. VITALITY One of the qualities most favorably and frequently commented on by students is what they call "pep." A certain vigor of attack that seems to go directly to the point at stake, putting at rest all other business and making discipline unnecessary, is what twentieth century young people seem to like. The element of hero worship prompts them to demand that the leader shall "do things." They like the "push" that takes a man over the top, the drive that wins a ball game, the energy that stamps the business man with success. Vitality is an inherent factor in leadership. 6. SPIRITUALITY The crowning glory of the successful religious teacher is that spiritual glow which links up heaven and earth. "And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the power of faith, and if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 42:14.) This divine injunction is given us because we have undertaken to teach His Gospel. We would lead others to Him. And this is possible only as we lead by the light of His Holy Spirit. Above our knowledge of facts and our understanding of child nature must be placed our communion with that Spirit which touches the hearts of men. If a teacher would prepare a young man for a place in a modern business house he must teach him the ways of business,--buying, selling, collecting, managing, etc.,--matters of fact, governed by the laws of barter and trade. If that same teacher would teach the same young man the way of eternal life, he must substitute for the laws of man the word of the Lord, and for the spirit of exchange, the Spirit of Heaven. A pupil can be prepared for the kingdom of God only as he is led to respond to and appreciate His Spirit, and to do His will. While it is true that the best way to prepare for heaven is to live the best possible life here on earth, yet we need the Spirit of the Lord to interpret what constitutes that best possible life. There is power in the intellect of man; there is glory in that power when it is heightened by the Spirit of the Almighty. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER V 1. What is sympathy? 2. Why is it so essential in teaching? 3. Why is sincerity a foundation principle in all teaching? 4. Discuss the obligation on the part of the teacher to leave his troubles outside the classroom. 5. Discuss the statement--"Cheerfulness is spiritual sunshine." 6. Illustrate the value of cheerfulness. 7. What is the significance of the term, scholarly attitude? 8. Just what constitutes vitality? 9. Show how it is essential to teaching. 10. Why name spirituality as the crowning characteristic of the good teacher? HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter IV. CHAPTER VI ATTAINMENT OUTLINE--CHAPTER VI The possibility of growth in teaching.--How to develop spirituality: a. By cultivating the spirit of prayer; b. By leading a clean life; c. By obeying the principles of the Gospel; d. By performing one's duty in the Church; e. By reading and pondering the word of the Lord.--How to develop other qualities: a. By taking a personal inventory; b. By coming in contact with the best in life through reading and companionship; c. By forming the habit of systematic study; d. By assuming responsibility. While we may agree as to what constitutes the desirable characteristics in teachers it is far easier to name them than to attain them. We have already pointed out that teaching is a complex art proficiency in which is the result of a long, painstaking process. But success in teaching as in all other pursuits is possible of achievement. We have heard so frequently that teachers must be born, not made, that many prospective teachers, feeling that they have been denied this pedagogical birthright, give up in despair. Of course, it is naturally easy for some individuals to teach--they do seem born possessed of a teaching personality, but they are not given a monopoly on the profession. The Lord has too many children to be taught to leave their instruction to a few favored ones. The qualities listed in chapter five may be developed, in varying degrees, of course, by any normal person anxious to serve his fellows. The "will to do" is the great key to success. To him who would develop spiritually, these five suggestions may be helpful: First, cultivate the spirit of prayer. The president of one of our stakes made the remark once that he believed only a few of the men and women of his stake really pray. "They go through the form, all right," he said; "they repeat the words--but they do not enter into the spirit of the prayer. If the Lord doesn't draw nearer to them than they do to Him I doubt that their prayers are really of very great force." The ability to pray is the great test of a spiritual life. "The faith to pray" is a gift to be cultivated through devoted practice. The teacher who would have his pupils draw nearer to him must himself draw near to the Lord. The promise, "Ask, and ye shall receive, seek, and ye shall find," was given only to those who ask in faith. This constant prayer of faith, then is the first great guarantee of the Spirit. The second is a clean life. Just as it is impossible for water to make its way through a dirty, clogged pipe, so it is for the Spirit to flow through a channel of unrighteous desires. A visitor was interested a short time ago in Canada in attempting to get a drink out of a pipe that had been installed to carry water from a spring in the side of a mountain to a pool at the side of the road. Due to neglect, moss and filth had been allowed to collect about the bottom of the pipe, until it was nearly choked up. Getting a drink was out of the question. And yet there was plenty of water in the spring above--just as fine water as had ever flowed from that source. It was simply denied passage down to those who would drink. And so with the Spirit. The Lord is still able to bless--all too frequently, we so live that "the passage is clogged." The Word of Wisdom is not only a guarantee of health--it is the key to communication with the Spirit. And what is true of the body applies with even greater force to cleanliness of mind. The teacher might well adopt this prayer: "Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within me." The third great guarantee of the Spirit is an unswerving obedience to all principles of the Gospel. To teach belief a man must believe. Firmly grounded in all the cardinal principles the teacher may well inspire a spirit of the Gospel, but not otherwise. Doubt and uncertainty will keep the teacher from the position of counsel and leadership. The fourth assurance in the matter of developing spirituality is the consistent performance of one's religious obligations. The complaint is often made that teachers in a particular organization will meet their classes regularly, but that done they seem to consider their religious duties discharged. Teaching does not excuse a person from attending the other services required of Latter-day Saints. He is asked to attend Sacrament meetings, Priesthood meetings, Union meetings, special preparation meetings--they are all essential to the full development of the Spirit of the Gospel, which is the spirit of teaching. The teacher may rightly expect to be sustained only as he sustains those who preside over him. "For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." (Matt. 7:2.) And finally, if we would enjoy the spirit of our work we must familiarize ourselves with the Word of the Lord. To read it is to associate in thought with Him. His Spirit pervades all that He has said, whether in ancient or modern times. One of our apostles frequently remarked that if he would feel fully in touch with the spirit of his calling he must read regularly from the Doctrine & Covenants. "That book keeps me attuned as no other book can." It is not given to us to associate here with the Master, but through His recorded words we can live over all that He once lived. Thereby we not only come really to know what He would have us do, we partake of a spirit that surpasses understanding. "Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life." As for attainment in other matters involved in the teaching process, the teachers who attended the course at the Brigham Young University were agreed that regular practice in the following processes will insure marked growth and development: 1. The taking of a personal inventory at regular intervals. "Am I the kind of teacher I should like to go to?" starts an investigation full of suggestiveness. The qualities listed in chapter four constitute a reference chart for analysis. A teacher can become his own best critic if he sets up the proper ideals by way of a standard. A teacher in one of our Church schools in Idaho carried out an interesting investigation during the year 1919-1920. Anxious that he should not monopolize the time in his recitations, he asked one of his students to tabulate the time of the class period as follows: Number of questions asked by teacher. Number of questions asked by pupils. Amount of time consumed by teacher. Amount of time consumed by pupils. He was astonished to discover that of the forty-five minutes given to recitation he was regularly using an average of thirty-two minutes. Similar investigations can be carried on by any interested teacher. 2. Contact with the best in life. It is a fundamental law in life that life is an adaptation to environment. The writer has been interested in observing the force of this law as it affects animal life. Lizards in Emery county are slate-gray in color that they may be less conspicuous on a background of clay and gray sandstone; the same animals in St. George take on a reddish color--an adaptation to their environment of red sandstone. Nor is the operation of this law merely a physical process. On a trip into Canada recently the writer traveled some distance with a group of bankers in attendance at a convention at Great Falls. On his way home he took a train on which there was a troupe of vaudeville players. The contrast was too marked to escape notice. One group had responded to an environment of sober business negotiations--the other to the gayety of the footlights. And so the teacher who would grow must put himself into an environment that makes the kind of growth he desires natural--inevitable. Through good books he can associate with the choice spirits of all ages. No one denies his acquaintanceship. Great men have given their best thoughts to many of the problems that confront us. We can capitalize on their wisdom by reading their books. We re-enforce ourselves with their strength. Magazines, too, are full of stimulation. They constitute a kind of intellectual clearing house for the best thought of the world today. Business houses value them so highly in promoting the advancement of their employees that they subscribe regularly. One manager remarked: "No one factor makes for greater growth among my men than reading the achievements of others--leaders in their lines--through the magazines." There is scarcely a phase of life which is not being fully written about in the current issues of the leading magazines. Then, too, contact with men and women of achievement is a remarkable stimulus to growth. There are leaders in every community--men and women rich in experience--who will gladly discuss the vital issues of life with those who approach them. There still remain, too, pioneers with their wonderful stories of sacrifice and devotion. To the teacher who will take the pains there is an untold wealth of material in the lives of the men and women about him. 3. Regular habits of systematic study. Thorough intensive effort finds its best reward in the intellectual growth that it insures. In these days of the hurry of business and the whirl of commercialized amusements there is little time left for study except for him who makes himself subscribe to a system of work. Thirty minutes of concentrated effort a day works wonders in the matter of growth. President Grant was a splendid evidence of the force of persistent effort in his writing, his business success, and his rise to the leadership of half a million Latter-day Saints. 4. Assuming the obligations of responsibility. In every organization there are constant calls upon teachers to perform laborious tasks. It is so natural to seek to avoid them--so easy to leave them for somebody else--that we have to cultivate vigorously a habit of accepting the obligations that present themselves. The difficulties of responsibility are often burdensome, but they are an essential guarantee of achievement. "Welcome the task that makes you go beyond your ordinary self, if you would grow!" * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VI 1. Discuss our obligation to grow. 2. Point out the difference between praying and merely saying prayers. 3. Discuss the various means which guarantee spiritual growth. 4. Comment on the thought that a personal inventory is as essential to teaching as it is to financial success. 5. What is your daily scheme for systematic study? 6. What plan do you follow in an attempt to know the scriptures? 7. Why is it so important that we assume the responsibilities placed upon us? HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter IV. CHAPTER VII NATIVE TENDENCIES OUTLINE--CHAPTER VII Importance of Child Study to teachers.--Teaching both a social and an individual process.--A Child's characteristics--his birthright.--What the nervous system is.--Types of original responses.--The significance of instinctive action.--Colvin's list of native tendencies.--Sisson's list.--A knowledge of native tendencies essential to proper control of human behavior. We have now discussed the significance and meaning of teaching, together with the consideration of the characteristics that constitute the personal equation of the teacher. It is now pertinent that we give some attention to the nature of the child to be taught, that we may the more intelligently discuss methods of teaching, or how teacher and pupil get together in an exchange of knowledge. Teaching is a unique process. It is both social and individual. The teacher meets a class--a collection of pupils in a social unit. In one way he is concerned with them generally--he directs group action. But in addition to this social aspect, the problem involves his giving attention to each individual in the group. He may put a general question, but he gets an individual reply. In short, he must be aware of the fact that his pupils, for purposes of recitation, are all alike; and at the same time he must appreciate the fact that they are peculiarly different. In a later chapter we shall consider these differences; let us here consider the points of similarity. The fact that a boy is a boy makes him heir to all of the characteristics that man has developed. These characteristics are his birthright. He responds in a particular way to stimuli because the race before him has so responded. There is no need here of entering into a discussion as to how great a controlling factor heredity may be in a man's life, or how potent environment may be in modifying that life--we are concerned rather with the result--that man is as he is. It is essential that we know his characteristics, particularly as they manifest themselves in youth, so that we may know what to expect in his conduct and so that we may proceed to modify and control that conduct. Just as the first task of the physician is to diagnose his case--to get at the cause of the difficulty before he proceeds to suggest a remedy--so the first consideration of the teacher is a query, "Whom do I teach?" Man may normally be expected to respond in a particular way to a particular stimulus because men throughout the history of the race have so responded. Certain connections have been established in his nervous system and he acts accordingly--he does what he does because he is _man_. We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the physiological processes involved in thinking and other forms of behavior, but perhaps we may well set down a statement or two relative to man's tendencies to act, and their explanations: "The nervous system is composed of neurones of three types: Those that receive, the afferent; those that effect action, the efferent; and those that connect, the associative. The meeting places of these neurones are the synapses. All neurones have the three characteristics of sensitivity, conductivity, and modifiability. In order for conduct or feeling or intellect to be present, at least two neurones must be active, and in all but a few of the human activities many more are involved. The possibility of conduct or intelligence depends upon the connections at the synapses,--upon the possibility of the current affecting neurones in a certain definite way. The possession of an 'original nature,' then, means the possession, as a matter of inheritance, of certain connections between neurones, the possession of certain synapses which are in functional contact and across which a current may pass merely as a matter of structure. Just why certain synapses should be thus connected is the whole question of heredity. Two factors seem to affect the functional contact of a synapses,--first, proximity of the neurone ends, and second, some sort of permeability which makes a current travel on one rather than another of two neurones equally near together in space. This proximity and permeability are both provided for by the structure and constitution of the nervous system. It should be noted that the connection of neurones is not a one-to-one affair, but the multiplicity of fibrils provided by original nature makes it possible for one afferent to discharge into many neurones, and for one efferent neurone to receive the current from many neurones. Thus the individual when born is equipped with potentialities of character, intellect and conduct, because of the pre-formed connections or tendencies to connections present in his nervous system. "_Types of Original Responses._--These unlearned tendencies which make up the original nature of the human race are usually classified into automatic or physiological actions, reflexes, instincts, and capacities. Automatic actions are such as those controlling the heart-beats, digestive and intestinal movements; the contraction of the pupil of the eye from light, sneezing, swallowing, etc., are reflexes; imitation, fighting, and fear, are instincts, which capacities refer to those more subtle traits by means of which an individual becomes a good linguist, or is tactful, or gains skill in handling tools. However, there is no sharp line of division between these various unlearned tendencies; what one psychologist calls a reflex or a series of reflexes, another will call an instinct. It seems better to consider them as of the same general character but differing from each other in simplicity, definiteness, uniformity of response, variableness among individuals, and modifiability. They range from movements such as the action of the blood vessels to those concerned in hunting and collecting; from the simple, definite, uniform knee-jerk, which is very similar in all people and open to very little modification, to the capacity for scholarship, which is extremely complex, vague as to definition, variable both as to manifestation in one individual and amounts amongst people in general, and is open to almost endless modification. This fund of unlearned tendencies is the capital with which each child starts, the capital which makes education and progress possible, as well as the capital which limits the extent to which progress and development in any line may proceed." _The Psychology of Childhood_, pp. 21, 22, 23. Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, begins his second chapter in a rather unique and helpful manner relative to this same question: "The little human animal, like every other, is born going. He is already wound up. His lungs expand and contract; his heart is pumping away; his stomach is ready to handle food. These organic, vital activities he does not initiate. They begin themselves. The organism possesses them by nature. They are the very conditions of life. "There are many other activities, not so obviously vital as these, for which nature winds him up quite as thoroughly--yes, and sets him to go off at the proper time for each. He will suck when brought to the breast as unfailingly as his lungs will begin to work upon contact with the air. He will cry from hunger or discomfort, clasp anything that touches his fingers or toes, carry to his mouth whatever he can grasp, in time smile when smiled at, later grow afraid when left alone or in the dark, manifest anger and affection, walk, run, play, question, imitate, collect things, pull things apart, put them together again, take pleasure in being with friends, act shy before strangers, find a chum, belong to a 'gang' or 'bunch,' quarrel, fight, become reconciled, and some day fall in love with one of the opposite sex. These, and many more, are just his natural human ways. He does not of purpose initiate them any more than he initiates breathing or heart-beat. He does these things because he is so born and built. They are his instincts." As Norsworthy and Whitley point out, we are not especially concerned with the boundary lines between automatic actions, reflexes, and instincts--we are rather concerned with the fact that human beings possess native tendencies to act in particular ways. Some psychologists stress them as instincts; others as capacities, but they have all pretty generally agreed that under certain stimuli there are natural tendencies to react. These tendencies begin to manifest themselves at birth--they are all potentialities with the birth of the child--and continue to develop in turn, certain ones being more pronounced in the various stages of the child's life. Colvin in his _The Learning Process_, runs through the complete list of possibilities. According to him man, in a lifetime, is characterized by the following tendencies: Fear, anger, sympathy, affection, play, imitation, curiosity, acquisitiveness, constructiveness, self-assertion (leadership), self-abasement, rivalry, envy, jealousy, pugnacity, clannishness, the hunting and predatory instincts, the migratory instinct, love of adventure and the unknown, superstition, the sex instincts, which express themselves in sex-love, vanity, coquetry, modesty; and, closely allied with these, the love of nature and of solitude, and the aesthetic, the religious, and the moral emotions. Sisson, in a little book that every teacher ought to know, _The Essentials of Character_, emphasizes the importance for teaching of ten tendencies: bodily activity, sense-hunger and curiosity, suggestibility, tastes and aesthetic appreciation, self-assertion, love, joy, fear, the growing-up impulse, the love of approbation. As already indicated, the teacher should give attention to these tendencies that he may the better know how to proceed. If he knows that the one great outstanding impulse of a boy of seven is to do something, he perhaps will be less likely to plan an hour's recitation on the theory that for that hour the boy is to do nothing. If he knows that one of the greatest tendencies of boys from ten to fourteen is to organize "gangs" for social and "political" purposes, he will very likely capitalize on this idea in building up a good strong class spirit. Knowing that children naturally respond to certain stimuli in very definite ways, the teacher can better set about to furnish the right stimuli--he can be in a better position to _direct and control behavior_. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VII 1. What significance attaches to the statement, "Children are born 'going'"? 2. Why is it of vital importance that teachers give attention to the native tendencies in children? 3. What constitutes instinctive action? Illustrate. 4. Name the instincts that are essentially individualistic. Those that are essentially social. 5. What native tendencies are of most concern to teachers? 6. Discuss the relative significance of heredity, environment, and training in the development of children. 7. To what extent is a child limited in its development by its nervous system? HELPFUL REFERENCES Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of Childhood_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Colvin, _The Learning Process_; Sisson, _The Essentials of Character_; Stiles, _The Nervous System and its Conservation_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Harrison, _A Study of Child Nature_; Kirkpatrick, _Fundamentals of Child Study_. CHAPTER VIII "WHAT TO DO WITH NATIVE TENDENCIES" OUTLINE--CHAPTER VIII Characteristic tendencies of the various stages of child life.--The teacher's attitude toward them.--Follow the grain. Four methods of procedure: 1. The method of disuse; 2. The method of rewards and punishment; 3. The method of substitution; 4. The method of stimulation and sublimation. Having listed the native tendencies generally, we might well now consider them as they manifest themselves at the various stages of an individual's development. As already indicated, they constitute his birthright as a human being, though most of them are present in the early years of his life only in potentiality. Psychologists of recent years have made extensive observations as to what instincts are most prominent at given periods. Teachers are referred particularly to the volumes of Kirkpatrick, Harrison, and Norsworthy and Whitley. In this latter book, pages 286, 287, and 298-302, will be found an interesting tabulation of characteristics at the age of five and at eleven. For the years of adolescence Professor Beeley, in his course at the Brigham Young Summer School, in the Psychology of Adolescence, worked out very fully the characteristics unique in this period, though many of them, of course, are present at other stages: CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUE IN THE ADOLESCENT PERIOD 1. Maturing of the sex instincts. 2. Rapid limb growth. 3. Over-awkwardness. 4. Visceral organs develop rapidly (heart, liver, lungs, genital organs.) 5. Change in physical proportions; features take on definite characteristics. 6. Brain structure has matured. 7. Self-awareness. 8. Personal pride and desire for social approval. 9. Egotism. 10. Unstable, "hair-trigger," conflicting emotions. 11. Altruism, sincere interest in the well-being of others. 12. Religious and moral awakening. 13. New attitude. 14. Aesthetic awakening. 15. Puzzle to everybody. 16. Desire to abandon conventionalities, struggle for self-assertion. 17. Career motive. 18. Period of "palling" and mating; clique and "gang" spirit. 19. Positiveness,--affirmation, denial. 20. Inordinate desire for excessive amusement. 21. Evidence of hereditary influences. 22. "Hero worship," castle building. 23. "Wanderlust." 24. Hyper-suggestibility. 25. Ideals; ambitions. 27. Yearning for adult responsibility. Having listed these tendencies we still face the question, "What shall we do with them? What is their significance in teaching?" It is perfectly clear, in the first place, that we ought not to ignore them. None of them is wholly useless, and few of them can safely be developed just as they first manifest themselves. They call for training and direction. "Some instincts are to be cherished almost as they are; some rooted out by withholding stimuli, or by making their exercise result in pain or discomfort, or by substituting desirable habits in their place; most of the instincts should be modified and redirected."--(_Thorndike._) Our concern as teachers ought to be that in our work with boys and girls, men and women, we are aware of these natural tendencies that we may work with them rather than contrary to them--that we may "follow the grain" of human nature. Since these tendencies are the result of responses to stimuli they may be modified by attention either to the stimuli or to the reaction that attends the stimulation. Four methods call for our consideration: 1. The method of disuse. 2. The method of rewards and punishments. 3. The method of substitution. 4. The method of stimulation and sublimation. No one of these methods can be said always to be best. The nature of the person in question, his previous experience and training, together with the circumstances attending a given situation, all are factors which determine how we should proceed. The vital point is, that both as parents and teachers we should guard against falling into the rut of applying the same treatment to all cases regardless of their nature. 1. THE METHOD OF DISUSE This method is largely negative. It aims to safeguard an individual against ills by withholding stimuli. The mother aims to keep scissors out of reach and sight of the baby that it may not be lured into danger. Some parents, upon discerning that the pugnacious instinct is manifesting itself vigorously in their boy, isolate him from other boys--keep him by himself through a period of a year or more that the tendency may not be accentuated. Other parents, observing their daughter's inclination to be frivolous, or seeing the instinct of sex begin to manifest itself in her interest in young men, send her away to a girl's school--a sort of intellectual nunnery. Frequently teachers follow this method in the conduct of their classes. The tendency to self-assertion and verbal combat, natural to youth, is smothered by an unwillingness on the part of the teacher to indulge questions and debate or by a marked inclination to do all the talking. It is clear that this method of disuse has its place in the training of children, though grave dangers attend its too frequent indulgence. Children and others of immature judgment need the protection of withheld stimuli. But clearly this is not a method to be recommended for general application. The boy who is never allowed to quarrel or fight may very possibly grow up to be a man afraid to meet the battles of life; the girl, if her natural emotions are checked, may lose those very qualities that make for the highest type of womanhood and motherhood. Fortunately, in these days, it is pretty nearly impossible to bring boys and girls up in "glass houses." Doubly fortunate, for they are made happy in their bringing up and are fitted for a world not particularly devoted to the fondling of humankind. 2. THE METHOD OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS This method is clearly illustrated in the training of "trick" animals. These creatures through innumerable repetitions are made to do phenomenal "stunts." In the training for every successful "try" they are rewarded with a cube of sugar, a piece of candy, or some other pleasure-producing article; for every miss they are punished--made to suffer pain or discomfort. This same sort of procedure carries over into human affairs. Witness the hickory stick and the ruler, or count the nickels and caresses. Ridicule before the class, and praise for commendable behavior or performance, are typical of this same method. If it is followed, and it clearly has a place in the training of children, care should be exercised to see that in the child's mind in any case there is clear connection between what he has done and the treatment that he receives. With some parents it fairly seems as if their one remedy for all offenses is a tingling in the epidermis--it is equally clear that with some teachers their one weapon is sarcasm. All too frequently these measures grow out of unsettled nerves or stirred up passions, on the part of the parent or teacher, and have really but little connection--remote at best--with the offense in question. There may be an abuse in the matter of rewards, too, of course, but as a rule few classes suffer from too much appreciation. The real art of discipline lies in making the reward or the punishment naturally grow out of the conduct indulged in. 3. THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION Because of the fact that some stimuli inevitably lead to discomfort and disaster--that some conduct is bad--there is need of a method of substitution. The child's mind needs to be led from the contemplation of an undesirable course of action to something quite different. Frequently a child cannot be satisfied with a mere denial, and circumstances may not be favorable to punishment--yet the correction must be made. Substitution is the avenue of escape. A striking illustration in point occurred recently in a cafe in Montana. A trio of foreigners, father, mother, and two-year-old son, came in and sat down at one of the tables. Soon after the parents began to eat, the child caught sight of a little silver pitcher for which he began to beg. Whining and crying, mixed in with the begging, created a good bit of disturbance. The only attempted solution on the part of the parents was a series of: "Don't do that!" "No! no!" "Keep quiet, Marti!" a continued focusing of the child's attention on what he ought not to do, and an added note to the disturbance. Then an American across the aisle having surveyed the situation took out of his pocket a folder full of brightly colored views. The charm worked beautifully--the meal went on free from disturbance--and the child was happy. This method involves a good bit of resourcefulness, calling at times for what seems an impossible amount of ingenuity. As someone has said, "It is beating the other fellow to it." It merits the consideration of those who have to handle boys and girls who are regularly up to "stunts." 4. THE METHOD OF STIMULATION AND SUBLIMATION This method is rather closely akin to that of substitution, with the exception that it capitalizes on tendencies already in operation and raises them to a higher level. Stimulation, of course, merely means the bringing of children into contact with desirable stimuli on every possible occasion; in fact, it involves the making of favorable occasions. Sublimation involves building upon native tendencies to an elevated realization. Educationally this method is most full of promise. It is seen in kindergarten methods when a child is led from mere meaningless playing with toys to constructive manipulation of blocks, tools, etc. It is seen admirably in football where the pugnacious tendency of boys is capitalized on to build manliness in struggle and to develop a spirit of fair play. It is seen in the fostering of a girl's fondness for dolls, so that it may crystallize into the devotion of motherhood. It is seen when a boys' man leads a "gang" of boys into an association for social betterment. It is seen when a teacher works upon the instinct to collect and hoard, elevating it into a desire for the acquisition of knowledge and the finer things of life. Whatever our method, let us give due consideration to the natural inclinations and aptitudes of boys and girls--let us help them to achieve fully their own potentialities. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER VIII 1. Point out the essential differences between boys and girls at the age of six and seven and those of sixteen and seventeen. 2. Discuss the significance of the following phrase: "The grain in human nature." 3. How can the hunting instinct be appealed to in religious stimulation? 4. Of what significance is the "gang spirit" to teachers of adolescents? 5. How can rivalry be made an asset in teaching? 6. How can the fighting instinct in children best be directed? 7. Why is biography so valuable in material for teaching? 8. Why is it so essential that we put responsibility upon boys and girls? How should this fact affect teaching? 9. What are the dangers that attend an attempt to keep children quiet for any length of time? HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter VII. CHAPTER IX INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES OUTLINE--CHAPTER IX Fundamental significance of individual differences.--Typical illustration.--The truth illustrated physically; in range of voice, in speed, in mental capabilities.--The same truth applied spiritually.--Some cases in point. Everybody is like everybody else in this--that everybody is different from everybody else. Having discussed how all men enjoy a common heritage by way of native endowments, let us now turn to a consideration of how men differ. Two of the terms most frequently met in recent educational publications are statistical methods and individual differences. There is nothing particularly new in this latter term--it merely represents a new emphasis being given to the old idea that no two of us are alike. Every parent is aware of the very marked differences in his children. Even twins differ in disposition and mental capabilities. In fact, one of the difficulties that attaches to parenthood is just this problem of making provision in one household for such various personalities. A member of the stake presidency in one of the stakes in southern Utah, in discussing this matter a short time ago, remarked that in his family of four boys one very definitely had decided to become a farmer and was already busy at getting acquainted with the details of the work; a second boy was devoted to music and voiced a very vigorous protest against farming; the third son was so bashful and reticent that he hadn't given expression to any notion of preference; the fourth, a happy-go-lucky sort of chap, free and noisy in his cutting up about the place, wasn't worrying about what he was to do in life--he just didn't want anything to do with strenuous effort. "How can I drive a four-horse team such as that?" was the interesting query of this father. Practically every family presents this variety of attitude and practically every parent is trying to work out a solution to the problem, so there is nothing startling about the term individual differences. Educators have just given the matter more careful and scholarly attention of recent years. If the matter of differences in children constitutes a problem of concern in a family of from two to ten children, how much greater must that problem be in a class from thirty to fifty with approximately as many families represented. The problem has led to some very interesting investigations--investigations so simple that they can be carried on by anyone interested. For instance, if we could line up all the men in Salt Lake City according to size we should find at one end of the line a few exceptionally tall men, likely from six feet to six feet six inches in height. At the other end of the line would be a few exceptionally small men--undersized men from three feet eight or ten inches to four feet six inches. In between these two types would come in graduated order all sorts of men with a decidedly large number standing about five feet six or eight inches. This latter height we call the average. Practically we see the significance of these differences. No manufacturer thinks of making one size of overall in the hope that it will fit each of these men. He adapts his garment to their size, and he knows approximately how many of each size will be called for in the course of ordinary business. If these same men could be taken one by one into a music studio and have their voices tested for range, the same interesting variations would be found. There would be a few very high tenors, a few exceptionally low bassos, and a crowd with medium range with fillers-in all along the line. If we were interested in carrying the experiment still further we might apply the speed test. In a 100-yard dash a few men would be found to be particularly fast, a few others would trail away behind at a snail's pace, while the big crowd of men would make the distance in "average time." Of course, it would be foolish to attempt to make tenors of all these men--equally foolish to try to make speeders of them all. In these practical matters we appreciate the wisdom of letting each man fit into that niche for which he is qualified. Nor are these differences confined to the field of physical characteristics and achievements. Tests by the hundred have demonstrated beyond all question that they hold equally well of mental capabilities. In the past children have gone to school at the age of six. They have remained there because they were six. At seven they were in grade two, and so on up through the grades of our public schools. Tests and measurements now, however, are showing that such a procedure works both a hardship and an injustice on the pupils. Some boys at six are found as capable of doing work in grade two as other boys at eight. Some boys and girls at six are found wholly incapable of doing what is required in grade one. One of the most promising prospects ahead educationally is that we shall be able to find out just the capacity of a child regardless of his age, and fit him into what he can do well, making provisions for his passing on as he shows capability for higher work. Not only has this matter of individual differences been found to apply generally in the various grades of our schools--it has been found to have significant bearing upon achievements in particular subjects. For all too long a time we have held a boy in grade four until he mastered what we have called his grade four arithmetic, spelling, geography, grammar, history, etc. As a matter of fact, many a boy who is a fourth-grader in grammar may be only a second-grader in arithmetic--a girl, for whom fourth grade arithmetic is an impossibility, because of her special liking for reading, may be seventh grade in her capacity in that subject. In the specific subjects, individual differences have been found to be most marked. Surely it is unfair to ask a boy "born short" in history to keep up to the pace of a comrade "born long" in that subject; so, too, it is unfair to ask a girl "born long" in geography to hold back to the pace of one "born short" in that subject. The results of these observations are leading to developments that are full of promise for the educational interests of the future. In order that we may more fully appreciate the reality of these observations let us set down the concrete results of a few experiments. The first three tests are quoted from Thorndike: In a test in addition, all pupils being allowed the same time, 1 pupil did 3 examples correctly 2 pupils did 4 examples correctly 1 pupil did 5 examples correctly 5 pupils did 6 examples correctly 2 pupils did 7 examples correctly 4 pupils did 8 examples correctly 6 pupils did 9 examples correctly 14 pupils did 10 examples correctly 8 pupils did 11 examples correctly 7 pupils did 12 examples correctly 8 pupils did 13 examples correctly 5 pupils did 14 examples correctly 5 pupils did 15 examples correctly 6 pupils did 16 examples correctly 1 pupil did 17 examples correctly 5 pupils did 18 examples correctly 1 pupil did 19 examples correctly 2 pupils did 20 examples correctly The rapidity of movement of ten-year-old girls, as measured by the number of crosses made in a fixed time: 6 or 7 by 1 girl 8 or 9 by 0 girl 10 or 11 by 4 girls 12 or 13 by 3 girls 14 or 15 by 21 girls 16 or 17 by 29 girls 18 or 19 by 33 girls 20 or 21 by 13 girls 22 or 23 by 15 girls 24 or 25 by 11 girls 26 or 27 by 5 girls 28 or 29 by 2 girls 30 or 31 by 5 girls 32 or 33 by 3 girls 34 or 35 by 5 girls 36 or 37 by 0 girl 38 or 49 by 4 girls 40 or 41 by 1 girl Two papers, A and B, written by members of the same grade and class in a test in spelling: A. B. greatful gratful elegant eleagent present present patience paisionce succeed suckseed severe survere accident axadent sometimes sometimes sensible sensible business biusness answer anser sweeping sweping properly prooling improvement improvment fatiguing fegting anxious anxchus appreciate apresheating assure ashure imagine amagen praise prasy In a test in spelling wherein fifty common words were dictated to a class of twenty-eight pupils, the following results were obtained: 2 spelled correctly all 50 3 spelled correctly between 45 and 48 5 spelled correctly between 40 and 45 11 spelled correctly between 30 and 40 6 spelled correctly between 20 and 30 1 spelled correctly between 15 and 20 And now the question--what has all this to do with the teaching of religion? Just this: the differences among men as found in fields already referred to, are found also in matters of religion. For one man it is easy to believe in visions and all other heavenly manifestations; for another it is next to impossible. To one man the resurrection is the one great reality; to another it is merely a matter of conjecture. One man feels certain that his prayers are heard and answered; another feels equally certain that they cannot be. One man is emotionally spiritual; another is coldly hard-headed and matter-of-fact. The point is not a question which man is right--it is rather that we ought not to attempt to reach each man in exactly the same way, nor should we expect each one to measure up to the standards of the others. An interesting illustration of this difference in religious attitude was shown recently in connection with the funeral of a promising young man who had been taken in death just as he had fairly launched upon his life's work. In a discussion that followed the service, one good brother found consolation in the thought that the Lord needed just such a young man to help carry on a more important work among the spirits already called home. His companion in the discussion found an explanation to his satisfaction in the thought that it was providential that the young man could be taken when he was, that he thereby might be spared the probable catastrophies that might have visited him had he lived. Each man found complete solace in his own philosophy, though neither could accept the reasoning of the other. An interesting case of difference of view came to the attention of the teacher-training class at Provo when someone asked how the lesson on Jonah could be presented so that it would appeal to adolescent boys and girls. The query was joined in by several others for whom Jonah had been a stumbling block, when Brother Sainsbury, of Vernal, startled the class by saying Jonah was his favorite story. "I would rather teach that story than any other one in the Bible," he declared, and illustrated his method so clearly that the account of Jonah took on an entirely new aspect. Many men and women in the world are shocked at the thought that God is a personality. To them the idea that God is simply a "man made perfect," a being similar to us, but exalted to deity, is akin to blasphemy. And then to add the idea of a heavenly mother is beyond comprehension. To Latter-day Saints, on the other hand, these thoughts are the very glory of God. To them a man made perfect is the noblest conception possible. It makes of Him a reality. And the thought of Mother--Heaven without a Mother would be like home without one. And so with all the principles and conceptions of religion, men's reactions to them are as varied as they are to all the other facts of life. Everywhere the opinions, the capacities, the attainments of men vary. The law of individual differences is one of the most universal in our experience. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER IX 1. Just what is the meaning of the term Individual Differences? 2. Illustrate such differences in families with which you are familiar. 3. Apply the test to your ward choir. 4. Name and characterize twenty men whom you know. How do they differ? 5. Have a report brought in from your public school on the results of given tests in arithmetic, spelling, etc. 6. Have the members of your class write their opinions relative to some point of doctrine concerning which there may be some uncertainty. 7. Observe the attitude and response of each of the members of a typical Sunday School, Kindergarten, of an advanced M.I.A. class. 8. Illustrate individual differences as expressed in the religious attitudes of men you know. 9. To what extent are boys different from girls in mental capability and attitude? HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter VII. CHAPTER X INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND TEACHING OUTLINE--CHAPTER X The causes of individual differences.--Norsworthy and Whitley on the significance of parentage.--The teacher's obligation to know parents.--The influence of sex.--Environment as a factor.--Thorndike quoted.--B.H. Jacobsen on individual differences. So far we simply have made the point that individuals differ. We are concerned in this chapter in knowing how these differences affect the teaching process. Fully to appreciate their significance we must know not only that they exist, and the degree of their variation, but also the forces that produce them. On the side of heredity, race, family, and sex, are the great modifying factors. Practically, of course, we are concerned very little as Church teachers with problems of race. We are all so nearly one in that regard that a discussion of racial differences would contribute but little to the solution of our teaching problem. The matter of family heritage is a problem of very much more immediate concern. Someone has happily said: "Really to know a boy one must know fully his father and his mother." "Yes," says a commentator, "and he ought to know a deal about the grandfather and grandmother." The significance of parentage is made to stand out with clearness in the following paragraph from Norsworthy and Whitley, _The Psychology of Childhood_: "Just as good eyesight and longevity are family characteristics, so also color blindness, left-handedness, some slight peculiarity of structure such as an extra finger or toe, or the Hapsburg lip, sense defects such as deafness or blindness, tendencies to certain diseases, especially those of the nervous system,--all these run in families. Certain mental traits likewise are obviously handed down from parents to child, such as strong will, memory for faces, musical imagination, abilities in mathematics or the languages, artistic talent. In these ways and many others children resemble their parents. The same general law holds of likes and dislikes, of temperamental qualities such as quick temper, vivacity, lovableness, moodiness. In all traits, characteristics, features, powers both physical and mental and to some extent moral also, children's original nature, their stock in trade, is determined by their immediate ancestry. 'We inherit our parents' tempers, our parents' conscientiousness, shyness and ability, as we inherit their stature, forearm and span,' says Pearson." The teacher who would really appreciate the feelings and responses of a boy in his class must be aware, therefore, that the boy is not merely one of a dozen type individuals--he is a product of a particular parentage, acting as he does largely because "he was born that way." We shall point out in connection with environmental influences the importance of a teacher's knowing the home condition of his pupils; but it is important here, in passing, to emphasize the point that even though a child were never to live with its parents it could be understood by the teacher acquainted with the peculiar traits of those parents. "Born with a bent" is a proverb of such force that it cannot be ignored. To know the parental heritage of a boy is to anticipate his reaction to stimuli--is to know what approach to make to win him. Because of the fact that in many of our organizations we are concerned with the problem of teaching boys and girls together, the question of the influence of sex is one which we must face. There are those who hold that boys and girls are so fundamentally different by nature that they ought not to be taught coeducationally. Others maintain that they are essentially alike in feeling and intellectuality, and that because of the fact that eventually they are to be mated in the great partnership of life they should be held together as much as possible during the younger years of their lives. Most authorities are agreed that boys and girls differ not so much because they are possessed of different native tendencies, but because they live differently--they follow different lines of activity, and therefore develop different interests. To quote again from Norsworthy and Whitley: "That men and women are different, that their natures are not the same, has long been an accepted fact. Out of this fact of difference have grown many hot discussions as to the superiority of one or the other nature as a whole. The present point of view of scientists seems well expressed by Ellis when he says, 'We may regard all such discussions as absolutely futile and foolish. If it is a question of determining the existence and significance of some particular physical sexual difference, a conclusion may not be impossible. To make any broad statement of the phenomena is to recognize that no general conclusion is possible. Now and again we come across facts which group themselves with a certain uniformity, but as we continue, we find other equally important facts which group themselves with equal uniformity in another sense. The result produces compensation.' The question of interest then is, what in nature is peculiar to the male sex and what to the female? What traits will be true of a boy, merely because he is a boy, and vice versa? This has been an extremely difficult question to answer, because of the difficulty encountered in trying to eliminate the influence of environment and training. Boys are what they are because of their original nature plus their surroundings. Some would claim that if we could give boys and girls the same surroundings, the same social requirements, the same treatment from babyhood, there would be no difference in the resulting natures. Training undoubtedly accentuates inborn sex differences, and it is true that a reversal of training does lessen this difference; however, the weight of opinion at present is that differences in intellect and character do exist because of differences of sex, but that these have been unduly magnified. H.B. Thompson, in her investigation entitled _The Mental Traits of Sex_, finds that 'Motor ability in most of its forms is better developed in men than in women. In strength, rapidity of movement, and rate of fatigue, they have a very decided advantage, and in precision of movement a slight advantage.... The thresholds are on the whole lower in women, discriminative sensibility is on the whole better in men.... All these differences, however, are slight. As for the intellectual faculties, women are decidedly superior to men in memory, and possibly more rapid in associative thinking. Men are probably superior in ingenuity.... The data on the life of feeling indicate that there is little, if any, sexual difference in the degree of domination by emotion, and that social consciousness is more prominent in men, and religious consciousness in women.' "Pearson, in his measurement of traits, not by objective tests but by opinions of people who know the individual, finds that boys are more athletic, noisy, self-assertive, self-conscious; less popular, duller in conscience, quicker-tempered, less sullen, a little duller intellectually and less efficient in penmanship. Heymans and Wiersma, following the same general method as Pearson, state as their general conclusions that the female is more active, more emotional, and more unselfish than the male. 'They consider women to be more impulsive, less efficient intellectually, and more fickle than men as a result of the first two differences mentioned above; to be gifted in music, acting, conversation and the invention of stories, as a result in part of the second difference; and to think well of people and to be easily reconciled to them as a result of the third.' Thorndike finds the chief differences to be that the female varies less from the average standard, is more observant of small visual details, less often color-blind, less interested in things and their mechanisms, more interested in people and their feelings, less given to pursuing, capturing and maltreating living things, and more given to nursing, comforting and relieving them than is the male. H. Ellis considers the chief differences to be the less tendency to variability, the greater affectability, and the greater primitiveness of the female mind, and the less ability shown by women in dealing with the more remote and abstract interests in life. All the authors emphasize the smallness of the differences; and after all the striking thing is not the differences between the sexes, but the great difference within the same sex in respect to every mental trait tested. The difference of man from man, and woman from woman, in any trait is almost as great as the differences between the sexes in that trait. Sex can be the cause, then, of only a fraction of the difference between the original nature of individuals." It is reasonably certain, then, that a teacher may safely appeal to both boys and girls on the ground of the fundamental instincts, feeling confident that common stimuli will produce largely the same results. Important as it is that we know what our pupils are from their parentage, it is even more important in the matter of religious instruction that we shall appreciate the force of the varieties of environment that have been operative. Though boys and girls may be essentially alike at the outset of their lives they may be thrown into such associations as to make their ideals and conduct entirely different. Fancy the contrast between the case of a girl brought up for fifteen years in a household of refinement and in a companionship of gentility, and the case of a boy who during the same years has been the pal of bullies on street corners. Surely stimuli that are to promote proper reaction in these two cases will have to be suited to the person in question. Then, too, the teacher must realize that one child may come from a home of faith, confidence, and contentment; whereas, another may come from a home of agitation, doubt, and suspicion. One may have been taught to pray--another may have been led to disbelieve. One may have been stimulated to read over sacred books--another may have been left to peruse cheap, sensational detective stories. To succeed in reaching the hearts of a group of such boys and girls, a teacher surely ought to be aware of individual differences and ought to be fortified with a wealth of material so that the appeal may be as varied as possible. To quote from Thorndike's _Principles of Education_: "A teacher has to choose what is for the greatest good of the greatest number. He cannot expect to drive forty children abreast along the highroad of education." "Yet the differences in children should not blind us to their likenesses." "We need general principles and their sagacious application to individual problems." "The worst error of teachers with respect to individual differences is to neglect them, to form one set of fixed habits for dealing with all children, to teach 'the child instead of countless different living individuals.' To realize the varieties of human nature, the nature and amount of mental differences, is to be protected against many fallacies of teaching." Our treatment of individual differences was well summed up in the following paper by B.H. Jacobsen, a member of the B.Y.U. Teacher-Training class: _The Significance of Individual Differences in Teaching_ "Individual instruction in our religious organizations as in the public schools is under present condition impracticable. We are compelled to teach in groups or classes of somewhat varying size. Consequently, it is of prime importance for the teacher, in trying to apply that fundamental principle of pedagogy--an understanding of the being to be taught--to know first what characteristics and tendencies, whether native or acquired, are known to a large majority of the children in the class. Leaving out of consideration the possible presence of subnormal children, the language used must be clear and simple enough to be comprehended by all; the great majority of the questions must be intended for all to find answers to; the stories, illustrations, incidents, pictures, and various devices employed must be reasonably within the range of experience and comprehension of all members. "At the same time, it is important to recognize the fact that, after all, the class as a whole does not in any very fundamental, pedagogical sense constitute the objective unit of instruction. Though it seems natural for most teachers to look upon the class as a more or less uniform mass, and the exigencies of the situation make this to some extent unavoidable, still the individual child remains always the real unit, and furthermore the units are all different--in appearance, training and temperament. "In general the methods and material will be uniform for all, but there will still be abundant opportunity for exercising little individual touches and tricks in relation to individual pupils, especially those who vary somewhat widely from the average. Even such a superficial matter as size, especially superior size, might profitably receive a little special consideration by the teacher and thus at times save some pupil a little physical embarrassment. The boy unusually active might be given some physical task to perform, even if it has to be provided for the occasion, though it must not be too artificially created, as this is sure of detection. "Questions requiring more than ordinary mental ability to answer may be directed to those of superior alertness and intelligence, who may also be given more difficult subjects to look up for presentation to the class. Special interests in animals, flowers, books, aeroplanes, industries, vocations, should be discovered and utilized by the watchful teacher. Even though the connection may be a little remote, any contribution of real interest and value is legitimate in order to relieve the monotony of a dull class. "Pupils differ very widely in temperament and disposition as well as in capacity. The timid boy or girl should be given special encouragement and commendation, while the over-bold will take no injury from a mild "squelch" occasionally. The child of gloomy disposition should if anything have more smiles and sunny words sent his way than the cheerful one, who is in no danger of losing his share. The talkative child will need cautioning and careful directing, while the one who seldom speaks needs the frequent stimulus of a kind and encouraging look or word. The child who is naturally docile and obedient will develop smoothly and without great need of special attention and direction, while the stubborn, the rebellious, the untractable child, the cause of continual worry and solicitude, is the one on whom special thought must be bestowed; for his soul is no less precious in the sight of God, and the wise teacher may be the means of making him a useful citizen, as well as directing him in the way of working out his eternal salvation." * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER X 1. Discuss the relative significance of race, sex, family, and environment as factors producing individual differences. 2. Why is it essential that teachers know the parents of pupils? 3. What are the advantages of having boys and girls together in class? What are the arguments for separating them? 4. How can a teacher be governed by the force of individual differences when he has to teach a group of forty pupils? 5. Discuss the statement that teaching is both a social and an individual process. 6. Choose a subject of general interest and illustrate how it might be presented to satisfy different types of pupils. HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter VII. CHAPTER XI ATTENTION OUTLINE--CHAPTER XI Attention the mother of learning.--Gregory quoted.--The fact of attention in the Army.--What attention is.--Illustrations.--Attention and interest.--The three types of attention: Involuntary, nonvoluntary, voluntary.--How to secure attention.--Interest the great key to attention. In that stimulating little book, _The Seven Laws of Teaching_, by Gregory, _et al_, the second law is stated in these words: "A _learner_ is one who _attends_ with interest to the lesson." Expressed as a rule of teaching, the law is made to read: "Gain and keep the attention and interest of the pupils upon the lesson. Do not try to teach without attention." As a matter of fact, it is impossible to teach without attention. A person may hold class--go through the formality of a class exercise--but he can _really teach_ only him who _attends_. The first big, outstanding thought with reference to attention is that we should secure it, not so much in the interest of order, important as it is in that connection, but because it is the _sine qua non_ of _learning_. A boy may sit in a class in algebra for weeks, with his mind far afield on some pet scheme, or building palatial edifices in the air, but not until he _attends_ does he begin to grasp the problems presented. It is literally as well as scripturally possible "to have ears and hear not." _Attention_ is the mother of learning. Think of the force of that word _attention_ in the American Army. It is a delight to see the ranks straighten to that command--would that our messages of truth could challenge the same response from that vast army of seekers after truth--the boys and girls of the Church. The soldier at attention not only stands erect, nor does he merely keep silence--he is eagerly receptive--anxious to receive a message which he is to translate into action. His attitude, perhaps, is our best answer to the question, "What is attention?" Betts says, "The concentration of the mind's energy on one object of thought is attention." As Magnusson expresses it, "Attention is the centering of consciousness on a portion of its contents." And Angell adds, "Attention is simply a name for the central and most active portion of the field of consciousness." The mind, of course, during waking hours, is never merely passive. With its flood of ideas it is always recalling, observing, comparing, analyzing, building toward conclusions. These processes go on inevitably--go on with little concern about attention. But when we narrow the field--when we bring our mental energy to a focus on something specific and particular we then _attend_. Betts, in his _The Mind and Its Education_, very happily illustrates the meaning of attention: "_Attention Measures Mental Efficiency._--In a state of attention the mind may be likened to the rays of the sun which have been passed through a burning glass. You may let all the rays which can pass through your window pane fall hour after hour upon the paper lying on your desk, and no marked effects follow. But let the same amount of sunlight be passed through a lens and converged to a point the size of your pencil, and the paper will at once burst into flame." To follow another analogy, attention is to the energies of the mind what the pipe line leading into the power plant is to the water in the canyon above. It directs and concentrates for the generation of power. Just as the water might run on and on to little or no purpose, so the energies of a boy or girl may be permitted to drift aimlessly toward no conviction unless the teacher wins him to an attention that rivets truth to his life. In a discussion of attention the question of the relation of interest to attention is bound to arise. Do we attend to things because they are interesting? Or are we interested in things because we give them our attention? The two terms are so interwoven in meaning that they are frequently treated under one chapter heading. Our purpose here is not to attempt to divorce them, but rather to give them emphasis because of their significance in the teaching process. Attention denotes a focusing of mental energy on a particular idea or object; interest, subjectively considered, is an attitude of mind. Perhaps we can get a clearer idea of the two terms if we consider the various types of attention. First of all there is what is called _Involuntary_ attention. This is the type over which the mind has little or no control. A person sits reading--his attention fixed on the page in front of him--when suddenly a rock crashes through the window immediately behind him. He jumps to see what is wrong. His attention to his book is shifted to the window, not because he wills it so, but because of the suddenness and force of the stimulus. The excitation of the auditory nerve centers compels attention. The attendant feeling may be one of pleasure or of pain--there may be an interest developed or there may not. Involuntary attention clearly does not rest upon interest. Then there is what is called _Nonvoluntary_ attention. I go to a theatre and some particular musical number is featured. It grips my interest and I follow it with rapt attention, wholly without conscious effort. Unlike the case of a sudden noise, in this experience my attention is not physiologically automatic--I could control it if I chose--but I choose now to give it. Interest clearly is the motor power behind such attention. Then, finally, there is _Voluntary_ attention. I sit at a table working out a problem in arithmetic. Outside there is being played a most exciting ball game. My interests are almost wholly centered in the outcome of the game, but duty bids me work out my problem. I make myself attend to it in spite of the pull of my natural interests. And so attention is seen to be purely the result of physiological stimulus; it is seen to accompany--fairly to be born out of it--interest. It is seen to be the result of an operation of the will against the natural force of interest. This three-fold classification is of particular significance to the teacher. He may be sure that if he resorts to the use of unusual stimuli he can arrest attention, though by so doing he has no guarantee of holding it; he may feel certain of attention if he can bring before pupils objects and ideas which to them are interesting; he may so win them to the purposes of his recitation that they will give attention even though they are not interested in what may be going on for the time being. It is evident, however, that resorting to violent stimuli is dangerous, that forced attention is ultimately disagreeable and certainly not a modern commonplace in experience, that attention which attends genuine interest is the attention most generally to be sought. One question still remains: "How shall we proceed to secure and to hold attention?" In the first place we should remind ourselves that it is a difficult matter to give sustained attention to a single object or idea, unless the object or idea changes. The difficulty is greater with children than with adults. In the second place we should be mindful that it is poor policy either to demand attention or to beg for it. Where attention has to be secured out of disorder we are justified in making use of stimuli that shock pupils into attention. One of the best illustrations of this sort of procedure was the method used in the David Belasco theatre in New York to get audiences quiet for the opening of the performances. Mr. Belasco was convinced that the orchestra had become a mere accompaniment to the clatter and noise of the audience and so he did not trust to that means to secure order. In fact, he discarded the orchestra idea. At the appointed hour for the curtain to rise, his theatre became suddenly dark. So dark that the blackness was startling. Immediately upon the silence that attended the shock the soft chiming of bells became audible which led the audience to strain in an attempt to catch fully the effect of the chime. At that point the curtains were drawn and the first lines of the play fell upon the ears of a perfectly quiet audience. It is safer and better, of course, to anticipate disorder by getting the lesson under way in an interesting manner. These artificial devices are serviceable as emergency measures as well as helpful as restful variations in a class hour. Change in posture, group exercises, periods of relaxation, all help to make attention the more easily possible. The key to sustained attention, when all is said and done, is interest. There is no substitute for the fascination of interest. As Magnusson says: "Monotony is the great enemy of attention. Interest is the attention-compelling element of instincts and desires." The teacher can feel assured of success only when he is so fully prepared that his material wins attention because of its richness and appropriateness. Special thought should be given in the preparation of a lesson to the attack to be made during the first two minutes of a recitation. A pointed, vital question, a challenging statement, a striking incident, a fascinating, appropriate story, a significant quotation--these are a few of the legitimate challenges to attention. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XI 1. Discuss the statement: "There is no such thing as inattention; when pupils appear inattentive, they are singly attentive to something more interesting than the lesson." 2. Explain the force of attention in the learning process. 3. What is attention? 4. Discuss and illustrate the different types of attention. 5. Give some practical suggestions on the securing of attention. 6. Point out the distinction between attention and interest. 7. Discuss the effect of monotony on attention. 8. How do children and adults differ in their powers of attention? HELPFUL REFERENCES Pillsburg, _Attention_; Norsworthy and Whitley, _Psychology of Childhood_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Fitch, _The Art of Securing Attention_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Dewey, _Interest and Effort in Education_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_. CHAPTER XII WHAT MAKES FOR INTEREST OUTLINE--CHAPTER XII Individual differences and interest.--What makes for interest.--Interest begets interest.--Preparation is a great guarantee.--Knowledge of the lives of boys and girls a great help.--The factors of interestingness: The Vital, The Unusual, The Uncertain, The Concrete, The Similar, The Antagonistic, The Animate. After discussing the relation of interest to attention we still face the question: What is it that makes an interesting object, or an idea interesting? Why do we find some things naturally interesting while others are dull and commonplace? Of course, everything is not equally interesting to all people. Individual differences make clear the fact that a certain stimulus will call for a response in one particular person, quite unlike the response manifested in a person of different temperament and training. But psychologists are agreed that in spite of these differences there are certain elements of interests that are generally and fundamentally appealing to human nature. To know what it is that makes for interest is one of the prerequisites of good teaching. But before naming these "factors of interestingness," may we not also name and discuss briefly some other essentials in the matter of creating and maintaining interest? In the first place it is good to remember that a teacher who would have his pupils interested must himself be interested. If he would see their faces light up with the glow of enthusiasm, he must be the charged battery to generate the current. Interest begets interest. It is as contagious as whooping cough--if a class is exposed it is sure to catch it. The teacher who constantly complains of a dull class, very likely is simply facing a reaction to his own dullness or disagreeableness. "Blue Monday" isn't properly so named merely because of the drowsy pupil. The teacher inevitably sets the pace and determines the tone of his class. Many a teacher when tired, or out of patience, has concluded a recitation feeling that his pupils were about the most stupid group he has ever faced; the same teacher keyed up to enthusiasm has felt at the close of another recitation that these same pupils could not be surpassed. A student with whom the writer talked a short time ago remarked that she could always tell whether the day's class was going to be interesting under a particular teacher as soon as she caught the mood in which she entered the classroom. Half-heartedness, indifference, and unpleasantness are all negative--they neither attract nor stimulate. Interest and enthusiasm are the sunshine of the classroom--they are to the human soul what the sun's rays are to the plant. The second great guarantee of interest is preparation. The teacher needs to have his subject matter so thoroughly in mind that, free from textbook and notes, he can reach out to a real contact with his boys and girls. If his eyes are glued to his book, he cannot hope to arouse keen interest. The eye is a great force in gripping the attention of a class or audience. They want nothing to stand between them and the speaker. Not long ago one of the most forceful and eloquent public speakers in Utah failed miserably, in addressing a thoroughly fine audience, because he was lost in the machinery of his notes. His material was excellent--his power as an orator unquestioned--yet he was bound down by a lack of preparation that cost him the mastery of his audience. Not only does adequate preparation enable a teacher to reach out and take hold of his pupils; it makes it possible for him to capitalize on the situations that are bound to arise in class discussion. A concrete illustration to clear up a troublesome question, an appropriate incident to hit off some general truth, a happy phrase to crystallize a thought--all these things are born only of adequate preparation. Not long ago a candidate for the presidency of the United States delighted an audience of ten thousand or more in the Salt Lake Tabernacle by his remarkable handling of questions and comments thrown at him from that vast audience. There was no hesitancy or uncertainty. He spoke "as one who knew." He was prepared. He had so lived with the questions of the day that they fairly seemed to be part of him. The interesting teacher never teaches all he knows. His reserve material inspires both interest and confidence. A class begins to lose interest in a teacher the moment they suspect that his stock in trade is running low. The mystery, "how one small head could carry all he knew," is still fascinating. Thorough preparation, moreover, minimizes the likelihood of routine, the monotony of which is always deadening. A class likes a teacher--is interested in him--when it can't anticipate just what he is going to do next and how he is going to do it. A further aid in holding interest is to know intimately the life of the boys and girls taught. To appreciate fully their attitude--to know what sort of things in life generally appeal to them--is a very great asset to any teacher. If a teacher knows that a boy's reaction to the story of the Israelites' crossing the Red Sea is that that story is "some bunk," he is fortified in knowing how to present other subjects which are similar tests to a boy's faith and understanding. To know pupils' attitudes and mode of life is to know what sort of illustrations to use, what emphasis to put upon emotional material, what stress to lay on practical application. In short, it is to know just how to "connect up." It stimulates to a testing of values so that a teacher selects and adapts his material to the needs of the boys and girls whom he teaches. And, finally, as a key to interest, a teacher needs to know what the "factors of interestingness" are. According to the findings of the Public Speaking Department of the University of Chicago, they are summed up in these seven terms: The Vital The Unusual The Uncertain The Concrete The Similar The Antagonistic The Animate This list becomes more and more helpful as it is pondered. It is surprising to find how experience can be explained on the score of interest by reference to these terms. Those things are vital which pertain to life--which affect existence. Dangers are always interesting. Catastrophies are fascinating. Just today all America is scanning the newspapers throughout the country to find an explanation of the Wall Street explosion. We shall not soon forget the feverish interest that gripped the people of the world during our recent world wars. When life is at stake, interest runs high. So it does when property, liberty, and other sacred rights, so vital to life, are affected. Anything vital enough to justify the publication of an "extra" may be depended upon to grip the interest of men and women. It is equally clear that a fascination attaches to things that are unusual. New styles attract because of this fact. Let a man oddly dressed walk along a thoroughfare--the passersby are interested immediately. A "loud" hat or necktie, or other item of apparel, attracts attention because it is out of the ordinary. Much of the interest and delight in traveling lies in this element of the new and unusual which the traveler encounters. The experiences of childhood which stand out most prominently are usually those which at the time riveted themselves to the mind through the interest of their extraordinariness. Every reader knows the fascination of uncertainty. "How will the book turn out?" prompts many a person to turn through hundreds of pages of a novel. An accident is interesting not only because of its vital significance, but because there is always a question as to how seriously those involved may be hurt. One of the clearest illustrations of the force of the uncertain is found attending baseball games. Let the score stand at 10 to 2 in the eighth inning and the grandstands and bleachers begin to empty. Few spectators care to remain. The game is too clearly settled. As the boys say, it is "sewed up" and there is nothing uncertain to grip interest. But let the score stand 3 to 2 or 2 to 2 in the eighth and even the man scheduled home for dinner stays to the end. He wants to know how the game is "coming out." It is easier also to be interested in concrete than in abstract things. General truths are not gripping--concrete illustrations of those truths are. If I declare that it is important to have faith, I create but little interest in an audience. But if I tell that same audience how some individual has been miraculously healed through faith, I have their interest completely. Concrete illustrations fit into and link up with our own experiences so easily and forcefully that they are particularly interesting. So, too, with things that are similar. The mind naturally links like with like. We are fond of making comparisons. The interest in the similar is due to that fundamental law of learning that we proceed from what is known to that which is unknown and we proceed along points of similarity. And how natural it seems to be interested in things antagonistic! Our love of contests of all sorts is evidence of the fact. Who can resist the interest that attaches to a quarrel--a fight--a clash of any kind. The best of classes will leave the best of teachers, mentally at least, to witness a dog fight. Our champion prize fighters make fortunes out of man's interest in the antagonistic. And then, finally, we are interested in the animate. We like action. Things in motion have a peculiar fascination. Who does not watch with interest a moving locomotive? Advertising experts appreciate the appeal of the animate, as is evidenced by the great variety of moving objects that challenge our interest as we pass up and down the streets of a city and we respond to the challenge. In fact, it is natural to respond to the appeal of all of these seven terms--hence their significance in teaching. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XII 1. Discuss the force of individual differences in choosing material that will be interesting. 2. Why is it so essential that the teacher be interested in what he hopes to interest his pupils in? 3. Show how preparation makes for interest. 4. Why is an intimate acquaintance with the lives of pupils so essential a factor with the interesting teacher? 5. Illustrate concretely the force of each of the factors of interestingness. HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter XI. CHAPTER XIII A LABORATORY LESSON IN INTEREST OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIII Interest should be inherent in the lesson taught.--An illustration of "dragged in" interest.--Interest and the "easy" idea.--A proper interpretation of interest.--How to make the subject of _Fasting_ interesting.--The various possibilities.--How to secure interest in the Atonement.--How to secure interest in the Resurrection.--How to secure interest in the story of Jonah. "Oh, that's all right," says one. "It is easy enough to talk about interest, and it's easy to be interesting if you can choose anything you like to amuse a class. But if you have to teach them theology, and especially some of the dry lessons that are outlined for us, I don't see how we can be expected to make our work interesting." Of course, there is some point to such an objection. Having been asked to teach the truths of the gospel of Jesus Christ, we cannot defend the practice of bringing in all kinds of material just because it is funny. And, of course, it is true, too, that some lesson outlines upon first thought do appear rather forbidding. But it is equally true that there is a path of interest through the most unpromising material, though that path does not always run alongside the teacher's highroad of ease and unconcern. A false notion of interest is that it denotes mere amusement--that it is something aside from serious and sober thought. The writer recalls visiting a class taught by a person holding such a notion. Having given his lesson but little thought he apologized for its lack of interest by saying, "Now, boys and girls, if you will just be quiet while we go over the lesson, even though it isn't very interesting, I'll read you our next chapter of _Huckleberry Finn_." And yet the lesson, hurried over, with a little intensive study could have been made as fascinating as the reading of _Huckleberry Finn_ and notably more profitable. Another misconception relative to interest is the idea that to make a subject interesting you must so popularize it that you cheapen it. This idea is typified in the "snap" courses in school--courses made interesting at the expense of painstaking application. As a matter of fact, to cheapen a thing is ultimately to kill interest in it. Genuine interest of real worth is born of effort and devotion to a worthy objective. Far from dissipating the mind's energies, it heightens and concentrates them to the mastery of the bigger and finer things of life. A subject to be made interesting must present some element of newness, yet must be so linked up with the experience of the learner as to be made comprehensible. It must, moreover, be made to appeal as essential and helpful in the life of the learner. The two outstanding queries of the uninterested pupil are: What is it all about? What's the use? Let us, then, turn to two or three subjects which at first thought may appear more or less dull to see whether there is an approach to them that can be made interesting. Members of the teacher-training class at Provo were asked to name four or five subjects which they regarded hard to stimulate interest in. They named the following: Fasting. The Fall. The Atonement. The Resurrection. The Story of Jonah. Let us suppose that I have met my Second Intermediate class of eighteen boys and girls to discuss the subject of fasting. I might begin by relating an actual experience in which through fasting and prayer on the part of the members of a particular family a little boy has just been most miraculously restored to health, after an operation for appendicitis. It was an infection case, and three doctors agreed there was no possible chance of recovery. A fourth doctor held out the possibility of one chance in a hundred. And yet a two days' fast, coupled with a faith I have seldom seen equalled, has been rewarded by the complete recovery of the boy, who is now thoroughly well and strong. Such a concrete illustration is one possibility for arousing interest. Or, I might proceed with a few definite, pointed questions: "How many of you eighteen boys and girls fasted this month?" The answers show that seven have fasted; eleven have not. I proceed then to inquire why the eleven have failed to fast. Various explanations are offered: "Oh, I forgot." "We don't fast in our home." "Father has to work all day Sunday; and so, because mother has to get breakfast for him, we all eat." "I have a headache if I fast, so I think it is better not to." "I don't see any use in fasting. Going around with a long, hungry face can't help anyone." "It's easy to fast when they won't give you anything to eat." "I like to fast just to show myself that I don't live to be eating all the time." "I believe it's a good thing to give the body a little rest once in a while." "I feel different when I fast--more spiritual or something." "It must be right to fast. The Church wouldn't ask us to if it wasn't a good thing." The definiteness of these replies, coupled with the suspense of wondering what the next answer will be, keeps up a lively interest. A third possibility would be to call for the experiences of the pupils, or experiences which have occurred in their families, or concerning which they have read. A very rich compilation of interesting material can be collected under such a scheme. Or, finally, I may choose to proceed immediately with a vigorous analysis and discussion of the whole problem. I arouse interest by quoting a friend who has put the query to me, "What is the use of fasting?" and then enlist the cooperation of the class in formulating a reply. Together we work out the possible justification of fasting. The following outline may represent the line of our thought: 1. Jesus taught us to fast. a. His forty days in the wilderness. b. His injunction to his apostles. 2. Our leaders have instituted fasting in these latter days. 3. By fasting we develop a mastery over our appetites. The body is made to serve the will. 4. Physiologically, it is a good thing to fast. Many scientists are now recommending regular rests for the digestive organs. 5. Fasting makes possible an elevation of spirit. 6. Our system of fasting makes it possible to see that no one in the Church wants for food. 7. Fasting enables us to appreciate the feelings of those who are less fortunate in the world than we are, who are denied the blessings we enjoy. Of course, each idea needs to be introduced and developed in a concrete, vigorous manner. So treated, fasting can be made a very fascinating subject. The following suggestions on introducing the lesson on the Resurrection to little children have been drawn up by one of the most successful kindergarten teachers in the Church: "There are several things to be considered before presenting the lesson on the Resurrection to little children. "First, the teacher must feel that she _can_ present it. In other words, she must love the story and feel the importance of it. She must also be able to see the beautiful side and remember that she is teaching, 'There is no death; but life eternal.' "The next question to consider is: How are we going to present it? We must lead the child from the known to the unknown, through the child's own experience. Therefore we go to nature, because all nature appeals to the child. But in order to create the right atmosphere, the teacher in selecting the subject must feel that what he has selected is the very thing he wants in order to explain to the child, 'There is no death.' "There are several ways in which the subject may be approached through nature. We may take the Autumn and let the children tell what happens to the trees, flowers, and different plants. Lead them to see the condition after the leaves are off. Then what will happen next Spring. Or we may take one specific tree or brush and talk of the twig where the leaves were in the summer, but have now fallen to the ground. The twig looks dead. But on opening the bud and removing the brown covering we find the tiny leaf inside waiting and preparing to come forth in the Spring. "The bulb may be used in a similar way, leading the child to see the bulb as it is before planting, then to see what happens when we plant it. "The caterpillar may also be used. Here we have the live worm getting ready to go into his cocoon and is absent for some time; then he returns, only in another form. A higher stage. "Lead the child to see that every thing in nature has a period of changing, of apparently going away for a short time, but is not dead--it returns to life. "Be sure to have the objects you are talking about before the class, while you are discussing the subject. If not obtainable, use a picture, or draw them." The problem of the story of Jonah is usually submitted with a twinkle in the eye of him who raises the question. The world has so generally relegated it to the heap of the impossible that even some of our own people look rather amazed when a champion for Jonah steps forward. And yet this story properly approached is one of the teacher's greatest opportunities. If it is to be presented to small children it can be told very beautifully, either as a lesson on disobedience or, from the point of view of the people of Nineveh, as a lesson on fasting and prayer. Little children will not be troubled with doubt and disbelief unless the teacher fosters such attitudes. To older minds, of course, the story already is a good bit of a stumbling block, and therefore needs to be given thoughtful preparation. At the outset, with older students, we ought to lead them into the beauties of the story--beauties which all too frequently are wholly unknown to the ordinary boy or girl. Read the story: The call that comes to Jonah. His hesitancy. His dodging of duty. His selfish judgments. His punishment. His attitude toward the people of Nineveh. The lesson taught. "Yes," says the young skeptic, "but how about the whale idea? Do you expect us to believe that stuff? It's contrary to all natural law." Let's meet the issue squarely. The Bible says that Jonah was swallowed by a big fish. Science is agreed that that part of the account is easily possible--nothing contrary to natural law so far. "But what about the three days? That surely is." Here is a challenge. Is it possible that life can be suspended, "and restored"? Let the scriptures testify. It was so in the case of the daughter of Jairus. (Mark 5:22-43.) So was it in the case of Lazarus. (John 11:23-44.) Consider the case of the Son of God Himself! Buried in the tomb, Jesus rose the third day. If you can believe in the resurrection, you can believe in the restoration of Jonah. It is interesting to note that Jesus Himself accepted the story of Jonah. See Matthew 12:40: "For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth." To doubt Jonah is to question the Master. Not only so, but if a person throws out the story of Jonah, he faces a chain of miraculous events from one end of the Bible to the other from which he will have difficulty to escape. You ask me to explain Jonah, I shall reply by asking you to explain: The creation of man. The flood. The confusion of Babel. The parting of the Red Sea. The three Hebrews and the furnace. Elisha and the ax. The birth of the Savior. His resurrection. One-third of the account given by Matthew. Your own birth. May one not accept with confidence the word of God as contained in the Doctrine & Covenants, Sec. 35:8? "For I am God, and mine arm is not shortened; and I will show miracles, signs and wonders unto all those who _believe on my name_." * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIII 1. Discuss the proper use of stories in securing and maintaining interest. 2. Point out the danger of bringing in foreign "funny" material. 3. Show how difficult subjects may be made of even greater interest than easy ones. 4. Use the greater part of this class hour for illustrating how to create interest in subjects ordinarily found hard to teach. HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter XI. CHAPTER XIV THE MORE IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS IN TEACHING OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIV The steps involved in the preparation of a lesson: The aim; organization; illustration; application; questions.--Problems involved in the presentation of a lesson: The point of contact; illustration; the lesson statement.--Various possibilities.--The review: questioning; application.--The matter summarized. So many textbooks have been written about teaching--so many points of view have been advanced--such a variety of terminology has been employed, even in the expression of a single educational notion--that beginning teachers are frequently at a loss to know just how to set about the task of teaching. Leaving for further consideration the more purely theoretical aspects of our problem, let us face the questions of most immediate concern: HOW TO PREPARE A LESSON. HOW TO PRESENT A LESSON. Is there not a common-sense procedure which we can agree to as promising best results in these two fundamental steps? At the outset let us agree that preparation and presentation are inseparable aspects of but one process. Preparation consists of the work done _behind the scenes_--presentation involves the _getting over_ of the results of that work to the _audience_--the class. Frequently teachers are confused because they mistake directions governing _preparation_ as applying to _presentation_. For instance, one teacher proceeded to drill a class of small children on the memorizing of the aim--an abstract general truth--unmindful of the fact that the _aim_ was set down for the teacher's guidance--a focus for his preparation done behind the scenes. Though in the _preparation_ of a lesson we keep the aim clearly in mind, and though, when we stand before our class, we let it function in the background of our consciousness as an objective in our procedure, we ought not to hurl it at our class. As a generalized truth it can make but little appeal to young minds, and it ought to be self-evident, at the end of a successful recitation, to mature minds. And so with the matter of organization. We skeletonize our thoughts behind the scenes, but the skeleton is rather an unsightly specimen to exhibit before a class. The outline should be inherent in the lesson as presented, but it ought not to protrude so that the means will be mistaken for an end. Subsequent chapters will illustrate both the selection of an aim and its elaboration through suitable organization. The successful preparation of a lesson involves at least five major steps. They are named here that the problem of preparation may be grasped as a whole. Later chapters will develop at length each step in its turn. 1. _The Aim._ A generalized statement, a kernel of truth about which all of the facts of the lesson are made to center. A lesson may be built up on a passage of scripture, on the experience of a person or a people, or on a vital question, etc. But in any case, though we are interested in the facts involved, we are interested not in the facts as an end in themselves, but rather because of the truth involved in the facts. In other words, we seek to sift out of the material offered in a lesson an essential truth which helps us in a solution of the problems of life. Attention to the aim is a guarantee against mere running over of matter of fact. 2. _Organization._ A teacher should outline his lesson so that pupils may easily follow him through the subject matter presented to the ultimate truth that lies beyond. 3. _Illustration._ Illustrations are what make truth vivid. Successful teachers owe much of their success to their ability through story or incident to drive home to the experience of pupils those fundamental truths which in their general terms make but little appeal. One of the most helpful practices for teachers who would become effective is the habit of clipping and filing available illustrative material. There is a wealth of rich, concrete matter appearing regularly in our magazines and other publications. What is good today likely will be equally good a year or two years hence when we shall face the problem of teaching again today's lesson. An alphabetic letter file may be had for a few cents in which can be filed away all sorts of helpful material. It pays to collect and save! 4. _Application._ Having selected his aim, the teacher knows the result he should like to have follow his lesson, in the lives of his pupils. He knows, too, their tendencies and their needs. In giving attention to application he is merely making a survey of the possible channel into which he can direct his pupils' activities. In considering application he asks, "Of what use will this material be in the experience of my pupils?" The test-application is the real test--both of the subject matter presented and of the effectiveness of the presentation. 5. _Questions._ Finally, lesson preparation is not complete unless the teacher has formulated a few thought-provoking questions which go to the very heart of the lesson. The question is the great challenge to the seeker after truth. It is easy to ask questions, but to propound queries that stir pupils to an intellectual awakening is a real art. Surely no preparation can be fully complete unless it involves: The selection of an aim. The orderly organization of material. The collecting of rich illustrations. The pondering of facts to their application. The formulating of at least a few thoroughly stimulating questions. Can we not agree to these steps as fundamental in the proper preparation of our lessons in all of our Church organizations? With the subject matter well in mind--the work behind the scenes completed, the teacher is then prepared for the problem of presentation--is ready to appear on the stage of class activity. The first outstanding problem in lesson presentation is that of the _Point of Contact_. This is a phrase variously interpreted and often misunderstood. Perhaps it is not the happiest expression we could wish, but it is so generally used and is so significant when understood that we ought to standardize it and interpret it as it affects our Church work. When a class assembles for recitation purposes its members present themselves with all kinds of mental attitudes and mind content. The various groups of a Mutual class may have been engaged in all sorts of activities just before entering their classroom. One group may have been discussing politics; another may have been engaged in a game of ball; a third may have been practicing as a quartette; and still a fourth may have been busy at office work. Facing such a collection of groups stands a teacher who for an hour or more has dismissed all temporal matters, and has been pondering the spiritual significance of prayer. Evidently there is a great mental chasm between them. Their coming together and thinking on common ground involves the _Point of Contact_. There must be contact if an influence for good is to be exerted. Either the teacher must succeed in bringing the boys to where he is "in thought," or he must go to "where they are." Teachers in Bible lessons all too frequently hurry off into the Holy Land, going back some two thousand years, and leaving their pupils in Utah and in the here and the present. No wonder that pupils say of such a teacher, "We don't 'get' him." To proceed without preparing the minds of pupils for the message and discussion of the lesson is like planting seed without having first plowed and prepared the ground. In the Bible lesson, it would be easy to bridge over from the interests of today to those of Bible days. Suppose our lesson is on Joseph who was sold into Egypt. Instead of proceeding at once with a statement as to the parentage of Joseph, etc., we might well center the interests of these various-minded boys on a current observation of today--a wonderfully fine harvest field of grain. They have all seen that. Make a striking observation relative to the grain, or put a question that will lead them to do that for you. Having raised an issue, you continue by inquiring whether or not the same conditions have prevailed elsewhere and at other times. Did they prevail in the days of Israel? The step then to the story of Joseph's dream, etc., is an easy one. This illustration, though simple and more or less crude, indicates that to establish a point of contact, we must reach out to where the pupil now is, and lead easily and naturally to where you would have him go. Surely we cannot presume that he has already traveled the same intellectual road that we have gone over. Suppose we face a group of adolescent boys to teach them a lesson on the importance of their attending church. If we proceed with a preachment on their duties and obligations, we are quite certain to lose their interest. Boys do not like to be preached at. We know, however, that they are interested in automobiles. By starting out with some vital observation or question out of the automobile world, we may count on their attention. Following the discussion thus raised, we might then inquire the purpose of the garages that we find along all public highways. We could dwell upon the significance of repairs in maintaining the efficiency of cars. Now we are prepared for the query, Is it not essential that we have spiritual garages for the souls of men, garages where supplies and repairs may be had? The "gas" of faith. The "oil" of consolation. The "adjustment" of repentance. The "charging" of our spiritual batteries, etc. Once led into the subject, boys can be made to see that spiritual problems are even more vital than material ones. The point of contact established, we next face the matter of _Lesson Statement_. The subject matter must either be in mind already because of home preparation, or the teacher must supply it. In the smaller classes the teacher generally will have to tell in good part what he wishes to convey; in the larger classes, there are the possibilities of home preparation, topical reports, the lecture, and the socialized recitation built up by questions and discussions. It is not intended here to discuss the various methods of lesson presentation--the thought being simply that in some way the lesson statement must be presented. Then there is the problem of connecting up the present lesson with those that have already been presented. The review is a vital factor in fixing in the mind the relative value of material covered. Then, too, there is the matter of questioning to test knowledge and stimulate discussion, together with the weaving in of illustrative material that has already been thought out or which may suggest itself as the lesson progresses. If, as all this material has been presented, the application has been made sufficiently clear to the pupils, the presentation is complete; otherwise avenues of action should be pointed out, care being taken to stimulate rather than to moralize. In conclusion, then, we have the matter of preparation as follows: PREPARATION _As it involves subject matter_: _As it involves presentation_: 1. The Aim Point of Contact 2. Organization Lesson Statement 3. Illustration Review 4. Application Illustration 5. Questions Application * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIV 1. Discuss the helpfulness of having a definite procedure in the matter of lesson preparation. 2. Point out the differences between lesson preparation and lesson presentation. 3. Name and discuss the essential steps in preparing a lesson. 4. To what extent would you favor adopting these steps as the fundamental processes? 5. Discuss the meaning and significance of "The Point of Contact." 6. Why is some kind of lesson statement a prerequisite to a good recitation? 7. Show how this statement may be made. 8. What do you consider your most valuable device in the preparation of a lesson? 9. Discuss the importance of filing away the material looked up in the preparation of the regular work of teaching. 10. Indicate some of the best methods of filing. HELPFUL REFERENCES Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Earhart, _Types of Teaching_; Betts, _Classroom Method in Management_; Bagley, _Classroom Management_. CHAPTER XV ORGANIZING A LESSON OUTLINE--CHAPTER XV A review of the steps in lesson preparation.--The values of outlining.--Objections answered.--Outlining a means, not an end.--The essentials in outlining.--An illustrative outline on prayer. Preparing a lesson is no easy matter, particularly for those teachers who are new to the calling. There are those, of course, for whom reading an assigned chapter through constitutes a preparation, but to the successful teacher this preliminary reading is only the initial step in the process. Adequate preparation involves the following questions: What aim shall I select out of the material available as the focus for my day's work? How shall I build about that aim a body of facts that will establish it as a fundamental truth in life? How shall I illustrate the truths presented so that they will strike home in the experiences of my boys and girls? How shall I make sure that members of the class will go out from the recitation to put into practice the teachings of the day? What questions ought I to ask to emphasize the outstanding points of my lesson? What method of presentation can I most safely follow to make my lesson effective? How may I discipline my class so that no disturbances will interfere with our discussions? Reduced to simple terms, the matter of preparation together with presentation, involves the problems of Organization Aim Illustration Application Methods of presentation Questioning It is difficult to single out any one factor and treat it as if it were independent of the others--teaching is a complex art with all of these factors inseparably contributing to the results desired--but, for purposes of clearness, may we not proceed to give attention to each in its turn that in the end the teaching process may the more definitely stand out in all its aspects? For convenience, then, let us in this chapter consider the problem of organization. How to outline a lesson is one of the most fundamental considerations involved in the teaching process. In fact, it is doubtful whether there is any one more helpful attainment than the ability clearly to outline subject matter. It not only enables the teacher to proceed systematically, thereby insuring clearness and adequate treatment of a lesson, but it makes it so easy and profitable for a class to follow the discussion. Outlining to teaching is what organization is to business. Just as the aim points out the goal we seek, so the outline indicates the route we shall follow to attain the goal. Outlining is simply surveying the road before the concrete is laid. Occasionally a teacher objects to outlining on the ground that it is too mechanical--that it destroys spontaneity and the flow of the Spirit of the Lord. It has always seemed to the writer that the Spirit of the Lord is quite as pleased to follow a straight path as it is to follow a crooked one. Outlining is not in any sense a substitute for inspiration--it is merely a guarantee, by way of preparation, that the teacher has done his part and can in good conscience ask for that spiritual aid and guidance which he then is entitled to. The fact that order is a law of heaven rather indicates that there is no divine injunction against outlining. Of course, outlining is not an end in itself--it is a means merely to more systematic procedure. Two difficulties frequently attach to outlining: one is that the outline is made so complex that it hinders rather than helps in the matter of clearness; the other is that a teacher may become "outline bound," in which case his teaching becomes mechanical and labored. Such a teacher illustrates clearly the force of the passage, "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life." But if the outline is made simple--if it is considered as merely a skeleton upon which is to be built the lesson--it is one of the greatest assets a teacher can have. Perhaps we can make the matter clearest by going through the process of outlining a lesson, indicating the essential steps involved. Suppose we are asked to prepare a lesson on prayer. Keep in mind that in such a preparation we face the problems listed at the beginning of this chapter: the aim, the illustration, the application, etc., and keep in mind also that each of these subjects will be taken up in its turn and that for the present we are concerned primarily with the query, "How can I organize a lesson on prayer?" Let us assume, too, that we are preparing this lesson for young men and women about twenty years of age. First of all, I must decide why I am to teach the subject of prayer. In view of the fact that the matter of the aim is to be considered fully in the succeeding chapter, suppose we agree that our purpose in this lesson shall be to establish prayer as a habit of life. _Step number one_, then, is the selection of an aim--a focus for the thought of the lesson. _Step number two_ is the collection of random thoughts. As I begin to ponder the subject of prayer and its influence on life, all sorts of ideas crowd into my mind. Perhaps I read some one's discussion of prayer--perhaps I talk to a friend relative to it--perhaps I just ran the subject over in my mind. The thoughts that come to me may be vague and wholly disconnected. My immediate concern is content--order will come later. And so I jot down, either in my mind or on paper, such ideas as these: "Prayer is the soul's sincere desire." The Song "Sweet hour of prayer." What is the use of prayer? Are prayers answered? How often should I pray? Does the Lord hear and answer our prayers, or do we answer them ourselves? What kinds of prayers are there? How may I know how to pray? Should prayers always be answered affirmatively? What are the characteristics of a good prayer? What prayers have impressed me most? And so I go on. My task in step two is to scout about intellectually in search of available, suitable material. Many of my jottings may duplicate others already set down; others may not be appropriate for my need; still others may be wholly irrelevant. But I am seeking a wealth of material that I may make my recitation as rich as possible. Now, _step three_ becomes a process of correlation and elimination--a process of hitting upon my main headings--setting up the milestones to mark my course of development. And I so sift the material in my mind and sort it out under appropriate captions. After a good bit of intellectual rummaging about, I find that my random thoughts on prayer fall rather naturally into four main divisions, each capable of expression in a question: I. What is prayer? II. Why should I pray? III. How should I pray? IV. When should I pray? But now that I have these major headings, I still face the problems of enriching them and elaborating them so that they will have body enough to stand. In other words, I build up my sub-headings. Under the first question, for instance, I group these thoughts: I. What Is Prayer? 1. It is communion with God. 2. It is the key to God's storehouse. 3. It is the key to God's heart. 4. It is "The soul's sincere desire." 5. It is the great anchor of faith. Under question two, I group: II. Why Should I Pray? 1. Because I am commanded of the Lord to pray. 2. Because through prayer I keep in tune with the Spirit of the Lord. 3. Because it is through prayer that I acknowledge the goodness of God. 4. Because through prayer I petition for needed blessings. 5. Because through prayer I establish and preserve an attitude of humility. Under question three: III. How Should I Pray? 1. Simply. 2. Sincerely. 3. In spirit. 4. After the pattern of His prayer. 5. In secret as well as in public. Under question four: IV. When Should I Pray? 1. Regularly. 2. Morning and evening. 3. To meet special needs. 4. My attitude should always be one of prayerfulness. This matter of organization may be diagrammatically illustrated as follows: _Random Thoughts_ _Organized Thoughts_ The hymn The song ______________ | | What is the use | FOCUS | I. What is Prayer? of prayer? | or | | AIM | II. Why should I pray? Are prayers answered? | | | To establish | III. How Should I Pray? How often should | prayer as a | I pray? | life habit. | IV. When Should I Pray? |______________| What are the characteristics of a good prayer, etc.? In short, organizing involves the search for thought and the bringing of order out of chaos. Having selected the aim, the main headings, and the sub-headings, we now face _step four_--the enriching of these sub-headings in illustration, incident, etc., so that we may link up these thoughts with the experience of our pupils. We may think of so much stimulating material that during the ordinary class hour we can cover well only one of these questions. Our purpose and the needs of the class must determine the extent of our detail. The actual material that could be used to enrich this lesson on prayer will be given in the chapter on illustration. _Step five_ involves the problem of application, or "carry-over into life"--a subject to which another chapter will be devoted. Of course, we ought to say here, in passing, that application is not something added to or "tacked on" a lesson. It may be emphasized at the close of a lesson, but in reality it pervades and is inherent in the whole lesson. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XV 1. What is meant by calling teaching a composite process? 2. Point out the essential advantages in outlining lessons. 3. Show how outlining is not in conflict with inspiration. 4. Name the essential steps in lesson organization. 5. Choose a subject from one of the manuals now in use in one of our organizations and build up a typical lesson. HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter XIV. CHAPTER XVI ILLUSTRATING AND SUPPLEMENTING A LESSON OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVI The force of illustrations.--Three kinds of illustration material: 1. maps; 2. pictures; 3. incidents.--The force of maps and map drawing.--The appeal of good pictures. ILLUSTRATIONS Illustrative material for a lesson on prayer. Having discussed the organization of a lesson together with the formulation of the aim, let us now turn to the problem of illustrating and supplementing a lesson. In organizing a subject for teaching we drive the nails of major thoughts--through illustration we clinch those nails so that they will be less likely to pull out of the memory. The three chief classes of illustrative and supplementary material are: Maps, pictures, incidents--actual, imaginary. It is clear that in the lesson outlined on prayer, in chapter fourteen, we should have little occasion for the use of a map. We can, however, in connection with that lesson, point out the force of pictures and incidents. Maps naturally are of greatest service in lessons with historical and geographical background. The journeyings of Israel mean so much more to us when we can follow them from place to place on a good map. So the Book of Mormon account clears up if we are similarly guided. Had we authentic maps of the lands named in the Book of Mormon, how much clearer and more interesting the history would become! We would know the exact spot on our present-day maps where Lehi and his family landed from their heaven-directed barges; we would know where to find the land Bountiful; where may now be found the ancient site of the City of Zarahemla; where flows the River Sidon; what country is indicated by the "land northward"; the journeys of the Nephites as they were being driven; what states saw there continued struggles against their inveterate enemies, the Lamanites, and how they reached their final battle-ground near the Hill Cumorah. To visit with Jesus in Palestine adds a charm to the New Testament that is really hard to evaluate, and surely the travels of our own pioneers call for the aid of a good map. Thoroughly to appreciate all that they did requires that we travel over the wonderful trail they followed--that being impossible, the next nearest approach is to see actually drawn out the magnitude of their achievement. The appeal to the eye couples so forcefully with the appeal to the ear that no classroom ought to be without its maps. Perhaps it is not beyond possibilities to conceive that at a not distant date we shall have made available films for class use to intensify the great lessons we draw from history. Pictures make a wonderful appeal, particularly so to children. It is impossible to measure the inspirational appeal that a single masterpiece exerts on a class of boys and girls. A theological class in one of the Sunday Schools of Salt Lake County was once blessed with a most magnetic and powerful teacher. Upon his death, the class had his picture framed and hung on the front wall of the room in which he had taught. From that day to this the silent inspiration of that picture has stimulated scores of young men and women to the high ideals for which he stood. More generally applicable and more easily available, of course, is the _Incident_. The ability to tell a story is one of the finest attainments of the teacher--particularly if he will take the pains to find vigorously wholesome and appropriate ones. May we repeat the warning that stories ought not to be told merely to fill out the hour, nor to tickle the ears of the class, but to intensify and heighten the truths contained in our lessons. Included under the heading _Incident_ may be listed short poems and all kinds of literary bits that fit in appropriately as spice to a lesson. On the subject Prayer, the following are some possibilities: Under question I, "What is prayer?" the hymn, "Prayer Is the Soul's Sincere Desire." Prayer is the soul's sincere desire, Uttered or unexpressed; The motion of a hidden fire That trembles in the breast. Prayer is the burden of a sigh, The falling of a tear, The upward glancing of an eye, When none but God is near. Prayer is the simplest form of speech That infant lips can try; Prayer, the sublimest strains that reach The Majesty on high. Prayer is the Christian's vital breath, The Christian's native air; His watchword at the gates of death; He enters heav'n with prayer. Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice Returning from his ways, While angels in their songs rejoice, And cry, "Behold, he prays!" The Saints in prayer appear as one In word and deed and mind, While with the Father and the Son Their fellowship they find. Nor prayer is made on earth alone,-- The Holy Spirit pleads, And Jesus, on the Father's throne, For sinners intercedes. O thou by whom we come to God, The Life, the Truth, the Way! The path of prayer Thyself has trod; Lord, teach us how to pray! The two songs: "Sweet Hour of Prayer," "Did You Think to Pray?" "For my soul delighteth in the song of the heart, yea, the song of the righteous is a prayer unto me, and it shall be answered with a blessing upon their heads." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 25:12.) The following selection: "Prayer--sweet breath from out a joyous heart wafting gratitude to Heaven. "Prayer--a sacred confidence between a fearful soul and God. "Prayer--a holy balm which soothes and heals the scars in a wounded breast. "Prayer--an angel's kiss on the longing lips of loneliness. "Prayer--a rod that bars the way between the human soul and sin. "Prayer--a choking sob of anguish from pain-drawn lips in plea for help." Under question II. "Why should I pray?" "And that thou mayest more fully keep thyself unspotted from the world, thou shalt go to the house of prayer and offer up thy sacraments upon my holy day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 59:9.) "Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may abide the day of his coming, whether in life or in death. Even so. Amen." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:39.) "Remember that that which cometh from above is sacred, and must be spoken with care, and by constraint of the Spirit, and in this there is no condemnation, and ye receive the Spirit through prayer; wherefore, without this there remaineth condemnation." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 63:64.) "The keys of the kingdom of God are committed unto man on the earth, and from thence shall the gospel roll forth unto the ends of the earth, as the stone which is cut out of the mountain without hands shall roll forth, until it has filled the whole earth; "Yea, a voice crying--Prepare ye the way of the Lord, prepare ye the supper of the Lamb, make ready for the Bridegroom; "Pray unto the Lord, call upon his holy name, make known his wonderful works among the people; "Call upon the Lord, that his kingdom may go forth upon the earth, that the inhabitants thereof may receive it, and be prepared for the days to come, in the which the Son of man shall come down in heaven, clothed in the brightness of his glory, to meet the kingdom of God which is set up on the earth; "Wherefore may the kingdom of God go forth, that the kingdom of heaven may come, that thou, O God, mayest be glorified in heaven so on earth, that thy enemies may be subdued; for thine is the honor, power and glory, for ever and ever. Amen." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 65:2-6.) "Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the Spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak." (Matt. 26:42.) The following incidents were related by a member of the B.Y.U. Course and are typical of scores of others available for this lesson: _Brother Hunter's Account of the Manifestation of the Successor to the Prophet Joseph_ "There was a great deal of discussion among the brethren and sisters as to who should lead the Church; some thought it should be the Prophet's son; some, one of his counselors, and some the President of the Quorum of the Twelve. I was at a loss to come to any conclusion. It worried me considerably and I prayed earnestly that God would make known to me who it should be, but without avail. "I went to the meeting that had been called and listened thoughtfully to what was said and done. The longer I listened the more mystified I became. I bowed my head in my hands and prayed for God to give me understanding. While I was in this attitude, Brother Brigham arose to speak, I suppose. I heard a voice--the Prophet's voice as natural and true as I ever heard it. I raised up quickly, fully expecting to see the Prophet, and I did. There he stood and there he spoke. I listened breathlessly. The form of the Prophet gradually changed to that of Brother Brigham, but the voice was not Brother Brigham's. It was still the Prophet's. Then beside Brother Brigham I saw the Prophet, who turned toward the speaker and smiled. My heart beat rapidly with joy and I knew beyond the shadow of a doubt that Brother Brigham was called of God to lead the Church." _Brother Huntsman's Baby Healed_ "A fine, plump baby girl had come to the Huntsman home. As weeks and months passed and the child failed to use its lower limbs, a doctor was called and pronounced the trouble infantile paralysis. He said that it would never walk, for experience had showed that whenever this affliction affected the lower part of the body the medical profession could not cure it. "The Huntsman people were faithful Latter-day Saints and did not give up hope, but called in the Elders. After a time conference was held at Shelley and Elder David O. McKay and one other of the general Church authorities were in attendance--I don't remember who. After the afternoon session the child was administered to. While sealing the anointing, Brother McKay promised the child the use of its limbs and every organ of the body. "That night it began to move them, and the next morning stood alone by the aid of chairs. In a few days it walked, although being fairly fleshy. Soon after I moved away from Shelley, but a year or so afterwards I had occasion to go to Idaho Falls and there I met Brother and Sister Huntsman. The child was with them and ran and played as other children." _A Psychology Student Receives Aid_ "A friend of mine who was a student in an eastern university told the following incident of how the Lord came to his aid. "The psychology class while studying the relationship of the brain to life and intelligence entered into a discussion as to the nature of intelligence, and in some way the teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith were brought into the discussion and jeered at, by all members except my friend, who was a "Mormon." His defense brought forth ridicule and intensified the discussion. "As the class period had expired without completing the argument, a week from that day was the time set to complete it. Of course, my friend felt that he should do all possible to defend the attitude of the Church, so he studied, fasted and prayed, to secure the aid of inspiration, for he well knew that nothing but scientific proof would be accepted. "The day came and he realized that he was illy prepared, but still hoped for divine assistance. During the giving of evidence to dispose of the existence of intelligence separate from the workings of the brain, and ridiculing the existence of a spirit, he prayed silently and earnestly. "His turn came and he arose to speak. After the opening sentences he glanced down on the paper for his evidence and found a strange handwriting there. He says a peculiar power took possession of him. He spoke rapidly and fluently, he declared, without comprehending or at least remembering what he said. As he finished, his own writing was on the paper and he knew not what had been spoken, but there was no evidence offered to offset it. "The professor asked him to give the names of the books from which he obtained his points, and on being told that God gave them to him, he replied, 'It's strange, but I can't believe such nonsense.'" Under question III. "How should I pray?" The Lord's Prayer as a pattern. The prayer in Gethsemane. The Bee-Keeper's prayer--1920, June number of _Young Woman's Journal_. "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well as in thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.) "Therefore I say unto you, What things soever ye desire, when ye pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them." (Mark 11:24.) "At that day ye shall ask in my name: and I say unto you, that I will pray the Father for you." (John 16:26.) Under question IV. "When should I pray?" "He shall pray unto God, and he will be favourable unto him: and he shall see his face with joy: for he will render unto man his righteousness." (Job 33:26.) "And now concerning the residue, let them journey and declare the world among the congregations of the wicked, inasmuch as it is given." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:33.) "Draw near unto me and I will draw near unto you: seek me diligently and ye shall find me; ask and ye shall receive; knock and it shall be opened unto you; "Whatsoever ye ask the Father in my name it shall be given unto you, that is expedient for you." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 88:63-64.) "Pray always that you enter not into temptation, that you may abide the day of his coming, whether in life or in death." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 61:39.) "Therefore let the Church take heed and pray always, lest they fall into temptation." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 20:33.) "Behold, I manifest unto you, Joseph Knight, by these words, that you must take up your cross, in the which you must pray vocally before the world as well as in secret, and in your family, and among your friends, and in all places." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 23:6.) "Yea, cry unto him for mercy; for he is mighty to save. "Yea, humble yourselves, and continue in prayer unto him; "Cry unto him when ye are in your fields; yea, over all your flocks; "Cry unto him in your houses; yea, over all your household, both morning, mid-day and evening; "Yea, cry unto him against the power of your enemies; "Yea, cry unto him against the devil, who is an enemy to all righteousness. "Cry unto him over the crops of your fields, that ye may prosper in them: "Cry over the flocks in your fields, that they may increase. "But this is not all; ye must pour out your souls in your closets, and your secret places, and in your wilderness; "Yea, and when you do not cry unto the Lord, let your hearts be full, drawn out in prayer unto him continually for your welfare, and also for the welfare of those who are around you. "And now behold, my beloved brethren, I say unto you, do not suppose that this is all; for after ye have done all these things, if ye turn away the needy, and the naked, and visit not the sick and afflicted, and impart of your substance, if ye have, to those who stand in need; I say unto you, if ye do not any of these things, behold, your prayer is vain, and availeth you nothing, and ye are as hypocrites who do deny the faith; "Therefore, if ye do not remember to be charitable, ye are as dross, which the refiners do cast out, (it being of no worth), and is trodden underfoot of men." (Alma 34:18-29.) * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVI 1. Why need we illustrate general truths? 2. Discuss the value of having pupils draw up their own maps. 3. Give out of your own experience illustrations of the force of pictures. 4. Point out the value in teaching of appealing to more than one of the senses. 5. Discuss the importance of good stories in teaching. 6. What are the characteristics of a good illustrative story? 7. Take an ordinarily commonplace subject and show how to illustrate it. HELPFUL REFERENCES Those listed in Chapter XIV. Also _Pictures in Religious Education_, by Frederica Beard. CHAPTER XVII THE AIM OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVII Two illustrations of the value of an aim.--Significance of the aim in religious training.--Inadequacy of eleventh-hour preparation.--The teacher's obligation to see through facts to truths that lie beyond. What an aim is.--Illustration.--How to determine the aim.--How to express it. The late Jacob Riis, noted author and lecturer, used to tell a very inspirational story on the force of having something to focus attention upon. According to his story, certain men who lived just outside of Chicago, in its early history, had great difficulty walking to and from work during stormy weather, because of the almost impassably muddy conditions of the sidewalks. After trudging through mud and slush for a long time, they conceived the idea of laying a plank walk through the worst sections. And so they laid two six-inch planks side by side. The scheme helped wonderfully, except on short winter days when the men had to go to work in the darkness of early morning and return in the darkness of evening. It often was so dark that they would step off the planks, and once off they were about as muddy as if there had been no walk at all. Finally someone suggested the idea that if a lantern were hung up at each end of the walk it would then be easy to fix the eye upon the lantern and keep on the walk. The suggestion was acted upon, and thereafter the light of the lantern did hold them to the plank. Jacob Riis argued that the lantern of an ideal held aloft would similarly hold young men in life's path of righteousness. A similar story is told of a farmer who experienced great difficulty in keeping a particular hen inside the run which he had built outside the hen house. He had put up a wire fence high enough, as he thought, to keep in the most ambitious chicken. In fact, he argued that no hen could fly over it. One hen persisted in getting out regularly, though the farmer could never discover how she did it. Finally he decided to lay for her (she laid for him regularly). To his great surprise, he watched her walk around the run carefully surveying it as she proceeded. At length she caught sight of a beam running along the top of the wire just above the gate. With her eye fixed upon it she made one mighty effort and was over. The moral of the two stories is self-evident. Both hens and men can "go over" if they have something to aim at. It is so in life generally, and what is true of life generally is particularly true in the matter of teaching. The aim is one of the most significant features in the teaching process. The teacher who knows where he is going can always get followers. Important as is the aim in all educational endeavor, it is doubly so in religious training. We teach religiously not merely to build up facts or make for mental power; we teach to mold character. We should see through facts, therefore, to the fundamental truth lying behind and beyond them. Such a truth constitutes an aim in religious instruction. One of the most regrettable facts connected with some of our teaching is that teachers leave the preparation of their lessons until the few minutes just preceding their recitation hour. They then hurry through a mass of facts, rush into class and mull over these dry husks, unable in the rush even to see the kernel of truth lying within. Little wonder pupils tire of such rations. It is the teacher's obligation to "see through" and discover the gems that really make lessons worth while. Forty-five minutes once a week is so meagre an allotment of time for the teaching of the greatest principles of life! Surely every one of those minutes should be sacredly guarded for the consideration of vital truths. The aim, coupled with careful organization, is one of the best safeguards possible. The aim is the great focus for a lesson's thought. It is the center about which all else revolves. It specifies what shall be included and what excluded out of the great mass of available material. A single chapter of scripture may contain truths enough for a dozen lessons, only one of which can be treated in any one recitation. The aim singles out what can be appropriately grouped under one unified discussion. If we turn, for instance, to the ninth chapter of Matthew, we find at least eight different major incidents, each one deserving a lesson in itself. There is the case of: The palsy. The charge of blasphemy. The glorifying of God by the multitude. The calling of Matthew. The statement that only the sick need the physician. The case of new cloth and the old garment. The raising of the daughter of Jairus. The healing of the two blind men. It is perfectly clear that all of these incidents could not be adequately considered in any one lesson. Assuming that the teacher is free to handle this ninth chapter as he pleases, we are forced to the conclusion that knowing his class, as he does, he must choose that incident or that combination of incidents which will mean most in the lives of his pupils. In other words, he centers his attention upon one major central truth--his aim. By so doing he guards against wandering and inadequacy of treatment and makes for the unified presentation of one forceful thought. It ought to be pointed out here that every teacher must be the judge as to what constitutes for him the best aim. It is quite clear that any one teacher could find in this ninth chapter of Matthew at least four or five worthy aims. Three different teachers could possibly find as many more, each equally worthy of development. All other things being equal, that aim is best which most completely and forcefully covers the chapter or passage in question. To illustrate: Suppose we are asked to teach a lesson on the Prodigal Son. One aim that could be chosen clearly is that of _jealousy_ on the part of the prodigal's brother. A second one might be repentance, as typified in the action of the prodigal. Still a third might be the compassion and forgiveness of the father, as typical of those same qualities in our heavenly Father. Which, to you, is the most forceful and significant? That one to you is _your_ best aim. The wording of the aim is a matter that gives rise to a good bit of disagreement. There are those who maintain that if the aim announces the subject as a sort of heading that is sufficient. Others contend that the aim should crystallize into axiomatic form the thought of the lesson. Of course, the real force of the aim lies in its serving as the focus of thought. The wording of it is of secondary importance. And yet it is very excellent practice to reduce to formal statement the truth to be presented. It is helpful to adopt the ruling that the aim should express both a cause and a result. Perhaps an illustration would indicate the difference between the aim stated as a mere heading, and stated fully and formally. Take the case of the daughter of Jairus already referred to, _Mere Headings_: Daughter of Jairus restored, or The power of faith. _Formal Aim_: Implicit faith in God wins His choicest blessings. Surely the latter is a more significant expression and offers better training to the teacher than the setting down of mere headings. The ability thus to crystallize out of a great variety of facts a single focusing statement, coupled with the ability then to build about that statement a clearly organized amplification, is the sign of a real teacher. Instead of generalizing further, let us turn to the questions on this lesson where some laboratory exercises are set down calling for actual practice in the selection and justification of a number of aims. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVII 1. What is an aim? 2. Why is it particularly essential to good religious teaching? 3. What are the objections to "eleventh-hour" preparation? 4. To what extent is a teacher handicapped in deciding upon an aim for another teacher to follow? 5. Turn to the following references and determine what possible aims might be developed under each. Is any aim adequate for the whole reference? In each case which do you consider your best aim? Why? How much of the reference would you include in a single lesson? John, Chapter I; Isaiah, Chapter II; III Nephi, Chapter X; Doctrine & Covenants, Section 87. HELPFUL REFERENCES Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Driggs, _The Art of Teaching_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. CHAPTER XVIII APPLICATION OUTLINE--CHAPTER XVIII The question of application.--The matter a complex one.--Various conceptions of the term as it affects the intellect, the emotions, or the will.--Application may be immediate or delayed.--How to make the application.--Illustrations.--Making the application and moralizing.--Utah moral codes as objectives behind our teaching. Application is one of the most important subjects in the whole range of religious education. It is also one concerning which there are greater varieties of opinions than concerning almost any other subject. What is application? How is it made? Is it inherent in the lesson, or is it added as a sort of supplement to the lesson? When is it best made? Does it always involve action? These questions are only typical of the uncertainty that exists relative to this term. Application really goes to the very heart of all teaching. Colloquially expressed, it raises the question in teaching, "What's the use?" Why should certain subject matter be presented to a class? How are class members better for having considered particular facts? In short, application involves the question, "What is the _carry-over_ value of the lesson?" It is impossible to dispose adequately of the matter of application in a single statement. It fairly epitomizes the whole process of teaching and therefore is so comprehensive that it calls for analysis. The ultimate purpose behind teaching, of course, as behind all life, is salvation. But salvation is not had in a day. It is not the result of a single act, nor does it grow out of particular thoughts and aspirations. Salvation is achieved as a sum total of all that we think, say, do, and _are_. Any lesson, therefore, that makes pupils better in thought, word, deed, or being, has had to that extent its application. Application of a lesson involves, then, the making sure, on the part of the teacher, that the truths taught carry over into the life of the pupil and modify it for good. Someone has said that the application has been made when a pupil "Knows more, Feels better, Acts more nobly," as a result of the teaching done. There is a prevalent conception that application has been made in a recitation only when pupils go out from a recitation and translate the principle studied into immediate action. There are lessons where such applications can be made and, of course, they are to be commended. Particularly are they valuable in the case of young children. But surely there are other justifiable interpretations to the term application. We need to remind ourselves that there are three distinct types of subject matter that constitute the body of our teaching material. These are, first of all, those lessons which are almost wholly intellectual. Debates are conducted by the hundreds on subjects that lead not to action but to clearer judgment. Classes study subjects by the month for the purpose of satisfying intellectual hunger. Such questions, for instance, as "Succession in the Presidency," or the "Nature of the Godhead"--questions gone into by thoroughly converted Latter-day Saints, not to bring themselves into the Church, nor to lead themselves into any other kind of action except the satisfying of their own souls as to the truth. In other words, it appears clear that there may be application on a purely intellectual level. Application upon application is made until a person builds up a structure of faith that stands upon the rock in the face of all difficulties. A second type of lessons appeals to the emotions. They aim to make pupils _feel_ better. They may or may not lead to immediate action. Ideally, of course, every worthy emotion aroused should find, if possible, suitable channels for expression. Pent up emotions may become positively harmful. The younger the pupils the more especially is this true. Practically every educator recognizes this fact and gives expression to it in language similar to the following quotation from Professor S.H. Clark: "Never awaken an emotion unless, at the same time, you strive to open a channel through which the emotion may pass into the realm of elevated action. If we are studying the ideals of literature, religion, etc., with our class, we have failed in the highest duty of teaching if we have not given them the ideal, if we have not given them, by means of some suggestion, the opportunity for realizing the ideal. If there is an emotion excited in our pupils through a talk on ethics or sociology, it matters not, we fail in our duty, if we do not take an occasion at once to guide that emotion so that it may express itself in elevated action." And yet there is a question whether this insistence upon action may not be exaggerated. Abraham Lincoln witnessed an auction sale of slaves in his younger days. He did not go out immediately and issue an emancipation proclamation, and yet there are few who can doubt that that auction sale registered an application in an ideal that persisted in the mind of Lincoln through all those years preceding our great civil war. Many a man has been saved in the hour of temptation, in his later life, by the vividness of the recollection of sacred truths taught at his mother's knee. There may be just a little danger of cheapening the process of application if it is insisted that for every ideal impressed upon the minds of pupils there must be a corresponding immediate response in daily actions of the pupils taught. May not a wonderful impression become the more wonderful as it is hallowed by the pondering of the mind through the maturing years of childhood and young manhood? Finally there is the lesson which, though it involves both the intellect and the emotions, appeals primarily to the will and calls for action. There can be no question but that this is the type of lesson of greatest significance in religious education. We meet our pupils so infrequently, at best, that at most we can do but a fraction of what we should like to do to modify their lives. Our concern is to change for the better their attitude and conduct, and therefore we must address ourselves to the problems they face in the every-day life which they are to live between recitations. As Betts in his _How to Teach Religion_ so well says: "In the last analysis the child does not come to us that he may learn this or that set of facts, nor that he may develop such and such a group of feelings, but that through these he may live better. The final test of our teaching, therefore, is just like this: Because of our instruction, does the child live differently here and now, as a child, in all his multiform relations in the home, the school, the church, the community, and in his own personal life? Are the lessons we teach translated continuously into better conduct, finer acts, and stronger character, as shown in the daily run of the learner's experience? "It is true that the full fruits of our teaching and of the child's learning must wait for time and experience to bring the individual to fuller development. But it is also true that it is impossible for the child to lay up a store of unused knowledge and have it remain against a later time of need in a distant future. The only knowledge that forms a vital part of our equipment is knowledge that is in active service, guiding our thoughts and decisions from day to day. Unused knowledge quickly vanishes away, leaving little more permanent impression on the life than that left on the wave when we plunge our hand into the water and take it out again. In similar way the interests, ideals, and emotions which are aroused, without at the same time affording a natural outlet for expression in deeds and conduct, soon fade away without having fulfilled the purpose for which they exist. The great thing in religious education is to find immediate and natural outlet in expression, a way for the child to use what he learns; to get the child to do those things pointed out by the lessons we teach him." As the teacher faces this "carry-over" problem he is impressed that he must touch the lives of his pupils not only as individuals but as members of a social group. It becomes his obligation not only to direct them in matters pertaining to their own welfare, physically, intellectually, and morally, but he has a responsibility in helping to establish the standards of society to which individuals naturally subscribe more or less unconsciously. The strong teacher's influence can be made to affect the ideals of the athletic field, of the amusement hall, of the church, of the business center, and of the home. These agencies offer such a variety of possibilities that every lesson offers easily some avenue of application. By way of illustration let us turn to a few subjects and point out some possibilities in the matter of application. May it be said here, in passing, that the secret of making application lies in not getting lost in the past so that we may walk along with our heads turned back over the shoulder of time pondering merely the things of the past. All too often the teacher hurries over into the Holy Land of some four thousand years ago, leaving a class of twentieth century boys and girls here at home to wonder what all that ancient material has to do with the problems that confront them here and now. Not that we should ignore the past. Successful application lies in reaching back into the past for a solution of today's difficulties. But the _solution_ is our great concern. "We look back that we may the better go forward." To illustrate: A lesson on Cain and Abel may find its application in a solution of the problems of the jealousy and selfishness that exist today. This story ought not to be merely a recounting of murder. There is a little Cain--a little Abel--in all of us. Consider the case of the boy who smashed up his brother's new sled as well as his own, because he couldn't keep up in coasting. The nature of the class will determine the particular application. Or consider the story of Samson and Delilah: at first thought, a story with but little to contribute to a solution of today's problems. Yet out of that story application can be made beautifully, through either of these two truths: He who plays with sin will eventually be conquered by it; or, Marrying outside one's church is attended by grave dangers. A lesson on helpfulness was once beautifully and rather dramatically given through the story of a rescue of a train. A lad was out at play on a railroad track when he discovered that a recent storm had washed out part of the road bed. He remembered that the through passenger train was due in a few minutes, and so rushed along the track and by frantically waving his hat succeeded in stopping the train just in time to prevent a terrible catastrophe. A few well-directed questions called for the pupils' own idea of application. They, too, would flag a train if such an occasion should arise. They could help people generally to guard against danger. They even carried the idea over into rendering any kind of service, about the home, at school, and elsewhere, as long as it was helpful. And so illustrations could be multiplied. The important thing is that, having decided upon a central truth for a lesson, the teacher then conceives avenues whereby the truth may be carried over through action into the lives of pupils. And, of course, he must see that they are directed in setting about the action. The question often arises, "Isn't there danger of moralizing in making an application?" or "What is the difference between an application and moralizing?" Genuine and natural application ought to be inherent in the material presented. A good story ought to drive home its message without further comment. Moralizing consists of "tacking on" some generalized exhortation relative to conduct. Moralizing is either an unnecessary and unwelcome injunction to be or to do good, or it is an apology for a lesson that in and of itself drives home no message. The school boy's definition of moralizing is helpful and suggestive: "_Moralizing is rubbing goodness in unnecessarily._" In making application of truths presented, teachers naturally face the question as to what constitutes the fundamentals in character development that are to be achieved. As a sort of guide, the two Utah codes of morals, one for children and one for youths, are rich in suggestion, both for pupil and teacher. They are submitted herewith as helpful in setting up the objectives toward which we are working: CHILDREN'S CODE I want to grow up to be wise and strong, happy and able to make others happy, to love and to be loved, and to do my part in the world's work. During my infancy loving hands cared for me, gave me food, clothing and shelter, and protected me from harm. I am grateful for this care, and I want to be worthy of the love and confidence of my mother and father and to do all I can to make them happy. I will be obedient to my parents and teachers; they are wiser than I and thoughtful of my welfare. I have already learned that good health is necessary to strength and happiness, and that in order to be well and to grow strong, I must have good, wholesome food, ample exercise and sleep, and abundant pure water and fresh air--nature's free gifts to all. My whole body I will keep clean and each part of it as sound as good care can make it. I will have respect for all useful work, both mental and physical. I must learn to be helpful that I may know the joy of service and the dignity of work well done. I will begin now to earn some of the things I use. I must learn how to spend, and how to be generous. Waste is the mother of want, and even though the want may not be mine, if I am extravagant I am likely to bring suffering to others. Waste of time is as wrong as waste of things; I will not be an idler. I will not put unnecessary burdens upon my associates by untidy, careless habits; orderly ways save my own time and things as well as those of others. I will take thought for the comfort and welfare of our animal friends and will always avoid cruelty. I will strive for courage to speak the truth and for strength to be fair in all my work and play, to be true to my word and faithful to my trust. I hate lying and cheating; they are signs of cowardice and greed. I will not seek pleasure or profit at the cost of my self-respect. I will be considerate of the rights and feeling of others as I would have them respect mine. I will try to control my temper and to be cheerful, kind, and courteous in all my dealings. I will strive to be pure in thought, speech and action. My country has provided laws and civil officers to protect me, schools for my instruction, and many other aids to a happy, useful life. I am grateful for these benefits and will show my patriotism by obeying the laws and defending my country against evils, both within and without. I will keep my eyes and ears open to enjoy the world about me, and my mind alert to understand and appreciate the good things mankind has provided for me--science and art, poetry and music, history and story. May God, the kind and loving Father, help me all my life to see the right way and to follow it. MORAL CODE FOR YOUTHS I am happy to be a member of that great human society which has accumulated all the treasures of civilization. I have benefited by the united labors of all mankind; for this I owe a debt of gratitude to humanity, a debt I can pay only by serving that humanity to the fullest extent of my ability. Through small services freely given toward the comfort and happiness of my associates, I may grow in power of usefulness and in my turn contribute to the welfare of the generations that are to come. My body is the instrument of my mind and the foundation of my character. Every organ must be conserved to perform its proper function in the development and perfection of my life. I will, therefore, eat only wholesome food, breathe pure air, take ample exercise and sleep, and keep my body clean and sound. To this end, I will refrain from the use of intoxicating drinks, narcotics and stimulants; these lend only a seeming strength, but in reality they undermine my powers of service and of lasting happiness. By abstaining from these indulgences I can, moreover, help others to abstain, and thereby increase their strength and happiness. By temperate living and plenty of exercise in the open I can preserve my health and the more easily refrain from evil thoughts and evil deeds. I will not pollute my body or that of another by any form of self-indulgence or perverse yielding to passion. Such indulgence is a desecration of the fountains of life and an insult to the dignity of manhood and womanhood. Through the formation of sane, health-promoting habits I can avoid having my usefulness diminished and my happiness impaired by the consequences of my own folly. I will be modest in dress and manner, that I may in no wise encourage sensuality. I will be thoughtful of the effects of my actions and so restrain myself that no act of mine may mar the life or detract from the happiness of my associates or of my successors. I will deal honestly, fairly and kindly with my fellows--always mindful that their lives and their happiness are as sacred to them as mine are to me. I will avoid impatience and ill temper and will endeavor to be courteous always. I will try to save individuals rather than to condemn them, even though their evil deeds must be condemned and offenders punished. I will have respect for the time of my fellows as I respect their property. I will not engage in games of chance, since I do not desire reward at the expense of others. In all my dealings I will strive for courage to speak the truth; I despise cowardice and lying. I will do what I know to be right, though others may ridicule or scorn me. I will be personally responsible for all that I do, and, recognizing my limited wisdom, I will ever seek Divine Guidance to lead me in the right way. I will strive for independence of judgment, but with due regard for the superior wisdom of my elders. I must grant to my fellows the same right of independent judgment that I claim for myself. Whatever I undertake I will do with my might, and, win or lose, accept the result with good cheer. I would rather be worthy of success than to secure it unworthily. I will be prompt and orderly in all my affairs, otherwise I become a hindrance to social efficiency. I will avoid waste and extravagance lest I bring needless privation and suffering to others as well as to myself. It is my privilege to have a part in the world's work--a part I must choose and perform with all diligence. "What can I do best that society needs most?" When I have answered this question I will pursue my vocation intelligently and energetically; first, as a means of service to my fellow-men; and second, as a means of self-support and aid to those that may be dependent upon me. May the love and appreciation I have for my country never be dishonored by any act of lawlessness or want of loyalty, but may I ever honor, uphold and obey the law and defend my country against unrighteousness, injustice and violence. When it becomes my privilege to vote I will use the right of suffrage as a patriotic means of co-operating with my fellow citizens for the promotion of social justice, peace and progress. Should I be called to public office, I will strive for moral courage to exercise authority in accord with justice and humanity; and, whether in or out of office, I will respond freely to every opportunity for public service. I am grateful for the beauties of nature and for the great works of art, music, literature and science, it is my privilege to enjoy. These I will seek to understand and appreciate, that I may cultivate broader sympathies and fellowship with mankind, the world, and the Creator of all. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XVIII 1. How does application go to the very heart of teaching? 2. Discuss the various conceptions of the term. 3. Distinguish between immediate and delayed application. 4. Discuss the possibility of intellectual application. 5. How can applications best be made? 6. When can applications best be made? 7. Distinguish between making an application and moralizing. HELPFUL REFERENCES Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Betts, _The Recitation_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_; Thorndike, _Principles of Teaching_; Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_. CHAPTER XIX METHODS OF THE RECITATION OUTLINE--CHAPTER XIX The question of method raised.--Danger of an entire disregard of method.--The case of the "born" teacher.--Sound pedagogy largely a matter of common sense.--Danger of being committed to a single method.--The five possible methods: The Story Method; Reading 'Round; The Special Topic; The Lecture; The Discussion. Two of the most practical questions that a teacher ever has to solve are: How shall I go about to prepare a lesson? Having prepared a lesson, how shall I set about to teach it to my class? The first of these questions has already been discussed in preceding chapters; the second now calls for our consideration. Is there a _one best method_? If so, what is it? What steps does it involve? Instead of answering these questions directly, perhaps it will be better to point out the various methods of the recitation, set down their characteristics and relative values, and then formulate a conclusion. At the outset it may be advisable to sound two notes of warning. One is against an entire disregard of methods. There are those persons who believe that teachers are born, not made, and that therefore a discussion of methods is useless. The born teacher, say these persons, just teaches naturally according to his own personality. To change his method would be to destroy his effectiveness. If he isn't a teacher then the study of methods will not make him one. In either case work done on methods is lost. Of course, experience refutes both contentions. It is admittedly true that great teachers are born to their work--that some individuals just naturally impress others and stimulate them to high ideals. And yet there is no one so gifted that he cannot improve through a study of the game he is to play. Most great athletes are by nature athletic. And yet every one of them trains to perfect himself. The best athletes America sent to the Olympic games were wonderfully capable men, but they were wonderfully trained men, as well. They had studied the _methods_ of their particular sports. Great singers are born with great vocal potentialities, but the greatest singers become so as the result of thorough training. _Methods_ elevate them to fame. What is true of the other arts ought also to be true of teaching. As to the class of teachers not born to the calling, it seems perfectly clear that here is the great opportunity for a study of the fundamentals underlying good teaching. Sound pedagogy is just a matter of good, common sense. Any normal person by studying how to do anything ought in the end to come to do that thing better than if he ignored it. I may not know how to operate an automobile. But if I study how to operate one, if I observe those who do know how, and if I practice operating one--surely I shall come to be more efficient as a chauffeur. But while many will admit that this law of development applies in the mechanical world, they hold that there is something mystic about teaching for which only a pedagogical birthright is a solution. The fallacy of such a contention seems too evident to call for argument. At least the only sensibly hopeful view to take in such a Church as ours, in which so many members must perforce be called to be teachers, is that power in teaching can be developed as it can in any other field of endeavor. The other bit of warning applies to the kind of teacher who is unalterably committed to a single method, not only as the best method, but the only one worth following. Method depends so essentially on the personality of the teacher, on the nature of the pupils taught, and on the subject matter to be presented, that it is a very dangerous thing to say that, in spite of circumstances, one method is invariably the best method. Let us, then, turn to the different methods and consider their relative values. Five possibilities immediately suggest themselves: 1. The story method. 2. The "reading 'round" method. 3. The special topic method. 4. The lecture method. 5. The discussion method, built up through questions and answers. 1. _The Story Method._ The story is the method for childhood. "All the world loves a story." Children certainly are a part of that world. How they thrill in response to the appeal of a good story. Their little souls fairly seem to open to receive it. What an opportunity--what a sacred trust--is the teacher's as he undertakes to satisfy that soul hunger! The subject, the story, has been so fully gone into by Brother Driggs in his book, _The Art of Teaching_, that we need not attempt to discuss it fully here. Then, too, so many other excellent books have been written on the art of the story that the teacher need only be referred to them. Suffice it here to make two observations in passing. The best stories for purposes of religious instruction should possess four essential characteristics: Point--Brevity--Message--Adaptation to the experience of pupils. And, of course, this message should be a truth appropriate to the occasion--a message heightened by the spirit of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. The second observation has to do with the telling of the story. Naturally it should be well told. But the story hour should not be one of mere telling. The child, in addition to listening to the story, should be given opportunity to express its reaction to the story told--should be directed in discovering the avenue through which it will carry into action the emotion aroused by the story. 2. _The "Reading 'Round" Method._ The old idea of a class coming together and sitting through a process of reading in turn from the one book in the class as it was passed about is largely a thing of the past. Let us hope that the day when neither teacher nor pupil prepared his lesson is gone forever. Surely "reading 'round" is a poor substitute for preparation. And it clearly is a dull, routine method of procedure. But there was one merit attached to it that is worthy our consideration. It did bring the scriptures into the hands of our pupils. Whatever method we may follow, this contact with the actual word of the Lord is a valuable asset. We cannot advocate resorting to the old notion of "reading 'round" as an apology for a recitation, but we can well point out the merit of seeing to it that pupils see and read the scriptures. If the lesson can be so conducted that reading is indulged in as a supplementary laboratory exercise--a turning through of gems that entice the reader to make further study of the book--then reading can be made a very valuable factor in the teaching process. Then, too, it is educational just to have members of a class turn through the scriptures to know what they are--what books are involved and where they may be found. Ignorance with respect to the scriptures is alarmingly prevalent. The following report taken from the _New York Tribune_ relative to a simple test in Bible literature, given by an Eastern university to 139 students, is significant: "Out of 139 only 12 reached 75%; 90 received less than 50%; 10 could not name a single book of the Old Testament. Some who did spelled them Salms, Joob, etc. Some named Paul, Babylonians, and Gentiles as Old Testament books." Surely much might be said in favor of the use of books in our classes. 3. _The Special Topic Method._ Much can be said both for and against the topic method. At least three objections to its use can be raised: A. It makes for piece-meal preparation. The lesson is partitioned off into segments, one of which may be prepared by a particular pupil who does not concern himself at all with the rest of the lesson. This method, therefore, encourages fragmentary and incomplete preparation. B. It makes for a disconnected presentation which makes it quite impossible for pupils to get a unified conception of the whole lesson. This is doubly bad, because of the fact that frequently those who are assigned parts absent themselves from class. C. It often results in dull, commonplace recitations. All too frequently, especially if topic assignments are the usual method of procedure, those pupils given the various topics to work up content themselves with very meagre preparation. They come to class, therefore, and merely run over so many facts wholly without inspiration and often by constant reference to notes or the text. Of course, these difficulties can be overcome largely by the judicious use of the topic method. It ought not generally to be followed as the regular order of business, but rather as a supplementary means of enriching the lesson. It ought not to be used so as to excuse all class members from regular preparation of the lesson as a whole. If the teacher will assign the lesson proper to all of the class and then select certain aspects--certain suggested problems--for more intensive research, the reports on special topics can be made to contribute wonderfully to the richness of the class hour. The topic method, then, is primarily a supplemental method, and if wisely used has these advantages: A. It makes for an enriched lesson. It makes possible expert opinion, and the results of special, careful investigation which the class as a whole would be unable to make. B. It lends variety to class procedure and guarantees that the teacher will not do all the talking. C. It fosters individual expression. It trains pupils to formulate an attack, to organize findings, and to stand and deliver a connected and well thought out message. D. It promotes a habit of investigation--it leads pupils to work out for themselves the problems of the Gospel which they encounter. 4. _The Lecture Method._ The comment of a student of the Brigham Young University on the lecture method was unique: "The lecture method wouldn't be so bad if a teacher really lectured--he usually just talks. And talking a lot when you haven't much to say is pretty discouraging to a class." Aimless talking which indulges in the main in vague generalities can never be justified. _Preaching_ presumes a pulpit and has little place in classwork. The teacher who persists in talking most of the time overvalues his own thoughts and minimizes the ideas of others. Much talking stifles initiative and independent thinking. Then, too, it gives no opportunity for developing pupils' power of self-expression and provides no means for the teacher to check the reaction going on in the pupils' minds--assuming that one goes on! It is astonishing what erroneous notions members of a class can get from merely hearing a lesson presented. Given a chance to express their conclusions, they will themselves correct many of their false impressions. There are occasions, however, when a lecture is extremely valuable. Frequently after several weeks of discussion a class is hungry to hear "the truth about the matter." There is then afforded a splendid opportunity for the teacher to drive home a real message. Then, too, specialists, because of their advanced study on a particular subject, can often present in an hour the results of years of investigation. Furthermore, in a lecture, the teacher can make an emotional appeal which is practically out of the question in other methods. His enthusiasm and conviction can be made to "carry" his pupils to the contemplation of new truths. Used with discretion, the _real lecture_ is a valuable asset in teaching; indulged in regularly as _mere talking_ or _preaching_, the method ought certainly to be discouraged. 5. _The Discussion Method._ This method, built upon questions and their answers, is commendable for its democracy and because of the fact that it stimulates both thought and discussion on the part of most if not all of the pupils. Questions are so vital to good teaching that Chapter XXI will be devoted to their consideration. Suffice it to say here that for all practical purposes it is the basis of the best teaching. Discussions make it possible to reach pupils "Where they are"--make it possible for everyone to contribute of his experience to everyone else. The one outstanding difficulty with the discussion method lies in the fact that it calls for such skilful direction. It so easily runs off on tangents that the teacher is kept on his mettle holding to the subject in hand. After all, each method has its advantages and its disadvantages. There are times when any one of them can be profitably used; it is clear that any one of them can be abused--can be made more or less monotonous. Perhaps we can wisely conclude that, "_The best method is a variety of methods._" * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XIX 1. Why is it essential that teachers study methods of the recitation? 2. What method do you regularly follow? Why? 3. To what extent is it that a born teacher teaches without method? 4. What is pedagogy? 5. Discuss the relative value of each of the five methods listed in this chapter. 6. Discuss the statement, "The best method is a variety of methods." HELPFUL REFERENCES Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Betts, _The Recitation_; Earhart, _Types of Teaching_; Bagley, _Classroom Management_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. CHAPTER XX REVIEW AND PREVIEW OUTLINE--CHAPTER XX The need of review in our Church teaching.--Review a real help to learning in that it makes for: repetition, proper connection, proper evaluation of truth. An intelligent review is the result only of thorough preparation on the part of the teacher.--Assignment and preparation.--Ability to make assignments a test of good teaching. Characteristics of a good assignment: It is definite.--It raises a problem.--It connects with the experience of pupils.--It stimulates to action. General and specific assignments.--When to make assignments. Each organization within the Church follows regularly its own course of study. At the beginning of the year it sets out upon a prescribed subject subdivided according to the number of meetings scheduled for the year's work. As a result, no one lesson stands out independent of all others, but rather fits in naturally in a sequence of chapters each of which develops some aspects of one big subject. Because of such a plan the matters of review and preview take on vital significance. Each lesson should be made to link up naturally with what has already been presented and should point out by way of anticipation what is to follow. Many educators maintain that the ability to conduct a good review and to make an effective assignment are two of the surest tests of a good teacher. The problem of review is really one of the most fundamental processes in education. It is the great key to learning. Anyone who has enjoyed the fun of teaching young children how to read has been impressed with the fact that the child has to be led to see and repeat the simplest words over and over again before they are really mastered. It is really astonishing how many times as simple a word as "ran" has to be repeated before the beginner in reading gets it fully into his consciousness. This very difficulty of teaching mere words or letters has led to the abandonment of the old "A-B-C" drill as the first step in reading, and the substitution for it of an indirect method wherein, through the laws of association, groups of words and sentences are mastered as the symbols which express concrete and objectified ideas. But by way of experiment, one of the most impressive experiences open to teachers is to take a child of four or five that has not been taught to read and attempt to drill into its consciousness a group of half a dozen words as simple as these: cat, fan, hat, get, man, jam. To the teacher who has attempted such an experiment no argument is necessary to prove the significance of review and repetition. Review, then, first of all, is vitally essential because it makes possible impression through repetition which insures the fixing of ideas. Literally, review means to view again. Psychologically it is to repeat the processes of mind which were called into operation the first time the stimulus in question started a mental reaction. The nervous system of man is so constituted that in the acquirement of knowledge, each time the nerve centers react to the same stimulus, the tendency so to react becomes stronger, under the mere presence of the stimulus, starts up an automatic sort of reaction, and we say that the child knows the meaning of the object constituting the stimulus. Not only is review thus essential in the beginning of the learning process with children, but it remains a vital factor as long as men and women undertake to learn. Review guarantees recall, and recall re-establishes "nerve connections" to the permanent fixing of impressions. Very little of our knowledge remains ours to a purpose unless it is gone over and over until it is thoroughly established. A truth that is taught in a Mutual lesson on a particular Tuesday night, but which is never referred to again, and therefore never recalled, very likely will soon be gone out of consciousness and usefulness. Those truths and facts which are of greatest functioning value to us are those which we continue to run over in our minds and ponder. The reinforcement of review is what establishes our permanent working stock of truth. Not only is review valuable as a matter of recall, but it makes for an enrichment of mental content which is altogether desirable. The real art of review lies in calling up an old truth in a new setting. Upon second perusal it is seen in skilful review from a slightly different angle so that each recall adds a reinforcement that makes for a clinching of thought which makes it permanent. It very often happens that the first time an idea is called to our attention it means but little, because our mental reaction is limited in the particular field of the presentation; the same idea in a new setting more in keeping with our experience may take on an entirely different significance. That teaching is best, therefore, which presents truth from the greatest number of angles possible, thereby guaranteeing the richest kind of associations in the minds of pupils. Another value that attaches to the review lies in the fact that it makes possible proper connection between new material and old. It is axiomatic in teaching that pupils learn new truths and take on new experiences, in terms of the old. Teaching that unfolds--that develops new ideas that are built upon those already understood--is the kind of teaching attended by best results. In our organizations, meeting as we do only once a week, we must appreciate the fact that in the intervening time, between meetings, hundreds of ideas have crowded into the mind and have displaced those that may have been there as a result of our teaching. By calling to mind those ideas of a week ago, we not only reinforce them, but we start a chain of thought to which it will be very much easier to add the link of today's work than to proceed as if forging an entirely new chain. No farmer goes out and plants grain on the unplowed field. He plows and harrows that the soil may be prepared not only to receive the seed, but to make generation possible. A review simply turns over the stubble field of the preceding week's work, making ready for the planting of new seeds that they may generate and develop. Still a further value in the matter of review lies in the fact that the review makes more easily possible the proper evaluation of the facts taught. In every lesson there are major facts and truths presented and also those minor or subordinate ones that serve to amplify and illustrate. All too frequently a class becomes so involved in the minor details that it may fail to grasp fully the big, underlying truth. By careful review, the teacher can make the essentials stand out in relief. These are the things that need to be pondered. If they are properly grasped, thanks to the laws of association, most of the minor facts will naturally attach themselves, so that truths can be retained in all of their richness of detail. It is surprising to find how frequently pupils who have spent a year on the Book of Mormon have very little notion of the big, outstanding features of the book. They apparently have run over each week's lesson as so many independent facts, never coming back to single out the essential things in that early American civilization. Surely no class ought to complete the course without clearly comprehending such major items as: The contribution each of the three colonies made to Book of Mormon civilization. The general geographical location of each colony. The outstanding characters in the book. The coming forth of the book. Why it is essential. How our faith depends largely upon it. The ministry of the Savior on this continent. Gospel teachings of the Book of Mormon. What is true of the study of the Book of Mormon is equally true of all other subjects. It is so easy to get lost in a maze of facts, in a course in the principles of the Gospel, and yet if a teacher will hold to such basic considerations as the articles of faith, coming back to them regularly and linking facts presented under the appropriate article, it is equally easy to complete the course with a clearly defined, skeletonized basis for all future study. Two conclusions seem obvious: as teachers we ought to conduct reviews regularly and frequently; we ought to prepare for them as one of the most vital factors in teaching. Important as is the review, the preview or assignment is equally vital. To quote from Colgrove's _The Teacher and the School_: "_Importance and Value of Good Lesson Assignment._ From the foregoing consideration it is clear that no other part of the teacher's work exceeds in value and importance the proper planning and assignment of the daily lessons. It is supplying the class and the school with a definite plan of work. It is preparing the mind of each individual pupil for the reception of new truths and whetting his intellectual appetite for a feast of good things. It inspires confidence by pointing out to the pupil just how he can use his past lessons and acquisitions to make new conquests. It prevents pupils from misunderstanding the lesson or approaching it with indifference or positive aversion. It enables the pupil to approach the new lesson in a perceiving mood, and helps pupils to form the habit of being successful in their work and of making a daily application of their old knowledge. It prevents the teacher from degenerating into a mere talker, and, where textbooks are used, should be the most vital part of the recitation." The assignment is the great guarantee of a good recitation. It sets up objectives--it points the way--it starts the thought process that is to produce a discussion worth while at the subsequent meeting of the class. Much has been said recently against the practice on the part of the teacher of saying, "Take chapter three for next time." There are superintendents of schools who refuse to keep such teachers in their service. To make such an assignment, particularly in classes that meet only once a week, and especially if the assignment is made, as is too usually the case, after the signal for class dismissal has been given, is to promise the pupils a week in advance that their next lesson will be very much of a failure. A good assignment is characterized by several very definite features. In the first place it is perfectly clear. Given at a time when pupils are following it, it gives specific direction as to the work to be done ahead in preparation. It indicates the direction of intellectual travel, points out sources of material, and indicates what is to be looked for. Reference or textbooks are so pointedly referred to that pupils not only remember their names, they want to turn to them to enjoy their contributions. In the second place, a good assignment raises a problem which is a challenge to the mental powers of pupils. It should carry a force of anticipation that capitalizes on that great mover to action--curiosity. For instance, if the lesson to be assigned is one on baptism, instead of simply naming certain pages in a text to be read, the skilful teacher may well challenge his class by bringing in a clipping from a periodical or from some other source attempting to prove that sprinkling is the correct method of baptism, or that baptism is not essential to a man's obtaining salvation? How can members of the class meet such an argument? One of their first thoughts will likely be a query as to where available material may be turned to. How easy, then, to give references, etc. Some such problem can be raised relative to every lesson taught, and it is a wonderful force as an intellectual appetizer. It should both prompt to action and point to the path to be followed. The question is often raised as to whether the assignment should be general or specific. Perhaps the best answer involves both kinds. There ought ordinarily to be a general assignment that affects all of the members of a class. The class is made up of all the individuals in the group--its discussing ought therefore to be so made up. But in addition to this general assignment, specific topics given to particular members add an enrichment to the recitation of very great value. The services of the specialist are always of inestimable value. That class is best wherein each member in turn becomes a specialist in looking up and bringing in vital observations on life. As to the best time for making assignments, it is rather hard to give a ruling that best fits all cases. Preferably the assignment should grow out of the discussion of the lesson in hand, and therefore logically comes at the end of the recitation rather than at the beginning. There are teachers, however, who, fearing interruption at the end of the hour, map out their work so carefully that they can make the assignment at the outset, merely calling attention to it at the close of the hour. All other things being equal, if the teacher will make himself hold sacred the time necessary at the end of the hour for this all important matter of assignment, it is likely that best results will follow having the assignment of the next lesson grow naturally out of the work of today. The important thing, however, is that at some point in the recitation, the teacher shall take plenty of time to make a carefully planned and challenging announcement of the work ahead. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XX 1. Why is it essential to good teaching that regular reviews be conducted? 2. Why are reviews more necessary in our religious work than in regular school work? 3. What are the chief purposes of a review? 4. By taking a current lesson of one of the auxiliary organizations, illustrate the work done in a good review. 5. Why it is of vital importance that a teacher give special preparation to a review? 6. Show how good class preparation is conditional upon the proper kind of assignment. 7. What are the characteristics of a good assignment? 8. What is the best time for making the assignment? 9. Show how to make a good assignment of a current lesson from one of the organizations. HELPFUL REFERENCES Betts, _The Recitation_; Betts, _How to Teach Religion_; Colvin, _The Learning Process_; Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Strayer and Norsworthy, _How to Teach_. CHAPTER XXI THE QUESTION AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXI Taking Stock.--Miss Stevens' study on questioning.--Miss Stevens quoted.--Various types of questions: a. The review question; b. The fact question; c. The leading question; d. The thought or challenging question.--Some questions on questioning. How many questions do you ask regularly during a recitation? What proportion of those questions are answered in full and complete statements? How many of the answers to your questions are a matter merely of memory? How many reveal original, creative thinking? Such questions as these not only impress us with the force of the question as a means of teaching, but they lead us to examine into our own method of asking them. The whole teaching process so easily and unconsciously develops into a matter of routine that it is good practice occasionally to take stock of ourselves. It is surprising to find how many teachers develop a particular type of question which becomes their sole stock in trade. Miss Ronniett Stevens, in her thesis, _The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction_, has made one of the most enlightening studies yet made on the matter of questioning. Her results are quoted by Weigle, in his _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_, in a passage of interest, not only because of Miss Stevens' findings, but also because of Mr. Weigle's own conclusions: "One of the outstanding differences, in present practice, between the public and the Sunday school, is that most public school teachers ask too many questions and most Sunday school teachers do not ask questions enough. For the first half of this statement there is ample evidence in the careful study by Miss Ronniett Stevens on _The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction_. Miss Stevens secured complete stenographic reports of twenty high school lessons in English, history, science, Latin, modern languages, and mathematics; she observed one hundred more such lessons chosen at random, with a view to counting and noting the number and nature of the questions asked in each; and she followed each ten classes through an entire day's work for the purpose of studying the aggregate question-stimulus to which each was subjected in the course of the day. "The results of her study are surprising. In only eight of the twenty lessons completely reported the teacher asked less than ninety questions in the period of forty-five minutes, the average being sixty-eight. In each of the remaining twelve lessons more than ninety questions were asked in the same period of time, the average being 128. A freshman class in high school, in a day's work of five periods of forty minutes each, not counting gymnasium, was subjected to 516 questions and expected to return 516 answers, which is at the rate of 2:58 questions and 2:58 answers per minute. The lowest number of questions recorded in a day's work for a class was 321, and the average number 395. "Such rapid-fire questioning, Miss Stevens rightly holds, defeats its own ends. It maintains a nervous tension in the classroom that must in the long run be injurious. More than that, it is a symptom of the fact that the real work of the hour is being done by the teacher, and the pupil's share is reduced simply to brief, punctuation-like answers to the teacher's questions. Such questions appeal to mere memory or to superficial judgment rather than to real thought; they cultivate in the pupil neither independent judgment nor the power of expression; they ignore individual needs and discourage initiative; they make out of the classroom a place to display knowledge, rather than a laboratory in which to acquire it. "The second half of the proposition, that most Sunday school teachers do not ask questions enough, has not been established by any such investigation as that of Miss Stevens. A similar study, on the basis of complete stenographic reports, of typical Sunday school lessons, would be a most valuable addition to our resources in the field of religious pedagogy. Till such a study is made, one must simply record his conviction that Sunday school teachers, as a general rule, ask too few, rather than too many questions. This conviction is based upon general observation and upon the frequency of such remarks as, 'I just can't get my class to study,' 'There are only two or three who ever answer my questions,' 'My pupils don't know anything about the Bible,' 'As long as I do all the talking, things go all right,' etc." Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_. The whole matter of questioning can be made to stand out most clearly, perhaps, by listing the various types of question, the purposes which each type serves, and the characteristics of a good question. First of all there is the _Review question_. The great purpose of this type of question is to systematize knowledge. Of course, it is valuable as an aid to recollection--it is a challenge to memory--but it is particularly helpful in that it makes the big essential points in a course stand out in relief with minor points properly correlated and subordinated. The review question is a guide to the pupil whereby he may see the relative significance of the work he has covered. One of our great difficulties lies in the fact that our teaching is so largely piece-meal. Today's lesson is hurried through, isolated as it is from all that has gone before and all that may follow. The successful teacher through the review makes each lesson a link in the chain of thought that underlies the whole development of the subject in hand. The review question is essentially a carefully thought out, searching inquiry. It calls for a turning over, in the mind, of the material of the whole course and therefore should allow ample time for pondering. If it does not stimulate a "weighing process," it likely is merely a fact question--a test of memory. Of course, there is a place at times for this hurried type of question, but it serves the purpose only of "connecting up" and should not be mistaken for the evaluating question of review. The following questions on the expulsion of the Saints from Missouri are illustrative review questions: 1. To what extent, if any, were the Latter-day Saints themselves responsible for their expulsion from Missouri? 2. To what extent were the persecutions of Missouri political? Religious? 3. How do you account for the fact that the Lord's people have always been a chastened people? 4. Show how the Missouri persecutions have been ultimately a blessing to the Latter-day Saints. The second type of question is the _fact_ question. It serves to check up on mental alertness and recall. It is often helpful in arresting attention and therefore has a certain disciplinary function. The teacher, of course, must make sure that his pupils are grasping the subject-matter presented, and the fact question serves admirably as a test of knowledge. It is usually a short question calling for a short answer, and therefore may be used in a rapid-fire way that stimulates thought. It is this type of question that is hurled so frequently at classes with the consequences pointed out in the quotation from Miss Stevens. The same author lists as objections to the continued use of these rapid-fire questions the following bad features. They result in: 1. Nervous tension. 2. The teacher's doing most of the work. 3. Emphasis upon memory and superficial judgment. 4. Little time for the art of expression. 5. Little attention to the needs of particular individuals in a class. 6. The class being made a place for displaying knowledge. 7. Little self-reliant, independent thinking. As illustrative of the fact question may we set down the following: Who was Joseph Smith? What was his father's name? What was his mother's name? Where was he born? How old was he when he received his first vision? When did he receive the plates? The _challenging question_ and the _leading question_ are closely enough allied that we may well discuss them together. They are both intended to provoke creative thinking. The leading question aims to capitalize on what is already in the pupil's mind in getting him to go one step further to a conclusion we already have in mind. Instead of telling a class of young children that Joseph Smith prayed to the Lord for help in choosing the church to which he might best belong, we might proceed by saying that the Prophet had asked his father and mother--he had asked his best friends--he had talked with all the ministers he could find--he had read in all of the available books--now who can tell what else he could do? The chief merit of the leading question lies in the fact that it paves the way for the answer. It is particularly helpful in encouraging young and backward pupils. But is easily subject to abuse. So much so that its use is very largely restricted in law courts. It results too frequently in the teacher's thinking for the pupil, and therefore ought to be used with care. The challenging question is the question that fosters originality of thought, independence of judgment. It simply raises a problem and leaves pupils free to arrive at their own conclusions. It makes for an intelligent faith so much desired in a democratic Church such as ours. It is the one question above all others that guarantees a vital class distinction. Of course, there is a place for all four of these types of questions. As was said relative to the methods of the recitation, the best method is a variety of methods. So with questions. It is perfectly clear, however, that for general purposes that question which prompts greatest reflection and independent thinking is the best one to indulge most frequently. The following questions out of a lesson on Joseph Smith's First Vision are set down as typical of thought-provoking questions: 1. In view of the fact that when men choose a man for president of a bank they look for a man of maturity and experience, how do you explain that Joseph Smith, a mere boy, with little training or experience, was entrusted with the great responsibility of founding what we claim is the greatest institution of these latter days? 2. How can you convince the world that a just God would declare that none of their churches is right? 3. What vital truths are announced to the world through his first vision? Let us conclude this chapter with one more quotation from Miss Stevens. When asked to name the three outstanding characteristics of a good question, she set them down as follows: 1. A good question should stimulate reflection. 2. It should be adapted to the experience of the pupil. 3. It should draw forth a well-rounded answer. * * * * * QUESTIONS ON QUESTIONING Do I call on my pupils to recite in a fixed order, according to alphabet or seating, so that they are warned not to attend till their turn comes? Do I name the pupil who is to answer before I put the question? Do I ask direct questions or alternative questions which can be answered without knowledge or thought? Do I ask chiefly fact questions? Do I ask leading or suggestive questions? Do I repeat my questions? Attention. Do I answer my own questions? Do I ask confusing, changed questions? Do I ask foolish questions that no one can answer? Do my questions make pupils think? Do my questions follow up the answer and lead to new organization of knowledge? Do I repeat the pupil's answer? Do my questions reach all the members of the class? Do I make the recitation an inquisition, or do I pursue a slow pupil and listen while pupils express themselves freely and naturally? * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXI 1. Why is it essential that we prepare questions as we do other material? 2. What are the dangers that attend the asking of a great number of fact questions? 3. Discuss the relative value of the "W's"--what, who, when, where, and why. 4. Discuss each of the questions on questioning in this chapter. 5. Bring in three thought-provoking questions on one of the current lessons in the month's work of one of the auxiliary organizations. HELPFUL REFERENCES Fitch, _The Art of Questioning_; Stevens, _The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Horne, _Story Telling, Questioning, and Studying_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Driggs, _The Art of Teaching_. CHAPTER XXII THE PROBLEM OF DISCIPLINE OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXII A popular misconception of discipline.--Discipline inherent in teaching.--Importance of discipline in our religious teaching.--Changed attitude within the past three centuries toward discipline.--What discipline is. Methods of securing discipline: The method of rewards; The method of "pleasing the teacher"; The method of punishment; The method of social appeal; The method of interest. The importance of a proper attitude on the part of one who disciplines.--What constitutes such an attitude? Back in 1916 the writer of these chapters was invited to address a group of teachers on the subject of discipline. This particular lecture came toward the end of a series of lectures given on the various pedagogical truths underlying teaching. One particular teacher, who had listened to all of the lectures, expressed appreciation of the fact that discipline was to be discussed--it apparently was his one concern, as indicated in his remark: "We have listened to some excellent theories in these lectures. But I have to teach a class of real live boys and girls. How can I keep the little rascals quiet long enough to work the theories out?" The remark expresses admirably the attitude of very many teachers relative to discipline. They regard teaching as one thing--discipline as quite another. With them discipline involves some sort of magic process or the application of some iron rule authority, which secures order that teaching may then be indulged in. As a matter of fact, discipline is inherent in good teaching. It is not a matter of correction so much as a matter of prevention. The good disciplinarian anticipates disorder--directs the energies of his pupils so that the disorder is made impossible by attention to legitimate interests. Discipline is one of the most pressing problems in the quorums and organizations of the Church today. On every hand the complaint is registered that proper respect is not shown, either for those in important positions or for our places of worship. The spirit that accompanies the political rally or basketball game, held in our amusement halls, too frequently is carried into our sacred meetings. The spirit of unconcern is carried into our classrooms until all too often to call the condition one of disorder is a very inadequate description of the procedure. It is interesting to note the changing attitude generally in the matter of discipline. The harshness of other days is largely replaced by a leniency that borders on "easiness." Our whole attitude toward criminals has been revolutionized, and our human impulses have carried over into the realm of teaching, until now, at least in the opinion of very many critics, we have drifted largely into "soft pedagogy"--a process of trying to please regardless of the consequences. Earlier treatises on education devoted a good bit of space to the amount and kind of punishment that should be administered in a well-ordered school. Punishment is decidedly out of taste these days. The biography of an old German master discloses the fact that during his teaching career he had administered 911,527 raps with his cane, 20,989 with a ruler, 136,715 with his hand, and that he was responsible for 1,115,800 slaps on the head. The same attitude is reflected in the fact that in England, as late as the year 1800, two hundred twenty-three offenses were punishable by death. The offenses included shooting rabbits, stealing, defacing Westminster Bridge, etc. In our day we hesitate to apply the extreme penalty even to the murderer. The attitude toward the content of teaching has undergone a change quite in keeping with that attached to method. There was a time when pedagogical philosophy rather hinted, "It doesn't make any difference what you teach a boy, as long as he doesn't like it." The hint these days might more nearly read: "It doesn't make any difference how valuable certain material is for a boy, don't attempt to teach it to him unless it fascinates him." Our effort to interest our pupils has practically resulted in taking the scriptures, particularly the Old Testament, out of our organizations. Of course, the doctrine of interest is a very vital one, but there are bounds beyond which we ought not to push it. It is, therefore, perfectly obvious that there is urgent need of discipline. Any effort at social control demands it. The army succeeds as it does because of its discipline. Wherever a group of individuals undertake action in common, every member must be willing to sink _interests_ of _self_ in _welfare_ of _others_. As was pointed out in the chapter on Individual Differences, a class is made up of all kinds of individuals. They vary in capacity, in ideals, in training, in attitude, in disposition, and in purpose. Manifestly group progress will be made possible in any such case by a mutual willingness to co-operate--a willingness to attend a discussion even though not particularly interested in it, but because it may be of concern to someone else whose interests I have undertaken to promote. My very presence in the class imposes such a responsibility upon me. It is essential in a discussion of discipline that we agree as to just what discipline is. It is not _mere silence_. Silent "quietness" may be agreeable, but it certainly does not make for achievement. Such silence would be of little worth if it could be achieved, and it cannot be achieved with twentieth century human beings. The question of the lad who had been taken to task for his disturbance is always refreshing. The teacher, after a somewhat prolonged scolding, had concluded: "Now, Tommie, do be quiet." "What fur?" The English may not be the choicest, but the sense is wonderfully significant to the teacher who would really understand the problem of discipline. Discipline is not repression. The _D_ of discipline and the _D_ of don't have been confused all too often. Just as the too frequent use of the brakes on an automobile ruins the lining, so the too frequent "don't" of repression ruins the "goodwill lining" of the boy, and when that lining is gone the "brake squeaks," and in emergencies doesn't hold at all. Discipline rather consists in that direction of wholesome activity which creates an atmosphere of intellectual endeavor in which every individual of a group can profitably follow his own interests while allowing every other individual to do the same thing free from interference. Discipline makes it possible for all to do the thing to be done to advantage. It may at times require silence, it may involve vigorous action--it always presumes intelligent direction that holds those concerned to the orderly pursuit of an established goal. Various means have been devised for the securing of discipline. The _doctrine of rewards_ has been and still is being followed extensively. To give an individual something for being good has never appealed to educators as fundamentally sound. It puts a false evaluation upon virtue. It may be that such a policy must be resorted to in emergencies, but followed regularly it is likely to be attended with disastrous results. The boy who has regularly to be bought into doing what he should will likely raise his price until the method of rewards becomes ruinous both to the father and the boy. To "heroize" a boy in class every time he does a meritorious act will very likely spoil him. Encouragement, of course, is helpful, but it ought not to be overindulged. A stick of candy may induce a child to go to bed agreeably each night, but the candy may spoil other things than the bedspread. Moral fibre is built up by developing the habit of doing a thing because it is right--because it ought to be done. There are teachers and preachers who hold the interest of those taught by tickling their ears with material, either funny or nonsensical. There is a question whether it is not a dangerous practice in an effort to win them to what should be an attitude of religious devotion. Then there is the doctrine that children should be good to please their parents and teachers. This doctrine is akin to that of rewards. It sets up something of a false ideal, though of course it is a splendid thing to teach appreciation of those who help us. Much can be defended which seeks to inculcate in the minds of children reverence for their elders. The chief difficulty lies in the fact that this doctrine may not continue to appeal as fundamentally sound. A third method for securing discipline is to compel it. This is to resort to the law of things. A certain amount of law should characterize both the home and the classroom. Obedience and order are the first laws of heaven and are essential to good social environment. But the law should be so administered that the obedience exacted rests upon an intelligent understanding of the purpose behind the law. Otherwise there comes a time when mere authority fails to control. It is a good thing to train children to abide by regulations out of a sense of duty. If duty and love can be coupled, the combination makes for permanent law-abiding. Arbitrary authority and blind obedience have produced Germany. Strong leadership coupled with democratic co-operation and loyalty have produced America. Still another doctrine of discipline rests upon a social appeal. Members of a group agree that in the interest of everyone's welfare each individual will subscribe to certain conditions regardless of their application to him. This principle, fundamental in all democracies, can safely be trusted to secure desired results in groups mature enough to assure sound judgment. The sense of justice in the human soul is a safe guarantee of both liberty and good order. Many of our classes no doubt could be improved noticeably if we could enlist the co-operation of the members to the extent that they would assume to govern themselves. Finally there is the doctrine of interest as a means of maintaining discipline. This doctrine implies that a teacher should get his class so interested in doing what he wants it to do that it hasn't any inclination to do what it ought not to do. This doctrine is not the pernicious doctrine hinted at earlier in this chapter of cheapening everything into "easiness." Genuine interest may lead not only to effort, but to sacrifice. The boy who plays football does not play because of the ease of the game--he is fascinated by his interest in the struggle. Ample preparation and a complete understanding of pupils will make possible an interest that disciplines without any evidence of discipline. Surely this is the modern doctrine of discipline, though with it should be coupled that wholesome respect for authority that prompts citizens to abide by the law. No discussion of discipline would be complete which did not mention at least the significance of attitude on the part of one who disciplines. In so many cases when a boy is corrected he complains of the teacher, "Oh, well, he's got it in for me." It is always interesting to know whether a parent or teacher disciplines a child because the child needs it, or because the parent or teacher is unnerved and has to give expression to his feelings. The disciplinarian who can correct, when correction is necessary, both in firmness yet in fairness, so that the person who is corrected is made to feel that the correction grows out of a desire to help rather than merely to punish--that disciplinarian will exert an influence for good that is hard to estimate. He is both a friend and a benefactor. Let us conclude this chapter with that wonderful passage from the Doctrine & Covenants which gives us the word of the Lord on this matter of controlling others: "Behold, there are many called, but few are chosen. And why are they not chosen? "Because their hearts are set so much upon the things of this world, and aspire to the honors of men, that they do not learn this one lesson-- "That the rights of the Priesthood are inseparably connected with the powers of heaven, and that the powers of heaven cannot be controlled nor handled only upon the principles of righteousness. "That they may be conferred upon us, it is true; but when we undertake to cover our sins, or to gratify our pride, our vain ambitions, or to exercise control, or dominion, or compulsion, upon the souls of the children of men, in any degree of unrighteousness, behold, the heavens withdraw themselves; the Spirit of the Lord is grieved; and when it is withdrawn, Amen to the Priesthood, or the authority of that man. "Behold! ere he is aware, he is left unto himself, to kick against the pricks; to persecute the Saints, and to fight against God. "We have learned, by sad experience, that it is the nature and disposition of almost all men, as soon as they get a little authority, as they suppose, they will immediately begin to exercise unrighteous dominion. "Hence many are called, but few are chosen. "No power or influence can or ought to be maintained by virtue of the Priesthood, only by persuasion, by long suffering, by gentleness, and meekness, and by love unfeigned; "By kindness, and pure knowledge, which shall greatly enlarge the soul without hypocrisy, and without guile; "Reproving betimes with sharpness, when moved upon by the Holy Ghost, and then showing forth afterwards an increase of love toward him whom thou hast reproved, lest he esteem thee to be his enemy; "That he may know that thy faithfulness is stronger than the cords of death; "Let thy bowels also be full of charity towards all men, and to the household of faith, and let virtue garnish thy thoughts unceasingly, then shall thy confidence wax strong in the presence of God, and the doctrine of the Priesthood shall distil upon thy soul as the dews from heaven. "The Holy Ghost shall be thy constant companion, and thy sceptre an unchanging sceptre of righteousness and truth, and thy dominion shall be an everlasting dominion, and without compulsory means it shall flow unto thee forever and ever." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 121:34-46.) * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXII 1. What constitutes good discipline? 2. What factors contribute to make discipline a real problem in our Church? 3. Discuss our attitude toward discipline today as compared with the attitude toward it a generation ago. 4. Name the various methods of securing discipline. 5. Discuss their relative values. 6. Why is the teacher's attitude so important a factor in discipline? 7. What qualities are involved in the proper attitude? 8. Discuss preparation in its bearing upon discipline. HELPFUL REFERENCES Doctrine & Covenants; Bagley, _School Discipline_; O'Shea, _Everyday Problems in Teaching_; Brumbaugh, _The Making of a Teacher_; Dewey, _Interest and Effort in Education_. CHAPTER XXIII CREATING CLASS SPIRIT OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXIII The "pull" of a good class.--The appeal of an attractive classroom.--Making it "our room."--The teacher and class spirit.--Capitalizing on the leadership of the class.--Stimulating free participation.--Out of class activities.--Some possibilities. There is a "pull" to certain classes--a pull that has all the force of a magnet. Pupils not only go to such a class willingly, but anticipate with pleasure the approach of the recitation hour. When duty is coupled with pleasure, there is a force for righteousness that is beyond measure. Of the various factors that contribute to the creation of a class spirit, the following are offered as being among the most helpful. 1. _An Attractive Classroom._ While it is true that most of the organizations in the Church do not have surplus funds for beautifying their buildings, and while it is equally true that many a good lesson has been conducted on the dirt floors of long cabins, it is equally true that rooms can be beautified, and that pleasant surroundings can be made a potent force in holding to our organizations the men and women and boys and girls of the Church. Of course, elaborate, expensive decorations ought to be discouraged. Simplicity always is more consistent with the spirit of worship than is extravagance. But contrast the difference in effect on children of a bare, untidy, makeshift room as against a cozy room decorated with a few beautiful pictures or draperies and made homelike with comfortable seats and tidy arrangement. Nor is any great expense involved. The writer recalls visiting a kindergarten class in one of the schools in Salt Lake County. The ward authorities had not been asked for a dollar to fit up the room, and yet it had one of the "homiest" atmospheres imaginable. The teacher of the class, in addition to having an interest in the class, had an artistic temperament. She had collected through a number of years the most beautiful pictures that had appeared in the magazines. These in their home-made frames transformed the walls of her room into a veritable art gallery--wherever the eye of the visitor rested, it was greeted by a picture that, through its beauty, drove home an appreciation of the finer things of life. The children, too, had been stimulated to a pride in their room. They had brought in the available old rags from their homes and, as the result of a Sunday School entertainment which they had put on with the co-operation of the other departments of the school, they had had the rags woven into one of those cheerful, old-fashioned home-made carpets. It was perfectly clear that the children took delight in going to this "their room" each Sunday morning. Their pride prompted them to take care of what they regarded as their room, and made for a spirit of quiet and good order hard to surpass. During the course in teacher-training at Provo, last summer, one of the members of the class courteously took the pains to see that a bouquet of flowers adorned the teacher's desk each day that the class met. It is impossible to estimate the effect of those flowers. Their beauty, coupled with the thoughtfulness that brought them in, made for a "fragrance of spirit" that exerted a remarkable influence. Once the idea becomes established, pupils will take delight in making their classroom a place in which they will love to meet. 2. _The Teacher._ We have already discussed at length the personality of the teacher and its force in teaching. We need only emphasize the fact here that the magnetism of the teacher, either through what he is or what he gives, is the one great factor that makes for class spirit. The class inevitably reflects the attitude of the man who directs it. He must radiate enthusiasm before it can be caught by his pupils. His inspiration in making them feel that their class is "the one class" of an organization is only too gladly responded to by those whom he teaches. If he impresses the class with the fact that he joins with them because he loves so to do rather than because he has a duty to perform--if he makes suggestions in the interest of a better class--if he starts out by doing something himself by way of a contribution to the class and its spirit--he can be reasonably sure that his class will come more than half-way to join in his plans. Not only his attitude is a vital factor--his preparation must be of the same enthusiastic type. A pupil of a very successful teacher in Salt Lake City recently made the remark, "I wouldn't think of missing Brother ----'s class. He gives me food for a week." Pressed as to the explanation of this enthusiasm, he added, "Brother ---- is unique. He always attacks a subject in such a new and thorough way. He goes below the surface and really teaches us the Gospel." It is not strange, of course, that such advertising on the part of class members has built up an enrollment of some seventy-five pupils. Let us, then, remind ourselves that boys like a teacher "Who has pep," "Who tells us something new," "Who doesn't preach at us." 3. _Capitalizing on the Leadership of the Class._ Just as in every band of horses there is a leader, so there is in every group of boys and girls. And as with the leaders, so with the followers. "Get the leaders," says a veteran horseman, "and you have all the rest." It is frequently the case that a teacher does not know intimately all of his pupils. Perhaps in many cases that teacher can know well a few of the outstanding leaders. He can well accompany them on hikes, can take them to a theatre, a ball game, or for a ride. If he wins them they become his lieutenants--they make his class. A word from him and these "under officers" lead the whole class to the desired reaction. "Take your leading pupils into your confidence and they will establish you in the confidence of all the rest." The experience is related of a teacher sent into southern Utah to take charge of a class of boys who had "dismissed" three teachers already, within the first half year of school. When the newcomer arrived, the air was full of rumblings as to what was to become of number four. He was variously cautioned to make an early departure, to go into school "armed" to "expect anything." But this particular teacher appreciated the fact that he was best armed when backed by the confidence and good will of his class. It was an easy matter to have pointed out for him "the meanest boy of the lot." This boy he sought out and found playing a game of horseshoe. Invited to take a place in the game, he entered the circle of the "outlaws" by winning decisively from their champion--"the meanest boy." To this boy, the new teacher was a "real fellow." Whatever he said, went! The word was circulated overnight among the boys of the town. The teacher already was master of the situation. "The meanest boy," instead of being the chief outlaw, now took pride in being chief lieutenant. Winning the leader won the group, and teacher number four not only stayed the year out, but was petitioned to come back a second year. As a matter of fact, he says, he taught school in that town for seven years. 4. _Putting a Premium on Participation._ One of the most interesting classes the writer has ever visited was a theological class in the Granite Stake. The teacher was committed to the policy of taking as little as possible of the class period himself, but he was also committed to the policy of getting his pupils to do the most possible. For the particular day in question he had assigned a discussion of baptism. One member of the class had been asked to discuss sprinkling as the correct method, another had been assigned immersion. The two young men brought in their findings as if they had been trained for a debate. Within the forty minutes devoted to the recitation baptism had been gone into as thoroughly as the writer has ever seen it gone into during the course of a single lesson, and the members of the class had been delightfully entertained and enlightened. When the bell rang announcing the close of the recitation, the class petitioned to have the discussion continued the following Sunday. It was perfectly clear how the teacher had built up his enrollment. It is fundamental in human nature to love social combat. The clash of mind versus mind makes a wonderful appeal. Witness a political convention or an open forum debate! Let it be known that a vital subject is to be discussed by men who are really prepared and other men bestir themselves to be in attendance. Surely no subjects are full of more vital significance than questions of life and life eternal. If a teacher will take the pains to select attention-compelling headings and then stimulate representative members of his class really to work out something of a contribution, he need have no fear of the success of his class. Such procedure not only guarantees a good class--it promotes faith on the part of those participating as few other things can. Too frequently we content ourselves with the routine of commonplace "talk." There is no enthusiasm in mere routine as there is none in listless listening to generalities. Our effort should be to make our classes intellectual social centers with everybody participating. 5. _Promoting Class Activities Out of Hours._ The Seventies who harvested the grain for the widow of one of their members did a splendid bit of service, not only for her but for their own quorum. A common objective in service made for a common bond in fellowship. The Primary class that was stimulated to take a basket of flowers to one of its sick members was helped not only in the making of someone happy, but in building up a class spirit that guaranteed success. There are so many possibilities open to the teacher who really cares. Just the other evening the teacher of a class of Bee Hive girls called them together for a little social entertainment that they might talk over plans for the approaching season. What a capital attitude? Not to wait till the season opened, but to take the pains to look up the available, prospective class members and make ready for an enthusiastic campaign. Of course, such a teacher will succeed. Class socials of all sorts, baseball teams, authors' clubs, bits of ward service, visits to institutions of interest--scores of worthy opportunities present themselves always to the teacher who is anxious to build up a genuine class spirit. And that spirit is the one great guarantee of real joy in teaching--it makes a class one which its members will always hold in memory. * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXIII 1. Why is it essential that a teacher build up a class spirit? 2. Give three practical suggestions on the subject of beautifying classrooms. 3. Discuss the importance of the attitude of a teacher in promoting class spirit. 4. Point out possible methods for enlisting the co-operation of class leaders. 5. What do you consider your best method of stimulating members to participate in class discussions? 6. What kind of class activities contribute most to the life of your class? 7. Discuss the advisability of promoting class athletic teams. HELPFUL REFERENCES Colgrove, _The Teacher and the School_; Weigle, _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_; Dewey, _Interest and Effort in Education_; O'Shea, _Everyday Problems in Teaching_; Norsworthy and Whitley, _Psychology of Childhood_. CHAPTER XXIV CONVERSION--THE REAL TEST OF TEACHING OUTLINE--CHAPTER XXIV Character, a great power in conversion.--Our concern the converted teacher and also the converted pupil.--The converted teacher believes what he teaches.--The converted teacher practices what he teaches.--The force of "Come, follow me."--What makes for conversion.--The teacher's obligation to kindle the spiritual fire.--His obligation to feature testimony-bearing.--His obligation to take his pupils where they will feel the spirit of testimony. A number of years ago a young graduate of one of our eastern universities was employed to teach science in a school in Japan. He was employed with the understanding that though he was free to advance whatever scientific theories he chose he should say nothing about his Christian religion. He accepted the conditions gladly, and during the first year of his service was careful not even to mention Christianity. He not only taught his classes in science, but he joined with the boys in their athletics and in their social life generally. Being both an athlete and a leader, he was soon looked to as the life of the school. His clean life was an inspiration. He inevitably set a Christian standard. Before the end of the second year, though he had preached never a word, forty young men made application for membership in his church. His life and ideals had converted them as no preaching could have done. What was true in this case is inevitably true in the case of all real teachers. What a man is breathes a power of conversion that no force or argument can equal. Hence this concluding chapter--Conversion, the Real Test of Teaching. First of all, we are concerned with the conversion of the teacher; secondly, with the conversion of the pupil. They are inseparably interwoven. Only the converted teacher can make converts of his pupils. And surely there is very great need of this very thing--_the making of real converts of our boys and girls_ that they may come fully to appreciate the significance of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Upon them rests the carrying forward of that great work which only the _conversion_ of our pioneer forefathers could have achieved. In the first place, the converted teacher _believes_ what he teaches. There is no half-hearted attitude toward the subject in hand. To him it is both true and vital. He teaches with a positiveness and an assurance which grip pupils. What a difference between the speech in which a speaker merely makes certain observations--sets forth certain specified facts--and the speech in which those same facts are heightened by that glow of conviction which stamps them as indispensably essential to proper living. The prayer of a man who does not believe in prayer is an example of the emptiness of unbelief. There is one minister in Chicago who openly announces that God does not and can not answer the prayers of mankind. And yet he prays. And what mockery is his praying. Mere words. No man is ever touched by such an empty form. Such prayers have none of that _Heaven Force_ which establishes communion with the Lord. Surely "They draw near me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me." To everyone comes the experience of listening to the heavy phrases of him who would argue and harrangue his auditors into salvation. How his words seem not only to close their minds, but to shut their hearts as well. He fairly talks so loudly that they can't hear him. And then some humble follower of Him who shunned the orator's eloquence moves to tears the same audience by his simple utterance of what he knows and feels to be true. He adds the conviction of conversion to mere "hard-headedness." When a man knows that which he teaches is true there is a spirit that gives power to what he says. "The letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life." The experience of a Montana railroad executive gives force to this thought. He told one of our leaders how he had always been impressed with the achievements of our Church. In fact, he became such an admirer of the wonderful organization of the "Mormon" Church that he decided to adopt the same kind of organization in his railroad. To quote: "I thought if I could apply the same system up here that you have in the 'Mormon' Church it would work just the same for me as it did for you. I have copied its plan with the First Presidency, the Council of the Twelve, the Presiding Bishop, and all the other officers. I have tried it--but it wouldn't work for me." Only a Latter-day Saint can fully understand why. And so the teacher who would become a converter must feel the truth of what he teaches so that a spirit of conviction extends from him to his class and so takes hold of the members that they, too, feel the truth of what he says. In short, the real teacher must have a testimony of the truthfulness of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. He must be caught up by that same spirit that opened the heavens to the Prophet Joseph Smith--only then can he really teach. The Lord has so revealed: "And they shall observe the covenants and church articles to do them, and these shall be their teaching, as they shall be directed by the Spirit; "And the Spirit shall be given unto you by the prayer of faith, and if ye receive not the Spirit, ye shall not teach." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 42:13, 14.) "Verily I say unto you, he that is ordained of me and sent forth to preach the word of truth by the Comforter, in the Spirit of Truth, doth he preach it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way? "And if it be by some other way, it is not of God. "And again, he that receiveth the word of truth, doth he receive it by the Spirit of Truth or some other way? "If it be some other way it be not of God: "Therefore, why is it that ye cannot understand and know that he that receiveth the word by the Spirit of Truth, receiveth it as it is preached by the Spirit of Truth? "Wherefore, he that preacheth and he that receiveth, understandeth one another, and both are edified and rejoice together; "And that which doth not edify is not of God and is darkness; "That which is of God is light; and he that receiveth light and continueth in God, receiveth more light, and that light groweth brighter and brighter until the perfect day." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 50:17-24.) In the second place, the teacher's belief must be translated into daily life. "Come, follow me," is the admonition that makes for conversion. A young man recently, in characterizing the biggest failure among teachers that he had ever known, remarked, "He simply couldn't teach us anything. He started in by giving us a vigorous lecture against tobacco, but before a week had passed we all knew that he himself smoked. He might just as well have given up teaching right there. We couldn't see any truth in him after that, for the 'smoke' of his own deception." Of course, he was not converted. A similar experience is related of the principal of a school who, with his faculty of teachers, made it a school rule that there should be no playing of cards on the part of the students. The rule recorded, however, the principal proceeded to participate in downtown card parties until he established a reputation, in the language of the boys, as a "card shark." Not only did that principal find it impossible thereafter to combat the evil of students cutting classes to play cards, he lost that confidence on the part of the student body without which school discipline cannot be achieved. Lack of conversion--such conversion as leads a man to practice what he preaches--cost him his position. To the teacher who would develop the power of conversion, may we make reference by way of review to those suggestions in an earlier chapter that make for spiritual growth: 1. Live a clean life. 2. Read the word of the Lord. 3. Do the duties assigned by those in authority. 4. Subscribe to all the principles of the Gospel. 5. Cultivate a real spirit of prayer. If the teacher is really converted, of course the conversion of his pupils follows very largely as a corollary. But by way of practical suggestion, it may be helpful to list some things that may be done to promote a spirit of testimony on the part of the pupils. At the outset a teacher ought to appreciate just what a testimony is and how it varies with the age and experience of children. It is clearly a mistake as a general rule to expect young children to give expression to a testimony such as might be borne by an adult. True, some children enjoy at an early age the spirit of testimony to such an extent that they do seem to know that the Gospel is true. But it is wiser not to expect too much. Then, too, testimonies vary with individuals. Teachers ought to look out for expressions which are characteristic of the pupil in question rather than to expect all pupils to measure up to a set standard. With a proper conception of a testimony, the teacher then owes certain rather definite obligations to his class. He ought to feature testimony bearing rather than to apologize for it. In the teaching of the Gospel of Jesus Christ there can be no more sacred opportunity than that which allows pupils to open their hearts to their Creator. Then, too, the teacher owes it to his class to _kindle_ the spiritual fire which alone can make for testimony bearing. Brother Maeser had a very effective way of illustrating the significance of this obligation. As he expressed the thought, no one would feel that he had completed his task of warming a house if he merely put into the grate the necessary paper, wood and coal. He might have all these, but until he struck the match which would kindle the fire, no warmth would be felt. And so, spiritually, the fire of a testimony-meeting needs to be kindled. All too often, a teacher opens the class hour with some such statement as this, "Now, boys and girls, today is Fast Day. I hope you won't let the time go to waste." What inspiration in such an opening! That teacher has not only not kindled the fire, he has brought in a lump or two of coal--hard at that--with no kindling even as a promise of a fire. On the other hand, the successful teacher comes before his class with a vital truth that thrills him and gives it a concrete expression which prompts pupils to add similar experiences out of their own lives. Then, too, the teacher may well bring into his class by way of inspiration someone well established in the faith whose experiences are full of the spirit of conversion. There are in every ward in the Church those men and women who know of a surety that the gospel is true. Why not bring them in occasionally to stimulate testimony bearing? Might it not be well, also, to take the class as a class to our Fast Day Sacrament service, there to let them enjoy the wonderful spirit of testimony that is so characteristic of these meetings? There is a feeling of conversion that attends these meetings that all boys and girls must feel--must feel so keenly that they in turn will want to give expression to their own convictions. And finally, as teachers, let us remind ourselves that in this matter of promoting the bearing of testimonies we should exercise a patience that is full of tolerance and forbearance. Some few individuals are converted suddenly; others respond to the truth gradually; and there are those who do well if they really respond to the feeling of conversion at the end of a lifetime. As one of our leaders has so beautifully pointed out, the Master, Himself, did not convert the world in a day, nor a year--He has not converted it in all these centuries. His plan seems to be to teach the truth and wait patiently until the divinity in man asserts itself--until man walks by his own light into eternal truth. Under the inspiration of such example may teachers well labor on in earnestness, happy in the thought that He will hasten in His own due time what to them may seem a long, slow process. "Perchance, in heaven, one day to me Some blessed Saint will come and say, 'All hail, beloved; but for thee My soul to death had fallen a prey'; And oh! what rapture in the thought, One soul to glory to have brought." * * * * * QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS--CHAPTER XXIV 1. Why is conversion the real test of religious teaching? 2. What are the outstanding characteristics of a person newly converted to the Church? 3. Discuss the significance of each of the factors that make for conversion. 4. Illustrate how to kindle the spiritual fire. 5. State why or why not you favor making assignments for testimony day. 6. What is a testimony? 7. How may children best cultivate a testimony? 8. What principle or practice means most to you by way of affirming your own testimony? HELPFUL REFERENCES The Doctrine & Covenants, The Bible, The Book of Mormon, The Voice of Warning, Rays of Living Light. _Bibliography_ _The Art of Teaching_ Driggs Deseret Book Co., Salt Lake. _The Art of Questioning_ Fitch A. Flanigan Co., Chicago. _Story Telling, Questioning and Studying_ Horne MacMillan Co., New York. _Principles of Psychology_ James H. Holt & Co., New York. _Fundamentals of Child Study_ Kirkpatrick MacMillan Co., New York. _A Study of Child Nature_ Harrison R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Chicago. _Psychology of Childhood_ Norsworthy and Whitley MacMillan Co., New York. _The Essentials of Character_ Sisson MacMillan Co., New York. _Principles of Teaching_ Thorndike A.G. Seiler, New York. _Education for Character_ Sharp Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis. _The Ideal Teacher_ G.H. Palmer Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. _The Seven Laws of Teaching_ J.M. Gregory The Pilgrim Press, Chicago. _The Point of Contact in Teaching_ Dubois Dodd, Mead & Co., New York. _Interest and Effort in Education_ Dewey Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. _The Boy Problem_ Forbush The Pilgrim Press, Chicago. _Training the Boy_ McKeever MacMillan Co., New York. _Types of Teaching_ Earhart Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. _How to Teach Religion_ Betts The Abingdon Press, New York. _Talks to Sunday School Teachers_ Weigle Doran Publishing Co., New York. _Everyday Problems in Teaching_ O'Shea Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis. _Talks to Teachers_ James H. Holt & Co., New York. _How to Teach_ Strayer and Norsworthy MacMillan Co., New York. _The Making of a Teacher_ Brumbaugh Sunday School Times Co., Phila. _The Learning Process_ Colvin MacMillan Co., New York. _The Teacher and the School_ Colgrove Chas. Scribner & Co., New York. _Pictures in Religious Education_ Beard Geo. H. Doran Co., New York. _The Nervous System_ Stiles W.B. Saunders Co., Phila. _The Classroom Teacher_ Strayer and Englehardt American Book Co., New York. _The Recitation_ Betts Houghton-Mifflin Co., New York. _Attention_ Pillsbury MacMillan Co., New York. _Religious Education in the Family_ Cope University of Chicago Press. _Classroom Method and Management_ Betts Bobbs, Merrill Co., Indianapolis. _Classroom Management_ Bagley MacMillan Co., New York. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: Obvious printing errors were repaired; these changes are listed below. Chapter I "a Church built upon revelation" Corrected typo: "builded" Chapter VI "using an average of thirty-two minutes" Corrected typo: "mintues" "their employees that they subscribe regularly" Corrected typo: "reguarly" Chapter VII "A Child's characteristics--his" Corrected typo: "charactertistics" "These organic, vital activities" Corrected typo: "acitivities" "All nuerones have" "nuerones must be active" Corrected typos: "neurones" Chapter VIII "method of rewards and punishment;" Corrected typo: "punishment:" "will be found an interesting tabulation" Corrected typo: "tabluation" "few of them can safely be developed" Corrected typo: "devoloped" Chapter IX "wasn't worrying about what he was" Corrected typo: "worying" "concerning which there may be some uncertainty." Corrected typo: "uncertainty?" Chapter X "group themselves with a certain uniformity" Corrected typo: "cerain" "indicate that there is little" Corrected typo: "their is" "sent his way than the cheerful one" Corrected typo: "cheeful" Chapter XIII "Let the scriptures testify" Corrected typo: "sciptures" "Consider the case of the Son" Corrected typo: "case of of the Son" Chapter XIV "is so significant when understood" Corrected typo: "signficant" "going back some two thousand years" Corrected typo: "thouand" Chapter XVI "the silent inspiration of that picture" Corrected typo: "pciture" Chapter XIX "the statement, "The best method is a variety of methods."" Closing quote missing in original Chapter XX "map out their work so carefully" Corrected typo: "map our" Chapter XXI "a. The review question;" Corrected typo: "question:" "'As long as I do all the talking, things go all right,'" Closing single quote was double quote in original "when, where, and why." Missing period in original Chapter XXII "to go to bed agreeably" Corrected typo: "agreebly" Chapter XXIII "to participate in class discussions?" Corrected typo: "discussions." In addition, in Chapter XVI a full line was missing. The original reads: "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.) The corrected text is: "And again, I command thee that thou shalt pray vocally as well as in thy heart; yea, before the world as well as in secret, in public as well as in private." (Doc. & Cov., Sec. 19:28.) 
15800	----	The Abingdon Religious Education Texts David B. Downey, General Editor Community Training School Series Norman E. Richardson, Editor HOW TO TEACH RELIGION Principles and Methods by GEORGE HERBERT BETTS THE ABINGDON PRESS NEW YORK CINCINNATI 1926 DEDICATED TO THOSE WHO HAVE IN THEIR KEEPING THE RELIGIOUS DESTINY OF AMERICA--THE TWO MILLION TEACHERS IN OUR CHURCH SCHOOLS. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE TEACHER HIMSELF 13 Importance of the teacher--Three types of teachers--The personal factor in teaching religion--Developing the power of personality--The cultivatable factors in personality--A scale for determining personality--The teacher's mastery of subject-matter--Methods of growth--Fields of mastery demanded--Service and rewards--Problems and questions. II. THE GREAT OBJECTIVE 30 Two great objectives in teaching--Making sure of the greater objective--Teaching children _versus_ teaching subject-matter--Subject-matter as a means instead of an end--Success in instruction to be measured in terms of modified life, not of material covered--The goal of a constantly developing Christian character and experience--Problems for discussion. III. THE FOURFOLD FOUNDATION 42 What the fourfold foundation consists of: (1) right _aims_, (2) right _materials_ to reach these aims, (3) right _organization_ of this material for instruction, (4) right _presentation_ in instruction--The aim of teaching religion is (1) fruitful knowledge, (2) right religious attitudes and growing consciousness of God, (3) power and will to live righteously--Selecting subject-matter to meet these ends--Principles of organization of material--The problem of effective presentation--Questions for discussion. IV. RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE OF MOST WORTH 58 Not all religious knowledge of equal value--What determines value of knowledge--Kind of knowledge needed by child--Developing the child's idea of God--Harm from wrong concepts of God--Giving the child the right concept of religion--The qualities by which religion should be defined to the child--The child's knowledge of the Bible; of the church; of religious forms of expression--Problems and questions. V. RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES TO BE CULTIVATED 76 The meaning of religious attitudes--These attitudes lie at the basis of both motives and character--Importance of the pupil's attitudes toward the church school and class--Enjoyment of the lesson hour and the growth of loyalty--The sense of mastery necessary to mental and spiritual growth--The grounding of a continuous interest in the Bible and religion--Growth in spiritual warmth and responsiveness--The cultivation of ideals--The training of fine appreciations--Worthy loyalties and devotions--Clearness of God-consciousness--Questions and problems. VI. CONNECTING RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION WITH LIFE AND CONDUCT 91 Religious instruction must carry across to life and conduct--Hence necessity of finding practical outlet in expression for feelings, ideals, emotions and attitudes resulting from instruction--The setting up of certain religious habits--Expression in connection with the life of the church--Expression in the home life--Expression in the community and public school life--Expression in worship and the devotional life--Problems for discussion. VII. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 109 The Bible the great source-book of religious material--Yet much material other than biblical required--Principles for the selection of material from the Bible--Biblical material for early childhood; for later childhood; for adolescence--Story material and its sources--Materials from nature--Materials from history and biography--Picture material for religious teaching--Religious music for children--Questions and problems. VIII. THE ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL 129 Four different types of organization--Organization applied (1) to the curriculum as a whole, (2) to individual lessons--Haphazard organization--Logical organization--Chronological organization--Psychological organization--Three types of curriculum organization: (1) Uniform lessons, (2) Graded lessons, (3) text books of religion--Organizing daily lesson material--Typical lesson plans--Problems for discussion. IX. THE TECHNIQUE OF TEACHING 148 Teaching that sticks--Attention the key--Types of appeal to attention--The control of interest--Interest and action--Variety and change as related to interest--Social contagion of interest--The prevention of distractions--The control of conduct--Danger points in instruction--Establishing and maintaining standards--Questions and problems. X. MAKING TRUTH VIVID 165 Vividness of impression necessary to lasting value--The _whole_ mind involved in religion--Learning to think in religion--Protecting children against intellectual difficulties--The appeal of religion to the imagination--Guiding principles for the religious imagination--The use of the memory in religion--Laws of memory--How to memorize--Problems for discussion. XI. TYPES OF TEACHING 183 The several types of lessons for religious instruction--The informational lesson--The use of the inductive lesson--The deductive lesson in religion--The application of drill to religious teaching--The lesson in appreciation--Conducting the review lesson--How to make the lesson assignment--Questions and problems. XII. METHODS USED IN THE RECITATION 201 Methods of procedure for the lesson hour--The use of the topical method--Place and dangers of the lecture method--Securing participation from the class--The question method--Principles of good questioning--The treatment of answers--The story method--Guiding principles in story teaching--The teaching method of Jesus--Jesus the embodiment of all scientific pedagogy--Questions and problems. EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION The teacher of religion needs to be very sure of himself at one point. He ought to be able to answer affirmatively the question, "Have I the prophetic impulse in my teaching?" Sooner or later, practical difficulties will "come not singly but by battalions," and the spirit needs to be fortified against discouragement. When driven back to the second or third line defense it is important that such a line really exists; the consciousness of being the spokesman for God makes the teacher invulnerable and unconquerable. But in order that this divine impulse may attain its greatest strength and find the most direct, articulate, and effective expression, the teacher must know _how_ as well as _what_ to teach. The most precious spiritual energy may be lost because improperly directed or controlled. Unhesitating insight into the solution of practical problems helps to open up a channel through which the prophetic impulse can find fullest expression. There is no substitute for mastery of the technique of the teaching process. Prayerful consecration cannot take its place. This ready command of the methods of teaching, on the other hand, is in no sense an equivalent of the consciousness of having been "called" or "chosen" to teach religion. The two must go hand in hand. No one who feels himself divinely appointed for this sacred task dares ignore the responsibility of becoming a "workman not to be ashamed, _rightly_ dividing the word of truth." This volume by Dr. Betts offers the earnest teacher of religion an exceptional opportunity to make more effective his ideal of instruction. The treatment applies the best of modern educational science to the problems of the church school, without, however, for a moment, forgetting that a vital religious experience is the final goal of all our teaching. Besides setting forth the underlying principles of religious teaching in a clear and definite way, the author has included in every chapter a rich fund of illustration and concrete application which cannot fail to prove immediately helpful in every church classroom. It is also believed that students of religious education will find this treatment of method by Professor Betts the most fundamental and sane that has yet appeared in the field. NORMAN E. RICHARDSON. AUTHOR'S PREFACE _Children can be brought to a religious character and experience through right nurture and training in religion._ This is the fundamental assumption on which the present volume rests, and it makes the religious education of children the most strategic opportunity and greatest responsibility of the church, standing out above all other obligations whatever. Further, the successful teaching of religion is based on the same laws that apply to other forms of teaching; hence teachers in church schools need and have a right to all the help that a scientific pedagogy permeated by an evangelistic spirit can give them. They also have the obligation to avail themselves of this help for the meeting of their great task. This book undertakes to deal in a concrete and practical way with the underlying principles of religious instruction. The plan of the text is simple. First comes the part _the teacher_ must play in training the child in religion. Then the spiritual changes and growth to be effected in _the child_ are set forth as the chief objective of instruction. Next is a statement of the _great aims,_ or goals, to be striven for in the child's expanding religious experience. These goals are: (1) fruitful _religious knowledge_; (2) right _religious attitudes--interests, ideals, feelings, loyalties_; (3) the _application of this knowledge and these attitudes to daily life and conduct_. Following the discussion of aims is the question of just _what subject matter_ to choose in order to accomplish these ends, and _how best to organize_ the chosen material for instruction. And finally, _how most effectively to present_ the subject matter selected to make it serve its purpose in stimulating and guiding the spiritual growth and development of children. The volume is intended as a textbook for teacher-training classes, students of religious education, and for private study by church-school teachers. It is also hoped that ministers may find some help in its pages toward meeting their educational problems. Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. CHAPTER I THE TEACHER HIMSELF It is easy enough to secure buildings and classrooms for our schools. The expenditure of so many dollars will bring us the equipment we require. Books and materials may be had almost for the asking. The great problem is to secure _teachers_--real teachers, teachers of power and devotion who are able to leave their impress on young lives. Without such teachers all the rest is but as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal. And to be a real teacher is a very high achievement. Bishop Vincent was giving a lecture on "That Boy." He himself was "that boy," and in the course of describing his school days he fell into meditation as follows: "That old school master of mine!--He is dead now--_and I have forgiven him!_--And I am afraid that was the chronology of the matter; for I never was able to forgive him while he lived." I, as one of the listeners, smiled at the bitter wit of the speaker, but was oppressed. This somber view of the impression sometimes left by teachers on their pupils received an antidote the following day, however, when a venerable old man approached my desk bearing in his hands an ancient and dog-eared copy of a text in grammar. He opened the book and proudly showed me written across the fly leaf "Grover Cleveland, President." Then he told me this story: "I have been a teacher. In one of my first schools I had Grover Cleveland as a pupil. He came without a textbook in grammar, and I loaned him mine. Years passed, and Grover Cleveland was President of the United States. One day I was one of many hundreds passing in line at a public reception to grasp the President's hand. I carried this book with me, and when it came my turn to meet the President, I presented the volume and said, 'Mr. President, do you recognize this book, and do you remember me?' In an instant the light of recognition had flashed in Mr. Cleveland's eyes. Calling me by name, he grasped my hand and held it while the crowd waited and while he recalled old times and thanked me for what I had meant to him when I was his teacher. Then he took the old book and autographed it for me." Three types of teachers.--Two types of teachers are remembered: one to be forgiven after years have softened the antagonisms and resentments; the other to be thought of with honor and gratitude as long as memory lasts. Between these two is a third and a larger group: those who are _forgotten_, because they failed to stamp a lasting impression on their pupils. This group represents the _mediocrity_ of the profession, not bad enough to be actively forgiven, not good enough to claim a place in gratitude and remembrance. To which type would we belong? To which type _can_ we belong? Can we choose? What are the factors that go to determine the place we shall occupy in the scale of teachers? THE PERSONAL FACTOR When we revert to our own pupil days we find that the impressions which cling to our memories are not chiefly impressions of facts taught and of lessons learned, but of the _personality_ of the teacher. We may have forgotten many of the truths presented and most of the conclusions drawn, but the warmth and glow of the human touch still remains. To be a teacher of religion requires a particularly exalted personality. The teacher and the truth taught should always leave the impression of being of the same pattern. "For their sakes I sanctify myself," said the Great Teacher; shall the teachers of his Word dare do less! The teacher as an interpreter of truth.--This is not to say that the subject matter taught is unimportant, nor that the lessons presented are immaterial. It is only to say that life responds first of all to _life_. Truth never comes to the child disembodied and detached, but always with the slant and quality of the teacher's interpretation of it. It is as if the teacher's mind and spirit were the stained glass through which the sunlight must fall; all that passes through the medium of a living personality takes its tone and quality from this contact. The pupils may or may not grasp the lessons of their books, but their teachers are living epistles, known and read by them all. For it is the concrete that grips and molds. Our greatest interest and best attention center in persons. The world is neither formed nor reformed by abstract truths nor by general theories. Whatever ideals we would impress upon others we must first have realized in ourselves. What we _are_ often drowns out what we say. Words and maxims may be misunderstood; character seldom is. Precepts may fail to impress; personality never does. God tried through the ages to reveal his purposes to man by means of the law and the prophets, but man refused to heed or understand. It was only when God had made his thought and plan for man concrete in the person of Jesus of Nazareth that man began to understand. The first and most difficult requirement of the teacher, therefore, is--_himself_, his personality. He must combine in himself the qualities of life and character he seeks to develop in his pupils. He must look to his personality as the source of his influence and the measure of his power. He must be the living embodiment of what he would lead his pupils to become. He must live the religion he would teach them. He must possess the vital religious experience he would have them attain. The building of personality.--Personality is not born, it is made. A strong, inspiring personality is not a gift of the gods, nor is a weak and ineffective personality a visitation of Providence. Things do not _happen_ in the realm of the spiritual any more than in the realm of nature. Everything is _caused_. Personality grows. It takes its form in the thick of the day's work and its play. It is shaped in the crush and stress of life's problems and its duties. It gains its quality from the character of the thoughts and acts that make up the common round of experience. It bears the marks of whatever spiritual fellowship and communion we keep with the Divine. Professor Dewey tells us that character is largely dependent on the mode of assembling its parts. A teacher may have a splendid native inheritance, a fine education, and may move in the best social circles, and yet not come to his best in personality. It requires some high and exalted task in order to assemble the powers and organize them to their full efficiency. The urge of a great work is needed to make potential ability actual. Paul did not become the giant of his latter years until he took upon himself the great task of carrying the gospel to the Gentiles. Our own responsibility.--It follows then that the building of our personalities is largely in our own hands. True, the influence of heredity is not to be overlooked. It is easier for some to develop attractive, compelling qualities than for others. The raw material of our nature comes with us; is what heredity decrees. But the finished product bears the stamp of our training and development. Fate or destiny never takes the reins from our hands. We are free to shape ourselves largely as we will. Our inner life will daily grow by what it feeds upon. This is the great secret of personality-building. What to-day we build into thought and action to-morrow becomes character and personality. Let us cultivate our interests, think high thoughts, and give ourselves to worthy deeds, and these have soon become a life habit. Let our hearts go out in helpfulness to those about us, and sympathy for human kind becomes a compelling motive in our lives before we are aware. Let us consciously listen to the still small voice speaking to the soul, and we will find our souls expanding to meet the Infinite. The secret.--He who would develop his personality into the full measure of its strength and power must, then, set his goal at _living constantly in the presence of the_ BEST. This will include the best in thought and memory and anticipation. It will permit none but cheerful moods, nor allow us to dwell with bitterness upon petty wrongs and grievances. It will control the tongue, and check the unkind word or needless criticism. It will cause us to seek for the strong and beautiful qualities in our friends and associates, and not allow us to point out their faults nor magnify their failings. It will cure us of small jealousies and suppress all spirit of revenge. It will save us from idle worry and fruitless rebellion against such ills as cannot be cured. In short, it will free our lives from the crippling influence of negative moods and critical attitudes. It will teach us to _be ruled by our admirations rather than by our aversions_. Above all, he who would build a personality fitted to serve as the teacher of the child in his religion must constantly live in the presence of _the best he can attain in God_. There is no substitute for this. No fullness of intellectual power and grasp, no richness of knowledge gleaned, and no degree of skill in instruction can take the place of a vibrant, immediate, Spirit-filled consciousness of God in the heart. For religion is _life_, and the best definition of religion we can present to the child is the example and warmth of a life inspired and vivified by contact with the Source of all spiritual being. The authority of the teacher should rest on his own religious experience, rather than on the spiritual experience of others. A character chart.--There is no possibility, of course, of making a list of all the qualities that enter into our personalities. Nor would it be possible to trace all the multiform ways in which these qualities may combine in our characters. It is worth while, however, to consider a few of the outstanding traits which take first place in determining our strength or weakness, and especially such as will respond most readily to conscious training and cultivation. Such a list follows. Each quality may serve as a goal both for our own development and for the training of our pupils. POSITIVE QUALITIES NEGATIVE QUALITIES 1 Open-minded, inquiring, broad Narrow, dogmatic, not hungry for truth 2 Accurate, thorough, discerning Indefinite, superficial, lazy 3 Judicious, balanced, fair Prejudiced, led by likes and dislikes 4 Original, independent, resourceful Dependent, imitative, subservient 5 Decisive, possessing convictions Uncertain, wavering, undecided 6 Cheerful, joyous, optimistic Gloomy, morose, pessimistic, bitter 7 Amiable, friendly, agreeable Repellent, unsociable, disagreeable 8 Democratic, broadly sympathetic Snobbish, self-centered, exclusive 9 Tolerant, sense of humor, generous Opinionated, dogmatic, intolerant 10 Kind, courteous, tactful Cruel, rude, untactful 11 Tractable, cooperative, teachable Stubborn, not able to work with others 12 Loyal, honorable, dependable Disloyal, uncertain dependability 13 Executive, forceful, vigorous Uncertain, weak, not capable 14 High ideals, worthy, exalted Low standards, base, contemptible 15 Modest, self-effacing Egotistical, vain, autocratic 16 Courageous, daring, firm Overcautious, weak, vacillating 17 Honest, truthful, frank, sincere Low standards of honor and truth 18 Patient, calm, equable Irritable, excitable, moody 19 Generous, open-hearted, forgiving Stingy, selfish, resentful 20 Responsive, congenial Cold, repulsive, uninviting 21 Punctual, on schedule, capable Tardy, usually behindhand, incapable 22 Methodical, consistent, logical Haphazard, desultory, inconsistent 23 Altruistic, given to service Indifferent, not socially-minded 24 Refined, alive to beauty, artistic Coarse, lacking æsthetic quality 25 Self-controlled, decision, purpose Suggestible, easily led, uncertain 26 Good physical carriage, dignity Lack of poise, ill posture, no grace 27 Taste in attire, cleanliness, pride Careless in dress, frumpy, no pride 28 Face smiling, voice pleasing Somber expression, voice unpleasant 29 Physical endurance, vigor, strength Quickly tired, weak, sluggish 30 Spiritual responsiveness strong Spiritually weak, inconstant, uncertain 31 Prayer life warm, satisfying Prayer cold, formal, little comfort 32 Religious certainty, peace, quiet Conflict, strain, uncertainty 33 Religious experience expanding Spiritual life static or losing force 34 God a near, inspiring reality God distant, unreal, hard of approach 35 Power to win others to religion Influence little or negative 36 Interest in Bible and religion Little concern for religion and Bible 37 Religion makes life fuller and richer Religion felt as a limitation 38 Deeply believe great fundamentals Lacking in foundations for faith 39 Increasing triumph over sin Too frequent falling before temptation 40 Religious future hopeful Religious growth uncertain It is highly instructive for one to grade himself on this list of qualities; or he may have his friends and associates grade him, thus getting an estimate of the impression he is making on others. Teachers will find it well worth while to attempt to grade each of their pupils; for this will give a clearer insight into their strengths and weaknesses, and so indicate where to direct our teaching. Mark each separate set of qualities on the scale of 10 for the highest possible attainment. If the strength of the _positive_ qualities of a certain set (as in No. 10) can be marked but 6, then the negative qualities of this set must carry a mark of 4. THE TEACHER'S BACKGROUND OF PREPARATION One can never teach all he knows. Dr. John Dewey tells us that the subject matter of our instruction should be so well mastered that it has become second nature to us; then when we come to the recitation we can give our best powers of thought and insight to the _human element_--seeking to understand the boys and girls as we teach them. Our knowledge and mastery must always be much broader than the material we actually present. It must be deeper and our grasp more complete than can be reached by our pupils. For only this will give us the mental perspective demanded of the teacher. Only this will enable our thought to move with certainty and assurance in the field of our instruction. And only this will win the confidence and respect of our pupils who, though their minds are yet unformed, have nevertheless a quick sense for mastery or weakness as revealed in their teacher. A danger confronted by teachers in church schools.--Teachers in our church schools are at a disadvantage at this point. They constitute a larger body than those who teach in the day schools, yet the vast army who teach our children religion receive no salaries. They are engaged in other occupations, and freely give their services as teachers of religion with no thought of compensation or reward. The time and enthusiasm they give to the Sunday school is a free-will offering to a cause in which they believe. All this is inspiring and admirable, but it also contains an element of danger. For it is impossible to set up scholastic and professional standards for our teachers of religion as we do for the teachers in our day schools. The day-school teacher, employed by the state and receiving public funds, must go through a certain period of training for his position. He must pass examinations in the subject matter he is to teach, and in his professional fitness for the work of the teacher. He must have a certificate granted by responsible authorities before he can enter the schoolroom. He must show professional growth while in service if he is to receive promotion or continue in the vocation. Greater personal responsibility on church school teacher.--Naturally, all this is impossible with volunteer teachers who receive no pay for their services and are not employed under legal authority. No compulsion can be brought to bear; all must rest on the sense of duty and of opportunity of the individual teacher. Yet the Sunday school teacher needs even a more thorough background of preparation than the day-school teacher, for the work of instruction in the Sunday school is almost infinitely harder than in the day school. Religion and morals are more difficult to teach than arithmetic and geography. The church building usually lacks adequate classroom facilities. The lesson material is not as well graded and adapted to the children as the day-school texts. The lessons come but once a week, and the time for instruction is insufficient. The children do not prepare their lessons, and so come to the Sunday school lacking the mental readiness essential to receiving instruction. This all means that the Sunday school teacher must rise to a sense of his responsibilities. He must realize that he holds a position of influence second to none in the spiritual development of his pupils. He must remember that he is dealing with a seed-time whose harvest involves the fruits of character and destiny. With these facts in mind he must ask himself whether he is justified in standing before his class as teacher without having given the time and effort necessary for complete preparation. The teacher and his Bible.--The teacher should know his Bible. This means far more than to know its text and characters. The Bible is history, it is literature, it is a treatise on morals, it is philosophy, it is a repository of spiritual wisdom, it is a handbook of inspiration and guidance to the highest life man has in any age conceived. To master the Bible one must have a background of knowledge of the life and history of its times. He must enter into the spirit and genius of the Hebrew nation, know their aspirations, their political and economic problems, and understand their tragedies and sufferings. He must know the historical and social setting of the Jewish people, the nations and civilizations that surrounded them, and the customs, mode of life, and trend of thought of contemporaneous peoples. Not all of these things can be learned from the Bible itself. One must make use of the various helps and commentaries now available to Bible students. The religions of ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Greece, and Rome should be studied. Ancient literatures should be placed under tribute, and every means employed to gain a working knowledge of the social medium out of which the Christian religion developed. The teacher's knowledge of children.--Time was when we thought of the child as a miniature man, differing from adults on the physical side only in size and strength, and on the mental side only in power and grasp of thought. Now we know better. We know that the child differs from the adult not only in the _quantity_ but also in the _quality_ of his being. It is the business of the teacher to understand how the child _thinks_. What is the child's concept of God? What is the character of the child's prayer? How does the child _feel_ when he takes part in the acts of worship? We talk to the child about serving God; what is the child's understanding of service to God? We seek to train the child to loyalty to the church; what does the church stand for to the child? We teach the child about sin and forgiveness; just what is the child's comprehension of sin, and what does he understand by forgiveness? We tell the child that he must love God and the Christ; can a child control his affections as he will, or do they follow the trend of his thoughts and experiences? These are not idle questions. They are questions that must be answered by every teacher who would be more than the blind leader of the blind. Coming to know the child.--How shall the teacher come to know the child? Professor George Herbert Palmer sets forth a great truth when he says that the first quality of a great teacher is the quality of _vicariousness_. By this he means the ability on the part of the teacher to step over in his imagination and take the place of the child. To look at the task with the child's mind and understanding, to feel the appeal of a lesson or story through the child's emotions, to confront a temptation with the child's power of will and self-control--this ability is the beginning of wisdom for those who would understand childhood. The teacher must first of all, therefore, be a sympathetic investigator in the laboratory of child life. Not only in the Sunday school, but daily, he must _observe, study, seek to interpret children_. Nor should the teacher of religion neglect the books on the child and his religion. Many investigators are giving their time and abilities to studying child nature and child religion. A mastery of their findings will save us many mistakes in the leadership and training of children. A knowledge of their methods of study will show us how ourselves more intelligently to study childhood. Comprehension of the principles they represent, coupled with the results of our own direct interpretation of children, will convince us that, while each child differs from every other, _certain fundamental laws apply to all childhood_. It is the teacher's task and privilege to master these laws. Knowledge of technique.--Teaching is an _art_, which must be learned the same as any other art. True, there are those who claim that anyone who knows a thing can teach it; but often the teacher who makes such a claim is himself the best refutation of its validity when he comes before his class. Probably most of us have known eminent specialists in their field of learning who were but indifferent teachers. It is not that they knew too much about their subjects, but that they had not mastered the art of its presentation to others. The class hour is the teacher's great opportunity. His final measure as a teacher is taken as he stands before his class in the recitation. Here he succeeds or fails. In fact, here the whole system of religious education succeeds or fails. For it is in this hour, where the teacher meets his pupils face to face and mind to mind, that all else culminates. It is for this hour that the Sunday school is organized, the classrooms provided, and the lesson material prepared. It is in this hour that the teacher succeeds in kindling the interest, stirring the thought and feeling, and grounding the loyalty of his class. Or, failing in this, it is in the recitation hour that the teacher leaves the spiritual life of the child untouched by his contact with the Sunday school and so defeats its whole intent and purpose. The teacher of religion should therefore ask himself: "What is my craftsmanship in instruction? Do I know how to _present_ this material so that it will take hold upon my class? Do I know the technique of the recitation hour, and the principles of good teaching? Have I read what the scholars have written and what the experience of others has to teach me. Have I definitely planned and sought for skill? Is my work in the classroom the best that I can make it?" The teacher must continuously be a student.--The successful teacher of religion must, therefore, be a student. He must continually grow in knowledge and in teaching power. There is no possibility of becoming "prepared" through the reading of certain books and the pursuit of certain courses of study and then having this preparation serve without further growth. The famous Dr. Arnold, an insatiable student until the day of his death, when asked why he found it necessary to prepare for each day's lessons, said he preferred that his pupils "should drink from a running stream rather than from a stagnant pool." This, then, should be the teacher's standard: _A broad background of general preparation, constant reading and study in the field of religion and religious teaching, special preparation for each lesson taught_. The churches of each community should unite in providing a school for teacher training. Where the community training school cannot be organized, individual churches should organize training classes for their teachers. Such schools and classes have been provided in hundreds of places, and the movement is rapidly spreading. Wherever such opportunities are available the best church school teachers are flocking to the classes and giving the time and effort necessary to prepare for better service. Even where no organized training classes are at present available, the earnest teacher can gain much help from following an organized course of reading in such lines as those just given. Excellent texts are available in most of these fields. The reward.--One deep and abiding satisfaction may come to the teacher who feels the burden of reaching the standards set forth in this lesson. _It is all worth while_. Some make the mistake of charging against their task all the time, effort and devotion that go into preparing themselves as teachers of religion. But this is a false philosophy. For _a great work greatly performed leaves the stamp of its greatness on the worker_. All that we do toward making out of ourselves better teachers of childhood adds to our own spiritual equipment. All the study, prayer, and consecration we give to our work for the children returns a hundredfold to us in a richer experience and a larger capacity for service. 1. Recall several teachers whom you remember best from your own pupil days, and see whether you can estimate the qualities in their character or teaching which are responsible for the lasting impression. 2. Are you able to determine from the character chart which are your strongest qualities? Which are your weakest qualities? Just what methods are you planning to use to improve your personality? 3. In thinking of your class, are you able to judge in connection with different ones on what qualities of character they most need help? Are you definitely seeking to help on these points in your teaching? 4. Do you think that church-school teachers could pass as good an examination on what they undertake to teach as day-school teachers? Are the standards too high for day-school teachers? Are they high enough for church-school teachers? 5. Have you seen Sunday-school teachers at work who evidently did not know their Bibles? Have you seen others who seemed to know their Bibles but who were ignorant of childhood? Have you seen others whose technique of teaching might have been improved by a little careful study and preparation? Are you willing to apply these three tests to yourself? FOR FURTHER READING Palmer, The Ideal Teacher. Hyde, The Teacher's Philosophy. Slattery, Living Teachers. Horne, The Teacher as Artist. CHAPTER II THE GREAT OBJECTIVE All teaching has two objectives--the _subject_ taught and the _person_ taught. When we teach John grammar (or the Bible) we teach grammar (or the Bible), of course; but we also teach _John_. And the greater of these two objectives is John. It is easy enough to attain the lesser of the objectives. Anyone of fair intelligence can master a given amount of subject matter and present it to a class; but it is a far more difficult thing to understand the child--to master the inner secrets of the mind, the heart, and the springs of action of the learner. Who can measure the potentialities that lie hidden in the soul of a child! Just as the acorn contains the whole of the great oak tree enfolded in its heart, so the child-life has hidden in it all the powers of heart and mind which later reach full fruition. Nothing is _created_ through the process of growth and development. Education is but a process of unfolding and bringing into action the powers and capacities with which the life at the beginning was endowed by its Creator. THE CHILD AS THE GREAT OBJECTIVE The child comes into the world--indeed, comes into the school--with much potential and very little actual capital. Nature has through heredity endowed him with infinite possibilities. But these are but promises; they are still in embryonic form. The powers of mind and soul at first lie dormant, waiting for the awakening that comes through the touch of the world about and for the enlightenment that comes through instruction. Given just the right touch at the opportune moment, and these potential powers spring into dynamic abilities, a blessing to their possessor and to the world they serve. Left without the right training, or allowed to turn in wrong directions, and these infinite capacities for good may become instruments for evil, a curse to the one who owns them and a blight to those against whom they are directed. Children the bearers of spiritual culture.--The greatest business of any generation or people is, therefore, the education of its children. Before this all other enterprises and obligations must give way, no matter what their importance. It is at this point that civilization succeeds or fails. Suppose that for a single generation our children should, through some inconceivable stroke of fate, refuse to open their minds to instruction--suppose they should refuse to learn our science, our religion, our literature, and all the rest of the culture which the human race has bought at so high a price of sacrifice and suffering. Suppose they should turn deaf ears to the appeal of art, and reject the claims of morality, and refuse the lessons of Christianity and the Bible. Where then would all our boasted progress be? Where would our religion be? Where would modern civilization be? All would revert to primitive barbarism, through the failure of this one generation, and the race would be obliged to start anew the long climb toward the mountain top of spiritual freedom. Each generation must therefore create anew in its own life and experience the spiritual culture of the race. Each child that comes to us for instruction, weak, ignorant, and helpless though he be, is charged with his part in the great program God has marked out for man to achieve. Each of these little ones is the bearer of an immortal soul, whose destiny it is to take its quality and form from the life it lives among its fellows. And ours is the dread and fascinating responsibility for a time to be the mentor and guide of this celestial being. Ours it is to deal with the infinite possibilities of child-life, and to have a hand in forming the character that this immortal soul will take. Ours it is to have the thrilling experience of experimenting in the making of a destiny! Childhood's capacity for growth.--Nor must we ever think that because the child is young, his brain unripe, and his experience and wisdom lacking, our responsibility is the less. For the child's earliest impressions are the most lasting, and the earliest influences that act upon his life are the most powerful in determining its outcome. Remember that the babe, starting at birth with nothing, has in a few years learned speech, become acquainted with much of his immediate world, formed many habits which will follow him through life, and established the beginnings of permanent character and disposition. Remember the indelible impression of the bedside prayers of your mother, of the earliest words of counsel of your father, of the influence of a loved teacher, and then know that other children are to-day receiving their impressions from us, their parents and teachers. Consider for a moment the child as he comes to us for instruction. We no longer insist with the older theologies that he is completely under the curse of "original sin," nor do we believe with certain sentimentalists that he comes "trailing clouds of glory." We believe that he has infinite capacities for good, and equally infinite capacities for evil, either of which may be developed. We know that at the beginning the child is sinless, pure of heart, his life undefiled. To know this is enough to show us our part. This is to lead the child aright until he is old enough to follow the right path of his own accord, to ground him in the motives and habits that tend to right living, and so to turn his mind, heart, and will to God that his whole being seeks accord with the Infinite. Religious conservation.--If our leading of the child is wise, and his response is ready, there will be no falling away from a normal Christian life and a growing consciousness of God. This does not mean that the child will never do wrong, nor commit sin. It does not mean that the youth will not, when the age of choice has come, make a personal decision for Christ and consecrate his life anew to Christ's service. It means, rather, that the whole attitude of mind, and the complete trend of life of the child will be religious. It means that the original purity of innocence will grow into a conscious and joyful acceptance of the Christ-standard. It means that the child need never know a time when he is not within the Kingdom, and growing to fuller stature therein. It means that we should set our aim at _conservation_ instead of reclamation as the end of our religious training. Yet what a proportion of the energy of the church is to-day required for the reclaiming of those who should never have been allowed to go astray! Evangelistic campaigns, much of the preaching, "personal work," Salvation Army programs, and many other agencies are of necessity organized for the reclaiming of men and women who but yesterday were children in our homes and church schools, and plastic to our training. What a tragic waste of energy!--and then those who never return! Should we not be able more successfully to carry out the Master's injunction, "_Feed my lambs_"? The child-Christian.--All of these considerations point to the inevitable conclusion that the child is the great objective of our teaching. Indeed, the child ought to be the objective of the work of the whole church. The saving of its children from wandering outside the fold is the supreme duty and the strategic opportunity of the church, standing out above all other claims whatever. We are in some danger of forgetting that when Jesus wanted to show his disciples the standard of an ideal Christian he "took a child and set him in the midst of them." We do not always realize that to _keep_ a child a Christian is much more important than to reclaim him after he has been allowed to get outside the fold. The recent report of a series of special religious meetings states that there were a certain number of conversions "_exclusive of children_," the implication being that the really important results were in the decisions of the adults. The same point of view was revealed when a church official remarked after the reception of a large group of new members, "It was an inspiring sight, _except that there were so few adults!"_ When shall we learn that if we do our duty by the children there will be fewer adults left outside for the church to receive? NO SUBJECT MATTER AN END IN ITSELF The teacher must first of all take his stand with the child. He must not allow his attention and enthusiasms to become centered on the matter he teaches. He must not be satisfied when he has succeeded in getting a certain fact lodged in the minds of his pupils. He must first, last, and all the time look upon subject matter, no matter how beautiful and true it may be, as a _means_ to an end. The end sought is certain desired changes in the life, thought, and experience of the child. There are hosts of teachers who can teach grammar (or the Bible), but comparatively _few who can teach John_. This does not mean that the material we teach is unimportant, nor that we can fulfill our duty as teachers without the use of interesting, fruitful, and inspiring subject matter. It does not mean that we are not to love the subject we teach, and feel our heart thrill in response to its beauty and truth. Making subject matter a means instead of an end.--One who is not filled with enthusiasm for a subject has no moral right to attempt to teach it, for the process will be dead and lifeless, failing to kindle the fires of response in his pupils and lacking in vital results. But the true teacher never loves a body of subject matter for its own sake; he loves it for what _through it_ he can accomplish in the lives of those he teaches. As a _student_, searching for the hidden meanings and thrilling at the unfolding beauties of some field of truth which we are investigating, we may love the thing we study for its own sake; and who of us does not feel in that way toward sections of our Bible, a poem, the record of noble lives, or the perfection of some bit of scientific truth? But when we face about and become the _teacher_, when our purpose is not our own learning but the teaching of another, then our attitude must change. We will then love our cherished body of material not less, but differently. We will now care for the thing we teach as an artisan cares for his familiar instruments or the artist cares for his brush--we will prize it as the _means through which_ we shall attain a desired end. Subject matter always subordinate to life.--It will help us to understand the significance of this fundamental principle if we pause to realize that all the matter we teach our children had its origin in human experience; it was first a part of human life. Our scientific discoveries have come out of the pressure of necessities that nature has put upon us, and what we now put into our textbooks first was _lived_ by men and women in the midst of the day's activities. The deep thoughts, the beautiful sentiments, and the high aspirations expressed in our literature first existed and found expression in the lives of people. The cherished truths of our Bible and its laws for our spiritual development appeal to our hearts just because they have arisen from the lives of countless thousands, and so have the reality of living experience. There is, therefore, no abstract truth for truth's sake. Just as all our culture material--our science, our literature, our body of religious truth--had its rise out of the experience of men engaged in the great business of living, so all this material must go back to life for its meaning and significance. The science we teach in our schools attains its end, not when it is learned as a group of facts, but when it has been _set at work_ by those who learn it to the end that they live better, happier, and more fruitful lives. The literature we offer our children has fulfilled its purpose, not when they have studied the mechanism of its structure, read its pages, or committed to memory its lines, but when its glowing ideals and high aspirations have been _realized in the lives_ of those who learn it. And so this also holds for the Bible and its religious truth. Its rich lessons full of beautiful meaning may be recited and its choicest verses stored in the memory and still be barren of results, except as they are put to the test and find expression in living experience. The only true test of learning a thing is _whether the learner lives it_. The only true test of the value of what one learns is the extent to which it affects his daily life. The value of our teaching is therefore always to be measured by the degree to which it finds expression in the lives of our pupils. _John_, not grammar (nor even the Bible), is the true objective of our teaching. EFFECT OF THE OBJECTIVE ON OUR TEACHING Not only will this point of view vitalize our teaching for the pupils, but it will also save it from becoming commonplace and routine for ourselves. This truth is brought out in a conversation that occurred between an old schoolmaster and his friend, a business man. The true objective saves from the rut of routine.--Said the business man, "Do you teach the same subjects year after year?" The schoolmaster replied that he did. "Do you not finally come to know this material all by heart, so that it is old to you?" asked the friend. The schoolmaster answered that such was the case. "And yet you must keep going over the same ground, class after class and year after year!" exclaimed the business man. The schoolmaster admitted that it was so. "Then," said his friend, "I should think that you would tire beyond endurance of the old facts, and grow weary beyond expression of repeating them after the charm of novelty and newness has gone. How do you live through the sameness and grind?" "You forget one thing!" exclaimed the old schoolmaster, who had learned the secret of the _great objective_. "You forget that I am not really teaching that old subject matter at all; I am teaching _living boys and girls!_ The matter I teach may become familiar. It may have lost the first thrill of novelty. But the _boys and girls are always new_; their hearts and minds are always fresh and inviting; their lives are always open to new impressions, and their feet ready to be turned in new directions. The old subject matter is but the means by which I work upon this living material that comes to my classroom from day to day. I should no more think of growing tired of it than the musician would think of growing tired of his violin." And so the schoolmaster's friend was well answered. Unsafe measures of success.--It is possible to lodge much subject matter in the mind which, once there, does not function. It is possible to teach many facts which play no part in shaping the ideals, quickening the enthusiasms, or directing the conduct. And all mental material which lies dead and unused is but so much rubbish and lumber of the mind. It plays no part in the child's true education, and it dulls the edge of the learner's interest and his enjoyment of the school and its instruction. It is possible to have the younger children in our Sunday schools from week to week and still fail to secure sufficient hold on them so that they continue to come after they have reached the age of deciding for themselves. The proof of this is all too evident in the relatively small proportion of youth in our church-school classes between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five. It is possible to offer the child lessons from the Bible throughout all the years of childhood, and yet fail to ground sufficient interest in the Bible or religion so that in later years the man or woman naturally turns to the Bible for guidance or comfort, and fails to make religion the determining principle of the life. The child the only true measure of success.--Let us therefore be sure of our objective. Let us never be proud nor satisfied that we have taught our class so much _subject matter_--so many facts, maxims, or lessons of whatever kind. We shall need to teach them all these things, and teach them well. But we must inquire further. We must ask, What have these things _done_ for the boys and girls of my class? What has been the outcome of my teaching? How much effect has it had in life, character, conduct? In how far are my pupils different for having been in my class, and for the lessons I have taught them? In how far have I accomplished the _true objective_ of my teaching? Let us never feel secure merely because the children are found in the Sunday school, and because the statistical reports show increase in numbers and in average attendance. These things are all well; without them we cannot do the work which the church should do for its children. But these are but the externals, the outward signs. We must still inquire what real influence the school is having on the growing spiritual life of its children. We must ask what part our instruction is having in the making of Christians. We must measure all our success in terms of the child's response to our efforts. We must realize that we have failed except as we have caused the child's spiritual nature to unfold and his character to grow toward the Christ ideal. 1. As you think of your own teaching, are you able to decide whether you have been sufficiently clear in your objective? Have you rather _assumed_ that if you presented the lessons as they came the results must of necessity follow, or have you been alive to the real effects on your pupils? 2. Are you able to discover definite changes that are working out in the lives of your pupils from month to month as you have them under your instruction? Are they more reverent, more truthful, more sure against temptation, increasingly conscious of God in their lives? What other effects might you look for? 3. Do you think that the church is in some degree overlooking its most strategic opportunity in not providing more efficiently for the religious education of its children? If more attention were given to religious nurture of children, would the problems of evangelism be less pressing, and a larger proportion of adults found in the church? What can the church school do to help? What can your class do? 4. Do you love the matter that you seek to teach the children? Do you love it for what it means to you, or for what through it you can do for them? Do you look upon the material you teach truly as a means and not as an end? Are you teaching subject matter or children? 5. Do you feel the real worth and dignity of childhood? Do you sometimes stop to remember that the ignorant child before you to-day may become the Phillips Brooks, the Henry Ward Beecher, the Livingstone, the Frances Willard, the Luther of to-morrow? Do you realize the responsibility that one takes upon himself when he undertakes to guide the development of a life? 6. Can you now make a statement of the measures that you will wish to apply to determine your degree of success as a teacher? It will be worth your while to try to make a list of the immediate objectives you will seek for your class to attain in their personal lives. Keep this list and see whether it is modified by the chapters that lie ahead. FOR FURTHER READING Harrison, A Study of Child Nature. Moxcey, Girlhood and Character. Dawson, The Child and His Religion. Forbush, The Boy Problem. Richardson (Editor), The American Home Series. Richardson, Religious Education of Adolescents. CHAPTER III THE FOURFOLD FOUNDATION[1] [1] The point of view and in some degree the outlines of this and several following chapters have been adapted from the author's text "Class-Room Method and Management," by permission of the publishers, _The Bobbs-Merrill Co._, Indianapolis. All good teaching rests on a fourfold foundation of principles. These principles are the same from the kindergarten to the university, and they apply equally to the teaching of religion in the church school or subjects in the day school. Every teacher must answer four questions growing out of these principles, or, failing to answer them, classify himself with the unworthy and incompetent. These are the four supreme questions: 1. What definite _aims_ have I set as the goal of my teaching? What _outcomes_ do I seek? 2. What _material_, or _subject matter_, will best accomplish these aims? What shall I stress and what shall I omit? 3. How can this material best be _organized_, or arranged, to adapt it to the child in his learning? How shall I plan my material? 4. What shall be my plan or _method of presentation_ of this material to make it achieve its purpose? What of my technique of instruction? THE AIM IN TEACHING RELIGION First of all, the teacher of religion must _have_ an aim; he must know what ends he seeks to accomplish. Some statistically minded person has computed that, with all the marvelous accuracy of aiming modern guns, more than one thousand shots are fired for every man hit in battle. One cannot but wonder how many shots would be required to hit a man if the guns were not aimed at anything! Is the analogy too strong? Is the teacher more likely than the gunner to reach his objective without consciously aiming at it? And can the teacher set up for attainment as definite aims as are offered the gunner? Do we _know_ just what ends we seek in the religious training of our children? Life itself sets the aim.--This much at least is certain. We know _where to look for_ the aims that must guide us. We shall not try to formulate an aim for our teaching out of our own thought or reasoning upon the subject. We shall rather look out upon life, the life the child is now living and the later life he is to live, and ask: "_What are the demands that life makes on the individual?_ What is the equipment this child will need as he meets the problems and tests of experience in the daily round of living? What qualities and powers will he require that he may the most fully realize his own potentialities and at the same time most fruitfully serve his generation? What abilities must he have trained in order that he may the most completely express God's plan for his life?" When we can answer such questions as these we shall have defined the aim of religious education and of our teaching. The knowledge aim.--First of all, life demands _knowledge_. There are things that we must know if we are to avoid dangers and pitfalls. Knowledge shows the way, while ignorance shrouds the path in darkness. To be without knowledge is to be as a ship without a rudder, left to drift on the rocks and shoals. The religious life is intelligent; it must grasp, understand, and know how to use many great truths. To supply our children with _religious knowledge_ is, therefore, one of the chief aims of our teaching. Yet not all knowledge is of equal worth. Even religious knowledge is of all degrees of fruitfulness. Some knowledge, once acquired, fails to function. It has no point of contact with our lives. It does not deal with matters we are meeting in the day's round of experience. It therefore lies in the mind unused, or, because it is not used, it quickly passes from the memory and is gone. Such knowledge as this is of no real value. It is not worth the time and effort put upon its mastery; and it crowds out other and more fruitful knowledge that might take its place. To be a true end of education, knowledge must be of such nature that it _can be put at work_. It must relate to actual needs and problems. It must have immediate and vital points of contact with the child's common experiences. The child must be able to see the relation of the truths he learns to his own interests and activities. He must feel their value and see their use in his work and in his play. This is as true of religious knowledge as of knowledge of other kinds. The religious knowledge the child needs, therefore, is a knowledge that _can at once be incorporated in his life_. To supply the child with knowledge of this vital, fruitful sort becomes, then, one great aim in the teaching of religion. But knowledge alone is not enough. Indeed, knowledge is but the beginning of religious education, whereas we have been in danger of considering it the end. Many there are who _know_ the ways of life but do not follow them. Many _know_ the paths of duty, but choose an easier way. Many _know_ the road to service and achievement, but do not enter thereon. If _to do_ were as easy as to know what to do, then all of us would mount to greater heights. The attitudes aim.--Life demands _goals_ set ahead for achievement. It must have clearly defined the "worth whiles" which lead to endeavor. Along with the knowledge that guides our steps must be the impulses that drive to right action. Besides knowing what to do there must be inner compelling forces that _get things done_. The chief source of our goals and of the driving power within us is what, for want of a better term, we may call our _attitudes_. Prominent among our attitudes are the _interests, enthusiasms, affections, ambitions, ideals, appreciations, loyalties, standards, and attachments_ which predominate. These all have their roots set deep in our emotions; they are the measure of life's values. They are the "worth whiles" which give life its quality, and which define the goal for effort. Chesterton tells us that the most important thing about any man is the _kind of philosophy he keeps_--that is to say, his _attitudes_. For it is out of one's attitudes that his philosophy of life develops, and that he settles upon the great aims to which he devotes himself. It is in one's attitudes that we find the springs of action and the incentives to endeavor. It is in attitudes that we find the forces that direct conduct and lead to character. To train the intellect and store the mind with knowledge without developing a fund of right attitudes to shape the course of action is therefore even fraught with danger. The men in positions of political power who often misgovern cities or use public office as a means to private gain do not act from lack of knowledge or in ignorance of civic duty; their failure is one of ideals and loyalties; their attitude toward social trust and service to their fellow men is wrong. The men who use their power of wealth to oppress the poor and helpless, or unfairly exploit the labor of others to their own selfish advantage do not sin from lack of knowledge; their weakness lies in false standards and unsocial attitudes. Men and women everywhere who depart from paths of honor and rectitude fall more often from the lack of high ideals than because they do not know the better way. The goal and the motive power in all such cases comes from a false philosophy of life; it is grounded in wrong attitudes. The education of those who thus misconceive life has failed of one of its chief aims--_to develop right attitudes_. Hence character is wanting. The conduct, or application, aim.--The third and ultimate aim of education has been implied in the first two; it is _conduct, right living_. This is the final and sure test of the value of what we teach--how does it find _expression in action_? Do our pupils think differently, speak differently, act differently here and now because of what we teach them? Are they stronger when they meet temptation from day to day? Are they more sure to rise to the occasion when they confront duty or opportunity? Are their lives more pure and free from sin? Do the lessons we teach find expression in the home, in the school, and on the playground? Is there a real outcome _in terms of daily living_? These are all fair questions, for knowledge is without meaning except as it becomes a guide to action. High ideals and beautiful enthusiasms attain their end only when they have eventuated in worthy deeds. What we _do_ because of our training is the final test of its value. Conduct, performance, achievement are the ultimate measures of what our education has been worth to us. By this test we must measure the effects of our teaching. Summary of the threefold aim.--The _aim_ in teaching the child religion is therefore definite, even if it is difficult to attain. This aim may be stated in three great requirements which life itself puts upon the child and every individual: 1. _Fruitful knowledge_; knowledge of religious truths that can be set at work in the daily life of the child now and in the years that lie ahead. 2. _Right attitudes_; the religious warmth, responsiveness, interests, ideals, loyalties, and enthusiasms which lead to action and to a true sense of what is most worth while. 3. _Skill in living_; the power and will to use the religious knowledge and enthusiasms supplied by education in shaping the acts and conduct of the daily life. True, we may state our aim in religious teaching in more general terms than these, but the meaning will be the same. We may say that we would lead the child to a knowledge of God as Friend and Father; that we seek to bring him into a full, rich experience of spiritual union with the divine; that we desire to ground his life in personal purity and free it from sin; that we would spur him to a life crowned with deeds of self-sacrifice and Christlike service; that we would make out of him a true Christian. This is well and is a high ideal, but in the end it sums up the results of the religious _knowledge, attitudes_, and _acts_ we have already set forth as our aim. These are the parts of which the other is the whole; they are the immediate and specific ends which lead to the more distant and general. Let us, therefore, conceive our aim in _both_ ways--the ideal Christian life as the final goal toward which we are leading, and the knowledge, attitudes, and acts that make up to-day's life as so many steps taken toward the goal. SELECTING THE SUBJECT MATTER After the aim the subject matter. When we would build some structure we first get plan and purpose in mind; then we select the material that shall go into it. It is so with education. Once we have set before us the aim we would reach, our next question is, What shall be the means of its attainment? When we have fixed upon the fruitful knowledge, the right attitudes, and the lines of conduct and action which must result from our teaching, we must then ask, What _means_ shall we select to achieve these ends? What _material or subject matter_ shall we teach in the church school? The subject matter he presents is the instrumentality by which the teacher must accomplish his aims for his class. Through this material he must awaken thought, store the mind with vital truths, arouse new interests, create ideals and lead the life to God. As the artist works with brush and paint, with tool and clay, so the teacher must work with truths and lesson materials. Guiding principles.--Two great principles must guide in the selection of subject matter for religious instruction: 1. _The material must be suited to the aims we seek._ 2. _The material must be adapted to the child._ The tools and instruments the workman uses must be adapted to the purpose sought. Ask the expert craftsman what kind of plane or chisel you should buy for a piece of work you have in mind, and he will ask you just what ends you seek, what uses you would put them to. Ask the architect what materials you should have for the structure you would build, and he will tell you that depends on the plan and purpose of your building. The material must fit the aim.--What materials of religious truth should the teacher bring to his class? The answer is that truths and lessons must be suited to the aim we seek. Would we lead our children to understand the Fatherhood of God and to love him for his tender care? Then the lessons must contain this thought, and not be built on irrelevant material. Would we lead youth to catch the thrill and inspiration of noble lives, to pattern conduct after worthy deeds? Then our lesson material must deal with the high and fine in character and action, and not with trivial things of lesser value. So also, if we would capture the interest of childhood for the church school and bind its loyalty to the church, the subject matter we offer and the lessons we teach in the house of God must contain the glow and throb of life, and not be dry and barren. If we would awaken religious feeling and link the emotions to God, we must not teach empty lessons, meaningless dates, and musty facts that fail to reach the heart because they have no inner meaning. Small use to set high aims and then miss them for want of material suited for their attainment. Small use to catalogue the fine qualities of heart and mind we would train in our children and then fail of our aim because we choose wrong tools with which to work. Not all facts found in the Bible are of equal worth to children, nor are all religious truths of equal value. Nothing should be taught _just because it is true_, nor even because it is found in the Bible. The final question is whether this lesson material is the best we can choose for the child himself; whether it will give him the knowledge he can use, train the attitudes he requires, and lead to the acts and conduct that should rule his life. The material must fit the child.--The subject matter we teach _must also be fitted to the child_. It must be within his grasp and understanding. We do not feed strong meat to babes. What may be the grown person's meat may be to the child poison. It does no good to load the mind with facts it cannot comprehend. There is no virtue in truths, however significant and profound, if they are beyond the reach of the child's experience. Matter which is not assimilated to the understanding is soon forgotten; or if retained, but weighs upon the intellect and dulls its edge for further learning. There can be little doubt that we have quite constantly in most of our Sunday schools forced upon the child no small amount of matter that is beyond his mental grasp, and so far outside his daily experience that it conveys little or no meaning. We have over-intellectualized the child's religion. Jesus was "to the Greeks foolishness" because they had no basis of experience upon which to understand his pure and unselfish life. May not many of the facts, figures, dates, and events from an ancient religion which we give young children likewise be to them but foolishness! May not the lessons upon some of the deepest, finest and most precious concepts in our religion, such as faith, atonement, regeneration, repentance, the Trinity, be lost or worse than lost upon our children because we force them upon unripe minds and hearts at an age when they are not ready for them? Let us then, _not forget the child_ when we teach religion! Let us not assume that truths and lessons are an end in themselves. Let us constantly ask, as we prepare our lessons, Will this material work as a true leaven in the life? Will it take root and blossom into character, fine thought, and worthy conduct? While our children dumbly ask for living bread let us not give them dead stones and dry husks, which cannot feed their souls! Let us adapt our subject matter to the child. The use of stress and neglect.--That the lesson material printed in the Sunday school booklets is not always well adapted to the children every teacher knows. But there it is, and what can we do but teach it, though it may sometimes miss the mark? There is one remedy the wise and skillful teacher always has at his command. By the use of _stress_ and _neglect_ the matter of the lesson may be made to take quite different forms. The points that are too difficult may be omitted or but little emphasized. The matter that best fits the child may be stressed and its application made. Illustrations, stories, and lessons from outside sources may be introduced to suit the aim. Great truths may be restated in terms within childhood's comprehension. The true teacher, like the craftsman, will select now this tool, now that to meet his purpose. Regardless of what the printed lesson offers, he will reject or use, supplement or replace with new material as the needs of his class may demand. The true teacher will be the master, and not the servant, of the subject matter he uses. HOW SHALL WE ORGANIZE AND PLAN THE LESSONS? When the _content_ of the subject matter has been decided upon then comes its _organization_. How shall we arrange and plan the material we teach so as to give the children the easiest and most natural mode of approach to its learning? The great law here is that _the arrangement of subject matter must be psychological_. This only means that we must always ask ourselves how will the child most easily and naturally enter upon the learning of this material? How can I organize it for the recitation so that it will most strongly appeal to his interest? How can I arrange it so that it will be most easily grasped and understood? How can I plan the lesson so that its relation to immediate life and conduct will be most clear and its application most surely made? The psychological mode of approach.--I recently happened into a junior Sunday school class where the lesson was on faith. The teacher evidently did not know how to plan for a psychological mode of approach to this difficult concept. He began by defining faith in Paul's phrase as "the substance of things hoped for; the evidence of things not seen." He then went to the dictionary definition, which shows the relation of faith to belief. He discussed the relation of faith to works, as presented in the writings of James. But all to no avail. The class was uninterested and inattentive. The lesson did not take hold. The time was wasted and the opportunity lost. I excused myself and went to another classroom. Here they had the same topic. But the teacher had sought for and found a starting point from which to explain the meaning of faith in terms that the children could understand. The teacher's eye rested for a moment on John; then: "John, when does your next birthday come?" "The sixteenth of next month," replied John promptly. "Going to get any presents, do you think?" asked the teacher. "Yes, sir," answered John with conviction. "What makes you think so?" inquired the teacher. "Not everybody does receive birthday presents, you know." "But I am sure I will," persisted John. "You see, I know my father and mother. They have never yet let one of my birthdays pass without remembering me, and I am sure they are not going to begin to forget me now. They think too much of me." "You seem to have a good deal of _faith_ in your father and mother," remarked the teacher. "Well I guess I _have!_" was John's enthusiastic response. And right at this point the way was wide open to show John and the class the meaning of faith in a heavenly Father. The wise teacher had found a _point of contact_ in John's faith in the love and care of his parents, and it was but a step from this to the broader and deeper faith in God. It is a law of human nature that we are all interested first of all in what affects our own lives. Our attention turns most easily to what relates to or grows out of our own experience. The _immediate and the concrete_ are the natural and most effective starting points for our thought. The distant and remote exert little appeal to our interest; it is the near that counts. Especially do these rules hold for children. Making sure of a point of contact.--All these facts point the way for the teacher in the planning and organization of material for his class. The point of departure must always be sought in some _immediate interest or activity in the life of the child_, and not in some abstract truth or far-away lesson, however precious these may be to the adult Christian. And no lesson is ready for presentation until the way into the child's interest and comprehension has been found. Many a lesson that might have been full of rich spiritual meaning for the child has been lost to our pupils because it was presented out of season, or because the vital connection between the truth and the child's experience was not discovered by the teacher. This principle suggests that in the main children should not be taught religious truths in terms which they cannot grasp, nor in such a way that the application to their own lives is not clear. For example, the vital truths contained in the church catechisms are not for children; the statement of them is too abstract and difficult, and the meaning too remote from the child's experience. Many of the same truths can be presented to children in the form of stories or illustrations; other of the truths may rest until the child becomes older before claiming his attention. Bible verses and sentiments completely outside the child's comprehension are not good material for memorizing. Lessons upon the more difficult concepts and deeper problems of religion belong to the adult age, and should not be forced upon children. Our guiding principle, therefore, is to _keep close to the mind, heart, and daily life of childhood._ Then _adapt the subject matter we teach to the mind, interests, and needs of those we teach._ Definitions, rules, abstract statements, general truths have little or no value with children. It is the story, the concrete incident, the direct application growing out of their own experiences that takes hold. PRESENTING THE LESSON--INSTRUCTION After the aim has been clearly conceived, and after the lesson material has been wisely chosen and properly organized, there still remains the most important part--that of "getting the lesson across" to the class. Many a valuable lesson, full of helpfulness, has been lost to the pupils because the teacher lacked the power to bring his class to the right pitch for receiving and retaining impressions. Many a class period has been wasted because the teacher failed to present the material of the lesson so that it gripped interest and compelled attention. Response a test of instruction.--The _first_ test of good instruction is the _response of the class_. Are the children alert? Are they keen for discussion, or for listening to stories told or applications made? Do they think? Do they enjoy the lesson hour, and give themselves happily and whole-heartedly to it? Is their conduct good, and their attitude serious, reverent, and attentive? Are they all "in the game," or are there laggards, inattentive ones, and mischief-makers? These questions are all crucial. For the first law of all learning is _self-activity_. There is no possibility of teaching a child who is not mentally awake. Only the active mind grasps, assimilates, remembers, applies. The birth of new ideas, the reaching of convictions, the arriving at decisions all come in moments of mental stress and tension. Lethargy of thought and feeling is fatal to all classroom achievement. Therefore, no matter how keenly alert the teacher's mind may be, no matter how skillful his analysis of an important truth may be if his class sit with flagging interest and lax attention. Results a test of instruction.--The _second_ test of good instruction is our skill in handling the material of the lesson, and _shaping the trend of thought and discussion_. Are the children interested in the right things? Are the central truths of the lesson being brought out and applied? Is the discussion centered on topics set for our consideration, or does it degenerate into aimless talk on matters of personal or local interest which have no relation to the lesson? In short, does the recitation period yield the _fruitful knowledge_ we had set as a goal for this lesson? Does it stimulate the _attitudes_ and motives we had meant to reach? Does it lead to the _applications_ in life and conduct which were intended? _Does it get results?_ The four points of this lesson are of supreme importance in teaching religion. The _aim_ must be clear, definite, and possible of attainment. The _subject matter_ of instruction must be wisely selected as an instrument for reaching the aim set forth. The _organization_ of this material must adapt it to the mind and needs of the child. The _presentation_ of the lesson material in the recitation must be such that its full effect is brought to bear upon the mind and heart of those we teach. Each of these four points will be further elaborated in the chapters which follow. In fact, the remainder of the text is chiefly a working out and applying of these fundamental principles to the teaching of religion. 1. To what extent would you say you have been directing your teaching toward a definite aim? Just how does the problem of this chapter relate itself to the preceding chapter on the "Great Objective"? 2. Do you think the majority of those who have come up through the church school possess as full and definite a knowledge of the Bible and the fundamentals of religion as we have a right to expect? If not, where is the trouble and what the remedy? 3. Have you been consciously emphasizing the creation of right attitudes as one of the chief outcomes of your teaching? Do you judge that you are as successful in the developing of religious attitudes as in imparting information? If not, can you find a remedy? 4. To what extent do you think your instruction is actually carrying over into the immediate life and conduct of your class in their home, school, etc.? If not to so great an extent as you could wish, are you willing to make this one of the great aims of your teaching from this time on, seeking earnestly throughout this text and in other ways to learn how this may be done? 5. Do you on the whole feel that the subject matter you are teaching your pupils is adapted to the aims you seek to reach in their lives? If not, how can you supplement and change to make it more effective? Have you a broad enough knowledge of such material yourself so that you can select material from other sources for them? 6. To what extent do you definitely plan each lesson for the particular children you teach so as to make it most accessible to their interest and grasp? Do you plan each lesson to secure a psychological mode of approach? How do you know when you have a psychological approach? FOR FURTHER READING Betts, Class-Room Method and Management, Part I. Coe, A Social Theory of Religious Education, Part II. DuBois, The Point of Contact in Teaching. CHAPTER IV RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE OF MOST WORTH The child comes into the world devoid of all knowledge and understanding. His mind, though at the beginning a blank, is a potential seedbed in which we may plant what teachings we will. The babe born into our home to-day can with equal ease be made into a Christian, a Buddhist, or a Mohammedan. He brings with him the instinct to respond to the appeal religion makes to his life, but the kind and quality of his religion will depend largely on the religious atmosphere he breathes and the religious ideas and concepts placed in his mind through instruction and training. What, then, shall we teach our children, in religion? If fruitful knowledge is to be one of the chief aims of our teaching, _what_ knowledge shall we call fruitful? What are the great foundations on which a Christian life must rest? Years ago Spencer wrote a brilliant essay on _knowledge of most worth_ in the field of general education. What knowledge is of most worth in the field of religious education? For not all knowledge, as we have seen, is of equal value. Some religious knowledge is fruitful because it _can be set at work_ to shape our attitudes and guide our acts; other religious knowledge is relatively fruitless because it _finds no point of contact_ with experience. To answer our question we must therefore ask: "What knowledge will serve to guide the child's foot-steps aright from day to day as he passes through his childhood? What truths will even now, while he is still a child, awaken his spiritual appreciation and touch the springs of his emotional response to the heavenly Father? What religious concepts, once developed, will lead the youth into a rich fullness of personal experience and develop in him the will and capacity to serve others? What religious knowledge will finally make most certain a life of loyalty to the church and the great cause for which it stands?" When we can answer these questions we shall then be able to say what knowledge is of most worth in the religious training of our children. THE CHILD'S CONCEPT OF GOD The child must come to know about God, even as a little child. Long before he can understand about _religion_, he can learn about a heavenly Father. This does not imply that the child (or that we ourselves!) can know God in any full or complete way. Indeed, a God who could be known in his entirety by even the deepest and wisest finite mind would be no God at all. Yet everyone must give some meaning to God. Everyone does have some more or less definite idea, image, or mental picture of the God he thinks about, prays to, and worships. The child's idea of God develops gradually.--We need not be concerned that God does not mean the same to the child with his mental limitations that he means to us. Meaning comes only out of experience, and this will grow. The great thing is that the child's fundamental concept of God shall start right, that in so far as it goes it shall be essentially true, and that it shall be clear and definite enough to guide his actions. More than this we cannot ask for; less than this does not give the child a God real enough to be a vital factor and an active force in his life. It is to be expected, then, that the child's earliest concepts of God will be faulty and incomplete, and that in many points they will later need correction. Probably most children first think of God as having human form and attributes; the idea of spirit is beyond their grasp. God is to them a kind of magnified and glorified Father after the type of their earthly father. This need not concern us if we make sure that the crude beginnings of the God-idea have no disturbing elements in them, and that as the concept grows it moves in the right direction. The harm from false concepts.--Mr. H.G. Wells[2] bitterly complains against the wrong concept of God that was allowed to grow in his mind as a child. These are his words: "He and his hell were the nightmare of my childhood.... I thought of him as a fantastic monster perpetually waiting to condemn and to strike me dead!... He was over me and about my silliness and forgetfulness as the sky and sea would be about a child drowning in mid-Atlantic." It was only as the child grew into youth, and was able to discard this false idea of God that he came to feel right toward him. [2] God the Invisible King, p. 44. The harm done a child by false and disturbing concepts of God is hard to estimate. A small boy recently came home from Sunday school and confided to his mother that he "didn't think it was fair for God to spy on a fellow!" A sympathetic inquiry by the mother revealed the fact that the impression brought from the lesson hour was of God keeping a lookout for our wrongdoings and sins, and constantly making a record of them against us, as an unsympathetic teacher might in school. The beneficent and watchful oversight and care of God had not entered into the concept. It is clear that with this wrong understanding of God's relation to him the child's attitude and the response of his heart toward God could not be right. The lesson hour which left so false an impression of God in the child's mind did him lasting injury instead of good. How wrong concepts may arise.--Pierre Loti tells in his reminiscences of his own child-life how he went out into the back yard and threw stones at God because it had rained and spoiled the picnic day. In his teaching, God had been made responsible for the weather, and the boy had come to look upon prayer as a means of getting what he wanted from God. It took many years of experience to rid the child's mind of the last vestiges of these false ideas. The writer recalls a troublesome idea of God that inadvertently secured lodgment in his own mind through the medium of a picture in his first geography. In the section on China was the representation of a horrid, malignant looking idol underneath which was printed the words, "A God." For many years the image of this picture was associated with the thought of God, and made it hard to respond to the concept of God's beauty, goodness, and kindness. Wrong concepts of God may leave positive antagonisms which require years to overcome. A little girl of nearly four years had just lost her father. She did not understand the funeral and the flowers and the burial. She came to her mother in the evening and asked where her papa was. The stricken mother replied that "God had taken him." "But when is he coming back?" asked the child. The mother answered that he could not come back. "Not ever?" persisted the child. "Not ever," whispered the mother. "Won't God let him?" asked the relentless questioner. The heart-broken mother hesitated for a word of wisdom, but finally answered, "No, God will not let him come back to us." Care and wisdom needed.--And in that moment the harm was done. The child had formed a wrong concept of God as one who would willfully take away her father and not let him return. She burst out in a fit of passion: "I don't like God! He takes my papa and keeps him away." That night she refused to say her prayer, and for weeks remained rebellious and unforgiving toward the God whom she accused of having robbed her of her father. How should the mother have answered her child's question? I cannot tell in just what words, but the words in which we answer the child's questions must be chosen with such infinite care and wisdom that bitterness shall not take the place which love toward God should occupy in the heart. Another typical difficulty is that children are often led to think of God as a distant God. A favorite Sunday school hymn sings of "God above the great blue sky." To many children God is "in heaven," and heaven is localized at an immeasurable distance. Hence the fact of God's nearness is wholly missed. Children come to think of God as seated on a great white throne, an aged, austere, and severe Person, more an object of fear than of love. And then we tell the children that they "must love God," forgetting that love never comes from a sense of duty or compulsion, but springs, when it appears, spontaneously from the heart because it is compelled by lovable traits and appealing qualities in the one to be loved! The concept of God which the child needs.--The concept of God which the child first needs, therefore, is God as loving Father, expecting obedience and trust from his children; God as inviting Friend; God as friendly Protector; God ever near at hand; God who can understand and sympathize with children and enter into their joys and sorrows; God as Creator, in the sunshine and the flowers; but above all, God filling the heart with love and gladness. The concept which the child needs of Jesus is of his surpassing goodness, his unselfish courage, and his loving service. All religious teaching which will lead to such concepts as these is grounding the child in knowledge that is rich and fruitful, for it is making God and Christ _real_ to him. All teaching which leads to false concepts is an obstacle in the way of spiritual development. THE CHILD'S CONCEPT OF RELIGION Gradually throughout his training the child should be forming a clear concept of religion and the part it is to play in the life. This cannot come through any formal definition, nor through any set of precepts. It must be a growth, stimulated by instruction, guided by wise counsel, given depth of meaning through the lives of strong men and women who express the Christian ideal in their daily living. Matthew Arnold tells us that religion is "morality lit up by emotion." We turn to God for our inspiration, for the quickening of our motives, for fellowship, communion and comfort; but it is when we face the duties and relationships of the day's work and its play that we prove how close we have been to God and what we have received from him. As there can be no religion without God, neither can there be religion without morality; that is, without righteous living. Connecting religion with life.--One of the chief aims in teaching the child religion should therefore be to ground him in the understanding that _religion is life_. Probably no greater defect exists in our religion to-day than our constant tendency to divorce it from life. There are many persons who undertake to divide their lives up into compartments, one for business, one for the relations of the home, one for social matters, one for recreation and amusement, and _one for religion_. They make the mistake of assuming that they can keep these sections of the life separate and distinct from each other, forgetting that life is a unity and that the quality of each of its aspects inevitably colors and gives tone to all the rest. The child should be saved the comfortable assumption so tragically prevalent that religion is chiefly a matter for Sundays; that it consists largely in belonging to the church and attending its services; that it finds its complete and most effective expression in the observance of certain rites and ceremonials; that we can serve God without serving our fellow men; that creeds are more important than deeds; that saying "Lord, Lord," can take the place of a ministry of service. Religion defined in noble living.--There is only one way to save the child from such crippling concepts as these: that is to hold up to him the challenge of _life at its best and noblest_, to show him the effects of _religion at work_. What are the qualities we most admire in others? What are the secrets of the influence, power, and success of the great men and women whose names rule the pages of history? What are the attributes that will draw people to us as friends and followers and give us power to lead them to better ways? What are the things that will yield the most satisfaction, and that are most worth while to seek and achieve as the outcome of our own lives? What is true success, and how shall we know when we have achieved it? _Why does the Christ, living his brief, modest, and uneventful life and dying an obscure and tragic death, stand out as the supreme model and example for men to pattern their lives by?_ These are questions that the child needs to have answered, not in formal statements, of course, but in terms that will reach his understanding and appreciation. These are truths that he needs to have lodged in his mind, so that they may stir his imagination, fire his ambition, and harden his will for endeavor. These are the goals that the child needs to have set before him as the measure of success in life, the pathways into which his feet should be directed. The qualities religion puts into the life.--What, then, are the things men live by? What are the great qualities which have ruled the finest lives the world has known? How does religion express itself in the run of the day's experience? What are some of the objective standards by which religion is to be measured in our own lives or in the lives of others, in the lives of children or in the lives of adults? What are the characterizing features in the life and personality of Jesus? What did he put first in practice as well as in precept? _Joyousness._ No word was oftener on the lips of Jesus than the word "joy," and the world has never seen such another apostle of joyousness. The life that lacks joy is flat for him who lives it, and exerts little appeal to others. _Good will._ The good will of Jesus embraces all manner and conditions of people. His magnanimity and generosity under all conditions were one of the charms of his personality and one of the chief sources of his strength. _Service._ Jesus's life was, if possible, more wonderful than his death, and nothing in his life was more wonderful than his passion for serving others. The men and women whom the world has remembered and honored in all generations and among all peoples are the men and women who found their greatness in service. _Loyalty._ Steadfastness to the cause he had espoused led Jesus to the cross. Great characters do not ask what road is easy, but what way is right. Where duty leads, the strong do not falter nor fail, cost what it may. They see their task through to the end, though it mean that they die. _Sympathy._ Jesus always understood. His heart had eyes to see another's need. His love was as broad as the hunger of the human heart for comradeship. We are never so much our best selves as when self is forgotten, and we enter into the joys or the sorrows of one who needs us. _Purity._ Sin has its price for all it gives us. We cannot stain our souls and find them white again. We later reap whatever now we sow. Jesus's life of righteousness, lived amid temptations such as we all meet, is a challenge to every man who would be the captain of his own soul. _Sincerity._ No man ever doubted that Jesus meant what he said. No man ever accused him of acting a part. His enemies, even, never found him misrepresenting or speaking other than the truth. All truly fine characters can be trusted for utter sincerity of word, of purpose, and of deed. _Courage._ Jesus was never more sublime than under conditions that test men's courage. Did he face hostile mob and servile judge? did he find himself misunderstood and deserted by those who had been his friends? must he bid his disciples a last farewell? did he see the shadow of the cross over his pathway?--yet he never faltered. His courage stood all tests. _Vision._ A distinguishing quality of the great is their power to put first things first. Jesus possessed a fine sense of values. He willingly sold all he had that he might buy the pearl of great price. His temptations to follow after lesser values left him unscathed, and he refused to command the stones to be made bread, or to do aught else that would turn him from his mission. _God-Consciousness._ Those who have most left their impress upon the world and the hearts of men have not worked through their own power alone. They have known how to link their lives to the infinite Source of power; the way has been open between their lives and God. Jesus never for a moment doubted that all the resources of God were at his command, hence he had but to reach out and they were his. * * * * * It is evident, as before stated, that this functional definition of religion, this great program of living, cannot be thrust on the child all at once--cannot be _thrust_ on him at all. But day after day and year after year throughout the period of his training the conviction should be taking shape in the child's mind that these are the _real_ things of life, the truest measure of successful living, the highest goals for which men can strive. The definition of religion which he forms from his instruction should be broad enough to include these values and such others of similar kind as Christianity at its best demands. KNOWLEDGE OF THE BIBLE A knowledge of the essential parts of the _Bible_ is indispensable to Christian culture. The Bible is the storehouse of spiritual wisdom of the ages, the matchless textbook of religion. Great men and women of all generations testify to its power as a source of inspiration and guidance. To be ignorant of its fundamental spiritual truths is to lack one of the chiefest instruments of religious growth and development. Not to know its teachings is to miss the strongest and best foundation that has ever been laid for fruitful and happy living. To lose a knowledge of the Bible out of our lives is to deprive ourselves of the ethical and religious help needed to redeem society and bring the individual to his rightful destiny. Yet this generation is confronted by a widespread and universal ignorance of the Bible, even among the adherents of the churches. Making the Bible useful to the child. The child cannot be taught all of the Bible as a child. Indeed, parts of if dealing with the ideals and practices of peoples and times whose primitive standards were far below those of our own times are wholly unsuited to the mind of childhood, and should be left until maturity has given the mental perspective by which to interpret them. Other parts of the Bible prove dry and uninteresting to children, and are of no immediate spiritual significance to them. Still other parts, which later will be full of precious meaning, are beyond the grasp or need of the child in his early years and should be left for a later period. But with all these subtractions there still remains a rich storehouse of biblical material suited for all ages from earliest childhood to maturity. This material should be assembled and arranged in a _children's Bible_. This abridged Bible should then be made a part of the mental and spiritual possession of every child. The knowledge of the Bible which will be of most worth to the child must be a _functioning_ knowledge; a knowledge that can and will be put at work in the child's thought, helping him form his judgments of right and wrong and arrive at a true sense of moral values; a knowledge that stirs the soul's response to the appeal God makes to the life; a knowledge that daily serves as a guide to action amid the perplexities and temptations that are met; a knowledge that lives and grows as the years pass by, constantly revealing deeper meanings and more significant truths. The test of useful knowledge.--This is all to say that the knowledge of the Bible given the child must in no sense be a merely formal knowledge, a knowledge of so many curious or even interesting facts separated from their vital meaning and application. It must not consist of truths which for the most part _do not influence thought and action_. Not how many facts are lodged in the mind, nor how many have passed through the mind and been forgotten, but _how many truths are daily being built into character_--this measures the value of the knowledge we teach the child from the Bible. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE CHURCH The church represents religion organized. Because of our social impulses we need to worship together in groups. Many religious activities, such as education, evangelism, missionary enterprises, and reforms, can be successfully carried out only by joint action; hence we have the church, a _means of religious culture_, and the _instrument of religious service_. Few there are who, outside the church, maintain their own religious experience or carry the ministry of religious service to others. A knowledge of the church is therefore an essential part of the child's religious education. What the child needs to know about the church.--This does not mean that the child needs to know the technical and detailed history of the Christian Church; this may come later. Nor does it mean that the child needs to know the different theological controversies through which the church has passed and the creeds that have resulted; this also may come later. What the child needs first to know is that the church is the instrument of religion, the home of religious people; that the Christian Church began with the followers of Jesus, and that it has existed ever since; that it has done and is doing much good in the world; that the best and noblest men and women of each generation work with and through the church; that the church is worthy of our deepest love and appreciation, and that it should command our fullest loyalty and support. Besides this rather general knowledge of the church, the child should know the organization and workings of the present-day church. He should come to know as much of its program, plans, and ideals as his age and understanding will permit. Even the younger children are able to understand and sympathize with the missionary work of the church, both in home and in foreign lands. Missionary instruction offers a valuable opportunity to quicken the religious imagination and broaden the social interests. Lessons showing the church at work in missionary fields should therefore be freely brought to the child. Knowledge of the church's achievements.--The part the church has taken and is to-day taking in advancing the cause of education will appeal to the child's admiration and respect. A knowledge of its philanthropies will make a good foundation for the later loyalties to be developed toward the church as an institution. The important influence of the church in furthering moral reforms and social progress is well within the appreciation of adolescents, and should be brought to their recognition. Especially should children know the activities of their own local church; they should learn of its different organizations and of the work each is doing; they should know its financial program--where the money comes from and the uses to which it is put; they should know its plans ahead in so far as their participation can be used in carrying out its activities. All these lines of information are necessary to the child in order that his interest and loyalty may have an intelligent and enduring basis. Knowledge of one's own church.--The first knowledge of the church as an institution given the child should be of the _church as a whole_, and should have no denominational bias. We should first aim to make out of our children _Christians_, and only later to make out of them Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, or Congregationalists. There comes a time, however, when the child should become informed concerning his own particular church or denomination. He should learn of its history, its achievements, its creeds, its plan of organization and polity. This is not with the purpose of cultivating a narrow sectarianism, but in the interests of a self-respecting intelligence concerning the particular branch of the church which is one's spiritual home. That the great mass of our people to-day possess any reasonable fund of knowledge about the Christian Church or their own denomination may well be doubted. This is a serious fault in religious education. KNOWLEDGE OF RELIGIOUS MUSIC AND ART Not all of the child's religious impressions come through direct instruction in the facts and precepts of religion. Religious feeling and comprehension of the deeper meanings and values often best spring from their expression in music and art. Music essential to religion.--No other form of expression can take the place of music in creating a spirit of reverence and devotion, or in inspiring religious feeling. So closely is music interwoven with religion that no small part of the world's greatest musical masterpieces have a religious motive as their theme. Even among primitive peoples music is an important feature of religious ceremonials. The Christian Church has a large and growing body of inspiring hymnology. The child needs to be led into a knowledge of religious music. He needs this knowledge as a stimulus and a means of expression for his own spiritual life. But he also needs it in order to take part in the exercises of his church and its organizations. He needs it in order to enjoy music and do his part in producing it in the home and the school. This means that children should come to know the hymnology of the church; they should know the words and the music of such worthy and inspiring hymns as are adapted to their age and understanding. They should finally, during the course of their development to adulthood, learn to know and enjoy the great religious oratorios and other forms of musical expression. The place of art in religion.--Art, like music, owes much of its finest form and development to religion. Religious hope, aspiration, and devotion have always sought expression in pictorial or plastic art and in noble architecture. We owe it to our children to put them in possession of this rich spiritual heritage. They should know and love the great masterpieces of painting dealing with religious themes. They should not only have these as a part of their instruction in the church school classes, but they should also have them in their homes and in their schools, and see them in public art galleries and in other public buildings suitable for their display. Wherever possible the church building should in its architecture express in a worthy way the religious ideals of its members. It should first of all be adapted to the uses expected of it. It should be beautiful in conception and execution, and should allow no unlovely or unworthy elements to enter into its structure. We should teach our children something of the wonder and beauty of religious architecture as represented in the great cathedrals and churches of all lands, and lead them to see in these creations the desire and attempt of great souls to express their appreciation for God's goodness to men. 1. It will help you to understand the child's idea of God if you will think back to your own childhood and answer the following questions: Just who and what was God to you? Was he near by or far off? When you prayed, to what kind of a Being was the prayer addressed? Did Jesus seem more near and friendly to you than God? What were (or are) the most outstanding attributes of God's nature to you? Did you ever have any disturbing ideas about God? 2. Now, suppose you attempt to answer these same questions about the children in your class. You will have to remember that the child may not be able to explain just what God seems to him--perhaps you can hardly do this yourself. Further, a child may often have some notion that what he feels is queer or would not be well received, and hence he will not fully express it to others. 3. Just what does religion seem to you to be? Is it largely a way of living or a set of conventions and restraints? How did religion appeal to you in your childhood? Are you able to tell how the children of your class understand religion? What definite help are you giving them toward broadening and enriching their concept of religion? Are you leading them to see that religion is a way of living the day's life? 4. To what extent do you feel that you really know the Bible? Could you give a sketch of twenty of its leading characters, describing the strengths and weaknesses of character of each? Could you describe the great biblical events, and draw the lessons they teach? Could you compare and characterize the Hebrew religion and the religion of Jesus? Are the pupils in your class going to be able from the work of the church school to answer favorably these and similar questions? 5. We expect good citizens to know something of the history of their country and their commonwealth. Is it too much to ask members of the Christian Church to have the same information about the church? Could you pass a fair examination on the history and achievements of the church? Of your own particular church? Are the children of your church school growing in this knowledge? The children of your class? 6. To what extent do the children of your class know the hymns of the church? Is care taken to give them such hymns as are suited to their age? Are worthy hymns taught them, or the silly rimes found in many church song books? (This does not mean that children should be taught music beyond their comprehension; there is much good music suited to different ages.) Are your children having an opportunity to know the great religious pictures? Religious architecture? (Here also the work must be adapted to the age.) FOR FURTHER READING Coe, Education in Religion and Morals. Brown, The Modern Man's Religion, chapter on "The Use of the Bible." Fosdick, The Manhood of the Master. Weld and Conant, Songs for Little People. Bailey, The Gospel in Art. CHAPTER V RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES TO BE CULTIVATED Life never stands still; especially does the life of the child never stand still. It is always advancing, changing, reconstructing. Starting with an unripe brain, and with no fund of knowledge or expression, the child in the first few years of his life makes astonishing progress. By the time he is three years old he has learned to understand and speak a difficult language. He knows the names and uses of hundreds of objects about him. He has acquaintance with a considerable number of people, and has learned to adapt himself to their ways. He has gained much information about every phase of his environment which directly touches his life--his mastery of knowledge has grown apace, without rest or pause. Nor does the development of what we have called _attitudes_ lag behind. Parallel with growth in the child's knowledge, his interests are taking root; his ideals are shaping; his standards are developing; his enthusiasms are kindling; his loyalties are being grounded. These changes go on whether we will or not--just because life and growth can not be stopped. The great question that confronts teacher and parent is whether through guidance, that is through education, we shall be able to say _what_ attitudes shall arise and _what_ motives shall come to rule, rather than to leave this all-important matter to chance or to influence hostile to the child's welfare. The teacher of religion, like all other teachers, must meet two distinct though related problems in the cultivating of attitudes. These are: 1. _The creation of an immediate or direct set of attitudes toward the school and its work._ This is needed to motivate effort and insure right impressions. 2. _The development of a far-reaching set of attitudes that will carry out from the classroom into the present and future life of the pupil._ This is needed as a guide and stimulus to spiritual growth, and as a foundation for character. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE SCHOOL AND ITS WORK The older view of education sought to drive the child to effort and secure results through pain and compulsion. It was believed that the pathway to learning must of necessity be dreary and strewn with hardships, if, indeed, not freely watered with the tears of childhood. Now we know better. A knowledge of child psychology and a more sympathetic insight into child nature have shown us that instead of external compulsion we must get hold of the inner springs of action. No mind can exert its full power unless the driving force comes from _within_. The capacities implanted in the child at his birth do not reach full fruition except when freely and gladly used because their use is a pleasure and satisfaction. If worthy results are to be secured, the _whole self_ must be called into action under the stimulus of willingness, desire, and complete assent of the inner self to the tasks imposed. There must be no lagging, nor holding back, nor partial use of powers. Religious education is, therefore, not simply a question of getting our children into the church schools. That is easy. Parents who themselves do not attend feel that they have more fully done their duty by their children if they send them to the Sunday school. After securing the attendance of the children the great question still remains--that of the _response_, their attitude toward the activities of the school, the completeness with which they give themselves to its work. A friend who is a State inspector of public schools tells me that the first thing he looks for when he visits a school is the _school spirit_, the attitude of the pupils toward their teachers and the work of the school. If this is good, there is a foundation upon which to build fruitful work; if the spirit is bad, there is no possibility that the work of the school can be up to standard. For it is out of the schoolroom spirit, the classroom attitudes, that the effort necessary to growth and achievement must come. The spirit of the classroom.--_Do the children enjoy the lesson hour?_ The first of the motivating conditions to seek for our classroom is a prevailing attitude of happiness, good cheer, enjoyment. These are the natural attributes and attitudes of childhood. Unhappiness is an abnormal state for the child. The child's nature unfolds and his mind expands normally only when in an atmosphere of sympathy, kindness, and good feeling. Our pupils must enjoy what they are doing, if they are to give themselves whole-heartedly to it. If loyalty to the school and the church is to result, they must not feel that the Sunday school hour is a drag and a bore. If such is the case, they cannot be expected to carry away lasting impressions for good. They must not look upon attendance as an imposition, nor wait with eager impatience for the closing gong. While loyalty should be permeated by a sense of duty and obligation, and even of self-sacrifice, it cannot rest on this alone. Most children and youth are loyal to their homes; but this loyalty rests chiefly on a sentiment formed from day to day and year to year out of the satisfying experiences connected with the love, care, protection, and associations of the home. Let these happy, satisfying home experiences be lacking, and loyalty to the home fails or loses its fine quality. In similar way, if the experiences in the Sunday school and the church continuously yield satisfaction, enjoyment, and good feeling, the child's loyalty and devotion are assured; if, on the other hand, these experiences come to be associated with dislike, reluctance, and aversion, loyalty is in danger of breaking under the strain. The response of interest.--_Are the children interested?_ While, as we have seen, the atmosphere or spirit of the classroom supplies the condition necessary to successful work, interest supplies the motive force. For interest is the mainspring of action. A child may politely listen, or from a sense of courtesy or good will sit quietly passive and not disturb others, but this does not meet the requirement. His thought, interest, and enthusiasm must be centered on the matter in hand. He must withdraw his attention from all wandering thoughts, passing fancies, distracting surroundings, and concentrate upon the lesson itself. There is no substitute for this. There is no possibility of making lasting impressions on a mind with its energies dispersed through lack of attention. And there is no possibility of securing fruitful attention without interest. Interest therefore becomes a primary consideration in our teaching of religion. The teacher must constantly ask himself: "What is the state of my pupils' interest? How completely am I commanding their enthusiasm? Suppose I were to grade them on a scale with _complete-indifference_ as the interest zero, and with the _'exploding-point'-of-enthusiasm_ as the highest interest mark, where would the score mark of my class stand? And if I cannot reasonably hope to keep my class at the high-water mark of interest at all times, what shall I call an attainable standard? If one hundred per cent is to represent the supreme achievement of interest, shall I be satisfied with fifty per cent, with twenty-five per cent, or with complete indifference? If the minds of my pupils can receive and retain lasting impressions only under the stimulus of the higher range of interest, in how far am I now making lasting impressions on my class? In short, _is the interest attitude of my class as good as I can make it?_" The sense of victory.--_Is there a feeling of confidence and mastery?_ Do the children _understand_ what they are asked to learn? Without this the attitude toward the class hour cannot be good, for the mind is always ill at ease when forced to work upon matter it cannot grasp nor assimilate. Nor is it possible to secure full effort without a reasonable degree of mastery. The feeling of confidence and assurance that comes from successful achievement increases the amount of power available. The victorious army or the winning football team is always more formidable than the same organization when oppressed and disheartened by continued defeat. If the task is interesting, children do not ask that it shall be easy. Once catch their enthusiasm and they will exert their powers to the full, and take joy in the effort. But the effort must be accompanied by a sense of victory and achievement. There must always be immediately ahead the possibility of winning over the difficulties of their lessons. Except in rare moments of emotional exaltation the most heroic of us are not capable of hurling our best strength against obstacles upon whose resistance we make no impression. And the child possesses almost none of this quality. Without a measurable degree of success in what he attempts to learn his _morale_ suffers, enthusiasm fails, and discouragement creeps in to sap his powers. Kept in the presence of mental tasks he cannot master nor understand, the child will soon lose interest and anticipation in his work. Without mastery intellectual defeat comes to be accepted and expected, and the child forms the fatal habit of submission and giving up. Because he expects defeat from the lesson before him, the learner is already defeated; because he has not learned to look for victory in his study, he will never find it. Preventing the habit of defeat.--This is all to say that in teaching the child religion we must not constantly confront him with matter that is beyond his grasp and understanding. That we are doing this in some of our lesson systems there can be no doubt. The result is seen in the child's hazy and indefinite ideas about religion; in a later astonishing lack of interest in the problems of religion on the part of adults; in the child's unwillingness to undertake the study of his lessons for the Sunday school; in the fact that to many children the Sunday school lesson hour is a task and a bore; and in the fact that the Sunday school does not in a large degree continue to hold the loyalty of its members after they have reached the age of deciding for themselves whether they will attend. _Fundamental to all successful classroom results with children are enjoyment, interest, and mastery._ How these are to be secured will be developed further as the text proceeds. ATTITUDES THAT CARRY INTO LIFE BEYOND THE SCHOOL The great problem of every teacher is to make sure that the effects of his instruction reach beyond the classroom. While the immediate attitudes of the classroom are the first great care, they are but the beginning. Growing out of the work of the church school must be a more permanent set of attitudes that underlie life itself, give foundation to character, and in large degree determine the trend and outcome of achievement. _The cultivation of moral and religious attitudes is probably the most important aim for the Sunday school._ As already explained, the word "attitudes" is used to cover a considerable number of qualities and attributes. A continuing interest in the Bible and religion.--On the whole, people do not concern themselves about what they are not interested in. They do not read the books, study the pictures, go to hear the speakers, or busy themselves with problems to which their interest does not directly and immediately lead them. A fine sense of duty and obligation is all very well, but it never can take the place of interest as a dynamic force in life. The number of Bibles sold every year would lead one to suppose that our people are great students of the Scriptures. Yet the almost universal ignorance of the Bible proves that it is one thing to own a Bible, and quite another thing to read it. We may buy the Bible because other people own Bibles, because we believe in its principles, and because it seems altogether desirable to have the Bible among our collection of books. But the extent to which we _read_ the Bible depends on our interest in it and the truths with which it deals. Nor should we forget that, while the United States is rightly counted as one of the great Christian nations, only about two out of five of our people are members of Christian churches. It is true that this proportion would be considerably increased if all churches admitted the younger children to membership; but even making allowance for this fact, it is evident that a great task still confronts the church in interesting our own millions in religion in such a way that they shall take part in its organized activities. Let each teacher of religion therefore ask himself: "To what extent am I grounding in my pupils a _permanent and continuing interest_ in the Bible and in the Christian religion? Growing out of lessons I teach these children are they coming to _like_ the Bible? will they want to know more about it? will they turn to it naturally as a matter of course because they have found it interesting and helpful? will they care enough for it through the years to search for its deeper meanings and for its hidden beauties? and because of this will they build the strength and inspiration of the Bible increasingly into their lives?" And, further: "Are my pupils developing a _growing_ interest in religion? Do they increasingly find it attractive and inspiring, or is religion to them chiefly a set of restraints and prohibitions? Do they look upon religion as a means to a happier and fuller life, or as a limitation and check upon life. Is religion being revealed to them as the pearl of great price, or does it possess but little value in their standard of what is worth while?" These questions are of supreme significance, for in their right answers are the very issues of spiritual life for those we teach. Spiritual responsiveness.--The teacher must accept responsibility for the spiritual growth as well as the intellectual training of his pupils. There is no escape from this. We must be satisfied with nothing less than a constantly increasing consciousness of God's presence and reality in the lives of those we teach. As the child's knowledge grows and his concept of God, develops, this should naturally and inevitably lead to an increasing warmth of attitude toward God and a tendency to turn to him constantly for guidance, strength, comradeship, and forgiveness. Indeed, the cultivation of this trend of the life toward God is the supreme aim in our religious leadership of children. Without this result, whatever may have been the facts learned or the knowledge gleaned, there has been no worthy progress made in spiritual growth and development. The evolution of spiritual responsiveness.--The realization of this new spiritual consciousness in the child's life may not involve any special nor abrupt upheaval. If the child is wisely led, and if he develops normally in his religion, it almost certainly will not. Countless thousands of those who are living lives very full of spiritual values have come into the rich consciousness of divine relationship so gradually that the separate steps cannot be distinguished. "First the blade, then the ear, and then the full grain in the ear" is the natural law of spiritual growth. The bearing of this truth upon our teaching is that we must seek for the unfolding of the child's spiritual nature and for the turning of his thought and affections toward God from the first. We must not point to some distant day ahead when the child will "accept Jesus" or become "a child of God." We must ourselves think of the child, and lead the child to think of himself, as a member of God's family. This does not mean that the child, as he grows from childhood into youth and adulthood, will not need to make a personal and definite decision to give God and the Christ first place in his life; he will need to do this not once, but many times. It only means that from his earliest years the child is to be made to feel that he belongs to God, and should turn to him as Father and Friend. Day by day and week by week the child should be growing more vitally conscious of God's place in his life, and more responsive to this relationship. Only by this steady and continuous process of growth will the spiritual nature take on the depth and quality which the Christian ideal sets for its attainment. Ideals and ambitions.--In order that religion may be a helpful reality to the child it must extend to his developing ideals and ambitions. For even children have ideals and ambitions, however crude they may be, or however much they may lack the serious and practical nature they later take on. Probably no child reaches his teens without having many times secretly determined that he would do this or become that, which he has admired in some hero of his own choosing from actual acquaintance or from books or stories. There is no normal child but who has his own notions of greatness and importance, of success and fame, and who wishes and longs for certain things ahead upon which he has set his heart, and which he purposes to attain. The things that he thus values are his ideals, goals to be reached. Ideals are, therefore, guides to action and effort, something to be striven after and sacrificed for. They are the things most worth while, for which we can afford to forego other things of lesser value. It was the force of a great ideal which led Paul to say, "This one thing I do"; and to the attainment of that ideal he gave all his purpose and effort. To form true ideals requires a trained sense of values; one must develop a power of spiritual perspective, and be able to see things in their true proportions. He must know what things rightly come first if he is to "put first things first;" He must have some training in recognizing the value of "pearls" if he is to see that it is a good exchange to "sell all that he has" in order to "buy the pearl of great price." This all suggests that one of the responsibilities resting upon us as teachers of religion is to guide the child in the forming of his ideals. We must help him form his notion of what is worthy and admirable in character. We must see that he develops high standards of truth, honesty, obedience, and the other moral virtues which lie at the foundation of all vital religion. We must make certain that his ideals of success and achievement include a large measure of service to his fellows. We must ground him in right personal ideals and standards of purity and clean living. We must make him feel a deep sense of responsibility for the full development and fruitful use of his own powers and abilities. In short, we must with all the wisdom and devotion we possess _bring him to accept the life of Jesus as the ideal and pattern for his own life_. Fine appreciations.--What one admires is an index to his character. More than this, the quality and tone of one's admirations finally build themselves into his nature and become a part of his very being. Life is infinitely enriched and refined by responding to the beauty, the goodness, and the gladness to be found around us. In Hawthorne's story of The Great Stone Face, the boy Ernest dwelt upon and admired the character revealed in the benignant lines of the great face outlined by the hand of the Creator on the mountainside until the fine qualities which the young boy daily idealized had grown into his own life, and Ernest himself had become the "wise man" whose coming had long been awaited by his people. It is not enough therefore to learn the _facts_ about the lives of the great men and women of the Bible or of other times. The story of their lives must be presented in such a way that _admiration_ is compelled from the learner: for only the qualities the child appreciates and admires are finally built into his own ideal. It is not enough that the child shall be taught that God created the world and all that is therein; he must also be brought to appreciate and admire the wonders and beauties of nature as an evidence of God's wisdom, power, and goodness. It is not enough that our pupils shall come to know the chief events in the life of Jesus and the outline of his teachings; they must also find themselves lost in admiration of the matchless qualities of his great personality. And so also with music, art, architecture, with the fine in human life and conduct, or with great and noble deeds. Inherent in them all are spiritual stimulus and food for the young life, manna upon which the growing soul should feed. But here again the law holds: in order to assimilate them to his life the child _must appreciate, enjoy, admire_. To bring this about is one part of our task as teacher. Worthy loyalties and devotions.--Every worthy character must have in it a certain power of resistance, a quality that makes it able to withstand hardship for the sake of an ideal or a cause. It is easy enough to be heroic when it costs nothing of effort or sacrifice. There is no trouble in securing supporters for a cause that is popular, or workers when the work called for is interesting and attractive. We are all willing to stand for the right if to stand is agreeable and exhilarating, and does not bring us too much of unpleasantness, pain, or suffering. But life at its best and noblest does involve some hardship. Much that is best in human experience has come to us through hardship, toil, and suffering cheerfully endured by heroic souls who counted their own lives as naught so that the cause to which they gave themselves might win. The comforts, freedom, and opportunities we enjoy some one paid for, bought with endless effort and sacrifice. Our very religion, the symbol of life, gladness, and salvation, has as its background tragedy, suffering, death, the cross. The quality that makes us willing to endure and resist for the sake of a cause or an ideal we call _loyalty_. The high value set upon it is seen in the fact that loyalty is the first test of citizenship required; it is a quality admired and praised among all peoples in all relations of life; it is the quality we demand and prize in our friends and associates. On the other hand, disloyalty to country, friends, or trust is universally looked upon as despicable, and punished with contempt, scorn, and hatred. The appeal to the heroic.--One of the ends of religious teaching is to cultivate in our youth the spirit of loyalty to worthy ideals and causes. Loyalty rests on a stratum of heroism, which is to be found deep down in every normal human being. We must stimulate and appeal to the heroic in the child's nature. We must make him see that the strong and fine men and women are willing to meet much that is hard and disagreeable, so that they may be loyal to their task. We must make him realize that the greatest and most worthy thing one can do is to "endure hardship" for a cause; that to be willing to suffer for an ideal is a mark of strength and courage; and that "having done all to _stand_" is often the best test of character. Nor must the thought of loyalty be presented to the child only in the abstract. Concrete examples are worth much general explanation and laudation. The loyalties of the great characters of biblical and other times can be made the source of great inspiration; the supreme loyalty of Jesus to his mission will exert a powerful appeal. But loyalty must be made immediate, definite and concrete to the child in his own life; he must not simply admire it afar off. Loyalty must be to him not something to learn about and praise in others, but something he can make use of himself each day without waiting to grow up or become famous. So we will teach the child the loyalties due parents and the home; loyalties to friends and comrades; loyalties to school, community, and country; loyalties to Sunday school, church, and the cause of religion; loyalties to self; loyalties to duty wherever found; and, above all, _loyalties to the Christ and his ideals_. 1. Do your pupils enjoy the church school, and like to come? Do they enjoy the lesson hour? By what means do you tell? Is the spirit of the class good toward the school and toward the class? How do you judge this? 2. Do your pupils come to the lesson hour full of expectancy? Or is there an indifference and lack of interest with which you have to contend? If the class fails in some degree to manifest expectancy and interest, where do you judge the trouble to lie? What is the remedy? 3. To what degree do you think your pupils are comprehending and mastering what you are teaching them? How does their mastery compare with that secured in the public schools? Have you plans for making their mastery more complete? 4. Do you judge that your pupils are developing such an attitude toward the Bible that their interest will carry on beyond the time they are in your class? Do you think they have an increasing interest in religion? Are you making these questions one of the problems of your teaching? 5. Are your pupils developing through the work you are doing a growing consciousness of God in their lives? Do they count themselves as children of God? Just what do you believe is the status of your children spiritually? Do they need conservation or conversion? What difference will your answer make in your teaching? 6. To what degree are your pupils loyal to the church school? To their particular class? To the church? What are the tests of loyalty? Do they come regularly? Do they seek to promote the interests of the class and the school? Do they do their part? What can be done to increase loyalty? FOR FURTHER READING Wilber, A Child's Religion. Bushnell, Christian Nurture (Revised Ed.). Betts, The Mind and Its Education, chapter on "Interest." Fisk, Boy Life and Self-Government. CHAPTER VI CONNECTING RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION WITH LIFE AND CONDUCT We have now come to the third of the great trio of aims in religious education--_right living_. This, of course, is _the_ aim to which the gathering of religious knowledge and the setting up of religious attitudes are but secondary; or, rather, fruitful religious knowledge, and right religious attitudes are the _means_ by which to lead to skill in right living as the _end_. In the last analysis the child does not come to us that he may learn this or that set of facts, nor that he may develop such and such a group of feelings, but that through these he may live better. The final test of our teaching, therefore, is just this: Because of our instruction, does the child _live_ differently here and now, as a child, in all his multiform relations in the home, the school, the church, the community, and in his own personal life? Are the lessons we teach translated continuously into better conduct, finer acts, and stronger character as shown in the daily run of the learner's experience? It is true that the full fruits of our teaching and of the child's learning must wait for time and experience to bring the individual to fuller development. But it is also true that it is impossible for the child to lay up a store of unused knowledge and have it remain against a later time of need in a distant future. The only knowledge that forms a vital part of our equipment is knowledge that is in active service, guiding our thought and decisions from day to day. Unused knowledge quickly vanishes away, leaving little more permanent impression on the life than that left on the wave when we plunge our hand into the water and take it out again. In similar way the interests, ideals, and emotions which are aroused without at the same time affording a natural outlet for expression in deeds and conduct soon fade away without having fulfilled the purpose for which they exist. The great thing in religious education is to find _immediate and natural outlet in expression_, a way for the child to _use_ what he learns; to get the child to _do_ those things pointed out by the lessons we teach him. Religion drawing closer to life.--This is the only method of religious education that will meet the requirements of these times upon the Christian religion. The unmistakable trend of modern Christianity is to connect religion more closely and vitally with life itself--to make it a _mode of living_ in a deeper sense than has obtained since the days of Christ upon earth. This is a very hopeful sign, for it accords completely with the spirit and message of Jesus. When he said, "By their fruit ye shall know them," what did he mean but that the quality and value of a man's religion is to be known by its outcome in, deeds and action? When he said, "Not everyone that saith. Lord! Lord! but he that doeth..."; and again, "He that heareth these sayings of mine and doeth them...," was he not again emphasizing the great; truth that one's religion is tested only by the extent to which it is tied up with his daily living? The teacher will, therefore, say to himself, The religious knowledge I am putting into the minds of my pupils is of supreme importance--if it makes them live better and act more nobly; the religious attitudes and emotions I am cultivating in my class are full of value and significance--_if_ they cause their possessors to live more broadly, sympathetically, usefully, and happily. The true teacher will then add, And it is my task _to see that this result follows without fail!_ RELIGIOUS HABITS AS AN AIM Indirectly all this is to say that our first care in teaching the young child religion should be to lead him to form _religious habits_. For our lives are controlled by a great network of habits which come to us as the result of acts often repeated, until they have become as second nature. There are many things about the child's religion that should become second nature; that is, should become habit--and which are not certain and secure until they have grown into habits. For example, it is wholly desirable to have the habit of attending church, of personal devotions, and of resisting temptation, so well fixed that the acts required for each take care of themselves with a minimum of struggle and decision each time the occasion arises. Not only will this method require less strain and compulsion on our part, but it will result in more uniform churchgoing, attention to devotions, and the overcoming of temptation. The age for habit forming.--The principle, then, is simple and clear. At the beginning of the child's contact with the church school he cannot grasp the broader and deeper meanings of religion; but he can during this period be led into the doing of right acts and deeds, and thus have his religious habits started. At a time when his brain is yet unripe, and hence unready for the more difficult truths or the more exalted emotions of religion, the child is at his best in the matter of habit-forming. For habits grounded in early childhood are more easily formed and more deeply imbedded than those acquired at any later time, and they exert a stronger control over the life. How habits grow.--But habits do not come of their own accord; they must be gradually acquired. Immediately back of every habit lies a chain of acts out of which the habit grows. Given the acts, and the habit is as sure to follow as night the day. Hence the great thing in religious instruction of the young is to afford opportunity for our teaching to be carried as immediately as may be over into deeds. As we make the desired impressions upon the minds of our pupils, we must see that the way is reasonably open for _expression_. The lessons should be so direct, simple, and clear that there is no difficulty in connecting them immediately with the daily life, and then we should do our best to see _that the connection is made_. As we teach we should have in mind the week that lies ahead in the child's life--in the home, the school, on the playground, in the community, and in whatever personal situations and problems we may know are being met. Then we should use every power as a teacher to make sure that we help the child meet the challenge of his daily life with the finest acts, best deeds, and noblest conduct possible for him to command. APPLICATION OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION TO THE DAILY LIFE One great purpose, then, in religious instruction is to attach the stimulus and appeal of religion to the common round of daily life and experience of the child. As Christ came that we might have life, not a future life alone, but a full, happy, and worthy life in the present as well, so we come to the child as a teacher to help him in his _life_ here and now. Our task at this point is to lead him to practice the great fundamental virtues whose value has been proved through ages of human experience, to incorporate directly into his living the lessons learned slowly and with great sacrifice by generations which have preceded him. Our aim will be to lead our pupils, out of their own choice and conviction, to adopt and follow a _code of action_ such as the following: _I will respect and care for my body._ I will keep my body clean and pure. I will try to avoid sickness and disease. I will breathe good air day and night, and live out of doors all I can. Because I shall need all my strength and endurance at their best, I will pay no toll to the poisons of alcohol and nicotine. I will be temperate in my food, and eat such foods as will favor growth, health, and strength. I will bathe often, play and work hard, and get plenty of sleep and rest. My character will be judged by my poise and carriage; therefore I will try to walk, stand, and sit well, and not allow my manner to show slouchiness and carelessness. Both because of my own self-respect and because I owe it to others, I will strive to make myself neat and attractive in dress and person. I will treat my body right so far as I can know what is best for it, and will do nothing to defile or injure any part of it. I will try to keep my body a fit dwelling place for my soul, for God gave them both to me. And I will do all I can to make my home, school, and community a beautiful and healthful place for others to live. _I will keep good-natured, cheerful, and responsive._ Tasks grow easier and loads lighter when one is cheerful. I will therefore guard against gloomy and sullen moods, which not only make me unhappy, but cause unhappiness to those about me. I will watch that I may not be cross and irritable at home, and shall do my part to make home the bright and happy place I wish it to be. I will be careful not to grumble nor whine when things go wrong, or when I cannot have my own way. I will remember that troubles flee when we refuse to think about them. I will refuse to give way to ill temper, for I would not become its slave; rather will I learn to laugh at small troubles and annoyances that cannot be cured. If I am feeling sad or unhappy, I will stop to speak a kind word or do a fine deed, and the gloom will disappear. _I will take pride in work and thrift._ The world has no place for the one who shirks. Some one toiled for every comfort I enjoy; some one worked for the clothing, shelter, food, and all the other good things that come to me. I must do my part, work, help others, and especially help in the home. I will not slight my tasks, but say; "I can!" and go at my work with a will. What though the task be hard--if it is mine, I'll do it! What though the lesson be long--if it is to be learned, I'll master it! If I can stand at the head of my class, I will, but only when I have earned the right by honest effort. Because the world contains so many who must go hungry for want of food, and who lack other necessities and comforts, I will not needlessly spend nor waste anything of value. I will take pride in thrift and saving, and do all I can to encourage this spirit in others. I will respect and honor all worthy toil. I will thank the good God every day that he allows me to take part in the work round about me, and ask him to help me to do my share well in each seen or unseen part of every task. _I will be honest and speak the truth._ Only one who is honest is worthy of trust, and he who tells a lie confesses that he is a coward and afraid to let the truth be known. I will be honest even in little things, and will have no "white lies." Though it may seem a trifle to cheat in school or not play fair in a game, I will be above all trickery and deceit. Both in play and in work my fight must be clean and fair; I shall ask but for an even chance. I will give full value for whatever I receive; if I work for wages, I must make sure to earn them; if I secure honors or grades at school, I must win them. I will let alone all games of chance, for gambling takes what one has not earned, and is therefore stealing. _I will be obedient to the rules of my home and school and to the laws of my country._ The rules of home and school and the laws of state and nation are made for the good of all; and wherever freedom rules there laws must be obeyed. I will not quibble nor seek to evade, but give prompt and cheerful obedience wherever my duty is to obey. I will honor the law and respect those in authority over me. I will not be one of those who must needs be watched, and narrowly held to right paths. I will obey not because of fear or compulsion, but gladly, because I choose to do the right. I will not tempt others to disobedience, nor to the violation of the law. I will be a loyal member of my home and school and a patriotic citizen of my country, doing all in my power to advance their welfare and interests. _I will be courteous and kind._ The men and women whom people love and admire are courteous and kind. The strong and the brave are never cruel, they do not willingly injure others nor hurt their feelings. I will strive each day to be courteous at home, kind to those who are nearest to me, and helpful to my friends and companions. I will not knowingly cause pain or suffering to any person. I will extend my protection and kindness to all animals and every dumb and helpless thing, remembering that pain is pain wherever felt, in a worm as well as in a man. Especially will I show my best courtesy to aged and infirm persons, and to all such as may need help. It will be my high privilege to render service to any who are unfortunate, crippled, or in distress, I will do unto others what I would have them do unto me. _I will show courage and self-control._ I should not want to be a coward, for cowardice always brings pity and contempt. I know that all must at times meet pain and suffering; and when the time comes to me I must not lose my courage and self-control; I will not shrink nor cringe, but find strength in remembering that many have suffered and endured without complaint. I will avoid danger and unnecessary risk whenever possible, but if accident or duty puts me in a place of danger, I must try to keep a cool head and to show my mettle by doing my full duty bravely. When sometimes things go wrong, and I cannot have my own way, I shall show my courage and self-command by keeping my temper and tongue under control; I will be a good sportsman and not complain, nag, nor find fault. I will make it a rule, if I feel my anger rising, to think twice before I speak or act. If I have wronged or offended anyone, I will be strong enough to go and make it right, confessing my fault. When I am tempted to think or do or say what I know to be wrong, I will ask my heavenly Father for strength to overcome the temptation. It will be my constant purpose and care to keep myself pure in thought, word, and deed. _I will be dependable and do my duty._ The world needs men and women on whom it can depend, and who are not afraid to do their duty at whatever cost. I must learn to face hardship and to meet the disagreeable without giving way before it. I must not ask what road is easy, but what way is right--and then do my duty. When I know I _ought_ I must be able to say _I will_, even if the choice brings me pain and trouble. If I have undertaken any trust or task, I must not lag nor weaken nor grow careless, but faithfully see it through to the end. When my country calls, or the world needs my services, I must not consult my own wishes or convenience, but unfalteringly follow where duty leads. Whenever I can with justice and self-respect, I will avoid a quarrel; but I will not sit idly by and see injustice and oppression brought on the weak and helpless if I can prevent. _I will love and enjoy nature._ The birds, the flowers, the trees and the brooks make the best of friends. I will study the great book of nature around me, and seek to learn the secrets of its many forms. I will live as much as I can in the great out-of-doors, finding in its beauty and freshness new evidences of God's wisdom and goodness. I will never injure nor destroy, but do all I can to protect the beautiful living and growing things about me. I will find joy in the storm, the rain, and the snow, and then no day will seem dreary or dull to me. I will seek for some good purpose in all harmless created things, making comrades of my animal playmates, and taking an interest in all such things as creep or crawl or fly; and need then never be lonely nor lack good company. I will look upon the glory of the sunset, the wonder of a starlit night, the sparkle of the dew, and then reverently thank God that he has made the great world so beautiful and good. _I will each day turn to my heavenly Father for help, strength, and forgiveness._ I know I cannot live my life as I should live it without God's help and counsel. I will therefore turn to him in prayer that he will guide me when I am puzzled or uncertain, that he will give me victory when I am tempted to do wrong, that he will give me courage when I falter or am afraid, that he will forgive me when I have sinned or failed in my duty. I will take for my standard of life and action the example of Jesus, and show my love and appreciation by living as fully as I can the kind of life he lived. I know that I cannot have God's presence in my life unless I keep my heart pure and my conduct right; I will therefore, with his help, as nearly as I can, live from day to day as I think God would have me live, I will take time morning and evening of each day for a few moments of prayer, quiet thought, and for the study of the Bible. I will do my best to be a worthy Christian. * * * * * The teacher, of course, will need to adapt the application of such principles as those we have been discussing to the age and the needs of his pupils. Such lessons cannot be presented as so much abstract truth. The purpose, as we have already seen, is to lead the child to make such high ideals his habit of life and action, so that at last they may govern his conduct and become an inseparable part of his character. To do this, such ideals must be made desirable and attainable. PARTICIPATION IN THE WORK OF THE CHURCH AND SOCIAL SERVICE The forming of religious social habits is as important as the forming of religious personal habits. From his earliest years the child should come to look on his church, his Sunday school, and the class to which he belongs as a responsibility in which he has a personal share. His experience in connection with these organizations should be so interesting and satisfying that his attendance does not have to be compelled, but so that his loyalty, affection, and pride naturally lead him to them. When this is accomplished, the basis of good attendance is secured, and the foundation laid for later participation in all forms of church work. Once the right spirit is created and right habits developed, unpleasant weather, bad roads or streets, getting up late on Sunday mornings, nor any other obstacles will stand in the way of regular church and Sunday school attendance any more than of day-school attendance. And until the church has its children (and their homes) so trained that attendance on the church school is regular throughout the year, our instruction must of necessity fail to reach its full aim. Learning to take responsibility for others.--One of the greatest lessons a child can learn from his lessons in religion is that he is his brother's keeper. The instincts of childhood are naturally selfish and self-centered; the sense of responsibility for others must be gradually trained and developed. A double purpose can therefore be served by enlisting the children of our classes as recruiting officers to secure new members, and to look up any who may have dropped out or whose attendance is irregular. The sense of pride and emulation in such work, and the feeling on the part of our pupils that they are actually accomplishing something definite for their class or school will do much to cement loyalty and train the children to assume responsibility for their comrades. This _pride of the group_ is a strong force during later childhood and adolescence, and can be fruitfully used in religious training. The boy or the girl Scout takes great pride in doing acts of kindness and service without personal reward, just _because that is one of the things that scouting stands for_. "Scouts are expected to do this," or "Scouts are not expected to do that," has all the force of law to the loyal Scout. The Sunday school class can command the same spirit if the proper appeal is made. In its neighborhood work and on many special occasions the church and the Sunday school will have need of messenger service. Errands will have to be run, articles will have to be gathered and distributed, calls will have to be made, funds will have to be collected, and a hundred other things done which children can do as well or better than anyone else. And it is precisely in these practical acts of homely service that the child gets his best training in the social side of religion. Laboratory work in religion.--The wise teacher will therefore seize upon every opportunity to find something worth while for his pupils _to do_. He will have them help with the distribution of supplies in the classroom; he will see that they volunteer to help the super-intendent or other officials who may need assistance; he will give them responsibility in decorating the church or classroom for special occasions; he will leave to their cooperation as large a measure as possible of the work to be done in arranging and carrying out class or school picnics, excursions, social gatherings, and the like; he will arrange for special groups to visit the aged, sick, or shut-in for the purpose of singing gospel songs, and will open the way for those who are qualified to do so to read the Bible or other matter to the blind or those whose sight is failing. In short, the devoted teacher who understands the laws of childhood will make his instruction as nearly as possible a _laboratory course_ in religion, finding the material and the occasion in the human needs and the opportunities for loving service which lie closest at hand. Assuming personal responsibility.--The sense of the child's responsibility for his class and school must also carry into the exercise of the school itself. The boy should be led to prepare his lesson because of the truth it contains; but also because a recitation cannot be a success unless the pupils know their lesson and do their part. He should pay his share toward the running of the school and church because it is our duty to give, but also because he feels a personal responsibility for his church and his class. He should take part in public prayer or the leadership of meetings, when asked to do, because it is right and proper to do these things, but also because he realizes that each member of the class and school owes it to the organization to do his share. Nothing can take the place of whole-hearted, joyous participation in the real activities of the Sunday school as a means of catching the interest of the members and securing their loyalty; for interest and loyalty finally attach to those activities in which we have a share. The school in which the child finds a chance to _express_ the lessons and _put into practice_ the maxims he is taught is the school which is building Christian character and providing for future religious leadership. Participation in singing.--Especially should we develop in our children the ability and will to engage in religious singing. Almost every child can sing, and all children respond to the appeal of music adapted to their understanding. The most expert and inspiring leadership which the church can command should be placed in charge of the children's singing in the Sunday school. If it comes to the question of selecting between a director for the adult choir and a soloist for the general congregation on the one hand, or an efficient organizer and director of children's music on the other hand, there should not be a moment's hesitation on the part of any church to supply the needs of the children first. The aim should then be to have _all_ the children sing, and allow none to form the habit of depending on the older members or on a few leaders to supply the singing for the entire school. Those who possess special ability in music should be formed into choruses, orchestras, school bands, or similar organizations. Not only will all this add to the interest and effectiveness of the school itself, but, not less important, will be helping to _form the music habit_ in connection with sacred music. Training in giving.--The missionary enterprises of the church afford one of the best opportunities for giving the child practical training in the social aspect of religion. It is not enough that the children shall be told the stories of the missionary heroes and given the picture of the needs of the people in far-away lands. Once the imagination is stirred and the emotions wanned by this instruction, an immediate and natural outlet in expression must be found if these lessons are to fulfill their end. Children should early be led into giving money for missionary purposes, and this as far as possible should be their _own_ money which they themselves have earned. For the child to go to his father on a Sunday morning for money for the missionary collection does not answer the need on the educational side; it is the child's real _sharing_ that leaves the impression and teaches the lesson. There is also real educational value in leading children to give clothing, food, or other necessities for the use of the needy. Here, again, the giving should involve something of real sacrifice and sharing, and not consist merely in giving away that for which the child himself no longer cares. The joint giving by a class or the entire school for the support of a missionary worker whose name is known, and a somewhat detailed report of whose work is received, lends immediateness and reality to the participation of the pupils. A strong appeal can be made to the spirit of giving by the adoption by the class of some needy boy or girl whose Christian education is provided for by the efforts of the class, and to whom personal letters can be written and from whom replies may be received. Social service.--The children of our Sunday schools should be given an active and prominent part in all forms of community welfare service. The successful enlistment of the Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts in many valuable forms of community enterprises contains a vital suggestion and lesson for the church school. Wherever good deeds need to be done, wherever help needs to be rendered, wherever kindness and service are necessary, there the children should be called upon to do their part. If the tasks and responsibilities are suited to the various ages, there will be no trouble about securing response. Nor, on the other hand, will there be any doubt but that the lessons learned will be entirely vital and will serve to connect the religious motive with everyday life and its activities. Religion finding expression in the home.--No system or method of religious instruction is effective the results of which do not find expression in the life of the home. It is here in the intimate relations of children with each other and with their parents that the moral and religious lessons of forbearance, good will, and mutual service find most frequent and vital opportunity for application. Children need early to be made to see their individual and joint responsibility for the happiness, cheerfulness, good nature, and general social tone of their home; and to help at these points should become a part of their religion. They should be stimulated to share in the care of the home, and not to shirk their part of its work. They should be interested in the home's finances, and come to feel a personal responsibility for saving or earning as the situation may require. They should have a definite part in the hospitality which the home extends to its friends and neighbors, and come by experience to sense the true meaning of the word "neighborliness." The appearance and attractiveness of their home should be a matter of pride with children, and this feeling should cause them to be careful in their own habits of neatness, cleanliness, and order about the home. All these things have a bearing on the foundations of character and are therefore a legitimate concern in religious instruction. The final tests of our instruction.--In such things as we have been discussing, then, we find one of the surest tests of the outcome of our teaching the child religion--_Are the lessons carrying over_? Is the child, because of our contact with him, growing in attractiveness and strength of personality and character? Is he developing a habit of prayer, devotion, spiritual turning to God? Is he doing a reasonable amount of reading and study of the Bible and the lesson material of the school? Is he taking such personal part in the various social and religious activities of the church and the community that he is "getting his hand in," and developing the attachments and loyalties which can come only through participation? In short, is the child given a chance to apply, and does he daily put into practice and thus into character, the content and spirit of what we teach him? _The answers we must return to these questions will measure our success as teachers and determine the value coming to the child from our instruction._ 1. To what extent do you believe your pupils are living differently in their daily lives for the instruction you are giving them? Do you definitely plan your teaching to accomplish this aim? For example, what _definite_ results are you seeking from the next lesson? 2. Can you think your class over pupil by pupil and decide which of these points in the _code of action_ most needs be stressed in individual cases? Do the topics in this code suggest points of emphasis which might serve for many different lessons? Is there danger of loss in efficiency if we try to stress too many of the points at one time? 3. Are the children of your class interested in keeping up the membership and attendance? What specific part and responsibility do you give the members in this matter? Is it possible that you could plan to use their help more fully and effectively? 4. Suppose you try making a list of all the different lines of participation in religious activities directly opened up to the pupils of your class by the church and the church school. Is the list as long as it should be? What further provision could be made for the children to have definite responsibility and activity? 5. Do you think that your pupils are becoming increasingly inclined to look upon religion as a _mode of living?_ For example, will your children be more agreeable, responsive, obedient, and helpful in the home next week for the lessons you have been teaching them? Will they have higher standards of conduct in the school and on the playground? FOR FURTHER READING Dewey, Moral Principles in Education. Sharp, Education for Character. Partridge, Genetic Philosophy of Education, chapters on "Moral and Religious Education." Mumford, The Dawn of Character. Richardson, The Religious Education of Adolescents. Alexander, Boy Training. CHAPTER VII THE SUBJECT MATTER OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION We have seen in an earlier chapter how the subject matter of religious education must be selected in accordance with the _aims_ we would have it accomplish in the lives of our pupils. We have also considered in separate chapters the religious _knowledge_ required, the religious _attitudes_ demanded and the practical _applications_ of religious instruction to be made or the _expression_ to be sought in the everyday life. Let us now examine somewhat more completely the particular phases of subject matter which should be used to attain these ends--To what sources shall we go for the material for the religious instruction of our children? What subject matter shall we put into the curriculum of religious education? This is a question of supreme importance to the individual, to the church, and to civilization. SOURCES OF MATERIAL First of all we must realize that the sources of religious material are almost infinitely broad and rich. They are much broader than the Bible. I would not be misunderstood on this point. I conceive the Bible as the matchless textbook of religion, the great repository of spiritual wisdom through the ages. It is the primary source to which we must go for material for religious instruction, not just because it is the Bible, but because its truths are the surest guide ever formulated for spiritual development. Yet human experience and human problems are broader than the Bible. New ages bring new conditions and new needs. Eternal truths may take on new forms to meet new problems. God inspired the writers of his Word, but he also inspires other writers, whose works are not included in the canon. He echoed in the voice of Isaiah and Jeremiah, but he also touches with the flame of eloquence other lips than those of the prophets. He spoke to the child Samuel, but he also speaks to-day to every heart that will hear his voice. He flamed from the burning bush for Moses, but in like manner he shines from every glowing sunset for those whose eyes can there behold his glory. Breadth and richness of religious material.--The sources of material available for the religious education of childhood are therefore as broad as the multiform ways in which God speaks to men, and as rich as all the great experiences of men which have left their impress upon civilization. Besides the beautiful story of God creating the earth, we have the wonderful miracle of constant re-creation going on before our eyes in the succession of generations of all living things. Besides the deathless accounts of the heroism of such men as Elijah, Daniel, and Paul, we have the immortal deeds of Livingstone, Taylor, and Luther. Besides the womanly courage and strength of Esther and Ruth, we have the matchless devotion of Florence Nightingale, Frances Willard, Alice Freeman Palmer, and Jane Addams. Besides the stirring poetry of the Bible, and its appealing stories, myths and parables, we have the marvelous treasure house of religious literary wealth found in the writings of Tennyson, Whittier, Bryant, Phillips Brooks, and many other writers. Material to be drawn from many sources.--The material for religious teaching lying ready to our hand is measureless in amount, and must be wisely chosen. In addition to material from the Bible, which always must be the center and foundation of the religious curriculum, should be taken other material from nature; from biography, history, and life itself; from literature and story; from science and the great world of objects about us; from music, and from art. All of this multiform subject matter must be welded together with a common purpose, and so permeated with the religious motive and application that it will touch the child's spiritual thought and feeling at many points of his experience. At no moment, however, must we forget that our primary purpose is not simply to teach the child stories, literature, history, or science, but _religion_. By the proper use of this broader field of material religion may be given a new and more practical significance, and the Bible itself take on a deeper meaning from finding its setting among realities closely related to the child's daily life. MATERIAL FROM THE BIBLE The very nature of the Bible requires that we make the most careful selections from it in choosing the material for religious instruction of children. Not all parts of the Bible are of equal value as educational material, and some parts of it have no place in the course of study before full mental development has been reached. How we came by the Bible.--It will help us to understand and apply these principles if we remember how we came by the Bible. First of all is the fact that the Bible grew out of religion and the life of the church, and not religion and the church out of the Bible. The Bible is not one book, as many think of it, but a collection of sixty-six books, which happen to be bound together. In fact, all sixty-six of these books are now printed and bound separately by the American Bible Society, and sold at a penny each. These sixty-six books were centuries in the making, and they came from widely separated regions. Different ones of them were originally written in different tongues--Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic. The earlier Christians had, of course, only the scriptures of the Old Testament. It was nearly four hundred years after Christ had lived on earth before we had a list of the New Testament books such as our Bible now contains. In the middle of the second century only about half of the present New Testament was in use as a part of the Scriptures. Some of the books which we now include were at one time or another omitted by the Christian scholars, and several books were at one time accorded a place which are not now accepted as a part of the Bible. The authorship of a considerable number of the books of the Bible is unknown, and even the exact period to which they belong is uncertain. The different writers wrote with different purposes--one was a historian; another a poet; another, as Paul, a theologian; another a preacher; another a teller of stories and myths, or a user of parables. Paul wrote his letters to local churches or to individuals, to answer immediate questions or meet definite conditions and needs. Jesus left no written word, so far as we know, and the first written accounts we have of his life and work were begun forty or fifty years after his death. The problem of selecting Bible material adapted to children.--The Bible was therefore a slow growth. It did not take its form in accordance with any particular or definite plan. It never was meant as a connected, organized textbook, to be studied in the same serial and continuous order as other books. It was not written originally for children, but for adults to read. Its enduring quality proves that the writers of the Bible lived close to the heart and thought of God, and were therefore inspired of him. But we can grant this and still feel free to select from its lessons and truths the ones that are most directly fitted to meet the needs of our children as we train them in religion. We can love and prize the Bible for all that it means and has meant to the world, and yet treat it as a _means_ and not an _end_ in itself. We can believe in its truth and inspiration, and still leave out of the lessons we give our children the sections which contain little of interest or significance for the child's life, or matter which is beyond his grasp and understanding. Material which may be omitted.--This point of view implies the omission, at least from the earlier part of the child's religious education, of much material from different parts of the Bible; these irrelevant sections or material not suited to the understanding of childhood may remain for adult study. For example, we may leave out such matter as the following: The detailed account of the old Hebrew law as given in Leviticus; much of the Hebrew history which has no direct bearing on the understanding of their religion; details of the institution of the passover, and other ecclesiastical arrangements; the philosophy of the book of Job; genealogies which have no especial significance nor interest; the succession of judges and kings; dates and chronological sequences of no particular importance; any stories or matter clearly meant to be understood as allegory or myth, but which the child would misunderstand, or take as literal and so get a mistaken point of view which later would have to be corrected; the theology of Paul as set forth in his letters; matter which shows a lower state of morality than that on which we live; and _such other matter as does not have some direct and discoverable relation to the religious knowledge, attitudes, and applications which should result from the study_. After all such material of doubtful value to the child has been omitted, there still remains an abundance of rich, inspiring, and helpful subject matter. The principle on which to select material from the Bible is clear: Know what the child _is ready for_ in his grasp and understanding; know _what he needs_ to stimulate his religious imagination and feeling and further his moral and religious development. Then choose the material accordingly. Bible material for earlier childhood.--For the period of _earlier childhood_ (ages three or four to eight or nine) we shall need to omit all such material as deals with the broader and deeper theory of religion. This is not the time to teach the child the significance of the atonement, the mystery of regeneration, the power of faith, nor the doctrine of the Trinity. Those sections of the Bible which deal with such far-reaching concepts as these must wait for later age and fuller development. The child is now ready to understand about God as the Creator of the earth and of man; he is ready to comprehend God as Father and Friend, and Jesus as Brother and Helper; he is ready to learn lessons of obedience to God, and of being sorry when he has done wrong; he is therefore ready to understand forgiveness; he is ready to learn all lessons of kindliness, truthfulness, and honesty, and of courage; he is ready to learn to pray, and to thank God for his care and kindliness. The Bible material taught the child should therefore center upon these things. The simple, beautiful story of the creation; stories of God's love, provision, and protection and of Christ's care for children; incidents of heroic obedience and of God's punishment of disobedience; stories of forgiveness following wrongdoing and repentance; stories of courage and strength under temptation to do wrong; lessons upon prayer and praise and thanksgiving--this is the kind of material from the Bible which we should give our children of this younger age. The greater part of the material for this stage of instruction will come from the Old Testament, and will make the child familiar with the childhood of Moses, Samuel, Joseph, David, and other such characters as possess an especial appeal to the child's sympathy and imagination. The New Testament must be drawn upon for the material bearing upon the birth and childhood of Jesus. Material for later childhood.--In the period of _later childhood_ (ages eight or nine to twelve or thirteen) the child is still unready for the more difficult and doctrinal parts of the Scriptures. Most of the impulses of earlier childhood still continue, even if in modified form. Types of Bible material adapted to the earlier years, therefore, still can be used to advantage. A marked characteristic of this period, however, is the tendency to hero worship and to be influenced by the ideals found in those who are loved and admired. This is the time, therefore, to bring to the child the splendid example and inspiration of the great Bible characters. The life and work of Moses, the story of Joseph and his triumph over discouragements and difficulties, the stern integrity and courage of Elijah and the other prophets, the beautiful stories of Ruth, Esther, Miriam, and Rachel, but above all the story of Jesus--the account of these lives will minister to the child's impulse to hero worship and at the same time teach him some of the most valuable lessons in religion. During later childhood, the sense of personal responsibility for conduct is developing, and the comprehension of the meaning of wrongdoing and sin. This is the time, therefore, to bring in lessons from the Bible showing the results of sin and disobedience to God, and the necessity for repentance and prayer for forgiveness. During this period also, while the social interests are not yet at their highest, the narrow selfishness of earlier childhood should be giving way to a more generous and social attitude, and a sense of responsibility for the welfare and happiness of others. To meet the needs of the growing nature at this point many lessons should be provided containing suggestions and inspiration from high examples of self-forgetfulness, sacrifice, and service as found in the life of Jesus, Paul, and many others from the Old and the New Testament. The child's growing acquaintance with the world about him and his study of nature in the day schools prepare him for still further deepening his realization of God beneficently at work in the material universe. Abundant material may be found in the Bible to deepen and strengthen the learner's love and appreciation of the beautiful and good in the physical world. Material for adolescence.--The _adolescent_ period (ages twelve or thirteen to twenty or twenty-two) is the transition stage from childhood to maturity. The broader, deeper, and more permanent interests are now developing, and character is taking its permanent trend. Conduct, choice, and decision are becoming more personal and less dependent on others. A new sense of self is developing, and deeper recognition of individual responsibility is growing. It is all-important that at this time the Bible material should furnish the most of inspiration and guidance possible. The life and service of Jesus will now exert its fullest appeal, and should be studied in detail. The work and service of Paul and of the apostles in founding the early church will fire the imagination and quicken the sense of the world's need of great lives. The ethical teachings of the Bible should now be made prominent, and should be made effective in shaping the ideals of personal and of social conduct which are crystallizing. The development of the Hebrew religion, with its ethical teaching, and the moral quality of the Christian religion are now fruitful matter for study. During the later part of adolescence the youth is ready to consider biblical matter that throws light on the deeper meaning of sin, of redemption, of repentance, of forgiveness, of regeneration, and other such vital concepts from our religion. The simplest and least controversial interpretations--that is, the broader and more significant meanings--should be presented, and not the overspeculative and disputed interpretations, which are almost certain to lead to mental and perhaps spiritual disturbance and even doubt. The guiding principle.--For whatever age or stage of the child's development we are responsible, we will follow the same principle. Because we want to cultivate in the child a deep and continuing interest in the Bible and the things for which it stands, we will seek always to bring to him such material as will appeal to his interest, stir his imagination, and quicken his sense of spiritual values. Since we desire to influence the learner's deeds and shape his conduct through our teaching, we will present to him those lessons from the Bible which are most naturally and inevitably translated into daily living. First we will know what impression we seek to make or what application we hope to secure, and then wisely choose from the rich Bible sources the material which will most surely accomplish this end. STORY MATERIAL The story is the chief and most effective means of teaching the younger child religion, nor does the appeal of the story form of expressing truth lose its charm for those of older years. Lessons incomprehensible if put into formal precept can be readily understood by the child if made a part of life and action, and the story does just this. It shows virtue being lived; goodness proving itself; strength, courage, and gentleness expressing themselves in practice; and selfishness, ugliness, and wrong revealing their unlovely quality. Taught in the story way, the lesson is so plain that even the child cannot miss it. The story also appeals to the child's imagination, which is so ready for use and so vivid, and which it is so necessary to employ upon good material in order to safeguard its possessor from using it in harmful ways. Long before the child has come to the age of understanding reasoned truth, therefore, he may well have implanted in his mind many of the deepest and most beautiful religious truths which will ever come to him. The Old Testament rich in story material.--The wonderful religious and ethical teachings of the Old Testament belong to a child-nation, and were written by men who were in freshness of heart and in picturesqueness and simplicity of thought essentially child-men; hence these teachings are in large part written in the form of story, of legend, of allegory, of myth, of vivid picture and of unrimed poetry. It is this quality which makes the material so suitable to the child. The deeper meanings of the story do not have to be explained, even to the young child; he grasps them, not all at once, but slowly and surely as the story is told and retold to him. If the story is properly told, the child does not have to be taught that the Bible myth or legend _is_ myth or legend; he accepts it as such, not troubling to analyze or explain, but unconsciously appropriating such inner meaning as his experience makes possible, and building the lesson into the structure of his growing nature. If full advantage is taken of the story as a means of religious teaching, the grounding of the child in the fundamental concepts and attitudes of religion can be accomplished with certainty and effectiveness almost before the age for really formal instruction has come. The ethical quality alone not enough in stories.--Many stories of highest religious value are available from other sources than the Bible, yet no other stories can ever wholly take the place of the Bible stories. For the Bible stories possess one essential quality lacking in stories from other sources; the Bible stories _are saturated with God_. And this is an element wholly vital to the child's instruction in religion. We cannot teach the child religion on the basis of ethics alone, necessary as morality is to life. We cannot help the child to spiritual growth and the consciousness of God in his life without having the matter we teach him permeated and made alive with the spirit and presence of God in it. Nor is there the least difficulty for the child to understand God in the stories. The child, like the Hebrews themselves, does not feel any necessity of explaining or accounting for God, but readily and naturally accepts him and the part he plays in our affairs as a matter of course. Stories from other than Bible sources.--But once a sufficient proportion of Bible stories is provided for, stories should be freely drawn from other fields. An abundance of rich material possessing true religious worth can be found in the myths, legends, folk lore, and heroic tales of many literatures. These are a treasure house with which every teacher of children should be familiar; nor is the task a burdensome one, for much of this material holds a value and charm even for the older ones of us. Later writers have enriched the fund of material available for children by treating many of the aspects of nature in story form, thereby opening up to the mind and heart of the child something of the meaning and beauty of the physical world, and showing God as the giver of many good gifts in this realm of our lives. There are also available the stories of history, and of the real men and women whose lives have blessed our own or other times, and whose deeds and achievements will appeal to the imagination and stir the ideals of youth. The teacher as a story teller.--The successful teacher of religion must therefore possess the art which will enable him to use the story as one of the chief forms of material in his instruction. He must _know_ the stories. He must be able to tell them interestingly. The story loses half of its effectiveness if it must be _read_ to the child, but it may lose in similar proportion if it is haltingly or ineffectively told. It is not necessary, at least for the younger children, to use a large number of stories. In fact, there is positive disadvantage in attempting to employ so many stories that the child does not become wholly familiar with each separate one. Children do not tire of the stories they like; indeed, their love for a story increases as they come to know it well, and they will demand to have the same story told over and over in preference to a new one. The use of the story with older children.--A mistake has been made in not a few of the Sunday school lesson series in sharply reducing the story material for all ages above the primary grades. It must be remembered that while the older child has more power to grasp and understand abstract lessons than the younger child, there is no age or stage of development at which the story and the concrete illustration are not an attractive and effective mode of teaching. Surely, all through the junior and intermediate grades the story should be one of the chief forms of material for religious instruction, while for adolescents stories will still be far from negligible. The principles of story-using, then, are clear in the teaching of religion: _Make the story one of the chief instruments of instruction; see that it is charged with religious and moral value; make sure it is adapted to the age of the learner, and that it is well told; for younger children use few stories frequently repeated until they are well known; do not insist that the child shall at first grasp the deeper meanings of the story, make sure of interest and enjoyment, and the meaning will come later._ MATERIAL FROM NATURE The child's spontaneous love of nature and ready response to the world of objects about him open up rich sources of material for religious instruction. God who creates the beautiful flowers, who causes the breezes to blow, who carpets the earth with green, who paints the autumn hillside with glowing color, who directs the coming and going of the seasons, who tells the buds when to swell and the leaves to unfold, who directs the sparrow in its flight and the bee in its search, who is in the song of the birds and the whisper of the leaves, who sends his rain and makes the thunder roll--this God can be brought, through the medium of nature's forms, very near to the child. And the love and appreciation which the child lavishes on the dear and beautiful things about him will extend naturally and without trouble of comprehension to their Creator. Nature material useful for all ages.--Most of the lesson material now supplied for our Sunday schools use a considerable amount of nature material in the earlier grades, but some important lesson series omit most or all nature material from the junior department on. This is a serious mistake. All through childhood and youth the pupil is continuing in the public school his study of nature and its laws. Along with this broadening of knowledge of the natural world should be the deepening of appreciation of its spiritual meaning, and the inspiration to praise and worship which comes from it. One does not, or at least should not, at any age outgrow his response to the wonders and beauties which nature unfolds before him who has eyes to see its inner meaning. None can afford to lose the simple, untutored awe with which children and primitive men look out upon the world. Carlyle, recognizing this truth, exclaims: "This green, flowery, rock-built earth, the trees, the mountains, rivers, many-sounding seas; that great deep sea of azure that swims overhead; the winds sweeping through it; the black cloud fashioning itself together, now pouring out fire, now hail and rain; what _is_ it? Aye, what?... An unspeakable, godlike thing, toward which the best attitude for us, after never so much science, is awe, devout prostration, and humility of soul; worship, if not in words, then in silence." In the same spirit Max Müller exhorts us: "Look at the dawn, and forget for a moment your astronomy; and I ask you whether, when the dark veil of night is slowly lifted, and the air becomes transparent and alive, and light streams forth you know not whence, you would not feel that your eye were looking into the very eye of the Infinite?" And Emerson reminds us: "If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how would men believe and adore; and preserve for many generations the remembrance of the city of God which had been shown! But every night come out these envoys of beauty, and light the universe with their admonishing smile." When, then, shall we have become too far removed from childhood to be beyond the appeal of nature to our souls? When shall we cease to "hold communion with her visible forms," and to find in them one of the many avenues which God has left open for us to use in approaching him! What teacher of us will dare to leave out of his instruction at any stage of the child's development the beneficent and wonder-working God of nature as he smiles his benediction upon us from the myriad common things around us! MATERIAL FROM HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY God is to be found in the lives of nations and of men not less than in nature, and the evidences and effects of his presence there should be taught our children. The spirit which Jesus revealed in his life upon earth is exemplified in the lives of many of his followers who joyously spend themselves in the service of others. Men who set the standard for manliness, and women whose character and lives are the best definition of womanliness, are as much a revelation of God's work and power as a constellation of stars or the bloom of the rose. The example of great lives.--So, along with the great Bible characters we will bring to the child the men, and women of other generations. We will bring to him the great souls who, as missionaries, have carried the Light to those who sit in darkness; those who in honesty and integrity of purpose have served as leaders of nations or armies or movements to the blessing of humanity; those who, with the love of God in their hearts, have gone out as ministers, teachers, writers of books, singers of songs, makers of pictures, healers of sickness; or those who, in any field, of toil or service, have given the cup of cold water in the name of the Master. And we will bring to the child the story of the nations, showing him one people growing in strength, power, and happiness while following God's plan of human justice, mercy, and kindness; and another going down to destruction, its very name and speech forgotten, because it became arrogant and perverse and forgot the ways of righteousness. At the proper time in their development we will bring to our pupils the life and problems of the present--the wrongs that need to be righted, the causes that need to be defended and carried through to victory, the evil that needs to be suppressed, the work of Christ and the church which is, awaiting workers. Thus shall we seek to bring the challenge of life itself to those we teach. PICTURE MATERIAL No discussion of the curriculum can ignore the use of _pictures_ as teaching material. Teachers of religion have long recognized the value of visual instruction, and every lesson series now has its full quota of picture cards and other forms of pictorial material. In this picture material may roughly be distinguished three great types: (1) the _symbolical_ picture; (2) the rather _formal_ picture, often badly conceived and executed, always dealing with biblical characters or incidents; and (3) the more universalized type drawn from every field of pictorial art, representing not only biblical personages and events, but also typifying æsthetic and moral values of every range adapted to the understanding and appreciation of the child. Types of pictures.--Representative of the first, or symbolical, pictorial type are found the more or less crude pen drawings of such things as the _heart_ with a key, an open _Bible with a torch_ beside it, tombstone-like drawings representing the _Tables of the Law_ or three _interlocking circles representing the Trinity, etc._ Not only are all these abstract concepts beyond the grasp or need of the child at the age when the pictures are represented, but the symbols are in no degree suggestive to the child of the lesson intended; they are devoid of meaning, without interest, possess no artistic value, and lack all teaching significance. Such material should be discarded, and better pictures provided. The second type of pictures, or those dealing with Bible topics, contain teaching power, but should be merged with the third, or true art, type. That is to say, biblical subjects, moral lessons, and inspiring ideals should be treated by _true artists_ and made a part of the religious curriculum for childhood. Wherever suitable masterpieces executed by great artists can be found, copies should be made available for teaching religion. Hundreds of such pictures hang in our art galleries, and not a few of them have already been incorporated into several excellent series for the Sunday school. Further, the pictures offered children should be as carefully selected with reference to _what they are to teach_, and should be as carefully graded to meet the age, interests, and appreciations of the child as are other forms of curriculum material. Some otherwise excellent picture sets of recent publication lose the greater part of their usefulness as teaching helps through the lack of this adaptation. MUSIC IN THE CURRICULUM Music as a part of the curriculum of religious education offers a peculiarly difficult problem. No other form of expression can take the place of music in creating a spirit of reverence and devotion, or in inducing an attitude of worship and inspiring religious feeling and emotion. Children ought to sing much both in the church school and in their worship at home. Yet most of our hymns have been written for adults, and most of the music is better adapted to adult singing than to the singing of children. The ragtime hymns which find a place in many Sunday school exercises need only to be mentioned to be condemned. On the other hand, many of the finest hymns of the church are beyond the grasp of the child in sentiment and beyond his ability in music. The church seriously needs a revival of religious hymnology for children. In the meantime the greatest care should be used to select hymns for children's singing which possess as fully as may be three requisites: (1) music adapted to the child's capacity, (2) music that is worthy, interesting and devotional, and (3) words within the child's understanding and interest, and suitable in sentiment. 1. Many persons think that teaching the child religion and teaching him the Bible are precisely the same thing. Do you think it is possible to teach the child parts of the Bible without securing for him spiritual development from the process? Is it possible to make the Bible itself mean more to the child by supplementing it with material from other sources? 2. Do you ever find lessons provided for your class which are not adapted to their age and understanding? If so, do you feel free to supplement or substitute with material which meets their needs? Do you have sufficient command of the material of the Bible and other sources so that you can do this successfully? 3. Do you know a considerable number of stories adapted to the age of your pupils? Are you constantly adding to your list? Are you a good story teller? Are you studying to improve in this line? Even if your lesson material does not provide stories, do you bring such material in for your class? 4. What use do you make of nature in the teaching of religion? President Hall thinks that nature material is one of the best sources of religious instruction. Do you agree with him? Are you sufficiently in love with nature yourself, and sufficiently acquainted with nature so that you can successfully use the nature motive in your teaching? 5. Do you constantly make use of stories and illustrations from the lives of great men and women in your teaching? Do you take a reasonable proportion of these from contemporary life? Do you bring in stories of fine actions by boys and girls? What use have you been making of events in the lives of nations in your teaching? Are you reading and studying to become more fully prepared to use this type of material? FOR FURTHER READING Houghton, Telling Bible Stories. Raymont, The Use of the Bible in the Education of the Young. Brace, The Training of the Twelve. Drake, Problems of Religion, chapter IX. Athearn, The Church School. CHAPTER VIII THE ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL The organization of material to adapt it to the learner's mind and arrange it for the teacher's use in instruction is hardly less important than choosing the subject matter itself. By organization is meant the plan, order, or arrangement by which the different sections of material are made ready for presentation to the child. The problems of organization may apply either (1) to the _curriculum as a whole_, or (2) to any particular section of it used for _a day's lesson_. It is possible to distinguish four different types of organization commonly used in preparing material for religious instruction: 1. The _haphazard_, in which there is no definite plan or order, no thread of purpose or relationship uniting the parts, no guiding principle determining the order and sequence. 2. The _logical_, in which the nature and relationships of the material itself determine the plan and order, the question of ease and effectiveness in learning being secondary or not considered. 3. The _chronological_, applicable especially to historical material, in which the events, characters, and facts are taken up in the order of the time of their appearance and their sequence in the entire situation or account. 4. The _psychological_, in which the first and most important question is the most natural and favorable mode of approach for the learner--how the material shall be planned and arranged to suit his power and grasp, appeal to his interest, and relate itself to his actual needs and experience. TYPES OF ORGANIZATION Haphazard organization.--The _haphazard_ plan, which is really no plan at all, is, of course, wholly indefensible. No teacher has a right to go before his class with his material in so nebulous a state that it lacks coordination and purpose. It is this that results in chance and unrelated questions, irrelevant discussions, and fruitless wanderings without definite purpose over the field of the lesson, such as may sometimes be seen in church classes. The outcome of such instruction hardly can be more than occasional, disconnected scraps of information, or fragmentary impressions which are never gathered up and bound together into completed ideals and convictions. The haphazard type of organization may result from incompetence, indifference, and failure to prepare, or from taking a ready-made and poorly prepared plan from the "lesson helps" which is not adapted to our class. Pity the child assigned to a class presided over by a teacher who esteems his privilege so lightly as not to make ready for his task by careful planning. Logical organization.--In the _logical_ arrangement of material, the first care is not given to planning it in the most favorable way for the one who studies and learns it, but, rather, to fit together the different parts of the subject matter in the way best suited to its logical relationships. The child is pedagogically ignored; the material receives primary consideration. The logical order of material fits the mind of the adult, the scholar, the expert, the master in his field of knowledge; it begins with the most general and abstract truths. But the child naturally starts with the particular and the concrete. It gives rules, principles, definitions, while the child asks for illustrations, applications, real instances, and actual cases. The logical method is adapted to the trained explorer in the fields of learning, to one who has been over the ground and knows all of its details, and not to the young novice just starting his discoveries in regions that are strange to him. The logical plan will teach the young child the general plan of salvation, man's fall and need of redemption, the wonder and significance of the atonement, and gracious effects of divine regeneration working in the heart--all of which he needs finally to know--but _not as a child just beginning the study of religion_. The child must arrive at the general plan of salvation through realizing the saving power at work in his own life; he must come to understand the fall of man and his need of redemption through meeting his own childhood temptations and through seeing the effects of sin at work around him; he must understand the atonement and regeneration through the present and growing consciousness of a living Christ daily strengthening and redeeming his life. Chronological organization.--The _chronological_ order of material is desirable at the later stages of the child's growth and development. But in earlier years the time sequence is not the chief consideration. This is because the child's historical sense is not yet ready for the concept of cause and effect at work to produce certain inevitable results in the lives of men or nations. The sequence in which certain kings reigned, or the order in which certain events took place, or in which certain books of the Bible were written is not the important thing for early childhood. At this time the great object is to seize upon the event, the character or the incident, and make it real _and vital_; it is to bring the meaning of the lesson out of its past setting and attach it to the child's immediate present. Psychological organization.--It is the _psychological_ organization of material that should obtain both in the curriculum as a whole and in the planning of the individual lessons. We must not think, however, that a psychological order of material necessarily makes it illogical. On the other hand, the arrangement of material that takes into account the child's needs is certain to make it more logical _to him_ than any adult scheme or plan could do. That is most logical to any person which most completely fits into his particular system of thought and understanding. If we succeed in making our plan of presenting material to the child wholly psychological, therefore, we need not be concerned; all other questions of organization will take care of themselves, and _the psychological will constantly tend to become logical_. What is meant by a psychological method of arranging material for presentation has already been discussed (Chapter III). Suffice it to say here that it is simply _planning the subject matter to fit the mind and needs of the child_--arranging for the easiest and most natural mode of approach, securing the most immediate points of contact for interest and application, remembering all the time that the child speaks as a child, thinks as a child, understands as a child. Jesus' use of the psychological plan.--The teacher who seeks to master the spirit of the psychological presentation of religious material should study the teaching-method of Jesus. Always he came close to the life and experience of those he would impress; always he proceeds from the plane of the learner's experiences, understanding, and interests. Did he want to teach a great lesson about the different ways in which men receive truth into their lives?--"Behold a sower went forth to sow." Did he seek to explain the stupendous meaning and significance of the new kingdom of the spirit which he came to reveal?--"The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed," or, "The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal," or, "The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a man which sowed good seed in his field." And with this simple, direct, psychological, homely mode of approach to great themes Jesus made his hearers understand vital lessons, and at the same time showed them how to apply the lessons to their own lives. So throughout all his teaching and preaching; the lesson of the talents, the prodigal son, the workers in the vineyard, the wedding feast, placing a little child in the midst of them--all these and many other concrete points of departure illustrate the highest degree of skill in the psychological use of material. ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM AS A WHOLE The material offered in the curriculum of our church schools is not, taking it in all its parts, as well organized as that in our public day schools. This is in part because the material of religion is somewhat more difficult to grade and arrange for the child than the material of arithmetic, geography, and other school subjects. But it is also because the church school has not fully kept pace with the progress in education of recent times. A century or two ago the day-school texts were not well graded and adapted to children; now, we have carefully graded systems of texts in all school subjects. While the logical and the chronological method of organization still holds a place in many of the public school texts, the psychological point of view, which considers the needs of the child first, is characteristic of all the better schoolbooks of the present. Just because religion is more difficult to teach than grammar or history or arithmetic, we should plan with all the insight and skill at our command to prepare the religious material for our children so that its arrangement will not suffer by comparison with day-school material. Three types of lesson material.--Material representing three different types of organization and content of curriculum material is now available and being used in our church schools: 1. The _Uniform Lessons_, which are ungraded, and which give (with few minor exceptions) the same topics and material to all ages of pupils from the youngest children to adults. 2. The _Graded Lessons_, which seek to adapt the topics and subject matter to the age and needs of the child, and which therefore present different material for the various grades or divisions of the school. These are usually printed in leaflet or pamphlet form. 3. Real _textbooks of religion_ which are based on the principles used in making day-school texts. The material is divided into chapters, each dealing with some theme or topic adapted to the age of the child, the lessons not being dated nor arranged to cover a certain cycle of subject matter as in the case of the regular lesson series. The books are printed and bound much the same as day-school texts. The uniform lessons.--Although many churches still employ the _Uniform Lessons_, we shall not hesitate to say that no church school is justified in this day of educational enlightenment in using a system of ungraded lessons. Such lessons are planned for adults. They ignore the needs of the child, and force upon him material for which he is in no sense ready, while at the same time omitting matter that he needs and is capable of understanding and using. For example, some of the topics which primary children, juniors, and all alike find in their ungraded lessons of current date are, _man's fall_, the _atonement_, _regeneration_, the _city of God_, _faith_--splendid topics all, but too strong meat for babes. Why should we thus ignore the educational progress of the age, starve our children spiritually, and hamper them in their religious development by this obsolete system of education which has been long since outgrown in the public schools? Why should we not ignore tradition, prejudice, and personal preference, where these are in the way, and _let the needs of the child decide_? Why should thousands of church schools to-day be using the Uniform Lessons? Some use them because they are cheaper; others because they always have used them and do not like the trouble and disarrangement of a change; others because of the doubtful theory of the inspiration that comes from having all the members of the family studying the same lesson at the same time (we do not expect all the family to read or study the same material in other lines); and perhaps others because they have not been accustomed to thinking of religious education following the same principles and laws as other education. But whatever the explanation of the use of the Uniform Lessons in our church schools in the past, let us now see to it that they give way to better material. Let us not be satisfied, even, when the ungraded uniform lessons are "improved"; they should not be improved, but discarded. Graded lessons.--A large and increasing number of our best church schools are now using some form of graded lesson material based on the topics supplied by the International Lesson Committee. Each great denomination has its own lesson writers, who take these topics and elaborate them into the graded lessons such as we know in the Berean Series, the Keystone Series, the Pilgrim Series, the Westminster Series, etc. All such lesson material, which seeks to adapt the material to the needs of the child as he progresses year by year from infancy to adulthood, is infinitely superior to any form of ungraded material. It is easier and more interesting for the child to learn, less difficult for the teacher to present; and its value in guiding spiritual development immeasurably greater. Some form of closely _graded lessons_ is the only kind of material which should be used in our church schools; the children have the same need and the same right to material graded and prepared to meet their understanding in religion as in language or in science. But when we employ graded lessons we must make sure that _the child, and not the subject matter; is the basis of the grading_. We must make certain that the writer of the lessons knows the mental grasp, the type of interests, the characteristic attitudes, and the social activities of the child at the different stages, and then arranges the material to meet these needs. We must not simply aim to cover so much biblical material, even if we select it as well as we may to come within the child's grasp; we must have his real religious needs, his religious growth, and his spiritual development in mind, and provide for these. Adapting graded lessons to young children.--In the graded series of lessons now most commonly used in the church schools the material is, on the whole, fairly well selected to meet the needs of the _beginners_ and the _primary section_. Interesting stories are told, and much nature material presented. The work is, of course, all presented to the pupils by the teacher, as the children cannot yet read. In some cases the stories used are undoubtedly too difficult, and not a few of them lack the elements of good story-telling. Yet the instruction usually centers about the topics most needed by the child at this time--the love and care of God both for our lives and in the world of nature about us; the Christ-child and his care for children; lessons of kindness, obedience and love in the home, etc. Because of this directness of appeal the child responds to the material and the teacher finds her task much easier and more fruitful than with the difficult topics of the ungraded lessons. Graded lessons not all well adapted to ages.--As the graded lessons pass on into the _junior_ age, the adaptation of material is generally less successful than for the primary grades. The topics are based less on the interests and spiritual needs of the child, and more on the material. The lessons for the greater part consist of biblical material only, and are often too difficult for the child to be interested in them or to understand them. No coordinating principle relates the topics to each other, and the material consequently comes to the child in rather disconnected scraps. Too frequently this material, because it belongs to a later stage of development, is without any particular or direct bearing on the learner's experience, and hence not assimilated into his life. The remedy here is to use a larger proportion of story material, of biography, of lessons from nature, and of such gems of literature as carry a spiritual message suited to the child. The caution is to avoid over-intellectualizing the child's religious instruction, and to make sure that we do not outrun his rate of development in the material we give him. The same principles should carry over into the intermediate, or preadolescence, age. The hero-worship stage is then, at hand, and the lesson material should be arranged to meet the natural demand of the child for action and adventure. In planning a graded series of lessons it is not less important to meet the needs of the _seniors_, or adolescents, than of the younger pupils. This has not always been accomplished. Here again, as in the earlier years, the immediate interests and needs of the learner are to be the key to the planning of material. A series of unrelated topics dealing with a distant time and civilization, with little or no application to the problems and interests that are now thronging upon the youth, will make small appeal to him. The youth's growing consciousness of social problems, his interest in a vocation, his increasing feeling of personal responsibility as a member of the family, the community, the church and the brotherhood of men are suggestions of the nature of the topics that should now form the foundation of religious study and instruction. It is possible that the forgetting of this simple fact in the planning of material for adolescent pupils is one chief reason for the tragic loss of interest in the Sunday school which so often occurs at the adolescent stage. Text books of religious material.--The _text book_ type of religious material differs more in the organization and arrangement of material than in the subject matter itself. The lessons are not based on a set cycle of biblical material, though, of course, such material is freely used. Usually one topic or theme is followed throughout the text, the number of lessons or chapters provided being intended for one year's work. The following titles of texts now in use suggest the nature of the subject matter: "God's Wonder World," "Heroes of Israel," "Heroic Lives," "The Story of Jesus," "The Making of a Nation," "Our Part in the World," "The Story of a Book," "The Manhood of the Master," "Problems of Boyhood," "Social Duties," "The Testing of a Nation's Ideals." Beyond question, the material we teach our children in religion should be organized and published as real _books_ and not as paper-covered or unbound serial pamphlets. There is really no more reason why we should divide religious material up into lessons to be dated, and issued month by month, than why we should thus divide and issue material in geography, history, reading, or any other school subject. Children who are accustomed in day schools to well-made, well-bound books, with good paper and clear, readable print, cannot be expected to respond favorably to the ordinary lesson pamphlet. The child should be encouraged and helped in the building of his own library of religious books, but this can hardly be done as long as his church-school material comes to him in temporary form, much of it less attractive on the mechanical side than the average advertising leaflet which so freely finds its unread way to the waste basket. Many of the Sunday school leaflets carry at the top (or the bottom) of the page an advertisement of the denominational lesson series--matter in which the child is not concerned, which injures the appearance of the page, and which lowers the dignity and value of the publication. And some lesson pamphlets are even disfigured with commercial advertisements, sometimes of articles of doubtful value, and always with the effect of lowering the tone of the subject matter to which it is attached. Religious material printed in worthy book form escapes these indignities. That textbooks in religion will cost more than the present cheap form of material is possible. But what matter! We are willing to supply our children with the texts needed in their day-school work; shall we not supply them with the books required for their training in religion? If the texts prove too much of a financial burden for the children or their parents, there is no reason why the church should not follow the example of the public school district and itself own the books, lending them for free use to the pupils. Guiding principles.--The principles for the organization of the church-school curriculum, are, then, clear. Its lessons should start with matter adapted to the youngest child. It should present a continuous series of steps providing material of broadening scope adapted to each age or stage from childhood to full maturity. Its order and arrangement should at all times be decided by the needs and development of the learner, and should make constant point of contact with his life and experience. It should be printed in attractive textbook form, the paper, type, illustrations, and binding being equal to the best standards prevailing in public-school texts. In short, we should apply the same scientific and educational knowledge, and the same business ability in preparing and issuing our religious material that we devote to this phase of general education. ORGANIZING THE DAILY LESSON MATERIAL The teacher's plan or organization of each lesson for presentation to the class in the recitation is a matter of supreme importance. Even the best and most experienced teachers never reach the point where they do not need to prepare specifically for each recitation. No matter how complete the knowledge of the subject, nor how often one has taught it, there is always the necessity of fitting it directly to the needs and interests of the particular class before us. This preparation should result in a definitely worked out _lesson plan_ which, though it may finally be modified to fit situations as they arise in the class discussion, will nevertheless serve as an outline of procedure for the recitation. Even the teachers' manual supplied with most of the lesson series cannot take the place of this definite, individual plan prepared by the teacher himself for his immediate class. The lesson plan.--The first step in arranging a lesson plan is to determine the range and amount of material which is to be presented to accomplish the aim of the class hour. This will include the lesson or story from the Bible, nature material, memory work, music, pictures or any other subject matter to be considered. In determining this point the age of the children, the time available, and the nature of the subject must all be taken into account. It is a mistake to attempt more than can be done well, or to try to do so many things that the recitation is too much hurried to be interesting or profitable. The lesson plan should provide for a few chief points or topics, with the smaller points and the illustrations grouped under these. To have many topics receiving the same amount of emphasis in a lesson indicates poor organization. For example, in teaching the lesson of _obedience_ from the Garden of Eden story the material may well be grouped under the following topics: 1. The many good and beautiful things God had given Adam and Eve, 2. There was one thing only which they might not have. 3. Their disobedience in desiring and taking this one thing, 4. Their feeling of guilt and unhappiness which made them hide from God. Under these four general heads will come all the stories, illustrations, and applications necessary to make the lesson very real to children. Small matters of large import.--Of course the particular questions to be asked and the more immediate applications to be made must await the unfolding of the lesson discussion with the class. Good planning requires, however, that we have a set of pivotal questions thought out and set down for our guidance; and also suggestions for illustrations and applications under the various topics. If expression work is to be used, this should be noted in its proper place, and provision made for carrying it out. In planning for older classes, reference should be made in the plan to special assignments to be made in books, magazines or any other material. Provision should be made in the plan for a summary at the end of the lesson period, and for the making of the final impression which the class are to carry away with them. Nor must the assignment of the next lesson be forgotten. Probably no small proportion of the characteristic failure of pupils to prepare their lessons comes from lack of definite assignments showing the child just what he is expected to do, and how to do it. Details of a typical lesson plan.--Let us suppose that we are to teach the lesson of obedience from the story of Adam and Eve to children of early primary age. Our _Lesson Plan_ might be something as follows: I. _The Aim or Purpose of the Lesson_--OBEDIENCE. 1. Knowledge or information to be given the class-- a. Of the Bible story itself. b. Of the fact that God requires obedience. c. That disobedience brings sorrow and punishment. d. That children owe obedience to parents and teachers. 2. Attitudes, and feeling response to be sought. a. Interest in and liking for the Bible story. b. Appreciation of God's many gifts to his children. c. Desire to please God with obedience. d. Sorrow for acts of disobedience. e. Respect for authority of home, school and law. 3. Applications to the child's life and conduct. a. Acts of obedience to God in being kind, cheerful, and helpful to others. b. Cheerful obedience in home and school with no lagging nor ill nature. c. Prayer for forgiveness for any act of disobedience. II. _Material or Subject Matter to be Presented._ 1. The story of Adam and Eve in the Garden. The version of the story is important. The original from the Bible is too difficult. If the lesson material does not offer the story in satisfactory form, go to one of the many books of Bible stories and find a rendering suited to your class. Be able to tell the story well. 2. Pictures of Adam and Eve in the Garden. Be sure the picture is interesting, well executed, and that it shows attractive and beautiful things. 3. Prayer on obedience. The prayer to be brief and simple, asking God to help each one to obey him and to obey father and mother, and to forgive us when we do not obey. 4. Music. If possible, the music may correlate with the thought of the lesson. If not, let it be devotional and adapted to the children in words and melody. 5. Handwork or other form of expression material. Cutting and pasting pictures in notebooks; coloring, or other such work, to be done either in the classroom or at home. III. _Mode of Procedure--the Presentation, or Instruction._ 1. Greetings to the class--opening prayer and song. 2. Introduction of the lesson and telling of the story. 3. Discussion, questions and illustrations to reveal: a. The many beautiful gifts which God had given Adam and Eve, and which he gives us. b. How Adam and Eve were allowed to have everything except just _one_ thing among many. Application of this thought to child's life at home, etc. c. How Adam and Eve yielded to temptation and disobeyed. Practical application to child's life. d. How Adam and Eve felt ashamed and guilty after they had disobeyed God, and how they tried to hide from him. This can be made very real to children. e. How punishment follows disobedience. f. Why we must ask for forgiveness when we have been disobedient. 4. Summary, or brief restatement of chief impressions to carry away, and of applications to be made in the week ahead by the children themselves. 5. Closing prayer and song. Adapting the lesson plan to its uses.--It is, of course, evident that lesson plans can be made of all degrees of complexity and completeness. With a little practice the teacher can easily decide the kind of plan that best suits himself and his particular grade of work. On the one hand, the plan should not be so detailed as to become burdensome to follow in the lesson hour. On the other hand, it should not be so brief and sketchy as not to bring out the significant elements of the lesson. Different grades of pupils and different subjects will require different lesson plans. It is probable, however, that the three major heads of "Aims," "Material," and "Mode of Procedure" will prove serviceable in all plan making. While the teacher should have his _plan book_ at hand in the recitation, he must not become its slave, nor allow its use to kill spontaneity and responsiveness in his teaching. Both the subject matter and the day's plan should be so well mastered that no more than an occasional glance at the details in the plan book will be required. Nothing must be allowed to come between the teacher's best personality and his class. 1. Have you heard lectures, sermons, or lessons which were constructed after the haphazard plan? Were they easy to follow and to remember? Did they develop a line of thought in a successful way? Do you think that the haphazard type of organization indicates either lack of preparation or lack of ability? 2. Do you definitely try to organize your daily lesson material on a psychological plan? How can you tell whether you have succeeded? Are you close enough to the minds and hearts of your pupils so that you are able to judge quite accurately the best mode of approach in planning a lesson? 3. Do you study the lesson helps provided with your lesson material? Do you find them helpful? If you find that they are not well adapted to your particular class, have you the ability to make the suggestions over to fit your class? 4. Do you make a reasonably complete and wholly definite lesson plan for each lesson? Do you keep a plan book, so that you may be able to look back at any time and see just what devices you have used? If you have not done this, will you not start the practice now? 5. What type of lesson material do you use, uniform, graded, or textbook? Are you acquainted with other series or material for the same grades? Would it not be worth your while to secure supplemental material of such kinds? 6. Do you read a journal of Sunday school method dealing with problems of your grade of teaching? If day-school teachers find it worth while to read professional journals, do not church-school teachers need their help as much? If you do not know what journals to secure, your pastor can advise you. FOR FURTHER READING Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chapter XVI. Betts, Class Room Method and Management, chapter VIII. Earhart, Types of Teaching. CHAPTER IX THE TECHNIQUE OF TEACHING Our teaching must be made to stick. None but lasting impressions possess permanent value. The sermons, the lectures, the lessons that we remember and later dwell upon are the ones that finally are built into our lives and that shape our thinking and acting. Impressions that touch only the outer surfaces of the mind are no more lasting than writing traced on the sand. Truths that are but dimly felt or but partially grasped soon fade away, leaving little more effect than the shadows which are thrown on the picture screen. Especially do these facts hold for the teacher in the church-school class. For the impressions made in the church-school lesson hour bear a larger proportion to the entire result than in the public school. This is because of the nature of the subject we teach, and also because of the fact that most of our pupils come to the class with little or no previous study on the lesson material. This leaves them almost completely dependent on the recitation itself for the actual results of their church-school attendance. The responsibility thus placed upon the teacher is correspondingly great, and requires unusual devotion and skill. ATTENTION TO KEY The things that impress us, the things that we remember and apply, are the things to which we have attended wholly and completely. The mind may be thought of as a stream of energy. There is only so much volume, so much force that can be brought to bear upon the work in hand. In attention the mind's energy is piled up in a "wave" on the problem occupying our thought, and results follow as they cannot if the stream of mental energy flows at a dead level from lack of concentration. Or, again, the mind's energy may be likened to the energy of sunlight as it falls in a flood through the window upon our desk. This diffuse sunlight will brighten the desk top and slightly increase its temperature, but no striking effects are seen. But now take this same amount of sun energy and, passing it through a lens, focus it on a small spot on the desk top--and the wood bursts almost at once into flame. What _diffuse_ energy coming from the sun could never do, _concentrated_ energy easily and quickly accomplished. Attention is to the mind's energy what the lens is to the sun's energy. It gathers the mental power into a focus on the lesson to be learned or the truth to be mastered, and the concentrated energy of the mind readily accomplishes results that would be impossible with the mental energy scattered or not directed to the one thing under consideration. The teacher's first and most persistent problem in the recitation is, therefore, to gain and hold the highest possible degree of attention. Three types of appeal to attention.--We are told that there are three kinds of attention, though this is not strictly true. There is really only one _kind_ of attention, for attention is but the _concentration of the mind's energy on one object or thought_. What is meant is that there are three different _ways of securing_ or appealing to attention. Each type of attention is named in accordance with the kind of compulsion or appeal necessary to command it, as follows: 1. _Involuntary_ attention, or attention that is demanded of us by some sudden or startling stimulus, as the stroke of a bell, the whistle of a train, an aching tooth, the teacher rapping on the desk with a ruler. 2. _Nonvoluntary_, or spontaneous, attention that we give easily and naturally, with no effort of self-compulsion. This kind of attention is compelled by _interest_, and, when left unhindered, will be guided by the nature of our interest. 3. _Voluntary_ attention, or attention that is compelled by effort and power of will, and thereby required to concern itself with some particular object of thought when the mind's pull or desire is in another direction. How each type of attention works.--The first of these types of attention, the _involuntary_, has so little place in education that we shall not need to discuss it here. The teacher who raps the desk, or taps the bell to secure attention which should come from interest must remember that in such case the attention is given to the _stimulus_, that is, to the signal, and not to the lesson, and this very fact makes all such efforts to secure attention a distraction in themselves. The _spontaneous_, or nonvoluntary, attention that arises from interest is the basis on which all true education and training must be founded. The mind, and especially the child's mind, is so constituted that its full power is not brought to bear except under the stimulus and compulsion of interest. It is the story which is so entrancing that we cannot tear ourself away from it, the game which is so exciting as to cause us to forget all else in watching it, the lecture or sermon which is so interesting that we are absorbed in listening to it, that claims our best thought and comprehension. It is when our mind's powers are thus driven by a tidal wave of interest that we are at our best, and that we receive and register the lasting impressions which become a part of our mental equipment and character. This does not mean, however, that there is no place for _voluntary_ attention in the child's training. For not everything can be made so inviting that the appeal will at all times bring about the concentration necessary. And in any case a part of the child's education is to learn self-direction, self-compulsion, and self-control. There are many occasions when the interest is not sufficient to hold attention steady to the task in hand; it is at this point that voluntary attention should come in to add its help to provide the required effort and concentration. There are many circumstances under which interest will secure a moderate amount of application of mental energy to the task, but where the will should step in and command an additional supply of effort, and so attain full instead of partial results. Children should, therefore, be trained to _give_ attention. They should be taught to take and maintain the attitude of attention throughout the lesson period, and not be allowed to become listless or troublesome the moment their interest is not held to the highest pitch. THE APPEAL TO INTEREST Sometimes we speak of "arousing the child's interest," or of "creating an interest" in a topic we are teaching. Strictly speaking, this is incorrect. The child's interest, when rightly appealed to, does not have to be "aroused," nor does interest have to be "created." Every normal child is naturally alert, curious, _interested_ in what concerns him. Who has not taken a child for a walk or gone with a group of children on an excursion, and been amazed at their capacity for interest in every object about them and for attention to an endless chain of impressions from their varied environment? Who has not observed children in a game, and noted their complete absorption in its changing aspects? Who has not called a child from an interesting tale in a book he was reading, and found that it required the combined force of our authority and the child's will to break the spell of his interest and separate him from his book? Interest is always ready to flow in resistless current if we can but find the right channel and a way to set it free. When we find our class uninterested, therefore, we must first of all seek the explanation not in the children, but in ourselves, our methods, or the matter we teach. Interest depends on comprehension.--First of all we must remember that _interest never attaches to what the mind does not grasp_. Go yourself and listen to the technical lecture you do not understand, or try to read the book that deals with matters concerning which you have no information; then apply the results of your experience to the case of the child. The matter we teach the child must have sufficient connection with his own experience, be sufficiently close to the things he knows and cares about, so that he has a basis on which to comprehend them. The _new_ must be related to something _old and familiar_ in the mind to meet a warm welcome. If we would secure the child's interest, we must make certain of a "point of contact" in his own life and meet him on the plane of his own experience. God smiling in the sunshine, making the flowers grow or whispering in the breeze is closer to the child than God as "Creator." God protecting and watching over the child timid and afraid in the dark is more real than God in his heaven as "protector." We must remember that not what _we_ feel is of value, but _what the child feels is of value_ is what will appeal to his interest and attention. And no exertion or agonizing on our part will create interest in the child in matters for which his own understanding and experience have not fitted him. For example, probably no child is ever interested in learning the church catechism or Bible verses which we prize so highly, but which he can not understand nor apply; he may be interested in a prize to be had at the end of the learning, but in this case the interest is in the reward and not in the matter learned. _Empty words devoid of meaning never fire interest nor kindle enthusiasm._ Interest attaches to action.--Children are interested more in action, deeds, and events than in motives, reasons, and explanations. They care more for the uses to which objects are to be put than for the objects themselves. No boy is interested in a bicycle chiefly as an example of mechanical skill, but, rather, as a means of locomotion. No girl is interested in dolls just as dolls, nor as a product of the toy maker's skill, but to play with. It is this quality that makes children respond to the story, for the story deals with action instead of with explanation and description. In the story there is life and movement, and not reasoning and mere assertion. The story presents the lesson in terms of deeds and events, instead of by means of abstract statement and formal conclusion. This principle carries over to the child's own participation. Everyone is most interested in that in which he has an active part. The meeting in which we presided or made a speech or presented a report is to us a more interesting meeting than one in which we were a silent auditor. To the child, personal response is even more necessary. No small part of the reason why the child "learns by doing" is that he is interested in doing as he is not interested in mere listening. All good teaching will therefore appeal to interest through providing the fullest possible opportunity for the child to have an important share in the lesson. And this part must be something which _to the child_ is worth doing, and not, for example, an oral memory drill on words meaningless to the pupil, nor "expression" work of a kind that lacks purpose and action. There are always real things to be done if the lesson is vital--personal experiences to be recounted, special assignments to be reported upon, maps to be drawn or remodeled, specimens of flowers or plants to be secured, character parts to be represented in the story, a bit of history to be looked up, prayers to be said, songs to be sung, or a hundred other things done which will appeal to the interest and at the same time fix the points of the lesson. Interest requires variety and change.--Interest attaches to the _new_, provided the new is sufficiently related to the fund of experience already on hand so that it is fully grasped and understood. While there are certain matters, such as marching, handling supplies, etc., in the recitation which should be done the same way each time so that they may become habit and routine, yet there is a wide range of variety possible in much of the procedure. The lessons should not be conducted always in the same way. One recitation may consist chiefly of discussion, with question and answer between teacher and class. Another may be given largely to reports on special assignments, with the teacher's comments to broaden and apply the points. Another may take the form of stories told and illustrations given by the teacher, or of stories retold by the class from former lessons. The great thing is to secure change and variety without losing sight of the real aims of the lesson, and to plan for a pleasant surprise now and then without lowering the value of the instruction. Interest is contagious.--Every observing teacher has learned that interest is contagious. An interested and enthusiastic teacher is seldom troubled by lack of interest and attention on the part of the class. Nor, on the other hand, will interest and attention continue on the part of the class if confronted by a mechanical and lifeless teacher. The teacher is the model unconsciously accepted and responded to by his class. He leads the way in interest and enthusiasm. Nor will any sham or pretense serve. The interest must be real and deep. Even young children quickly sense any make-believe enthusiasm or vivacity on the part of the teacher, and their ardor immediately cools. Children's typical interests have their birth, ripen to full strength, and fade away by certain broad stages. What will appeal to the child of five will not appeal to the child of ten, and will secure no response from the youth of fifteen. Space will not permit even an outline of these interest-stages here, but genetic psychology has carefully mapped them out and their nature and order of development should be studied by every teacher. FREEDOM FROM DISTRACTIONS There is no possibility of securing good results from a lesson period constantly broken in upon by distractions. The mind cannot do its best work if the attention is diverted every few moments from the train of thought, requiring a new start every now and then. Every teacher has had the experience of the sudden drop in interest and concentration that has come from some interruption, and the impossibility of bringing the class back to the former level after the break. The loss in a recitation disturbed by distractions is comparable to the loss of power and efficiency in stopping a train of cars every half mile throughout its run instead of allowing it an unbroken trip. Careful planning and good management can eliminate many of the distractions common to the church school lesson hour. Distractions from classes reciting together.--The class should have a room or space for its own sole use, and not be compelled to recite in a large room occupied by several other classes. The older Chinese method of education was to have each pupil study his lesson aloud, each seeking to drown out the confusion by the force of his voice. Many of our church schools of the present day remind one of this ancient method. The church building being planned primarily for adults, not enough classrooms are provided for the children, and it is a common thing to find half a dozen classes grouped in the one room, each constantly distracted by the sights and sounds that so insistently appeal to the senses. It is wholly impossible to do really good teaching under such conditions. Every church building should provide classrooms for teaching its children. If these cannot be had in the original edifice, an addition should be made of a special school building. As a last resort, a system of curtains or movable partitions should be provided which will isolate each class from every other class, and thereby save at least the visual distractions and perhaps a part of the auditory distractions. To fail to do this is to cultivate in the child a habit of inattention to the lesson, and to kill his interest in the church school and its work because of its failure to impress him or attract his loyalty. Planning routine to prevent distractions.--Not infrequently a wholly unnecessary distraction is caused by a poorly planned method of handling certain routine matters. The writer recently observed a junior class get under way in what promised to be a very interesting and profitable lesson. They had an attractive lesson theme, a good teacher, a separate classroom, and seemed to be mentally alert. Soon after the lesson had got well started an officer appeared at the door with an envelope for the collection, and the story was stopped to pass the envelope around the class. It was not possible after this interruption to pick up the thread of the lesson without some loss of interest, but the teacher was skillful and did her best. She soon had the attention of the class again and the lesson was moving along toward its most interesting part and the practical application. But just at the most critical moment another interruption occurred; the secretary came in with the papers for the class and counted out the necessary supply while the class looked on. It was impossible now to catch up the current of interest again, but the teacher tried. Once more she was interrupted, however, this time by a note containing some announcement that had been overlooked in the opening exercises! All such interruptions as these indicate mismanagement and a serious lack of foresight. The fault is not wholly with the teacher, but also with the policy and organization of the school as a whole. The remedy is for both officers and teachers to use the same business sense and ability in running the church school that they would apply to any other concern. The collection can be taken at the beginning of the lesson period. The papers and lesson material can be in the classroom or in the teacher's hands before the class assembles, and not require distribution during the lesson period. In short, all matters of routine can be so carefully foreseen and provided for that the class will be wholly free from all unnecessary distractions from such sources. Mischief and disorder.--An especially difficult kind of distraction to control is the tendency to restlessness, mischief, and misbehavior which prevails in certain classes or on the part of an occasional pupil. Pupils sometimes feel that the teacher in the church school does not possess the same authority as that exercised by the public-school teacher, and so take advantage of this fact. The first safeguard against disorder in the class is, of course, to secure the interest and loyalty of the members. The ideal is for the children to be attentive, respectful, and well behaved, not because they are required to, but because their sense of duty and pride and their interest in the work leads them to this kind of conduct. It is not possible, however, continuously to reach this ideal with all children. There will be occasional cases of tendency to disorder, and the spirit of mischief will sometimes take possession of a class whose conduct is otherwise good. Whenever it becomes necessary, the teacher should not hesitate to take a positive stand for order and quiet in the class. All inattention is contagious. A small center of disturbance can easily spread until it results in a whole storm of disorder. Mischief grows through the power of suggestion, and a small beginning may soon involve a whole class. There is no place for a spirit of irreverence and boisterousness in the church school, and the teacher must have for one of his first principles the maintenance of good conduct in his classroom. No one can tell any teacher just how this is to be achieved in individual cases, but it must be done. And the teacher who cannot win control over his class would better surrender it to another who has more of the quality of leadership or mastery in his make-up, for no worthy, lasting religious impressions can be given to noisy, boisterous, and inattentive children. Distractions by the teacher.--Strange as it may seem, the teacher may himself be a distraction in the classroom. Any striking mannerism, any peculiarity of manner or carriage, extreme types of dress, or any personal quality that attracts attention to itself is a distraction to the class. One teacher may have a very loud or ill-modulated voice; another may speak too low to be heard without too much effort; another may fail to articulate clearly. Whatever attracts attention to the speech itself draws attention away from the thought back of the speech and hinders the listener from giving his full powers to the lesson. A distracting habit on the part of some teachers is to walk back and forth before the class, or to assume awkward postures in standing or sitting before the class, or nervously to finger a book or some object held in the hands. All these may seem like small things, but success or failure often depends upon a conjunction of many small things, each of which in itself may seem unimportant. It is often "the little foxes that spoil the vines." Avoiding physical distractions.--In the church school, as in the public school, the physical conditions surrounding the recitation should be made as favorable as possible. Not infrequently the children are placed for their lesson hour in seats that were intended for adults, and which are extremely uncomfortable for smaller persons. The children's feet do not touch the floor, and their backs can not secure a support; weariness, wriggling and unrest are sure to follow. Sometimes the ventilation of the classroom is bad, and the foul air breathed on one Sunday is carefully shut in for use the next. Basement rooms are not seldom damp, or they have a bad odor, or the lighting is unsatisfactory, or the walls are streaked, dim and uninviting. If such things seem relatively unimportant, we must remember that the child's spiritual life is closely tied up with the whole range of his experiences, and that such things as lack of oxygen in the classroom, tired legs whose feet can not touch the floor, eyes offended by unloveliness, or nostrils assailed by unpleasant odors may get in the way of the soul's development. Our churches should not rest satisfied until children in the church schools work under as hygienic and as pleasant conditions as obtain in the best of our public schools. DANGER POINTS IN INSTRUCTION It is a well-known law in pedagogy that negatives are not often inspiring, and that to hold before one his mistakes is not always the best way of helping him avoid them. Along with the positive principles which show what we should do, however, it is well occasionally to note a few of the danger points most commonly met in the classroom. Lack of definiteness.--This may take the form of lack of definiteness of aim or purpose. We may merely "hear" the recitation, or ask the stock questions furnished in the lesson helps, or allow the discussion to wander where it will, or permit aimless arguing or disputing on questions that cannot be decided and that in any case possess no real significance. Indefiniteness may take the direction of failure to carry the thoughts of the lesson through to their final meaning and application, so that there is no vital connection made between the lesson truths and the lives of those we teach. Or we may be indefinite in our interpretation of the moral and religious values inherent in the lesson, and so fail to make a sharp and definite impression of understanding and conviction on our pupils. Our teaching must be clear-cut and positive without being narrowly dogmatic or opinionated. The truth we present must have an edge, so that it may cleave its way into the heart and mind of the learner. Dead levels.--We need to avoid _dead levels_ in our teaching. This danger arises from lack of mental perspective. It comes from presenting all the points of a lesson on the same _plane of emphasis_, with a failure to distinguish between the important and the unimportant. Minor details and incidental aspects of the topic often receive the same degree of stress that is given to more important points. This results in a state of monotonous plodding through so much material without responding to its varying shades of meaning and value. Not only does this type of teaching fail to lodge in the mind of the pupil the larger and more important truths which ought to become a permanent part of his mental equipment, but it also fails to train pupils how themselves to pick out and appropriate the significant parts of the lesson material. It does not develop the sense of value for lesson truths which should be trained through the work of the lesson hour. Each lesson should seek to impress and apply a few important truths, and everything else should be made to work to this end. The points we would have our pupils remember, think about and act upon we must be able to make stand out above all other aspects of the lesson; they must not, for want of emphasis, be lost in a mass of irrelevant or monotonous material of little value. Lack of movement in recitation.--Some recitations suffer from _slowness of movement_ of the thought and plan of the lesson. We sometimes say of a book or a play or a sermon that it was "slow." This is equivalent to saying that the book or play or sermon lacks movement; it dallies by the way, and has unnecessary breaks in its continuity, or is slow in its action. The same principle applies in the recitation. Pauses that are occupied with thought or meditation are not, of course, wasted; they may even be the very best part of the lesson period. But the rather empty lapses which occur for no reason except that the teacher lacks readiness and preparation, and does not quite know at every moment just what he is to do next, or what topic should at this moment come in--it is such awkward and meaningless breaks as these that spoil the continuity of thought and interest and result in boredom. We must remember that every pause or interval of mere empty waiting without expectancy, or without some worthy thought occupying the mind, is a waste of energy, time, and opportunity, and also a training in inattention. Low standards.--The acceptance of _low standards_ of preparation and response in the recitation is fatal to high-grade work and results. If it comes to be expected and taken as a matter of course both by teacher and pupils that children shall come to the class from week to week with no previous study on the lesson, then this is precisely what they will do. The standards of the class should make it impossible that continual failure to prepare or recite shall be accepted as the natural and expected thing, or treated with a spirit of levity. The lesson hour is the very heart and center of the school work, and failure here means a breakdown of the whole system. The standards of teacher and class should be such that probable failure to do one's part in the recitation shall be looked forward to by the child with some apprehension and looked back upon with some regret if not humiliation. In order to maintain high standards of preparation the cooperation of the home must be secured, at least for the younger children, and parents must help the child wisely and sympathetically in the study of the lesson. 1. To what extent are you able to hold the attention of your pupils in the recitation? Is their attention ready, or do you have to work hard to get it? Are there any particular ones who are less attentive than the rest? If so, can you discover the reason? The remedy? 2. To what extent do you find it necessary to appeal to involuntary attention? If you have to make such an appeal do you seek at once to make interest take hold to retain the attention? 3. What measures are you using to train your pupils in the giving of voluntary attention when this type is required? When _is_ voluntary attention required? 4. How completely are your pupils usually interested in the lessons? As the interest varies from time to time, are you studying the matter to discover the secret of interest on their part. In so far as interest fails, which of the factors discussed in the section on interest in this chapter are related to the failure? Are there still other causes not mentioned in this chapter? 5. What distractions are most common in your class? Can you discover the cause? The remedy? Do you have any unruly pupils? If so, have you done your best to win to attention and interest? Have you the force and decision necessary to bring the class well under control? 6. What do you consider your chief danger points in teaching? Would it be worth while for you to have some sympathetic teacher friend visit your class while you teach, and then later talk over with you the points in which you could improve? FOR FURTHER READING Bagley, Class Room Management. Betts, The Recitation. Maxwell, The Observation of Teaching. Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach. Weigle, The Pupil and the Teacher. CHAPTER X MAKING TRUTH VIVID Life is a great unbreakable unity. Thought, feeling, and action belong together, and to leave out one destroys the quality and significance of all. Religious growth and development involve the same mental powers that are used in the other affairs of life. The child's training in religion can advance no faster than the expansion of his grasp of thought and comprehension, the deepening of his emotions, and the strengthening of his will. It follows from this that religious instruction must call for and use the same activities of mind that are called for in other phases of education. Not only must the feelings be reached and the emotions stirred, but the child must be taught to _think_ in his religion. Not only must trust and faith be grounded, but these must be made _intelligent_. Not only must the spirit of worship be cultivated, but the child must know Whom and why he worships. Not only must loyalties be secured, but these must grow out of a _realization of the cost and worth_ of the cause or object to which loyalty attaches. Religious teaching must therefore appeal to the _whole_ mind. Besides appealing to the emotions and will it must make use of and train the power of _thought_, of _imagination_, of _memory_; it must through their agency make truth vivid, real, and lasting, and so lay the foundation for spiritual feeling and devotion. LEARNING TO THINK IN RELIGION Much has been gained in teaching religion when we have brought the child to see that _understanding_, _reason_, and _common sense_ are as necessary and as possible here as in other fields of learning. This does not mean that there are not many things in religion that are beyond the grasp and comprehension of even the greatest minds, to say nothing of the undeveloped mind of the child. It means, rather, that where we fail to grasp or understand it is because of the bigness of the problem, or because of its unknowableness, and not because its solution violates the laws of thought and reason. The reign of law, the inexorable working of cause and effect, and the application of reason to religious matters should be conveyed to the child in his earliest impressions of religion. For example, the child has learned a valuable lesson when he has comprehended that God asks obedience of his children, not just for the sake of compelling obedience, but because obedience to God's law is the only way to happy and successful living. The youth has grasped a great truth when it becomes clear to his understanding that Jesus said, "To him that hath shall be given," not from any failure to sympathize with the one who might be short in his share, but _because this is the great and fundamental law of being_ to which even Jesus himself was subject; and that when Paul said, "Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap," he was not exacting an arbitrary penalty, but expressing the inevitable working of a great law. The boy who defined faith as "believing something you know can't be true" had been badly taught concerning faith. Religious truth does not contradict reason.--To begin with, while all of us come to believe many things that we cannot fully understand, not even the child should be asked to believe what plainly contradicts common sense and so puts too great a strain on credulity. In a certain Sunday school class the lesson was about Peter going up on the housetop to pray, and the vision that befell him there. This class of boys, living in a small village, had had no experience with any kind of housetop except that formed of a sharply sloping roof. Therefore the story looked improbable to them, and one boy asked how Peter could sleep up on the roof and keep from falling off. The teacher, also uninformed concerning the flat roofs of Oriental houses, answered, "John, you must remember that with God all things are possible." And John had that day had the seeds of skepticism planted in his inquiring mind. Another teacher, thinking to allay any tendency on the part of his class to question the literal accuracy of the story of Jonah and the whale, said, "This story is in the Bible, and we must believe it, for whatever is in the Bible is true; and if the Bible were to say that Jonah swallowed the whale that would be true, and we would have to believe that also." But who can doubt that, with boys and girls trained in the schools and by their contact with life itself to think, such an invitation to lay aside all reason and common sense can do other in the long run than to weaken confidence in the Bible, and so lessen the significance of many of its beautiful lessons? True thinking about Bible truths.--What, then, shall we teach the child about the literalness of the Bible? Nothing. This is not a question for childhood. The Bible should be brought to the child in the same spirit as any other book, except with a deep spirit of reverence and appreciation not due other books. Parts of the Bible are plainly history, and as accurate as history of other kinds is. Other parts are accounts of the lives of people, and the descriptions are wonderfully vivid and true to life. Other parts are plainly poetry, and should be read and interpreted as poetry. Other parts are clearly the stories and legends current in the days when the accounts were written, and should be read as other stories and legends are read. The great question is not the problem of the literal or the figurative nature of the truth, but the problem of discovering for the child the _rich nugget of spiritual wisdom which is always there_. When the young child first hears the entrancing Bible stories he does not think anything about their literalness; he only enjoys, and perhaps dimly senses the hidden lesson or truth they contain. This is as it should be. Later, when thought, judgment, and discrimination are developing and beginning to play their part in the expanding mind, questions are sure to arise at certain points. This is also as it should be. When such questions arise let us meet them frankly and wisely. Let us have the spiritual vision and the reverence for truth that will enable us, for example, to show the child how the servants of God in those ancient times used the bold, picturesque figure of "feathers" and "wings" to express the brooding love and care of God; how they told the wonderful story of God's creation of the world in the most beautiful account they could conceive; how they showed forth God's care for his children, his companionship with them, and man's tendency to sin and disobedience by one of the most beautiful stories ever written, this story having its scene laid in the garden of Eden; how these writers always set down what they believed to be true, and how, though they might sometimes have been mistaken as to the actual facts, they never missed presenting the great lesson or deep spiritual truth that God would have us know. Protecting the child against intellectual difficulties.--Children taught the Bible in this reasonable but reverent way will be saved many intellectual difficulties as they grow older. Their reverence and respect for the Bible will never suffer from the necessity of attempting to force their faith to accept what their intellect contradicts. They will not be troubled by the grave doubts and misgivings which attack so many adolescents during the time when they are working out their mental and spiritual adjustment to the new world of individual responsibility which they have discovered. They will, without strain or questioning, come to accept the Bible for what it is--the great _Source Book of spiritual wisdom_, its pages bearing the imprint of divine inspiration and guidance, and also of human imperfections and greatness. The developing child should, therefore, be encouraged to use his reason, his thought, his judgment and discrimination in his study of religion precisely as in other things. His questions should never be ignored, nor suppressed, nor treated as something unworthy and sinful. The doubts, even, which are somewhat characteristic of a stage of adolescent reconstruction, may be made the stepping-stone to higher reaches of faith and understanding. The youth who went to his pastor with certain questionings and doubts, and who was told that these were "the promptings of Satan," and that they "must not be dwelt upon, but resolutely be put out of the mind," was not fairly nor honestly treated by one from whom he had a right to expect wiser guidance. He returned from the interview rebellious and bitter, and it was with much spiritual agony and sweating of blood that he fought his own way through to a solution which ought to have been made easy for him by wise enlightenment and sympathetic counsel. Reverent seekers after truth.--Religion requires the mind at its best. There is nothing about religion that will not bear full thought and investigation. We are not asked to lay aside any part of our powers, can not lay any part of them aside, if we would attain to full religious growth and stature. Let us therefore train our children to _think_ as they study religion. Let us lead them to ask and inquire. Let us train them to investigate and test. Let us teach them that they never need be afraid of truth, since no bit of truth ever conflicts with, or contradicts any other truth; let us rather encourage them reverently and with open hearts and minds diligently to seek the truth, and then _dare to follow where it leads_. THE APPEAL TO IMAGINATION Imagination, the power of the mind that pictures and makes real, is a key to vivid and lasting impressions. Unless the imagination recreates the scenes described in the story, or vivifies the events of the lesson, they will have little meaning to the child and appeal but little to his interest. It is imagination that enables its possessor to take the images suggested in the account of a battle and build them together into the mass of struggling soldiers, roaring cannon, whistling bullets, and bursting shells. It is imagination that makes it possible while reading the words of the poem to construct the picture which was in the mind of the author as he wrote "The Village Blacksmith," the twenty-third psalm, or "Snowbound," and thereby enables the reader himself to take part in the throbbing scenes of life and action. Without imagination one may repeat the words which describe an act or an event, may even commit them to memory or pass an examination upon them, but the living reality will forever escape him. It is imagination that will save the beautiful stories and narratives of the Bible from being so many dead words, without appeal to the child. Imagination required in the study of religion.--In the teaching of religion we are especially dependent on the child's use of his imagination. With younger children the instruction largely takes the form of stories, which must be appropriated and understood through the imagination or not at all. The whole Bible account deals with people, places, and events distant in time and strange to the child in manner of life and customs. The Bible itself abounds in pictorial descriptions. The missionary enterprises of the church lead into strange lands and introduce strange people. The study of the lives and characters of great men and women and their deeds of service in our own land takes the child out of the range of his own immediate observation and experience. The understanding of God and of Jesus--all of these things lose in significance or are in large degree incomprehensible unless approached with a vivid and glowing imagination. Many older persons confess that the Bible times, places, and people were all very unreal to them while in the Sunday school, and that it hardly occurred to them that these descriptions and narratives were truly about men and women like ourselves. Hence the most valuable part of their instruction was lost. Limitations of imagination.--Since childhood is the age of imagination, we might naturally expect that it would be no trouble to secure ready response from the child's imagination. But we must not assume too much about the early power of imagination. It is true that the child's imagination is _ready and active_; but it is not yet ready for the more difficult and complex picturing we sometimes require of it, for imagination depends for its material on the store of _images_ accumulated from former experience; and images are the result of past observation, of percepts, and sensory experiences. The imagination can build no mental structures without the stuff with which to build; it is limited to the material on hand. The Indians never dreamed of a heaven with streets of gold and a great white throne; for their experiences had given them no knowledge of such things. They therefore made their heaven out of the "Happy Hunting Grounds," of which they had many images. Many Chicago school children who were asked to compare the height of a mountain with that of a tall factory chimney said that the chimney was higher, because the mountain "does not go straight up" like the chimney. These children had learned and recited that a mountain "is an elevation of land a thousand or more than a thousand feet in height," but their imagination failed to picture the mountain, since not even the smallest mountain nor a high hill had ever been actually present to their observation. Small wonder, then, that Sunday school children have some trouble, living as they do in these modern times, to picture ancient times and peoples who were so different from any with which their experience has had to deal! Guiding principles.--The skillful teacher knows how to help the child use his imagination. The following laws or principles will aid in such training: 1. _Relate the new scene or picture with something similar in the child's experience._ The desert is like the sandy waste or the barren and stony hillside with which the children are acquainted. The square, flat-topped houses of eastern lands have their approximate counterpart in occasional buildings to be found in almost any modern community. The rivers and lakes of Bible lands may be compared with rivers and lakes near at hand. The manner of cooking and serving food under primitive conditions was not so different from our own method on picnics and excursion days. While the life and work of the shepherd have changed, we still have the sheep. The walls of the ancient city can be seen in miniature in stone and concrete embankments, or even the stone fences common in some sections. The main thing is to get some _starting point_ in actual observation from which the child can proceed. The teacher must then help the child to modify from the actual in such a way as to picture the object or place described as nearly true to reality as possible. The child who said, "A mountain is a mound of earth with brush growing on it" had been shown a hillock covered with growing brush and had been told that the mountain was like this, only bigger. The imagination had not been sufficiently stimulated to realize the significant differences and to picture the real mountain from the miniature suggestion. 2. _Articles and objects from ancient times or from other lands may occasionally be secured to show the children._ Even if such objects may not date back to Bible times, they are still useful as a vantage point for the imagination. A modern copy of the old-time Oriental lamp, a candelabrum, a pair of sandals, a turban, a robe, or garment such as the ancients wore--these accompanied by intelligent description of the times and places to which they belonged are all a stimulus to the child's imagination which should not be overlooked. The very fact that they suggest other peoples and other modes of living than our own is an invitation and incentive to the mind to reach out beyond the immediate and the familiar to the new and the strange. 3. _Pictures can be made a great help to the imagination._ In the better type of our church schools we are now making free use of pictures as teaching material. It is not always enough, however, merely to place the picture before the child. It requires a certain fund of information and interest in order to see in a picture what it is intended to convey. The child cannot get from the picture more than he brings to it. The teacher may therefore need to give the picture its proper setting by describing the kind of life or the type of action or event with which it deals. He may need to ask questions, and make suggestions in order to be sure that the child sees in the picture the interesting and important things, and that his imagination carries out beyond what is actually presented in the picture itself to what it suggests. While the first response of the child to a picture, as to a story, should be that of enjoyment and interest, this does not mean that the picture, like the story, may not reach much deeper than the immediate interest and enjoyment. The picture which has failed to stimulate the child's imagination to see much more than the picture contains has failed of one of its chief objects. 4. _Stimulate the imagination by use of vivid descriptions and thought-provoking questions._ Every teacher, whether of young children or of older ones, should strive to be a good teller of stories and a good user of illustrations. This requires study and practice, but it is worth the cost--even outside of the classroom. The good story-teller must be able to speak freely, easily, and naturally. He must have a sense of the important and significant in a story or illustration, and be able to work to a climax. He must know just how much of detail to use to appeal to the imagination to supply the remainder, and not employ so great an amount of detail as to leave nothing to the imagination of the listener. He must himself enter fully into the spirit and enthusiasm of the story, and must have his own imagination filled with the pictures he would create in his pupils' minds. He must himself enjoy the story or the illustration, and thus be able in his expression and manner to suggest the response he desires from the children. Well told stories that have in them the dramatic quality can hardly fail to stir the most sluggish imagination and prepare it for the important part it must play in the child's religious development. Skillfully used questions and suggestions can be made an important means of stimulating the imagination. Such helps as: Do you think the sea of Galilee looked like the lake (here name one near at hand) which you know? How did it differ? What tree have you in mind which is about the same size as the fig tree in the lesson? How does it differ in appearance? Close your eyes and try to see in your mind just how the river looked where the baby Moses was found. Have you ever seen a man who you think looks much as Elijah must have looked? Describe him. If you were going to make a coat like the one Joseph wore, what colors would you select? What kind of cloth? What would be the cut or shape of it?--Hardly a lesson period will pass without many opportunities for wise questions whose chief purpose is to make real and vivid to the child the persons or places described, and so add to their significance to him. 5. _Dramatic representation can be used as an incentive to the imagination._ Children easily and naturally imagine themselves to be some other person, and often play at being nurse or school teacher or doctor or preacher. Nearly every child possesses a large measure of the dramatic impulse, and is something of an actor. It is great fun for children to "tog up" and to "show off" in their play. And not only is all this an expression of imagination actively at work, but such activities are themselves a great stimulus to the imagination. The child who has dressed up as George Washington and impersonated him in some ceremonial or on a public occasion will ever after feel a closer reality in the life and work of Washington than would come from mere reading about him. A group of children who have acted out the story of the good Samaritan will get a little closer to its inner meaning than merely to hear the story told. The girl who has taken the part of Esther appearing before the king in behalf of her people will realize a little more fully from that experience what devotion and courage were required from the real Esther. A class who have participated in a pageant of the Nativity will always be a little nearer to the original event than if their imaginations had not been called upon to make real the characters and incidents. USING THE MEMORY The memory should play an important part in religion. Gems from the Bible, stories, characters, and events, inspiring thoughts and maxims, and many other such things should become a permanent part of the furnishing of the mind, recorded and faithfully preserved by the memory. Laws of use of memory.--The laws by which the memory works have been thoroughly studied and carefully described, and should be fully understood by every teacher. Further than this, _they should be faithfully observed in all memory work_. These laws may be stated as follows: 1. The law of _complete registration_. The first act in the memory process is fully and completely to register, or _learn_, the matter to be retained. The retention can never be better than the registration of the facts given into the memory's keeping. Half-learned matter easily slips away, never having been completely impressed on the mind. It is possible to lose both effort and efficiency by committing a verse of a poem barely up to the point where it can doubtfully be repeated instead of giving it the relatively small amount of additional study and practice which would register it firmly and completely. Whatever is worth committing to memory should therefore be carried past the barely known stage and committed fully and completely. 2. The law of _multiple association_. This only means that the new facts learned shall be related as closely as may be to matter already in the mind. And this is equivalent to saying that the material learned shall be _understood_, its meaning grasped and its significance comprehended. To understand for yourself the value of association, make this experiment: Have some one write down a list of ten unrelated words in a column, and hold the list before you while you have time to read it over just once slowly and carefully. Now try repeating the words in order from memory. Next, have your friend write ten other words which this time form a connected sentence. After reading these words over once as you did the first list, try repeating them in order. You find that you have much trouble to memorize the first list, while the second presents no difficulty at all. The difference lies in the fact that the words of the first list were unrelated, lacking all associative connections with each other, while those of the second list formed a connected chain of associations. It is possible to give the child biblical or other matter to memorize that has little more meaning to him than the list of unrelated words have to us. For example, this text is required of primary and junior children in a lesson series: "Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." And this: "Let us therefore draw near with boldness unto the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy, and may find grace to help us in time of need." It is evident that younger children could by no possibility understand either of these beautiful passages, and hence in committing them will only be learning so many unrelated words. The same is true of church catechisms. The memorizing of such material will be difficult and unpleasant, and no value will come from it. The most likely outcome of such ill-advised requirements is to discourage the child and make him dislike the church school and all its work. It is not to be expected that the child will understand the _full_ meaning of every bit of matter suitable for him to memorize; this will have to await broader experience and fuller development. The material should, however, be sufficiently comprehended that its general meaning is clear and its significance understood. 3. The law of _vividness of impression_. The relation of vividness of impression to learning has already been discussed in another chapter. In no one of the mind's activities is vividness a more important factor than in memorizing. Matter committed under the stimulus of high interest and keen attention is relatively secure, while matter committed under slack concentration is sure to fade quickly from the memory. Songs can therefore best be committed under the elation of the interesting singing of the words; a verse of poetry, when the mind is alert and the feelings aroused by a story in which the sentiment of the verse fits; a prayer when the spirit of devotion has been quickened by worship. To insure full vividness the imagination must also be called upon to picture and make real such parts of memory material as contain imagery. 4. The law of _repetition_. For most minds memory depends on repetition. The impressions must be deepened and made lasting by being stamped again and again on the mind. The neurons of the brain which do the work of retaining and recalling must be made to repeat the process over and over until their action is secure. It is therefore not enough to make sure that the child has his memory material committed for this particular Sunday. If the matter was worth committing in the first place, it is worth keeping permanently. If it is to be kept permanently, it must be frequently reviewed; for otherwise it will surely be forgotten. It is to be feared that much, if not most, of the matter memorized by the pupils in many church schools lasts only long enough to show the teacher that it has once been learned, and that not many children know in any permanent sense the Bible passages they have committed. In so far as this is true it would be much better to select a smaller amount of the choicest and best adapted material to be found, and then so thoroughly teach this that it is permanently retained. 5. The law of _wholes instead of parts_. Many persons in setting at work to commit a poem, a Bible passage, a psalm have a tendency to learn it first by verses or sections and then, put the parts together to form the whole. Tests upon the memory have shown, that this is a less economical and efficient method than from the first to commit the material as a whole. This method requires that we go over all of it completely from beginning to end, then over it again, and so on until we can repeat much of it without reference to the text. We then refer to the text for what the memory has not yet grasped, requiring the memory to repeat all that has been committed, until the whole is in this manner fully learned. The method of learning by wholes not only requires less time and effort, but gives a better sense of unity in the matter committed. 6. The law of _divided practice_. If to learn a certain piece of material the child must go over it, say, fifteen times, the results are much better if the whole number of repetitions are not carried out at one time. Time seems necessary to give the associations an opportunity to set up their relationships; also, the interval between repetitions allows the parts that are hardest to commit to begin fading out, and thereby reveal where further practice is demanded. Where songs, Bible verses, or other material are committed in the lesson hour, provision ought to be made for the children to continue study and practice on the material at home during the week. The so-called cramming process of learning will not work any better in the church school than in the day-school lessons. 7. The law of _motivation_. Like other activities of the mind, memory works best under the stimulus of some appealing motive. The very best possible motive is, of course, an interest in and love for the matter committed. This kind of response can hardly be expected, however, in all of the material children are asked to commit. It is necessary to use additional motives to secure full effort. The approval of the teacher and parents, the child's standing in the class, and his own sense of achievement are some of the motives that should be employed. A very powerful motive not always sufficiently made use of is the wider _social motive_ that comes from working in groups for a particular end. For example, a school or class pageant based on some biblical story or religious event has the effect of centralizing effort and stimulating endeavor to a degree impossible in individual work. Hymns and songs are committed, Bible passages or other religious material learned, stories mastered, characters studied and their words committed under the stress of an immediate need for them in order to take one's part in a social group and prove one's mastery before an audience of interested listeners. The church school can with great advantage centralize more of its religious memory work in preparation for such special occasions as Easter, Christmas, Thanksgiving, or other church celebrations or pageants. 1. What reasons can you give why children should be taught to think in their study of religion just as in the study of any other subject? Do you find a thoughtful attitude on the part of your class? What methods do you use to encourage reverent thinking in religion? 2. One thinks best in connection with some question or problem which he wishes to have answered. Do you plan in connection with your preparation of the lesson to bring out some definite problem suited to the age of your class and help your pupils think it through to a solution? 3. What evidences can you suggest from your class work which show that children readily think upon any problem that interests them? Have your pupils asked questions showing that they are thinking? When such questions are asked, how do you treat them? 4. What lessons of recent date in your work have you in mind which especially required the use of imagination? Can you judge the degree to which the descriptive parts of the lessons appeal to your pupils as real? 5. How successfully do you feel that you are applying the principles for the use of the imagination? Do you definitely seek to apply these principles in your lessons? Which of these is probably the hardest to apply? What is your method of seeking its application? 6. Are your pupils good in memory work? Do you ever give them material to memorize the meaning of which is not wholly clear to them? What help do you give the children when you assign them memory work? Do you instruct them how to memorize what you assign? To what extent are you following the laws of memory as stated in the chapter? FOR FURTHER READING Betts, The Mind and Its Education. Dewey, How We Think. Coe, Education in Religion and Morals. CHAPTER XI TYPES OF TEACHING One of the surest tests of the skillful teacher is his ability to adapt his instruction to the child, to the subject matter, and to the occasion--that is, to the _aim_. Teaching must differ in its type with the age; the primary child and the older youth require different methods. It must differ with the kind of material to be presented; a lesson whose chief aim is to give information must be differently presented from a lesson whose aim is to enforce some moral or religious truth. It must differ with the occasion; a lesson taught a group of children who have had no previous study or preparation on it will demand different treatment from a lesson which has had careful study. Types of lessons.--Several clearly recognized types of lessons are commonly employed by teachers in both school and church-school classes. No one of these lesson types can be said to be best in the sense that it should be used to the exclusion of the others. All are required. Several may even be employed in the same recitation period. The teacher should, however, know which type he is employing at any given stage of his instruction, and why he is using this type in preference to another type of teaching. The following are the chief lesson types that will be found serviceable in most church school classes: 1. The _informational_ lesson; in which the immediate aim is to supply the mind with new knowledge or facts needed as a part of the equipment of thought and understanding. 2. The _developmental_ (or inductive) lesson; in which the aim is to lead the child through his own investigation and thinking to use the information already in his possession as a basis for discovering new truth or meaning. 3. The _application_ (or deductive) lesson; in which the aim is to make application of some general truth or lesson already known to particular problems or cases. 4. The _drill_ lesson; in which the aim is to give readiness and skill in fundamental facts or material that should be so well known as to be practically automatic in thought or memory. 5. The _appreciation_ lesson; in which the aim is to create a response of warmth and interest toward, or appreciation of, a person, object, situation, or the material studied. 6. The _review_ lesson; in, which the aim is to gather up, relate, and fix more permanently in the mind the lessons or facts that have been studied. 7. The _assignment_ lesson; in which help is rendered and interest inspired, for study of the next lesson. THE INFORMATIONAL LESSON The child at the beginning is devoid of all knowledge of and information about the many objects, activities, and relationships that fill his world. He must come to know these. His mind can develop no faster than it has the materials for thoughts, memories, ideas, and whatever else is to occupy his stream of thought. He must therefore be supplied with information. He must be given a fund of impressions, of facts, of knowledge to use in his thinking, feeling, and understanding. To undertake to teach the child the deeper meanings and relationships of God to our lives without this necessary background of information is to confuse him and to fail ourselves as teachers. For example, a certain primary lesson leaflet tells the children that the Egyptians made slaves out of the Israelites and that God led the Israelites out of this slavery. But there had previously been no adequate preparation of the learners' minds to understand who the Israelites or the Egyptians were, nor what slavery is. The children lacked all basis of information to understand the situation described, and it could by no possibility possess meaning for them. The use of the information lesson.--It is not meant, of course, that when the chief purpose of a lesson is to give information no applications should be made or no interpretations given of the matter presented. Yet the fact is that often the chief emphasis must be placed on information, and that for the moment other aims are secondary. To illustrate: When young children are first told the story of God creating the world the main purpose of the lesson is _just to give them the story_, and not to attempt instruction as to the power and wonder of creative wisdom, nor even at this time to stress the seventh day as a day of rest. When the story of Moses bringing his people out of Egypt is told young children, the providence of God will be made evident, but the facts of the story itself and its enjoyment just as a story should not in early childhood be overshadowed by attempting to force the moral and religious applications too closely. It even happens that the indirect lesson, in which the child is left to see for himself the application and meaning, is often the most effective to teaching. The same principle holds when, later in the course, the youth is first studying in its entirety the life of Jesus. The main thing is to get a sympathetic, reverent, connected view of Jesus's life as a whole. There will, of course, be a thousand lessons to be learned and applications to be made from his teachings, but these should rest on a fund of _accurate information about Jesus himself and what he taught_. Danger of neglecting information.--It should be clear, then, that in advocating the informational lesson there is no thought of asking that we should teach our children _mere_ facts, or fill their heads with _mere_ information. The intention is, rather, to stress the important truth often seemingly forgotten, that to be intelligent in one's religion there are certain, fundamental _things which must be known_; that to be a worthy Christian there are certain facts, stories, personages, and events with a knowledge of which the mind must be well furnished. There can be little doubt that the common run of teaching in our church schools has failed to give our children a _sufficient basis_ of information upon which to build their religious experience. Informational instruction may be combined with other types of lessons, or may be given as separate lessons which stress almost entirely the informational aspect of the material. In the younger classes the information will come to the children chiefly in the form of stories, and the accounts of lives of great men and women. Later in the course, Bible narrative, history, and biography will supply the chief sources of informational material. THE DEVELOPMENTAL LESSON It is a safe principle in teaching not to give ready-made to children a fact or conclusion which they can easily be led by questions and suggestions to discover for themselves. Truths which one has found out for himself always mean more than matter that is dogmatically forced upon him. The pupil who has watched the bees sucking honey from clover blossoms and then going with pollen-laden feet to another blossom, or one who has observed the drifting pollen from orchard or corn field, is better able to understand the fertilization of plants than he would be from any mere description of the process. On the same principle, the child will get a deeper and more lasting impression of the effects of disobedience if led to see the effect of the disobedience of Adam and Eve in the shame and sorrow and feeling of guilt that came to them, than he will through listening to ever so many impressive assertions on the sin of disobedience. If the concrete lesson is carried over to his own personal experience and his observation of the results of disobedience, and the unhappiness it has brought, the effect is all the greater. Purpose of the inductive lesson.--The developmental, or inductive, lesson, therefore, seeks to lead the child to _observe, discover, think, find out for himself_. It begins with concrete and particular instances, but it does not stop with them. It does not at the start force upon the child any rules or general conclusions, but it does seek to arrive at conclusions and rules in the end. For example, the purpose in having the child watch particular bees carrying pollen to blossoms, and in having him observe particular pollen drifting in the wind, is to teach in the end the general truth that _certain plants are dependent on insects and others on currents of air for their pollenization_. In similar fashion, the purpose in having the child understand the effects of disobedience in the case of Adam and Eve and in any particular instance in his own experience is to teach the general conclusion that _disobedience commonly brings sorrow and trouble_. The aim, then, is to arrive at a universal truth of wide application, but to _reach it through appealing to the child's own knowledge, experience, and observation_. In this way the lesson learned will have more vital meaning and it will be more readily accepted because not forced upon the learner. Two principles.--Two important principles must be kept in mind in teaching an inductive lesson: 1. A basis or starting point must be found in knowledge or experience already in the learner's possession. 2. The child must have in his mind the question or problem which demands solution. The first of these principles means that in order for the child to observe, think, discover for himself, he must have a sufficient basis of information from which to proceed. The inductive lesson, therefore, rests upon and starts from the informational lesson. To illustrate, in order to understand and be interested in the work of the bees as pollen-bearers, the child must first _know the fact_ that the blossoming and fruiting of the common plants depend on pollen. The ear of corn which did not properly fill with grains because something happened to prevent pollen grains from reaching the tips of the silks at the right time, or the apple tree barren because it failed from some adverse cause to receive a supply of pollen for its blossoms may properly be the starting point. The _problem_ or question then arising is how pollen grains are carried. With this basis of fact and of question, the child is ready to begin the interesting task of observation and discovery under the direction of the teacher; he is then ready for the inductive lesson, in which he will discover new knowledge by using the information already in his mind. Conducting the inductive lesson.--In conducting the inductive lesson the teacher must from the beginning have a very clear idea of the goal or conclusion to be reached by the learners. Suppose the purpose is to impress on the children the fact of Jesus's love and care for children. The lesson might start with questions and illustrations dealing with the father's and mother's care and love for each child in the home, and the way these are shown. Following this would come the story of Jesus rebuking his disciples for trying to send the children away, and his own kindness to the children. Then such questions as these: How did the disciples feel about having the children around Jesus? Why did they tell the children to keep away? Perhaps they were afraid the children would annoy or trouble Jesus. Have you ever known anyone who did not seem to like to have children around him? Does your mother like to have you come and be beside her? What did Jesus say about letting the children come to him? Why do you think Jesus liked to have the children around him? How did Jesus show his love for children? Why do you think the children liked to be with Jesus? Do you think that Jesus loves children as much to-day as when he was upon earth? Do you think he wants children to be good and happy now as he did then? In what ways does Jesus show his love and kindness to children? The impression or conclusion to grow out of these questions and the story is that _Jesus loved and cared for children when he was upon earth, and that he loves and cares for them now just as he did then_. This will be the goal in the teacher's mind from the beginning of the lesson. THE DEDUCTIVE, OR APPLICATION, LESSON Not all teaching can be of the inductive, or discovery, type. It is necessary now and then to start with general truths, rules, or principles and apply them to concrete individual cases. Rules and maxims once understood are often serviceable in working out new problems. The conclusions reached from a study of one set of circumstances can frequently be used in meeting similar situations another time. For example, the child learns by a study of particular instances the results of disobedience, and finally arrives at the great general truth that _disobedience to the laws of nature or of God is followed by punishment and suffering_. This fact becomes to him a rule, a principle, a maxim, which has universal application. Once this is understood and accepted, the child is armed with a weapon against disobedience. With this equipment he can say when he confronts temptation: This means disobedience to God's law and the laws of nature; but _disobedience to the laws of God and of nature brings punishment and suffering_; therefore if I do this thing, I shall be punished, and shall suffer--_I will refrain from doing it_. Making the application.--A large part of our instruction in religion must be of the deductive kind. It is impossible, even if it were desirable, to rediscover and develop inductively out of observation and experience all the great moral and religious laws which should govern the life. Many of these come to us ready-made, the result of the aggregate experience of generations of religious living, or the product of God's revelation to men. Consider, for example, such great generalizations as: "Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also;" "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy"; "No man can serve two masters"; "With what measure ye mete it shall be measured unto you"; "The wages of sin is death." These are illustrations of the concentrated wisdom of the finest hearts and minds the world has seen, words spoken by Inspiration, but true to the experience of every person. It is our part as teachers to make the great fundamental moral and religious laws which underlie our lives living truths to our pupils. To do this we must not teach such truths as mere abstractions, but show them at work in the lives of men and women and of boys and girls. We must find illustrations, we must make applications, and discover examples of proof and verification. Teaching that fails from lack of applying truth.--The object, then, of the _inductive_ lesson is to lead the learner to _discover_ truth; the object of the _deductive_ lesson is to lead him to _apply_ truth. There can be little doubt that much of our teaching of religion suffers from failure to make immediate and vital application of the truths we teach. When we teach the youth that no man can serve two masters, we should not be satisfied until we have shown him the proof of this truth at work in the everyday experience of men. When we teach him that the wages of sin is death, we must not stop with the mere statement of fact, but lead him to recognize the effects of sin's work in broken lives and ruined careers. Nor should we confine our proofs and illustrations to examples taken from the Bible, valuable as these are. Too many, perhaps half unconsciously to themselves, carry the impression that religion belongs rather more to Bible times and peoples than to ourselves. Too many assent to the general truth of religion and the demands it puts on our lives, but fail to make a sufficiently immediate and definite application of its requirements to their own round of daily living. Too many think of the divine law as revealed in the Scriptures as having a historical significance rather than a present application. One of the tasks of deductive teaching is to cure this fatal weakness in the study of religion. THE DRILL LESSON Teaching religion does not require as large a proportion of drill as many other subjects. This is because the purpose of drill is to make certain matter automatic in the mind, or to train definite acts to a high degree of skill. For example, the child must come to know his multiplication table readily, "without thinking"; he must come to be able to write or spell or count or manipulate the keys of a typewriter without directing his attention to the acts required. Wherever automatic action or ready skill is required, there drill is demanded. Drill provides for the repetition of the mental or physical act until habit has made it second nature and it goes on practically doing itself. There is no way to get a high degree of skill without drill, for the simple reason that the brain requires a certain amount of repeated action before it can carry out the necessary operations without error and without the application of conscious thought. Drill lessons in the church school.--While the church-school teacher will not require so much use of drill as the day-school teacher, it is highly essential that drill shall not be omitted at points where it is needed. There are some things which the child should learn very thoroughly and completely in his study of religion. He should know a few prayers by heart, so that their words come to him naturally and easily when he desires to use them. He should know the words and music of certain songs and hymns suited to his age. He should learn certain Bible passages of rare beauty, and other sentiments, verses, and poems found outside the Bible. He should come, as a matter of convenience and skill, to know the names and order of the books of the Bible. In some churches he is required to know the catechism. Whatever of such material is to be mastered fully and completely must receive careful drill. Principles for conducting the drill.--The first step in a successful drill lesson is to _supply a motive_ for the drill. This is necessary in order to secure alertness and effort. _Mere_ repetition is not drill. Monotonous going over the words of a poem or the list of books of the Bible with wandering or slack attention will fail of results. The learner must be keyed up, and give himself whole-heartedly to the work. Let the child come to feel a real _need_ of mastery, and one great motive is supplied. Let him desire the words of the song because he is to sing in the chorus, or desire the words of the poem because he is to take part in a pageant, and there will be little trouble about willingness to drill. Again, the competitive impulse can often be used to motivate drill. The child is ambitious to stand at the head of his class, or to beat his own record of performance, or to win the appreciation or praise of teacher or parents, or he has a pride in personal achievement--these are all worthy motives, and can be made of great service in conducting classroom or individual drills. The posting of a piece of good work done by a pupil, or calling attention to the good performance of a member of the class can often be made an incentive to the whole number. Drill, in order to be effective, must not stop short of thorough mastery. The matter which is barely learned, or the verse which can be but doubtfully repeated is sure to escape if not fixed by further drill. It is probable, as suggested in an earlier chapter, that we attempt to have our children memorize too much Bible material which is beyond their understanding and too difficult for them. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that we fail to teach them sufficiently well the smaller amount of beautiful sentiments, verses, poems, songs, and prayers which should be a part of the mental and spiritual possession of every child. Our weekly lessons provide for the memorizing of Bible matter week by week, yet surprisingly few children can repeat any sensible amount of such material. Better results would follow if we should require less material, select it more wisely, and then _drill upon it until it is firmly fixed in the mind as a permanent and familiar possession_. THE APPRECIATION LESSON It is quite as essential that the child shall come to enjoy and admire right things as that he shall know right things. To cultivate appreciation for the beautiful, the good, the fine, and the true is one of the great aims of our teaching. One who is able to analyze a flower and technically describe its botanical parts, but who fails to respond to its beauty has still much to learn about flowers. One who learns the facts about the life of Paul, Elijah, or Jesus but who does not feel and admire the strength, gentleness, and goodness of their characters has missed one of the essential points in his study. One who masters the details about a poem or a picture but who misses the thrill of enjoyment and appreciation which it holds for him has gathered but the husks and misses the right kernel of meaning. How to teach appreciation.--Appreciation can never be taught directly. The best we can do is to bring to the child the thing of beauty or goodness which we desire him to enjoy and admire, making sure that he comprehends its meaning as fully as may be, and then leave it to exert its own appeal. We may by ill-advised comment or insistence even hinder appreciation. The teacher who constantly asks the children, "Do you not think the poem is beautiful?" or, "Is not this a lovely song?" not only fails to help toward appreciation, but is in danger of creating a false attitude in the child by causing him to express admiration where none is felt. There is also grave doubt whether it is not a mistake to urge too much on the child that he "ought" to love God, or that it is his "duty" to love the church. The fact is that love, admiration and appreciation _cannot be compelled_ by any act of the will or sense of duty. They must arise spontaneously from a realization of some lovable or beautiful quality which exerts an appeal that will not be denied. The part of the teacher at this point, therefore, is to act as interpreter, to help the learner to grasp the meaning of the poem, the picture, the song, or the character he is studying. The admirable qualities are to be brought out, the beautiful aspects set forth, and the lovable traits placed in high light. The teacher may even express his own admiration and appreciation, though without sentimentality or effusiveness. Nor is it likely that a teacher will be able to excite admiration in his class for any object of study which he does not himself admire. If his own soul does not rise to the beauty of the twenty-third psalm or to the inimitable grandeur and strength of the Christ-life, he is hardly the one to hold these subjects of study before children. THE REVIEW LESSON Reviews and tests fulfill a double purpose for the learner: they help to organize and make more usable the matter that has been learned, and they reveal success or failure in mastery. They also serve the teacher as a measure of his success in teaching. The review lesson should not be, as it often is, a mere repetition of as many facts from, previous lessons as time will permit to be covered. It should present a _new view_ of the subject. It should deal with the great essential points, and so relate and organize them that the threefold aim of _fruitful knowledge_, _right attitudes_, and _practical applications_ shall be stressed and made secure. Guiding principles.--If the section of matter under review deals with a series of events, such as the story of the migration of the Israelites from Egypt or the account of the ministry of Jesus, then the review lesson must pick out and emphasize those incidents and applications which should become a part of the permanent possession of the child's mind from the study of this material. These related points should be so linked together and so reimpressed that they will form a continuous view of the period or topic studied. There is no place for the incidental nor for minute and unrelated detail in the review. The teacher will need most careful preparation and planning to conduct a review. He must have the entire field to be reviewed fully mastered and in his own mind as a unit, else he cannot lead the child back over it successfully. He must work out a lesson plan which will secure interest and response on the part of his pupils. Many review lessons drag, and are but endured by the class. This may be accounted for by the fact that the review recitation often fails to do more than repeat old material. It may also come from the fact that the children are asked details which they have forgotten or never knew, so that they are unable to take their part. It may in some cases arise from the fact that the teacher is himself not ready for the review, and does not like review days. Whatever may be the cause, the review that fails to catch interest or call forth enthusiasm has in so far failed of its purpose. The minds of teacher and pupils should be at their best and concentration at its keenest for the review lesson. ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON No small part of the success of instruction depends on faithfulness and skill in assigning lessons. Too often this is left for the very last moment of the class hour, when there is no time left for proper assignment and the teacher can give only the most hurried and incomplete directions. Or, it may be that the only direction that is given is the exhortation to "be sure to prepare the lesson for next week." But this will not suffice. We must not forget that children, especially the younger children, may not know just how to go to work upon the lesson, nor what to do in getting it. It is hard for any young child to gather thought from the printed page, even after he has attained fair skill in reading; and it is doubly hard if the matter is difficult or unfamiliar, as is much of the material found in the church-school lessons. How to make the assignment.--In order to assign the lesson properly the teacher must, of course, be perfectly familiar with the coming lesson. This means that he must keep a week ahead in his preparation, which is in the end no loss, but even a gain. The teacher must also have the plan of the lesson sufficiently in mind that he knows just what points are to be stressed, what will present the most difficulty to the class, what will most appeal to their interest, and what will need to be especially assigned for study or investigation. In lessons which children are to prepare at home it is usually well to go over the material briefly with the class in making the assignment, giving hints for study, calling attention to interesting points, and stating very definitely just what the class is expected to do. If there is to be written work, this should be fully understood: if handwork or drawing or coloring, it should be made perfectly clear what is required; if memory material is asked for, it should be gone over, the meaning made clear to every child, and directions given as to how best to commit the matter. If outside references are assigned in books or magazines, the reference should be written down in the notebook or given the child on a slip of paper so that no mistake may be made. The purpose and requirement in all these matters is to be as definite and clear as would be required in any business concern, leaving no chance for failure or mistake because of lack of understanding. Less than this is an evidence of carelessness or incompetence in the teacher. 1. In order better to understand and to review the several types of lessons listed in the chapter it will be well for you to look through the lessons for the current quarter or year and determine to which type each separate lesson belongs. How many do you find of each type? Are there many lessons that will involve several of the types? 2. Which type of these lessons do you best like to teach? Is there any particular type that you have been neglecting? Any in which you feel that you are not very successful? What will you need to do to increase your efficiency on this type of lesson? 3. Do you feel that you are reasonably skillful in leading children to discover truths for themselves through the use of questions? If you find when questioning that the children lack the information necessary to arriving at the truth desired, what must you then do? What do you consider your greatest weakness in conducting the developmental lesson? 4. Does your class like review lessons? If not, can you discover the reason? Have your reviews been largely repetitions of matter already covered, or have they used such devices as to bring the matter up in new guise? Do you believe that review day can be made the most interesting of the lessons? Some teachers say it can, How will you go at it to make it so? 5. What application, or deductive, lesson have you taught your class recently? Was it a success? Have you ever discovered a tendency in your teaching to have your class commit to memory some great truth, but fail in its application to real problems in their own lives? What applications of religious truths have you recently made successfully in your class? 6. What is your method or plan of assigning lessons? Do you think that any part of the children's failure to prepare their lessons may be due to imperfect assignments? Will you make the assignment of the lessons that lie ahead one of your chief problems? FOR FURTHER READING Earhart, Types of Teaching. Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Hayward, The Lesson in Appreciation. Knight, Some Principles of Teaching as Applied to the Sunday School. Maxwell, The Observation of Teaching. CHAPTER XII METHODS USED IN THE RECITATION The particular mode of procedure used in recitation will depend on the nature of the material, the age of the pupils, and the aim of the lesson. For the church-school recitation period four different methods are chiefly used. These are: 1. The _topical_ method, in which the teacher suggests a topic of the lesson or asks a question and requires the pupil to go on in his own way and tell what he can about the point under discussion. 2. The _lecture_ method, in which the teacher himself discusses the topic of the lesson, presenting the facts, offering explanations or making applications as he judges the case may require. 3. The _question-and-answer_, or discussion, method, in which the teacher leads in a half-formal conversation, asking questions and receiving answers either to test the pupil's preparation or to develop the facts and meanings of the lesson. 4. The _story_ method, in which the teacher uses a story, told either in the words of the writer or in his own words, to convey the lesson. The story method differs from the lecture method in that the story recounts some real or fancied situation or occurrence to convey the lesson, while the lecture depends more on explanation and analysis. It may sometimes happen that an entire recitation will employ but one of these methods, the whole time being given either to reciting upon topics, to a lecture or discussion by the teacher, or to a series of questions and answers. More commonly, however, the three methods are best when combined to supplement each other or to give variety to the instruction. THE TOPICAL METHOD There is really no absolute line of demarkation between the topical and the question-and-answer method. The chief difference lies in the fact that the _question_ deals with some one specific fact or point, while the _topic_ requires the pupil to decide on what facts or points should come into the discussion, and, so make his own plan for the discussion. The plan of the topical method.--It is evident that the topical method of reciting will require more independence of thought than the question-and-answer method. To ask the child to "give the account of Noah's building of the Ark," or to "tell about Joseph being sold by his brothers" is to demand more of him than to answer a series of questions on, these events. The topical method will, therefore, find its greatest usefulness in the higher grades rather than with the younger children. This does not mean, however, that children in the earlier grades are to be given no opportunity to formulate their thought for themselves and to express their thought without the help of direct questions. This power, like all others, is developed through its use, and is not acquired at a certain age without practice. Even young children may be encouraged to retell stories in their own words, or to tell what they think about any problem that interests them; and all such exercises are the best of preliminary training in the use of the topical method. Narrative topics.--The easiest form of the topical method is that dealing with _narration_. Children are much more adept at telling _what happened_--recounting a series of events in a game, a trip, an incident, or an accident--than in giving a _description_ of persons, places, or objects. The Bible narratives will therefore afford good starting places for topical recitations in the younger grades. Older pupils may be called upon to discuss problems of conduct, or to make applications of lessons to concrete conditions, or carry on any other form of analysis that calls for individual thought and ability in expression. Report topics.--A modified form of the topical method is sometimes called the _report_ method, or the _research_ method. In this use of the topical method some special and definite topic or problem is assigned a pupil to be prepared by special study, and reported upon before the class. This plan, at least above the elementary grades, has great possibilities if wisely used. The topics, if interesting, and if adapted to the children, will usually receive careful preparation. Especially is this true if well-prepared pupils are allowed in the recitation to make a brief report to an interested audience of classmates. Care must be taken in the use of this method not to permit the time of the class to be taken with uninteresting and poorly prepared reports by pupils, for this will kill the interest of the class, set a low standard of preparation and mastery, and render the method useless. When a topic of special study is assigned to a pupil, care must be taken to see that the exact references for study are known and that the necessary material is available. The devoted teacher will also try to find time and opportunity to help his pupil organize the material of his report to insure its interest and value to the class. Avoiding a danger.--A danger to be avoided in the use of the topical method is that of accepting incomplete and unenlightening discussions from pupils who are poorly prepared. To say to a child, "Tell what you can about David and Goliath," and then to pass on to something else after a poorly given account of the interesting story is to fail in the best use of the topical method. After the child has finished his recitation the teacher should then supplement with facts or suggestions, or ask questions to bring out further information, or do whatever else is necessary to enrich and make more vivid the impression gained. This must all be done, however, without making an earnest child feel that his effort has been useless, or that what he has given, was unimportant. THE LECTURE METHOD The lecture method, if followed continuously, is a poor way of teaching. Even in telling stories to the younger children, the skillful teacher leads the pupils to tell the stories back to her and the class. Mere listening gets to be dull work, and the teacher who does all the reciting himself must expect lack of interest and inattention. There can be no doubt that many teachers talk too much themselves compared with the part taken by their pupils. It is much easier for the teacher to go over the lesson himself, bringing out its incidents, explaining its meanings, and applying its lessons, than to lead the class, by means of well-directed questions, to accomplish these things by their own answers and discussions. Yet it is a common experience, especially with children, that we like best any program, recitation, or exercise, in which we ourselves have had an active part. And it is also from the lesson in which we have really participated that we carry away the most vivid and lasting impressions. The lecture method not for general use.--Every teacher should therefore consider, when making his lesson plan, just what his own part is to be in the presentation of material. Some latitude must be allowed, of course, for circumstances which may arise in the recitation bringing up points which may need elaboration or explanation. But he should know in a general way what material he is to bring in, what applications he will emphasize, and what illustrations he will use. He should not trust to the inspiration of the moment, nor allow himself to be led off into a discussion that monopolizes all the time and deprives the class of participation. More than one church-school class has failed to hold the interest, if not the attendance, of its members because the teacher mistook his function and formed the habit of turning expositor or preacher before his class. The overtalkative teacher should learn to curb this tendency, or else give way to one who brings less of himself and more of his pupils to bear upon the lesson. This does not mean that the teacher shall never lecture or talk to his class. Indeed, the teacher who does not have a message now and then for his pupils is not qualified to guide their spiritual development. It means, rather, that lecturing must not become a habit, and that on the whole it should be used sparingly with all classes of children. It means also that all matter presented to the class by the teacher himself should be well prepared; that it should be carefully organized and planned, so that its meaning will be clear and its lesson plain, and so that time will not be wasted in its presentation. It will be a safe rule for the teacher to set for himself not to come before his class with a talk that is not as well prepared as he expects his minister to have his sermon. And why not! The recitation hour should mean at least as much to the church class as the sermon hour means to the congregation. THE QUESTION-AND-ANSWER METHOD Skill in questioning lies at the basis of most good teaching of children. Good questioning stimulates thought, brings out new meanings, and leads the mind to right conclusions. Poor questioning leaves the thought unawakened, fails to arouse interest and attention, and results in poor mastery and faulty understanding. To the uninitiated it appears easy to ask questions for others to answer. But when we become teachers and undertake to use the question as an instrument of instruction we find that it is much harder to ask questions than to answer them, for not only must the questioner know the subject and the answer to each question better than his pupils, but he must be able constantly to interpret the minds of his pupils in order to discover their understanding of the problem and to know what questions next to ask. Questions slavishly dependent on the text.--Not infrequently one finds a teacher who uses questioning solely to test the knowledge of the pupils on the lesson text. Probably the worst form of this kind of questioning is that of following the printed questions of the lesson quarterly, the pupils having their lesson sheets open before them and looking up the answer to each question as it is asked. The following questions are taken from a widely used junior quarterly, the Bible text being Luke 10. 25-37: "Who wanted to try Jesus? What did he ask? What did Jesus say? What reply was made? What questions did the lawyer ask? How did Jesus answer him? What is such a story called? What is the name of this parable? Where was the man going? Who met him? How did they treat him? What did they take from him? Where did they leave him?" No one of these questions appeals to thought or imagination. All are questions of sheer fact, with none of the deeper and more interesting meanings brought. All of them may be answered correctly, and the child be little the wiser religiously. Such a method of teaching cannot do other than deaden the child's interest in the Bible, create in him an aversion to the lesson hour of the church school, and fail of the whole purpose of religious education. The teacher must _be able to use living questions, and not be dependent on a dead list of faulty questions embalmed in print_. Questions arising spontaneously from the topic.--One who does not know his lesson well enough so that he can ask the necessary questions practically without reference even to the text, let alone referring to the printed questions, or asking questions in the words of the text, is not yet ready to teach the lesson. In order to successful teaching there must be a constant interchange of response between teacher and class at every moment throughout the recitation. This is impossible if the teacher must stop to read the text of the lesson, or take her eyes and attention away from the class to look up the question which is to come next. All such breaks of thought are fatal to interest and attention on the part of the class. As suggested in an earlier chapter, the teacher should have prepared a list of pivotal questions as a part of her lesson plan. With these at hand there should be no necessity for reference to the printed lesson to find questions during the recitation period. Let the teacher who is accustomed to slavish dependence on the lesson text for his questions really master his lesson, and then declare his independence of tread-mill questioning; he will be surprised at the added satisfaction and efficiency that come to his teaching. The principle of unity.--Questions that really teach must follow some plan of _unity_ or continuity. Each succeeding question must grow out of the preceding question and its answer, and all put together must lead in a definite direction toward a clear aim or goal which the teacher has in mind. One of the serious faults of the questions quoted above from the lesson quarterly is that they lack unity and purpose. Each question is separate from all the others. No question leads to the ones which follow, nor does the whole list point to any lesson or conclusion at the end. Such questioning can result only in isolated scraps of information. A series of questions lacking unity and purpose resembles a broom ending in many straws, instead of being like a bayonet ending in a point: and who would not prefer a bayonet to a broom as a weapon of offense! The principle of clearness.--The good questioner makes his questions _clear and definite_ so that they can not be misunderstood. That this is not always accomplished is proved by the fact that a child who is unable to answer a question when it is put in one form may answer it perfectly when it is asked in different phrasing. The teacher always needs to make certain that the question is fully comprehended, for it is evident that an answer cannot exceed the understanding of the question in clearness. To be clear, a question must be free from obscure wording. One primary teacher, seeking to show how each animal is adapted to the life it must live, asked the class, "Why has a cat fur and a duck feathers?" Just what did she mean for the child to answer? Did she mean to inquire why a cat has fur instead of feathers, and a duck feathers instead of fur, or did she mean to ask why each has its own particular coating regardless of the other? Another teacher asked, "Why did Jesus's parents go up to Jerusalem when Jesus was twelve years old?" Did he mean to ask why they went when Jesus was just at this age, or did he mean to ask why they went at all, the age of Jesus being incidental? One can only guess at his meaning, hence the answer could at best be but a guess. Questions to be within the learner's grasp.--If questions are to be clear to the child they must deal with matter within his grasp. These questions are taken from an _intermediate_ quarterly: "Why was the New Testament written? What was the purpose of the book of Revelation? Fit the epistle of Paul into the story of his life. What is meant by inspiration? What are the reasons for calling the Bible the most wonderful book in the world?" These questions are all clear enough so far as their wording is concerned, but they belong to the college or theological seminary age instead of to the intermediate age. While our questions should make our pupils think, they must not go over their heads, for one does not commonly think on a question whose very meaning is beyond his grasp! Some questions lack definiteness because several correct answers could be given to the question. Here are a few such: What did Paul claim concerning one of his epistles? What did Moses do when he came down from the mountain? What were the priests of the temple required to have? What happened when Jesus was crucified? What of John the Baptist? What about Ruth and Naomi? What did Judas become? No one of these questions asks any definite thing. To answer any of them the pupil must guess at the particular thing the teacher has in mind. Many answers may be given to each question which are as correct and which answer the question as well as the answer the teacher seeks from the pupil. Such questioning comes either from lack of clearness and definiteness in the teacher's thinking, with a consequent uncertainty as what he really does mean to ask, or else from a mental laziness which shrinks from the effort necessary to formulate the question definitely. Questions should stimulate thought.--Questions should be thought-provoking. Usually it is a mistake to ask questions that can be answered, by a simple _Yes_ or _No_, though there are occasions when this may be done. For example, children will not be required to think when asked such questions as, Was Moses leader of the Israelites? or Did Jesus want his disciples to keep children away from him? But they will require thought to answer Yes or No to such questions as, Should Esther have asked that Haman be hanged? or, Can God forgive us for a wrong act if we are not penitent? _Leading questions_, or questions that suggest the answer, do not encourage thought. To ask, Do you not think that God is pained when we do wrong? or What ought you to say in return when some one has done you a favor? is to leave the child himself too little to do in answering. The _alternative_ question, or the question that simply allows the choice between two suggested possibilities is also fruitless so far as demanding thought is concerned. In a question like, Was Paul a Gentile or was he a Jew? the bright child can usually tell from the teacher's inflection how to answer. In any case he will run an even chance of giving the right answer from sheer guessing. The order of questioning.--It is a mistake to ask questions in serial order, so that each child knows just when he is to be called upon. This method invites carelessness and inattention. There should be no set order, nor should a child who has just been called upon feel that he is now safe from further questioning. The element of uncertainty as to when the next question will come is a good incentive to alertness. The pupil who shows signs of mischief or inattention may well become the immediate mark for a question, and thereby be tided past the danger point. Usually the question should be addressed to the entire class, and then a pause of a few seconds ensue before the one who is to answer is designated. Care must be taken, however, not to wait too long between asking the question and calling the name of the one expected to answer, for attention and curiosity quickly fall away, and time and interest are lost and the recitation becomes slow. The reception of answers.--The teacher's reception of the child's answer is almost as important as the manner of asking the question. First of all, the teacher must be interested in the answer. This interest must be real, and must show in the manner. Not to look into the eyes of the child who is answering is to fail to pay the courtesy due one who is conversing with us; it is not only bad manners but worse pedagogy. The interested, sympathetic eye of the teacher has a wonderful power of encouragement and stimulus to the child, while an attitude of indifference on the part of the teacher is at once fatal to his enthusiasm. One of the besetting sins of many teachers is to repeat the pupils' answers after them. This habit probably has its rise in mental unreadiness on the part of the teacher, who repeats what the child has just said while getting ready to ask the next question. Besides being a great waste of time, the repeating of answers is discourteous, and is a source of distraction, and annoyance to pupils. Finally, we may say that good questioning on the part of the teacher leads to questions on the part of the pupils. The relations between teacher and class always should be such, that the children, feel free to ask questions on any points of the lesson, and they should be encouraged to do so. The teacher must have the tact and skill, however, not to be led away from the topic by irrelevant questions nor to be required to waste time by discussing unimportant points which may be brought in. It is to be feared that valuable time is sometimes lost in adult classes in discussing controversial questions that ought not to have been asked. THE STORY METHOD The use of the story method of instruction has been mentioned many times in the course of our discussion. It will still be worth while, however, to note a few of the principles upon which the successful telling of stories depends. First of all, a story is--just a story! It is not an argument, nor an explanation, not a description, nor a lecture in disguise. A story is a narrative of a series of events, which may be either real or imaginary. These events are so related as to form a closely connected unity from beginning to end, and they are of such nature as to appeal to imagination, interest, and emotion more than to the intellect. The successful handling of the story depends on two chief factors: (1) _the plan or arrangement_ of the story itself, and (2) skill in telling the story. The story itself.--The story must not be too long, or interest will weaken and attention will flag. It must have an interesting beginning, so that attention and anticipation are aroused from the very first sentence. "Once upon a time..." "A long time ago when the fairies..." "There once lived a king who..."--these all contain a hint of mystery or of interesting possibilities certain to invite response from children. The commonplace beginning is illustrated in a story in a primary leaflet which starts, "There was once a mother, who loved her child as all mothers do." There is no invitation here to imagination or anticipation, and the evident attempt to enforce a moral truth in the opening sentence detracts from its effectiveness. The major characters of the story should be introduced in the opening sentences. The story should possess a close-knit unity, and not admit incidental or supplemental characters or events that play no direct part in the sequel. It must be so planned as to proceed to a _climax_, and this climax should be reached without unnecessary deviations and wanderings. We all know that type of story in which the main point is all but lost in a multiplicity of unnecessary details. On the other hand, points necessary to the climax must not be omitted. The climax may be the end of the story, or an ending may be provided following the climax. In either case the ending should leave the mind of the listener at rest as to the outcome. That is to say, there should remain no mystery or uncertainty or unpleasant feeling of incompleteness. The ending of a story should be as carefully phrased as its beginning. Even if the story has a sad ending, which is usually not best in children's stories, it should have some element in it which makes such a conclusion inevitable, and so leaves the mind in a sense satisfied. Guiding principles.--The rules to guide in planning the story itself may, then, be stated as follows: 1. Decide on the _truth to be conveyed_, and make the story lead up to this. 2. Use great care to compel interest and anticipation through an _effective beginning_. 3. Plan to have the body of the story reasonably brief, and to make the main truth _stand out in a climax_. Eliminate all complications or irrelevant matter that does not aid in leading up to the climax. Elaborate and stress all features that help in making the impression to be attained in the climax. 4. Make the ending such as to leave in the mind a feeling that the story was _satisfactory and complete_. Telling the story.--The effective story must be _told_. It cannot be read without losing something of spontaneity and attractiveness. It cannot even be committed to memory and repeated; for here also is lacking something of the living glow and appeal that come from having the words spring fresh and warm from the mind that is actually thinking and feeling them. Most story-tellers find that it pays to work out carefully and commit to memory the opening and closing sentences of a story; the phrasing is so important here that it should not be left to chance. But the body of the story is better given extemporaneously even if the wording is not as perfect as it could be made by reading or reciting the matter. Before trying to tell a story before his class, the teacher should rehearse it several times. Nothing but practice will give the ease, certainty, and spontaneity necessary to good story-telling. Even professional story-tellers realize that they do not tell a new story well until they have told it a number of times. Perhaps this is in part because one never enjoys telling a story until he is sure he can tell it well, and so get a response from his listeners. And one never tells a story really well unless he himself enjoys both the story and its telling. One never brings the full effectiveness of a story to bear on his hearers unless he himself enters fully into its appreciation, and moves himself while stirring the emotions of those who listen. The right atmosphere required.--Second in importance only to preparing himself for the telling of the story is the preparing of the class to listen. The right atmosphere of thought, attitude and feeling should be created for the story before it is begun. A primary teacher was about to begin a story whose purpose was to show how God cares for the birds by giving them feathers to keep them warm, wings for swift flying, and cozy nests for their homes, when suddenly a little bird flew in through the classroom window and was killed before the class by dashing against the wall. Of course the right atmosphere for her story was then impossible, and she wisely left it for another time. The approach to the story can be made by some question or suggestion relating to the pupils' own experience, by a sentence or two of explanation, or by an illustration dealing with matters familiar to the class. But whatever device is used, the introduction should prepare the minds of the class to receive the story by turning their thought in the direction which the story is to take. It is also important that any new terms or unfamiliar situations which are to be used in the story, and which might not be understood by the class, shall be cleared up before the story is begun. Arts and devices of the story-teller.--The skillful story-teller will soon learn to use certain arts and devices to make the telling more effective. One such device is the use of direct discourse; that is, instead of telling _about_ the giants, the fairies, the animals, give them human speech and let them speak for themselves, like the bear in Little Red Riding Hood. Another effective device is that of repeating in the course of the story certain important words or phrases until from this repetition they stand out and become emphasized. Some of the best story-tellers make effective use of pauses, thus creating a situation of curiosity and suspense in the minds of the listeners. The pause must be neither too long nor too short, nor can any tell just how long it ought to be except from the response of the children themselves, which the teacher must be able to sense accurately and unfailingly. Much may be added to the effect of stories by skillful use of the various arts of expression, such as facial expression, voice tone, quality, and inflection, and gesture. The use of mimicry, imitation, and impersonation is also very effective if this ability comes naturally to the one who attempts to use it, but these would better be omitted than poorly done. Good stories sometimes lose much of their effectiveness by having the moral stated at the end, or by having an attempt at moralizing too evident in the telling of the story. A story which has a lesson inherent in the story itself will teach its own moral if it is well told. If the truth to be conveyed is not clear to the child from the story, it will hardly appeal to him by having it tacked on at the end. * * * * * We have, then, come to the end of our brief study of the teaching of religion. We have seen some of its principles and methods, and have discovered these at work in various illustrations and applications. It now remains to realize that these are all to be found in brief epitome in the work of the Great Teacher. For Jesus was first of all a _teacher_, rather than a preacher. And as a teacher he supplied the model which anticipated all modern psychology and scientific pedagogy, and gave us in his concrete example and method a standard which the most skillful among us never wholly attain. While we may love Jesus as a friend, come to him as a comforter and helper, seek to follow him as a guide, and worship him as a Saviour, it will be well for us now and then momentarily to place these relations in the background and study him just as a _teacher_. Jesus possessed an attractive, inspiring, compelling personality. People naturally came to him with their questions and problems. His quick sympathy, ready understanding, and unerring insight invited friendship, confidence, and devotion. He was ever sure of his "great objective," and whether he was teaching his disciples stupendous truths about the kingdom of God, or whether he was pointing the wayward woman the way to a reconstructed life, the welfare of the _living soul before him_ was his controlling thought. Jesus had a true sense of the value of a life, and no life was too humble or too unpromising for him to lavish upon it all the wealth of his interest and all the power of his sympathy and helpfulness. He did not feel that his time was poorly spent when he was teaching small groups, and many of the choicest gems of his teaching were given to a mere handful of earnest listeners seated at his feet. In all his teaching Jesus manifested a deep reverence for vital _truth_. He told his disciples, "The truth shall make you free." He was never afraid of truth, but accepted it reverently, even when it ran counter to accepted authority. Nor did Jesus ever lose time or opportunity in teaching trivial and unessential matters to his hearers; the knowledge he gave them was always of such fruitful nature that they could at once apply it to their living, Jesus's teaching carried over; it showed its effect in changed attitudes of life, in new purposes, compelling ideals, and great loyalties and devotions. Out of a band of commonplace fishermen and ordinary men he made a company of evangelists and reformers whose work and influence changed the course of civilization. Every person who responded to his instruction felt the glow of a new ambition and the desire to have a part in the great mission. Thus the teaching of Jesus entered into the actual life and conduct of his pupils. The truths he taught did not lie dormant as so much mere attainment of knowledge. They took root and blossomed into action, into transformed lives, and into heroic deeds of kindly service. The constant keynote and demand of Jesus's teaching was shown forth in his, "He that heareth these sayings of mine and doeth them"; he was never satisfied without the doing. Much is to be learned from the technique of Jesus's teaching, imperfect though the account is of his instruction. He always met his hearers on the plane of their own lives. He would begin his instruction with some common and familiar experience, and lead by questions or illustrations to the truth he wished to present. In this way, without the use of technical words or long phrases, he was able to teach deep and significant truths even to relatively uninformed minds. Jesus appealed to the imagination through picturesque illustrations and parables. He made his hearers think for the truth they reached, and so presented each truth that its application to some immediate problem or need could not be escaped. He was always interesting in his lessons, for they did not deal with unimportant matters nor with tiresome platitudes. He never failed to have definite aim or conclusion toward which his teaching was directed, and the words or questions he used in his instruction moved without deviation toward the accomplishment of this aim. He was too clear, too deeply in earnest, and too completely the master of what he was teaching ever to wander, or be uncertain or to waste time and opportunity. He felt too compelling a love for those he taught ever to fail at his task. Finally, Jesus was himself the embodiment of the truths and ideals he offered others. He lived the lessons he desired his pupils to learn. He rendered concrete in himself the religion he would have his followers adopt. His life was a lesson which all could learn and follow. 1. Which type of recitation method do you most commonly employ? Which do you like best? Do you combine the several methods occasionally in the same recitation? Do you plan which is best for each particular occasion? 2. To what extent do you use the topical method? Do your pupils succeed in discussing the topics with fair completeness? Do you always supplement with matter of your own, or expand the topics by asking questions when the discussion has been incomplete? 3. Stenographic reports of various recitations have shown that teachers often themselves use from two to three or four times as many words in the lesson hour as all the pupils combined. Do you believe that for young pupils this is good teaching? Have you any accurate notion of the time you yourself take? Do you talk too much? 4. Study your questioning in the recitation and determine as well as you can which of the principles of good questioning you are most successful in applying; which you are least successful in applying. 5. To what extent do you use the story as a method of instruction? How do you judge you would rank as a story-teller? To what extent have you studied the art of story-telling? Are you constantly improving? What difference have you noted in the interest of a class when a story is _told_ and when it is _read_? FOR FURTHER READING Betts, The Recitation. Hamilton, The Recitation. Home, Story-Telling, Questioning and Studying. St. John, Stories and Story-Telling. Houghton, Telling Bible Stories. INDEX ADOLESCENCE, subject matter for, 117 AIM, the the child determining, 30 of religious instruction, 42 religious habits as, 193 APPRECIATION as an aim of instruction, 86 cultivating religious, 194 APPROACH, psychological mode of, 52 ART in religious teaching, 72 types of in curriculum, 125 ASSIGNMENT of lesson, 197 ATTITUDES religious as aim, 45 to be cultivated, 76 toward the school, 77 the child's spiritual, 84 BIBLE, the the teacher's knowledge of, 23 the child's knowledge of, 68 continuing interest in, 82 as a source of material, 111 and reason, 167 CONSERVATION, religious, 33 CHILD, the as a Christian, 34 his concept of God, 59 his concept of religion, 63 the teacher's knowledge of, 25 as the great objective, 30 and his spiritual growth, 31 CHRISTIAN, the child, 34 CHURCH, the the child's knowledge of, 69 participation in activities of, 101 loyalty to, 88 DANGER POINTS in instruction, 161 how avoided, 162 DEDUCTION, in religion, 190 DISTRACTIONS freedom from in recitation, 155 avoiding unnecessary, 156 DRAMATIC, the children and, 176 use of in teaching, 176 DRILL, place of, 192 DUTY, as a virtue, 99 EXPRESSION religious in the home, 106 as a mode of learning, 44 in social service, 101 GIVING, training in, 104 GOD the child's concept of, 59 harm from wrong concepts of, 60 made the daily counselor, 100 HABIT preventing the, of defeat, 81 religious, as aim, 93 the growth of, 94 HEROES, appeal of to child, 89 HOME, religious expression in, 106 IDEALS, 85 IMAGINATION use of in religion, 170 how to appeal to, 172 INDUCTION, use of in religion, 187 INSTRUCTION response as a test of, 53 various tests of, 56, 107 INTEREST as a test of attitude, 79 in the Bible, 82 how to appeal to, 151 JESUS, an ideal teacher, 217 KNOWLEDGE religious as an aim, 44 of most worth, 58 of the Bible, 67 of the church, 69 LABORATORY, work in religion, 102 LESSONS Uniform, the, 134 Graded, the, 134 in text book form, 134 different types of, 183 LIFE requirements of for religion, 43 religious teaching and, 91 a code for, 95 LOTI, PIERRE, quoted, 61 LOYALTY, cultivation of, 88 MATERIAL, for instruction means instead of end, 35 adapting to child, 50 chapter on, 109 sources of, in in story form, 118 organization of, 126 MEASURES of success, 38 of child's progress, 39 MEMORY, the laws of, 177 training of, 179 METHOD of the recitation, 201 the topical, 202 the lecture, 204 the question-and-answer, 206 the story, 212 MUSIC in worship, 72 in the curriculum, 126 NATURE, as a source of material, 122 NEGLECT, and stress of subject matter, 51 OBEDIENCE, as a virtue, 97 OBJECTIVE, the chapter on, 30 for the teacher, 30 effect of on teaching, 37 ORGANIZATION, of material chapter on, 129 different types of, 130 PERSONALITY building of, 16 chart for, 18 PICTURES types of in use, 125 appeal of to child, 174 PLAN, the lesson, 141 PRESENTATION, and response, 55 PRINCIPLES, foundation in teaching, 42 QUESTION, the, method, 206 QUESTIONING, principles of, 207 RECITATION, the, 201 RELIGION the child's concept of, 63 related to living, 64, 92 and art, 72 influence of music in, 72 laboratory work in, 102 REVIEW, the, 196 SCHOOL, the church pupils' attitude toward, 77 the spirit of, 78 SCORE CARD, for personality, 19 SERVICE social as expression, 101 training in social, 105 SINGING, in worship, 104 STORY, the as lesson material, 118 other than Bible, 120 method of, 212 principles of telling, 214 STRESS, and neglect of material, 51 SUBJECT MATTER as means to end, 35 selecting right, 48 chapter on, 109 sources of, 111 TEACHER, the chapter on, 13 types of, 14 preparation of, 21 as a student, 27 TEACHING technique of, 148 measures of effective, 165 types of, 183 TEXT BOOKS, of religion, 139 THINKING required in religion, 165 and Bible study, 167 UNIFORM LESSONS, 134, 135 WELLS, H.G., quoted, 60 WORSHIP, in church school, 104 
39022	----	THE DRAMATIZATION OF BIBLE STORIES THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY NEW YORK THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI [Illustration: A SHEPHERD] THE DRAMATIZATION OF BIBLE STORIES AN EXPERIMENT IN THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF CHILDREN _By_ ELIZABETH ERWIN MILLER (_Elizabeth Miller Lobingier_) [Illustration] THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS COPYRIGHT 1918 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PUBLISHED APRIL 1918 SIXTEENTH IMPRESSION OCTOBER 1934 COMPOSED AND PRINTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A. TO MY LITTLE FRIENDS, THE CHILDREN IN THE DRAMATIC CLUB OF THE HYDE PARK CHURCH OF DISCIPLES, THIS BOOK IS LOVINGLY DEDICATED GENERAL PREFACE The progress in religious education in the last few years has been highly encouraging. The subject has attained something of a status as a scientific study, and significant investigative and experimental work has been done. More than that, trained men and women in increasing numbers have been devoting themselves to the endeavor to work out in churches and Sunday schools the practical problems of organization and method. It would seem that the time has come to present to the large body of workers in the field of religious education some of the results of the studies and practice of those who have attained a measure of educational success. With this end in view the present series of books on "Principles and Methods of Religious Education" has been undertaken. It is intended that these books, while thoroughly scientific in character, shall be at the same time popular in presentation, so that they may be available to Sunday-school and church workers everywhere. The endeavor is definitely made to take into account the small school with meager equipment, as well as to hold before the larger schools the ideals of equipment and training. The series is planned to meet as far as possible all the problems that arise in the conduct of the educational work of the church. While the Sunday school, therefore, is considered as the basal organization for this purpose, the wider educational work of the pastor himself and that of the various other church organizations receive due consideration as parts of a unified system of education in morals and religion. THE EDITORS CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii INTRODUCTION BY EDWARD SCRIBNER AMES 1 CHAPTER I. EDUCATIONAL AIMS IN DRAMATIZATION 5 II. THE METHOD OF DRAMATIZATION 9 III. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "JOSEPH" 17 IV. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "DAVID AND GOLIATH" 44 V. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "MOSES IN THE BULRUSHES" 52 VI. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "RUTH" 59 VII. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "QUEEN ESTHER" 68 VIII. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "ABRAHAM AND THE THREE GUESTS" 84 IX. THE DRAMATIZATION OF "DANIEL IN THE LIONS' DEN" 93 X. THE DRAMATIZATION OF NEW TESTAMENT PARABLES 98 XI. THE DRAMATIC QUALITIES IN A GOOD STORY 109 XII. BIBLE STORIES SUITABLE FOR DRAMATIZATION 113 XIII. STAGE SETTING AND PROPERTIES 130 XIV. COSTUMING 144 XV. THE ORGANIZATION OF A CHURCH DRAMATIC CLUB 152 INDEX 161 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A SHEPHERD Frontispiece FIGURE PAGE 1. PHARAOH'S COURT 42 2. A SCENE FROM DAVID AND GOLIATH 47 3. ESTHER AND MORDECAI 73 4. ESTHER DANCES BEFORE THE KING 75 5. THE KING HOLDS OUT THE SCEPTER TO ESTHER 79 6. QUEEN ESTHER PLEADS FOR HER PEOPLE 81 7. THE THREE GUESTS BLESS ABRAHAM AND SARAH 88 8. THE WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS 101 9. THE GOOD SAMARITAN 104 10. WATER JUGS AND OTHER CLAY UTENSILS 132 11. WOMAN CARRYING WATER JUG 133 12. ANCIENT WELLS IN PALESTINE 134 13. ANCIENT WEAPONS 135 14. A SHEPHERD'S SLING AND LOOM FOR WEAVING SLING 136 15. SICKLES 137 16. SCEPTER 138 17. SHIELDS 139 18. TRUMPETS 140 19. SIGNET RING 141 20. LAMP 141 21. EGYPTIAN DESIGNS 142 22. HELMETS AND CROWNS 143 23. A GROUP OF CHILDREN, SHOWING COSTUMES AND A TRUMPET 145 24. THE COSTUME OF ABRAHAM 147 25. TWO KINDS OF COSTUMES--THE RICH SHEPHERD AND THE SERVANT 148 26. COSTUMES SHOWING SANDALS MADE BY THE CHILDREN 149 27. COSTUMES 150 INTRODUCTION BY EDWARD SCRIBNER AMES This book is its own best commendation, for it is a most convincing record of an important experiment in education. It is the more interesting because it is a real contribution to educational method from the field of religious education, which too often only appropriates and imitates what has been achieved elsewhere. This experiment is founded upon the powerful dramatic impulse of children and upon the educative value of the natural expression of that impulse under the mutual self-criticism of the participating group. The function of the leader has been that of an unobtrusive member of the group contributing such suggestions from a wider experience and deeper insight as would naturally elicit and guide that criticism. That this fine art of teaching has been realized with unusual skill in this experiment will be apparent to the discerning readers of this record, as it has been by those who have watched the progress of the work itself. Too much emphasis cannot be given to the fact that the primary aim of this use of dramatization is the education of the children and not the entertainment of spectators, although, when such dramatization is rightly estimated, nothing could be more genuinely entertaining. Those who are expecting to find here ready-made plays for children, with directions for staging them, will be properly disappointed, while those who are seeking illustrations of vital methods of education through the cultivation and use of the dramatic impulse will be amply rewarded. The latter will appreciate the frank portrayal of the early and cruder efforts of the children and their own critical reactions due to further reflection and experimentation. These will understand something of the ability and patience that Miss Miller has employed in allowing the native impulse to develop naturally and to mature through the reactions of the children themselves. They will realize that the little people actually formulated the scenes and the lines of the dramas even if it required many weeks in some cases to do so; that it is better for the actors to make their own costumes and stage properties, however simple they may be; that it is more educative for each child to be familiar with all of the parts, and thus with the drama as a whole, than to be coached ever so cleverly to impersonate a single character; and that facility and power in dramatization are thus attained which are permanent sources of pleasure and understanding. It need scarcely be added that the biblical stories are exceptionally well suited to such use and that when so employed they yield their profound religious quality directly in deep and lasting impressions. The children who have been so fortunate as to belong to this dramatic club not only "know" these stories, but they have lived them in an intimate and durable experience. CHAPTER I EDUCATIONAL AIMS IN DRAMATIZATION Dramatization is not commonly recognized as a means of vitalizing the religious education of children. The public school has found it to be one of the most effective methods for enriching the pupil's ideas of given units of subject-matter and for leading to the establishment of permanent interests and of habitual modes of action. The use of dramatization in the school in order to accomplish these ends finds its justification in certain fundamental principles of teaching. Subject-matter is so presented that the important ideas stand out clearly. These ideas are mastered by utilizing them in some form of activity which leads to self-expression on the part of the children. Judgments are formed and conclusions are reached when children enter actively into a situation which presents a problem; ideas become their own through experience. Through dramatization children give expression to these ideas in the light of their own interpretation. The formulation of standards, the placing of values, and the realization of truths and ideals follow as direct results of actively entering into the life-experience of others. From a psychological point of view ideas and ideals, whether religious or secular, are developed according to the same general laws. Furthermore, the principles of teaching which are effective in the daily classroom must be equally significant in religious training. It follows, therefore, that dramatization and other forms of self-expression are as valuable in attaining the aims of the Sunday school as they are in teaching the curriculum of the day school. Through dramatizing a Bible story children come into a comprehension of the life-experiences of a highly religious people; they are forming their own standards and ideals through meeting and solving the simple life-problems of the Hebrews. Each child has as great an opportunity for self-expression through dramatizing a Bible story as that afforded through dramatizing any other story. He not only develops his individuality, but through this kind of work he must necessarily come into the realization of his place within the group, as is the case in all well-directed dramatization. The period is rapidly passing in which dramatics is looked upon by church members as being sinful and not in any way to be connected with the church. This view is a relic of a conception of religion in which all forms of freedom and pleasure were considered evil. People interested in religious education are now realizing that dramatization is not an activity foreign to children, but that it is an outgrowth of the play interest which is natural to all children. They are aware of the fact that dramatization becomes evident in the earliest stages of childhood through the desire of children to imitate in play the surrounding social activities. Many churches have already made use of these natural tendencies by incorporating organized play as one of their activities. Since dramatization is but a specialized form of organized play, and inasmuch as it can be used very effectively in vitalizing the religious training which all children should receive, it deserves a wider recognition and adoption. This book contains a description of a children's dramatic club which has been conducted as a part of the work of the Sunday school of the Hyde Park Church of Disciples, Chicago, Illinois, for the purpose of accomplishing the ends stated above. Before this dramatic club was organized a small amount of dramatization was attempted in certain of the classes during the Sunday-school period. The enthusiastic response from the children to this new phase of the work revealed the need for more of this kind of activity, and as a consequence it was decided to devote one hour each Sunday afternoon to the dramatization of Bible stories. The membership of the club included children ranging from six to fourteen years of age. The average attendance has been from twenty to thirty children each Sunday throughout these four years of the club's existence. This organization was attempted more or less as an experiment with the hope that definite results could be accomplished. The practical problems which have arisen, the details of method of procedure, and the results which have been secured will be discussed in the following chapters. Several of the stories are given in the dramatic form which the children have worked out. This is done for the sake of showing what kind of a result may be secured. It is hoped that these plays, as they are written here, will not be given to children to learn and act; such a procedure would be entirely contrary to the spirit and purpose in which this experiment is set forth. CHAPTER II THE METHOD OF DRAMATIZATION Two very different aims are revealed in the present-day employment of dramatization. Children are often required to give a dramatic production at some entertainment or social event. For this purpose a story is selected which has already been put into dramatic form. The parts are assigned by the leader, and the children are asked to memorize these parts in exact form and order. The children are then trained to give their parts according to directions. Throughout the preparation of the play the finished production is the goal of endeavor. In such instances as this the children are a means to an end, and their own training and development are usually sacrificed in the leader's attempt to secure a highly finished product. In contrast to the case just mentioned, dramatization is looked upon as an important educational factor in the development of children. From this point of view dramatization is utilized in developing on the part of the child intense and permanent interests in the words and deeds of noble characters, in developing power of natural expression in them as individuals and as members of a group, and in raising standards of action to higher levels by giving forceful expression to worthy ideals. These aims are realized through the use of informal methods which give the children abundant opportunity for initiative and choice. The children themselves prepare their dramatization under the guidance of a leader who has a vision of the results which may be secured and who is skilful in directing the activities toward these ends. The little dramatic club herein described adopted at the outset the point of view outlined in the preceding paragraph. Its organization was based on the belief that the development of boys and girls is a much more vital consideration than the development of a dramatic production. Throughout its history the chief purpose of the club has been to promote the growth of children through the free, spontaneous dramatization of Bible stories. In order to accomplish this aim, an informal method of working out dramatizations has been used. The public presentation of a play is only incidental to the children; there is no need for them to act out a story that has been dramatized by someone else. Their aim is realized in the joy of actually living the story over each time they play it, though this may result in the highest form of entertainment. That children should "speak lines" given them to memorize for the sake of entertainment is deadly--to the child as well as to the audience. There is some difference of opinion as to the value of the classic language of the Bible for children, and many advocate the use of modern or simplified versions. If, however, the children have made their own efforts to dramatize the story, using first of all their own words, it is easy to help them to adopt much of the beautiful classic language in putting the work into its final form. The biblical wording helps to give the play its proper dignity and atmosphere, at the same time acquainting the children with the exact language of a piece of good literature. The method of procedure which is followed in leading children to work out their own dramatizations varies slightly according to circumstances but in the main is as follows: A story is chosen by the leader which includes the elements essential for a good dramatization, and it is told to the children in such a way that the action or events are emphasized. Direct discourse is used in the telling, and an effort is made to develop simple and vivid mental pictures. The children divide the story into its most important pictures or scenes. They then suggest in detail what should take place in the first scene, and some of them are asked to act it out as they think it should be done. This first presentation is sometimes stiff and more or less self-conscious. The leader raises such questions as, "Which parts did these children do best?" "Why?" "Where can they improve it?" "What would you do to make the part better?" "What do you think should have been said here?" This leads to constructive criticism of the scene by the children themselves rather than by the leader in charge. Each child is eager to offer suggestions at this point and is anxious for an opportunity to give his own interpretation of the part by acting it out. He formulates his words as he acts. He forgets himself in the genuine interest which arises as he relives the experience of someone else. Each scene is developed in a similar manner. The leader encourages freedom in individual interpretation, yet she is ever keeping before the children the fact that they are trying to give a true portrayal of the characters or conditions. It is often valuable to have a discussion of individual characters for the purpose of securing clear ideas concerning them. After all have tried various parts and have offered many suggestions, they may be led to choose that interpretation which seems most adequate, or they may all work out the interpretation of a part which will involve the ideas of many. After the story has been played through a few times, each child should be able to assume any character. It is an essential part of this method to see that every child has a different part each time. Very often, when the play develops to this stage, some one child, or several, will suddenly become aware of repetitions in the scenes and will suggest that some scenes are unnecessary. It is then the time to refer to the number of scenes in a good drama, and to lead the children to realize that in any good play much is left to the imagination of the audience, and that only the essential scenes need be shown. By means of discussions the play is worked over again, and it is finally reduced to the three or four scenes that seem absolutely necessary. In many instances the dramatization needs no further development. None of the words have been accepted as definite, for, although the thought given is the same each time, exactly the same words are never said twice. The story is interpreted slightly differently with each performance. This interpretation, without obtaining a highly finished result, is best for short stories or incidents. Fables and parables may be used well in this way. The action follows continuously with the development of the thought. In the case of a story which has a more detailed plot and which involves more complicated situations the development may go further: the wording is carefully worked out by the children and the language of the Bible is employed. The words which are finally used by the children may be composite results developed by the group as a whole, or after they have gone as far as they can with them the leader, or a committee composed of several children with the leader, may suggest a final form which is good from a literary standpoint. Children either volunteer or are chosen by the others to take finally certain parts. There is a marked socializing influence evident in the fact that a child is chosen by the other children for the good of the group and not for self-aggrandizement or partiality toward a friend. It is always the case after a few rehearsals that each child knows every part and can easily adapt himself to the part of any character. There is no trouble about a substitute when one or two children fail to arrive. Each child has lived the story until it has become a very vital part of him. The finished product belongs to the children; they have developed it; it is not the production of someone else which they have learned by heart. At the final presentation of the play the children invite parents and friends. This is not thought of as a climax toward which they have been working; it is hardly more important than any of the rehearsals; it is simply an opportunity for others to enjoy the story with them. The encouragement of this attitude toward the public presentation of a play is important in that it does away with the self-conscious feeling of a child that he is acting before people, or that people are interested in him rather than in the character that he portrays. Much harm can be done by allowing a child to feel that he is "showing off" on a stage. This mode of procedure in developing a dramatization illustrates the general method which is employed in order to secure the results herein discussed. It should be helpful as a method which may be varied or built upon according to the circumstances. Detailed descriptions of exact modes of procedure in presenting different kinds of Bible stories to the dramatic club will follow. Costumes and stage settings have always been of the simplest nature and will be discussed at length in a separate chapter. In order that this method may be of greatest practical value to those who are unfamiliar with it, a summary may give the steps in logical sequence. This outline is not to be taken as unchangeable, but merely as a working basis for the beginner. 1. Select a story with care; then adapt it for telling. 2. Tell the story, emphasizing the essential parts. 3. Let the children divide the story into pictures or scenes. 4. Have a discussion of what should take place in each scene. 5. Let volunteers from among the children act out one scene as they think it should be done, using their own words. 6. Develop criticism by the other children with suggestions for improvement. 7. Have a second acting of the scene for improvement. 8. Let each of the other scenes be worked out in the same manner. 9. See that every child has the chance to try out many parts. 10. Play the story through many times. Change it often according to the criticism, until the children recognize the result as a product of their best effort. 11. With the help of the children change the words into biblical form. 12. Let the group assign definite parts to be learned for the final performance. CHAPTER III THE DRAMATIZATION OF _JOSEPH_ As will be noted in the following chapter, it is well in beginning dramatic work with children to use for the first efforts very simple stories. _Joseph_ is too long and complicated for an early experiment. We may begin our exposition of method with this story, however, as it illustrates especially well the details of the developing process. At the first meeting the story was told in terms that followed closely the Bible version. The children were asked to select the big events, or pictures, in Joseph's life. They readily spoke of his life in Canaan as a boy; his being put into the pit and sold to the merchants; his life in Egypt with Potiphar; the prison experience and the interpretation of Pharaoh's dream; the change of fortune in becoming ruler of the land; the famine and the visits of his brothers; and, finally, his kindness to his father and brothers in giving them a home in Egypt. The story was told to the children very much as follows: Jacob was an old man, too old to care for his large flocks. He sat in the door of his tent day after day, and sent his twelve sons off with the sheep and goats to find grassy fields. Now of all the twelve sons Jacob loved Joseph, a lad of seventeen years, the best. Joseph was next to the youngest and often stayed with his father while the older brothers went away. Jacob gave Joseph a coat of many colors and showed him often that he was the favorite. This made the older brothers very jealous of Joseph, and they began to dislike him. Once Joseph dreamed a dream, which he told to his brothers, and it made them hate him all the more. He said to them, "Hear, I pray you, this dream which I have dreamed: Behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and stood upright; and, behold, your sheaves stood round about and bowed down to my sheaf." Then his brothers said to him, "Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or shalt thou have power over us?" Then Joseph dreamed yet another dream, and he told it again to his father and brothers, and said, "Behold, the sun and moon and the eleven stars bowed down to me." And his father said unto him, "What is this dream that thou hast dreamed? Shall I and thy mother and thy brethren indeed come to bow down ourselves to thee?" And the brothers remembered what their father had said, and they wished that harm might come to Joseph. It happened soon after this that Jacob sent his ten older sons with the flocks to Shechem, a place some distance away where there was good grass. Now the brothers were gone for so long a time that their father became anxious and decided to send Joseph after them. He said to Joseph, "Do not thy brethren feed the flock in Shechem? Go, I pray thee, see whether it be well with thy brethren and well with the flocks; and bring me word again." So Joseph took money and food in his bag, and his staff in his hand, and went out to find his brothers. At Shechem there were no brothers to be seen. Joseph was wondering what he should do next, when he saw a man coming toward him over the field. "What seekest thou?" said the man. And Joseph answered, "I seek my brethren; tell me, I pray thee, where they feed their flocks." "They have departed from here," said the man, "and have gone to Dothan." Then Joseph went after his brothers and found them at Dothan. Now when the brothers saw Joseph afar off, they knew that it was he from his coat of many colors, and they plotted against him. One of them said, "Behold, this dreamer cometh. Come, now, let us slay him, and cast him into some pit, and we will say unto our father that some evil beast hath devoured him; and we shall see what will become of his dreams." Reuben, one of the brothers, felt more kindly toward Joseph than did the others and said to them, "Let us not kill him, but let us cast him into this pit that is near." Reuben thought that he would come back later after the brothers had gone and help Joseph out of the pit and take him to his father. When Joseph came to his brothers, they quickly took the coat of many colors from him and bound him and cast him into an old well which was dry. Then they sat down to eat bread. They had hardly become settled when one of them cried out, "Behold, I see a caravan! It is a company of Ishmaelites, with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going down to Egypt." Then Judah said, "Why do we slay our brother and conceal his blood? Come, let us sell him to these Ishmaelites, and let not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother and our flesh." The brothers were content to do as Judah had said. They drew Joseph up out of the well, and when the Ishmaelites came near they sold him to them for twenty pieces of silver. And the brothers went away to kill a goat so that they might dip Joseph's coat into the blood, that their father might think that he had been killed by some wild animal. Reuben did not know that Joseph had been sold, and returned unto the pit after the brothers had left. When he saw that Joseph was not there, he rent his clothes, and ran after the others, crying, "The child is not, and I, whither shall I go?" And when the brothers brought Joseph's coat to their father, they said, "This we have found, thou knowest if it be thy son's coat." And Jacob knew it, and said, "It is my son's coat; an evil beast hath devoured him." Then Jacob put on sackcloth and ashes and mourned for Joseph many days. Now the Ishmaelites brought Joseph down into Egypt and sold him to Potiphar, a captain of King Pharaoh's guard. And Joseph was faithful and served the Lord, and Potiphar saw that he could be trusted with great responsibility and made him ruler over his household. But Potiphar's wife grew jealous of Joseph and disliked him, and told Potiphar things which were untrue about Joseph. After awhile Potiphar began to believe his wife and he decided that Joseph was not a good man, so he had Joseph cast into prison. And it came to pass that the butler and the baker of the king of Egypt were put into prison at the same time that Joseph was there, and they were placed in his ward. One morning Joseph found them both very sad and he said unto them, "Wherefore look ye so sadly today?" And they said, "We have dreamed a dream and there is no one to interpret it." Then Joseph said, "Do not interpretations belong to God? Tell me your dreams, I pray you." And they told him their dreams, and he gave them the meaning thereof. To the chief butler he said, "Yet within three days shall Pharaoh lift up thine head and restore thee to thy place." But to the chief baker he said, "Yet within three days shall Pharaoh lift up thy head from off thee, and shall hang thee on a tree." And it came to pass that on the third day Pharaoh gave a feast to his servants, and he restored the chief butler to his place, but he hanged the chief baker, as Joseph had interpreted. At the end of two years Pharaoh dreamed a dream. He was greatly troubled, and sent for all the wise men of the land to tell him the meaning of his dream, but there was none that could interpret it unto Pharaoh. Then the chief butler spoke to the king and said, "I do remember this day, that when Pharaoh was wroth with his servants and put both me and the chief baker into the prison, that we each dreamed dreams in one night; and there was a young man there, a Hebrew, who interpreted to us our dreams, and they came to pass as he interpreted, for the chief baker was hanged and I was restored to my office." Then Pharaoh sent for Joseph, and they brought him in hastily out of the dungeon. And Pharaoh said, "I have dreamed a dream, and there is none that can interpret it, and I have heard say of thee that thou canst understand a dream to interpret it." And Joseph answered Pharaoh, "It is not in me; God shall give Pharaoh an answer of peace." Then Pharaoh said, "In my dream, behold, I stood upon the bank of a river; and there came up out of the river seven fat cows, and they fed in a meadow. And, behold, seven other cows came up after them, lean and ill favored; and the lean and ill-favored cows did eat up the fat and well-favored cows. Then I dreamed again, and, behold, seven full ears of corn came upon one stalk, and then seven ears, withered and thin, came up after them, and devoured the good ears." And Joseph said to Pharaoh, "God hath shewed Pharaoh what he is about to do. This is the thing which he is about to do: Behold, there will come seven years of plenty throughout the land of Egypt; and there shall rise up after them seven years of famine, and the famine shall consume the land. Now, therefore, let Pharaoh look out a man, discreet and wise, and set him over the land of Egypt, and let him gather up all the food during the years of plenty and lay it up in the cities, so that the land shall not perish in the famine." And the thing was good in the eyes of Pharaoh, and he said, "Can we find such a one as this is, a man in whom the spirit of God is? Forasmuch as God has shewed thee all this, there is none so discreet and wise as thou art; thou shalt be over my house, and according to thy word shall all my people be ruled." Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand and clothed him in fine linen and put a golden chain around his neck. Joseph went out from the presence of Pharaoh and went over all the land of Egypt. He gathered up the food for seven years, and laid up the food in the cities. And the seven years of plenteousness that were in all the land of Egypt were ended, and the seven years of famine began, and there was famine in all the lands. Then Joseph opened the storehouses and sold to the Egyptians, and other countries sent to buy grain from Joseph because they had stored none. Now in Canaan Jacob and his eleven sons were suffering from the famine. They heard that there was food in Egypt, so Jacob sent down all the brothers, except Benjamin, to buy food. When they came before Joseph and bowed themselves to the earth, they knew him not. But Joseph saw his brothers, and he made himself strange unto them, and treated them roughly, that they should not know him. And when they bowed before him Joseph remembered the dreams that he had dreamed of them. "Ye are spies," he said, "ye are come to see the bareness of the land." They answered him, "We are true men, we are no spies. Thy servants are twelve brothers, the sons of one man in Canaan; and, behold, the youngest is this day with our father, and one is not." "Hereby ye shall be proved," said Joseph, "if ye be true men; let one of your brethren be bound in the prison while ye go and carry grain to your father's house, but bring back your youngest brother to me." The brothers took the food back to Canaan, to their father's tent, and told him what the ruler in Egypt had said. Jacob mourned and was loath to let Benjamin, his youngest son, go back to Egypt with them. "My son shall not go down with you," he said; "for his brother is dead and he is left alone: if mischief befall him, then shall ye bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." But the famine was great in the land, and they had eaten up all the grain which they brought from Egypt. The brothers would not go down again until Jacob had consented to let them take Benjamin with them. And Judah said unto his father, "Send the lad with me and we will rise and go, that we may live and not die. I will be surety for him; if I bring him not back unto thee, then let me bear the blame forever." Then Jacob answered, "If it must be so, do this: take the best of the fruits in the land, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds and take double money, and take also your brother, and arise and go unto the man; and God Almighty give you mercy before the man, that he may send you away with your other brother and Benjamin." And the men took the present and double the money and Benjamin, and went down into Egypt, and stood before Joseph. When Joseph saw Benjamin, he ordered that the men be brought to his home, and that a feast be made ready, and that the other brother be brought out of the prison. But the men were afraid because they were brought into Joseph's home, and they bowed themselves to the earth before him and presented their gifts. Then Joseph was greatly moved and said unto them, "Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake? Is he yet alive?" And they answered, "Thy servant, our father, is in good health; he is yet alive." And they bowed down their heads. Then Joseph lifted up his eyes and saw Benjamin, his mother's youngest son, and said, "Is this your younger brother of whom ye spake unto me?" And he said to Benjamin, "God be gracious unto thee, my son." Joseph was so overcome by his love for Benjamin that he hastened out of the room where he could weep alone. And he washed his face and composed himself and commanded that the food be served. They all ate and were merry, and Joseph helped Benjamin to five times as much as he did the others. Then Joseph commanded the steward to fill the men's sacks with food, and to put each man's money back into his sack, and to put his silver cup into the sack of the youngest. As soon as the morning was light the men were sent away. And when they were gone out of the city and were not yet far off, Joseph sent a servant after them to search their sacks for his silver drinking-cup, and he sent word that the one who had it should be brought back to him. Now the brothers were greatly distressed and protested that they knew nothing of the cup. What was their astonishment at finding their money in their sacks and the cup in Benjamin's sack! Then they rent their clothes and returned to the city. And Judah came to Joseph and fell on the ground and said, "What shall we say unto my lord? or how shall we clear ourselves? God hath found out our sin, behold we are my lord's servants." Then Joseph said, "Get up and go in peace unto thy father; I shall keep for my servant only the man in whose sack the cup was found." And Judah came near to Joseph and besought him that he allow Benjamin to return to their father; he told him that he had promised his father to bring the lad back safely, and that it would kill the old man if they returned without Benjamin. "Now therefore, I pray thee, let thy servant abide as a bondman, instead of the lad." Then Joseph could not refrain himself, and he wept before his brothers and made himself known to them. "I am Joseph, do ye not know me? Is my father yet alive?" And the brothers were troubled, and they did not know how to answer him. "Come near, I pray you." And they came near, and he said again, "I am Joseph, your brother, whom ye sold into Egypt. Now be not grieved nor angry with yourselves that ye sold me hither, for God did send me before you to preserve your lives. Haste ye, go up to my father, and tell him that Joseph, his son, still liveth, and bring him down unto me." And Joseph fell upon Benjamin's neck and kissed him, and he kissed all his brothers, and they were astonished, for they knew now that this was Joseph whom they had sold. Now the word was spread over Pharaoh's house that Joseph's brethren had come, and it pleased Pharaoh greatly. He came in where they were and said unto Joseph, "This do ye: Say to your brethren that they are commanded to go back into Canaan, and to pack all their household goods, and to bring their father and their families, and all their flocks, and to return into the land of Egypt, for all the good of the land shall be theirs." Then the brothers were joyful, and gave thanks unto Pharaoh and to their brother, Joseph, and they left the city to go back to their father. And when they came unto Jacob and told him all, and showed him the wagons which Joseph had sent to bring him down into Egypt, his soul rejoiced, and he said, "It is enough; Joseph, my son, is still alive: I will go and see him before I die." The children decided that it would take a great many scenes in order to act out the story adequately. At first they mentioned seven or eight. One child was asked to describe the first scene as he thought it ought to be, and several others added to the description. Volunteers were then called upon to act it out then and there. The first scene was placed in front of Jacob's tent. Jacob is anxiously awaiting the return of his ten sons with the flocks. He becomes worried because they do not come, so he sends Joseph to seek his brothers. Joseph accepts the command and leaves the tent. This scene was acted very naturally and spontaneously by several groups of children. Each time it was changed, for no two groups of children interpreted the action or words alike. The children who were not acting were made to feel their responsibility also, for they were asked to make note of the best parts. A general discussion was held at the end of each presentation, in which the good points were emphasized and suggestions were given as to improvement. The criticism in all of this work comes for the most part from the children; the leader in charge directs it, but keeps from imposing her opinions. As the meetings of this dramatic club last but one hour, nothing more could be done than work out one scene at this first time. The children were asked to think the story over and to come the next Sunday prepared to suggest the second and third scenes in detail. At the next meeting the second and third scenes were worked out in the same manner as the first. The second scene places Joseph at Shechem. Here he meets the man who tells him that his brothers have gone to Dothan. In the third scene the brothers are seated on the ground eating and resting, with their shepherd staffs beside them; they begin to talk about Joseph and to tell of his dream and their hatred of him. Just at this point Joseph runs in and gives his father's message. He also tells of his experience in Shechem in not finding them there. Then the brothers take him and bind him and throw him into the pit. The caravan comes along and Joseph is sold and taken away. After the brothers depart, Reuben, not knowing that Joseph has been sold, comes back to the pit, hoping to help him out. When he finds the boy gone, he weeps and goes sorrowfully away. (A doorway which leads off from the stage at the back was used for the pit. There were no camels in the caravan; the men walked by.) During the next hour scenes which describe Joseph's life in Egypt were roughly blocked out. The children made up their words as they acted the parts. The language at this stage was very modern, but for the time being the emphasis was placed upon the thought expressed and upon the action. Several of the older girls volunteered to write out the first few scenes in order to bring the language into better form. At the fourth meeting these were brought in and discussed by the children. The following is a version of the first scene just as it was written by a girl of twelve years. It is given here that the contrast may be seen between this as a piece of work which may be made better and the final play at the end of the chapter. SCENE I _Jacob:_ It is time my sons are returning with their flocks. See if thou canst see them coming. [_Exit servant._] _First Lady:_ Yes, they have been gone a long time. We have only Joseph and Benjamin with us. [_Enter servant._] _Jacob:_ What didst thou see? _Servant:_ Master, I saw nothing of your sons. _Jacob:_ I shall send Joseph after them. Bring Joseph hither. [_Turns to another servant._] Bring a bag of food for him to take with him on his journey. [_Servants leave._ JACOB _looks away, hoping to see his sons._] _Jacob:_ I do not see them. What can be the matter? [_Enter_ JOSEPH _with servant._] _Second Lady:_ Joseph will be sure to find them. _Jacob:_ Joseph, my son, I am sending thee after thy brethren. Take this food to Shechem and bring thy brethren back to me. _Joseph:_ I will do as thou bidst. [JACOB _stands and puts his hand on Joseph._] _Jacob:_ May the Lord go with thee. END The third scene was written by a girl of eleven years and was as follows: SCENE III [_All brothers look down the road._] _All Brothers:_ What shall we do with him? _Seventh Brother:_ I know; let's kill him! _All except Reuben:_ Yea! Yea! _Reuben:_ Nay, do not kill him; let's put him in a deep pit. _Tenth Brother:_ Well, all right. [JOSEPH _appears; exit_ REUBEN.] _Joseph:_ Ah, I have found ye at last, my brethren. [_All grab_ JOSEPH.] _Joseph:_ What have I done to deserve this? _Fourth Brother:_ Get some rope! [_Exit sixth brother and brings some rope back with him. Eighth and ninth brothers bind_ JOSEPH _with ropes. All take hold of him and push him into the pit._] _Tenth Brother:_ But what shall we tell our father? _Eighth Brother:_ Let's tell him that Joseph was killed by a wild beast. _Ninth Brother:_ We will take his coat of many colors, which our father gave him, and dip it in the blood of a goat. _All:_ Yea! Yea! [_Seventh brother sees some merchants._] _Seventh Brother:_ I see merchants in the distance. Let's sell Joseph to them. [_One brother goes after the merchants, while the others bring_ JOSEPH _from the pit. Merchants enter._] _Tenth Brother:_ What will ye give us for this lad? _Merchant:_ I guess we can give ye about twenty pieces of silver. [_Merchants take_ JOSEPH _with them. Brothers go on their way. Enter_ REUBEN _after his brothers have gone. He runs to the pit._] _Reuben:_ Joseph! Joseph! Where art thou? The lad is gone. Whither shall I go? [REUBEN _goes away, sobbing and wringing his hands._] END * * * * * At the meeting when these were read the children began to criticize the length of the play. One little boy made the remark, "We keep telling the same things over; why can't we leave out that second scene? It is so short, and Joseph could tell his brothers in the third scene that he didn't find them at Shechem." This suggestion was readily accepted, and as a consequence the second scene was omitted. Then the entire group consciously worked on the play to see what parts were unnecessary. Several children had recently been to the theater and had seen some good plays. They told the others that there were few scenes and that there was much left to the imagination of the audience. The result was that this long-drawn-out play was cut down to three essential scenes. The first scene was placed at Dothan, and was much the same as the original scene iii. The second scene was placed at Pharaoh's palace where Joseph was brought to interpret the king's dream. The third represented the brothers coming to Joseph with Benjamin, the youngest, ending with Joseph's forgiveness of them and his sending for Jacob, their father. After these three scenes were decided upon, the older children were asked to begin writing them out in final form. At the fifth meeting of the club all the children sat in a circle with Bibles and pencils and paper and, together with the leader, they formulated the speeches, making them conform as nearly as possible to those in the Bible. The work that had been done outside was discussed and built upon. This part of the procedure did not take as long a time as it may seem, because the children knew so well what thoughts they wanted to express--they had lived the story so many times. They practiced after this, using the words they had decided upon. For the next meeting or two the children acted out the play, trying each time to improve it by better interpretations of the parts. The fact that they had learned definite words did not in the least check the freedom of the action or cause the play to lose the spontaneity which first characterized it, for the reason that the story had quite become a part of the children before they decided upon the set speeches. The question arose as to which children should take certain parts. In some instances several wanted to learn the part of one particular character. They were each given the opportunity of learning it, and then at the next meeting each acted it as best he or she could before the group. The other children were judges and decided upon the one who seemed to represent the character best. Whenever this method of choosing characters has been employed there has never been any hard feeling on the part of a child because he was not chosen. The justice of the choice is quickly recognized when it comes in this way rather than from the leader. There were many little children in this club who were scarcely old enough to learn a part or to say very much. They were easily worked into the caravan, or they took such parts as servants in Pharaoh's court. Each child was made to feel that one part was just as important as another and that those who had nothing to say were very essential elements because of their acting. Eight or nine meetings were needed before the play was entirely finished. The children had very simple slips for costumes which they had been wearing at each rehearsal. Bright-colored sashes and headdresses they brought from home. Pharaoh was more gaily dressed than the others. The child who took the part made for himself many ornaments from gilt paper. Very little attention was given to stage setting, what was used was extremely simple. A few of the older girls made designs from the Egyptian lotus to stand around the walls of Pharaoh's palace or to be carried by the servants. Colored illustrations of Bible stories by Tissot were suggestive helps in these details. The ten brothers made themselves shepherd staffs from limbs of trees. This small amount of stage setting and costuming was used at many rehearsals and was all that was necessary to produce the right atmosphere. As soon as the children felt that the play represented their best effort they invited their parents and friends and presented it before them one Sunday afternoon at the time for the regular meeting. It happened that a few days before the final presentation four of the principal characters were taken ill with measles and chicken-pox. Four others, who had not given special attention to these parts, but who had minor parts, assumed the important rôles and went straight through the play with no trouble whatever. The audience never knew the difference and the children thought that it was entirely natural that they should be able to do this. The play all the way through was characterized by a spirit of dignity and seriousness. As direct results of this work in dramatization it was noted that all the children had acquired a certain freedom of expression, a self-confidence, without conceit or too much sureness, and the ability to work harmoniously with the group. One or two timid children learned to forget themselves, and one overconfident child was helped by seeing that others could learn to do the part even a little better than herself. The children who took part in this little play of _Joseph_ will never forget it. Several years after the play was given they were frequently referring to it with great happiness. Joseph is one of their favorite characters because they have lived through his experiences with him. The following is the play as it was given in its final form. It is not to be taken as a play which may be given to children to be learned as it is; it is given here that there may be some idea of the standard which may be reached. JOSEPH SCENE I PLACE: Dothan. CHARACTERS: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph, Several Ishmaelitish Merchants. [_The ten brothers are sitting and lounging on the ground, eating bread._] _Reuben:_ Shall we stay longer in this place? Our flocks have fed well in Shechem and Dothan. Let us return again unto Canaan and to the tent of our father, Jacob. _Judah:_ Oh, why should we go back? Our father loveth us not! It is Joseph, our younger brother, that he favoreth! _Levi:_ Yes, this Joseph! This dreamer of dreams! He thinketh he is greater than we. He thinketh he shall rule over us! _Judah:_ Ye heard him when he said, "Hear this dream which I have dreamed: Behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and stood upright; and, behold, your sheaves stood round about, and bowed down to my sheaf." _Simeon:_ Ha! Shall he indeed reign over us? Or shall he have dominion over us? _Levi:_ Yea, and he dreamed yet another dream, for he said, "Behold, the sun and the moon and the eleven stars bowed down unto me." _Dan:_ What is this dream which he has dreamed? Shall his mother and father and eleven brethren indeed come to bow down themselves to him? _Simeon:_ Joseph and his dreams are hateful unto me! I was glad when our father said to us, "Take the flocks to feed in Shechem," for now we are free of him. _Levi:_ It seemeth to me that I see this Joseph, this dreamer whom we hate. He is yet afar off, but he surely approacheth us! _Reuben:_ Can it be he? _Dan:_ Yes, for I see the coat of many colors, the coat our father made for his favorite son. _Levi:_ Why should he come to us? Cannot our father trust the flocks to our hands without sending this Joseph to spy on us? _Dan:_ It is he! It is Joseph! _Simeon:_ What shall we do? _Judah:_ Our time is come. We despise him; let us slay him. _Reuben:_ Nay, thou dost not mean to slay him! _Several:_ Nay! Nay! _Judah:_ We must surely slay him. We must rid ourselves of this dreamer. Think how he said he should reign over us! Let us be rid of him! _Simeon:_ Yes, thou art right--we must slay him. _Several:_ Yea, yea, slay him! Destroy him! He shall dream no more such dreams! _Simeon:_ Behold, this dreamer cometh near! Come, now, and let us slay him, and cast him into some pit, and we will say, "Some evil beast hath devoured him," and we shall see what will become of his dreams. _Reuben:_ Let us not kill him. Shed no blood, but cast him into this pit that is in the wilderness, and lay no hand upon him. [REUBEN _goes away._] [JOSEPH _runs up._ GAD _lays one hand roughly on his shoulder._] _Gad:_ How comes it that thou art here? What is thy business? _Joseph:_ My father commanded me and said, "Go, I pray thee, and see whether it be well with thy brethren and well with the flocks; and bring me word again." So he sent me out of the vale of Hebron, and I came to Shechem. And you were not there, and I came on after you and found you here. What troubleth you? Hath aught happened to the flocks? _Simeon:_ Hear his tale! This dreamer of dreams! So he would reign over us, would he! Strip him of his coat of many colors! This favored son! [_Brothers bind_ JOSEPH _and cast him into the pit._] _Joseph:_ What have I done to deserve this? [_Brothers sit down again to eat their bread._] _Gad:_ Behold, I see a caravan! _Simeon:_ From what country? _Gad:_ It is a company of Ishmaelites, from Gilead, with their camels, bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going down into Egypt. _Judah:_ What doth it profit if we slay our brother and conceal his blood? Come, let us sell him to these Ishmaelites and let not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother and our flesh. _Several:_ So be it. _Gad:_ Hail the caravan, and bargain with these men. _Simeon_ [_salutes the head man of the caravan; the brothers listen attentively;_ GAD _brings_ JOSEPH _out of the pit_]: What wilt thou give us in exchange for this lad? We would sell him. _Merchant_ [_looks_ JOSEPH _over, then consults with his men_]: Twenty pieces of silver will we give for him. _Simeon_ [_to the brothers_]: These merchants will give us twenty pieces of silver for this dreamer. _All:_ Sell him! Sell him! [JOSEPH _is taken over by the merchants and they all move on. The brothers are dividing out the money._] _Gad:_ The lad is gone with the merchants, but what excuse shall we make unto our father? _Simeon:_ Say unto him that a wild beast hath devoured him. Here is his coat of many colors--we will kill a goat and dip the coat in the blood! Then our father, Jacob, will grieve for his son! _All:_ As thou sayest, so let us do! [_Brothers move off stage, discussing the money._ REUBEN _comes back. He runs and looks in the pit. He tears his clothes when he finds that_ JOSEPH _is not there._] _Reuben:_ The child is not, and I, whither shall I go? SCENE II PLACE: Egypt. In Pharaoh's palace. CHARACTERS: Pharaoh, Joseph, Wise Men, Chief Butler, Servants. [_Pharaoh is sitting on his throne; many wise men come in and bow down before him._] _Pharaoh:_ Arise, O wise men of Egypt! I have sent for you this day because of a dream which troubleth me. [_Men stand up._] _Wise Men:_ What is thy dream, O King? _King:_ I dreamed, and, behold, I stood by a river, and there came up out of the river seven fat cows, and they fed in a meadow. And, behold, seven other cows came up after them out of the river, ill-favored and lean. And the ill-favored and lean cows did eat up the seven well-favored and fat cows. Then did I awake, but the second time I slept and dreamed. And, behold, seven good ears of corn came up upon one stalk, and, behold, seven thin ears sprung up after them, and the seven thin ears devoured the seven full ears. And I awoke again, and, behold, it was a dream. Now, is there one among you who can tell me the meaning of these dreams, for my spirit is troubled because of them? [_The wise men in turn come out and bow before the king and say_]: _First Wise Man:_ O my lord King, thy dream troubleth me, but I am not able to interpret it. _Second Wise Man:_ O King, also, I cannot tell thee the meaning of thy dream. _Third Wise Man:_ Most gracious King, I, also, am unable to interpret thy dream. _Fourth Wise Man:_ O great Pharaoh, I regret that I am unable to help thee. _Pharaoh_ [_angrily_]: Are ye called the wise men of Egypt, and yet are ye not able to interpret a dream? [_The chief butler comes forward and falls before the king._] _Butler:_ O great King, I am only thy chief butler, but I beg of thee allow me to speak. _King:_ Speak, butler, what wouldst thou say? _Butler:_ O King, I do remember my faults this day. When Pharaoh was wroth with his servants and put me in prison, both me and the chief baker, behold, we dreamed a dream in one night, and there was a young man, a Hebrew, and we told him, and he interpreted to us our dream. And it came to pass as he interpreted unto us, for I was restored unto mine office and the baker was hanged. _Pharaoh:_ Send for this young Hebrew; bring him into my presence. [_Servant goes out for_ JOSEPH.] Butler, who is this boy that interpreted thy dream? _Butler:_ His name is Joseph, O King. He was brought down from Canaan by a caravan and was sold to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh's guard. But he displeased Potiphar, so he was thrown into prison at the time thy servants were there. [_Enter_ JOSEPH. _He falls on his face before_ PHARAOH.] _Pharaoh:_ I have dreamed a dream, and there is none that can interpret it, and I have heard say of thee that thou canst understand a dream to interpret it. [JOSEPH _rises._] _Joseph:_ It is not in me; God shall give Pharaoh an answer of peace. _Pharaoh:_ [_Repeats his dream to_ JOSEPH.] [JOSEPH _comes nearer to_ PHARAOH.] _Joseph:_ What God is about to do he sheweth unto Pharaoh: Behold, there will come seven years of great plenty throughout all the land of Egypt. And there shall arise after them seven years of famine. And all the plenty shall be forgotten throughout Egypt, and the famine shall consume the land, and it shall be very grievous. Now therefore let Pharaoh look out a man discreet and wise and set him over the land of Egypt, and let him appoint officers over the land. And let them gather all the food of those good years that come, and lay up corn under the hand of Pharaoh. And let them keep food in the cities. And that food shall be stored against the seven years of famine, that the land may not perish through famine. _Pharaoh:_ This plan seemeth good unto me. Can we find such a one as this is, a man in whom the spirit of God is? _The Wise Men:_ Nay, O King, he is most wise. _Pharaoh:_ Forasmuch as God hath shewed thee all this, thou shalt be over my house, and according to thy word shall all my people be ruled, only in the throne will I be greater than thou. See, I have set thee over all the land of Egypt. [_To his servants:_] Bring a golden chain, and fine raiment for this man. [_He puts a ring on_ JOSEPH'S _hand. When the clothes are brought they are put around him, the chain on his neck, etc._] _Pharaoh:_ Thou shalt ride in the second chariot and all my people shall bow the knee unto thee. [_All people in the room bow._] I am Pharaoh, and without thee shall no man lift up his hand or foot in all the land of Egypt. _Joseph:_ May the Lord God give me power to do his will. SCENE III PLACE: Pharaoh's palace. CHARACTERS: Joseph, His Eleven Brothers, Servants, Pharaoh. [JOSEPH _is seated on his high seat. A servant comes in._] _Servant:_ Master, the men that came down from Canaan to buy food of thee have returned and would have a word with thee. _Joseph:_ Bring them in. [_To another servant_]: Go see that a feast is prepared for these men. [_The brothers enter bringing_ BENJAMIN. _They all fall on their faces._] _Joseph:_ Arise! And have you returned bringing with you your youngest brother? _Reuben:_ O sir, we have brought our youngest brother; he is here. [BENJAMIN _is led forward._ JOSEPH _goes near and puts his hand on_ BENJAMIN.] _Joseph:_ And is this your younger brother of whom ye spake unto me? God be gracious unto thee, my son! [_To the brothers:_] Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake? Is he yet alive? _Levi:_ Thy servant, our father [_all bow heads_], is in good health; he is yet alive. [JOSEPH _turns away and begins to weep; he leaves them abruptly and walks to the other side of the room._] _Joseph_ [_to the servants_]: Cause every man to go out from me! [_All begin to leave the room, brothers included._] [_To the brothers. He walks quickly after them and holds his arms out toward them._] Stay! I am Joseph; doth my father yet live? Come near to me, I pray you. [_They come somewhat nearer and fall to the ground._] I am Joseph, your brother, whom ye sold into Egypt. Now, therefore, be not grieved nor angry with yourselves, that ye sold me thither, for God did send me before you to preserve life. For these two years hath the famine been in the land; and yet there are five years more. God hath sent me before you to save your lives. Haste ye, and go up to my father, and say unto him, "Thus saith thy son Joseph, God hath made me lord of all Egypt. Come down unto me, and tarry not. And thou shalt be near unto me, thou and thy children, and thy flocks, and thy herds and all thou hast. Oh, do you not see that I am Joseph that speak unto you?" [_He weeps again and turns away._] [Illustration: FIG. 1--Pharaoh's court] _Brothers:_ Joseph, our brother Joseph! Can he forgive us? [PHARAOH _enters here_] _Joseph:_ O King, these are my brethren, and from my father's tent. _Pharaoh:_ Say unto thy brethren: "This do ye: Go back unto the land of Canaan and take your father and your household goods, and come unto me. And I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat of the fat of the land. Now ye are commanded: This do ye: Take ye wagons out of Egypt for your little ones, and for your wives, and bring your father, and come, for the good of the land shall be yours." _One Brother:_ We thank thee, O great Pharaoh, and our brother Joseph. This is greater than we deserve. We will bring our father down straightway. _Joseph:_ Praise be to God who has done this good thing! END CHAPTER IV THE DRAMATIZATION OF _DAVID AND GOLIATH_ When beginning dramatic work with a group of children who have never had the training before, it is always well to select as the first story to be dramatized one that is short, simple in structure, and full of action. If children undertake a long story which involves complicated situations, they easily become discouraged and lose the joy and spontaneity which are essential elements in successful dramatizations. Fables, such as "The Boy and the Wolf" or "The Fox and the Grapes," are excellent to begin with, because they contain the necessary qualities which make up a good short story. Situations as simple as those which are presented in these fables are entered into with great freedom, and they seem to pave the way for more ambitious dramatizations. The story of _David and Goliath_ is short, simple, and yet contains vivid action. It was chosen as one of the first stories to be given to the dramatic club because of these qualities. After the children had gone through the experience of dramatizing it they had gained a self-confidence and a realization of their own power in interpreting a story through dramatization. The methods employed in presenting _David and Goliath_ were much the same as those described in connection with _Joseph._ The point that must be kept in mind in all of this work is that the dramatization of a story begins with the action and that the words are developed. The play is never written first and acted afterward. While telling the story the leader placed much emphasis upon the activities and ideals of the shepherd life of the Hebrews in the time of David. The children made their own armor--helmets, swords, shields--from cardboard and colored papers. Pictures and descriptions which they secured helped them to get correct ideas as to shapes and decorations. The costumes were simple little slips that could be belted in at the waist, and came only to the knees. The children helped to plan and make them. David made his shepherd staff from a limb of a tree, and the soldiers made their spears by fastening gilded points to long sticks. A question arose as to how the sling was made. The children found, upon looking up this point, that the sling was woven from different colored wools. From a good picture they constructed looms from cardboard and actually wove several slings like David's. Fig. 14 shows a diagram of the loom as the children worked it out. A very great value was derived from this construction work, in that it came entirely from the children; it was an outgrowth of their genuine interest in the subject. They were reliving the same experiences and solving the same problems that had confronted David. The gentle spirit of David had a direct influence upon the whole group. It made no difference what part a child interpreted--whether that of Goliath or of one of the brothers--it was evident that David's high ideals and sweetness of character called forth admiration. Fig. 2 gives one of the scenes from _David and Goliath._ The play follows as it was given. DAVID AND GOLIATH CHARACTERS: David, David's Three Brothers, King Saul, Goliath, Israelite Soldiers, Philistine Soldiers. SCENE I. THE CHALLENGE PLACE: On the battlefield. _First Brother:_ Have ye seen this Philistine who is come up, this giant who has defied the armies of the living God? _Second Brother:_ Who has seen him? _Third Brother:_ I have seen him; he is verily a giant. His height is six cubits and a span. He weareth an helmet of brass upon his head, and he is armed with a coat of mail, and he hath greaves of brass upon his legs, and the staff of his spear is like the weaver's beam; and one bearing a shield goeth before him. Our soldiers are truly afraid. They flee as he approacheth. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--A scene from _David and Goliath_] _Goliath_ [_apart from the king and soldiers_]: Why are ye come out to gather your armies to battle? Am I not a Philistine, and ye servants to Saul? Choose you a man for you, and let him come down to me. If he be able to fight with me, and to kill me, then will we be your servants; but if I prevail against him and kill him, then shall ye be our servants and serve us. I defy the armies of Israel this day; give me a man, that we may fight together. [_Some of the soldiers turn and flee._] _Saul:_ Hear the words of this Philistine. I know not what we can do. Have we no man among us with the strength or boldness to fight this giant? I will enrich him with great riches. _Second Brother:_ In truth, he is a mighty giant, O King. Our soldiers are greatly dismayed; no one will accept this challenge. [_The king and two soldiers go out. Enter_ DAVID. _He runs up to his brothers and salutes them._] _First Brother:_ This is David, our younger brother! How cometh it that thou art here? _Second Brother:_ I thought we left thee tending the sheep. _Third Brother:_ What news dost thou bring of our father? Is all well with him? _David:_ My father commanded me, saying, "Take now for thy brethren this parched corn and these ten loaves, and run to the camp of thy brethren; and carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand, and look how thy brethren fare." And I rose up early in the morning, and left the sheep with a keeper, and came as my father commanded. [_Brothers take food from_ DAVID.] _Goliath:_ Why are ye come out to gather your armies to battle? Am I not a Philistine, and ye servants to Saul? Choose you a man for you and let him come down to me. If he be able to fight with me and to kill me, then will we be your servants; but if I prevail against him and kill him, then shall ye be our servants and serve us. I defy the armies of Israel this day; give me a man, that we may fight together. [DAVID _listens. The soldiers seem disturbed and frightened._] _David:_ What meaneth this? _Soldier_ [_walks up to_ DAVID]: Have ye seen this man who is come up? Surely to defy Israel is he come up. And it shall be that the man who killeth him the king will enrich with great riches, and will give him his daughter, and make his father's house free in Israel. _David:_ Who is this Philistine that he should defy the armies of the living God? _First Brother_ [_showing anger against_ DAVID]: Why camest thou hither? And with whom hast thou left those few sheep in the wilderness? I know thy pride, and the naughtiness of thy heart; for thou art come down that thou mightest see the battle. _David:_ What have I now done? [_He turns from his brothers and speaks to the people._] What shall be done with the man that killeth this Philistine and taketh away the reproach from Israel? For who is this Philistine that he should defy the armies of the living God? I will fight him, and if I prevail against him and kill him, then will the Philistines be our servants and serve us. The Lord God of Israel will deliver him into my hands. _Soldiers:_ Saul, the king, shall hear these words! SCENE II. DAVID BEFORE SAUL PLACE: Saul's tent. _David_ [_comes in and salutes the king_]: Let no man's heart fail because of this giant; thy servant will go and fight with this Philistine. _Saul:_ Thou art not able to go against this Philistine to fight with him; for thou art but a youth, and he a man of war from his youth. _David:_ Thy servant kept his father's sheep, and when there came a lion or a bear, and took a lamb out of the flock, I went out after him and smote him, and delivered it out of his mouth; and when he rose up against me, I caught him by the beard and smote him and slew him. Thy servant slew both the lion and the bear; and this Philistine shall be as one of them, seeing he hath defied the armies of the living God. The Lord that hath delivered me out of the paw of the lion, and out of the paw of the bear, he will deliver me out of the hand of this Philistine. _Saul:_ Go, and the Lord go with thee. [_To soldiers_]: Bring forth armor; this youth must be ready to meet the foe. [_The soldiers bring armor._ SAUL _puts the armor, a helmet and a coat of mail, on_ DAVID. DAVID _puts on his sword, then walks a few steps. He suddenly throws the sword down and begins to take off the armor._] _David:_ I cannot go with these, for I have not proved them. [_He takes the armor off and keeps only his shepherd's staff and sling._] The Lord that delivered me out of the paw of the lion, and out of the paw of the bear, he will deliver me out of the hand of this Philistine. [_He bows to the king and goes out._] SCENE III. THE BATTLE PLACE: The battlefield. [DAVID _picks up five smooth stones and puts them into his shepherd bag._ GOLIATH _comes toward him. He is dressed in armor, and the man that bears his shield comes before him._ GOLIATH _looks surprised and disgusted when he sees_ DAVID.] _Goliath:_ Am I a dog that thou comest to me with staves? Come to me and I will give thy flesh unto the fowls of the air and unto the beasts of the field. _David:_ Thou comest to me with a sword, and with a spear and with a shield; but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, whom thou hast defied. This day will the Lord deliver thee into mine hand; and I will smite thee, and take thy head from thee; and I will give the bodies of the Philistines unto the fowls of the air, and unto the beasts of the field, that all may know that there is a God in Israel. And all this assembly shall know that the Lord saveth not with the sword and with the spear, for the battle is the Lord's and he will give you into our hands! [DAVID _puts his hand into his bag and takes out a stone and slings it, so that it hits the giant in the forehead. The giant falls. The Philistines flee._ DAVID _stands with his foot on the body of the giant._] _Israelite Soldiers with David:_ The battle is the Lord's! END CHAPTER V THE DRAMATIZATION OF _MOSES IN THE BULRUSHES_ The method of presenting the story of _Moses in the Bulrushes_ differed somewhat from that employed with _Joseph._ There was little need to tell the story at the beginning, for every child already knew it in detail. Consequently the leader had the children tell most of it, while she supplemented and directed attention to important parts. In this case the entire play was planned roughly before any of it was acted. The story was criticized by the children as to its organization and unity, and as a result they made up an ending (Act III) which they felt was needed to make the story complete. Experience with the other plays had led the children to feel the necessity for having a satisfactory ending after the climax. At the second meeting several girls brought in the scenes as they had written them out. They had tried to embody the points which the children had decided upon as the general plan of the play. The final play varies very little from these scenes thus written by the girls themselves. There was no difficulty in solving the problem as to what they would do for a baby in the first part of the play. Many dolls were brought in, and the choice fell upon the one that received the largest number of votes because of his likeness to the baby Moses. A woven basket served for the cradle of bulrushes. There were many rehearsals when there was no doll or cradle, but the children never felt the lack. Their imaginations can supply all needs. A few big Egyptian designs were made for the first and last scenes, which were placed in the king's court. These were fastened on the walls and around the king's seat, as was done in the play of _Joseph._ Before the play was given before parents and friends the children decided to call it _The Childhood of Moses._ An older boy in the church printed programs for the occasion that the audience might better understand the play. They read as follows: THE CHILDHOOD OF MOSES Dramatized and Presented by the Children's Dramatic Club of the Hyde Park Church of Disciples CHARACTERS PHARAOH King of Egypt PRINCESS Pharaoh's Daughter MOSES A Hebrew Boy HEBREW WOMAN Mother of Moses MIRIAM Sister of Moses AARON Brother of Moses WISE MEN Advisers of Pharaoh Soldiers, Attendants to the Princess, Servants SYNOPSIS OF SCENES Act I. Pharaoh orders the killing of Hebrew boys. Act II, Scene 1. In the home of a Hebrew family. Scene 2. A Hebrew mother hides her child among the bulrushes. Scene 3. The child is found by Pharaoh's daughter. Act III. Moses is brought to Pharaoh's court. The following is the play as it was given: THE CHILDHOOD OF MOSES ACT I CHARACTERS: King, Wise Man, Chief Adviser, Queen, Maids, and Soldiers. _King:_ Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us do wisely with them lest they rise up and make war against us. _Chief Adviser:_ What more can we do than we have already done? We have made their lives bitter with hard service, and we have made them carry our brick and mortar and work in our fields. _Wise Man:_ O King Pharaoh, I beg thee to let me speak. _King:_ Speak, Wise Man. _Wise Man:_ O King, I pray thee to be kind to these people. When these Hebrews first came down from the land of Canaan, a young man named Joseph saved our land from great famine. These Israelites are his children's children and we should treat them kindly. _King:_ Treat them kindly! We have been kind to them long enough; we must destroy them. I will command that every Hebrew boy baby be killed! [_Exeunt_ KING _and courtiers followed by soldiers._] _Princess:_ O most gracious father, have mercy upon them. ACT II SCENE I PLACE: The home of a Hebrew family. CHARACTERS: Moses, Mother of Moses, Miriam, Aaron. [_The mother is singing to the baby in her lap._ AARON _is playing on the floor._ MIRIAM _runs in._] _Miriam:_ O mother! The king has commanded that all the boy babies be thrown in the river! How can we save our baby? _Mother:_ Where shall we take him? I have hidden him for these three months, but he is so big now and his cries are so loud that they will be sure to find him wherever we go. _Miriam:_ Come quickly, mother; we will go to the river and hide him nearby. Pharaoh cannot find him there, for he will think that he has been thrown in the water. _Mother:_ O my poor baby! [_The three run out._] SCENE II PLACE: The river bank. CHARACTERS: Moses, Mother of Moses, Miriam. [_The mother appears with the baby in her arms._ MIRIAM _follows._] _Miriam:_ O mother! We can hide him in these tall grasses! _Mother:_ But I must have something to put him in. Gather these rushes and I will weave a little cradle for him. [_They both pick bulrushes and the mother weaves the basket._] _Mother:_ How can I leave him here alone? My little daughter, will you stay and watch and bring me word quickly if anything happens? We will hide the baby in this basket among the flags, here at the edge of the water. _Miriam:_ Good! Mother, I will hide nearby and see that no harm comes to our baby. [_The mother kisses the baby and puts him in the basket, then rises and turns away._] _Mother:_ Keep watch until I return. [_Exit mother;_ MIRIAM _hides._] SCENE III PLACE: The river bank. CHARACTERS: The Princess, Her Maidens, Soldiers, Moses, Mother of Moses, and Miriam. [_Several soldiers walk across the stage. Enter_ PRINCESS _and her maids._] PRINCESS [_looking around_]: What beautiful clear water for my bath! _First Maid:_ Yea, Princess. Will you bathe here? [_A baby's cry is heard._] _Princess:_ What is it I hear? It sounds like a baby crying! Look about, maidens! Is there something here? [_All look about._] _Second Maid_ [_finds baby; all come running up to her_]: See what is here! _Princess:_ A baby hidden in a basket! Bring him to me! [_Third maid hands basket to_ PRINCESS, _who takes the baby out._] _Princess:_ Oh, what a beautiful baby! He is mine, for I have found him! A Hebrew baby! His mother has hidden him in the bulrushes to save his life. [MIRIAM _runs out._] _Miriam:_ Lady, would you like a nurse for that baby? _Princess:_ A nurse for him? Yes, I do need a nurse. _Miriam:_ I can get you one very quickly. _Princess:_ Go bring her, child; I will wait here. [MIRIAM _goes away running._] _Princess:_ He is my boy, and I will call him Moses, for I drew him out of the water. [_Enter the mother and_ MIRIAM.] _Miriam:_ Here is the nurse, lady. _Princess:_ Will you take good care of this baby for me until he becomes a youth? I will pay you wages. I am the Princess, King Pharaoh's daughter. I will see that he is educated as a prince in my father's court. [PRINCESS _and her maids go out._] _Mother:_ My boy is saved! My boy is saved! ACT III SCENE I PLACE: Pharaoh's palace. CHARACTERS: King Pharaoh, Princess, Maids, Soldiers, Wise Men, Mother of Moses, Moses, Miriam, Aaron. [_King sits on his throne, wise men and soldiers around. Enter messenger._] _Messenger:_ O King, the Princess awaits without and would have speech with thee. _King:_ Bid her enter. [_Enter_ PRINCESS _and a few attendants._] _Princess:_ O gracious King and father, I have a request, and I beg that you grant it. _King:_ Speak, my Princess; do I not always grant what you ask? _Princess:_ Yes, father, and I know that you will grant me this. Several years ago I adopted a son and I ask that you allow him to be educated in your palace. _King:_ Adopted a son! What can be the meaning of this? I never heard of this! Where did you get the boy? _Princess:_ I found him, a little baby, hidden among the rushes by the river bank. _King:_ Why was he hidden? That is strange! _Princess:_ He is a Hebrew boy, O father. _King:_ A Hebrew boy! Did I not command that every Hebrew boy should be killed? _Princess:_ I must take the blame; I had his life spared. Will you not let him be brought here? _King:_ No, I will not! No Hebrew boy shall be brought here! _Princess:_ If you would only see him, he is so beautiful, you would love him as I do. He is without; permit me to show him to you. _King:_ Bring him in. [_Maid goes to get_ MOSES. MOSES _enters with his mother_, MIRIAM, _and_ AARON. PRINCESS _leads him to the_ KING.] _Princess:_ This is my son. Is he not a wonderful boy? _King:_ He is fair to look upon, but yet he is a Hebrew. _Princess:_ O my father, forget that he is a Hebrew and remember only that he is my son. _King:_ O my Princess, for your sake, I accept this boy. I leave his training to you. May he grow up to be a prince worthy of the house of Pharaoh. END CHAPTER VI THE DRAMATIZATION OF _RUTH_ _Ruth_ was dramatized by the club during the fall of the year because it is a story of the Hebrew harvest time. In order fully to interpret the life of Ruth it was necessary for the children to secure information concerning the barley harvest in ancient Palestine, and also to become familiar with the old customs involved in the story. Many children brought pictures which illustrated the points under discussion, and some of them contributed by telling what they had been able to read at home. Independence on the part of the children in looking up data was always encouraged by the leader; the information which she had to give enriched and supplemented that which was brought in by them. During the process of this dramatization constant comparisons were made with our own harvest time, and the study of the Hebrew harvest feasts and festivals served to increase the understanding and appreciation of our one harvest festival at Thanksgiving. The method of procedure in presenting this story for dramatization follows closely that described in connection with _Joseph._ The Bible version of _Ruth_ is so simply and beautifully told that it needed very little adapting. When it was first given to the children parts of it were read and parts were told by the leader. Many scenes were then planned, but these were soon cut down to the three necessary scenes. From the first the children used much of the Bible language as they acted the story. The beauty and the poetry of it caused them to remember readily the exact wording in many cases. Seven meetings were required before the group was satisfied with the play as a product of their best effort. As was the case with the other plays given by the club, the children who were to take the parts in the final presentation were selected by the group and not by the leader in charge. Every child knew each part and could represent any character, but children were chosen for specific parts because they seemed to represent certain characters unusually well. The dramatization of this story called for much construction work. The reapers made their sickles of cardboard and covered them with gold or silver paper or painted them. They found pictures which gave the shape, and from these they cut the patterns (Fig. 15). One little girl brought a real sickle which had once belonged to a Filipino. It gave her happiness to reap with it, but the others were just as content to use the sickles from cardboard. The need for a harvest song was felt, and in consequence a little song that most of the children knew was decided upon. The reapers sang it as they reaped and while Boaz was walking through his grain field. There was no real grain nor anything to represent it, the children deciding to leave this to the imagination. The action of the reapers and the words that were spoken gave evidence enough that grain was growing there. There was very little stage setting used in the play. The stage was bare in the first scene in order to represent the road from Moab to Bethlehem. In the second scene a big earthenware jar was needed from which the reapers could drink. The third scene required a box which represented a seat by the city gate; the door which led off the stage at the side was used for the gate. The action and the grouping of people in the third scene required careful planning by the children. Women came through the gate and passed down the street with water jugs on their shoulders; men gathered in groups to discuss bits of news; Boaz walked toward the gate and sat waiting for his kinsman. Finally, when the cousin appeared, Boaz hailed him and had him sit down. The citizens who were standing near were asked to be witnesses in this business transaction. That one man should take off his shoe and hand it to another was a custom that created much interest among the children. They began to examine pictures for the kinds of shoes that were worn, and this led many of them to wear their own sandals, which approached most nearly to those seen in the pictures. The children who did not own sandals tried to make them with cardboard and strips of cloth (see Fig. 26). The costuming was very simple. The reapers wore the same little brown slips which had been worn in every play that had been given. Boaz enriched his costume by wearing brighter colors in his headdress and girdle and by wearing a slip that was longer than the others. The play follows as it was finally given. RUTH SCENE I PLACE: In Moab, on the road to Judah. CHARACTERS: Naomi, Ruth, Orpah. SETTING: Naomi, Ruth, Orpah, are on the road going toward Judah. [NAOMI _stops and faces about._] _Naomi:_ Turn back, my daughters-in-law; return each of you to your mother's house. You have come with me far enough. I must take the rest of my journey alone. _Orpah and Ruth:_ Oh, do not send us back! We will not leave thee! _Naomi:_ Yea, you must leave me now. I am going home to my own country and my own people, to Bethlehem, Judah! It is ten long years since I left there to come to dwell in your land of Moab. But now that the famine is over I must return. _Orpah:_ But, Naomi, our mother-in-law, we love thee. Do not thou leave us! _Naomi:_ I must go. I came to this country happy--with my husband and two sons--but misfortune has dealt bitterly with me. My husband first died, and now my two sons, your husbands, are taken from me. I am old and sad. I have no one left to comfort me. I must go back to mine own people. Leave me, my daughters, and God bless you! [_Both daughters weep._] _Orpah_ [_weeping and kissing_ NAOMI]: If thou wilt be happier, then thou must leave us. I will return to my mother's house as thou sayest. [_She goes off slowly, weeping._] [RUTH _still stands by weeping. Takes hold of_ NAOMI'S _hand._] _Naomi:_ Behold, Orpah, thy sister-in-law, has gone back to her people and unto her gods; return thou after thy sister-in-law. _Ruth:_ Intreat me not to leave thee, nor to return from following after thee: for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge; thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God: where thou diest, will I die, and there will I be buried: the Lord do so to me, and more also, if aught but death part thee and me. _Naomi:_ Since thou art so steadfastly minded to go with me, Ruth, I will cease urging thee. Come, thou mayest go with me to Bethlehem. SCENE II PLACE: In the barley fields of Boaz. TIME: The harvest season. CHARACTERS: Boaz, Ruth, Head Reaper, Reapers, Gleaners. [_The reapers come in with their sickles, followed by the gleaners._] _Head Reaper:_ Truly we have a wonderful harvest this year! _First Reaper:_ Yea, we will have food enough for ourselves and for all the poor in our city of Bethlehem. _Head Reaper:_ It is the great God that hath given us this bounty. [_All sing harvest song as they reap. While they are singing_ RUTH _comes in and begins to pick up the grain._] _Second Reaper_ [_looking toward the entrance to the field_]: The master is coming, the great Boaz! [_All reapers look in that direction as they stand, resting their sickles on the ground._ BOAZ _enters._] _Boaz:_ The Lord be with you! _Reapers:_ The Lord bless thee! [_All go to work again, singing as before._ BOAZ _walks among them; he sees_ RUTH _and watches her._] _Boaz_ [_to the_ HEAD REAPER]: My good man, I would speak a word with thee; come hither. _Head Reaper:_ Speak, O master! _Boaz:_ Whose damsel is this that gathereth grain after the reapers? _Head Reaper:_ My master, she is Ruth, the Moabitish damsel that came back with Naomi, thy kinswoman. She hath been gleaning here since early morning. _Boaz:_ Go, bid the reapers not to harm her, and bid them let fall purposely some of the handfuls of grain for her. [_The_ HEAD REAPER _bows low and goes back among the reapers._] _Boaz_ [_to_ RUTH]: Hearest thou not, my daughter? Go not to glean in another field, but stay here by my reapers. Let thine eyes be on the reapers, and do thou glean that which they leave behind. When thou art athirst, go unto the vessels and drink that which the young men have drawn. _Ruth_ [_bows to the ground_]: Why have I found such favor in thine eyes, seeing that I am a stranger in the land? _Boaz:_ It has been told me of thy great kindness to thy mother-in-law, Naomi; how thou didst leave thine own people to come with her and be among strangers; and how thou didst leave thy gods to take the God of the children of Israel. The Lord will bless thee for this. _Ruth:_ I thank thee, O great Boaz, for thou hast comforted me and thou hast spoken friendly words unto me. _Boaz:_ Come hither at meal times and eat of the bread and dip thy morsel in the vinegar with my reapers. [_The reapers have departed._ BOAZ _goes off._] _Ruth:_ The Lord God is truly good unto me! SCENE III PLACE: At the gate of the city. CHARACTERS: Boaz, a Cousin of Naomi, Ten Citizens, Ruth, Naomi. [_Several citizens stand in groups, talking._ BOAZ _enters._] _Boaz_ [_speaks to one of the group_]: Hast thou seen my cousin pass this way? I am seeking him. _First Citizen:_ Nay, good sir, I have not seen him. _Boaz:_ I must speak with him; I will wait here by the city gate; perchance he will come soon. [_One or two citizens pass by and speak to_ BOAZ, _saying, "Good-day, sir." Enter_ KINSMAN.] _Boaz:_ Ho, Kinsman, turn aside! I would have a word with thee. Sit thee down. [KINSMAN _sits down._] _Kinsman:_ What wilt thou, Cousin? _Boaz:_ I would speak about a matter of importance; wait thou here until I can bring witnesses. [_He turns to citizens._] A piece of land is about to be sold; will ten citizens witness this deed? _Citizens:_ Aye, indeed. [_They come forward._] _Boaz:_ Sit ye down here. [_They sit down._] [_To_ KINSMAN]: Dost thou remember Naomi, our kinswoman, who went with her husband and two sons to the land of Moab? _Kinsman:_ Yea, I do know Naomi. _Boaz:_ She selleth a parcel of land which was her husband's. Now, thou art nearest of kin to Naomi, so I thought to advise thee that thou mayest have the first chance to redeem the land in the presence of the elders of the city. If thou dost not care to redeem it, then the right to redeem it cometh to me, for I am next of kin. What wilt thou do? _Kinsman:_ I will buy the land from our kinswoman, Naomi. _Boaz:_ On the day that thou buyest the field from the hand of Naomi, thou also takest Ruth, the Moabitess, for thy wife, according to our custom and law. _Kinsman:_ Then I will not redeem the land, for I cannot take Ruth for my wife. Take thou my right to redeem it and buy it for thyself. _Boaz_ [_taking off his shoe and giving it to the_ KINSMAN, _he says to the witnesses_]: Ye are witnesses this day that I have bought this parcel of land from Naomi and that I buy also, as my wife, Ruth, the daughter-in-law of Naomi. Of all this ye are witnesses. _Citizens:_ We are witnesses. [_Bow._] [KINSMAN _returns shoe to_ BOAZ _and walks off._ RUTH _and_ NAOMI _come through the street._] _Boaz:_ Ye are well met, Naomi, my kinswoman, and Ruth. I have good news for you; I have bought your land and I can now take Ruth for my wife. Come, all ye fellow-citizens, for the wedding feast is prepared at my house! [_Takes_ RUTH _by the hand._] _Naomi:_ Blessed am I that I should live to see this good thing come to pass! The Lord hath been most gracious unto me! END CHAPTER VII THE DRAMATIZATION OF _QUEEN ESTHER_ The story of Esther involves a much more complicated situation than any of the others here described. It is not too difficult for dramatization, however, if it is taken after such stories have been worked out as _David and Goliath_ and _Joseph._ In the case of this dramatic club the story of Esther was told to the children after they had had much experience with other plays. The interesting plot and the beauty and richness of the court made so great an appeal to them that they were eager to begin the dramatization. The story was first simplified and adapted by the leader, and then told in such a manner as to emphasize the main events. The method of procedure followed that described in chapter iii in connection with the story of Joseph. After the telling of the story the scenes were selected. These were acted out very freely at first, little thought being given to the words. Many pictures were brought in, and descriptions of the court of King Ahasuerus were read by the children from the Bible and from books of Bible stories. In the second scene the children decided to have the maidens dance before the King. Several little girls who were trying out the part of Esther made up dances for themselves. This feature made this scene especially attractive. This play was longer than those that had previously been dramatized, and it therefore took a longer period of time to bring it into final shape. There is no reason to hurry a dramatization. If the aim of this kind of work is kept in mind, there will be growth on the part of the children at each meeting. The value lies, not in how many stories can be dramatized during a year, but in how thoroughly the children are reliving a few good stories. The play of _Queen Esther_ made it necessary to construct several articles. Gold dishes of various kinds were made by covering cardboard with gold paper. These were used at the Queen's banquet. From the many scepters that were submitted the King chose the one for final use. Elaborate gowns and headdresses were gathered; beads and jewels of all descriptions were made from brilliantly colored papers. The children took the responsibility of the costuming. The majority of them planned their own garments and either brought things from home or selected some suitable costume from those which the club had on hand. Two of the older girls took entire charge of the younger ones and saw to it that each had some simple slip to wear in the play. The play follows as it was finally worked out by the children. THE STORY OF QUEEN ESTHER SCENE I PLACE: The King's palace--Shushan. CHARACTERS: King Ahasuerus (king of Media and Persia), Haman (chief counselor), Persian Princes, Servants. [_The_ KING _is seated on his throne, princes seated before the_ KING, _and_ HAMAN _is seated by the_ KING'S _side. Servants are bringing drinks in golden vessels._] _King:_ The seventh day of this feast hath come, and on this day will I bring my beautiful Queen, Vashti, before you. The princes of my land must depart, bearing a good report of my fair Queen as well as of the great riches of my court. Chamberlains, come forth! [_The servants come before the_ KING _and bow._] I command you to bring Vashti, the Queen, before my presence. [_Servants withdraw._] _First Prince:_ O King, this is a great honor that thou bestowest upon us! _Second Prince:_ Yea, Vashti, the Queen, is already known over the land for her wondrous beauty. We are most happy that thou wilt allow thy servants to behold her. _Third Prince:_ What wonderful tidings we will spread over thy provinces, O King. Thy people do not know the half of thy riches and thy wonderful greatness and generosity. [_Enter servants. They bow low._] _King:_ Rise; what is thy message? [_They do not rise._] _First Servant:_ O King, be merciful unto us! [_They bow lower._] _King:_ What meaneth this? Speak! [_in astonishment_] I command thee. Where is the Queen? _Second Servant:_ O great King, we delivered thy message as thou didst command, but the Queen has refused to come before thy presence. [_All the princes and the_ KING _show surprise and anger._] _King:_ Refused to obey me? This is impossible! Are ye certain that she understood the meaning of my command? _Servants:_ We are, O King. _King:_ She hath refused! It cannot be! [_He looks absently away._] She must be punished. _Haman:_ What shall we do to Queen Vashti according to the law, because she hath not performed the commandment of King Ahasuerus? _First Prince:_ She hath not done wrong to the King only, but also to all the princes of the land, for this deed of the Queen shall become known unto all the women of Media and Persia and they shall despise the command of their husbands: "Because," they shall say, "King Ahasuerus commanded Vashti, the Queen, to be brought before him and she came not." _Second Prince:_ What shall we do? This will cause great trouble and disobedience. _King:_ What thinkest thou, Haman, my chief counselor? _Haman:_ If it please the King, let there go forth a royal commandment and let it be written among the laws of the Medes and Persians that Vashti come no more before Ahasuerus, and let the King give her royal estate to another that is better than she. Then when this decree shall become known all wives shall give honor unto their husbands. _King:_ This saying pleaseth me greatly. I shall do accordingly. [_To servants_]: Send letters unto every province to every people, which shall state this decree, so that every man shall know it. _Haman:_ O King, I pray thee, let there be fair maidens brought before thee from which thou shalt choose another which shall be thy Queen. _King:_ So be it! See that fair maidens from every province be brought here to my palace; and the one that pleaseth me best, I will take her for my Queen. [_All bow._] SCENE II PLACE: At Shushan, the palace. CHARACTERS: King Ahasuerus, Mordecai, Maidens, Haman, Servants, Courtiers. [_Two servants are standing in the court room of the palace. Enter a messenger followed by_ ESTHER _and_ MORDECAI.] _Messenger_ [_announces to the servants in the room_]: This maiden has come to see the King. [_He goes out._] _First Servant:_ This is the place. Wait thou here. [_To_ MORDECAI]: What art thou here for? Thou wilt have to depart. _Mordecai:_ I only brought this maiden. I beg of thee let me have a few words with her; then I will withdraw. _First Servant:_ Speak then quickly, before the King cometh. [_Servants withdraw to another part of the room._] [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Esther and Mordecai] _Mordecai_ [_taking_ ESTHER'S _hand_]: Esther, my child, thou art like my very child, for although I am but thy uncle I have been as a father to thee. I bid thee farewell now, for it seemeth to me that the King will surely choose thee to be his Queen--thou art so fair. This one thing remember, tell him not that thou art a Jewess. Fare thee well, Esther! May the Lord bless thee! _Esther:_ Farewell to thee, Mordecai! [MORDECAI _goes out. Other maidens come in announced by the messenger._] _Messenger:_ These maidens would see the King. [_The servants show them where to sit. Enter second messenger._] _Second Messenger:_ The King! The King! [_Enter_ KING _and_ HAMAN. KING _sits on his throne._] Second Servant [_bowing before the_ KING]: O King, the maidens from all parts of the country have arrived and await thy pleasure. _King:_ Let them come before my presence one at a time, and I will choose from among them the one that seemeth most fair. [_The musicians begin playing and, one by one, the maidens come out. They bow and dance._ ESTHER _comes last of all. As_ ESTHER _dances the_ KING _speaks._] _King:_ What marvelous beauty! Surely this maiden is fair enough to be my Queen. _Haman:_ Yea, O King, thou art right; she should be thy Queen. _King_ [_takes_ ESTHER'S _hand_]: What is thy name, fair maid? _Esther:_ My name is Esther, O King. _King:_ Esther, I do here take thee to be my Queen. Bring the royal crown and the Queen's robes! [_Servants come immediately and put them on her._] [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Esther dances before the king] _King_ [_leading_ ESTHER _out_]: Come unto the wedding feast which is now prepared. All are welcome! SCENE III PLACE: The palace gate. CHARACTERS: Haman, Mordecai, Servants, Esther. [_Servants are standing and walking by the gate. Women come by carrying water jars._ MORDECAI _stands apart from the crowd._ HERALD _comes in._] _Herald:_ Bow the knee, bow the knee. The chief counselor, Haman, approacheth! Thus saith the King. [HAMAN _comes in. All bow to him except_ MORDECAI.] _Haman_ [_pointing to_ MORDECAI]: Who is this man who doth not bow the knee to me? _First Servant:_ He is Mordecai, the Jew, my lord. [_To_ MORDECAI]: Why dost thou break the King's commandment? _Haman:_ Thou Jew! Dost thou think that thou art mightier than I, whom the King hath set above all the princes of the land? Thou shalt suffer for this. [_Turns to servant._] Send letters unto all the King's provinces, to destroy, to kill, and to cause to perish all Jews, both young and old, little children and women, in one day--even upon the thirteenth day of the twelfth month, and to take the spoil of them for prey. [_Servant bows and goes away._ HAMAN _passes on, leaving_ MORDECAI _with two servants._ MORDECAI, _in deep thought, walks anxiously up and down._] _Mordecai:_ I must see Queen Esther. Canst thou not take me to the Queen? _Second Servant_ [_laughing scornfully_]: Thinkest thou that the Queen will see thee? _Mordecai:_ Give the Queen this paper and say to her that I, Mordecai, the Jew, bid her come to me. [_Servant withdraws._] _Mordecai_ [_walking, talks to himself_]: Israel, O Israel, my people! You shall not perish. Esther, your Queen, will save you. [_Enter_ ESTHER.] _Esther:_ Mordecai, my uncle, why art thou here? Thou lookest unhappy. Hath aught happened to thee? _Mordecai:_ Yea, Esther, I am unhappy. I have sorrowful news to tell thee. _Esther:_ Chamberlains, withdraw! Speak, Mordecai; tell me quickly. It may be that I can help thee. _Mordecai:_ Esther, thou canst help me, and thou art the only one who can. Haman, the King's counselor, hateth the Jews--thy people and mine. He hath sent a decree over all the country commanding that every Jew, both old and young, little children and women, be killed on the thirteenth day of the twelfth month. Esther, thou must save thy people and thyself? Thou must go before the King and beg of him that he spare thy people. [ESTHER _shows great distress._] _Esther:_ Oh, what shall I do? Dost thou not know that for one who dareth to go before the presence of the King, if the King hath not called him, there is certain death; except to whom the King shall hold out the golden scepter--he may live? I have not been called to come in unto the King these thirty days. He will surely put me to death for such boldness. _Mordecai:_ Thou must go unto the King even so. Think not that thou wilt escape death from Haman because thou art in the King's house. Who knoweth but that thou hast been made Queen for such a time as this! _Esther_ [_after thinking deeply_]: Go, gather together all the Jews that are present in Shushan, and fast ye for me, and neither eat nor drink for three days, night or day, I also and my maidens will fast likewise--and so I will go in unto the King, which is not according to the law, and if I perish, I perish. _Mordecai:_ May the Lord go with thee! SCENE IV PLACE: In the court of the King's palace. CHARACTERS: King Ahasuerus, Esther, Haman, Courtiers, Servants. [_The King sits on his throne._ QUEEN ESTHER _enters and bows before the_ KING. _The_ KING _looks at her in astonishment._] _Courtiers_ [_in loud whispers_]: The Queen! It is the Queen! _King:_ Esther, hast thou dared to come before my presence when I have not called thee? Thou surely dost not know what thou art doing! This act of boldness can mean thy death! But thou art so beautiful, Esther, I cannot be hard with thee. Rise! [_He holds out the golden scepter._] What is the request that has brought thee here? It shall be given thee, even though it be half of my kingdom. [ESTHER _touches the scepter and rises._] _Esther:_ If it seemeth good unto the King, let the King and Haman come this day unto the banquet that I have prepared for them. [_She turns and goes out._] _King:_ Hearest thou, Haman? Make haste and let us do as Esther hath said. Come, we will prepare for this banquet. [HAMAN _bows. The_ KING _and_ HAMAN _go out. Others follow._] [Illustration: FIG. 5.--The king holds out the scepter to Esther] SCENE V PLACE: The Queen's apartment. CHARACTERS: Queen Esther, King Ahasuerus, Haman, Servants, Mordecai. [_The servants are preparing the feast. Enter_ ESTHER.] _Esther:_ See ye that the feast is in readiness, for the King will soon arrive. [_Servants bow._] _Servant:_ The King cometh! _Esther_ [_going to meet the_ KING _as he enters_]: Welcome, my lord! [_The_ KING _sits upon a throne prepared for him._] _King:_ I am happy to be with thee, my fair Queen. Thou must have a request which thou desirest to make--speak, be not afraid. I will grant it though it be half of my kingdom. _Esther:_ If I have found favor in thy sight, O King, and if it please the King, let my life be saved and the lives of my people--the Hebrew people. We are to be destroyed, to be slain and to perish. _King:_ Thy people? The Hebrew people? Who is this and where is he that dareth in his heart to do this thing to thy people? _Esther:_ The enemy is thy chief counselor, this wicked Haman. _King:_ Did Haman do this deed? How didst thou know of his plan? _Esther:_ O King, Mordecai, the Jew, my uncle, hath shown me the letter which Haman hath sent over the country. The Jews are to be killed on the thirteenth day of the twelfth month. I am begging thee for my life and for the lives of my people! [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Queen Esther pleads for her people] _King:_ Fear not, Esther; thy people shall be saved. Mordecai, the Jew, hath once done me a great service. He hath not been rewarded for this. He shall have honor, for he deserveth it. _Servant:_ The great Haman hath come, O Queen. [HAMAN _enters; they seat themselves, and the feast is served._] _King:_ Haman, what shall be done unto the man whom the King delighteth to honor? _Haman_ [_aside_]: Whom would the King like to honor more than myself? [_To the_ KING]: For the man whom the King delighteth to honor, let the royal apparel be brought which the King useth to wear, and the horse which the King rideth upon, and the royal crown which is set upon his head; and let these be given the man whom the King delighteth to honor; and let him ride on horseback through the streets of the city; and proclaim before him, "Thus it shall be done unto the man whom the King delighteth to honor!" _King:_ Make haste and take the royal apparel and the horse as thou hast said and do even so unto Mordecai, the Jew, that sitteth at the King's gate. Let nothing fail of all that thou hast spoken. [HAMAN _bows his head low and goes out to_ MORDECAI.] _Servant:_ O King, Haman hath built a gallows upon which to hang Mordecai, the Jew, this day. [HAMAN _returns with_ MORDECAI _and puts on the crown, etc._] _King:_ Let him who hath made the gallows hang upon it! [_Servant takes_ HAMAN _out._] _King:_ Come near, Mordecai. Thou hast found great favor in mine eyes. From henceforth thou shalt be my chief counselor, and thou shalt rule the land in Haman's place. Thy people shall be spared, and letters shall be sent over all the land and into every province which shall state that the Hebrew people shall not be destroyed, but instead they shall be honored and have joy and feasting. _Mordecai:_ I thank thee, O King and Esther, my Queen, for the great deliverance and for this great honor to me. May the Lord give me strength to deal wisely with these peoples. _Esther:_ This is a great happiness which thou hast bestowed upon me, O King. CHAPTER VIII THE DRAMATIZATION OF _ABRAHAM AND THE THREE GUESTS_ This incident should be simplified and adapted before it is told to children. The dramatization is best worked out in the form of a short, free play which involves only one act. It is unnecessary to carry it to the point of fixed words and actions. The emphasis should be placed upon the customs of the times which are so well brought out in the story; for example, the hospitality of Abraham to the strangers represents the feeling toward strangers among the nomad peoples, and the manner in which he showed his hospitality makes children acquainted with customs peculiar to those people. There is excellent opportunity here for enriching the children's understanding of the life of a shepherd people, of which the Israelites are an example. Descriptions and pictures of the kind of tent the people lived in are necessary. It is important that children should get the idea of the correct shape of the Arab tent and not confuse it with the Indian wigwam. No stage scenery need be used; it is best to leave that to the imagination. A curtain may be put up to represent the front of the tent, but nothing more. There is much of this incident that should be left out in the telling; by no means should it be read directly from the Bible to children. The story may be told so that the following points are emphasized: Abraham is sitting at the door of his tent. Three men appear; he runs to meet them and bows to the ground. He invites them to rest under the shade of the tree and offers to get food and to have their feet washed. The strangers sit and talk together, then Abraham comes with the food. They all eat and are rested, and as they rise to depart they ask for Sarah, Abraham's wife. The strangers tell Sarah and Abraham that they are to have a son whose name shall be Isaac and whom God shall bless and who shall be the father of many people. Abraham and Sarah are greatly astonished and pleased. They fall upon their knees to thank God, and when they arise they find that the strangers have departed. The scene closes with their exclamation, "Surely these were angels from the Lord who have visited us!" This story was dramatized by the children of the dramatic club after they had had experience with many other dramatizations. During the first hour after the story was told the children succeeded in getting the play into very nearly its final form. Two of the older girls, undertaking to write out the scenes as they thought they should be, brought in their versions at the second meeting. Each one was read aloud, the other children being asked to remember the parts that seemed especially good. Then by combining, adding to, or taking from, a composite result was obtained. Several children wrote down the final decisions at the dictation of the group. Below is given the version which one child worked out by herself, and following that is the final form of the play which the group as a whole decided upon. The leader purposely left this play entirely in the hands of the children; the product is wholly their own. THE PLAY EXACTLY AS ONE CHILD WROTE IT _Abraham:_ The day is hot and I am weary. I will rest myself from the heat of the day. [_He seats himself in the shade of the tent._] _Sarah:_ It is indeed hot, and I will bring thee food and drink that thou mayest refresh thyself. [SARAH _retires into the tent._] _Abraham_ [_rises to his feet and shades his eyes with his hands_]: Sarah, come hither! Yonder are strangers who are in need of rest. [SARAH _comes out, and she and_ ABRAHAM _kneel before them._] Welcome, strangers, seat yourselves that ye may rest. My wife, Sarah, will bring you food, and water that you may wash your feet. _First Stranger:_ The Lord bless thee, Abraham. [_Sarah_ _and the servants withdraw, and_ ABRAHAM _and the three men seat themselves before the tent._ SARAH _returns with water and food. The strangers wash their feet and eat._] _Sarah_ [_offering them food_]: Drink thou this fresh milk, and refresh thyself with this fruit, for ye look weary. [_They finish eating and_ SARAH _and the servants retire._] _Second Stranger:_ We bring thee good tidings and would speak with thee and thy wife. [SARAH _comes from within the tent._] _Third Stranger:_ We are messengers from the Lord to tell thee that thou wilt have a son. _First Stranger:_ He will be the father of many men and thousands will respect him. Ye shall name him ISAAC. _Sarah:_ That cannot come to pass! For many years I have been childless, and the Lord will not give me a son. _Abraham_ [_falling on his knees_]: Thanks be to the Lord! A son at last! _Sarah:_ Can it be that these tidings are true? If so, it is indeed a message from the Lord! [_She too falls on her knees before them. The three men quietly leave, and when_ SARAH _and_ ABRAHAM _rise to their feet they are out of sight._] _Abraham:_ They were angels from heaven! Our wish has been granted at last! END The following is the play as it was finally presented: ABRAHAM AND THE THREE GUESTS PLACE: In front of the tent of Abraham. CHARACTERS: Abraham, a Shepherd; Sarah, His Wife; Three Strangers; Four Servants. [ABRAHAM _and_ SARAH _come out of the tent._] _Abraham:_ The day is hot, and I am weary; I will sit down and rest in the shade of this tree. _Sarah:_ Yea, it is hot. I will bring thee drink and food that thou mayest refresh thyself, my good husband. [SARAH _goes into the tent._ ABRAHAM _sees three strangers approaching. He stands up, shades his eyes with his hands, and looks out over the desert. He calls to_ SARAH.] [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The three guests bless Abraham and Sarah] _Abraham:_ Sarah, my wife, come hither! Lo, I see three strangers approaching over the desert. [SARAH _comes out of the tent and looks also._] SARAH: They will be weary and in need of rest. I will hasten and prepare food and drink for them also. [SARAH _goes away._ ABRAHAM _rises to meet the strangers: he falls on the ground before them._] _Abraham:_ Welcome, strangers, to the tent of Abraham! If I have found favor in thy sight, pass not away, I pray thee! Let now a little water be fetched and wash your feet, and rest yourselves under the tree; and I will fetch a morsel of bread, and this will strengthen your hearts; after that ye shall pass on. _The Three Strangers:_ So do as thou hast said, good Abraham. [ABRAHAM _turns to the servants who are standing near._] _Abraham:_ Haste ye, bring water; fetch a calf, tender and good. [_Servants hasten away._] [_To the strangers_]: Sarah, my wife, will make ready three measures of fine meal and knead it into cakes. _First Stranger:_ Our host, Abraham, is a true servant of the Lord. _Second Stranger:_ We are indeed weary; we have journeyed far across the desert. [_Servants appear with water and food._ SARAH _also brings food to them._] _Sarah:_ Drink thou this fresh milk, and refresh thyself with these dates, for ye look weary. _Third Stranger:_ This is indeed a rest. [SARAH _goes into the tent and the strangers finish eating. The strangers rise to go._] _Abraham:_ Tarry yet awhile with us. _First Stranger:_ We thank thee, good Abraham, but we must be on our way. _Second Stranger:_ We would speak with thee and thy wife, Sarah. Where is thy wife? _Abraham:_ Sarah, come hither. [SARAH _appears._] _Third Stranger:_ We bring you a message from the Lord. You shall have a son, and his name shall be Isaac. He shall be the father of many men, and thousands shall respect him. _Sarah:_ Surely, this cannot come to pass! _Abraham:_ Thanks be to God for this great gift! [SARAH _and_ ABRAHAM _fall down on their knees before the strangers. The strangers stretch out their hands to bless them._] _Three Strangers:_ The Lord will bless you, Sarah and Abraham! [_The strangers depart._ ABRAHAM _and_ SARAH _arise._] _Abraham and Sarah:_ Surely these were angels from the Lord! END As this play was very short, the suggestion was made that we might lengthen the program, as well as make it more interesting, by having some of the children tell the audience just how we worked up the dramatization. The two older girls undertook this and decided entirely by themselves just what they would say. One of them wrote with great care a description of the method of procedure. She read it to the club for approval, then she learned it by heart and gave it in an interesting manner to the audience on the day the play was given. The other girl wrote a poem about it, and recited it just before the play was given. The description and poem are as follows: THE INTRODUCTION BY MARGARET MILLER The play which the children are now going to give--_Abraham and the Three Guests_--has been worked out and practiced at the dramatic club. This club meets every Sunday afternoon from three until four o'clock, and is composed of any of the children of the Sunday school who wish to belong. The first Sunday Miss Miller told the story to the members, and then they, knowing it, acted it out, making up the parts as they went along. This they did several times until they knew the story perfectly. The two oldest girls did not take part in the acting of the play, but became assistants and helped Miss Miller direct it. During the next week the assistants wrote out the speeches very much as the children had made them up. These were read before the club and discussed, and after a number of suggestions had been added by all the children present the scene was finally written as it now is. The children each took home a part to learn, and the following Sunday they all tried the different speeches. Before the final characters were chosen each child was able to represent any one of them. The final characters were decided upon by the group and were chosen according to their preferences and their ability to enact the different parts. Unfortunately, most of the costumes which the club had on hand were much too small for the children this year. We therefore held a sewing-bee during the week, and lengthened the old ones or made new ones where we found it necessary. We have worked on this play for five meetings, which represents altogether five hours, except for a little work that the assistants did outside. We have had much fun with this play, and we are hoping that you will enjoy it too. POEM BY MELBA PYLE Before you soon you shall see The story of _Abraham and the Strangers Three._ The partakers, they have worked; The assistants, they have shirked-- But not as much as you would think, For they have helped to join each link. As day by day passed quickly away We read the Bible and wrote the play. Each child helped as best he could, And thus we worked in brotherhood. Word with word we did neatly join, Then home we went, our parts to learn, Next to the box where the costumes lay, And straight to sewing and not to play. And 'tis our happy aim, you see, To make you joyous as can be! CHAPTER IX THE DRAMATIZATION OF _DANIEL IN THE LIONS' DEN_ The story of _Daniel in the Lions' Den_ was dramatized by the members of the club according to the same methods as those which were used in connection with the story of _Abraham and the Three Guests._ This play is given here in order to show how a story which deals with a miraculous event may be treated. When Daniel was thrust into the den of lions, he was in reality put out of the door which opens at the side of the stage. The children readily came to the decision that it was unnecessary to show Daniel actually in the den of lions on the stage. In telling the story no explanation was made or asked for concerning the miracle which happened. The children accepted it and enjoyed it as they would any other good story. The final play which follows represents entirely the children's interpretation; the product is their own. DANIEL IN THE LIONS' DEN SCENE I PLACE: The court room of King Darius. CHARACTERS: King Darius, Daniel, Four Conspirators, Soldiers, Servants. [KING DARIUS _is seated on his throne. Soldiers and attendants stand nearby. The conspirators are talking together at one side._ DANIEL, _followed by two soldiers, comes in and kneels before the_ KING.] _Daniel:_ King Darius, live forever! _King Darius:_ Good Daniel, I have sent for thee that thou mayest know my will. It has pleased me to set over my kingdom one hundred and twenty princes, and over these princes have I set three rulers. Thou hast been so faithful and true that I wish to make thee the first of these three rulers. Thou shalt have great responsibility, and thou shalt report to me when thou thinkest it well to do so. _Daniel:_ Thou art kind and gracious unto me, O King! May the Lord, Jehovah, help me to do this. _King Darius:_ Come unto the feast, Daniel, and have the royal robe placed on thee. [DANIEL _bows to the_ KING _and they both go out, followed by the soldiers and servants._] [_The conspirators are left alone in the room. They show great anger and begin talking to each other._] _First Conspirator:_ See how this Daniel has found favor in the King's sight! He is not of our country, he belongs to the Hebrew people; but the King has appointed him over us all! We must destroy this Daniel. _Second Conspirator:_ Yea, thou art right. What can we do? [_They all walk back and forth in deep thought._] _Third Conspirator:_ I can think of nothing against him! _Fourth Conspirator:_ Thou sayest the truth; he hath no fault. He is faithful and doth nothing wrong. _First Conspirator:_ I can think of nothing, save that we find it against him concerning his God. _Fourth Conspirator:_ Ah, that is true; Daniel worshipeth a different God; I have seen him praying thrice in one day. _Second Conspirator:_ Let us influence the King to make a firm decree that whosoever shall worship any God or man, save the King, for thirty days, he shall be cast into the den of lions. _Third Conspirator:_ That soundeth well! If Daniel be faithful to his God, he will surely disobey this decree; and if the King once signeth it, the law of the Medes and the Persians saith that it cannot be altered. _First Conspirator:_ Ah, this will surely be Daniel's ruin now! _Fourth Conspirator:_ Come, let us hasten to the King and have him establish and sign this decree. He will be pleased; he will not think of Daniel. _Third Conspirator:_ Yea, we will hasten before the setting of the sun. SCENE II PLACE: The same as in scene i. CHARACTERS: The same as in scene i. TIME: Several days after the events in scene i. [_The_ KING _is seated on his throne. The four conspirators come before the_ KING _and kneel._] _The Conspirators:_ Great King Darius, live forever! _King Darius:_ Arise, my friends! _First Conspirator:_ O King, hast thou not signed a decree that he who shall pray to any God or man within thirty days, save to thee, shall be cast into the den of lions? _King Darius:_ This thing is true, according to the law of the Medes and Persians, which altereth not. _Second Conspirator:_ A man in thy kingdom regardeth not this law, and doth pray to his God three times a day--we have seen him! _King_ [_with anger_]: Who is this man that breaketh my laws? _First Conspirator:_ He is Daniel, whom thou hast favored and made ruler! _King Darius_ [_with surprise and sadness_]: Daniel! It cannot be! Daniel must not die, for I love him. _Third Conspirator:_ Thou knowest, O King, that the law of the Medes and Persians is that no decree which the King establisheth may be changed. _King_ [_sadly_]: Thou sayest truly; the King's word may not be broken. Bring Daniel hither. [_Soldiers go for_ DANIEL. _The_ KING _walks back and forth in great distress._] _King_ [_talking to himself_]: Oh, I would that this had not happened! [DANIEL _appears and bows before the_ KING.] _King:_ Why hast thou disobeyed my law, Daniel? Wherefore didst thou pray to thy God when thou knewest of my decree? _Daniel:_ Great King Darius, my God, the God to whom I pray, is the true God, and I shall worship no other. Do with me what thou wilt. _King:_ Daniel, I would that thou hadst not done this thing, for I love thee. Thou art a brave and bold man! Thy God whom thou servest continually, he will deliver thee! [_To the soldiers_]: Take this man from me; cast him into the den of lions. [_Soldiers take_ DANIEL _and thrust him into the den. The door is closed, and the_ KING _seals it with his signet. The_ KING _and attendants withdraw. The conspirators are alone._] _First Conspirator:_ Daniel has fallen at last! No longer will he be the King's favorite! _Fourth Conspirator:_ We, instead, will be the favored ones! [_They leave the room in high spirits._] SCENE III PLACE: The same as in scene i. CHARACTERS: The same as in scene i. TIME: The next morning after the events in scene ii. [_The_ KING _hastens to the door of the lions' den._] _King_ [_calling eagerly_]: O Daniel, servant of the living God, is thy God, whom thou servest continually, able to deliver thee from the lions? _Daniel_ [_from within_]: O King, live forever! My God hath sent his angel and hath shut the lions' mouths, and they have not hurt me, for the Lord knoweth that I have done no wrong, either before him or thee, O King! _King_ [_to servants who have followed him into the room_]: Come hither, servants! Quickly bring Daniel out that I may see him! [_The door is opened, and_ DANIEL _comes out. The_ KING _shows great joy in greeting him._] _King:_ Thy God is truly the living God! Bring forth the men that have done Daniel this wrong. Cast them into the lions' den. [_The conspirators are standing in the room, looking at_ DANIEL _in astonishment. The soldiers seize them and push them down into the den. As they go they cry to the_ KING.] _Conspirators:_ O King, spare us! _King:_ I will now sign a decree that in every dominion of my kingdom men shall bow before the God of Daniel, for he is the only true God. He delivereth and rescueth and worketh great wonders; he hath saved Daniel from the power of the lions. _Daniel:_ The Lord God will surely bless thee for this good thing! END CHAPTER X THE DRAMATIZATION OF NEW TESTAMENT PARABLES Many of the New Testament parables present interesting problems for dramatization. The selection should be limited to those which involve dramatic situations and unity of structure. The simplicity and conciseness of words and actions in many of the parables are qualities which call forth a ready and free response from children. Among the parables which have been worked out by the dramatic club are _The Good Samaritan_, _The Wise and Foolish Virgins_, _The Great Supper_, _The Talents_, _The Prodigal Son._ In the case of these short parables the story was not told first, but the parable was read to the children directly from the Bible. There was no discussion as to the truths supposed to be taught, the emphasis being placed entirely upon the story element involved. The customs of the times and the division of the story into scenes were discussed as fully as was done with other stories. Usually one or two meetings were all that were necessary for working one of these parables into dramatic form. When it was completed, the result was not a finished product, as the words and action had been interpreted with slight variations each time. The children learned the story by heart, as it is given in the Bible. This influenced their words when they were dramatizing. Several parables were given together at the meeting when parents and friends were invited. One child recited the Bible version just before the play was given. This feature added interest and dignity to the occasion. The parables were given in the following order: THE WISE AND FOOLISH VIRGINS [_Ten virgins with their lamps are waiting for the bridegroom._] _First Virgin:_ The bridegroom tarries; let us rest here awhile. _Other Virgins:_ Yea, let us rest. [_They all sit down and go to sleep._] _A Cry Without:_ Behold, the bridegroom cometh! Go ye out to meet him! [_All the virgins get up hurriedly. The five wise ones, with oil in their lamps, stand in readiness. The five foolish ones are in great confusion._] _First Foolish Virgin:_ We have no oil! Our lamps are gone out! _Second Foolish Virgin_ [_speaking to the five wise virgins_]: Give us of your oil--we have none. _First Wise Virgin:_ Not so, lest there be not enough for ourselves and for you. But go ye rather to them that sell, and buy for yourselves. [_The foolish virgins hasten away._] _A Cry Without:_ Behold, the bridegroom cometh! Go ye out to meet him! [_The_ BRIDEGROOM _comes in, followed by a few attendants. He walks by, and the five wise virgins follow him. They go in a door which is closed after them. The foolish virgins come hurriedly back and rush to the door. They beat on it and call out several times._] _Foolish Virgins:_ Lord, Lord, open unto us! [_The door opens and the_ BRIDEGROOM _stands there._] _Bridegroom:_ Depart, I know you not! END During the work on this play the question arose as to the kind of lamps that were used at the time of the story. The children looked up pictures and descriptions, and from these they made themselves lamps out of plasticene or clay. Fig. 8 is a photograph of one of the scenes taken out of doors. The lamps can be seen, also the simple costumes which the children worked out. THE GREAT SUPPER [_The_ MASTER _of the feast stands in his door and speaks to his servant._] _The Master:_ Go, bid my friends come to the supper, for all things are now ready! [_The servant bows; the_ MASTER _goes into the house. The servant walks down the street, and as he meets people he delivers his_ MASTER'S _message._] _Servant_ [_to the men as they come by_]: My Master bids thee come to his feast, for all things are now ready! [Illustration: FIG. 8.--The wise and foolish virgins] _First Man:_ Say to thy Master that I have bought a piece of land and must needs go and see it. I pray thee have me excused. [_The servant bows and the man passes on. The servant delivers the message to the second man._] _Second Man:_ I have bought five yoke of oxen; I must go to prove them. I pray thee have me excused. _Third Man:_ I have married a wife, and therefore I cannot come. [_The servant goes back to his_ MASTER'S _house; the_ MASTER _comes out to meet him._] _Servant_ [_falls on his knees before his_ MASTER]: O sir, I did as thou commandedst, but one by one they made excuse, and would not come to thy supper. One man had just bought a piece of land and must go to see it; another had bought five yoke of oxen, and was on his way to prove them; and another had just married a wife. All begged that thou excuse them. _Master_ [_shows great anger_]: What! They that are bidden refuse to come to my feast! Go out quickly into the streets and lanes of the city, and bring in hither the maimed, and the halt, and the blind! [_The_ MASTER _goes into his house, and the servant again walks down the street._] _Servant_ [_as he meets the lame, the halt, and the blind_]: Come! My Master invites you to a great supper, which is now prepared at his house! [_Each person, or group of persons, bows and thanks him with such remarks as_]-- _Maimed, Halt, Blind:_ We thank thee; we will be there. We gladly accept this invitation. [_The_ MASTER _stands in the door to receive his guests as they come. When they are all in, the servant comes back to his_ MASTER.] _Servant:_ Lord, it is done as thou hast commanded, and yet there is room. _Master:_ Go out into the highways and hedges, and compel them to come in, that my house may be filled. For I say unto you that none of those men that were bidden shall taste of my supper! [_The servant bows_; _the_ MASTER _goes in._] END THE GOOD SAMARITAN SCENE I PLACE: The road from Jerusalem to Jericho. CHARACTERS: A Traveler, Thieves, a Priest, a Levite, a Samaritan. [_A man comes along the road carrying his bundle over his back. Many thieves rush out from ambush and attack him. Some knock him down and rob him, while others are looking anxiously up and down the road. After beating and cutting the man they go off, thinking that he is dead._ _As the traveler lies groaning and begging for water, a priest comes along the road, but when he sees the man he passes by on the other side of the road. Also a Levite comes along, and after looking at the man passes by on the other side of the road._ _Then a Samaritan comes along, and as soon as he hears the groans he hastens over to the man. He kneels down and looks at him and speaks._] _Good Samaritan:_ What is this--a man! Hast thou been hurt, my friend? _Man:_ Oh, help me! Thieves fell upon me and took all I had, and have left me here to die. [Illustration: FIG. 9.--The Good Samaritan] _Good Samaritan:_ I will help thee, my good friend; thy wounds shall be bound. Drink this wine. It may help thee. Art thou able to get on this beast of mine? I will take thee to the inn where thou wilt be cared for. [_He helps the man to rise and supports him as he hobbles off. They both go out._] SCENE II PLACE: The Inn. CHARACTERS: The Samaritan, the Traveler, the Innkeeper. [_The_ GOOD SAMARITAN _brings the man to the door of the inn and knocks. The_ INNKEEPER, _appears._] _Innkeeper:_ Good day, sir. _Good Samaritan:_ Here is a wounded man. Take care of him. Here is money, and whatsoever thou spendest more, when I come again I will repay thee. [_He gives the_ INNKEEPER _some money. The_ INNKEEPER _takes the man._] _Traveler_ [_to_ GOOD SAMARITAN]: God bless you, my friend! END THE PRODIGAL SON ACT I PLACE: In the father's home. CHARACTERS: The Younger Brother, the Father, the Elder Brother, Servants. [_The_ FATHER _and_ ELDER SON _come into the room together. The_ YOUNGER SON _comes in from another door._] _Younger Son:_ Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth unto me. I am weary of living at home. I will go into some far country and make my fortune. _Father:_ My son, why is it that thou desirest this? Hast thou not everything at home? _Younger Son:_ Yea, father, but I beg of thee to divide thy living between us. I must have my share. _Father:_ Thou art very foolish; nevertheless I will do as thou askest. [_To servant_]: Bring my money bags. [_To_ ELDER SON]: And dost thou intend to take thy living also, and leave thy father? _Elder Son:_ Nay, father, I am fully content to live with thee; I do not want my portion. [_Servant returns with money bags._ FATHER _gives money to his younger son._] _Father:_ This is thy share--use it wisely. _Younger Son:_ I thank thee, father. I shall become a rich man with this; but now I must leave thee; I can stay here no longer. _Father:_ This grieves me, my son, for I know that thou art foolish--but go and learn thy lesson. [_He stretches out his hands toward his son as if blessing him._] ACT II SCENE I PLACE: Along the roadside in a distant country. CHARACTERS: The Prodigal Son, a Farmer. [_The_ PRODIGAL SON _comes down the road, tired and hungry. He sits on a rock and talks._] _Prodigal Son:_ Would that I had something to eat! My money is all spent, and there is famine in the land. What shall I do? I am sick, and feel that I may soon die. If I could but find something to do that I might get a little food. [_A man comes along. The_ PRODIGAL SON _goes toward him and falls down before him._] _Prodigal Son:_ O sir, I am starving unto death. Wilt thou give me any task to do that I may make enough to keep me alive? _Man:_ I have no work to be done--unless it be to take care of my swine. Thou wilt find them in yon field; they need a keeper. _Prodigal Son:_ I will gladly do this. [_He goes off joyfully._] SCENE II PLACE: In the field with the swine. CHARACTER: The Prodigal Son. [_The_ PRODIGAL SON _comes in driving the pigs. He sits down._] _Prodigal Son:_ How horrible is this life; I am dying of hunger. No man will give me anything--all I get to eat is the food that I give the pigs. Oh, I wish that I had never left home! How many hired servants of my father's have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger! I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him, "Father, I have sinned against heaven and before thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son; make me as one of thy hired servants." [_He rises and goes away hurriedly._] ACT III SCENE I PLACE: In front of the father's home. CHARACTERS: The Father, the Prodigal Son, the Servants. [_The_ FATHER _stands looking for his son._] _Father:_ It seemeth to me that I see my son coming home! I knew that he would come! I will go to meet him! [_He meets him._] It is my son! [_The_ FATHER _shows great joy. The_ SON _falls on his knees before his father._] _Prodigal Son:_ Father, I have sinned against heaven and before thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son. _Father:_ Bring forth the best robe and put it on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet; and bring hither the fatted calf, and kill it, and let us eat and be merry, for this my son was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found! SCENE II PLACE: In the field, near the father's house. CHARACTERS: Elder Son, Servant, the Father. [_The_ ELDER SON _is hoeing in the field. A servant comes out. The_ ELDER SON _calls to him._] _Elder Son:_ I hear music and dancing in the house; what do these things mean? _Servant:_ Thy brother is come; thy father hath killed the fatted calf, because he hath received him safe and sound. Thy father sendeth for thee to come in. [_The_ ELDER BROTHER _shows anger._] _Elder Brother:_ I will not go in. Why should he make merry over my brother who has wasted his living? [_The_ FATHER _comes out._] _Father:_ My son, wilt thou come unto the feast? Thy lost brother hath returned! _Elder Son:_ Lo, these many years do I serve thee; neither have I at any time disobeyed thee, yet thou never gavest me a kid that I might make merry with my friends. But as soon as thy son was come, which hath wasted thy living, thou hast killed for him the fatted calf. _Father:_ Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I have is thine. It was meet that we should make merry and be glad, for this thy brother was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found. Come thou in to greet thy brother! [_They both go in._] END CHAPTER XI THE DRAMATIC QUALITIES IN A GOOD STORY The stories in the Bible, if taken just as they are given, present a body of material which is complicated by a historical background and a religious symbolism that is remote from the young child's experience. They embody the historical incidents as well as the myths and folklore of ancient Hebrew life, and for the most part they express the highest idealism of the Hebrew people. There is no reason, however, why good stories and appropriate incidents may not be given to children from this body of material through selecting from and simplifying the biblical version. A great deal of what is in the Bible should not be used, but there is much that is highly dramatic and becomes valuable for dramatization. It is possible to adapt an incident by simplifying, and in a measure reorganizing, the parts, and yet to keep the dignity and integrity of the story as it is given in the Bible. The attitude of the children, created by contact with this type of story, should be one of reverence and dignity, coupled with a consciousness of the high ideals of the people they are impersonating. Before any attempt is made to select parts of the Bible narrative for dramatization the leader, or director of the children, should have well in mind standards which will help in making the part that is chosen a well-organized story. When any good story is analyzed it is found to be built upon an underlying basic structure. There is always a beginning or setting; a middle part, where the incidents rise to a climax; and an end, where the events of the story are satisfactorily worked out. There should be a feeling of movement straight through the story; the incidents should develop; there should be action that leads to some end. A unity must underlie the whole story--there must be no part which is not essential to the working out of the plan. The end of the story should give a sense of completeness, of satisfaction. It is often the case that the three essential parts of the story call for three acts when the story is dramatized. In some of our modern dramas five acts, but in many only three acts, are required in order to complete the structure. Sometimes, however, all three parts of a story may be given in a one-act dramatization. Before a story is dramatized it is very necessary that it be told so clearly that the children are conscious of these parts; otherwise the resulting drama will lack in organization. No matter how elaborate or simple the story, the children should have a feeling for the basic structure, which should guide the form of the dramatization. The leader in charge of a dramatic club in which Bible stories are used must take the responsibility of changing the Bible version so as to make an organic unit of the story and yet keep the spirit and big meaning. There are many parts of the Bible narrative which already embody this simple organization--or division into related elements--if all of the heavy, unnecessary incidents are omitted.[1] Although the main purpose of these dramatizations is not that an artistic result be secured, yet that is an important factor, and should be recognized by both the leader and the children. The product many times will be necessarily crude and lacking in the aesthetic element, but nevertheless there should be an attempt, even though gradually, to train the children toward a recognition and an appreciation of the artistic qualities of the literary production they put forth, as well as of the stage groupings and effects. Care must be taken that the stories chosen are ethically sound. The story of Jacob is one that may well be omitted. Jacob deceives, and yet all the good things in life come to him--he takes them away from those who rightfully have earned them. This injustice in the story always raises a question in the minds of the children, and for this reason it is not a good story. The stories of Samson, Jephthah, Jael, and others on this order should be eliminated for similar reasons. They are each based upon attitudes toward society and standards of friendship which are now outgrown. There are so many simple episodes in the Bible that can easily be readjusted into well-constructed stories, about which there can be no question of the moral value, that no time need be wasted in considering any story about which there is the least suggestion of an unethical quality when judged by our present-day standards. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: As a matter of fact, it is often the later editorial additions to the simple old stories that have produced the cumbrous effect. When the original story is recovered, it lends itself much better to the purpose here discussed. Such a reorganization of the stories with a preservation of the biblical language has been made in Soares' _Heroes of Israel_ (The University of Chicago Press), where also there is much illustrative material interpretative of the situations.] CHAPTER XII BIBLE STORIES SUITABLE FOR DRAMATIZATION The stories which have been taken for dramatization in the previous chapters were not chosen because they are the best ones for that purpose, but because they represent different kinds of stories and illustrate the opportunity for various methods of presentation. There are many other stories and incidents in the Bible which are equal to, or better than, those described. A list of some of these stories is given below, together with a few of the most essential points which should be considered in dramatizing each. No attempt is made to give the story in full or to elaborate the dramatization; the plan for each is merely suggestive. I. SAMUEL I SAMUEL, CHAPTERS 2 AND 3 The story of Samuel may be worked into a short play of one or two scenes. The most interesting and dramatic incident is the familiar one of the Voice Calling Samuel at Night. The first part of the story, however, is beautiful, and may be used along with this incident. In scene i Hannah brings little Samuel to the temple and dedicates him to the Lord. Eli, the old priest, takes the child to live with him in the temple so that he may train him to serve the Lord. Scene ii takes place several years later. It is night time, and the child Samuel is sleeping near the old priest, Eli. He thinks he hears a voice calling him, and he runs to Eli to ask what he wants. Eli has not called him and tells him to lie down again. Three times he runs to Eli, thinking that he hears him calling. Then the priest tells him that it must be the Lord who has spoken and tells Samuel what to say the next time he is called. Samuel hears the message from the Lord and, upon Eli's request, tells him what he has heard. Eli realizes that the Lord has spoken truly, and accepts his fate as just. He praises Samuel and tells him that he will soon leave the care of the temple and of the people of Israel to him. Neither in this play, nor in any other play, should there be an attempt to represent the Lord's voice. The child may listen as if he were hearing someone speaking, and from what he says and does the audience will be aware of what is happening. For the sake of the result, from an artistic point of view, such parts as this should always be left to the imagination, no attempt being made to interpret them literally. 2. THE QUEEN OF SHEBA'S VISIT TO SOLOMON I KINGS, CHAPTER 10 The visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon furnishes a unit of work for a short one-act dramatization. There is no plot or complicated situation involved and there is very little activity suggested. The attention of the children may well be directed, however, to the description of Solomon's court and of the rich gifts which were exchanged. This is an excellent opportunity to have the children do construction work. They should make many things which will help to give the impression of richness to the court. They may also make their own costumes richer by adding jewels and bright-colored sashes and headdresses. This little dramatization will include many children. A number will be needed to come in with the Queen of Sheba, and there should be many attendants upon King Solomon. The conversation will be for the most part between Solomon and the Queen, heralds and servants making announcements. The play opens with the Queen of Sheba's arrival at the court of Solomon. Messengers announce her to the King. Solomon talks with the Queen and she tells him that she admires his great wisdom and his wealth. Then Solomon commands that the feast be served, and while they eat the Queen presents her gifts to Solomon. When the Queen takes her leave Solomon gives her wonderful presents. The play will end with the exit of the Queen and her attendants. Unless the children put much thought upon the stage setting and the conversation, this incident may prove uninteresting. It has, however, great possibilities for the working out of a beautiful picture. 3. JOSHUA AND THE GIBEONITES JOSHUA, CHAPTER 9 The story of Joshua and the Gibeonites is so simply told in the Bible that children of nine or ten years of age can read it as it is given and dramatize it directly from that version. The dramatization of this narrative calls for many characters. The older children may take the parts of Joshua and the leaders of the Gibeonites, while the younger ones are needed for Israelite soldiers and citizens of Gibeon. All the characters in the play will need to do much acting even though they do not enter into the conversation. Although the dramatization should be a product of the children's work, yet the leader should have well in mind the three main divisions of the story that she may guide the children by her questions. This story may be worked into one of the more elaborate productions. The Bible language should Be used and the result should be full of dignity and spirit. For detail in the method of presentation compare that employed in the story of Joseph (chapter iii). The story may be given so that the following divisions or scenes are emphasized: SCENE I PLACE: At Gibeon. Street scene. The inhabitants are discussing the victories of the Israelites. They are afraid of Joshua, the leader. Messengers report that he is advancing toward Gibeon. The Gibeonites plan to make a league with him so that he will not destroy their city. They decide to deceive Joshua by dressing as strangers from a far country, wearing old garments and taking moldy bread and wine. SCENE II PLACE: Joshua's tent at the camp of Gilgal. The men from Gibeon come to Joshua and tell him that they are from a far country. They say that they have heard of his great victories and wish to make a league with him. The conversation between Joshua and these strangers is interestingly given in the Bible and may be quoted almost exactly. Joshua makes the treaty with them. SCENE III PLACE: At Gibeon. The Israelite soldiers rush into Gibeon to take it, but find that the inhabitants are the same ragged strangers with whom they made the league. The Israelites reproach them, but cannot go back on their word, so spare their lives. In order to punish the Gibeonites for their deception, Joshua makes them slaves of the Israelites. There is much opportunity for construction work in the dramatizing of this story. Costumes, pieces of armor, and weapons may be made in a simple manner by the children. 4. ISAAC AND REBEKAH GENESIS, CHAPTER 24 The story of Isaac and Rebekah is unusually valuable for dramatization. It involves a well-worked-out plot which is beautifully and simply told in the Bible, and which brings the children in contact with many interesting customs among the shepherd people. The story needs little changing; it may be given almost as it is written. The following outline for the divisions of the story is merely suggestive: ACT I SCENE I PLACE: Abraham's tent in Canaan. Abraham is lying down in his tent. He is talking to Isaac, his son, about the wife he wishes him to have. He calls a servant and bids him go to Mesopotamia, his old home, and bring a wife for Isaac from his own kinsfolk. Abraham makes the servant swear that he will do as he has been told. Perhaps Abraham has his hand on Isaac while he is talking, and Isaac will take some small part in the conversation. ACT II SCENE I PLACE: Mesopotamia. The messenger, with his servants, comes to the well just outside of the city walls, where the women draw water. There should be no attempt to represent the camels. These may be indicated by the conversation and left to the imagination. The messenger, through praying to God, decides how he shall know which young woman to choose for Isaac. When Rebekah comes with her pitcher she offers to give water to him and to his camels also. The man is sure then that Rebekah is sent by God, and therefore he arranges to go to her father's house for the night. This scene should be made very picturesque as well as interesting. The children may look up pictures of the wells of those times and then construct something that will serve the purpose. Pieces of pottery may be brought in on the shoulders of the women to represent water jugs. (Compare with the street scene described in the story of Ruth, chapter vi.) SCENE II PLACE: Rebekah's home. In this scene comes the discussion of Rebekah's leaving home to become the wife of Isaac. The messenger makes known to the family that it is Abraham, their kinsman, who is sending for Rebekah. He gives Rebekah the gifts which his master has sent--earrings, bracelets, and the like. The family finally decide that Rebekah may go back to Canaan, but they ask the servant to let her stay with them for ten days longer. He is unwilling to wait, and the question is therefore put to Rebekah. She answers that she will go with him now. ACT III SCENE I PLACE: Canaan. A field near Isaac's home. Isaac walks alone in the field at sunset. He is constantly looking into the distance, and he is wondering when the messenger will return with a wife for him. At length he sees the camels approaching and hastens to meet them. This is all indicated by his soliloquy--no camels must be shown. The servant and Rebekah have dismounted and come to meet Isaac. The servant gives Rebekah to Isaac who embraces her and shows his joy at receiving such a beautiful wife. The play should end where Isaac turns toward his father's tent with Rebekah. While the children are playing this story there should be much detailed discussion which will give them an adequate background for understanding the customs upon which the story is based; and there should be shown many illustrations which will insure correct mental pictures. 5. ELIJAH AND THE WIDOW'S MEAL I KINGS, CHAPTER 17 This may be used as a very simple incident of two scenes, or it may be elaborated into a longer play. The first scene is placed by the gate of the city of Zarephath. As Elijah comes toward the gate he asks a woman, who is gathering sticks, for a drink of water. She gives him the water and he asks for bread. The conversation between them brings out the facts that there is famine in the land, and that the widow has hardly enough meal left in the house to make bread for herself and for her son. She agrees to divide with Elijah, however, and takes him into her house. The wording for this scene may be taken almost directly as it is given in the Bible. The second scene is placed in the house of the widow. The woman and her son are eating with Elijah. From what they say to each other it is apparent that the meal and oil have lasted for many days, and the three people have had plenty to eat during the famine. The widow is convinced that a miracle has been wrought by her guest. She begs him to tell her who he is. The stranger answers that he is Elijah, the prophet of the Lord, and that it is through the Lord's care of them that they have had food enough. The play may well end here with the final speech from the widow as it is given in the Bible: "Now by this I know that thou art a man of God, and that the word of the Lord in thy mouth is truth." In case the part of the story which gives the raising of the widow's son is used, a third scene may be added, and the widow's speech would come at the end of that scene. 6. ELISHA AND THE SHUNAMMITE II KINGS, CHAPTER 4 This incident is similar to the story of Elijah and the widow's meal, and may be dealt with in the same manner. It should be simplified by selecting certain parts for dramatization. The emphasis throughout falls upon the generous qualities of the two characters--Elisha, ever ready to help others, and the woman, who always kept a room for the prophet because she admired his goodness. 7. DANIEL INTERPRETS THE KING'S DREAM DANIEL, CHAPTERS 1 AND 2 The stories about Daniel have unusually interesting possibilities for dramatization. They need very little explanation. They are so vividly and beautifully told in the Bible that the children will understand them readily and have no difficulty in interpreting them. A few historical facts may be given to make the setting clear. The following divisions are suggested for the first story: SCENE I King Nebuchadnezzar brings four Israelites into his court in order to have them trained as councilors. He appoints them a daily provision of the king's meat and wine. SCENE II The King dreams a dream and forgets it. He calls all of his wise men and demands that they tell him what his dream was and also interpret it. The wise men declare that this is an impossibility and refuse to obey. Nebuchadnezzar is furious and orders that they all be put to death. Daniel then comes before the King and asks that the King give him time that he may interpret the dream. The King grants this. SCENE III Daniel appears before the King again. The King asks if he is able to tell what the dream was and to interpret it. Daniel answers that he is able to tell him, not, however, by his own power, but by the power of God in heaven who revealeth secrets. Then Daniel gives in detail the dream and tells King Nebuchadnezzar the meaning thereof. The King is so affected that he falls on his face and worships Daniel. He recognizes the God of Daniel, and commands that Daniel be made governor of Babylon. At Daniel's request he also makes the three other Israelites rulers of certain provinces. This story may be treated in the same manner as the story of Joseph (chapter iii). 8. SHADRACH, MESHACH, AND ABED-NEGO IN THE BURNING FIERY FURNACE DANIEL, CHAPTER 3 This story may be read to children directly from the Bible. After they have worked it over several times the final product will include three scenes of the following character: SCENE I The heralds come through the streets crying aloud that King Nebuchadnezzar commands all people to bow down when they shall hear the musical instruments and worship the image of gold which he has set up. Those who do not obey will be put into a burning fiery furnace. The instruments of music sound and all the people fall to the ground to worship except the three Israelites, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. Some of the men notice that the Jews do not obey, and go off immediately to tell the King. SCENE II The men come before the King and begin their story by saying, "O King, live forever!" The Bible language may be used directly here in the conversation which follows. The King is very angry at what these men tell him. He orders that the three Jews be brought before him. They are brought in and the King tells them that they will have to be put into the fiery furnace if they do not obey. The Jews are not afraid and reply that their God will take care of them. The King then orders them to be bound and to be taken out to the furnace, which has been heated seven times hotter than usual. Men come running back to the King to tell him that the servants which thrust the Jews into the furnace were burnt up by the heat, but that the Jews were not harmed. Another man runs in and tells the King that a fourth person is in the furnace, and that he resembles the Son of God. Nebuchadnezzar commands that the three men be brought out from the furnace. They come before him, with no mark of the fire on them. The King is so greatly impressed that he makes a decree that no one shall speak against the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. He then appoints these three men to positions of greater trust than ever before. 9. BELSHAZZAR AND THE HANDWRITING ON THE WALL DANIEL, CHAPTER 5 This story, like the others from Daniel, is so dramatically told in the Bible that it may be taken almost exactly as it is given. It should be worked into a one-act play. Much attention should be given to the setting, and the children may make many things which will give some idea of the richness of the banquet hall. The play opens with the feast of Belshazzar. The people are making merry in the midst of all the pomp and luxury of the court. Suddenly the handwriting appears on the wall. The King and the people see it and are terrified. The children should not attempt to show the handwriting, but from the words and actions of the King and the people the audience must be made aware of what is happening. None of the wise men present is able to interpret the handwriting. The Queen comes before the King and begs that he send for Daniel, the Jew. Daniel is brought in, and after a little thought gives the interpretation. The scene should end with the recognition of Daniel's power. The scarlet robe is placed on him and the golden chain is put around his neck, and the King proclaims that Daniel shall be the third ruler in the land. 10. THE STORY OF JOB THE BOOK OF JOB The most majestic piece of literature in the Bible, and one of the world's masterpieces, is the Book of Job. The Prologue and Epilogue are in the prose epic style, which characterizes the best narrative portions of the Bible. The main part of the book is actually dramatic in form, and the deep problem of human suffering is discussed in the loftiest poetic language. The theme is so profound and the imagery so elevated that it is quite beyond the ability of small children. High-school students might well present the drama. Many of the speeches may be abbreviated, while the Prologue can easily be dramatized. Job has been so presented with great success by children of high-school age at All Souls' Church, Chicago. It may be noted that the voice of the Lord was given in an elevated monotone by a person unseen. 11. THE PROPHETS For the older children many of the Prophets make interesting characters for dramatization. The great value of a study of the Prophets lies in their appeal as beautiful pieces of literature and expressions of the deepest spiritual feeling, rather than in the dramatic situations presented. If a study is made of the life of the Prophets, and of the times in which they lived, ample material will be discovered which may serve as a background for the dramatization of these characters. This material is not entirely available from the Bible, but should be reinforced by outside references, such as _The Prophets of Israel_ by C. H. Cornill, _The Modern Reader's Bible_ by R. G. Moulton, _The Hebrew Prophets_ by Chamberlin. The prophet Amos may be taken as an example of what can be done with this material. The Children of Israel are celebrating their autumn festival with great joy and abandon. As the mirth is at its highest an unknown man makes his way through the crowd. He silences the festivity by chanting his dirgelike reproof to the merrymakers. The astonishment of the people at this sensational interruption is great. The high priest hurries toward him and demands an explanation for this unusual disturbance. He orders Amos to cease speaking and to go back to the hills and mind his sheep. Amos answers that he is sent by the Lord to reprove the people of Israel, and he continues to intone his lamentations. The most beautiful and vivid selections for use in dramatization are found in chapters 8 and 9. While the final beautiful words of the prophecy are regarded as an editorial appendix, there can be no impropriety in using them as a dramatic climax. The people may then be represented as subdued in spirit, accepting the upbraiding as being the word of God. Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other Prophets may be worked out in like manner. The result in each case, however, should insure the utmost dignity and beauty; otherwise the dramatization should never be attempted. The many Prophets with their various messages suggest the possibility of their use in a pageant. This form of dramatization may be given to advantage by a group of children as a climax to their detailed study of the Prophets. * * * * * From each of the following subjects several dramatizations may be taken. They suggest many short one-act plays, and also some excellent long ones. Saul Chosen and Anointed King of Israel. I Sam., chaps. 9 and 10. Samuel Anoints David. I Sam., chap. 16. David and Jonathan. I Sam., chaps. 18-20. David Spares Saul's Life. I Sam., chap. 24. Moses Begs Pharaoh to Allow the Children of Israel to Leave Egypt. Exod., chaps. 5-13. It may be well to state, in connection with the selection of stories from the Bible for dramatization, that other stories outside of the Bible may be dramatized by these same methods and will accomplish the same results. It is not best to allow children to dramatize in succession too many of the heavier type of stories, such as the Bible stories represent. They may become tired if they work too long at the same kind of dramatization. Children need stories which will lighten and relieve the extreme seriousness and dignity which they necessarily have to express in playing the Bible stories. There is a host of fairy tales, folk-tales, and historical incidents that may well be adapted for this purpose. _The Children's Educational Theatre_, by Alice Minnie Herts, describes dramatic work with children older than those who made the plays in this book. It is an interesting experiment in education which uses dramatization as a means for accomplishing certain aims. CHAPTER XIII STAGE SETTING AND PROPERTIES The point has been emphasized in the preceding chapters that very little stage setting and only a few properties are used in connection with these dramatizations. It is always best that as much as possible should be left to the imagination, and that only such setting and properties be used as the children themselves can construct and as are needed to produce the atmosphere of the play. This point of view influences any consideration of these matters. It is frequently true that, after the children have made the articles they find a need for, the results are very crude, and there is yet much opportunity for free play of the imagination. Great benefit is derived, however, through the construction of these objects. The children gain a clearer understanding and a keener appreciation of them after they have had the experience of trying to express the shape or form through some medium, such as clay-modeling, paper-cutting, drawing. Care should be taken that children make nothing in the nature of stage scenery, such as trees, grass, bulrushes, and other bits of landscape. The only stage setting which seems at all necessary for them to make involves very simple designs which show the characteristic ornamentation of the times, for example, the lotus and papyrus designs in Pharaoh's court. Drawings and descriptions of a few of the most essential stage properties and settings are given below, with suggestions as to where and how each may be used. _Water jugs and dishes._--In the earlier stages of Hebrew history--as is found to be the case with all primitive shepherd people--skins and wooden bowls were used for holding water, milk, and food. Clay vessels were probably not in general use during the nomadic period. When dramatizing the stories of Abraham and Isaac, and others of that period, this fact should be taken into account, and only vessels of wood and skin should be used. Most of the clay utensils, which are mentioned in the stories of a later time, were shaped like those shown in Fig. 10. Many of the water jugs had small handles, though some were without handles. Fig. 11 shows the position in which a Hebrew woman usually carried her water jug. The Hebrews had little interest in the aesthetic except in the realm of literature, and the lack is very evident in their pottery. The water jugs are far from having the beauty of line and proportion which is found in Greek pottery. Whenever any of these vessels are needed for use in a dramatization, it is well to have the children bring jars and bowls from home which conform as nearly as possible to the shapes here given. Earthenware bowls and jars may be used effectively. [Illustration: FIG. 10.--WATER JUGS, DRINKING BOTTLE, MILK JUG, COOKING POT, DISH, WATER JUG] _Wells._--The importance of wells in the life of the early Hebrews cannot be overemphasized. The scarcity of water in the desert made the digging of wells a necessity for the survival of people and of flocks. As much of the land was rocky, wells could be dug only at certain places. These favorable places were the means of determining where the tents were to be pitched. In most of the stories of the nomadic life wells play a conspicuous part. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--WOMAN CARRYING WATER JUG] Children should have correct mental pictures of those ancient wells, so that they do not confuse them with the modern wells. The wells of Palestine usually had low stone walls around them, and often big flat stones for covers. The rocks were piled high enough to keep animals from falling in. In some of the wells the water was so low in the ground that people had to go down steps on the inside in order to get it. In other wells the vessels were let down by means of ropes. The women of the land were always required to draw and carry the water. The simplest way for children to represent a well on the stage is by piling up rocks to resemble the outside or by using something that will look like a great stone. Fig. 12 shows two kinds of wells in Palestine. [Illustration: FIG. 12.--ANCIENT WELLS IN PALESTINE] _Staff and rod._--The shepherd boy always had with him a rod and a staff (Fig. 13). The rod was about two and a half feet long and was used for protection. The thick knob at the end was cut out of the tree from which the limb came, and was frequently covered with knots or nails to make it more terrible as a weapon. The children may find pieces of wood which will serve the purpose, or if they live near a forest they may make their own rods. The staff was usually about five feet long. The shepherd used it to help him climb hills and mountains and also to keep the sheep from straying. Some staffs were nothing more than the straight limbs of trees; others had a fork or crook at the end so that they could more easily catch into the wool of the sheep when they needed guiding. Children may use long sticks or branches from trees when they represent staffs. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--SPEARS, SWORDS, STAFF, ROD, ARROWS, BOW] _Sling._--The sling which was used in David's time was frequently woven of rushes, hair, or sinews; sometimes it was made from soft leather. From Fig. 14 it will be seen that the shape of the woven part is wider in the middle and comes to a point at the end. A string was tied to each end and the stone was placed in the wide part. The sling was whirled around over the head, and as one string was let loose the stone flew out. When the sling is used in a dramatization, the stone may be left to the imagination. [Illustration: FIG. 14.--A SHEPHERD'S SLING, A SIMPLE LOOM--MADE FROM CARDBOARD] Children take great pleasure in trying to weave this sling. A diagram of a simple cardboard loom is given in Fig. 14. The shape should be drawn on the cardboard, then holes made for the thread which strings up the loom. Coarse woolen yarn may be used for the weaving. _Shepherd bag._--The shepherd bag which was used by David was carried by every shepherd boy along with the staff, rod, and sling. It was made from a piece of skin with a cord at each end. The cords were fastened to the girdle so that the skin formed a kind of bag. Pebbles for the sling were carried in it, and often supplies of food. A piece of leather or of brown cloth may be easily made into one of these bags for the children to use. _Sickles._--Sickles were of two kinds--those made of metal and those made of wood. The wooden ones were toothed with sharp pieces of flint. Fig. 15 gives the characteristic shapes. [Illustration: FIG. 15.--SICKLES] Children may represent these sickles by cutting the shapes from stiff cardboard and coloring them some dark color to make them look as if they were wood or metal. Some of the boys may be interested in cutting sickles directly out of wood. _Scepter._--The scepter was used by kings in the later history of the Hebrews. It was nothing more than a development of the rod used in the shepherd period. As a rod it was a means of protection and power over enemies, and as a scepter it was a symbol of the same power. Scepters were sometimes short, with much ornamentation; others were long, probably five feet in length. They were all characterized by a ball at the end, and in many cases the kings had them made from gold, or richly ornamented with gold. The Persian kings used the long scepter, which therefore is the kind most appropriate for the play of Esther (see Fig. 16). _Tents._--The ancient Hebrew tent was much like the modern Bedouin tent. It was low and spread out over the ground, and was made of black goat's hair cloth. This cloth was usually stretched over nine poles, arranged in rows of three and from six to seven feet in height. The inside of the tent was divided into two parts by a long curtain which hung across the middle. [Illustration: FIG. 16.--SCEPTER] A tent may be represented on the stage by placing a big thick cloth (a blanket or canvas or dark curtain) over poles or screens. _Shields._--There were two kinds of shields found among the Hebrews. One was very large and covered a man from head to foot; it was usually carried by a shield-bearer. The other was small and was sometimes called a buckler. Many different shapes were found in both kinds of shields; some were like the Egyptian--long, broad, and straight at the bottom; others were round and oblong. All shields were convex with handles on the inside to hold them by. The kings had shields covered with gold, or decorated with gold and precious stones; but the common soldier had a shield of wood or stiff leather. Leather formed the basis of the shields that were decorated. Fig. 17 will show drawings of some of the typical shapes. Children can easily make shields out of cardboard; some may be covered with gold paper or with dark-brown paper. A handle may be glued or sewed in the inside so that the shield may be held without trouble. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--SHIELDS, FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS] _Swords._--The sword was always hung from the left side of the sword-belt. It was made from bronze or iron, and was about seventeen inches long. Fig. 13 shows some of the usual shapes. Many swords were two-edged and had leather sheaths in which they were carried. Children may make these out of stiff cardboard, or out of thin wood. They should be colored a dark color, and the hilts may be decorated with bright colors to represent jewels. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--TRUMPETS] _Spears._--Spears averaged about five feet in length. The javelin was a long, heavy spear used for casting; the lance was a lighter spear used for defense. All spears had a shaft of wood and a metal or stone point. Fig. 13 gives several of the characteristic shapes of spear-points. Spears may be made by fastening cardboard points to long sticks, or by cutting the point directly out of the wood. _Bows and arrows._--The bows and arrows of the Hebrews were very much like those of all other primitive peoples. The bows were often four or five feet long and the arrows were pointed with sharp flint or metal. Illustrations of the shapes are found in Fig. 13. Children need little direction in the making of these weapons, a string and some pliable wood being all that is necessary. _Trumpets._--Fig. 18 illustrates the kinds of trumpets used. The small ram's-horn trumpet was associated with the feasts and other public celebrations, while the long metal horn was used for the most part by the priests. These metal trumpets were frequently made from hammered silver. Children can make them out of stiff paper or thin cardboard and cover them with silver paper. [Illustration: FIG. 19.--SIGNET RING] [Illustration: FIG. 20.--LAMP] _Signet ring._--A signet ring is something that the kings were never without. In the earlier times it was worn on a chain which hung from the neck; later it was worn on the finger. Fig. 19 gives a drawing of a signet ring. The design was raised so that it left an imprint. The king used this imprint as his royal signature instead of signing his name. When a signet ring is needed in a dramatization, as is the case in _Daniel in the Lions' Den_, any large ring may be used, or the children may be interested in making a ring from paper or cardboard. _Lamps._--Fig. 20 shows one of the simpler types of lamps used at the time of Christ. This was probably the kind referred to in the parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins. The lamps were terra cotta and held a very little oil. Children will be interested in making these lamps out of clay or plasticene. They are almost in the shape of a shallow bowl with a handle. [Illustration: FIG. 21.--EGYPTIAN DESIGN] _Egyptian design._--In the scenes placed in Pharaoh's court a few decorations suggestive of the Egyptian will add interest. Fig. 21 gives some of the simpler designs which the children may use for ornamentation. The servants may carry the large fan-shaped designs, which they make on stiff paper. These designs were made from the lotus and the papyrus plants; the leaves were usually a blue-green, and red, blue, yellow, white, and black were used in many designs. Fig. 21 shows some of these designs that were made by the children and used in representing Pharaoh's court. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--HELMETS, CROWNS, ASSYRIAN, EGYPTIAN, EGYPTIAN] As it may be of interest to those who have access to a library to know where more definite and detailed information may be secured concerning the articles that are but briefly described here, the following works are recommended: The _New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_; Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_; the _Jewish Encyclopedia_; Kitto, _Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature_; three books by W. M. Thomson--_Central Palestine and Phoenicia_, _Southern Palestine and Jerusalem_, _Lebanon, Damascus, and beyond Jordan_; Elmendorf, _A Camera Crusade through the Holy Land._ CHAPTER XIV COSTUMING The question of costuming may be dealt with in much the same manner as that of stage setting and properties. Costumes are unnecessary in many of the simpler plays, and even where they are used they should be so treated that they are of minor importance in the minds of the children. It is nearly always the case that the very smallest suggestion of a costume--a sash or a cloth around the head--is satisfying and sufficient to produce the proper atmosphere of the play. There is danger of placing so much emphasis upon this phase of the work that the children attach undue importance to it and thus lose the real spirit of the dramatization. If costumes are used they should not be saved for the final performance, but the children should have the pleasure of wearing them at each practice where they are actually living over and over the lives of other people. Children should get their ideas of the dress of the times from pictures and descriptions and then in very simple ways try to represent what they have observed. The simplicity of the costumes among the Hebrew people makes the problem comparatively simple. [Illustration: FIG. 23.--A group of children, showing costumes and a trumpet] There is very little definite knowledge about the exact costume of the ancient Israelites, for they have left no records. The only sources of information on the subject are the few references to dress in the Old Testament and the few Jewish figures found among the Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian, and Persian carvings. The conclusion has been reached, however, that the ancient Hebrew costume was in general similar to that of the modern Arab. It is fairly certain that among the earliest tribes a simple slip or short tunic, with close-fitting sleeves, was worn. Later a big loose mantle was usually thrown over this slip. The little under-garment was white, woven from wool, or sometimes made out of skins; the outer garment was frequently striped, a bright color with white. Among the old patriarchs the outside cloak reached to the ground. It was often in the shape of a blanket, and was draped by throwing one end over the left shoulder, then passing it across the front of the body and under the right arm, then across the back, and to the left shoulder again. At a still later period there was the long gown, which reached to the ankles and was belted in at the waist by a girdle. This was sometimes covered by an outside robe which was like a cape. Frequently these garments were brought over the heads in order to protect their wearers from the sun. As a rule the servants and lower class of people wore only the one garment--a short tunic, with or without a girdle. The richer men wore the outside cloaks. Kings and nobles had many kinds of cloaks which were very elaborately decorated. They had silk girdles, while the poorer men wore leather girdles. See Figs. 23-27 for costumes made by the children. [Illustration: FIG. 24.--The costume of Abraham] The women's dress was very much the same as that worn by the men. All garments may have been a little longer, but the draping and the kinds of garments were the same. Great ladies had beautiful veils and shawls. [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Two kinds of costumes--the Rich Shepherd and the Servant.] Both men and women wore sandals. The soles were made of leather or thick woven cords. They were fastened to the feet by means of strings of leather, linen, or of papyrus. Two straps were usually attached to the back of the sandal, then crossing from the back over the instep they were tied to a third strap which was fastened at the front and came between the great and second toe. Fig. 26 shows sandals which were made by the children. [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Costumes, showing sandals made by the children] The headdress in the earlier days was nothing more than a piece of square cloth, folded diagonally and placed over the head with the long point at the back; the two ends were then crossed under the chin and thrown back over the shoulders. A cord was tied around the head to keep the cloth on. Later a kind of turban was worn which had no loose ends, but which projected over the face enough to protect one from the sun. Figs. 23-25 give examples of different kinds of headdress made by the children. [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Costumes] The crowns which the kings wore were frequently of gold, studded with jewels, although the Persian king had a stiff cap of felt or cloth, encircled by a blue and white band. Fig. 22 gives a few of the typical shapes for crowns. The helmets which were worn by the soldiers were varied. The shapes employed by the Assyrians and the Egyptians were probably used among the Hebrews. See Fig. 22 for drawings of some of the best-known helmets. Children may make these easily by using cardboard and gilt paper. The Hebrew men and women had many personal ornaments, such as necklaces, armlets, bracelets, rings. Children delight in making all kinds of bracelets and chains from gold and silver paper. They may bring all the bright-colored beads that they can get for the enrichment of the costume. CHAPTER XV THE ORGANIZATION OF A CHURCH DRAMATIC CLUB The kind of dramatics described in this book may be undertaken with success in connection with any Sunday school. The most necessary element is a leader in charge who is wide awake to the aims and purposes of such work and who has the ability to deal with little children. A trained teacher is preferable. This dramatization can be most effectively presented to children between the ages of six and thirteen. In case the Sunday school is very large and more children join than can be easily managed by one leader, it would be best to divide the members into two or three smaller groups, each with a competent leader in charge. One person should be able to handle well from twenty to twenty-five children.[2] This training ought not to stop with younger children, but may well be carried on with pupils of high-school age. This would involve problems slightly different from those here presented, but on the whole the same aims may be achieved. It is sometimes the case that a few of the children outgrow the club. They begin to realize that they are much larger than the others, and they decide that they do not care to take part in the acting, yet they are still interested enough to come to the meetings. If there is no other dramatic club into which they may go, then they may be used as assistants in the younger club and made to feel that they are a necessary part of it. There are many ways in which they can be of valuable help to the leader, at the same time experiencing a development through the training. During one year in the history of the dramatic club here described three girls of fourteen came regularly to the meetings. They could not be persuaded to take part in the dramatizations, but they expressed an eagerness to help in the direction. They entered into the discussion and criticism of the plays that were being acted each Sunday, and their suggestions were always very much to the point. They had the ability of explaining what they meant to the children so that it was easily understood. These girls would write out the scenes, sometimes while the children were actually giving them; or, again, they would write them at home and bring them for discussion at the next meeting. They took entire charge of the costuming, and would meet outside at sewing-bees, where they mended, pieced, or made over the costumes on hand. Then at the plays they always took the responsibility of dressing the little children, putting on their headdresses, tying their sashes, and seeing that their costumes were draped in the right way. When a dramatic club is first started, it is advisable to dignify the organization by electing a president and secretary from among the children. The president may take charge of the meetings and then turn them over to the director, and may help in many ways to keep the club together. The secretary may call the roll and be responsible for sending notices to the members. Children always delight in this amount of formality, and through it each one becomes a much more vital part of the group; the responsibility as far as possible is placed upon the children, and they usually rise to meet it. It is hardly practical in most cases to attempt to hold more than one meeting a week. The time should be set according to the convenience of the majority of the members. Sunday afternoon was found to be the best time for this little club to meet, but any week day will do as well. Occasionally, just before a play is to be given, a few call meetings may be necessary. It is desirable that the club own the simple costumes which the members wear. A costume box is a convenient place for keeping them. The same garments may be used over and over again, and should be kept where they may be easily obtained at each meeting. The older girls in the group will be glad to take charge of the costume box, and they should see that all of the garments are kept in order. The supply of costumes will grow, for children will be constantly bringing new things to add to it. There are various methods of getting a number of costumes on hand. The children may bring from home old sheets and bright-colored shawls and ribbons, which may be used to advantage. Often the Sunday school will appropriate a small sum in order to help buy materials. A very small amount of money need be spent, for the costumes must be extremely simple and they should be planned and made by the children. The construction work which the children do in connection with the dramatization is an important part in the working out of a play. As already noted, the greatest value of it lies in the fact that it represents the efforts of the children. There is hardly time at one of the regular meetings to have the construction work done. A discussion of the articles needed may be necessary, after which the children should be encouraged to make them at home. The older ones are able to look up pictures and descriptions which will help, while the younger ones need to have the matter frequently talked over in order to give them the correct mental pictures of what they are to make. It is always surprising to see how readily children take hold of this kind of work. They bring in very many interesting things which they have made--often things which they have thought out for themselves and which they had not been asked to make. There are times when all the members are working on the same problem, such as lamps for the Wise and Foolish Virgins. It may be best under these circumstances to have a meeting outside where they all work together. (Descriptions of these constructed articles may be found in a previous chapter.) A word of warning may be in place at this point. Parents of the children are usually anxious and eager to help in making costumes and the constructed objects. The very best aid that they can give is to see that the children have the opportunity for making these things themselves; they may encourage and guide wisely, but the finished product must be the child's, not the mother's. Some mothers have thought that they were doing the right thing to have a carpenter make the spears and other weapons for the soldier. The boy derives more benefit if he looks around for some sticks which will serve his purpose, no matter how crude they may be. The order in which plays are given in this book should not be taken as the proper sequence for a dramatic club. The story of _Joseph_ is described in detail first because the method used there may be followed with any of the shorter or longer stories. This particular story, however, should not be the first one presented to children who have never had such work before. Such stories as _David and Goliath_, _Abraham and the Three Guests_, or any of the parables should come first. _Joseph_, _Ruth_, and _Esther_ are well worked out by children after they have had a little experience with dramatization. As a final summary, let it be ever kept in mind that this dramatization functions as a factor in religious education only when the highest development of the children is the aim. It should be so conducted that it forms an essential part of the religious training of the Sunday school, and also one of the valuable activities of the church. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: In church schools which are organizing on the most approved methods of the correlation of all educational activities the dramatic club may be a regular part of the junior department, similar clubs being integral parts of the other departments.] INDEX INDEX Aaron, 55 _Abraham_, the dramatization of, 84-92, 118 Ahasuerus, king of Media and Persia, 70-83 Aims of dramatization, 5, 9-10 Amos, the prophet, 127 Angels, 85, 90 Armor and weapons, 50, 138-140, 151 Bag, shepherd, 136 Banquet, Queen Esther's, 69, 80 Belshazzar, 125 Boaz, 64-66 Bow and arrow, 140 Cardboard, use of, 45, 60, 151 Citizens of Bethlehem, 65 Clay, use of, 100, 131, 142 Cloak, outer garment, 146 Conspirators, 94-97 Construction work, 45, 60, 130-143 Costumes, 45; the making of, 144-151; the method of obtaining, 155 Crowns, 150 _Daniel_, the dramatization of, 93-97, 122, 125 Darius, 93-95 _David_, 44; the dramatization of, 46-51, 128 Design, Egyptian, 142 Diagram of loom, 45, 136 Dishes, 131 Education, religious, 6-8, 157 Elijah, 120-121 Elisha, 122 _Esther_, the dramatization of, 68-83 Feast, 80, 115-116 Fiery furnace, 123-124 Gibeonites, 116-117 Girdle, 146 Gleaners, 63 Goliath, 44, 48, 51 Haman, 71-74 Harvest, 59, 61 Headdress, 69, 144, 150 Helmet, 143, 151 Innkeeper, 105 Isaac, 118-120 Isaiah, 128 Jacob, 18, 112 Jael, 112 Jephthah, 112 Jeremiah, 128 Jericho, 103 Jerusalem, 103 Job, 126 Jonathan, 128 _Joseph_, the story of, 17-25; the dramatization of, 34-43 Joshua, 116 Lamps, 99-100, 142 Lions, den of, 93, 96-97 Loom, 45, 136 Method of presenting dramatization, formal, 9; informal, 10-16 Miriam, 55 Moab, the land of, 63 Mordecai, 72-74 _Moses_, the dramatization of, 52-56, 128 Naomi, 62-63, 66-67 Nebuchadnezzar, 122-123 Organization, of dramatic club, 7, 8, 152-157; of stories, 110-111 Ornaments, personal, 151 Papyrus, 142, 149 Parables, the dramatization of, 98-108 Performance, public, 14, 33, 90 Pharaoh, 21, 39, 54, 57-58 Pharaoh's daughter, 55-58 Pictures, the use of, 45, 84 Plasticene, 100, 142 President of the club, 154 _Prodigal Son, The_, dramatization of, 105-108 Prophets, the, 126-127 Queen of Sheba, 115-116 Reapers, 63-64 Rebekah, 118-120 Ring, signet, 141 _Ruth_, the dramatization of, 59-67 _Samaritan, The Good_, the dramatization of, 103-104 Samson, 112 Samuel, 113-114, 128 Sandals, 62, 148-149 Sarah, 85 Saul, 48, 128 Scepter, 69, 78, 137 Secretary of the club, 154 Servant, 100, 108 Shepherd customs, 84 Shield, 45, 138 Sickles, 60, 137 Sling, 45, 51, 135-136 Soldier, 49, 96 Solomon, 115-116 Spears, 45, 140 Staff, 45, 134 Stage setting, 84, 130 Supper, The Great, 100 Swords, 45, 139 Tents, 84, 138 Trumpets, 141 Tunic, 146-147 Turban, 150 _Virgins, The Wise and Foolish_, the dramatization of, 99-100 Water jugs, 131-132 Wells, 133 PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION _Edited by_ W. C. BOWER, EDWIN E. AUBREY, and W. C. GRAHAM _A Survey of Religious Education in the Local Church._ By William C. Bower. _The Junior: Life-Situations of Children Nine to Eleven Years of Age._ (Revised edition, 1932.) By Ernest J. Chave. _Out of Doors with Youth._ By J. W. F. Davies. _The Sunday-School Building and Its Equipment._ By Herbert F. Evans. _Recreation and the Church._ By Herbert W. Gates. _Character Building through Recreation._ By Kenneth L. Heaton. _Graded Social Service for the Sunday School._ By William N. Hutchins. _A Summer Program for the Church School._ By Miles H. Krumbine. _World-Friendship through the Church School._ By John Leslie Lobingier. _Projects in World-Friendship._ By John Leslie Lobingier. _The Dramatization of Bible Stories._ By Elizabeth Erwin Miller (Elizabeth Miller Lobingier). _Dramatization in the Church School._ By Elizabeth Erwin Miller (Elizabeth Miller Lobingier). _Far Peoples._ By Grace D. Phillips. _Church School Projects._ By Erwin L. Shaver. _The Project Principle in Religious Education._ By Erwin L. Shaver. _A Project Curriculum for Young People._ By Erwin L. Shaver. _Handwork in Religious Education._ By Addie Grace Wardle. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Made minor punctuation and formatting changes, e.g., indentations. 
8940	----	An Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance By John Foster. Revised and Enlarged Edition. "A Work, which, popular and admired as it confessedly is, has never met with the thousandth part of the attention which it deserves. It appears to me that we are now at a crisis in the state of our country, and of the world, which renders the reasonings and exhortations of that eloquent production applicable and urgent beyond all power of mine to express." Dr. J. Pye Smith. Advertisement If the circumstance of a manner of introduction somewhat different from what would be expected in a composition of the essay class were worth a very few words of explanation, it might be mentioned, that the following production has grown out of the topics of a discourse, delivered at a public anniversary meeting in aid of the British and Foreign School Society. When it was thought, a good while after that occasion, that a more extensive use might be made of some of the observations, the writing was begun in the form of a Discourse addressed to an assembly, and commencing with a sentence from the Bible, to serve as a general indication to the subject. But after some progress had been made, it became evident that anything like a comprehensive view of that subject would be incompatible with the proper limits of such a composition. In relinquishing, however, the form of a public address, the writer thought he might be excused for leaving some traces of that character to remain, in both the cast of expression and the theological sentiment; for reverting repeatedly to the sentence from Scripture; and for continuing the use of the plural pronoun, so commodious for the modest egotism of public discoursers. In the general design and course of observations, the essay retains the character of the original discourse, which was, in accordance to the presumed expectations of a grave assembly, an attempt to display the importance of the education of the people in reference, mainly, to moral and religious interests. There are special relations in which their ignorance or cultivation are of great consequence to the welfare of the community. Some of these are of indispensable consideration to the legislator, and to the political economist. But it is in that general and moral view, in which ignorance in the lower orders is beheld the cause of their vice, irreligion, and consequent misery, that the subject is attempted, imperfectly and somewhat desultorily, to be illustrated in the following pages. Nor was it within the writer's design to suggest any particular plans, regulations, or instrumental expedients, in promotion of the system of operations hopefully begun, for raising these classes from their degradation. His part has been to make such a prominent representation of the calamitous effects of their ignorance, as shall prove it an aggravated national guilt to allow another generation to grow up to the same condition as the present and the past. In the course of attempting this, occasions have been seized of exposing the absurdity of those who are hostile to the mental improvement of the people. If any one should say that this is a mere beating of the air, for that all such hostility is now gone by, he may be assured there are many persons, of no insignificant rank in society, who would from their own consciousness smile at the simplicity with which he can so easily shape men's opinions and dispositions to his mind whether they will or not. He must have been the most charitable or the most obtuse of observers. It is feared the readers of the following essay will find some defect of distribution and arrangement. To the candor of those who are practised in literary work it would be an admissible plea, that when, in a preparation to meet a particular occasion for which but little time has been allowed, a series of topics and observations has been hastily sketched out, it is far from easy to throw them afterwards into a different order. The author has to bespeak indulgence also, here and there, to something too like repetition. If he qualifies the terms in which this fault is acknowledged, it is because he thinks that, though there be a recurrence of similarities, a mere bare iteration is avoided, by means of a diversity and addition of the matter of illustration and enforcement. Any benevolent writer on the subject would wish he could treat it without such frequent use of the phrases, "lower orders," "subordinate classes," "inferior portion of society," and other expressions of the same kind; because they have an invidious sound, and have indeed very often been used in contempt. He can only say, that he uses them with no such feeling; that they are employed simply as the most obvious terms of designation; and that he would like better to employ any less ungracious ones that did not require an affected circumlocution. In several parts of the essay, there will be found a language of emphatic censure on that conduct of states, that predominant spirit and system in the administration of the affairs of nations, by which the people have been consigned to such a deplorable condition of intellectual and consequently moral degradation, while resources approaching to immensity have been lavished on objects of vanity and ambition. So far from feeling that such observations can require any apology, the writer thinks it is high time for all the advocates of intellectual, moral, and religious improvement, to raise a protesting voice against that policy of the states denominated Christian, and especially our own, which has, through age after age, found every conceivable thing necessary to be done, at all costs and hazards, rather than to enlighten, reform, and refine the people. He thinks that nothing can more strongly betray a judgment enslaved, or a time-serving dishonesty, in those who would assume to dictate to such an advocate and to censure him, than that sort of doctrine which tells him that it is beside his business, and out of his sphere, as a Christian moralist, to animadvert on the conduct of national authorities, when he sees them, during one long period of time after another, not doing that which is the most important of all things to be done for the people over whom they preside, but doing what is in substance and effect the reverse; and doing it on that great scale, which contrasts so fearfully with the small one, on which the individuals who deplore such perversion of power are confined to attempt a remedy of the consequences. This interdiction comes with its worst appearance when it is put forth in terms affecting a profound reverence of religion; a reverence which cannot endure that so holy a thing should be defiled, by being brought in any contact with such a subject as the disastrous effect of bad government, on the intellectual and moral state of the people. The advocate of schemes for the improvement of their rational nature _may_, it seems, take his ground, his strongest ground, on religion, for enforcing on _individuals_ the duty of promoting such an object. In the name and authority of religion he may press on their consciences with respect to the application of their property and influence; and he may adopt under its sanction a strongly judicial language in censure of their negligence, their insensibility to their accountableness, and their lavish expenditures foreign to the most Important uses: in all this he does well. But the instant he begins to make the like judicial application of its laws to the public conduct of the governing authorities, that instant he debases Christianity to politics, most likely to party-politics; and a pious horror is affected at the profanation. Christianity is to be honored somewhat after the same manner as the Lama of Thibet. It is to stay in its temple, to have the proprieties of homage duly preserved within its precincts, but to be _exempted_ (in reverence of its sanctity!) from all cognizance of great public affairs, even in the points where they most interfere with or involve its interests. It could show, perhaps, in what manner the administration of those affairs injures these interests; but it would degrade its sacred character by talking of any such matter. But Christianity must have leave to decline the sinister compliment of such pretended anxiety to preserve it immaculate. As to its sacred character, it can _venture that,_ on the strength of its intrinsic quality and of its own guardianship, while, regardless of the limits thus attempted in mock reverence to be prescribed, it steps in a censorial capacity on what will be called a political ground, so far as to take account of what concern has been shown, or what means have been left disposable, for operations to promote the grand essentials of human welfare, by that public system which has grasped and expended the strength of the community, Christianity is not so demure a thing that it cannot, without violating its consecrated character, go into the exercise of this judicial office. And as to its _right_ to do so,--either it has a right to take cognizance now of the manner in which the spirit and measures of states and their regulators bear upon the most momentous interests, or it will have no right to be brought forward as the supreme law for the final award on those proceedings and those men. [Footnote: A censure on this alleged desecration of religious topics, which had been pronounced on the Essay (first edit.) by a Review making no small pretensions both religious and literary, was the immediate cause that prompted these observations. But they were made with a general reference to a hypocritical cant much in vogue at that time, and long before. That it _was_ hypocritical appeared plainly enough from the circumstance, that those solemn rebukes of the profanation of religion, by implicating it with political affairs, smote almost exclusively on one side. Let the religious moralist, or the preacher, amalgamate religion as largely as he pleased with the _proper sort_ of political sentiments, that is, the servile, and then it was all right.] It is now more than twenty years since a national plan of education for the inferior classes, was brought forward by Mr. (now Lord) Brougham. The announcement of such a scheme from such an Author, was received with hope and delight by those who had so long deplored the condition of those classes. But when it was formally set forth, its administrative organization appeared so defective in liberal comprehension, so invidiously restricted and accommodated to the prejudices and demands of one part of the community, that another great division, the one in which zeal and exertions for the education of the people had been more and longer conspicuous, was constrained to make an instant and general protest against it. And at the same time it was understood, that the party in whose favor it had been so inequitably constructed, were displeased at even the very small reserve it made from their monopoly of jurisdiction. It speedily fell to the ground, to the extreme regret of the earnest friends of popular reformation that a design of so much original promise should have come to nothing. All legislative consideration of the subject went into abeyance; and has so remained, with trifling exception, through an interval in which far more than a million, in England alone, of the children who were at that time within that stage of their life on which chiefly a general scheme would have acted, have grown up to animal maturity, destitute of all that can, in any decent sense of the word, be called education. Think of the difference between their state as it is, and what it might have been if there had at that time existed patriotism, liberality, and moral principle, enough to enact and carry into effect a comprehensive measure. The longer the neglect the more aggravated the pressure with which the subject returns upon us. It is forcing itself on attention with a demand as peremptory as ever was the necessity of an embankment against the peril of inundation. There are no indications to make us sanguine as to the disposition of the most influential classes; but it were little less than infatuation not to see the necessity of some extraordinary proceeding, to establish a fortified line between us and--not national dishonor; _that_ is flagrantly upon us, but--the destruction of national safety. As to national dishonor, by comparison with what may be seen elsewhere, it is hardly possible for a patriot to feel a more bitter mortification than in reading the description, as recently given by M. Cousin, of the state of education in the Prussian dominions, and then looking over the hideous exhibition of ignorance and barbarism in this country; in representing to himself the vernal intelligence, (as we may rightly name it,) the information, the sense of decorum, the fitness for rational converse, which must quite inevitably diffuse a value and grace throughout the general youthful character under such a discipline, and then changing his view to what may be seen all over his own country--an incalculable and ever-increasing tribe of human creatures, growing up in a condition to show what a wretched and offensive thing is human nature left to itself. When neither opprobrium, nor prospective policy, nor sense of duty, can constrain the attention of the officially and virtually ruling part of society to an important national interest, it is sure to come on them at last in some more alarming and imperative manifestation. The present and very recent times have afforded significant indication of what an ignorant populace are capable of believing, and of being successfully instigated to perpetrate. It is not to be pretended that such ignorance, and such liabilities to mischief, exist only in particular spots of the land, as if the local outbreaks were merely incidental and insulated facts, standing out of community with anything widely pervading the mass. Within but very few years of the present date, we have had the spectacle of millions, literally millions, of the people of England, yielding an absolute credence to the most monstrous delusions respecting public questions and measures, imposed on them by dishonest artifice, and what may be called moral incendiarism; and these delusions of a nature to excite the passions of the multitude to crime. It is difficult to believe that all this can be seen without serious apprehension, by those who sustain the primary responsibility for devising measures to secure the national _safety_, (that we may take the lowest term of national welfare;) and that they can be content to rest that security on expedients which, in keeping the people in order, make them no wiser or better. It would truly be a glorious change in our history, if we might at length see the national power wielded by enlightened, virtuous, and energetic spirits, not only to the bare effect of withstanding disorder and danger, but in a resolute, invincible determination to redeem us from the national ignominy of exhibiting to the world, far in the nineteenth century, a rude, unprincipled, semi-barbarous populace. Thus far the hopes which had flattered us with such a change, as a consequence of a political movement so considerable as to be denominated a revolution, have been grievously disappointed. We must wait, but with prognostics little encouraging, to see whether a professed concern for popular education will result in any effective scheme. That profession has hitherto been followed up with so little appearance of earnest conviction, or of high and comprehensive purpose, among the majority of the influential persons who, perhaps for decorum's sake, have made it, as to leave cause for apprehension that, if any such scheme were to be proposed, it would be in the first instance very limited in its compass, indecisive in its enforcement, and niggardly in its pecuniary appointments. Many of our legislators have never thought of investigating the condition of the people, and are unaware of their deplorable destitution of all mental cultivation; and many have formed but a low and indistinct estimate of the kind and measure of cultivation desirable to be imparted. Very slowly does the conviction or the desire make its way among the favorites of fortune, that the portion of humanity so far below them should be raised to the highest mental condition compatible with the limitation and duties of their subordinate allotment. No doubt, the most genuine zeal for the object would find difficulties in the way, of a magnitude to require a great and persevering exertion of power, were they only those opposed by the degraded condition of the people themselves; by the utter carelessness of one part, and the intractableness of another. Nor is it to be denied, that the differences of religious opinion, among the promoters of the design, must create considerable difficulty as to the mode and extent of religious instruction, to form a part of a comprehensive system. But we are told, besides, of we know not what obstruction to be encountered from prejudices of prescription, privileged and peculiar interests, the jealous pride of venerable institutions, assumed rights of station and rank, punctilios of precedence, the tenacity of parties who find their advantage in things as they are, and so forth; all to be deferentially consulted. If this mean that the old horror of a bold experimental novelty is still to be yielded to; that nothing in this so urgent affair is to be ventured but in a creeping inch-by-inch movement; that the reign of gross ignorance, with all its attendant vices, is to be allowed a very leisurely retreat, retaining its hold on a large portion of the present and following generations of the children, and therefore the adults; that their condition and fate shall be mainly left at the discretion of ignorant and often worthless parents; that there shall be no considerable positive exaction of local provision for the institution, or of attendance of those who should be benefited by it; that, in short, there shall not be a comprehensive application of the national power through its organ, the government, by authoritative, and, we must say, in some degree coercive measures, to abate as speedily as possible the national nuisance and calamity of such a state of the juvenile faculties and habits as we see glaring around us; and all this because homage is demanded to anticipated prejudices, selfishness of privilege, venerable institutions, pride of station, jealousy of the well-endowed, and the like:--if this be what is meant, we may well ask whether these factitious prerogatives, that would thus interfere to render feeble, partial, and slow, any projected exertion to rescue the nation from barbarism, turpitude, and danger, be not themselves among the most noxious things in the land, and the most deserving to be extirpated. How readily will the proudest descend to the plea of impotence when the exhortation is to something which they care not for or dislike, but to which, at the same time, it would be disreputable to avow any other than the most favorable sentiments, to be duly expressed in the form of great regret that the thing is impracticable. Impracticable--and does the case come at last to be this, that from one cause and another, from the arrogance of the high and the untowardness of the low, the obstinacy of prejudice, and the rashness of innovation, the dissensions among friends of a beneficent design and the discountenance of those who are no better than enemies, a mighty state, triumphantly boasting of every _other_ kind of power, absolutely _cannot_ execute a scheme for rescuing its people from being what a great Authority on this subject has pronounced "the worst educated nation in Europe?" Then let it submit, with all its pomp, pride, and grandeur, to stand in derision and proverb on the face of the earth. * * * * * With a view to a wider circulation than that which is limited by the price of the volume published in an expensive form and style of printing, it has been deemed advisable to publish a cheap edition of the "Essay on Popular Ignorance." It is not in any degree an abridgment of the preceding edition; the only omission, of the slightest consequence, being in a few places where changes have been rendered necessary by the subsequent conduct of our national authorities, as affecting our speculations and prospects in relation to general education; while, on the other hand, there are numerous little additions and corrections, in attempts to bring out the ideas more fully, or with some little afterthought of discrimination or exception. In some instances the connection and dependence of the series of thoughts have been rendered more obvious, and the sentences reduced to a somewhat more simple and compact construction; but the principal object in this _final revised_ has been literary correction, without any material enlargement or change. It is hoped that this reprint in a popular form may serve the purpose of contributing something, in co-operation with the present exertions, to expose, and partially remedy, the lamentable and nationally disgraceful ignorance to which the people of our country have been so long abandoned. Contents. Section I. Defect of sensibility in the view of the unhappiness of mankind. --Ignorance one grand cause of that unhappiness.--Ignorance prevalent among the ancient Jewish people.--Its injurious operation--and ultimately destructive consequence.--More extended consideration of ignorance as the cause of misery among the ancient heathens. Section II. Brief review of the ignorance prevailing through the ages subsequent to those of ancient history.--State of the popular mind in Christendom during the complete reign of Popery.--Supposed reflections of a Protestant in one of our ancient splendid structures for ecclesiastical use.--Slow progress of the Reformation, in its effects on the understandings of the people.--Their barbarous ignorance even in the time of Elizabeth, notwithstanding the intellectual and literary glories of this country in that period.--Sunk in ignorance still in what has often been called our Augustan age.--Strange insensibility of the cultivated part of the nation with regard to the mental and moral condition of the rest.--Almost heathen ignorance of religion at the time when Whitefield and Wesley began to excite the attention of the multitude to that subject.--Signs and means of a change for the better in recent times. Section III. Great ignorance and debasement still manifest in various features of the popular character.--Entire want, in early life, of any idea of a general and comprehensive purpose to be pursued--Gratification of the senses the chief good.--Cruelty a subsidiary resource.--Disposition to cruelty displayed and confirmed by common practices.--Confirmed especially by the manner of slaughtering animals destined for food.--Displayed in the abuse of the laboring animals.--General characteristic of the people an indistinct and faint sense of right and wrong.--Various exemplifications.--Dishonor to our country that the people should have remained in such a condition.--Effects of their ignorance as appearing in several parts of the economy of life; in their ordinary occupations; in their manner of spending their leisure time, including the Sunday; in the state of domestic society; consequences of this last as seen in the old age of parents.--The lower classes placed by their want of education out of amicable communication with the higher.--Unhappy and dangerous consequences of this.--Great decline of the respect which in former times the people felt toward the higher classes and the existing order of the community.--Progress of a contrary spirit. Section IV. Objection, that a material increase of knowledge and intelligence among the people would render them unfit for their station, and discontented with it; would excite them to insubordination and arrogance toward their superiors; and make them the more liable to be seduced by the wild notions and pernicious machinations of declaimers, schemers, and innovators.--Observations in answer.--Special and striking absurdity of this objection in one important particular.--Evidence from matter of fact that the improvement of the popular understanding has not the tendency alleged.--The special regard meant to be had to _religious_ instruction in the education desired for the lower classes, a security against their increased knowledge being perverted into an excitement to insubordination and disorder.--Absurdity of the notion that an improved education of the common people ought to consist of instruction specifically and almost solely religious.--The diminutive quantity of religious as well as other knowledge to which the people would be limited by some zealous advocates of order and subordination utterly inadequate to secure those objects.--But, question what is to be understood by order and subordination.--Increased knowledge and sense in the people certainly not favorable to a credulous confidence and a passive, unconditional submission, on their part, toward the presiding classes in the community.--Advantage, to a wise and upright government, of having intelligent subjects.--Great effect which a general improvement among the people would necessarily have on the manner of their being governed.--The people arrived, in this age, at a state which renders it impracticable to preserve national tranquillity without improving their minds and making some concession to their claims.--Folly and probable calamity of an obstinate resolution to maintain subordination in the nations of Europe in the arbitrary and despotic manner of former times.--Facility and certain success of a better system. Section V. Extreme poverty of religious knowledge among the uneducated people: their notions respecting God, Providence, Jesus Christ, the invisible world.--Fatal effect of their want of mental discipline as causing an inaptitude to receive religious information.--Exemplifications,--in a supposed experiment of religious instruction in a friendly visit to a numerous uneducated family; in the stupidity and thoughtlessness often betrayed in attendance on public religious services; in the impossibility of imparting religious truths, with any degree of clearness, to ignorant persons, when alarmed into some serious concern by sickness; in the insensibility and invincible delusion sometimes retained in the near approach to death.--Rare instances of the admirable efficacy of religion to animate and enlarge the faculties, even in the old age of an ignorant man.--Excuses for the intellectual inaptitude and perversion of uncultivated religious minds.--Animadversions on religious teachers. Section VI. Supposed method of verifying the preceding representation of the ignorance of the people.--Renewed expressions of wonder and mortification that this should be the true description of the English nation.--Prodigious exertions of this nation for the accomplishment of objects foreign to the improvement of the people.--Effects which might have resulted from far less exertion and resources applied to that object.--The contrast between what has been done, and what might have been done by the exertion of the national strength, exposed in a series of parallel representations.--Total unconcern, till a recent period, of the generality of persons in the higher classes respecting the mental state of the populace.--Indications of an important change in the manner of estimating them.--Measures attempted and projected for their improvement.--Some of these measures and methods insignificant in the esteem of projectors of merely political schemes for the amendment of the popular condition.--But questions to those projectors on the efficacy of such schemes.--Most desirable, nevertheless, that the political systems and the governing powers of states _could_ be converted to promote so grand a purpose.--But expostulations addressed to those who, desponding of this aid, despond therefore of the object itself.--Incitement to individual exertion.--Reference to the sublimest Example.--Imputation of extravagant hope.--Repelled; first, by a full acknowledgment how much the hopes of sober-minded projectors of improvement are limited by what they see of the disorder in the essential constitution of our nature; and next, by a plain statement, in a series of particulars, of what they nevertheless judge it rational to expect from a general extension of good education.--Answer to the question, whether it be presumed that any merely human discipline can reduce its subjects under the predominance of religion.--Answer to the inquiry, what is the extent of the knowledge of which it is desired to put the common people in possession.--Observations on supposed degrees of possible advancement of the knowledge and welfare of the community; with reflections of astonishment and regret at the actual state of ignorance, degradation, and wretchedness, after so many thousand years have passed away.--Congratulatory notice of those worthy individuals who have been rescued from the consequences of a neglected education by their own resolute mental exertions. Essay on Popular Ignorance. "My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge." _Hosea_. Section I. It may excite in us some sense of wonder, and perhaps of self-reproach, to reflect with what a stillness and indifference of the mind we can hear and repeat sentences asserting facts which are awful calamities. And this indifference is more than the accidental and transient state, which might prevail at seasons of peculiar heaviness or languor. The self-inspector will often be compelled to acknowledge it as a symptom and exemplification of the _habit_ of his mind, that ideas of extensive misery and destruction, though expressed in the plainest, strongest language, seem to come with but a faint glimmer on his apprehension, and die away without awakening one emotion of that sensibility which so many comparatively trifling causes can bring into exercise. Will the hearers of the sentence just now repeated from the sacred book, give a moment's attention to the effect it has on them? We might suppose them accosted with the question, Would you find it difficult to say what idea, or whether anything distinct enough to deserve the name of an idea, has been impressed by the sound of words bearing so melancholy a significance? And would you have to confess, that they excite no interest which would not instantly give place to that of the smallest of your own concerns, occurring to your thoughts; or would not leave free the tendency to wander loose among casual fancies; or would not yield to feelings of the ludicrous, at the sight of any whimsical incident? It would not probably be unfair to suspect such faintness of apprehension, and such unfixedness and indifference of thought, in the majority of any large number of persons, though drawn together ostensibly to attend to matters of gravest concern. And perhaps many of the most serious of them would acknowledge it requires great and repeated efforts, to bring themselves to such a contemplative realization of an important subject, that it shall lay hold on the affections, though it should press on them, as in the present instance, with facts and reflections of a nature the most strongly appealing to a mournful sensibility. That the "people are destroyed," is perceived to have the sound of a lamentable declaration. But its import loses all force of significance in falling on a state of feeling which, if resolvable into distinct sentiments, would be expressed to some such effect as this:--that the people's destruction, in whatever sense of the word, is, doubtless, a deplorable thing, but quite a customary and ordinary matter, the prevailing fact, indeed, in the general state of this world; that, in truth, it would seem as if they were made but to be destroyed, for that they have constantly been, in all imaginable ways, the subjects of destruction; that, subjected in common with all living corporeal beings to the doom of death, and to a fearful diversity of causes tending to inflict it, they have also appeared, through their long sad history, consigned to a spiritual and moral destruction, if that term be applicable to a condition the reverse of wisdom, goodness, and happiness; that, in short, such a sentence as that cited from the prophet, is too merely an expression of what has been always and over the whole world self-evident, to excite any particular attention or emotion. Thus the destruction, in every sense of the word, of human creatures, is so constantly obvious, as mingled and spread throughout the whole system, that the mind has been insensibly wrought to that protective obtuseness which (like the thickness of the natural clothing of animals in rigorous climates) we acquire in defence of our own ease, against the aggrievance of things which inevitably continue in our presence. An instinctive policy to avoid feeling with respect to this prevailing destruction, has so effectually taught us how to maintain the exemption, by all the requisite sleights of overlooking, diverting, forgetting, and admitting deceptive maxims of palliation, that the art or habit is become almost mechanical. When fully matured, it appears like a wonderful adventitious faculty--a power of evading the sight, of _not seeing_, what is obviously and glaringly presented to view on all sides. There is, indeed, a dim general recognition that such things are; the hearing of a bold denial of their existence, would give an instant sense of absurdity, which would provoke a pointed attention to them, the more perfectly to verify their reality; and the perception how real and dreadful they are, might continue distinct as long as we were in the spirit of contradicting and exploding that absurd denial; but, in the ordinary state of feeling, the mind preserves an easy dulness of apprehension toward the melancholy vision, and sees it as if it saw it not. This fortified insensibility may, indeed, be sometimes broken in upon with violence, by the sudden occurrence of some particular instance of human destruction, in either import of the word, some example of peculiar aggravation, or happening under extraordinary and striking circumstances, or very near us in place or interest. An emotion is excited of pity, or terror, or horror; so strong, that if the person so affected has been habitually thoughtless, and has no wish to be otherwise, he fears he shall never recover his state of careless ease; or, if of a more serious disposition, thinks it impossible he can ever cease to feel an awful and salutary effect. This more serious person perhaps also thinks it must be inevitable that henceforward his feelings will be more alive to the miseries of mankind. But how obstinate is an inveterate habitual state of the mind against any single impressions made in contravention to it! Both the thoughtless and the more reflective man may probably find, that a comparatively short lapse of time suffices, to relieve them from anything more than slight momentary reminiscences of what had struck them with such painful force, and to restore, in regard to the general view of the acknowledged misery of the human race, nearly the accustomed tranquillity. The course of feeling resembles a listless stream of water, which, after being dashed into commotion, by a massive substance flung into it, or by its precipitation at a rapid, relapses, in the progress of a few fathoms and a few moments, into its former sluggishness of current. But is it well that this should be the state of feeling, in the immediate presence of the spectacle exhibiting the people under a process of being destroyed? There must be a great and criminal perversion from what our nature ought to be, in a tranquillity to which it makes no material difference whether they be destroyed or saved; a tranquillity which would hardly, perhaps, have been awaked to an effort of intercession at the portentous sign of destruction revealed to the sight of Ornan; or which might at the deluge have permitted the privileged patriarch to sink in a soft slumber, at the moment when the ark was felt to be moving from its ground. If the original rectitude of that nature had been retained by any individual, he would be confounded to conceive how creatures having their lot cast in one place, so near together, so much alike, and under such a complication of connections and dependences, can yet really be so insulated, as that some of them may behold, with immovable composure, innumerable companies of the rest in such a condition, that it had been better for them not to have existed. To such a condition a vast multitude have been consigned by "the lack of knowledge." And we have to appeal concerning them to whatever there is of benevolence and conscience, in those who deem themselves happy instances of exemption from this deplorable consignment; and are conscious that their state of inestimable privilege is the result, under the blessing of heaven, of the reception of information, of truth, into their minds. If it were suggested to the well instructed in our companies to take an account of the benefit they have received through the medium of knowledge, they would say they do not know where to begin the long enumeration, or how to bring into one estimate so ample a diversity of good. It might be something like trying to specify, in brief terms, what a highly improved portion of the ground, in a tract rude and sterile if left to itself, has received from cultivation; an attempt which would carry back the imagination through a progression of states and appearances, in which the now fertile spots, and picture-like scenes, and commodious passes, and pleasant habitations, may or must have existed in the advance from the original rudeness. The estimate of what has ultimately been effected, rises at each stage in this retrospect of the progress, in which so many valuable changes and additions still require to be followed by something more, to complete the scheme of improvement. In thus tracing backward the condition of a now fair and productive place of human dwelling and subsistence, it may easily be recollected, what a vast number of the earth's inhabitants there are whose places of dwelling are in all those states of worse cultivation and commodiousness, and what multitudes leading a miserable and precarious life amidst the inhospitableness of the waste, howling wilderness. Each presented circumstance of fertility or shelter, salubrity or beauty, may be named as what is wanting to a much greater number of the occupants of the world, than those to whom the "lines are fallen in such pleasant places." When, in like manner, a person richly possessed of the benefits imparted by means of knowledge, finds, in attempting to recount them, that they rise so fast on his view, in their variety, combinations, and gradations from less to greater, as to overpower his computing faculty, he may be reminded that this account of his wealth is, in truth, that of many other men's poverty. And if, while these benefits are coming so numerously in his sight, like an irregular crowd of loaded fruit-trees, one partially seen behind the offered luxury of another, and others still descried, through intervals, in the distance, he can imagine them all devastated and swept away from him, leaving him in a scene of mental desolation,--and if he shall then consider that nearly such is the state of the great multitude,--he will surely feel that a deep compassion is due to so depressed a condition of existence. And how strongly is its infelicity shown by the very circumstance, that a being who is himself but very imperfectly enlightened, and who is exposed to sorrow and doomed to death, is nevertheless in a state to be able to look down upon the victims of the "lack of knowledge" with profound commiseration. The degree of pity is the measure of a conscious superiority. We may say to persons so favored,--If knowledge has been made the cause that you are, beyond all comparison, better qualified to make the short sojourn on this earth to the greatest advantage, think what a fatal thing that must be which condemns so many, whose lot is contemporary and in vicinity with yours to pass through the most precious possibilities of good unprofited, and at last to look back on life as a lost adventure. If through knowledge you have been introduced into a new and superior world of ideas and realities, and your intellectual being has there been brought into exercise among the highest interests, and into communication with the noblest objects, think of that condition of the soul to which this better economy has no existence. If knowledge rendered efficacious has become, in your minds, the light and joy of the Christian faith and hope, look at the state of those, whose minds have never been cultivated to an ability to entertain the principles of religious truth, even as mere intellectual notions. You would not for the wealth of an empire consent to descend, were it possible, from the comparative elevation to which you have been raised by means of knowledge, into melancholy region of spirits abandoned to ignorance. But in this situation have the mass of the people been, from the time of the prophet whose words we have cited, down to this hour. The prophets had their exalted privilege of dwelling amidst the illuminations of heaven effectually countervailed, as to any elation of feeling it might have imparted, by the grief of beholding the daily spectacle of the grossest manifestations and mischiefs of ignorance among the people, for the very purpose of whose exemption from that ignorance it was that they bore the sacred office. One of the most striking of the characteristics by which their writings so forcibly seize the imagination is, a strange continual fluctuation and strife of lustre and gloom, produced by the intermingling and contrast of the emanations from the Spirit of infinite wisdom, with those proceeding from the dark, debased souls of the people. We are tempted to pronounce that nation not only the most perverse, but the most unintelligent and stupid of all human tribes. The revealed law of God in the midst of them; the prophets and other organs of oracular communication; religious ordinances and emblems; facts, made and expressly intended to embody truths, in long and various series; the whole system of their superhuman government, constituted as a school--all these were ineffectual to create so much just thought in their minds, as to save them from the vainest and the vilest delusions and superstitions. But, indeed, this very circumstance, that knowledge shone on them from Him who knows all things, may in part account for an intellectual perverseness that appears so peculiar and marvellous. The nature of man is in such a moral condition, that anything is the less acceptable for coming directly from God; it being quite consistent, that the state of mind which is declared to be "enmity against him," should have a dislike to his coming so near, as to impart his communications by his immediate act, bearing on them the fresh and sacred impression of his hand. The supplies for man's temporal being are conveyed to him through an extended medium, through a long process of nature and art, which seems to place the great First Cause at a commodious distance; and those gifts are, on that account, more welcome, on the whole, than if they were sent as the manna to the Israelites. The manna itself might not have been so soon loathed, had it been produced in what we call the regular course of nature. And with respect to the intellectual communications which were given to constitute the light of knowledge in their souls, there can, on the same principle, be no doubt that the people would more willingly have opened their minds to receive them and exercise the thinking faculties on them, if they could have appeared as something originating in human wisdom, or at least as something which, though primarily from a divine origin, had been long surrendered by the Revealer, to maintain itself in the world by the authority of reason only, like the doctrines worked out from mere human speculation. But truth that was declared to them, and inculcated on them, through a continual immediate manifestation of the Sovereign Intelligence, had a glow of Divinity (if we may so express it) that was unspeakably offensive to their minds, which therefore receded with instinctive recoil, They were averse to look toward that which they could not see without seeing God; and thus they were hardened in ignorance, through a reaction of human depravity against the too luminous approach of the Divine presence to give them wisdom. But in whatever degree the case might be thus, as to the cause, the fact is evident, that the Jewish people were not more remarkable for their pre-eminence in privilege, than for their grossness of mental vision under a dispensation specially and miraculously constituted and administered to enlighten them. The sacred history of which they are the subject, exhibits every mode in which the intelligent faculties may evade or frustrate the truth presented to them; every way in which the decided preference for darkness may avail to defy what might have been presumed to be irresistible irradiations; every perversity of will which renders men as accountable and criminal for being ignorant as for acting against knowledge; and every form of practical mischief in which the natural tendency of ignorance, especially wilful ignorance, is shown. A great part of what the devout teachers of that people had to address to them, wherever they appeared among them, was in reproach of their ignorance, and in order, if possible, to dispel it. And were we to indulge our fancy in picturing the forms and circumstances in which it was encountered by those teachers, we might be sure of not erring much by figuring situations very similar to what might occur in much later and nearer states of society. If we should imagine one of these good and wise instructors going into a promiscuous company of the people, and asking them, with a view at once to see into their minds and inform them, say, ten plain questions, relative to matters somewhat above the ordinary secular concerns of life, but essential for them to understand, it would be a quite probable supposition that he did not obtain from the whole company rational answers to more than three, or two, or even one, of those questions; notwithstanding that every one of them might be designedly so framed, as to admit of an easy reply from the most prominent of the dictates of the "law and the prophets," and from the right application of the memorable facts in the national history of the Jews. In his earlier experiments he might be supposed very reluctant to admit the fact, that so many of his countrymen, in one spot, could have been so faithfully maintaining the ascendency of darkness in their spirits, while surrounded by divine manifestations of truth. He might be willing to suspect he had not been happy in the form of words in which his queries had been conveyed. But it may be believed that all his changes and adaptations of expression, to elicit from the contents of his auditors' understandings something fairly answering to his questions, might but complete the proof that the thing sought was not there. And while he might be looking from one to another, with regret not unmingled with indignation at an ignorance at once so unhappy and so criminal, they probably might little care, excepting some slight feeling of mortified pride, that they were thus proved to be nearly pagans in knowledge within the immediate hearing of the oracles of God. Or we may represent to ourselves this benevolent promoter of improvement endeavoring to instruct such a company, not in the way of interrogation, but in the ordinary manner of discourse, and _assuming_ that they actually had in their minds those principles, those points of knowledge, which would, on the former supposition of a course of questions, have qualified them to make the proper replies. It may indeed be too much to imagine a discerning man to entertain such a presumption; but supposing he did, and proceeded upon it, you can well conceive what reception the reasonings, advices, or reproofs, would find among the hearers, according to their respective temperaments. Some would be content with knowing nothing at all about the matter, which they would perhaps say, might be, for aught they knew, something very wise; and, according to their greater or less degree of patience and sense of decorum, would wait in quiet and perhaps sleepy dulness for the end of the irksome lecture, or escape from it by a stolen retreat, or a bold-faced exit. To others it would all seem ridiculous absurdity, and they would readily laugh if any one would begin. A few, possessed of some natural shrewdness, would set themselves to catch at something for exception, with unadroit aim, but with good will for cavil. While perhaps one or two, of better disposition, imperfectly descrying at moments something true and important in what was said, and convinced of the friendly intention of the speaker, might feel a transient regret for what they would with honest shame call the stupidity of their own minds, accompanied with some resentment against those to whose neglect it was greatly attributable. The instructor also, as the signs grew evident to him of the frustration of his efforts upon the invincible grossness of the subjects before him, would become animated with indignation at the incompetence or wicked neglect in the system and office of public instruction, of which the intellectual condition of such a company of persons might be taken as a proof and consequence. And in fact there is no class more conspicuous in reprobation, in the solemn invectives of the prophets, than those whose special and neglected duty it was to instruct the Jewish people. Now if such were the state of their intelligence, how would this friend of truth and the people find, how would he have _expected_ to find, their piety, their morals, and their happiness affected by such destitution of knowledge? Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? We are supposing them to be in ignorance of four parts out of five, or perhaps of nine parts out of ten, of what the Supreme Wisdom was maintaining an extraordinary dispensation to declare to them. Why to declare, but because each particular in this divine promulgation was pointed to some circumstance, some propensity, some temptation, in their nature and condition, and was exactly fitted to be there applied as a rectifier and guard? The revelations and signs from heaven were the sum of what the Perfect Intelligence judged indispensable to be sent forth from him to his subjects, as seen by him liable to be wrong; and could there be one dictate or fact superfluous in such a communication? If not, consider the case of minds in which one, and a second, and the far greater number, of the points of information thus demonstrated to be necessary, had no place to shine or exist; of which minds, therefore, the estimates, passions, volitions, principles of action with the actions also, were in so many instances abandoned to take their chance for good or evil. But _had_ they any chance for good in such an abandonment? What principle in their nature was to determine them to good, with an impulse that rendered needless the rational discrimination of it by the light of truth? It were an exceedingly probable thing truly, that some happy instinct, or some guiding star of good fortune, should have beguiled into an unknowing choice of what is right, that very nature which knowledge itself, including a recognition of the will of God, is so often insufficient to constrain to such a choice. But further; the absence of knowledge is sure to be something more and worse than simple ignorance. Even were that absence but a mere negation, a vacancy of truth, (the terms truth and knowledge may be used for our present purpose as nearly synonymous, for what is not truth is not knowledge,) it would be by its effect as a _deficiency_, incalculably injurious. But it could not remain a mere deficiency: the vacancy of truth would commonly be found replenished with positive error. Not indeed replenished, (we are speaking of uncultivated persons,) with a comprehensive and arranged set of false notions; for there would not be thinking enough to form opinions in any sufficient number to be distinctly and specifically the opposites to the many truths that were absent; but a few false notions, such as could hardly fail to take the place of absent truth in the ignorant mind, however crude they might be, and however deficient for constituting a full system of error, would be sure to dilate themselves so as to have an operation at all the points where truth was wanting. It is frightful to see what a space in an ignorant mind one false notion can occupy, working nearly the same effect in many distinct particulars, as if there had been so many distinct wrong principles, each producing specifically its own bad effect. So that in that mind a few false notions, and those the ones most likely to establish themselves there, shall be virtually equivalent to a whole scheme of errors standing formally in place of so many truths of which they are the reverse. And thus the dark void of ignorance, instead of remaining a mere negation, becomes filled with agents of perversion and destruction; as sometimes the gloomy apartments of a deserted mansion have become a den of robbers and murderers. Such a friend of the people, then, as we were supposing to expend his life and zeal on the object of rescuing them from their ignorance, would see in that ignorance not only the privation of all direction and impulsion to good, but a great positive force of determination toward evil. But it may be alleged, that he would not find them _wholly_ destitute of right information. True; but he would find that the small portion of knowledge which an ignorant people did really possess, could be of little avail. It is not only that, from the narrowness of its scope, knowledge so scanty as to afford no principles directly adapted for application to a vast number of matters of judgment and conduct, would of course be of small use, though it _were_ efficient as far as it reached--of small use though it _did_ produce that very limited quantity of good which ought to be its proper share, in a due proportion to the larger amount of good to be produced by a larger knowledge. This is not the whole of the misfortune; it would not produce that proportionate share. For the fewer are the points to which there is knowledge that can be applied, the less availing is its application even to those few points. It shall be the kind of knowledge apposite to them, and yet be nearly useless; from the obvious cause, that a few just notions existing disconnected and confused among the mass of vain and false ones, which will, like noxious weeds, infest minds left in ignorance, are not _permitted_ by those bad associates to do their duty. Weak by being few, insulated, unsupported, and dwelling among vicious neighbors, they not only cannot perform their own due service, but are liable to be seduced to that of the evil principles whose company they are condemned to keep. The _conjunction_ of truths is of the utmost importance for preserving the genuine tendency, and securing the appropriate efficacy, of each. It is an unhappy "lack of knowledge" when there is not enough to preserve, to what there is of it, the honest beneficial quality of knowledge. How many of the follies, excesses, and crimes, in the course of the world, have taken their pretended warrant from some fragment of truth, dissevered from the connection of truths indispensable to its right operation, and in that detached state easily perverted into coalescence with the most pernicious principles, which concealed and gave effect to their malignity under the falsified authority of a truth. There were many and melancholy exemplifications of all we have said of ignorance, in the conduct of that ancient people at present in our view. Doubtless a sad proportion of the iniquities which, by their necessary tendency and by the divine vindictive appointment, brought plagues and destruction upon them, were committed in violation of what they knew. But also it was in no small part from blindness to the manifestation of truth and duty incessantly confronting them, that they were betrayed into crimes and consequent miseries. This is evident equally from the language in which their prophets reproached their intellectual stupidity, and from the surprise which they sometimes seem to have felt on finding themselves involved in retributive suffering, for what they could not conceive to be serious delinquencies. It appeared as if they had never so much as dreamed of such a-consequence; and their monitors had to represent to them, that it had been through their thoughtlessness of divine dictates and warnings, if they did not _know_ that such proceedings must provoke such an infliction. How one portion of knowledge admitted, with the exclusion of other truths equally indispensable to be known, may not only be unavailing, but may in effect lend force to destructive error, is dreadfully illustrated in the final catastrophe of that favored guilty nation. They were in possession of the one important point of knowledge, that a Messiah was to come. They held this assurance not slightly, but with strong conviction, and as a matter of the utmost interest. But then, that this knowledge might have its appropriate and happy effect, it was of essential necessity for them to know also the character of this Messiah, and the real nature of his great design. But this they closed up their understandings in a fatal contentment not to know. Literally the whole people, with a diminutive exception, had failed, or rather refused, to admit, as to that part of the subject, the inspired declarations. Now comes the consequence of knowing only one thing of several that require to be inseparable in knowledge. They formed to themselves a false idea of the Messiah, according to their own worldly imaginations; and they extended the full assurance which they justly entertained of his coming, to this false notion of what he was to be and to accomplish when he should come. From this it was natural and inevitable that when the true Messiah should come they would not recognize him, and that their hostility would be excited against a person who, while demanding to be acknowledged in that capacity, appeared without the characteristics pictured in their vain imagination, and with directly opposite ones. And thus they were placed in an incomparably worse situation for receiving him with honor when he did appear, than if they had had no knowledge that a Messiah was to come. For on that supposition they might have regarded him as a most striking phenomenon, with curiosity and admiration, with awe of his miraculous powers, and as little prejudice as it is possible in any case for depravity and ignorance to feel toward sanctity and wisdom. But this delusive pre-occupation of their minds formed a direct grand cause for their rejecting Jesus Christ. And how fearful was the final consequence of _this_ "lack of knowledge!" How truly, in all senses, the people were destroyed! The violent extermination at length of multitudes of them from the earth, was but as the omen and commencement of a deeper perdition. And the terrible memorial is a perpetual admonition what a curse it is _not to know_. For He, by the rejection of whom these despisers devoted themselves to perish, while he looked on their great city, and wept at the doom which he beheld impending, said, _If_ them hadst _known_, even thou in this thy day.---- So much for that selected people:--we may cast a glance over the rest of the ancient world, as exemplifying the pernicious effect of the want of knowledge. The ignorance which pervaded the heathen nations, was fully equal to the utmost result that could have been calculated from all the causes contributing to thicken the mental darkness. The traditional glimmering of that knowledge which had been originally received by divine communication, had long since become nearly extinct, having gone out in the act, as it were, of lighting up certain fantastic inventions of doctrine, by ignition of an element exhaled from the corruptions of the human soul. In other words, the primary truths, imparted by the Creator to the early inhabitants of the earth, gradually losing their clearness and purity, had passed, by a transition through some delusive analogies, into the vanities of fancy and notion which sprang from the inventive depravity of man; which inventions carried somewhat of an authority stolen from the grand truths they had superseded. And thus, if we except so much instruction as we may conceive that the extraordinary and sometimes dreadful interpositions of the Governor of the world might convey, unaccompanied with declarations in language, (and it was in but an extremely limited degree that these had actually the effect of illumination,) the human tribes were surrendered to their own understanding for all that they were to know and think. Melancholy predicament! The understanding, the intellect, the reason, which had not sufficed for preserving the true light from heaven, was to be competent to give light in its absence. Under the disadvantage of this loss--after the setting of the sun--it was to exercise itself on an unlimited diversity of important things, inquiring, comparing, and deciding. All those things, if examined far, extended into mystery. All genuine thinking was a hard repellent labor. Casual impressions had a mighty force of perversion. The senses were not a medium through which the intellect could receive ideas foreign to material existence. The appetites and passions would infallibly occupy and actuate the whole man. When by these his imagination was put in activity, its gleams and meteors would be anything rather than lights of truth. His interest, according to his gross apprehension of it, would in numberless instances require, and therefore would gain, false judgments for justification of the wrong manner of pursuing that interest. And all this while, there was no grand standard and test to which the notions of things could be brought. If there were some spirits of larger and purer thought, that went out in the honest search of truth, they must have felt an oppression of utter hopelessness in looking round on a world of doubtful things, on no one of which they could obtain the dictate of a supreme intelligence. There was no sovereign demonstrator in communication with the earth, to tell benighted man what to think in any of a thousand questions which arose to confound him. There were, instead, impostors, magicians, vain theorists, prompted by ambition and superior native ability to abuse the credulity of their fellow-mortals, which they did with such success as to become their oracles, their dictators, or even their gods. The multitude most naturally surrendered themselves to all such delusions. If it may be conceived to have been possible that their feeble and degraded reason, in the absence of divine light and of sound human discipline, might by earnest exertion have attained in some small degree to judge better that exertion was precluded by indolence, by the immediate wants and unavoidable employments of life, by sensuality, by love of amusement, by subjection, even of the mind, to superiors and national institutions, and by the tendency of human individuals to fall, if we may so express it, in dead conformity and addition to the lump. The result of all these causes, the sum of all these effects, was, that unnumbered millions of beings, whose value was in their intelligent and moral nature, were, as to that nature, in a condition analogous to what their physical existence would have been under a total and permanent eclipse of the sun. It was perpetual night in their souls, with all the phenomena incident to night, except the sublimity. While the material economy, constituting the order of things which belonged to their temporal existence, was in conspicuous manifestation around them, pressing with its realities on their senses; while nature presented to them its open and distinctly-featured aspect; while there was a true light shed on them every morning from the sun; while they had constant experimental evidence of the nature of the scene; and thus they had a clear knowledge of one portion of the things connected with their existence--that portion which they were soon to leave, and look back upon as a dream when one awaketh;--all this while there was subsisting, present with them, unapprehended except in faint and delusive glimpses, another order of things involving their greatest interest, with no luminary to make that apparent to them, after the race had willingly forgotten the original instructions from their Creator. The dreadful consequences of this "lack of knowledge," as appearing in the religion and morals of the nations, and through these affecting their welfare, equalled and even surpassed all that might by theory have been presaged from the cause. This ignorance could not annihilate the _principle_ of religion in the spirit of man; but in taking away the awful repression of the idea of one exclusive sovereign Divinity, it left that spirit to fabricate its religion in its own manner. And as the creating of gods might be the most appropriate way of celebrating the deliverance from the most imposing idea of one Supreme Being, depraved and insane invention took this direction with ardor. [Footnote: Those who have read Goethe's Memoirs of Himself, may recollect the part where that late idolized "patriarch" of German literature tells of the lively interest he had at one time felt in shaping out of his imagination and philosophy a theology, beginning with the fabrication of a god (or gods,) and amplified into a system of principles, existences, and relations.] The mind threw a fictitious divinity into its own phantasms, and into the objects in the visible world. It is amazing to observe how, when one solemn principle was taken away, the promiscuous numberless crowd of almost all shapes of fancy and of matter became, as it were, instinct with ambition, and mounted into gods. They were alternately the toys and the tyrants of their miserable creator. They appalled him often, and often he could make sport with them. For overawing him by their supposed power, they made him a compensation by descending to a fellowship with his follies and vices. But indeed this was a condition of their creation; they _must_ own their mortal progenitor by sharing his depravity, even amidst the lordly domination assigned to them over him and the universe. We may safely affirm, that the mighty artificer of deifications, the corrupt soul of man, never once, in its almost infinite diversification of device in their production, struck out a form of absolute goodness. No, if there were ten thousand deities, there should not be one that should be authorized by perfect rectitude in itself to punish _him_; not one by which it should be possible for him to be rebuked without having a right to recriminate. Such a pernicious creation of active delusions it was that took the place of religion in the absence of knowledge. And to this intellectual obscuration, and this legion of pestilent fallacies, swarming like the locusts from the smoke of the bottomless pit in the vision of St. John, the fatal effect on morals and happiness corresponded. Indeed the mischief done there, perhaps even exceeded the proportion of the ignorance and the false theology; conformably to the rule, that anything wrong in the mind will be the _most_ wrong where it comes the nearest to its ultimate practical effect--except when in this operation outward it is met and checked by some foreign counteraction. The people of those nations (and the same description is applicable to modern heathens) did not know the essential nature of perfect goodness, or virtue. How should they know it? A depraved mind would not find in itself any native conception to give the bright form of it. There were no living examples of it. The men who held the pre-eminence in the community were generally, in the most important points, its reverse. It was for the _Divine_ nature to have presented, in a manifestation of itself, the archetype of perfect rectitude, whence might have been derived the modified exemplar for human virtue. And so _would_ the idea of perfect moral excellence have come to dwell and shine in the understanding, if it had been the True Divinity that men beheld in their contemplations of a superior existence. But when the gods of their heaven were little better than their own evil qualities, exalted to the sky to be thence reflected back upon them invested with Olympian charms and splendors, their ideas of deity would evidently combine with the causes which made it impossible for them to conceive a perfect model for human excellence. See the mighty labor of human depravity to confirm its dominion! It would translate itself to heaven, and usurp divinity, in order to come down thence with a sanction for man to be wicked,--in order, by a falsification of the qualities of the Supreme Nature, to preclude his forming the true idea of what would be perfect rectitude in his own. A system which could thus associate all the modes of turpitude with the most lofty and illustrious forms of existence, would go far toward vitiating essentially the entire theory of moral good and evil. And it would in a great measure defraud of their practical efficacy any just principles that might, after all, maintain their place in the convictions of the understanding, and assert at times their claim with a voice which not even all this ruination could silence. But, how small was the number of pure moral principles, (if indeed any,) that among the people of the heathen nations _did_ maintain themselves in the convictions of the understanding. The privation of divine light gave full freedom, if there was any disposition to take such license, for every perverse speculation which could operate toward abolishing those principles in the natural reason of the species. What disposition there would be to take it may be imagined, when the abolishing of those principles was evidently to be also the destruction of all intrinsic authority in the practical rules founded on them, which destruction would confer an exemption infinitely desirable. The freedom for such thinking would infallibly be taken, in its utmost extent; and in fact the speculation was stimulated by so mighty a force of the depraved passions, that it went beyond the primary intention: it not only annulled the right principles and rules, but, not stopping at such negation, presumed to set forth opposite ones, so that the name and repute of virtues was given to iniquities without number. It is deplorable to consider how large a proportion of all the vices and crimes of which mankind were ever guilty, have actually constituted, in some or other of their tribes and ages, a part of the approved moral and religious system. It is questionable whether we could select from the worst forms of turpitude any one which has not been at least admitted among the authorized customs, if not even appointed among the institutes of the religion, of some portion of the human race. And depravities thus become licensed or sacred would have a fatal facility of communicating somewhat of their quality to all the other parts of the moral system. For this sanction both would reinforce their own power of infection, and would so beguile away all repugnance and counteraction, that the rest of the customs and institutes would readily admit the contamination, and become assimilated in evil; as the Mohamedans have no care to avoid contact with their neighbors who are ill of the plague, since the plague has the warrant of heaven. Wherever, therefore, in the imperfect notices afforded us of ancient nations, we find any one virulent iniquity holding an authorized place in custom or religion, we may confidently make a very large inference, though record were silent, as to the corresponding quality that would pervade the remainder of the moral system of those nations. Indeed the inference is equally justified whether we regard such a sanction and establishment of a flagrant iniquity as a cause, or as an effect. Suppose this sanction of some one enormity to _precede_ the general and equal corruption of morals,--how powerfully would it tend to bear them all down to a conformity in depravation. Suppose it to be (the more natural order) the result and completion of that corruption--how vicious must have been the previous state which could go easily and consistently to such a consummation. Everything that, under the advantage given by this destitution of knowledge, operated to the destruction of the true morality, both in theory and practice, must have had a fatal augmentation of its power in that part especially of this ignorance which respected hereafter. The doctrine of a future existence and retribution did not, in any rational and salutary form, interfere in the adjustment of the economy of life. The shadowy notion of a future state which hovered about the minds of the pagans, a vague apparition which alternately came and vanished, was at once too fantastic and too little of a serious belief to be of any avail to preserve the rectitude, or to maintain the authority, of the distinction between right and wrong. It was not denned enough, or noble enough, or convincing enough, or of judicial application enough, either to assist the efficacy of such moral principles as might be supposed to be innate in a rational creature, and competent for prescribing to it some virtues useful and necessary to it even if its present brief existence were all; or to enjoin effectually those higher virtues to which there can be no adequate inducement but in the expectation of a future life. Imagine, if you can, the withdrawment of this doctrine from the faith of those who have a solemn persuasion of it as a part of revealed truth. Suppose the grand idea either wholly obliterated, or faded into a dubious trace of what it had been, or transmuted into a poetic dream of classic or barbarian mythology,--and how many moral principles will be found to have vanished with it. How many things, before rendered imperative by this great article of faith, would have ceased to be duties, or would continue such only on the strength, and to the extent of the requirement, of some very minor consideration which might remain to enforce them, and that probably in a most deteriorated practical form. The sense of obligation, if continuing to recognize the nature of duty in things which could then no longer retain any such quality, otherwise than as looking to the most immediate and tangible benefit or harm, the lowest of moral calculations, would be reduced to a vulgar and reptile principle. The best of its strength, and all its dignity, would be departed from it when it could refer no more to eternity, an invisible world, and a judgment to come. It would therefore have none of that emphasis of impression which can sometimes dismay and quell the most violent passions, as by the mysterious awe of the presence of a spirit. It would be deprived of that which forms the chief power of conscience. And it would be impotent in any attempt--if so absurd an attempt could be dreamed of--to uphold, in the more dignified character of _principle_, that care of what is right which would be constantly degenerating into mere policy, and rationally justifying itself in doing so. The withdrawment, we said, of the grand truth in question, from a man's faith, (together with everything of taste and _habit_ which that faith might have created,) would necessarily break up the government over his conscience. How evident then is it, that among the people of the heathen lands, under a disastrous ignorance of this and all the other sublime truths, that are the most fit to rule an immortal being during his sojourn on earth, no man could feel any peremptory obligation to be universally virtuous, or adequate motives to excite an endeavor to approach that high attainment, even were there not a perfect inability to form the true conception of it. And then how much of course it was that the general mass would be dreadfully depraved. Though a momentary surprise may at times have seized us on the occurrence, in their history, of some monstrous form of flagitiousness, we do not wonder at beholding a state of the people such in its general character as the sacred writers exhibit, in descriptions to which the other records of antiquity add their confirming testimony and ample illustrations. For while the immense aggregate is displayed to the mental view, as pervaded, agitated, and stimulated, by the restless forces of appetites and passions, and those forces operating with an impulse no less perverted than strong, let it be asked what kinds and measure of restraint there could be upon such a world of creatures so actuated, to keep them from rushing in all ways into evil. Conceive, if you can, the fiction of such a multitude, so actuated, having been placed under an adjustment of restraints competent to withhold them. And then take off, in your imagination, one after another of these, to see what will follow. Take off, at last, all the coercion that can be applied through the belief of a judgment to come, and a future state of retribution;--by doing which you would also empower the race to defy, if any recognition of him remained, the Supreme Governor, whose possible inflictions, being confined to the present life, might at any time be escaped by shortening it. All these sacred bonds being thus dissolved, behold this countless multitude abandoned to be carried or driven the whole length to which the impulses of their appetites and passions would go,--or could go before they were arrested by some obstruction opposed to them from a quarter foreign to conscience. And the main and final thing in reserve to limit their career, after all the worthier restraints were annihilated, would be only this,--the resistance which men's self-interest opposes to one another's bad inclinations. A gloomy and humiliating spectacle truly it is, to be offered by a world of rational and moral agents, if we see that, instead of a repression of the propensity to wickedness by reverence of the Sovereign Judge, and the anticipation of a future life, there is merely a restraint put on its external activity, and that by the force of men's fears of one another. But nearly to this it was, as the only strong restraint, that those heathens were left by their ignorance, or a notion so slight as to be little better, of a future existence and judgment. Not but that it has been, in all nations and times, of infinite practical service that there is involved in the constitution of the world a law by which a coarse self-interest thus interposes to obstruct in a degree the violent propensity to evil; for it has prevented, under Providence, more actual mischief, beyond comparison more, than all other causes together. The man inclined to perpetrate an iniquity, of the nature of a wrong to his fellow-mortals, is apprized that he shall provoke a reaction, to resist or punish him; that he shall incur as great an evil as that he is disposed to do, or greater; that either a revenge regardless of all formalities of justice will strike him, or a process instituted in organized society will vindictively reach his property, liberty, or life. This defensive array, of all men against all men, compels to remain shut up within the mind an immensity of wickedness which is there burning to come out into action. But for this, Noah's flood had been rendered needless. But for this, our planet might have been accomplishing its circles round the sun for thousands of years past without a human inhabitant. Through the effect of this essential law, in the social economy, it was possible for the race to subsist, notwithstanding all that ignorance of the Divine Being, of heavenly truth, and of uncorrupt morality, in which we are contemplating the heathen nations as benighted. But while thus it prevented utter destruction, it had no corrective operation on the depravity of the heart. It was not through a judgment of things being essentially evil that they were forborne; it was not by the power of conscience that wicked propensity was kept under restraint. It was only by a hold on the meaner principles of his nature, that the offender in will was arrested in prevention of the deed. And so the race were such virtually, as they would have hastened to become actually, could they have ceased to be afraid of one another's strength and retaliation.' [Footnote: It is not very uncommon to hear credit given to human nature apparently in sober simplicity, for the whole amount of the negation of bad actions _thus_ prevented, as just so much genuine virtue, by some dealers in moral and theological speculation.] But even this restraint imposed by mutual apprehension, important as its operation was in the absence of nobler influences, was yet of miserably partial efficacy. Men were continually breaking through this protective provision, and committed against one another a stupendous amount of crimes. And no wonder, when we consider that the evil passions, endowed as they seem to be with a portentous excess of vigor by the very circumstance of _being_ evil, (as the demoniacs were the strongest of men,) are exasperated the more by a certain degree of awe impressed on them by the defensive attitude of their objects. When strength so great might thus be irritated to greater, and when there were no "powers of the world to come," to invade the dreadful cavern of iniquity in the mind, and there combat and subdue it, there would often be no want of the audacity to send it forth into action at all hazards, and in defiance and contempt of the restraining force which operated through mutual fear of vindictive reaction. But it may be said, perhaps, that in thus representing the people who were destitute of divine knowledge, as left with hardly any other control on their bad dispositions than one of a quality little more dignified than fetters literally binding the limbs, we are underrating what there still was among them to take effect in the way of _instruction_. Even this coarse principle of control itself, it may be alleged, this prudence of reciprocal fear became refined into something worthier of moral agents. For it passed, by a compromise among the species, from the form of individual self-defence and revenge into that of institutions of _law_; and legislation, it will be said, is a teacher of morals. Retaining, indeed, the rough expedient of physical force, in readiness to coerce or punish where it cannot deter by warning, it yet strongly endeavors the repression of evil emotions by means of right _principles_, marked out, explained, and inculcated. It _teaches_ these principles as dictates of reason and justice, while it embodies them in the menacing authority of enactments. There was therefore, it may be pleaded, as much _instruction_ among the ancient heathen as there was legislation. In answering this, we may forego any rigorous examination of the quality of principles and precepts enunciated by legislators who themselves, in common with the people, looked on human existence and duty through a worse than twilight medium; who had no divine oracles to impart wisdom, and were, some of them, reduced to begin their operations with the lie that pretended they had such oracles; from all which it was inevitable that some of their maxims and injunctions would even in their efficacy be noxious, as being at variance with eternal rectitude. It is enough to observe, on the claims of legislation to the character of a moral preceptor, that it retained so palpably, after all, the nature of the gross element from which it was a refinement or transfusion, that even what it might teach right, as to the matter, it was unable to teach with the right moral impression. With all its gravity, and phrases of wisdom, and show of homage to virtue, it was, and was plainly descried to be, that very same _Noli me tangere,_ in a disguised form; a less provoking and hostile manner only of keeping up the state of preparation for defensive war. Every one knew right well that the pure approbation and love of goodness were not the source of law; but that it was an arrangement originating and deriving all its force from self-interest; a contrivance by which each man was glad to make the collective strength of society his guarantee against his neighbor's interest and wish to do him wrong. While pleased that others were under this restraint, he was often vexed at being under it also himself; but on the whole deemed this security worth the cost of suffering the interdict on his own inclinations,--perhaps as believing other men's to be still worse than his, or seeing their strength to be greater. We repeat that a preceptive system thus estimated could not, even had the principles to which it gave expression in the mandates of law been no other than those of the soundest morality, have impressed them with the weight of sanctity on the conscience. And all this but tends to show the necessity that the rules and sanctions of morality, to come with simplicity and power on the human mind, should primarily emanate, and be acknowledged as emanating, from a Being exalted above all implication and competition of interest with man. Thus we see, that the pagan ignorance precluded one grand requisite for crushing the dominion of iniquity; for there was nothing to insinuate or to force its way into the recesses of the soul, to apply _there_ a repressive power to the depraved ardor which glowed in the passions. That was left, inaccessible and inextinguishable, as the subterranean fires in a volcanic region. And in the mighty impulse to evil with which it was continually operating as an energy of feeling, it compelled the subservience of the intellect; and thus combined the passions with a faculty skilful to guide their direction, to diversify their objects, to invent expedients, and to seize and create occasions. What was it that this intelligent depravity would stop short of accomplishing? Reflect on the extent of human genius, in its powers of invention, combination, and adaptation; and then think of all this faculty, in an immense number of minds, through many ages, and in every imaginable variety of situation, exerted with unremitting activity in aid of the wrong propensities. Reflect how many ideas, apt and opportune for this service, would spring up casually, or be suggested by circumstances, or be attained by the earnest study of beings goaded in pursuit of change and novelty. The simple modes of iniquity were put under an active ministry of art, to combine, innovate, and augment. And so indefatigable was its exercise, that almost all conceivable forms of immorality were brought to imagination, most of them into experiment; and the greater number into prevailing practice, in those nations: insomuch that the sated monarch would have imposed as difficult a task on ingenuity in calling for the invention of a new vice, as of a new pleasure. They would perhaps have been nearly identical demands when he was the person to be pleased. Such are some of the most obvious illustrations that the absence of knowledge was a cause, and added in an unknown measure to the strength of all other causes, of the excessive corruption in the heathen nations. And if this depravity of a world of moral agents did not, contemplated simply as a destruction of their _rectitude_, appear equivalent to the gravest import of the terms "the people are destroyed," the _misery_ inseparable from the depravity instantly comes in our view to complete their verification. We are aware that the wickedness and misery of the ancient world, as asserted in illustration of the natural effect of estrangement from divine truth, are apt to be regarded as of the order of topics which have dwindled into insignificance, worn out by being repeated just because they have often been repeated before; a sort of exhausted quarries and dried-up wells. There is a certain class of vain and sneering mortals, in whose conceit nothing is such proof of superior sense as discarding the greatest number of topics and arguments as obsolete or impertinent. It is to be reckoned on that some of these, on hearing again the old maxims, that a people without divine instruction must be a vicious one, and that a vicious people must be an unhappy one,--and those maxims accompanied with a description of the old pagan world as illustrative evidence,--will be prompt to let forth their comments in some such strain as the following:--"The state of the ancient heathens, thus brought upon us in one cheap declamation more, is now a matter of trivial import, just fit to give some show and exaggeration to the stale common-place, that ignorance is likely to produce depravity, and that depravity and misery are likely enough to go together. The pagans might be wretched enough; and perhaps also the matter has been extravagantly magnified for the service of a favorite theme, or to make a rhetorical show. At any rate, it is not now worth while to go so far back to concern ourselves about it. The ancient heathens had their day and their destiny, and it is of little importance to us what they were or suffered." It is fortunate, we may reply, to be "wiser than the ancients," without the trouble of _learning_ anything by means of them. It is fortunate, also, to have ascertained how much of all that ever existed can teach us nothing. We have a signal improvement in the fashion of wisdom, when that high endowment may be possessed as a thing distinct from compass of thought, from study of causes and effects as illustrated on the great scale, from aptitude to be instructed by the past, and from contemplation of the divine government as carried over a wide extent of time. But indeed this is not a privilege peculiar to this later day. In any former age there were men in sufficient number who were wise enough to be indifferent to all but immediate passing events, as knowing no lessons that persons like them had to learn from remoter views, looking either into the past or the future; who could even have before them the very monuments of awful events that were gone by, without perceiving inscribed on them any characters for contemplation to read. It is not impossible there might be persons who could plan their schemes, and debate their questions, and even follow their amusements, quite exempt from solemn reflections, within view of the ruins of Jerusalem, after the Roman legions had left it and its myriads of dead to silence. Any reference to that dreadful spectacle, as an example of the consequences of the ignorance and wickedness of a people, might have been heard with unconcern, and lightly passed over as foreign to the matters requiring their attention: it was all over with the people dead, and the people alive had their own concerns to mind. But would not exactly such as these have been the men most likely to fall into the vices and impieties which would provoke the next avenging visitation, and to perish in it? In all times, the triflers with the great exemplifications of the connection of depravity with misery and ruin, who thought it but an impertinent moralizing that attempted to recall such funereal spectacles for admonition, were fools, whatever self-complacency they might feel in a habit of thinking more fitted, they would perhaps say, for making our best advantage of the world as we find it. And we of the present time are convicted of exceeding stupidity, if we think it not worth while to go a number of ages back to contemplate the mass of mankind, the wide world of beings such as ourselves, sunk in darkness and wretchedness, and to consider what it is that is taught by so melancholy an exhibition. What is to give fulness of evidence to an instruction, if a world be too narrow; what is to give it weight, if a world be too light? It is to be acknowledged, that the mental darkness which we are representing as so greatly the cause of the wickedness and unhappiness of those nations of old, had the effect of protecting them, in a measure, from some kinds of suffering. They had not, as we have been observing, illumination enough, to have conscience enough, for inflicting the severest pains of remorse; and for oppressing them with a distinct alarming apprehension of a future account. But that they were unhappy, was practically acknowledged in the very quality of what they ardently and universally sought as the highest felicities of existence. Those delights were violent and tumultuous, in all possible ways and degrees estranged from reflection, and adverse to it. The whole souls of great and small, in the most barbarous and in the more polished state, were passionately set on revelry, on expedients for inflaming licentiousness to madness; or concourses of multitudes for pomps, celebrations, shows, games, combats; on the riots of exultation and revenge after victories. The ruder nations had, in their way, however pitiable on the score of magnificence, their grand festive, triumphal, and demoniac confluxes and revellings. To these joys of tumult, the people of the savage and the more cultivated nations sacrificed everything belonging to the peaceful economy of life, with a desperate, frantic fury. All this was the confession that there was little felicity in the heart or in the home. Nor was it found in these resources; if the wild elation might be mistaken for happiness while it lasted, it was brief in each instance, and it subsided in an aggravated dreariness of the soul. The fact of their being unhappy had a still more gloomy attestation in the mutual enmity which seems to have been of the very essence of life so vital a principle, that it could not be spared for an hour. No, they could not live without this luxury drawn from the fountains of death! What is the most conspicuous material of ancient history, what is it that glares out the most hideously from that darkness and oblivion in which the old world is veiling its aspect, but the incessant furies of miserable mortals against their fellow-mortals, "hateful and hating one another?" We cannot look that way but we see the whole field covered with inflicters and sufferers, not seldom interchanging those characters. If that field widens to our view, it is still, to the utmost line to which the shade clears away, a scene of cruelty, oppression, and slavery; of the strong trampling on the weak, and the weak often attempting to bite at the feet of the strong; of rancorous animosities and murderous competitions of persons raised above the mass of the community; of treacheries and massacres; and of war between hordes, and cities, and nations, and empires; war _never_, in spirit, intermitted, and suspended sometimes in act only to acquire renewed force for destruction, or to find another assemblage of hated creatures to cut in pieces. Powerful as "the spirit of the first-born Cain" has continued, down to our age, and in the most improved divisions of mankind, there was, nevertheless, in the ancient pagan race, (as there is in some portions of the modern,) a more complete, uncontrolled actuation of the all-killing, all-devouring fury, a more absolute possession of Moloch. Now it is _as misery_ that we are exhibiting all this depravity. To be thus, _was suffering_. The disease and the pain are inseparable in the description, and they were so in the reality. And both together, inevitably seizing on beings who had rejected or lost divine knowledge, maintained a hold as fatal and invincible as that of the intervolved serpents of Laocoon. It is true, that a comprehensive estimate of the state of the people we are contemplating, would bring in view several minor circumstances which, though not availing to change materially the effect of the picture, are themselves of less gloomy color. But at the same time such an estimate would include other forms also of infelicity, besides those which were at once the result and punishment of depravity, the stings with which sin rewarded the infatuation that loved it. If the design had been to exhibit anything like a general view, we must have taken account of such particulars as these: the unhappiness of being without an assurance of an all-comprehending and merciful Providence, and of wanting therefore the best support in sorrow and calamity; the insuppressible impatience, or the deep melancholy, with which the more thoughtful persons must have seen departing from life, leaving them hopeless of ever meeting again in a life elsewhere, the relations or associates who were dear to them in spite of the prevailing effect of paganism to destroy philanthropy; and the gloomy sentiment with which they must have thought of their own continual approach toward death; a sentiment not always unaccompanied with certain intimidating hints and hauntings of possibilities in the darkness beyond that confine. But the more limited intention in the preceding description has been to illustrate their unhappiness as inflicted by their depravity, necessarily consequent on their ignorance. And what words so true, so irresistibly prompted at the view of such a scene, as those pronounced of a nation that at once despised the pagans and imitated them,--"The people are destroyed for lack of knowledge." * * * * * Let us not be suspected of having lost sight of the fact, that vice and misery have, in our nature, a deeper source than ignorance; or of being so absurd as to imagine that if the inestimable truths unknown to the heathen world had been, on the contrary, in all men's knowledge, but a slight portion of the depravity and wretchedness we have described could then have had an existence. To say, that under long absence of the sun any tract of terrestrial nature _must infallibly_ be reduced to desolation, is not to say or imply, that under the benignant influence of that luminary the same region must, as necessarily and unconditionally, be a scene of beauty; but the only hope, for the only possibility, is for the field visited by much of that sweet influence. And it were an absurdity no less gross in the opposite extreme to the one just mentioned, to assert the uselessness, for rectifying the moral world, of a diffusion of the knowledge which shall compel men to see what is wrong; to deny that the impulses of the corrupt passions and will must suffer some abatement of their force and daring when encountered, like Balaam meeting the angel, by a clear manifestation of their bad and ruinous tendency, by a convinced judgment, a protesting conscience, and the aspect of the Almighty Judge,--instead of their being under the tolerance of a judgment not instructed to condemn them, or, (as ignorance is sure to quicken into error,) perverted to abet them. Section II. From this view of the prevalence and malignant effects of ignorance among the people of the ancient world, both Jews and Gentiles, we may come down, with a few brief notices in passing over the long subsequent periods, towards our own times. For any attempt to prosecute the object through the ages and regions of later heathenism, (with the infatuated Judaism still more destructive to its subjects,) would be to lose ourselves in a boundless scene of desolation, an immense amplitude of darkness, frightfully alive throughout with the activity of all noxious and hideous things. But by this time we are become aware how continually we are driven upon what will be in hazard of appearing an exaggerated phraseology; insomuch that we are almost afraid of accepting the epithets of description and aggravation which offer themselves as most appropriate to the subject. There are some self-complacent persons whose minds are so unapt to recognize the magnitude of a subject, or so averse perhaps to the contemplation of it if it be of tragical aspect, that strong terms accumulated to exhibit even what surpasses in its plain reality all the powers of language, offend them as declamatory exaggeration. Let it then be just observed, without one ambitious epithet, that since that period when ancient history, strictly so named, left off describing the state of mankind, more than a myriad of millions of our race have been on earth, and quitted it without one ray of the knowledge the most important to spirits sojourning here, and going hence. But while any attempt to carry the representation of the fatal effects of ignorance over the extent of so dreary a scene is declined, let it not be forgotten that they have been an awful reality; that they have actually existed, in time, and place, and number of victims; that there actually _were_ the men, and so many men, who exemplified, and in so many ways, the truth we are illustrating. And a truth which has its demonstration in facts ought to come with the weight of all the facts that we believe ever _did_ demonstrate it. When they are not presented in breadth and detail prominently in our view, we are apt to lose the due effect of our knowing them to have existed. It will be enough to advert very briefly to the Mohammedan imposture, though that is perhaps the most signal instance within all time, of a malignant delusion maintained directly and immediately by ignorance, by an absolute determination and even a fanatic zeal not to receive one new idea. Tenets involving the most palpable impossibilities, and asserted in self-contradictory terms, must stand inviolable to all question or controversy; literature must be scouted as a profane folly; not a principle of true philosophy is to be admitted; hardly is an application of the plainest mechanics to improve a machine or implement to be tolerated; or an infidel is to be only _pardoned_, through contempt, for a successful obtrusion of science to render the most important service,--to save, for instance, a Mussulman ship-with its proud, besotted commander and crew from destruction, [Footnote: There is a very curious example of this related in Dr Clarke's Travels.] lest an acknowledgment made to science should allow one momentary surmise of imperfection to insult the all-sufficiency and sanctity of the unalterable creed and institutes; lest any diminutive crevice should be made on any side of the temple of the vile superstition, for the passage of one glimpse of true light to annoy the foul fiend that dwells there, invested "in the dunnest smoke of hell." Not, however, that this is the policy of doubt and apprehension, the evading and repelling caution of men who suspect themselves to be wrong and dread being forced to meet the proof. For the subjects of this execrable usurpation on the human understanding have, in general, the firmest assurance that all things in the system are right: it has itself secured them against _knowing_ anything that could discompose their sense of certainty. No fell savage, or serpent, or monster, ever had a more perfect instinct to avail itself of an impervious obscurity for its lurking-place, than this imposture has shown to keep out all mental light from its realm. The delusion is so strong and absolute in ignorance, is so identified with it, and so systematically repels at all points the approach of knowledge, that it is difficult to conceive a mode of its extermination that shall not involve some fearful destruction, in the most literal sense, of the people whom it possesses. And such a catastrophe it is probable the great body of them, in the temper of mind prevailing among them at this hour, would choose to incur by preference, we do not say to a serious, patient consideration of the true religion, but even to the admission among them of a system merely favoring knowledge in general, an order of measures which should urge upon the adults, and peremptorily enforce for the children, a discipline of intellectual improvement. There would be little national hesitation of choice, (at least in the central regions of the dominion of this hateful imposture,) between the introduction of any general system of expedients for driving them from their stupefaction into something like thinking and learning, and a general plague, to rage as long as any remained for victims. [Footnote: In the interval since this was written, some change has taken place in favor of the admission of the elements of knowledge, in the capital, and in the second city of the Mohammedan regions; but with very slight alterative influence on the mass; and with respect to the faith, probably none at all. Within this interval, also, the central power has been hastening rapidly to its catastrophe.] * * * * * But let us now look, for a moment, at the intellectual state of the people denominated Christian, during the ages preceding the Reformation. The best of all the acquisitions by earth from heaven, Christianity, might have seemed to bring with it an inevitable necessity of a great and permanent difference soon to be effected, in regard to the competence of men's knowledge to prevent their destruction. It was as if, in the physical system, some one production, far more salutary to life than all the other things furnished from the elements, had been reserved by the Creator to spring up in a later age, after many generations of men had been languishing through life, and prematurely dying, from the deficient virtue of their sustenance and remedies. The image of the inestimable plant had been shown to the prophets in their visions, but the reality was now given to the world; it was of "wholly a right seed," "had the seed in itself," and claimed to be cultivated by the people, who in every land were suffering the maladies which it had the properties to heal. But, while by the greater part of mankind it was not accounted worth admission to a place on their blasted, desolated soil, the manner in which its virtue was frustrated among those who pretended to esteem it, as it was, the best gift of the divine beneficence, is recorded in eternal reproach of the Christian nations. As the hostility of heathenism, in the direct endeavors to extirpate the Christian religion, became evidently hopeless, in the nations within the Roman empire, there was a grand change of the policy of evil; and all manner of reprobate things, heathenism itself among them, rushed as by general conspiracy into treacherous conjunction with Christianity, retaining their own quality under the sanction of its name, and by a rapid process reducing it to surrender almost everything distinctive of it but that dishonored name: and all this under protection of the "gross darkness covering the people." There were indeed in existence the inspired oracles, and these could not be essentially falsified. But there was no lack of expedients and pre-texts for keeping them in a great measure secreted. It might be done under a pretence that reverence for their sanctity required they should be secluded as within the recesses of a temple, nor be there consulted but by consecrated personages; a pretence excellently contrived, since it was its own security against exposure, the people being thus kept unaware that the sacred writings themselves expressly invited popular inspection, by declaring themselves addressed to mankind at large. The deceivers were not worse off for the other facilities. In the progress of translation, the holy Scriptures could be intercepted and stopped short in a language but little less unintelligible than the original ones to the bulk of the people, in order that this "profane vulgar" might never hear the very words of God, but only such report as it should please certain men, at their discretion, to give of what he had said; men, however, of whom the majority were themselves too ignorant to cite it in even a falsified import. But though the people had understood the language, in the usage of social converse, there was a grand security against them in keeping them so destitute of the knowledge of letters, that the Bible, if such a rare thing ever could happen to fall into any of their hands, would be no more to them than a scroll of hieroglyphics. When to this was added, the great cost of a copy of so large a book before the invention of printing, it remained perhaps just worth while, (and it would be a matter of no difficulty or daring,) to make it, in the maturity of the system, an offence, and sacrilegious invasion of sacerdotal privilege, to look into a Bible. If it might seem hard thus to constitute a new sin, in addition to the long list already denounced by the divine law, amends were made by indulgently rescinding some articles in that list, and qualifying the principles of obligation with respect to them all. In this latency of the sacred authorities, withdrawn from all communication with the human understanding, there were retained still many of the terms and names belonging to religion. They remained, but they remained only such as they could be when the departing spirit of that religion was leaving them void of their import and solemnity, and so rendered applicable to purposes of deception and mischief. They were as holy vessels, in which the original contents might, as they were escaping, be clandestinely replaced by the most malignant preparations. And as crafty and wicked men had a direct interest in this substitution, the pernicious operation went on incessantly; and with an ability, and to an extent to evince that the utmost barbarism of the times cannot extinguish genius, when it is iniquity that sets it on fire. How prolific was the invention of the falsehoods and absurdities of notion, and of the vanities and corruptions of practice, which it was devised to make the terms and names of religion designate and sanction! while it was also managed, with no less sedulity and success, that the inventors and propagators should be held in submissive reverence by the community, as the oracular depositaries of truth. That community had not knowledge enough of any other kind, to create a resisting and defensive power against this imposition in the concern of religion. A sound exercise of reason on subjects out of that province, a moderate degree of instruction in literature and science rightly so called, might have produced, in the persons of superior native capacity, somewhat of a competency and a disposition to question, to examine, to call for evidence, and to detect some of the fallacies imposed for Christian faith. But in such completeness of ignorance, the general mind was on all sides pressed and borne down to its fate. All reaction ceased; and the people were reduced to exist in one huge, unintelligent, monotonous substance, united by the interfusion of a vile superstition, which permitted just enough mental life in the mass to leave it capable of being actuated to all the purposes of cheats, and tyrants,--a proper subject for the dominion of "our Lord God the Pope," as he was sometimes denominated; and might have been denominated without exciting indignation, in the hearing of millions of beings bearing the form of men and the name of Christians. Reflect that all this took place under the nominal ascendency of the best and brightest economy of instruction from heaven. Reflect that it was in nations where even the sovereign authority professed homage to the religion of Christ, and adopted and enforced it as a grand national institution, that the popular mass was thus reduced to a material fit for all the bad uses to which priestcraft could wish to put the souls and bodies of its slaves. And then consider what _should_ have been the condition of this great aggregate, wherever Christianity was acknowledged by all as the true religion. The people _should_ have consisted of so many beings having each, in some degree, the independent, beneficial use of his _mind_; all of them trained with a reference to the necessity of their being apprized of their responsibility to their Creator, for the exercise of their reason on the matters of belief and choice; all of them capacitated for improvement by being furnished with the rudiments and instrumental means of knowledge; and all having within their reach, in their own language, the Scriptures of divine truth, some by immediate possession, the rest by means of faithful readers, while the book existed only in manuscript; all of them after it came to be printed. Can any doubt arise, whether there were in the Christian states resources competent, if so applied, to secure to all the people an elementary instruction, and the possession of the printed Bible? Resources competent! All nations, sufficiently raised above barbarism to exist as states, have consumed, in uses the most foreign and pernicious to their welfare, an infinitely greater amount of means than would have sufficed, after due provision for comfortable physical subsistence, to afford a moderate share of instruction to all the people. And in those popish ages, that expenditure alone which went to ecclesiastical use would have been far more than adequate to this beneficent purpose. Think of the boundless cost for supporting the magnificence and satiating the rapacity of the hierarchy, from its triple-crowned head, down through all the orders branded with a consecration under that head to maintain the delusion and share the spoil. Recollect the immense system of policy for jurisdiction and intrigue, every agent of which was a devourer. Recollect the pomps and pageants, for which the general resources were to be taxed: while the general industry was injured by the interruption of useful employment, and the diversion of the people to such dissipation as their condition qualified and permitted them to indulge in. Think also of the incalculable cost of ecclesiastical structures, the temples of idolatry as in truth they were. One of the most striking situations for a religious and reflective Protestant is, that of passing some solitary hour under the lofty vault, among the superb arches and columns, of any one of the most splendid of these edifices remaining at this day in our own country. If he has sensibility and taste, the magnificence, the graceful union of so many diverse inventions of art, the whole mighty creation of genius that quitted the world without leaving even a name, will come with magical impression on his mind, while it is contemplatively darkening into the awe of antiquity. But he will be recalled--the sculptures, the inscriptions, the sanctuaries enclosed off for the special benefit, after death, of persons who had very different concerns during life from that of the care of their salvation, and various other insignia of the original character of the place, will help to recall him--to the thought, that these proud piles were in fact raised to celebrate the conquest, and prolong the dominion, of the Power of Darkness over the souls of the people. They were as triumphal arches, erected in memorial of the extermination of that truth which was given to be the life of men. As he looks round, and looks upwards, on the prodigy of design, and skill, and perseverance, and tributary wealth, he may image to himself the multitudes that, during successive ages, frequented this fane in the assured belief, that the idle ceremonies and impious superstitions, which they there performed or witnessed, were a service acceptable to heaven, and to be repaid in blessings to the offerers. He may say to himself, Here, on this very floor, under that elevated and decorated vault, in a "dim religious light" like this, but with the darkness of the shadow of death in their souls, they prostrated themselves to their saints, or their "queen of heaven;" nay, to painted images and toys of wood or wax, to some ounce or two of bread and wine, to fragments of old bones, and rags of cast-off vestments. Hither they came, when conscience, in looking back or pointing forward, dismayed them, to purchase remission with money or atoning penances, or to acquire the privilege of sinning with impunity in a certain manner, or for a certain time; and they went out at yonder door in the perfect confidence that the priest had secured, in the one case the suspension, in the other the satisfaction, of the divine law. Here they solemnly believed, as they were taught, that, by donatives to the church, they delivered the souls of their departed sinful relations from their state of punishment; and they went out of that door resolved, such as had possessions, to bequeath some portion of them, to operate in the same manner for themselves another day, in the highly probable case of similar need. Here they were convened to listen in reverence to some representative emissary from the Man of Sin, with new dictates of blasphemy or iniquity promulgated in the name of the Almighty: or to witness the trickery of some farce, devised to cheat or frighten them out of whatever remainder the former impositions might have left them of sense, conscience, or property. Here, in fine, there was never presented to their understanding, from their childhood to their death, a comprehensive, honest declaration of the laws of duty, and the pure doctrines of salvation. To think! that they should have mistaken for the house of God, and the very gate of heaven, a place where the Regent of the nether world had so short a way to come from his dominions, and his agents and purchased slaves so short a way to go thither. If we could imagine a momentary visit from Him who once entered a fabric of sacred denomination with a scourge, because it was made the resort of a common traffic, with what aspect and voice, with what infliction but the "rebuke with flames of fire," would he have entered this mart of iniquity, assuming the name of his sanctuary, where the traffic was in delusions, crimes, and the souls of men? It was even as if, to use the prophet's language, the very "stone cried out of the wall, and the beam out of the timber answered it," in denunciation; for a portion of the means of building, in the case of some of these edifices, was obtained as the price of dispensations and pardons. [Footnote: That most superb Salisbury Cathedral, for example.] In such a hideous light would the earlier history of one of these mighty structures, pretendedly consecrated to Christianity, be presented to the reflecting Protestant; and then would recur the idea of its cost, as relative to what that expenditure might really have done for Christianity and the people. It absorbed in the construction, sums sufficient to have supplied, costly as they would have been, even manuscript Bibles, in the people's own language, (as a priesthood of truly apostolic character would have taken care the Scriptures should speak,) to all the families of a province; and in the revenues appropriated to its ministration of superstition, enough to have provided men to teach all those families to read those Bibles. In all this, and in the whole constitution of the Grand Apostasy, involving innumerable forms of abuse and abomination, to which our object does not require any allusion, how sad a spectacle is held forth of the people destroyed for lack of knowledge. If, as one of their plagues, an inferior one in itself, they were plundered as we have seen, of their worldly goods, it was that the spoil might subserve to a still greater wrong. What was lost to the accommodation of the body, was to be made to contribute to the depravation of the spirit. It supplied means for multiplying the powers of the grand ecclesiastical machinery, and confirming the intellectual despotism of the usurpers of spiritual authority. Those authorities enforced on the people, on pain of perdition, an acquiescence in notions and ordinances which, in effect, precluded their direct access to the Almighty, and the Saviour of the world; interposing between them and the Divine Majesty a very extensive, complicated, and heathenish mediation, which in a great measure substituted itself for the real and exclusive mediation of Christ, obscured by its vast creation of intercepting vanities the glory of the Eternal Being, and thus almost extinguished the true worship. But how calamitous was such a condition!--to be thus intercepted from direct intercourse with the Supreme Spirit, and to have the solemn and elevating sentiment of devotion flung downward, on objects to some of which even the most superstitious could hardly pay homage without a sense of degradation. It was, again, a disastrous thing to be under a directory of practical life framed for the convenience of a corrupt system; a rule which enjoined many things wrong, allowed a dispensation from nearly everything that was right, and abrogated the essential principle and ground-work of true morality. Still again, it was an unhappy thing, that the consolations in sorrow and the view of death should either be too feeble to animate, or should animate only by deluding. And it was the consummation of evil in the state of the people of those dark ages, it was, emphatically to be "destroyed," that the great doctrines of redemption should have been essentially vitiated or formally supplanted, so that multitudes of people were betrayed to rest their final hopes on a ground unauthorized by the Judge of the world. In this most important matter, the spiritual authorities might themselves be subjects of the fatal delusion in which they held the community; and well they deserved to be so, in judicial retribution of their wickedness in imposing on the people, deliberately and on system, innumerable things which they knew to be false. We have often mused, and felt a gloom and dreariness spreading over the mind while musing, on descriptions of the aspect of a country after a pestilence has left it in desolation, or of a region where the people are perishing by famine. It has seemed a mournful thing to behold, in contemplation, the multitude of lifeless? forms, occupying in silence the same abodes in which they had lived, or scattered upon the gardens, fields, and roads; and then to see the countenances of the beings yet languishing in life, looking despair, and impressed with the signs of approaching death. We have even sometimes had the vivid and horrid picture offered to our imagination, of a number of human creatures shut up by their fellow mortals in some strong hold, under an entire privation of sustenance; and presenting each day their imploring, or infuriated, or grimly sullen, or more calmly woful countenances, at the iron and impregnable gates; each succeeding day more haggard, more perfect in the image of despair; and after awhile appearing each day one fewer, till at last all have sunk. Now shall we feel it as a _relief_ to turn in thought, as to a sight of less portentous evil, from the inhabitants of a country, or from those of such an accursed prison-house, thus pining away, to behold the different spectacle of national tribes, or any more limited portion of mankind, on whose _minds_ are displayed the full effects of knowledge denied; who are under the process of whatever destruction it is, that spirits can suffer from want of the vital aliment to the intelligent nature, especially from "a famine of the words of the Lord?" To bring the two to a close comparison, suppose the case, that some of the persons thus doomed to perish in the tower were in the possession of the genuine light and consolations of Christianity, perhaps even had actually been adjudged to this fate, (no extravagant supposition,) for zealously and persistingly endeavoring the restoration of the purity of that religion to the deluded community. Let it be supposed that numbers of that community, having conspired to obtain this ad-judgment, frequented the precincts of the fortress, to see their victims gradually perishing. It would be quite in the spirit of the popish superstition, that they should believe themselves to have done God service, and be accordingly pleased at the sight of the more and more deathlike aspect of the emaciated countenances. The while, they might be themselves in the enjoyment of "fulness of bread," We can imagine them making convivial appointments within sight of the prison gates, and going from the spectacle to meet at the banquet. Or they might delay the festivity, in order to have the additional luxury of knowing that the tragedy was consummated; as Bishop Gardiner would not dine till the martyrs were burnt.--Look at these two contemporary situations, that of the persons with truth and immortal hope in their spirits, enduring this slow and painful reduction of their bodies to dissolution,--and that of those who, while their bodies fared sumptuously, were thus miserably perishing in soul, through its being surrendered to the curse of a delusion which envenomed it with such a deadly malignity: and say which was the more calamitous predicament. If we have no hesitation in pronouncing, let us consider whether we have ever been grateful enough to God for the dashing in pieces so long since in this land, of a system which maintains, to this hour, much of its stability over the greater part of Christendom. If we regret that certain fragments of it are still held in veneration here, and that so tedious a length of ages should be required, to work out a complete mental rescue from the infatuation which possessed our ancestors, let us at the same time look at the various states of Europe, small and great, where this superstition continues to hold the minds of the people in its odious grasp; and verify to ourselves what we have to be thankful for, by thinking what reception _our_ minds would give to an offer of subsistence on their mummeries, masses, absolutions, legends, relics, mediation of saints, and corruptions, even to complete reversal of the evangelic doctrines. * * * * * It was, however, but very slowly that the people of our land realized the benefits of the Reformation, glorious as that event was, regarded as to its progressive and its ultimate consequences. Indeed, the thickness of the preceding darkness was strikingly manifested by the deep shade which still continued stretched over the nation, in spite of the newly risen luminary, whose beams lost their brightness in pervading it to reach the popular mind, and came with the faintness of an obscured and tedious dawn. A long time there lingered enough of night for the evil spirit of popery to be at large and in power, not abashed, as Milton represents the Evil Angel on his being surprised by the guardians of paradise. Rather the case was that the vindicator itself of truth and holiness, the true Lucifer, shrunk at the rencounter and defiance of the old possessor of the gloomy dominion. The Reformation was not empowered to speak with a voice like that which said, "Let there be light--and there was light." Consider what, on its avowed national adoption in our land, were its provisions for acting on the community, and how slow and partial must have been their efficacy, for either the dissipation of ignorance in general, or the riddance of that worst part of it which had thickened round the Romish delusion, as malignant a pestilence as ever walked in darkness. There was an alteration of formularies, a curtailment of rites, a declaration of renouncing, in the name of the church and state, the most palpable of the absurdities; and a change, in some instances of the persons, but in very many others of the professions merely, of the hierarchy. Such were the appointments and instrumentality, for carrying an innovation of opinions and practices through a nation in which the profoundest ignorance and the most inveterate superstition fortified each other. And we may well imagine how fast and how far they would be effective, to convey information and conviction among a people whose reason had been just so much the worse, with respect to religion at least, as it had not been totally dormant; and who were too illiterate to be ever the wiser for the volume of inspiration itself, had it been in their native language, in every house, instead of being scarcely in one house in five thousand. Doubtless some advantage was gained through this change of institutions, by the abolition of so much of the authority of the spiritual despotism as it possessed in virtue of being the imperative national establishment. And if, under this relaxation of its grasp, a number of persons declined and escaped into the new faith, they hardly knew how or why, it was happy to make the transition on _any_ terms, with however little of the exercise of reason, with however little competence to exercise it. Well was it to be on the right ground, though a man had come thither like one conveyed while partly asleep. To have grown to a state of mind in which he ceased and refused to worship relics and wafers, to rest his confidence on penance and priestly absolution, and to regard the Virgin and saints as in effect the supreme regency of heaven, was a valuable alteration _though_ he could not read, and _though_ he could not assign, and had not clearly apprehended, the arguments which justified the change. Yes, this would be an important thing gained; but not even thus much _was_ gained to the passive slaves of popery but in an exceedingly limited extent, during a long course of time after it was supplanted as a national institution. It continued to maintain in the faith, feelings, and more private habits of the people, a dominion little enfeebled by the necessity of dissimulation in public observances. As far as to secure this exterior show of submission and conformity, it was an excellent argument that the state had decreed, and would resolutely enforce, a change in religion,--that is to say, till it should be the sovereign pleasure of the next monarch, readily seconded by a majority of the ecclesiastics, just to turn the whole affair round to its former position. But the argument would expend nearly its whole strength on this policy of saving appearances. For what was there conveyed in it that could strike inward to act upon the fixed tenets of the mind, to destroy there the effect of the earliest and ten thousand subsequent impressions, of inveterate habit and of ancient establishment? Was it to convince and persuade by authority of the maxim, that the government in church and state is wiser than the people, and therefore the best judge in every matter? This, as asserted generally, was what the people firmly believed: it has always, till lately, been the popular faith. But then, was the benefit of this obsequious faith to go exclusively to the government of just that particular time,--a government which, by its innovations and demolitions, was exhibiting a contemptuous dissent from all past government remembered in the land? Were the people not to hesitate a moment to take this innovating government's word for it that all their forefathers, up through a long series of ages, had been fools and dupes in reverencing, in their time, the wisdom and authority of _their_ governors? The most unthinking and submissive would feel that this was too much: especially after they had proof that the government demanding so prodigious a concession might, on the substitution of just one individual for another at its head, revoke its own ordinances, and punish those who should contumaciously continue to be ruled by them. You summon us, they might have said to their governors, at your arbitrary dictate to renounce, as what you are pleased to call idolatries and abominations, the faith and rites held sacred by twenty generations of our ancestors and yours. We are to do this on peril of your highest displeasure, and that of God, by whose will you are professing to act; now who will ensure us that there may not be, some time hence, a vindictive inquisition, to find who among us have been the most ready of obedience to offer wicked insult to the Holy Catholic Apostolic Church? This deficiency of the moral power of the government, to promote the progress of conviction in the mind of the nation, would be slenderly supplied by the authority of the class next to the government in the claim to deference, and even holding the precedence in actual influence,--that is, the families of rank and consequence throughout the country. For the people well knew, in their respective neighborhoods, that many of these had never in reality forsaken the ancient religion, consulting only the policy of a time-serving conformity; and that some of them hardly attempted or wished to conceal from their inferiors that they preserved their fidelity. And then the substituted religion, while it came with a great diminution of the pomp which is always the delight of the ignorant, acknowledged,--proclaimed as one of its chief merits,--a still more fatal defect for attracting converts from among beings whose ignorance had never been suffered to doubt, till then, that men in ecclesiastical garb could modify, or suspend, or defeat for them the justice of God; it proclaimed itself unable to give any exemptions or commutations in matters of conscience. When such were the recommendations which the new mode of religion _not_, and when the recommendation which it _had_ was simply, (the royal authority set out of the question,) an offer of evidence to the understanding _that it was true_, no wonder that many of a generation so insensate through ignorance should never become its proselytes. But even as to those who did, while it was a happy deliverance, as we have said, to escape almost any way from the utter grossness of popery, still they would carry into their better faith much of the unhappy effect of that previous mental debasement. How should a man in the rudeness of an intellect left completely ignorant of truth in general, have a luminous apprehension of its most important division? There could not be in men's minds a phenomenon similar to what we image to ourselves of Goshen in the preternatural night of Egypt, a space of perfect light, defined out by a precise limit amidst the general darkness. Only consider, that the new ideas admitted into the proselyte's understanding as the true faith, were to take their situation there in nearly those very same encompassing circumstances of internal barbarism which had been so perfectly commodious to the superstition recently dwelling there; and that which had been favorable and adapted in the utmost degree, that which had afforded much of the sustenance of life, to the false notions, could not but be most adverse to the development of the true ones. These latter, so environed, would be in a condition too like that of a candle in the mephitic air of a vault. The newly adopted religion, therefore, of the uncultivated converts from popery, would be far from exhibiting, as compared with the renounced superstition, a magnitude of change, and force of contrast, duly corresponding to the difference between the lying vanities of priestcraft and a communication from the living God. The reign of ignorance combined with imposture had fixed upon the common people of the age of the Reformation, and of several generations downward, the doom of being incapable of admitting genuine Christianity but with an excessively inadequate apprehension of its attributes;--as in the patriarchal ages a man might have received with only the honors appropriate to a saint or prophet, the visitant in whom he was entertaining an angel unawares. Happy for both that ancient entertainer of such a visitant, and the ignorant but honest adopter of the reformed religion, when that which they entertained rewarded them according to its own celestial quality, rather than in proportion to their inadequate reception. We may believe that the Divine Being, in special compassion to that ignorance to which barbarism and superstition had condemned inevitably the greater number of the early converts to the reformed religion, did render that faith beneficial to them beyond the proportion of their narrow and still half superstitious conception of it. And this is, in truth, the consideration the most consolatory in looking back to that tenebrious period in which popery was slowly retiring, with a protracted exertion of all the craft and strength of an able and veteran tyrant contending to the last for prolonged dominion. It is, however, no consideration of a portion of the people sincere, inquiring, and emerging, though dimly enlightened, from the gloom of so dreary a scene, that is most apt to occur to our thoughts in extenuation of that gloom. Our unreflecting attention allows itself to be so engrossed by far different circumstances of that period of our history, that we are imposed upon by a spectacle the very opposite of mournful. For what is it but a splendid and animating exhibition that we behold in looking back to the age of Elizabeth? And _was_ not that, it may be asked, an age of the highest glory to our nation? Why repress our delight in contemplating it? How can we refuse to indulge an inspiring sympathy with the energy of those times, an elation of spirit at beholding the unparalleled allotment of her reign, of statesmen, heroes, and literary geniuses, but for whom, indeed, "that bright occidental star" would have left no such brilliant track of fame behind her? Permit us to answer by inquiring, What should the intellectual condition of the _people_, properly so denominated, have been in order to correspond in a due proportion to the magnificence of these their representative chiefs, and complete the grand spectacle as that of a _nation_? Determine that; and then inquire what actually _was_ the state of the people all this while. There is evidence that it was, what the fatal blight and blast of popery might be expected to have left it, generally and most wretchedly degraded. What it was is shown by the facts, that it was found impossible, even under the inspiring auspices of the learned Elizabeth, with her constellation of geniuses, orators, scholars, to supply the churches generally with officiating persons capable of going with decency through the task of the public service, made ready, as every part of it was, to their hands; and that to be able to read, was the very marked distinction of here and there an individual. It requires little effort but that of going low enough, to complete the general estimate in conformity to these and similar facts. And here we cannot help remarking what a deception we suffer to pass on us from history. It celebrates some period in a nation's career, as pre-eminently illustrious, for magnanimity, lofty enterprise, literature, and original genius. There was, perhaps, a learned and vigorous monarch, and there were Cecils and Walsinghams, and Shakspeares and Spensers, and Sidneys and Raleighs, with many other powerful thinkers and actors, to render it the proudest age of our national glory. And we thoughtlessly admit on our imagination this splendid exhibition as in some manner involving or implying the collective state of the people in that age! The ethereal summits of a tract of the moral world are conspicuous and fair in the lustre of heaven, and we take no thought of the immensely greater proportion of it which is sunk in gloom and covered with fogs. The general mass of the population, whose physical vigor, indeed, and courage, and fidelity to the interests of the country, were of such admirable avail to the purposes, and under the direction, of the mighty spirits that wielded their rough agency,--this great assemblage was sunk in such mental barbarism, as to be placed at about the same distance from their illustrious intellectual chiefs, as the hordes of Scythia from the finest spirits of Athens. It was nothing to this debased, countless multitude spread over the country, existing in the coarsest habits, destitute, in the proportion of thousands to one, of cultivation, and still in a great degree enslaved by the popish superstition,--it was nothing to them, in the way of direct influence to draw forth their minds into free exercise and acquirement, that there were, within the circuit of the island, a profound scholarship, a most disciplined and vigorous reason, a masculine eloquence, and genius breathing enchantment. Both the actual possessors of this mental opulence, and the part of society forming, around them, the sphere immediately pervaded by the delight and instruction imparted by them, might as well, for anything they diffused of this luxury and benefit among the general multitude, have been a Brahminical caste, dissociated by an imagined essential distinction of nature. While they were exulting in this elevation and free excursiveness of mental existence, the prostrate crowd were grovelling through a life on a level with the soil where they were at last to find their graves. But this crowd it was that constituted the substance of the _nation_; to which, nation, in the mass, the historian applies the superb epithets, which a small proportion of the men of that age claimed by a striking _exception_ to the general state of the community. History too much consults our love of effect and pomp, to let us see in a close and distinct manner anything "On the low level of th' inglorious throng;" and our attention is borne away to the intellectual splendor exhibited among the most favored aspirants of the seats of learning, or in councils, courts, and camps, in heroic and romantic enterprises, and in some immortal works of genius. And thus we are gazing with delight at a fine public bonfire, while, in all the cottages round, the people are shivering for want of fuel. Our history becomes very bright again with the intellectual and literary riches of a much later period, often denominated a golden age,--that which was illustrated by the talents of Addison, Pope, Swift, and their numerous secondaries in fame; and could also boast its philosophers, statesmen, and heroes. And in the lapse of four or five ages, according to the average term of human life, since the earlier grand display of mind, what had been effected toward such an advancement of intelligence in the community, that when this next tribe of highly endowed spirits should appear, they would stand in much loss opprobrious contrast to the main body of the nation, and find a much larger portion of it qualified to receive their intellectual effusions. By this time, the class of persons who sought knowledge on a wider scale than what sufficed for the ordinary affairs of life, who took an interest in literature, and constituted the _Authors' Public_, had indeed extended a little, extremely little, beyond the people of condition, the persons educated in learned institutions, and those whose professions involved some necessity, and might create some taste for reading. Still they _were a class_, and that with a limitation marked and palpable, to a degree very difficult for us now to conceive. They were in contact, on the one side, with the great thinkers, moralists, poets, and wits, but very slightly in communication with the generality of the people on the other. They received the emanations from the assemblage of talent and knowledge, but did not serve as conductors to convey them down indefinitely into the community. The national body, regarded in its intellectual character, had an inspirited and vigorous superior part, as constituted of these men of eminent talents and attainments, and this small class of persons in a measure assimilated to them in thinking and taste; but it was in a condition resembling that of a human frame in which, (through an injury in the spinal marrow,) some of the most important functions of vitality have terminated at some precise limit downward, leaving the inferior extremities devoid of sensation and the power of action. It is on record, that works admirably adapted to find readers and to make them, had but an extremely confined and slowly widening circulation, according to _our_ standard of the popular success of the productions of distinguished talents. Nor did the writers _reckon_ on any such popular success. In the calculations of their literary ambition, it was a thing of course that the people went for nothing. It is apparent in allusions to the people occurring in these very works, that "the lower sort," "the vulgar herd," "the canaille," "the mob," "the many-headed beast," "the million," (and even these designations generally meant something short of the lowest classes of all,) were no more thought of in any relation to a state of cultivated intelligence than Turks or Tartars. The readers are habitually recognized as a kind of select community, conversed with on topics and in a language with which the vulgar have nothing at all to do,--a converse the more gratifying on that account. And any casual allusions to the bulk of the people are expressed in phrases unaffectedly implying, that they are a herd of beings existing on quite other terms and for essentially other ends, than we, fine writers, and you, our admiring readers. It is evident in our literature of that age, (a feature still more prominent in that of France, at the same and down to a much later period,) that the main national population, accounted as creatures to which souls and senses were given just to render their limbs mechanically serviceable, were regarded by the intellectual aristocracy with hardly so active a sentiment as contempt; they were not worth that; it was the easy indifference toward what was seldom thought of as in existence. Wickedly wrong as such a feeling was, there is no doubt that the actual state of the people was quite such as would naturally cause it, in men whose large and richly cultivated minds did not contain philanthropy or Christian charity enough to regret and pity the popular debasement as a calamity. For while they were indulging their pride in the elevation, and their taste in all the luxuries and varieties, of that ampler higher range of existence enjoyed by such men, in what light must they view the bulk of a nation, that knew nothing of their wit, genius, or philosophy, could not even read their writings, but as a coarse mass of living material, the mere earthy substratum of humanity, not to be accounted of in any comparison or even relation to what man is in his higher style? While they of that higher style were revelling in their mental affluence, the vast majority of the inhabitants of the island were subsisting, and had always subsisted, on the most beggarly pittance on which mind could be barely kept alive. Probably they had at that time still fewer ideas than the people of the former age which we have been describing. For many of those with which popery had occupied the faith and fancy of that earlier generation, had now vanished from the popular mind, without being replaced in equal number by better ideas, or by ideas of any kind. And then their vices had the whole grossness of vice, and their favorite amusements were at best rude and boisterous, and a large proportion of them savage and cruel. So that when we look at the shining wits, poets, and philosophers, of that age, they appear like gaudy flowers growing in a putrid marsh. And to a much later period this deplorable ignorance, with all its appropriate consequences, continued to be the dishonor and the plague of the intellectual and moral condition of the inhabitants of England. Of England! which had through many centuries made so great a figure in Christendom; which has been so splendid in arms, liberty, legislation, science, and all manner of literature: which has boasted its universities, of ancient foundation and proudest fame, munificently endowed, and possessing, in their accumulations of literary treasure, nearly the whole results of all the strongest thinking there had been in the world: and which has had also, through the charity of individuals, such a number of minor institutions for education, that the persons intrusted to see them administered have, in very numerous instances, not scrupled to divert their resources to total different purposes, lest, perchance, the cause of damage to the people should change from a lack of knowledge to a repletion of it. Of England! so long after the Reformation, and all the while under the superintendence and tuition of an ecclesiastical establishment for both instruction and jurisdiction, co-extended with the entire nation, and furnished for its ministry with men from the discipline of institutions where everything the most important to be known was professed to be taught. Thus endowed had England been, thus was she endowed at the period under our review, (the former part of the last century,) with the facilities, the provisions, the great intellectual apparatus, to be wielded in any mode her wisdom might devise, and with whatever strength of hand she chose to apply, for promoting her several millions of rational, accountable, immortal beings, somewhat beyond a state of mere physical existence. When therefore, notwithstanding all this, an awful proportion of them were under the continual process of destruction for want of knowledge, what a tremendous responsibility was borne by whatever part of the community it was that stood, either by office and express vocation, or by the general obligation inseparable from ability, in the relation of guardianship to the rest. But here the voice of that sort of patriotism which is in vogue as well in England as in China, may perhaps interpose to protest against malicious and exaggerated invective. As if it were a question of what might beforehand be reasonably expected, instead of an account of what actually exists, it may be alleged that surely it is a representation too much against antecedent probability to be true, that a civilized, Christian, magnanimous, and wealthy state like that of England, can have been so careless and wicked as to tolerate, during the lapse of centuries, a hideously gross and degraded condition of the people. But besides that the fact is plainly so, it were vain to presume, in confidence on any supposed consistency of character, that it _must_ be otherwise. There is no saying _what_ a civilized and Christian nation, (so called,) may not tolerate. Recollect the Slave Trade, which, with the magnitude of a national concern, continued its abominations while one generation after another of Englishmen passed away; their intelligence, conscience, humanity, and refinement, as quietly accommodated to it, as if one portion of the race had possessed an express warrant from Heaven to capture, buy, sell, and drive another. This is but one of many mortifying illustrations how much the constitution of our moral sentiments resembles a Manichæan creation, how much of them is formed in passive submission to the evil principle, acting through prevailing custom; which determines that it shall but very partially depend on the real and most manifest qualities of things present to us, whether we shall have any right perception of their characters of good and evil. The agency which works this malformation in our sentiments needs no greater triumph, than that the true nature of things should be disguised to us by the very effect of their being constantly kept in our sight. Could any malignant enchanter wish for more than this,--to make us insensible to the odious quality of things not only _though_ they stand constantly and directly in our view, but _because_ they do so? And while they do so, there may also stand as obviously in our view, and close by them, the truths which _expose_ their real nature, and might be expected to make us instantly revolt from them; and these truths shall be no other than some of the plainest principles of reason and religion. It shall be as if men of wicked designs could be compelled to wear labels on their breasts wherever they go, to announce their character in conspicuous letters; or nightly assassins could be forced to carry torches before them, to reveal the murder in their visages; or, as if, according to a vulgar superstition, evil spirits could not help betraying their dangerous presence by a tinge of brimstone in the flame of the lamps. Thus evident, by the light of reason and religion, shall have been the true nature of certain important facts in the policy of a Christian nation; and nevertheless, even the cultivated part of that nation, during a series of generations, having directly before their sight an enormous nuisance and iniquity, shall yet never be struck with its quality, never be made restless by its annoyance, never seriously think of it. And so its odiousness shall never be decidedly apprehended till some individual or two, as by the acquisition of a new moral sense, receive a sudden intuition of its nature, a disclosure of its whole essence and malignity,--the essence and malignity of that very thing which has been exposing its quality, without the least reserve, by the most flagrant signs, to millions of observers. Thus it has been with respect to the barbarous ignorance under which nine-tenths of the population of our country have continued, through a number of ages subsequent to the Reformation, surrendered to everything low, vicious, and wretched. This state of national debasement and dishonor lay spread out, a wide scene of moral desolation, in the sight of statesmen, of dignified and subordinate ecclesiastics, of magistrates, of the philosophic speculators on human nature, and of all those whose rank and opulence brought them hourly proofs what great influence they might have, in any way in which, they should choose to exert it, on the people below them. And still it was all right that the multitudes, constituting the grand living agency through the realm, should remain in such a condition that, when they died, the country should lose nothing but so much animated body, with the quantum of vice which helped to keep it in action. When at length some were beginning to apprehend and proclaim that all this was wrong, these classes were exceedingly slow in their assent to the reformed doctrine. A large proportion of them even declared, on system, against the speculations and projects for giving the people, at last, the use and value of their souls as well as their hands. The earnest and sanguine philanthropists might be pardoned the simplicity of not foreseeing such an opposition, though they ought, perhaps, to have known better than to be surprised at the phenomenon. They were to be made wiser by force, with respect to men's governing prejudices and motives. And from credulity mortified is a short transit to suspicion. So ungracious a manner of having the insight into motives sharpened, does not tend to make its subsequent exercise indulgent, when it comes to inspect the altered appearances assumed by persons and classes who have previously been in decided opposition. What arguments have prevailed with you, (the question might be,) since you have never frankly retracted your former contempt of those which convinced _us_? May any sinister thought have occurred, that you might defeat our ends by a certain way of managing the means? Or do you hope to deter mine and limit to some subordinate purposes, what we wish to prosecute for the most general good? Or would you rather impose on yourselves the grievance of promoting an object which you dislike, than that we should have the chief credit of promoting it? Do you sometimes accompany your working in the vineyard with maledictions on those who have reduced you to such a necessity? Would you have been glad to be saved the unwelcome service by _their_ letting it alone? Those friends of man and their country who were the earliest to combine in schemes for enlightening the people, and who continue to prosecute the object on the most liberal and comprehensive principle, have to acknowledge surmises like these. Nevertheless, they are willing to forego any shrewd investigation into the causes of the later silence and apparent acquiescence of former opposers; and into the motives which have induced some of them, though in no very amicable mood, to take a part in measures tending in their general effect to the same end. Whatever were their suspicion of those motives, they would be reminded of an example, not altogether foreign to the nature of their business, and quite in point to their duty,--that of the magnanimous principle through which the great Apostle disappointed his adversaries, by finding his own triumph in that of his cause, while he saw that cause availing itself of these foes after the manner of some consummate general, who has had the art to make those who have come into the field as but treacherous auxiliaries, co-operate effectually in the battle which they never intended he should gain. Some preached Christ of envy, and strife, and contention, supposing to add affliction to his bonds; but, says he, What then? notwithstanding every way, whether in pretence or truth, Christ is preached--_the thing itself is done_--and I therein rejoice, yea, and will rejoice. When animated by this high principle, this ambition absolutely _for the cause itself_, its servant is a gainer, because _it_ is a gainer, by all things convertible into tribute, whatever may be the temper or intention of the officers, either as towards the cause or towards himself. He may say to them, I am more pleased by what you are actually doing, be the motive what it will, in advancement of the object to which I am devoted, than it is possible for you to aggrieve me by letting me see that you would not be sorry for the frustration of _my_ schemes and exertions for its service; or even by betraying, though I should lament such a state of your minds, that you would be content to sacrifice _it_ if that might be the way to defeat _me_. We revert but for a moment to the review of past times.--We said that long after the brilliant show of talent, and the creation of literary supplies for the national use, in the early part of the last century, the deplorable mental condition of the people remained in no very great degree altered. To pass from beholding that bright and sumptuous display, in order to see what there was corresponding to it in the subsequent state of the popular cultivation, is like going out from some magnificent apartment with its lustres, music, refections, and assemblage of elegant personages, to be beset by beggars in the gloom and cold of a winter night. Take a few hours' indulgence in the literary luxuries of Addison, Pope, and their secondaries, and then turn to some authentic plain representation of the attainments and habits of the mass of the people, at the time when Whitefield and Wesley commenced their invasion of the barbarous community. But the benevolent reader, (or let him be a patriotically proud one,) is quite reluctant to recognize his country, his celebrated Christian nation, "the most enlightened in the world," (as song and oratory have it,) in a populace for the far greater part as perfectly estranged from the page of knowledge, as if printing, or even letters, had never been invented; the younger part finding their supreme delight in rough frolic and savage sports, the old sinking down into impenetrable stupefaction with the decline of the vital principle. If he would eagerly seek to fix on something as a counterbalance to this, and endeavor to modify the estimate and relieve the feeling, by citing perhaps the courage, and a certain rudimental capacity of good sense, in which the people are deemed to have surpassed the neighboring nations, he will be compelled to see how these native endowments were overrun and befooled by a farrago of contemptible superstitions;--contemptible not only for their stupid absurdity, but also as having in general nothing of that pensive, solemn, and poetical character which superstition is capable of assuming.--It is an exception to be made with respect to the northernmost part of the island, that superstition did there partake of this higher character. It seems to have had somewhat of the tone imitated, but in a softer mode, in the poetry, denominated of Ossian. As to religion, there is no hazard in saying, that several millions had little further notion of it than that it was an occasional, or, in the opinion of perhaps one in twenty, a regular appearance at church, hardly taking into the account that they were to be taught anything there. And what _were_ they taught--those of them who gave their attendance and attention? What kind of notions it was that had settled in their minds under such ministration, would be, so to speak, brought out, it would be made apparent what they were or were not taught, when so strong and general a sensation was produced by the irruption among them of the two reformers just named, proclaiming, as they both did, (notwithstanding very considerable differences of secondary order,) the principles which had been authoritatively declared to be of the essence of Christianity, in that model of doctrine which had been appointed to prescribe and conserve the national faith. If such doctrine _had_ been imparted to a portion of the popular mind, even though with somewhat less positive statement, less copiousness of illustration, and less cogency of enforcement than it ought; if it had been but in crude _substance_ fixed in the people's understanding, by the ministry of the many thousand authorized instructors, who were by their institute solemnly enjoined and pledged not to teach a different sort of doctrine, and not to fail of teaching this; if, we repeat, this faith, so conspicuously declared in the articles, liturgy, and homilies, had been in any degree in possession of the people, they would have recognized its main principles, or at least a similarity of principles, in the addresses of these two new preachers. They would have done so, notwithstanding a peculiarity of phraseology which Whitefield and Wesley carried to excess; and notwithstanding certain specialities which the latter did not, even supposing them to be truths, keep duly subordinate in exhibiting the prominent essentials of Christianity. The preaching, therefore, of these men was a test of what the people had been previously taught or allowed to repose in as Christian truth, under the tuition of their great religious guardian, the national church. What it was or was not would be found, in their having a sense of something like what they had been taught before, or something opposite to it, or some thing altogether foreign and unknown, when they were hearing those loud proclaimers of the old doctrines of the Reformation. Now then, as carrying with them this quality of a test, how were those men received in the community? Why, they were generally received, on account of the import of what they said, still more than from their zealous manner of saying it, with as strong an impression of novelty, strangeness, and contrariety to everything hitherto heard of, as any of our voyagers and travellers of discovery have been by the barbarous tribes who had never before seen civilized man, or as the Spaniards on their arrival in Mexico or Peru. They might, as the voyagers have clone, experience every local difference of moral temperament, from that which hailed them with acclamations, to that which often exploded in a volley of mud and stones; but through all these varieties of greetings, there was a strong sense of something then brought before them for the first time. "Thou bringest certain strange things to our ears," was an expression not more unaffectedly uttered by any hearer of an apostle, preaching in a heathen city. And to many of the auditors, it was a matter of nearly as much difficulty as it would to an inquisitive heathen, and required as new a posture of the mind, to attain an understanding of the evangelical doctrines, though they were the very same which had been held forth by the fathers and martyrs of the English Church. We have alluded to the violence, which sometimes encountered the endeavor to restore these doctrines to the knowledge and faith of the people. And if any one should have thought that, in the descriptions we have been giving, too frequent and willing use has been made of the epithet "barbarous," or similar words, as if we could have a perverse pleasure in degrading our nation, we would request him to select for himself the appropriate terms for characterizing that state of the people, in point of sense and civilization, to say nothing of religion, which could admit such a fact as this to stand in their history--namely, that, in a vast number of instances and places, where some person unexceptionable in character as far as known, and sometimes well known as a worthy man, has attempted to address a number of the inhabitants, under a roof or under the sky, on what it imported them beyond all things in the world to know and consider, a multitude have rushed together, shouting and howling, raving and cursing, and accompanying, in many of the instances, their furious cries and yells with loathsome or dangerous missiles; dragging or driving the preacher from his humble stand, forcing him, and the few that wished to encourage and hear him, to flee for their lives, sometimes not without serious injury before they could escape. And that such a history of the people may show how deservedly their superiors were denominated their "betters," it has to add, that these savage tumults were generally instigated or abetted, sometimes under a little concealment, but often avowedly, by persons of higher condition, and even by those consecrated to the office of religious instruction; and this advantage of their station was lent to defend the perpetrators against shame, or remorse, or just punishment, for the outrage. There would be no hazard in affirming, that since Wesley and Whitefield began the conflict with the heathenism of the country, there have been in it hundreds of occurrences answering in substance to this description. From any one, therefore, who should be inclined to accuse us of harsh language, we may well repeat the demand in what terms _he_ would think he gave the true character of a mental and moral condition, manifested in such uproars of savage violence as the Christian missionaries among eastern idolaters never had the slightest cause to apprehend. These outrages were so far from uncommon, or confined to any one part of the country, some time before, and for a very long while after, the middle of the last century, that they might be fairly taken as indicating the depth at which the greatest part of the nation lay sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Yet the good and zealous men whose lot it was to be thus set upon by a depraved, infuriate rabble, the foremost of them active in direct assault, and the rest venting their ferocious delight in a hideous blending of ribaldry and execration, of joking and cursing, were taxed with a canting hypocrisy, or a fanatical madness, for speaking of the prevailing ignorance and barbarism in terms equivalent to our sentence from the Prophet, "The people are destroyed for lack of knowledge," and for deploring the hopelessness of any revolution in this empire of darkness by means of the existing institutions, which seemed indeed to have become themselves its strong-holds. But they whom serious danger could not deter from renewing and indefinitely repeating such attempts at all hazards, were little likely to be appalled by these contumelies of speech. To the persons so abusing them they might coolly reply, "Now really you are inconsiderately wasting your labor. Don't you know, that on the account of this same business we have sustained the battery of stones, brickbats, and the contents of the ditch? And can you believe we can much care for mere _words_ of insult, after that? Albeit the opprobrious phrases _have_ the fetid coarseness befitting the bluster of property without education, or the more highly inspirited tone of railing learnt in a college, they are quite another kind of thing to be the mark for, than such assailments as have come from the brawny arms of some of your peasants, set on probably by broad hints or plain expressions how much you would be pleased with such exploits."--It is gratifying to see thus exemplified, in the endurance of evil for a good cause, that provision in our nature for economizing the expense of feeling, through which the encountering of the greater creates a hardihood which can despise the less. * * * * * That our descriptive observations do not exaggerate the popular ignorance, with its natural concomitants, as prevailing at the middle of the last century and far downward, many of the elderly persons among us can readily confirm, from what they remember of the testimony of their immediate ancestors. It will be recollected what pictures they gave of the moral scene spread over the country when they were young. They could convey lively images of the situations in which the vulgar notions and manners had their free display, by representing the assemblages, and the fashion of discourse and manners, at fairs, revels, and other rendezvous of amusement; or in the field of rural employment, or on the village green, or in front of the mechanic's workshop. They could recount various anecdotes characteristic of the times; and repeat short dialogues, or single sayings, which expressed the very essence of what was to the population of the township or province instead of law and prophets, or sages or apostles. They could describe how free from all sense of shame whole families would seem to be, from grand-sires down to the third rude reckless generation, for not being able to read; and how well content, when there was some one individual in the neighborhood who could read an advertisement, or ballad, or last dying speech of a malefactor, for the benefit of the rest. They could describe the desolation of the land, with respect to any enlightening and impressive religious instruction in the places of worship; in the generality of which, indeed, the whole spirit and manner of the service tended to what we just now described as the fact--that religion, in its proper sense, was absolutely _a thing not recognized at all_. To most of the persons there the forms attended to were _representative_ of literally nothing--they were _themselves_ the all. [Footnote: None of the anecdotes, that have come down in traditions now fading away, are more illustrative of those times, than those which show both people and priest satisfied with the observances at church as _constituting_ religion, never thinking of them as but the means to _teach_ and _inspire_ it. Such anecdotes must have been heard by every one who has conversed much with such aged persons as remember the most of former times. Some traditions of this kind may be recalled to mind, through similarity of character, by hearing such an instance as the following. A friend of the writer mentions, that he heard his father, whose veracity was above all question, relate as one of the recollections of the time when he was a young man, that in the parish church where he attended, the service was one Sunday morning performed with a somewhat unusual despatch, and every abbreviation that depended on the discretion of the minister; who at the conclusion explained the circumstance publicly, by saying, that as neighbor such-a-one (mentioning the name) was going to bait his bull in the afternoon, he had been as short as possible that the congregation might have good time for the sport.--It is on the same principle that the Catholics on the continent, having attended mass in the morning, never think of doubting their license for every frivolity the rest of the day.] And as to those who really did in the course of their attendance acquire something assignable as their creed, our supposed reporters could tell what wretched and delusive notions of religion, or rather instead of religion, they were permitted and authorized, by their appointed spiritual guides, to carry with them to their last hour. At which hour, some ceremonial form was to be a passport to heaven: a little bread and wine, converted into a mysterious object of superstition, by receiving an ecclesiastical name of unknown import, accompanied with some sentences regarded much in the nature of an incantation--and all was safe! The sinner expiring believed so, and the sinners surviving were left to go on in their thoughtless way of life, on a calculation of the same final resource. Thus the past age has left an image of its character in the minds of the generation now themselves grown old, received by immediate tradition from persons who lived in it. Here and there, indeed, there still lingers, so long after the departure of the great company to which he belonged, an ancient who retains a trace of this image immediately from the reality, as having become of an age to look at the world, and take a share in its activities, about the middle of the last century. [Footnote: They are here supposed to be looking back from about the year 1820.] And it might be an employment of considerable though rather melancholy interest, for a person visiting many parts of the land, to put in requisition, in each place, for a day or two, the most faithful of the memories of the most narrative of the oldest people, for materials toward forming an estimate of the mental and moral state of the main body of the inhabitants, of town or country, in the period of which they themselves saw the latter part, and remember it in combination with what their progenitors related of the former. After these few retainers of the original picture from the life shall have left the world, it will be comparatively a faint conception that can be formed of that age from written memorials, which exist but in a very imperfect and scattered state. But supposing the scene could be brought back to the mental eye, in full verity and distinctness, as in a vision supernaturally imparted, are we sure we should not have the mortification of perceiving that the change, from the condition of the people then to their condition now, has been in but poor proportion to the amount of the advantages, which we are apt to be elated in recounting as the boast and happiness of later times? To assume that we should _not_, is to impute to that former age still more ignorance and debasement than appear in the above description. For what could, what must that condition have been, if it was worse than the present by anything near the difference made by what would be a tolerably fair improvement of the additional means latterly afforded? An estimate being made of the measure of intelligence and worth found among the descendants, let so much be taken out as we would wish to attribute to the effect of the additional means, and what will that remainder be which is to represent the state of the ancestors, formed under a system of means wanting all those which we are allowing ourselves to think important enough to warrant the frequent expression, "This new era?" The means wanting to the former generation, and that have sprung into existence for the latter, may be briefly noted; and those of a religious nature may be named first. It is the most obvious of public expedients, that good men who wish to make others _so should preach_ to them. And there has been a wonderful extension of this practice since the zealous exertions of Whitefield, Wesley, and their co-operators awakened other good men to a sense of their capacity and duty. The spirit actuating the associated followers of the latter of those two great agitators, has impelled forth their whole disposable force (to use a military phrase) to this service; and they have sent preachers into many parts of the land where preaching itself, in any fair sense of the term, was wholly a novelty; and where there was roused as earnest a zeal to crush this alarming innovation, as the people of Iceland are described to feel on the occasion of the approach of a white bear to invade their folds or poorly stocked pastures. [Footnote: The writer had just been reading that description.] To a confederacy of Christians so well aware of their own strength and progress, it may seem a superfluous testimony that they are doing incalculable good among our population, more good probably than any other religious sect. This tribute is paid not the less freely for a material difference in theological opinion; nor for a wish, a quite friendly one, that they may admit some little modification of a spirit perhaps rather too sectarian in religion, and rather less than independent in politics. An immense augmentation has been brought to the sum of public instruction, by the continually enlarging numbers of dissenters of other denominations. Whatever may be thought of some of the consequences of the great extension of dissent, it will hardly be considered as a circumstance tending to prolong the reign of _ignorance_ that thus, within the last fifty years, there have been put in activity to impart religious ideas to the people not fewer (exclusively of the Wesleyans) than several thousand minds that would, under a continuance of the former state of the nation, have been doing no such service; that is to say, the service would not have been done at all. Let it be considered, too, that the doctrines inculcated as of the first importance, in the preaching of far the greatest number of them, were exactly those which the Established Church avowed in its formularies and disowned in its ministry,--one of the circumstances which contributed the most to _make_ dissenters of the more seriously disposed among the people.--It is to be added, that so much public activity in religious instruction could not be unaccompanied by an increase of exertion in the more private methods of imparting it. It is another important accession to the enlarged system of operations against religious ignorance, that a proportion of the Established Church itself has been recovered to the spirit of its venerable founders, by the progressive formation in it of a zealous evangelical ministry; dissenters within their own community, if we may believe the constant loud declarations of the bulk of that community, and especially of the most dignified, learned, and powerful classes in it. But in spite of whatever discredit they may suffer from being thus disowned, these worthy and useful men have still, in their character of clergymen, a material advantage above other faithful teachers, for influence on many of the people, by being invested with the credentials of the ancient institution, from which the popular mind has been slow and reluctant in withdrawing its veneration; and for which that sentiment, when not quite extinct, is ready to revive at any manifestation in it of the quickening spirit of the Gospel. We say, if the sentiment be not quite extinct; for we are aware what a very large proportion of the people are gone beyond the possibility of feeling it any more. But still the number is great of those who experience, at this new appearance, a reanimation of their affection for the Church; and so fondly identify the partial change with the whole institution, that they feel as if a parent, who had for a long while neglected or deserted them, but for whom they could never cease to cherish a filial regard, were beginning to be restored to them, with a renewal of the benignant qualities and cares of the parental character. * * * * * Thus far the account of the means which England was not to furnish for its people till the latter part of the eighteenth century, relates to their better instruction in religion. This will not be thought beside the purpose of an enumeration of expedients for lessening their _ignorance_, by any one who can allow that religion, regarded as a subject of the understanding, is the most important part of knowledge, and who has observed the fact that religion, when it begins to _interest_ uncultivated minds, works surprisingly in favor of the intellectual faculties; an effect exactly the reverse of that of superstition, and produced by the contrary operation; for while superstition represses, and even curses any free action of the intellect, genuine religion both requires and excites it. Though it is too true that the great Christian principles, when embraced with conviction and seriousness by a very uneducated man, must greatly partake, by contractedness of apprehension, the ill fortune which has confined his mental growth, yet they will often do more than any other thing within the same space of time to avenge him of it. In addition to the great extension of instruction in a form specifically religious, there have been various causes and means contributing to the increase of knowledge among the people. After it had been seen for centuries in what manner the children of the poor were suffered to spend the Sunday, it struck one observer at last, that they might on that day be taught to read!--a possibility which had never been suspected; a disclosure as of some hitherto hidden power of nature. And then the schools which taught the children to read made some of the parents so much better pleased with their children for their first steps in so new an attainment, that they could not be indifferent to the opening of other schools of a humble order to continue that instruction through the week. It was within the same period that there was a large circulation of tracts, by some of which many who might be little desirous of instruction, were beguiled into it by the amusing vehicle ingeniously contrived to convey it; and the most popular of which will remain a monument of the talent, knowledge, and benevolence, of that distinguished benefactor of her country and age, Mrs. H. More, perhaps even pre-eminent above her many excellent works in a higher strain. Later and continual issues of this class of papers, of every diversity of composition, and diffused by the activity of numberless hands, have solicited perhaps a fourth part of the thoughtless beings in the nation to make at least one short effort to think. The enormous flight of periodical miscellanies, and of newspapers, must be taken as both the indication and the cause that hundreds of thousands of persons were giving some attention to the matters of general information, where their grandfathers had been, during the intervals of time allowed by their employments, prating, brawling, sleeping, or drinking their hours away. [Footnote: Since this was written there has been a prodigious augmentation of all such means of general excitement; and happily a diversified multiplication of a class of them calculated to benefit the inferior people, at once by giving them a new and enlarged range of ideas, and by bringing them on some tracts of common ground with the liberally educated; thus abating the former almost total incapacity, on the part of those inferiors, for intelligent intercommunication.] It is perhaps an item of some small value in the account, that a new class of ideas was furnished by the many wonderful effects of science, in the application of the elements and mechanical powers. The people saw human intelligence so effectually inspiriting inanimate matter, as to create a new and mighty order of agency, appearing in a certain degree independent of man himself, and in its power immensely surpassing any simple immediate exertion of _his_ power. They saw wood and iron, fire, water, and air, actuated to the production of effects which might vie with what their rude ancestors had been accustomed to believe, (those of them who had heard of such beings,) of giants, magicians, alchymists, and monsters; effects, the dream of which, if any one could so have dreamed, would have been scoffed at by even the more intelligent of the former race. It is true that very ignorant persons can wonder at such things without deriving much instruction from them; and that much sooner than the more cultivated ones they become so familiarized with them as not to think of them. All _effects_, however astonishing, are apt, if they are but regular in their recurrence, to become soon insignificant to those who have never learnt to inquire into _causes_. But still, it would be some little advantage to the people's understanding to see what prodigious effects could be produced without any preternatural interference. Though not comprehending the science employed, they could comprehend that what they saw _was_ purely a matter of science, and that the cause and the effect were natural and definite; unlike the present race of Egyptians, who not long since regarded the very mechanics of an European as an operation of magic; and were capable of suspecting that a machine constructed by a man from England, for raising water from the Nile, should inundate the country in an hour. These wonders of science and art must therefore have contributed somewhat to rid our people of the impression of being at every turn beset by occult powers, under the name perhaps of witchcraft, and to expel the notions of a vague and capricious agency interfering and sporting with events throughout the system around them. Their rationality thus obtained an improvement, which may be set against the injury undoubtedly done them through that diminished exercise of the understanding which accompanied the progressive division of labor; an alteration rendered inevitable, and in other respects so advantageous. When we come down to a comparatively recent time, we see the Bible "going up on the breadth of the land." In passing by any given number of houses of the inferior class, we may presume there are in them four or five times as many copies of that sacred book as there were in the same number thirty or forty years since. And when we consider how many more persons in those houses can read, and that in some of them the book may be _more_ read for having come there as a novelty, than it is in many others where it has been an old article of the furniture, we may fairly presume that the increased reading is in a greater proportion than the increased number of Bibles.--This late period has also brought into action a new expedient, worthy to stand, in the province of education, parallel and rival to the most useful modern inventions in the mechanical departments; an organization for schools, by which, instead of one or two overlabored agents upon a mass of reluctant subjects, that whole mass itself shall be animated into a system of reciprocal agency. It has all the merit of a contrivance which associates with mental labor a pleasure never known to young learners before. One more distinction of our times has been, that effect which missionary and other philanthropic societies have had, to render familiar to common knowledge, by means of their meetings and publications, a great number of such interesting and important facts, in the state of other countries and our own, as were formerly quite beyond the sphere of ordinary information. In aid of all these means at work in the trial to raise the people from the condition in which they had been so many ages sunk and immovable, there has been of late years the unpretending but important ministration of an incessant multifarious inventiveness in making almost every sort of information offer itself in brief, familiar, and attractive forms, adapted to youth or to adult ignorance; so that knowledge, which was formerly a thing to be searched and dug for "as for hid treasures," has seemed at last beginning to effloresce through the surface of the ground on all sides of us. The statement of what recent times have produced for effecting an alteration among the people, must include the prodigious excitement in the political world. It were absurd, it is true, to name this in the simple character of a _cause_, when we speak of the rousing of the popular mind from a long stagnation; it being itself a proof and result of some preceding cause beginning to pervade and disturb that stagnation. But whatever may be assigned as the true and sufficient explanation of its origin, we have to look on the mighty operation of its progress, forcing a restlessness, instability, and tendency to change, into almost every part of the social economy. In the whole compass of time there has been no train of events, that has within so short a period stirred to the very bottom the mind of so vast a portion of the race. And the power of this great commotion has less consisted in what may be termed its physical energy, evinced in grand exploits and catastrophes, than in its being an intense activity of _principles_. It was as different from other convulsions in the moral world, as would be a tempest attributed to the direct intervention of a mighty spirit, whether believed celestial or infernal, from one raised in the elements by mere natural causes. The people were not, as in other instances of battles, revolutions, and striking alternations of fortune, gazing a at mere show of wonderful events, but regarded these events as the course of a great practical debate of questions affecting their own interests. And now, when we have put all these things together, we may well pause to indulge again our wonder what _could_ have been the mental situation of a majority of the inhabitants of this country, antecedently to this creation and conjunction of so many means and influences for awaking them to something of an intelligent existence. Section III. The review of the past may here be terminated. And how welcome a change it would be if we might here completely emerge from the gloom which has overspread it. How happy were it if in proceeding to an estimate of the people of the present times, we found so rich a practical result of the means for forming a more enlightened race, that we should have no further recollection of that sentence from the Prophet, which has hitherto suggested itself again at every step in prosecution of the survey. But we are compelled to see how slow is the progress of mankind toward thus rendering obsolete any of the darker lines of the sacred record. So completely, so desperately, had the whole popular body and being been pervaded by the stupifying power of the long reign of ignorance, with such heavy reluctance, at the best, does the human mind open its eyes to admit light,--and so incommensurate as yet, even on the supposition of its having much less of this reluctance, has been in quantity the whole new supply of means for a happy change,--that a most melancholy spectacle still abides before us. Time, in sweeping away successive generations, has preserved, in substance, the sad inheritance to that which is as yet the latest. Even that portion of beneficial effect which actually has resulted from this co-operation of new forces, has served to make a more obvious exposure of the unhappiness and offensiveness of what is still the condition of the far greater part of our population; as a dreary waste is made, to give a more sensible impression how dreary it is, by the little inroads of cultivation and beauty in its hollows, and the faint advances of an unwonted green upon its borders. The degradation of the main body of the lower classes is exposed by a comparison with the small reclaimed portion within those classes themselves. It is not with the philosophers, literati, and most accomplished persons in higher life, that we should think of placing in immediate comparison the untutored rustics and workmen in stones and timber, for the purpose of showing how much is wanting to them. These extreme orders of society would seem less related in virtue of their common nature, than separated by the wide disparity of its cultivation. They would appear so immeasurably asunder, such antipodes in the sphere of human existence, that the state of the one could afford no standard for judging of the defects or wants of the other. It was not in a speculation which amused itself, as with a curious fact, in seeing that the same material can be made into scholars, legislators, sages, and models of elegance--and also into helots; and then went into a fanciful question of how near they might possibly be brought together: it was in a speculation which, instead of dwelling on the view of what was impossible to the common people in a comparative reference to the highest classes of their fellow-men, considered what was left practicable to them within their own narrow allotment, that the schemes originated which have actually imparted to a proportion of them an invaluable share of the benefits of knowledge. There has thus been formed a small improved order of people amidst the multitude; and it is the contrast between these and the general state of that multitude that most directly exposes the popular debasement. It certainly were ridiculous enough to fix on a laboring man and his family, and affect to deplore that he is doomed not to behold the depths and heights of science, not to expatiate over the wide field of history, not to luxuriate among the delights, refinements, and infinite diversities of literature; and that his family are not growing up in a training to every high accomplishment, after the pattern of some family in the neighborhood, favored by fortune, and high ability and cultivation in those at their head. But it is a quite different thing to take this man and his family, hardly able, perhaps, even to read, and therefore sunk in all the grossness of ignorance,--and compare them with another man and family in the same sphere of life, but who have received the utmost improvement within the reach of that situation, and are sensible of its value; who often employ the leisure hour in reading, (sometimes socially and with intermingled converse,) some easy work of instruction or innocent entertainment; are detached, in the greatest degree that depends on their choice, from society with the absolute vulgar; have learnt much decorum of manners; can take an intelligent interest in the great events of the world; and are prevented, by what they read and hear, from forgetting that there is another world. It is, we repeat, after thus seeing what may, and in particular instances does exist, in a humble condition, that we are compelled to regard as really a dreadful spectacle the still prevailing state of our national population. We shall endeavor to exhibit, though on a small scale, and perhaps not with a very strict regularity of proportion and arrangement, a faithful representation of the most serious of the evils conspicuous in an uneducated state of the people. Much of the description and reflections must be equally applicable to other countries; for spite of all their mutual antipathies and hostilities, and numberless contrarieties of customs and fashions, they have been wonderfully content to resemble one another in the worst national feature, a deformed condition of their people. But it is here at home that this condition is the most painfully forced on our attention; and here also of all the world it is, that such a wretched exhibition is the severest reproach to the nation for having suffered its existence. The subject is to the last degree unattractive, except to a misanthropic disposition; or to that, perhaps, of a stern theological polemic, when tempted to be pleased with every superfluity of evidence for overwhelming the opposers of the doctrine which asserts the radical corruption of our nature. As spread over a coarse and repulsive moral and physical scenery, it is a subject in the extreme of contrast with that susceptibility of magnificent display, on account of which some of the most cruel evils that have preyed on mankind have ever been favorite themes with writers ambitious to shine in description. Nor does it present a wild and varying spectacle, where a crowd of fantastic shapes (as in a view of the pagan superstitions,) may stimulate and beguile the imagination though we know we are looking on a great evil. It is a gloomy monotony; Death without his dance. Moreover, the representation which exhibits one large class degraded and unhappy, reflects ungraciously, and therefore repulsively, by an imputation of neglect of duty, on the other classes who are called upon to look at the spectacle. There is, besides, but little power of arresting the attention in a description of familiar matter of fact, plain to every one's observation. Yet ought it not to be so much the better, when we are pleading for a certain mode of benevolent exertion, that every one can see, and that no one can deny, the sad reality of all that forms the object, and imposes the duty, of that exertion? Look, then, at the neglected ignorant class in their childhood and youth. One of the most obvious circumstances is the _perfect non-existence in their minds of any notion or question what their life is for, taken as a whole._ Among a crowd of trifling and corrupting ideas that soon find a place in them, there is never the reflective thought,--For what purpose am I alive? What is it that I should be, more than the animal that I am? Does it signify _what_ I may be?--But surely, it is with ill omen that the human creature advances into life without such a thought. He should in the opening of his faculties receive intimations, that something more belongs to his existence than what he is about to-day, and what he may be about to-morrow. He should be made aware that the course of activity he is beginning ought to have a leading principle of direction, some predominant aim, a general and comprehensive purpose, paramount to the divers particular objects he may pursue. It is not more necessary for him to understand that he must in some way be employed in order to live, than to be apprized that life itself, that existence itself, is of no value but as a mere capacity of something which he should realize, and of which he may fail. He should be brought to apprehend that there is a something essential for him to _be_, which he will not _become_ merely by passing from one day into another, by eating and sleeping, by growing taller and stronger, seizing what share he can of noisy sport, and performing appointed portions of work; and that if he do _not_ become that which, he _cannot_ become without a general and leading purpose, he will be worthless and unhappy. We are not entertaining the extravagant fancy that it is possible, except in some rare instances of premature thoughtfulness, to turn inward into deep habitual reflection, the spirit that naturally goes outward in these vivacious, active, careless beings, when we assert that it _is_ possible to teach many of them with a degree of success, in very juvenile years, to apprehend and admit somewhat of such a consideration. We have many times seen this exemplified in fact. We have found some of them appearing apprized that _life is for something as a whole_; and that, to answer this general purpose, a mere succession of interests and activities, each gone into for its own sake, will not suffice. They could comprehend, that the multiplicity of interests and activities in detail, instead of constituting of themselves the purpose of life, were to be regarded as things subordinate and subservient to a general scope, and judged of, selected, and regulated, in reference and amenableness to it.--By the presiding comprehensive purpose, we do not specifically and exclusively mean a direction of the mind to the _religious_ concern, viewed as a separate affair, and in _contradistinction_ to other interests; but a purpose formed upon a collective notion of the person's interests, which shall give one general right bearing to the course of his life; an aim proceeding in fulfilment of a scheme, that comprehends and combines with the religious concern all the other concerns for the sake of which it is worth while to dispose the activities of life into a _plan_ of conduct, instead of leaving them to custom and casualty. The scheme will look and guide toward ultimate felicity: but will at the same time take large account of what must be thought of, and what may be hoped for, in relation to the present life. Now, we no more expect to find any such idea of a presiding purpose of life, than we do the profoundest philosophical reflection, in the minds of the uneducated children and youth. They think nothing at all about their existence and life in any moral or abstracted or generalizing reference whatever. They know not any good that it is to have been endowed with a rational rather than a brute nature, excepting that it affords more diversity of action, and gives the privilege of tyrannizing over brutes. They think nothing about what they shall become, and very little about what shall become of them. There is nothing that tells them of the relations for good and evil, of present things with future and remote ones. The whole energy of their moral and intellectual nature goes out as in brute instinct on present objects, to make the most they can of them for the moment, taking the chance for whatever may be next. They are left totally devoid even of the thought, that what they are doing is the beginning of a life as an important adventure for good or evil; their whole faculty is engrossed in the doing of it; and whether it signify anything to the next ensuing stage of life, or to the last, is as foreign to any calculation of theirs, as the idea of reading their destiny in the stars. Not only, therefore, is there an entire preclusion from their minds of the faintest hint of a monition, that they should live for the grand final object pointed to by religion, but also, for the most part, of all consideration of the attainment of a reputable condition and character in life. The creature endowed with faculties for "large discourse, looking before and after," capable of so much design, respectability, and happiness, even in its present short stage, and entering on an endless career, is seen in the abasement of snatching, as its utmost reach of purpose, at the low amusements, blended with vices, of each passing day; and cursing its privations and tasks, and often also the sharers of those privations, and the exactors of those tasks. When these are grown up into the mass of mature population, what will it be, as far as their quality shall go toward constituting the quality of the whole? Alas! it will be, to that extent, just a continuation of the ignorance, debasement, and misery, so conspicuous in the bulk of the people now. And to _what_ extent? Calculate _that_ from the unquestionable fact that hundreds of thousands of the human beings in our land, between the ages, say of six and sixteen, are at this hour thus abandoned to go forward into life at random, as to the use they shall make of it,--if, indeed, it can be said to be at random, when there is strong tendency and temptation to evil, and no discipline to good. Looking at this proportion, does any one think there will be, on the whole, wisdom and virtue enough in the community to render this black infusion imperceptible or innoxious? But are we accounting it absolutely inevitable that the sequel must be in full proportion to this present fact,--_must_ be everything that this fact threatens, and _can_ lead to,--as we should behold persons carried down in a mighty torrent, where all interposition is impossible, or as the Turks look at the progress of a conflagration or an epidemic? It is in order to "frustrate the tokens" of such melancholy divination, to arrest something of what a destructive power is in the act of carrying away, to make the evil spirit find, in the next stages of his march, that all his enlisted host have not followed him, and to quell somewhat of the triumph of his boast, "My name is legion, for we are many;"--it is for this that the friends of improvement, and of mankind, are called upon for efforts greatly beyond those which are requisite for maintaining in its present extent of operation the system of expedients for intercepting, before it be too late, the progress of so large a portion of the youthful tribe toward destruction. Another obvious circumstance in the state of the untaught class is, _that they are abandoned, in a direct, unqualified manner, to seize recklessly whatever they can of sensual gratification_. The very narrow scope to which their condition limits them in the pursuit of this, will not prevent its being to them the most desirable thing in existence, when there are so few other modes of gratification which they either are in a capacity to enjoy, or have the means to obtain. By the very constitution of the human nature, the mind seems half to belong to the senses, it is so shut within them, affected by them, dependent on them for pleasure, as well as for activity, and impotent but through their medium. And while, by this necessary hold which they have on what would call itself a spiritual being, they absolutely will engross to themselves, as of clear right, a large share of its interest and exercise, they will strive to possess themselves of the other half too. And they will have it, if it has not been carefully otherwise claimed and pre-occupied. And when the senses have thus usurped the whole mind for their service, how will you get any of it back? Try, if you will, whether this be a thing so easy to be done. Present to the minds so engrossed with the desires of the senses, that their main action is but in these desires and the contrivances how to fulfil them,--offer to their view nobler objects, which are appropriate to the spiritual being, and observe whether that being promptly shows a sensibility to the worthier objects, as congenial to its nature, and, obsequious to the new attraction, disengages itself from what has wholly absorbed it. Nor would we require that the experiment be made by presenting something of a precisely religious nature, to which there is an innate aversion on account of its _divine_ character, separately from its being an intellectual thing,--an aversion even though the mental faculties _be_ cultivated. It may be made with something that ought to have power to please the mind as simply a being of intelligence, imagination, and sentiment,--a pleasure which, in some of its modes, the senses themselves may intimately partake; as when, for instance, it is to be imparted by something beautiful or grand in the natural world, or in the works of art. Let this refined solicitation be addressed to the grossly uncultivated, in competition with some low indulgence--with the means, for example, of gluttony and inebriation. See how the subjects of your experiment, (intellectual and moral natures though they are,) answer to these respective offered gratifications. Observe how these more dignified attractives encounter and overpower the meaner, and reclaim the usurped, debased spirit. Or rather, observe whether they can avail for more than an instant, so much as to divide its attention. But indeed you can foresee the result so well, that you may spare the labor. Still less could you deem it to be of the nature of an experiment, (which implies uncertainty,) to make the attempt with ideal forms of nobleness or beauty, with intellectual, poetical, or moral captivations. Yet this addiction to sensuality, beyond all competition of worthier modes and means of interest, does not altogether refuse to admit of some division and diversion of the vulgar feelings, in favor of some things of a more mental character, provided they be vicious. A man so neglected in his youth that he cannot spell the names of Alexander, Cæsar, or Napoleon, or read them if he see them spelt, may feel the strong incitement of ambition. This, instead of raising him, may only propel him forward on the level of his debased condition and society; and it is a favorable supposition that makes him "the best wrestler on the green," or a manful pugilist; for it is probable his grand delight may be, to indulge himself in an oppressive, insolent arrogance toward such as are unable to maintain a strife with him on terms of fair rivalry, making his will the law to all whom he can force or frighten into submission. Coarse sensuality admits, again, an occasional competition of the gratifications of cruelty; a flagrant characteristic, generally, of uncultivated degraded human creatures, both where the whole community consists of such, as in barbarian and savage tribes, and where they form a large portion of it, as in this country.--It is hardly worth while to put in words the acknowledgment of the obvious and odious fact, that a considerable share of mental attainment is sometimes inefficient to extinguish, or even repress, this infernal principle of human nature, by which it is gratifying to witness and inflict suffering, even separately from any prompting of revenge. But why do we regard such examples as peculiarly hateful, and brand them with the most intense reprobation, but _because_ it is judged the fair and natural tendency of mental cultivation to repress that principle, insomuch that its failure to do so is considered as evincing a surpassing virulence of depravity? Every one is ready with the saying of the ancient poet, that liberal acquirements suppress ferocious propensities. But if the whole virtue of such discipline may prove insufficient, think what must be the consequence of its being almost wholly withheld, so that the execrable propensity may go into action with its malignity unmitigated, unchecked, by any remonstrance of feeling or taste, or reason or conscience. And such a consequence is manifest in the lower ranks of our self-extolled community; notwithstanding a diminution, which the progress of education and religion has slowly effected, in certain of the once most favorite and customary practices of cruelty; what we might denominate the classic games of the rude populace. These very practices, nevertheless, still keep their ground in some of the more heathenish parts of the country; and if it were possible, that the more improved notions and taste of the more respectable classes could admit of any countenance being given to their revival in the more civilized parts, it would be found that, even there, a large portion of the people is to this hour left in a disposition which would welcome the return of savage exhibitions. It may be, that some of the most atrocious forms and degrees of cruelty would not please the greater number of them; there have been instances in which an English populace has shown indignation at extreme and _unaccustomed_ perpetrations, sometimes to the extent of cruelly revenging them; very rarely, however, when only brute creatures have been the sufferers. Not many would be delighted with such scenes as those which, in the _Place de Grève_, used to be a gratification to a multitude of all ranks of the Parisians. But how many odious facts, characteristic of our people, have come under every one's observation. Who has not seen numerous instances of the delight with which advantage is taken of weakness or simplicity, to practise upon them some sly mischief, or inflict some open mortification; and of the unrepressed glee with which the rude spectators can witness or abet the malice? And if, in such a case, an indignant observer has hazarded a remark or expostulation, the full stare, and the quickly succeeding laugh and retort of brutal scorn, have thrown open to his revolting sight the state of the recess within, where the moral sentiments are; and shown how much the perceptions and notions had been indebted to the cares of the instructor. Could he help thinking what was deserved somewhere, by individuals or by the local community collectively, for suffering a being to grow up to quite or nearly the complete dimensions and features of manhood, with so vile a thing within it in substitution for what a soul should be? We need not remark, what every one has noticed, how much the vulgar are amused by seeing vexatious or injurious incidents, (if only not quite disastrous or tragical,) befalling persons against whom they can have no resentment; how ferocious often their temper and means of revenge when they _have_ causes of resentment; or how intensely delighted, (in company, it is true, with many that are called their betters,) in beholding several of their fellow-mortals, whether in anger or athletic competition, covering each other with bruises, deformity, and blood. Our institutions, however, protect, in some considerable degree, man against man, as being framed in a knowledge of what would else become of the community. But observe a moment what are the dispositions of the vulgar as indulged, and with no preventive interference of those institutions, on the inferior animals. To a large proportion of this class it is, in their youth, one of the most vivid exhilarations to witness the terrors and anguish of living beings. In many parts of the country it would be no improbable conjecture in explanation of a savage yell heard at a distance, that a company of rationals may be witnessing the writhings, agonies, and cries, of some animal struggling for escape or for life, while it is suffering the infliction, perhaps, of stones, and kicks, or wounds by more directly fatal means of violence. If you hear in the clamor a sudden burst of fiercer exultation, you may surmise that just then a deadly blow has been given. There is hardly an animal on the whole face of the country, of size enough, and enough within reach to be a marked object of attention, that would not be persecuted to death if no consideration of ownership interposed. The children of the uncultivated families are allowed, without a check, to exercise and improve the hateful disposition, on flies, young birds, and other feeble and harmless creatures; and they are actually encouraged to do it on what, under the denomination of vermin, are represented in the formal character of enemies, almost in such a sense as if a moral responsibility belonged to them, and they were therefore not only to be destroyed as a nuisance, but deserving to be punished as offenders. The hardening against sympathy, with the consequent carelessness of inflicting pain, combined as this will probably be, with the _love_ of inflicting it, must be confirmed by the horrid spectacle of slaughter; a spectacle sought for gratification by the children and youth of the lower order; and in many places so publicly exhibited that they cannot well avoid seeing it, and its often savage preliminary circumstances, sometimes directly wanton aggravations; perhaps in revenge of a struggle to resist or escape, perhaps in a rage at the awkward manner in which the victim adjusts itself to a convenient position for suffering. Horrid, we call the prevailing practice, because it is the infliction, on millions of sentient and innocent creatures every year, in what calls itself a humane and Christian nation, of anguish unnecessary to the purpose. Unnecessary--what proof is there to the contrary?--To _what_ is the present practice necessary?--Some readers will remember the benevolent (we were going to say _humane_, but that is an equivocal epithet,) attempt made a number of years since by Lord Somerville to introduce, but he failed, a mode of slaughter, without suffering; a mode in use in a foreign nation with which we should deem it very far from a compliment to be placed on a level in point of civilization. And it is a flagrant dishonor to such a country, and to the class that virtually, by rank, and formally, by official station, have presided over its economy, one generation after another, that so hideous a fact should never, as far as we know, have been deemed by the highest state authorities worth even a question whether a mitigation might not be practicable. An inconceivable daily amount of suffering, inflicted on unknown thousands of creatures, dying in slow anguish, when their death might be without pain as being instantaneous, is accounted no deformity in the social system, no incongruity with the national profession of religion of which the essence is charity and mercy, nothing to sully the polish, or offend the refinement, of what demands to be accounted, in its higher portions, a pre-eminently civilized and humanized community. Precious and well protected polish and refinement, and humanity, and Christian civilization! to which it is a matter of easy indifference to know that, in the neighborhood of their abode, those tortures of butchery are unnecessarily inflicted, which could not be actually witnessed by persons in whom the pretension to these fine qualities is anything better than affectation, without sensations of horror; which it would ruin the character of a fine gentleman or lady to have voluntarily witnessed in a single instance. They are known to be inflicted, and yet this is a trifle not worth an effort toward innovation on inveterate custom, on the part of the influential classes; who may be far more worthily intent on a change in the fashion of a dress, or possibly some new refinement in the cookery of the dead bodies of the victims. Or the _living_ bodies; as we are told that the most delicious preparation of an eel for exquisite palates is to thrust the fish alive into the fire: while lobsters are put into water _gradually_ heated to boiling. The latter, indeed, is an old practice, like that of _crimping_ another fish. Such things are allowed or required to be done by persons pretending to the highest refinement. It is a matter far below legislative attention; while the powers of definition are exhausted under the stupendous accumulation of regulations and interdictions for the good order of society. So hardened may the moral sense of a community be by universal and continual custom, that we are perfectly aware these very remarks will provoke the ridicule of many persons, including, it is possible enough, some who may think it quite consistent to be ostentatiously talking at the very same time of Christian charity and benevolent zeal. [Footnote: This was actually done in a religious periodical publication.] Nor will that ridicule be repressed by the notoriety of the fact, that the manner of the practice referred to steels and depraves, to a dreadful degree, a vast number of human beings immediately employed about it; and, as a spectacle, powerfully contributes to confirm, in a greater number, exactly that which it is, by eminence, the object of moral tuition to counteract--men's disposition to make-light of all suffering but their own. This one thing, this not caring for what may be endured by other beings made liable to suffering, is the very essence of the depravity which is so fatal to our race in their social constitution. This selfish hardness is moral plague enough even in an inactive state, as a mere carelessness what other beings may suffer; but there lurks in it a malignity which is easily stimulated to delight in seeing or causing their suffering. And yet, we repeat it, a civilized and Christian nation feels not the slightest self-displacency for its allowing a certain unhappy but necessary part in the economy of the world to be executed, (by preference to a harmless method,) in a manner which probably does as much to corroborate in the vulgar class this essential principle of depravity, as all the expedients of melioration yet applied are doing to expel it. Were it not vain and absurd to muse on supposable new principles in the constitution of the moral system, there is one that we might have been tempted to wish for, namely, that, of all suffering _unnecessarily_ and wilfully inflicted by man on any class of sentient existence, a bitter intimation and participation might be conveyed to him through a mysterious law of nature, enforcing an avenging sympathy in severe proportion to that suffering, on all the men who are really accountable for its being inflicted. After children and youth are trained to behold with something worse than hardened indifference, with a gratifying excitement, the sufferings of creatures dying for the service of man, it is no wonder if they are barbarous in their treatment of those that serve him by their life. And in fact nothing is more obvious as a prevailing disgrace to our nation, than the cruel habits of the lower class toward the laboring animals committed to their power. These animals have no security in their best condition and most efficient services; but generally the hateful disposition is the most fully exercised on those that have been already the greatest sufferers. Meeting, wherever we go, with some of these starved, abused, exhausted figures, we shall not unfrequently meet with also another figure accompanying them--that of a ruffian, young or old, who with a visage of rage, and accents of hell, is wreaking his utmost malevolence on a wretched victim for being slow in performing, or quite failing to perform, what the excess of loading, and perhaps the feebleness of old age, have rendered difficult or absolutely impracticable; or for shrinking from an effort to be made by a pressure on bleeding sores, or for losing the right direction through blindness, and that itself perhaps occasioned by hardship or savage violence. Many of the exacters of animal labor really seem to resent it as a kind of presumption and insult in the slave, that it would be anything else than a machine, that the living being should betray under its toils that it suffers, that it is pained, weary, or reluctant. And if, by outrageous abuse, it should be excited to some manifestation of resentment, that is a crime for which the sufferer would be likely to incur such a fury and repetition of blows and lacerations as to die on the spot, but for an interfering admonition of interest against destroying such a piece of property, and losing so much service. When that service has utterly exhausted, often before the term of old age, the strength of those wretched animals, there awaits many of them a last short stage of still more remorseless cruelty; that in which it is become a doubtful thing whether the utmost efforts to which the emaciated, diseased, sinking frame can be forced by violence, be worth the trouble of that violence, the delays and accidents, and the expense of the scanty supply of subsistence. As they must at all events very soon perish, it has ceased to be of any material consequence, on the score of interest, how grossly they may be abused; and their tormentors seem delighted with this release from all restraint on their dispositions. Those dispositions, as indulged in some instances, when the miserable creatures are formally consigned to be destroyed, cannot be much exceeded by anything we can attribute to fiends. Some horrid exemplifications were adduced, not as single casual circumstances, but as usual practices, by a patriotic senator some years since, in endeavoring to obtain a legislative enactment in mitigation of the sufferings of the brute tribes. The design vanished to nothing in the House of Commons, under the effect of argument and ridicule from a person distinguished for intellectual cultivation; whose resistance was not only against that specific measure, but avowedly against the principle itself on which _any_ measure of the same tendency could ever be founded. [Footnote: Lord Erskine's memorable Bill, triumphantly scouted by the late Mr. Windham.--Undoubtedly there are considerable difficulties in the way of legislation on the subject; but an equal share of difficulty attending some other subjects--an affair of revenue, for instance, or a measure for the suppression (at that time) of political opinion--would soon have been overcome.] Nor could any victory have pleased him better, probably, than one which contributed to prolong the barbarism of the people, as the best security, he deemed, for their continuing fit to labor at home and fight abroad. It might have added to this gratification to hear (as was the fact) his name pronounced with delight by ruffians of all classes, who regarded him as their patron saint. If any one should be inclined to interpose here with a remark, that after _such_ a reference, we have little right to ascribe to those classes, as if it were peculiarly one of their characteristics, the insensibility to the sufferings of the brute creation, and to number it formally among the results of the "lack of knowledge," we can only reply, that however those of higher order may explode any attempt to make the most efficient authority of the nation bear repressively upon the evil, and however it may in other ways be abetted by them, it is, at any rate, in those inferior classes chiefly that the actual perpetrators of it are found. It is something to say in favor of cultivation, that it does, generally speaking, render those who have the benefit of it incapable of practising, _themselves_, the most palpably flagrant of these cruelties which they may be virtually countenancing, by some things which they do, and some things which they omit or refuse to do. Mr. Windham would not himself have practised a wanton barbarity on a poor horse or ass, though he scouted any legislative attempt to prevent it among his inferiors. * * * * * The proper place would perhaps have been nearer the beginning of this description of the characteristics of our uneducated people, for one so notorious, and one entering so much into the essence of the evils already named, as that we mention next; _a rude, contracted, unsteady, and often perverted sense of right and wrong in general_. It is curious to look into a large volume of religious casuistry, the work of some divine of a former age, (for instance Bishop Taylor's _Ductor Dubitantium,_) with the reflection what a conscience disciplined in the highest degree might be; and then to observe what this regulator of the soul actually is where there has been no sound discipline of the reason, and where there is no deep religious sentiment to rectify the perceptions in the absence of an accurate intellectual discrimination of things. This sentiment being wanting, dispositions and conduct cannot be taken account of according to the distinction between holiness and sin; and in the absence of a cultivated understanding, they cannot be brought to the test of the distinguishing law between propriety and turpitude; nor estimated upon any comprehensive notion of utility. The evidence of all this is thick and close around us; so that every serious observer has been struck and almost shocked to observe, in what a very small degree conscience is a _necessary_ attribute of the human creature; and how nearly a nonentity the whole system of moral principles may be, as to any recognition of it by an unadapted spirit. While that system is of a substance veritable and eternal, and stands forth in its exceeding breadth, marked with the strongest characters and prominences, it has to these persons hardly the reality or definiteness of a shadow, except in a few matters, if we may so express it, of the grossest bulk. There must be glaring evidence of something bad in what is done, or questioned whether to be done, before conscience will come to its duty, or give proof of its existence. There must be a violent alarm of mischief or danger before this drowsy and ignorant magistrate will interfere. And since occasions thus involving flagrant evil cannot be of very frequent occurrence in the life of the generality of the people, it is probable that many of them have considerably protracted exemptions from any interference of conscience at all; it is certain that they experience no such pertinacious attendance of it, as to feel habitually a monitory intimation, that without great thought and care they will inevitably do something wrong. But what may we judge and presage of the moral fortunes of a sojourner, of naturally corrupt propensity, in this bad world, who is not haunted, sometimes to a degree of alarm, by this monitory sense, through the whole course of his life? What is likely to become of him, if he shall go hither and thither on the scene exempt from all sensible obstruction of the many interdictions, of a nature too refined for any sense but the vital tenderness of conscience to perceive? Obstructions of a more gross and tangible nature he is continually meeting. A large portion of what he is accustomed to see presents itself to him in the character of boundary and prohibition; on every hand there is something to warn him what he must not do. There are high walls, and gates, and fences, and brinks of torrents and precipices; in short, an order of things on all sides signifying to him, with more or less of menace,--Thus far and no further. And he is in a general way obsequious to this arrangement. We do not ordinarily expect to see him carelessly transgressing the most decided of the artificial boundaries, or daring across those dreadful ones of nature. But, nearly destitute of the faculty to perceive, (as in coming in contact with something charged with the element of lightning,) the awful interceptive lines of that other arrangement which he is in the midst of as a subject of the laws of God, we see with what insensibility he can pass through those prohibitory significations of the Almighty will, which are to devout men as lines streaming with an infinitely more formidable than material fire. And if we look on to his future course, proceeding under so fatal a deficiency, the consequence foreseen is, that those lines of divine interdiction which he has not conscience to perceive as meant to deter him, he will seem as if he had acquired, through a perverted will, a recognition of in another quality--as temptations to attract him. But to leave these terms of generality and advert to a few particulars of illustration:--Recollect how commonly persons of the class described are found utterly violating truth, not in hard emergencies only, but as an habitual practice, and apparently without the slightest reluctance or compunction, their moral sense quite at rest under the accumulation of a thousand deliberate falsehoods. It is seen that by far the greater number of them think it no harm to take little unjust advantages in their dealings, by deceptive management; and very many would take the greatest but for fear of temporal consequences; would do it, that is to say, without inquietude of conscience, in the proper sense. It is the testimony of experience from persons who have had the most to transact with them, that the indispensable rule of proceeding is to assume generally their want of principle, and leave it to time and prolonged trial to establish, rather slowly, the individual exceptions. Those unknowing admirers of human nature, or of English character, who are disposed to exclaim against this as an illiberal rule, may be recommended to act on what they will therefore deem a liberal one--at their cost. That power of established custom, which is so great, as we had occasion to show, on the moral sense of even better instructed persons, has its dominion complete over that of the vulgar; insomuch that the most unequivocal iniquity of a practice long suffered to exist, shall hardly bring to their mere recollection the common acknowledged rule not to do as we would wish not done to us. From recent accounts it appears, that the entire coast of our island is not yet clear of those people called _wreckers_, who felt not a scruple to appropriate whatever they could seize of the lading of vessels cast ashore, and even whatever was worth tearing from the personal possession of the unfortunate beings who might be escaping but just alive from the most dreadful peril. The cruelty we have so largely attributed to our English vulgar, never recoils on them in self-reproach. The habitual indulgence of the irascible, vexatious, and malicious tempers, to the plague or terror of all within reach, scarcely ever becomes a subject of judicial estimate, as a character hateful in the abstract, with them a reflection of that estimate on the man's own self. He reflects but just enough to say to himself that it is all right and deserved, and unavoidable, too, for he is unpardonably crossed and provoked; nor will he be driven from this self-approval, when it may be evident to every one else that the provocations are comparatively slight, and are only taken as offences by a disposition habitually seeking occasions to vent its spite. The inconvenience and vexation incident to low vice, may make the offenders fret at themselves for having been so foolish, but it is in general with an extremely trifling degree of the sense of guilt. Suggestions of reprehension, in even the discreetest terms, and from persons confessedly the best authorized to make them, would not seldom be answered by a grinning, defying carelessness, in some instances by abusive retort; instead of any betrayed signs of an internal acknowledgment of deserving reproof. And while thus the censure of a fellow-mortal meets no internal testimony to own its justice, this insensate self-complacency is undisturbed also on the side toward heaven. A mere philosopher, that should make little account of religion, otherwise than as capable of being applied to enforce and aggravate the sense of obligation with respect to rules of conduct, and would not, provided it may have this effect, care much about its truth or falsehood,--might be disposed to assert that the ignorant and debased part of the population, of this Christian and Protestant country, are but so much the worse for the riddance of some parts of the superstitions of former ages. He might allege, with plausibility, that the system which imposed so many falsehoods, vain observances, and perversions of moral principles, acknowledging nevertheless _some_ correct rules of morality, as an external practical concern, had the advantage of enjoining them, as far as it chose to do so, with the force of superstition, a stronger authority with a rude conscience than that of plain simple religion. That system exercised a mighty complexity and accumulation of authority, all avowedly divine; by which it could artificially augment, or rather supersede, the mere divine prescription of such rules, making _itself_ the authority and prescriber; and thus could infix them in the moral sense of the people with something more, or something else, than the simple divine sanction. Whereas, now when those superstitions which held the people so powerfully in awe, are gone, and have taken away with them that spurious sanction, there remains nothing to exert the same power of moral enforcement; since the people have not, in their exemption from the superstitions of their ancestors, come under any solemn and commanding effect of the true idea of the Divine Majesty. And it is undeniable that this is the state of conscience among them. The vague, faint notion, as they conceive it, of a being who is said to be the creator, governor, lawgiver, and judge, and who dwells perhaps somewhere in the sky, has not, to many of them, the smallest force of intimidation from evil, at least when they are in health and daylight. One of the large sting-armed insects of the air does not alarm them less. A certain transitory fearfulness that occasionally comes upon them, points more to the Devil, and perhaps (in times now nearly gone by) to the ghosts of the dead, than to the Almighty. It may be, indeed, that this feeling is in its ultimate principle, if it were ever followed up so far, an acknowledgment of justice and power in God, reaching to wicked men through these mysterious agents; who though intending no service to him, but actuated by dispositions of their own, malignant in the greatest of them, and supposed inauspicious in the others, are yet carrying into effect his hostility. But it is little beyond such proximate objects of apprehension that many minds extend their awe of invisible spiritual existence. Even the notion really entertained by them of the greatness of God, may be entertained in such a manner as to have but slight power to restrain the inclinations to sin, or to impress the sense of guilt after it is committed. He is too great, they readily say, to mind the little matters that such creatures as we may do amiss; they can do _him_ no harm. The idea, too, of his bounty, is of such unworthy consistency as to be a protection against all conscious reproach of ingratitude and neglect of service toward him;--he has made us to need all this that it is said he does for us; and it costs him nothing, it is no labor, and he is not the less rich; and besides, we have toil, and want, and plague enough, notwithstanding anything that he gives. It is probable this unhappiness of their condition, oftener than any other cause, brings God into their thoughts, and that as a being against whom they have a complaint approaching to a quarrel on account of it. And this strongly assists the reaction against whatever would enforce the sense of guilt on the conscience. When he has done so little for us, (something like this is the sentiment,) he cannot think it any such great matter if we _do_ sometimes come a little short of his commands. There is no doubt that their recollections of him as a being to murmur against for their allotment, are more frequent, more dwelt upon, and with more of an excited feeling, than their recollections of him as a being whom they ought to have loved and served, but have offended against. The very idea of such offence, as the chief and essential constituent of wickedness, is so slightly conceived, (because he is invisible, and has his own felicity, and is secure against all injury,) that if the thoughts of one of these persons _should_, by some rare occasion, be forced into the direction of unwillingly seeing his own faults, it is probable his impiety would appear the most inconsiderable thing in the account; that he would easily forgive himself the negation of all acts and feelings of devotion towards the Supreme Being, and the countless multiplications of insults to him by profane language. To conclude this part of the melancholy statement; it may be observed of the class in question, that they have but very little notion of guilt, or possible guilt, in anything but external practice. That busy interior existence, which is the moral person, genuine and complete; the thoughts, imaginations, volitions; the motives, projects, deliberations, devices, the indulgence of the ideas of what they cannot or dare not practically realize,--all this, we have reason to believe, passes nearly exempted from jurisdiction, even of that feeble and undecisive kind which _may_ occasionally attempt an interference with their actions. They do indeed take such notice of the quality of these things within, as to be aware that some of them are not to be disclosed in their communications; which prudential caution has of course little to do with conscience, when the things so withheld are internally cherished in perfect disregard of the Omniscient Observer, and with hardly the faintest monition that the essence of the guilt is the same, with only a difference in degree, in intending or deliberately desiring an evil, and in acting it. It is not natural obtuseness of mental faculty that we are attributing, all this while, to the uneducated class of our people, in thus exposing the defectiveness of their discernment between right and wrong. If it were, there might arise somewhat of the consolation afforded in contemplating some of the very lowest of the savage tribes of mankind, by the idea that such outcasts of the rational nature must stand very nearly exempt from accountableness, through absolute natural want of mind. But in the barbarians of our country we shall often observe a very competent, and now and then an abundant, share of native sense. We may see it evinced in respect to the very questions of morality, in cases where they are quite compelled, as will occasionally happen, to feel themselves brought within the cognizance of one or other of its plainest rules. In such cases we have witnessed a sharpness and activity of intellect claiming almost our admiration. What contrivance of deception and artful evasion. What dexterity of quibble, and captious objection, and petty sophistry. What vigilance to observe how the plea in justification or excuse takes effect, and, if they perceive it does not succeed, what address in sliding into a different one. What quickness to avail themselves of any mistake, or apparent concession, in the examiner or reprover. What copious rhetoric in exaggeration of the cause which tempted to do wrong, or of the great good hoped to be effected by the little deviation from the right,--a good surely enough to excuse so trifling an impropriety. What facility of placing between themselves and the censure, the recollected example of some good man who has been "overtaken in a fault." Here _is_ mind, after all, we have been prompted to exclaim; mind educating itself to evil, in default of that discipline which should have educated it to good. How much of the wisdom of evil, (if we may be allowed the expression,) there is faculty enough in the neglected corrupt popular mass of this nation to attain, by the exercise into which the individual's mind is carried by its own impulse, and in which he may everywhere and every hour find ample co-operation. Each of these self-improvers in depraved sense has the advantage of finding himself among a great tribe of similar improvers, forming an immense school, as if for the promotion of this very purpose; where they all teach by a competition in learning; where the rude faculty which is not expanded into intelligence is, however, sharpened into cunning; where the spirit which cannot grow into an eagle, may take the form and action of a snake. This advantage,--that there should not be a diminution of the superabundant plenty of associates always at hand, to assist each man in making the most of his native intellect for its least worthy use,--has been from age to age secured to our populace, as if it had been the most valuable birthright of Englishmen. Whatever else the person born to the inheritance of low life was destined to find in it, the national state had made as sure to him as it had before made the same privilege to his ancestors, that the generality of his equals should be found fit and ready to work with him in the acquirement of a depraved shrewdness. But while the bulk of the people have been, in every period, abandoned to such a process of educating themselves and one another, where has been that character of parental guardianship, which seems to be ascribed when poets, orators, and patriots, are inspired with tropes, and talk of England and her children? This imperial matron of their rhetoric seems to have little cared how much she might be disgraced in the larger portion of her progeny, or how little cause they might have to all eternity to remember her with gratitude. She has had far other concern about them, and employment for them, than that of their being taught the value of their spiritual nature, and carefully trained to be enlightened, good, and happy. Laws against crime, it is true, she has enacted for them in liberal quantity; appointed her quorums of magistrates; and not been sparing of punishments. She has also maintained public sabbath observances to remind them of religion, of which observances she cared not that they little understood the very terms; except when the reading of a Book of Sports was appointed an indispensable part at one time long after her adoption of the Reformation. But she might plainly see what such provisions did _not_ accomplish. It was a glaring fact before her eyes, that the majority of her children had far more of the mental character of a colony from some barbarian nation, than of that which an enlightened and Christian state might have been expected to impart. She had most ample resources indeed for supplying the remedy; but, provided that the productions of the soil and the workshop were duly forthcoming, she thought it of no consequence, it should seem, that the operative hands belonged to degraded minds. And then, too, as at all times, her lofty ambition destined a good proportion of them to the consumption of martial service, she perhaps judged that the less they were trained to think, the more fit they might be to be actuated mechanically, as an instrument of blind impetuous force. Or perhaps she thought it would be rather an inconsistency, to be making much of the inner existence of a thing which was to be, in frequent wholesale lots, sent off to be cut or dashed to pieces. [Footnote: "Killed off," was the sentimental phrase emitted in parliament, in easy unconsciousness of offence, by the accomplished senator named in a former page. He probably was really unaware that the creatures were made for anything better.] And besides, a certain measure of instruction to think, especially if consisting, in a considerable part, of the inculcation of religion, might have done something to disturb that notion, (so worthy to have been transferred from the Mohammedan creed,) which she was by no means desirous to expel from her fleets and armies, that death for "king and country" clears off all accounts for sin. Let our attention be directed a little while to the effects of the privation of knowledge, as they may be seen conspicuous in the several parts of the economy of life, in the uneducated part of the community. Observe those people in their daily occupations. None of us need be told that, of the prodigious diversity of manual employments, some consist of, or include, operations of such minuteness or complexity, and so much demanding nicety, arrangement, or combination, as to necessitate the constant and almost entire attention of the mind; nor that all of them must require its full attention at times, at particular stages, changes, and adjustments, of the work. We allow this its full weight, to forbid any extravagant notion of how much it is possible to think of other things during the working time. It is however to be recollected, that persons of a class superior to the numerous one we have in view, take the chief share of those portions of the arts and manufactures which require the most of mental effort,--those which demand extreme precision, or inventive contrivance, or taste, or scientific skill. We may also take into the account of the allotment of employments to the uncultivated multitude, how much facility is acquired by habit, how much use there is of instrumental mechanism, (a grand exempter from the responsibility that would lie on the mind,) and how merely general and very slight an attention is exacted in the ordinary course of some of the occupations. These things considered, we may venture perhaps to assume, on an average of those employments, that the persons engaged in them might be, as much at least as one third part of the time, without detriment to the manual performance, giving the thoughts to other things with attention enough for such interest as would involve improvement. This is particularly true of the more ordinary parts of the labors of agriculture, when not under any critical circumstances, or special pressure owing to the season. But as the case at present is, what does become, during such portion of the time, of the ethereal essence which inhabits the corporeal laborer, this spirit created, it is commonly said and without contradiction, for thought, knowledge, religion, and immortality? If we be really to believe this doctrine of its nature and destiny, (for we are not sure that politicians think so,) can we know without regret, that in very many of the persons in the situations supposed, it suffers a dull absorption, subsides into the mere physical nature, is sunk and sleeping in the animal warmth and functions, and lulled and rocked, as it were, in its lethargy, by the bodily movements, in the works which it is not necessary for it to keep habitually awake to direct? And its obligation to keep just enough awake to see to the right performance of the work, seems to give a licensed exemption from any other stirring of its faculties. The employment _is something to be minded_, in a general way, though but now and then requiring a pointed attention; and therefore this said intellectual being, if uninformed and unexercised, will feel no call to mind anything else: as a person retained for some service which demands but occasionally an active exercise, will justify the indolence which declines taking in hand any other business in the intervals, under the pretext that he has his appointment; and so, when not under the immediate calls of that appointment, he will trifle or go to sleep, even in the full light of day, with an easy conscience. But here we are to beware of falling into the inadvertency of appearing to say, that the laboring classes, in this country and age, have actually this full exemption, during their employments, from all exercise of thought beyond that which is immediately requisite for the right performance of their work. It is true that there is little enough of any such mental activity directed to the instructive uses we were supposing. But while such partial occupation of the thoughts (of course it is admitted, in an irregular and discontinuous, but still a beneficial manner) with topics and facts of what may be called intellectual and moral interest as we are assuming to be compatible with divers of the manual operations, is a thing to which most among the laboring classes are strangers, many of them are equally strangers to an easy vacancy of mind; experiencing amidst their employments a severe arrest of those thoughts which the mere employment itself may leave free. During the little more than mechanical action of their hands and eyes, the circumstances of their condition press hard into their minds. The lot of many of those classes is placed in a melancholy disproportion between what _must_ be given to the cares and toils for a bare subsistence, and what _can_, at most, be given to the interests of the nobler part of their nature, either during their work or in its intervals. It is a sad spectacle to behold so many myriads of spiritual beings, (proviso, again, that we may call them so without being suspected to forget that their proper calling is to work with their hands,) doomed to consume a proportion so little short of the whole of their vigor and time, in just merely supporting so many bodies in the struggle to live. When it is in special relation to the present times that we speak of this struggle to live, we of course mean by it something more than that circumstance of the general lot of humanity which is expressed in the sentence, "In the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread," We put the emphasis on the peculiar aggravation of that circumstance in this part of the world in this and recent times, by the adventitious effect of some dreadful disorder of the social economy, in consequence of which the utmost exertions of the body and mind together but barely suffice in so many cases, in some hardly do suffice, for the mere protraction of life; comfortable life being altogether out of the question. The course of the administration of the civilized states, and the recent dire combustion into which they have almost unanimously rushed, as in emulation which of them should with the least reserve, and with the most desperate rapidity, annihilate the resources that should have been for the subsistence and competence of their people, have resulted in such destitution and misery in this country as were never known before, except as immediately inflicted by the local visitation of some awful calamity. The state of very many of our people, at this hour, is nearly what might be conceived as the consequence of a failure of the accustomed produce of the earth. [Footnote: No exaggeration at the time when it was written. The condition of the working classes during the subsequent years does not admit of any comprehensive uniform description. It has suffered successive harassing fluctuations, and been probably at all times severely distressing in one part of the country or another.] There is no wish to deny or underrate the additions made to the evil by the intervention of causes, whose operation admits of being traced in some measure distinctly from the effect of this grand one. They may be traced in an operation which is _distinguishable_; and referable to each respectively; but it were most absurd to represent them as working out of connection, or otherwise than subordinately concurring, with that cause which has invaded with its pernicious effects everything that has an existence or a name in the social system. And it were simply monstrous to attribute the main substance of so wide and oppressive an evil to causes of any debateable quality, while there is glaring in sight a cause of stupendous magnitude, which _could not possibly do otherwise than_ produce immense and calamitous effects. It would be as if a man were prying about for this and the other cause of damage, to account for the aspect of a region which has recently been devastated by inundations or earthquakes. It has become much a fashion to explain the distresses of a country on any principles rather than those that are taught by all history, and prominently manifest in the nature of things. And airs of superior intelligence shall be assumed on hearing a plain man fix the main charge of national exhaustion and distress on the nation's consuming its own strength in an unquenchable fury to destroy that of others; just as if such madness had never been known to result in poverty and distress, and it were perfectly inexplicable how it should. This is partly an affectation of science, accompanied, it is likely, by somewhat of that sincere extravagance with which some newly developed principle is apt to be accounted the comprehension of all wisdom, a nostrum that will explain everything. But we suspect that in many instances this substitution of subordinate causes for a great substantial one, proceeds from something much worse than such affectation or self-duped extravagance. It is from a resolute determination that ambition shall be the noblest virtue of a state; that martial glory shall maintain its ground in human idolatry and that wars and their promoters shall be justified at all hazards. We were wishing to show how the laboring people's thoughts might be partly employed, during their daily task, and consistently with industry and good workmanship. But what a state of things is exhibited where the very name of industry, the virtue universally honored, the topic of so many human and divine inculcations, cannot be spoken without offering a bitter insult; where the heavy toil, denounced on man for his transgression, in the same sentence as death, is in vain implored as the greatest privilege; or thought of in despair, as a blessing too great to be attainable; and when the reply of the artisan to an unwitting admonition, that even amidst his work he might have some freedom for useful thinking, may be, "Thinking! I have no work to confine my thinking; I may, for that, employ it all on other subjects; but those subjects are, whether I please or not, the plenty and luxury in which many creatures of the same kind as myself are rioting, and the starvation which I and my family are suffering." We hope in Providence, more than in any wisdom or disposition shown by men, that this melancholy state of things will be alleviated, otherwise than by a reduction of number through the diseases generated by utter penury. [Footnote: It _has_ been alleviated; but not till after a considerable duration. In England it has; but look at Ireland?] We trust the time will come when the Christian monitor shall no longer be silenced by the apprehension of such a reply to the suggestion he wishes to make to the humble class, that they should strive against being reduced to mere machines amidst their manual employments; that it is miserable to have the whole mental existence shrunk and shrivelled as it were to the breadth of the material they are working upon; that the noble interior agent, which lends itself to maintain the external activity, and direct the operations required of the bodily powers for the body's welfare, has eminently a right and claim to have employments on its own account, during such parts of those operations as do not of necessity monopolize its attention. It may claim, in the superintendence of these, a privilege analogous to that possessed in the general direction of subordinate agents by a man of science, who will interfere as often as it is necessary, but will not give up all other thought and employment to be a constant mere looker-on, during such parts of the operations as are of so ordinary a nature that he could not really fix his attention on them. But how is the mind of the laborer or artisan to be delivered from the blank and stupified state, during the parts of his employment that do not necessarily engross his thoughts? How, but by its having within some store of subjects for thought; something for memory, imagination, reflection; in a word, by the possession of knowledge? How can it be sensibly alive and active, when it is placed fully and decidedly out of communication with all things that are friendly to intellectual life, all things that apply a beneficial stimulus to the faculties, all things, of this world or another, that are the most inviting or commanding to thought and emotion? We can imagine this ill-fated spirit, especially if by nature of the somewhat finer temperament, thus detached from all vital connection, secluded from the whole universe, and inclosed as by a prison wall,--we can imagine it sometimes moved with an indistinct longing for its appropriate interests; and going round and round by this dark, dead wall, to seek for any spot where there might be a chance of escape, or any crevice where a living element for the soul transpires; and then, as feeling it all in vain, dejectedly resigning itself again to its doom. Some ignorant minds have instinctive impulses of this kind; though far more of them are so deeply stupified as to be habitually safe from any such inquietude. But let them have received, in their youth and progressively afterwards, a considerable measure of interesting information, respecting, for instance, the many striking objects on the globe they inhabit, the memorable events of past ages, the origin and uses of remarkable works within their view, remaining from ancient times; the causes of effects and phenomena familiar to their observation as now unintelligible facts; the prospects of man, from the relation he stands in to time, and eternity, and God, explained by the great principles and facts of religion. Let there be fixed in their knowledge so many ideas of these kinds, as might be imparted by a comparatively humble education, (one quite compatible with the destination to a life of ordinary employment,) and even involuntarily the thoughts would often recur to these subjects, in those moments and hours when the manual occupation can, and actually will, be prosecuted with but little of exclusive attention. Slight incidents, casual expressions, would sometimes suggest these subjects; by association they would suggest one another. The mere reaction of a somewhat cultivated spirit against invading dulness, might recall some of the more amusing and elating ones; and they would fall like a gleam of sunshine on the imagination. An emotion of conscience, a self-reflection, an occurring question of duty, a monitory sensation of defective health, would sometimes point to the serious and solemn ones. The mind might thus go a considerable way, to recreate or profit itself, and, on coming back again, find all safe in the processes of the field or the loom. The man would thus come from these processes with more than the bare earnings to set against the fatigue. There would thus be scattered some appearances to entertain, and some sources and productions to refresh, over what were else a dead and barren flat of existence. There is no romancing in all this; we have known instances of its verification to a very pleasing and exemplary extent. We have heard persons of the class in question tell of the exhilarating imaginations, or solemn reflections, which, through the reminiscences of what they had read in youth or more advanced years, had visited their minds; and put them, as it were, in communication for a while with diversified, remote, and elevated objects, while in their humble employments under the open sky or the domestic roof. And is not this, (if it be true, after all, that the intellectual, immortal nature is by emphasis the man,) is not this vastly better than that this mind should lie nearly as dormant, during the laborer's hours of business, as his attendant of the canine species shall be sometimes seen to do in the corner of the field where he is at work? But perhaps it will be said, that the minds of the uncultivated order are not generally in this state of utter inanity during their common employments; but are often awake and busy enough in recollections, fancies, projects, and the tempers appropriate; and that they abundantly show this when they stop sometimes in their work to talk, or talk as they are proceeding in it. So much the stronger, we answer, the argument for supplying them with useful knowledge; for it were better their mental being _were_ sunk in lethargy, than busy among the reported, recollected, or imagined transactions, the wishes, and the schemings, which will be the most likely to occupy the minds of persons abandoned to ignorance, vulgarity, and therefore probably to low vice. We may add to the representation, the manner in which they spend the part of their time not demanded for the regular, or the occasional, exercise of their industry. It is not to be denied that many of them have too much truth in their pleading that, with the exception of Sunday, they have little remission of their toils till they are so weary that the remainder of the time is needed for complete repose. This is particularly the case of the females, especially those who have the chief cares and the actual work of a family. Nevertheless, it is within our constant observation that a considerable proportion of the men, a large one of the younger men, in the less heavily oppressed divisions of our population, do in fact include, for substance, their manual employments within such limits of time, as often to leave several hours in the day to be spent nearly as they please. And in what manner, for the most part, is this precious time expended by those of no mental cultivation? It is true, again, that in many departments of labor, a diligent exertion during even this limited space of the day, occasions such a degree of lassitude and heaviness as to render it almost inevitable, especially in certain seasons of the year, to surrender some moments of the spare time, beyond what is necessary for the humble repast, to a kind of listless subsidence of all the powers of both body and mind. But after all these allowances fully conceded, a great number in the class under consideration have in some days several hours, and in the whole six days of the week, on an average of the year, very many hours, to be given, as they choose, to useful purposes or to waste; and again we ask, where the mind itself has been left waste how _is_ that time mostly expended? If the persons are of a phlegmatic temperament, we shall often see them just simply annihilating those portions of time. They will for an hour, or for hours together, if not disturbed by some cause from without, sit on a bench, or lie down on a bank or hillock, or lean on a wall, or fill the fire-side chair; yielded up to utter vacancy and torpor, not asleep perhaps, but more lost to mental existence than if they were; since the dreams, that would probably visit their slumbers, would be a more lively train of ideas than any they have awake. Of a piece with this is the habit, among many of this order of people, of giving formally to sleep as much as one-third part, sometimes considerably more, of the twenty-four hours. Certainly there are innumerable cases in which infirmity, care, fatigue, and the comfortlessness and penury of the humble dwelling, effectually plead for a large allowance of this balm of oblivion. But very many surrender themselves to this excess from destitution of anything to keep their minds awake, especially in the evenings of the winter. What a contrast is here suggested to the imagination of those who have read Dr. Henderson's, and other recent descriptions, of the habits of the people of Iceland! These, however, are their most harmless modes of wasting the time. For, while we might think of the many hours merged by them in apathy and needless sleep, with a wish that those hours could be recovered to the account of their existence, we might well wish that the hours could be struck out of it which they may sometimes give, instead, to conversation; in parties where ignorance, coarse vulgarity, and profaneness, are to support the dialogue, on topics the most to their taste; always including, as the most welcome to that taste, the depravities and scandals of the neighborhood; while all the reproach and ridicule, expended with good-will on those depravities, have the strange result of making the censors the less disinclined themselves to practise them, and only a little better instructed how to do it with impunity. In many instances there is the additional mischief, that these assemblings for corrupt communication find their resort at the public-house, where intemperance and ribaldry may season each other, if the pecuniary means for the former ingredient can be afforded, even at the cost of distress at home.--But without including depravity of this degree, the worthlessness of the communications of a number of grossly ignorant associates is easy to be imagined; besides that most of us have been made judges of their quality by numberless occasions of unavoidably hearing samples of them. In the finer seasons of the year, much of these leisure spaces of time can be expended out of doors; and we have still only to refer to every one's own observation of the account to which they are turned, in the lives of beings whose lot allows but so contracted a portion of time to be, at the best, applied directly to the highest purposes of life.--Here the hater of all such schemes of improvement, as would threaten to turn the lower order into what that hater may probably call Methodists, (a term we venture to interpret for him as meaning thoughtful beings and Christians,) comes in with a ready cant of humanity and commiseration. And why, he says, with an affected indignation of philanthropy, why should not the poor creatures enjoy a little fresh air and cheerful sunshine, and have a chance of keeping their health, confined as many of them are, for the greatest part of the time, in narrow, squalid rooms, unwholesome workshops, and every sort of disagreeable places and employments? Very true, we answer; and why should not numbers of them be collected in groups by the road-side, in readiness to find in whatever passes there occasions for gross jocularity; practising some impertinence, or uttering some jeering scurrility, at the expense of persons going by; shouting with laughter at the success of the annoyance, or to _make_ it successful; and all this blended with language of profaneness and imprecation, as the very life of the hilarity? Or why should not the boldest spirits among them form a little conventicle for cursing, blaspheming, and blackguard obstreperousness in the street, about the entrance of one of the haunts of intoxication; where they are perfectly safe from that worse mischief of a gloomy fanaticism, with which they might have been smitten if seduced to frequent the meeting-house twenty paces off? Or why should not the children, growing into the stage called youth, be turned loose through the lanes, roads, and fields, to form a brawling, impudent rabble, trained by their association to every low vice, and ambitiously emulating, in voice, visage, and manners, the ruffians and drabs of maturer growth? Or why should not the young men and women collect in clusters, or range about or beyond the neighborhood in bands, for revel, frolic, and all kinds of coarse mirth; to come back late at night to quarrel with their wretched elders, who perhaps envy them their capacity for such wild gaieties and strollings, while rating them for their disorderly habits? We say where can be the harm of all this? What reasonable and benevolent man would think of making any objection to it? Reasonable and benevolent,--for these have been among the qualities boasted for the occasion by the opposers of any materially improved education of the people; while in such opposition they virtually avowed their willing tolerance of all that is here described. We have allowed most fully the plea of how little time, _comparatively_, could be afforded to the concern of mental improvement by the lower classes from their indispensable employments; and also that of the consequent fatigue, causing a temporary incapacity of effort in any other way. But this latter plea cannot be admitted without great abatement in the case of our neglected _young_ people of the working classes; for when we advert to their actual habits, we see that, nevertheless, time, strength, and wakefulness, and spring and spirit for exertion, _are_ found for a vast deal of busy diversion, much of it blended with such folly as tends to vice. If such is the manner in which the spare time of the week-days goes to waste and worse, the Sunday is welcomed as giving scope for the same things on a larger scale. It is very striking to consider, that several millions, we may safely assert, of our English people, arrived at what should be years of discretion, are almost completely destitute of any manner of conscience respecting this seventh part of time; not merely as to any required consecration of it to religion, but as to its being under any claim or of any worth at all, otherwise than for amusement. It is actually regarded by them as a section of time far less under obligation than any other. They take it as so absolutely at their free disposal, by a right so exclusively vested in their taste and will, that a demand made even in behalf of their own most important interests, is contemptuously repelled as a sanctimonious impertinence. If the idea occurs at all (with multitudes it never does) of claims which they have heard that God should make on the hours, it is dismissed with the thought that it really cannot signify to him how creatures, condemned by his appointment to toil all the rest of the week, may wish to spend this one day, on which the secular taskmaster manumits them, and He, the spiritual one, might surely do as much. An immense number pay no attention whatever to any sort of religious worship; and many of those that do give an hour or two to such an observance, do so, some of them as merely a diversification of amusement, and the others by way of taking a license of exemption from any further accountableness for the manner in which they may spend the day. It is the natural consequence of all this, that there is more folly, if not more crime, committed on this than on all the other six days together. Thus man, at least _ignorant_ man, is unfit to be trusted with anything under heaven; since a remarkable appointment for raising the general tenor of moral existence, has with these persons the effect of sinking it. There is interposed, at frequent regular intervals throughout the series of their days, a richer vein, as it were, of time. The improvement of this, in a manner by no means strained to the austerity of exercise prescribed in the Puritan rules, might diffuse a worth and a grace over all the time between, and assist them against the tendency there may be in its necessary habits and employments, to depress the intelligent nature into meanness or debasement. The space which they are passing over is marked, at near intervals, with broad lines of a benignant light, which might spread an appearance of mild lustre over the whole extent as contemplated in retrospect; but how many, in looking back when near the end of their progress, have to perceive its general shade rendered darker by the very spaces where that light had been shed from heaven. The Sundays of those who do not improve them to a good purpose, will infallibly be perverted to a bad one. But it were still a melancholy account if we could regard them as merely standing for nothing, as a blank in the life of this class of the people. It is a deeply unhappy spectacle and reflection, to see a man of perhaps more than seventy, sunk in the grossness and apathy of an almost total ignorance of all the most momentous subjects, and then to consider, that, since he came to an age of some natural capacity for the exercise of his mind, there have been more than three thousand Sundays. In their long succession they were _his time_. That is to say, he had the property in them which every man has in duration; they were present to him, he had them, he spent them. Perhaps some compassionate friend may have been pleading in his behalf,--Alas! what opportunity, what time, has the poor mortal ever had? His lot has been to labor hard through the week throughout almost his whole life. Yes, we answer, but he has had three thousand Sundays; what would not even the most moderate improvement of so vast a sum of hours have done for him? But the ill-fated man, (perhaps rejoins the commiserating pleader,) grew up from his childhood in utter ignorance of any use he ought to make of time which his necessary employment would allow him to waste. There, we reply, you strike the mark. Sundays are of no value, nor Bibles, nor the enlarged knowledge of the age, nor heaven nor earth, to beings brought up in estrangement from all right discipline. And therefore we are pleading for the schemes and institutions which will not _let_ human beings be thus brought up. In so pleading, we happily can appeal to one fact in evidence that the intellectual and religious culture, in the introductory stages of life, tends to secure that the persons so trained shall be, when they are come to maturity, marked off from the neglected barbarous mass, by at least an external respect, but accompanied, we trust, in many of them, by a still better sentiment, to the means for keeping truth and duty constantly in their view. Observe the numbers now attending, with a becoming deportment, public worship and instruction, as compared with what the proportion is remembered or recorded to have been half a century since, or any time previous to the great exertions of benevolence to save the children of the inferior classes from preserving the whole mental likeness of their forefathers. It can be testified also, by persons whose observation has been the longest in the habit of following children and youth from the instruction of the school institutions into mature life, that, in a gratifying number of instances, they have been seen permanently retaining too much love of improvement, and too much of the habit of a useful employment of their minds, to sink, in their ordinary daily occupations, into that wretched inanity we were representing; or to consume the free intervals of time in the listlessness, or worthless gabble, or vain sports, of which their neighbors furnished plenty of example and temptation. * * * * * These representations have partly included, what we may yet specify distinctly as one of the unhappy effects of gross ignorance--_a degraded state of domestic society_. Whatever is of nature to render individuals uninteresting or offensive to one another, has a specially bad effect among them as members of a family; because there is in that form of community itself a peculiar tendency to fall below the level of dignified and complacent social life.--A number of persons cannot be placed in a state of social communication, without having a certain sense of claiming from one another a conduct meant and adapted to please. It is expected that a succession of efforts should be made for this purpose, with a willingness of each individual to forego, in little things, his own inclination or convenience. This is all very well when the society is _voluntary_, and the parties can separate when the cost is felt to be greater than the pleasure. Under this advantage of being able soon to separate, even a company of strangers casually assembled will often recognize the claim and conform to the law; with a certain indistinct sentiment partaking of reciprocal gratitude for the disposition which is so accommodating. But the members of the domestic community also have each this same feeling which demands a mutual effort and self-denial to please, while the condition of their association is adverse to their _yielding_ what they thus respectively claim. Theirs, when once it is formed, is not exactly a voluntary companionship, and it is one of undefinable continuance. The claim therefore seems as if it were to be of a prolongation interminable, while the grateful feeling for the concession is the less for the more compulsory bond of the association. And to be thus required, in a community which must not be dissolved, and in a series that reaches away beyond calculation, to exercise a self-restraint on their wills and humors in order to please one another, goes so hard against the great principle of human feeling--namely, each one's preference of pleasing himself--that there is an habitual impulse of reaction against the claim. This shows itself in their deportment, which has the appearance of a practical expression of so many individuals that they _will_ maintain each his own freedom. Hence the absence, very commonly, in domestic society, of the attentiveness, the tone of civility, the promptitude of compliance, the habit of little accommodations, voluntary and supernumerary, which are so observable in the intercourse of friends, acquaintance, and often, as we have said, even of strangers. And then consider, in so close a kind of community, what near and intimate witnesses they are of all one another's faults, weaknesses, tempers, perversities; of whatever is offensive in manner, or unseemly in habit; of all the irksome, humiliating, or sometimes ludicrous circumstances and situations. And also, in this close association, the bad moods, the strifes, and resentments, are pressed into immediate, lasting, corrosive contact with whatever should be the most vital to social happiness. If there be, into the account, the wants, anxieties, and vexations of severe poverty, they will generally aggravate all that is destructive to domestic complacency and decorum. Now add gross ignorance to all this, and see what the picture will be. How many families have been seen where the parents were only the older and stronger animals than their children, whom they could teach nothing but the methods and tasks of labor. They naturally could not be the mere companions, for alternate play and quarrel, of their children, and were disqualified by mental rudeness to be their respected guardians. There were about them these young and rising forms, containing the inextinguishable principle, which was capable of entering on an endless progression of wisdom, goodness, and happiness! needing numberless suggestions, explanations, admonitions, brief reasonings, and a training to attend to the lessons of written instruction. But nothing of all this from the parent. Their case was as hopeless for receiving these necessaries of mental life, as the condition, for physical nutriment, of infants attempting to draw it, (we have heard of so affecting and mournful a fact,) from the breast of a dead parent. These unhappy heads of families possessed no resources for engaging youthful attention by mingled instruction and amusements; no descriptions of the most wonderful objects, or narratives of the most memorable events, to set, for superior attraction, against the idle stories of the neighborhood; no assemblage of admirable examples, from the sacred or other records of human character, to give a beautiful real form to virtue and religion, and promote an aversion to base companionship. Requirement and prohibition must be a part of the domestic economy habitually in operation of course; and in such families you will have seen the government exercised, or attempted to be exercised, in the roughest, barest shape of will and menace, with no aptitude or means of imparting to injunction and censure, a convincing and persuasive quality. Not that the seniors should allow their government to be placed on such a ground that, in everything they enforce or forbid, they may be liable to have their reasons demanded by the children, as an understood condition of their compliance. Far from it; they will sometimes have to require a prescribed conduct for reasons not intelligible, or which it may not be discreet to explain, to those who are to obey. But their authority becomes odious, and as a moral force worse than inefficient, when the natural shrewdness of the children can descry that they really _have_ no reasons better than an obstinate or capricious will; and infallibly makes the inference, that there is no obligation to submit, but that necessity which dependence imposes. But this must often be the unfortunate condition of such families. Now imagine a week, month, or year, of the intercourse in such a domestic society, the course of talk, the mutual manners, and the progress of mind and character; where there is a sense of drudgery approaching to that of slavery, in the unremitting necessity of labor; where there is none of the interest of imparting knowledge or receiving it, or of reciprocating knowledge that has been imparted and received; where there is not an acre, if we might express it so, of intellectual space around them, clear of the thick, universal fog of ignorance; where, especially, the luminaries of the spiritual heaven, the attributes of the Almighty, the grand phenomenon of redeeming mediation, the solemn realities of a future state and another world, are totally obscured in that shade; where the conscience and the discriminations of duty are dull and indistinct, from the youngest to the oldest; where there is no genuine respect on the one side, nor affection unmixed with vulgar petulance and harshness, expressed perhaps in language of imprecation, on the other; where a mutual coarseness of manners and words has the effect, without their being aware of it as a cause, of debasing their worth in one another's esteem, all round; and where, notwithstanding all, they absolutely must pass a great deal of time together, to converse, to display their dispositions toward one another, and exemplify the poverty of the mere primary relations of life, as divested of the accessories which give them dignity, endearment, and conduciveness to the highest advantage of existence. Home has but little to please the young members of such a family, and a great deal to make them eager to escape out of the house; which is also a welcome riddance to the elder persons, when it is not in neglect or refusal to perform allotted tasks. So little is the feeling of a peaceful cordiality created among them by their seeing one another all within the habitation, that, not unfrequently, the passer-by may learn the fact of their collective number being there, from the sound of a low strife of mingled voices, some of them betraying youth replying in anger or contempt to maturity or age. It is wretched to see how early this liberty is boldly taken. As the children perceive nothing in the _minds_ of their parents that should awe them into deference, the most important difference left between them is that of physical strength. The children, if of hardy disposition, to which they are perhaps trained in battles with their juvenile rivals, soon show a certain degree of daring against their superior strength. And as the difference lessens, and by the time it has nearly ceased, what is so natural as that they should assume equality, in manners and in following their own will? But equality assumed where there should be subordination, inevitably involves contempt toward the party in defiance of whom it is asserted. The relative condition of such parents as they sink in old age, is most deplorable. And all that has preceded, leads by a natural course to that consequence which we have sometimes beheld, with feelings emphatically gloomy,--the almost perfect indifference with which the descendants, and a few other relations, of a poor old man of this class, could consign him to the grave. A human being was gone out of the world, a being they had been with or near all their lives, some of them sustained in their childhood by his labors, and yet perhaps not one heart, at any moment, felt the sentiment--I have lost----. They never could regard him with respect, and their miserable education had not taught them humanity enough to regard him in his declining days as an object of pity. Some decency of attention was perhaps shown him, or perhaps hardly that, in his last hours. His being now a dead, instead of a living man, was a burden taken off; and the insensibility and levity, somewhat disturbed and repressed at the sight of his expiring struggle, and of his being lowered into the grave, recovered by the day after his interment, if not on the very same evening, their accustomed tone, never more to be interrupted by the effect of any remembrance of him. Such a closing scene one day to be repeated is foreshown to us, when we look at an ignorant and thoughtless father surrounded by his untaught children. In the silence of thought we thus accost him,--The event which will take you finally from among them, perhaps after forty or fifty years of intercourse with them, will leave no more impression on their affections, than the cutting down of a decayed old tree in the neighborhood of your habitation. There are instances, of rare occurrence, when such a man becomes, late in life, far too late for his family to have the benefit of the change, a subject of the only influence which could awake him to earnest thoughtfulness and the full sensibility of conscience. When the sun thus breaks out toward the close of his gloomy day, and when, in the energy of his new life, he puts forth the best efforts of his untaught spirit for a little divine knowledge, to be a lamp to him in entering ere long the shades of death, with what bitter regrets he looks back to the period when a number of human beings, some perhaps still with him, some now scattered from him, and here and there pursuing their separate courses in careless ignorance, were growing up under his roof, within his charge, but in utter estrangement from all discipline adapted to ensure a happier sequel. His distressing reflection is often representing to him what they might now have been if they had grown up under such discipline. And gladly would he lay down his life to redeem for them but some inferior share of what the season for imparting to them is gone forever. Another thing is to be added, to this representation of the evils attendant on an uncultivated state of the people, namely--that _this mental rudeness puts them decidedly out of beneficial communication with the superior and cultivated classes_. We are assuming (with permission) that a national community should be constituted for the good of all its parts, not to be obtained by them as detached, independent portions, but adjusted and compacted into one social body; an economy in which all the parts shall feel they have the benefit of an amicable combination; in other words, that they are the better for one another. But it can be no such constitution when the most palpable relations between the two main divisions of society consist of such direct opposites as refinement and barbarism, dignity and gross debasement, intelligence and ignorance; which are the distinctions asserted by the higher classes as putting a vast distance between them and the lower. If so little of the correct understanding, the information, the liberalized feeling, and the propriety of deportment, which we are to ascribe to the higher and cultivated portion, goes downward into the lower, it should seem impossible but there must be more of repulsion than of amicable disposition and communication between them. We may suspect, perhaps, that those more privileged classes are not generally desirous that the interval were much less wide, provided that without cultivation of the lower orders the nuisance of their annoying and formidable temper could be abated. But however that may be, it is exceedingly desirable, for the good of both, that the upper and inferior orders _should_ be on terms of communication and mutual good-will, and therefore that there should be a diminution of that rudeness of mind and habits which must contribute to keep them alienated and hostile. If it were asked what communication, at all of a nature to be described by epithets of social and friendly import, we can be supposing by possibility to subsist between classes so different and distant, we may exemplify it by such an instance as we have now and then the pleasure of seeing. Each reader also, of any moderate compass of observation, may probably recollect an example, in the case of some man in humble station, but who has had (for his condition) a good education; having been well instructed in his youth in the elements of useful knowledge; having had good principles diligently inculcated upon him; having subsequently instructed himself, to the best of his very confined means and opportunity, through a habit of reading; and being in his manners unaffectedly observant of all the decorums of a respectable human being. It has been seen, that such a man has not found in some of his superiors in station and attainment any disposition to shun him; and has not felt in himself or his situation any reason why he should seek to shun them. He would occasionally fall into conversation with the wealthy and accomplished proprietor, or the professional man of learning, in the neighborhood. His intelligent manner of attending to what they said, his perfect understanding of the language naturally used by cultivated persons, the considerateness and pertinence of his replies, and the modest deference, combined with an honest freedom in making his observations on the matters brought in question, pleased those persons of superior rank, and induced various friendly and useful attentions, on their part to him and his family. He and his family thus experienced a direct benefit of superior sense, civility, and good principle, in a humble condition; and were put under a new responsibility to preserve a character for those distinctions.--Now think of the incalculable advantage to society, if anything approaching to this were the general state of social relation between the lower and the higher orders. On the contrary, there is no medium of complacent communication between the classes of higher condition and endowment, and an ignorant, coarse populace. Except on occasion of giving orders or magisterial rebukes, the gentleman will never think of such a thing as converse with the clowns in his vicinity. They, on their part, are desirous to avoid him; excepting when any of them may have a purpose to gain, by arresting his attention, with an ungainly cringe; or when some of those who have no sort of present dependence on him, are disposed to cross his way with a look and strut of rudeness, to show how little they care for him. The servility, and the impudence, almost equally repress in him all friendly disposition toward a voluntary intercourse with the class. There is thus as complete a dissociation between the two orders, as mutual dislike, added to every imaginable dissimilarity, can create. And this broad ungracious separation intercepts all modifying influence that might otherwise have passed, from the intelligence and refinement of the one, upon the barbarism of the other. But there is in human nature a pertinacious disposition to work disadvantages, in one way or other, into privileges. The people, in being thus consigned to a low and alien ground, in relation to the cultivated part of society, are put in possession, as it were, of a territory of their own; where they can give their disposition freer play, and act out their characters in their own manner; exempt equally from the voluntary and the involuntary influence of the cultivated superiors; that is to say, neither insensibly modified by the attraction of what is the most laudable in them as a pattern, nor swayed through policy to a studied accommodation to their understood opinion and will. This is a great emancipation enjoyed by the inferiors. And however injurious it may be, it is one of which they will not fail to take the full license. For in all things and situations, it is one of the first objects with human beings, to verify experimentally the presumed extent of their liberty and privilege. In this dissociation, the people are rid of the many salutary restraints and incitements which they would have been made to feel, if on terms of friendly recognition with the respectable part of the community; they have neither honor nor disgrace, from that quarter, to take into their account; and this contributes to extinguish all sense and care of respectability of character,--a care to which there will be no motive in any consideration of what they may, as among themselves, think of one another; for, with the low estimate which they mutually and justly entertain, there is a conventional feeling among them that, for the ease and privilege of them all, they are systematically to set aside all high notions and nice responsibilities of character and conduct. There is a sort of recognized mutual _right_ to be no better than they are. And an individual among them affecting a high conscientious principle would be apt to incur ridicule, as a man foolishly divesting himself of a privilege;--unless, indeed, he let them understand that hypocrisy was his way of maintaining that privilege, and turning it to account. The people are thus, by their ignorance, and what inseparably attends it, far removed and estranged from the more cultivated part of their fellow-countrymen; and consequently from every beneficial influence under which a state of friendly contiguity, if we may so express it, would have placed them. Let us now see what, in this abandonment to themselves, are their growing dispositions toward the superior orders and the existing arrangements of the community; dispositions which are promoted by causes more definite than this estrangement considered merely as the negation of benevolent intercourse, but to which it mightily contributes. Times may have been when the great mass, while placed in such decided separation from the upper orders, combined such a quietude with their ignorance, that they had little other than submissive feelings toward these superiors, whose property, almost, for all service and obsequiousness, they were accustomed to consider themselves; when no question would occur to them why there should be so vast a difference of condition between beings of the same race; when no other proof was required of the right appointment of their lot, however humble it might be, than their being, and their forefathers having been, actually in it; and when they did not presume, hardly in thought, to make any inferences from the fact of the immense disproportion of numbers and consequent physical strength between them and their superiors. [Footnote: Here, however, it should be observed that in the former age, when there was far less of jealous invidious feeling between the upper and lower classes than has latterly intervened, there was a more amicable manner of intercommunication. The settled and perfectly recognized state of subordination precluded on the one side, all apprehension of encroachment, and on the other the disposition to it.] But the times of this perfect, unquestioning, unmurmuring succumbency under the actual allotment have passed away; except in such regions as the Russian empire, where they have yet long to continue. In other states of Europe, but especially in our own, the ignorance of the people has nowhere prevented them from acquiring a sense of their strength and importance; with a certain ill-conceived, but stimulant notion, of some change which they think ought to take place in their condition. How, indeed, should it have been possible for them to remain unaware of this strength and importance, while the whole civilized world was shaken with a practical and tremendous controversy between the two grand opposed orders of society, concerning their respective rights; or that they should not have taken a strong, and from the rudeness of their mental condition, a fierce interest, in the principle and progress of the strife? And how should they have failed to know that, during this controversy, innumerable persons raised from the lower rank by talent and spirit, had left no place on earth except in courts (and hardly even there) for the dotage of fancying some innate difference between the classes distinguished in the artificial order of society? The effect of all this is gone deep into the minds of great numbers who are not excited, in consequence, to any worthy exertion for raising themselves, individually, from their degraded condition, by the earnest application and improvement of their means and faculties. The feeling of many of them seems to be, that they must and will sullenly abide by the ill-starred fate of their order, till some great comprehensive alteration in their favor shall absolve them from that bond of hostile sentiment, in which they make common cause against the superior classes; and shall create a state of things in which it shall be worth while for the individual to make an effort to raise himself. We can at best, (they seem to say,) barely maintain, with the utmost difficulty, a miserable life; and you talk to us of cultivation, of discipline, of moral respectability, of efforts to come out from our degraded rank! No, we shall even stay where we are; till it is seen how the question is to be settled between the people of our sort, and those who will have it that they are of a far worthier kind. There may then, perhaps, be some chance for such as we; and if not, the less we are disturbed about improvement, knowledge, and all those things, the better, while we are bearing the heavy load a few years, to die like those before us. We said they are banded in a hostile sentiment. It is true, that among such a degraded populace there is very little kindness, or care for one another's interests. They all know too well what they all are not, to feel mutual esteem or benevolence. But it is infinitely easier for any set of human beings to maintain a community of feeling in hostility to something else, than in benevolence toward another; for here no sacrifice is required of anyone's self-interest. And it is certain, that the subordinate portions of society have come to regard the occupants of the tracts of fertility and sunshine, the possessors of opulence, splendor, and luxury, with a deep, settled, systematic aversion; with a disposition to contemplate in any other light than that of a calamity an extensive downfall of the favorites of fortune, when a brooding imagination figures such a thing as possible; and with but very slight monitions from conscience of the iniquity of the most tumultuary accomplishment of such a catastrophe. In a word, so far from considering their own welfare as identified with the stability of the existing social order, they consider it as something that would spring from the ruin of that order. The greater number of them have lost that veneration by habit, partaking of the nature of a superstition, which had been protracted downward, though progressively attenuated with the lapse of time, from the feudal ages into the last century. They have quite lost, too, in this disastrous age, that sense of competence and possible well-being, which might have harmonized their feelings with a social economy that would have allowed them the enjoyment of such a state, even as the purchase of great industry and care. Whatever the actual economy may have of wisdom in its institutions, and of splendor, and fulness of all good things, in some parts of its apportionment, they feel that what is allotted to most of _them_ in its arrangements is pressing hardship, unremitting poverty, growing still more hopeless with the progress of time, and of what they hear trumpeted as national glory, nay, even "national prosperity and happiness unrivalled." This bitter experience, which inevitably becomes associated in their thoughts with that frame of society under which they suffer it, will naturally have a far stronger effect on their opinion of that system than all that had ever rendered them acquiescent or reverential toward it. That it brings no relief, or promise of relief, is a circumstance preponderating in the estimate, against all that can be said of its ancient establishment, its theoretical excellences, or the blessings in which it may be pretended to have once abounded, or still to abound. What were become of the most essential laws of human feeling, if such experience _could_ leave those who are undergoing its discipline still faithfully attached to the social order on the strength of its consecration by time, and of the former settled opinions in its favor,--however tenacious the impressions so wrought into habit are admitted to be? And the minds of the people thus thrown loose from their former ties, are not arrested and recovered by any substitutional ones formed while those were decaying. They are not retained in a temper of patient endurance and adherence, by the bond of principles which a sedulous and deep instruction alone could have enforced on them. The growth of sound judgment under such instruction, might have made them capable of understanding how a proportion of the evil may have been inevitable, from uncontrollable causes; of perceiving that it could not fail to be aggravated by a disregard of prudence in the proceedings in early life among their own class, and that so far it were unjust to impute it to their superiors or to the order of society; of admitting that national calamities are visitations of divine judgment, of which they were to reflect whether they had not deserved a heavy share; of feeling it to be therefore no impertinent or fanatical admonition that should exhort them to repentance and reformation, as an expedient for the amendment of even their temporal condition; and of clearly comprehending that, at all events, rancor, violence, and disorder, cannot be the way to alleviate any of the evils, but to aggravate them all. But, we repeat it, there are millions in this land, and if we include the neighboring island politically united to it, very many millions, who have received no instruction adequate, in the smallest degree, to counteract the natural effect of the distresses of their condition; or to create a class of moral restraints and mitigations in prevention of a total hostility of feeling against the established order, after the ancient attachments to it have been worn down by the innovations of opinion, and the pressure of continued distress. Thus uninstructed to apprehend the considerations adapted to impose a moral restraint, thus unmodified by principles of mitigation, there is a large proportion of human strength and feeling not in vital combination with the social system, but aloof from it, looking at it with "gloomy and malign regard;" in a state progressive towards a fitness to be impelled against it with a dreadful shock, in the event of any great convulsion, that should set loose the legion of daring, desperate, and powerful spirits, to fire and lead the masses to its demolition. There have not been wanting examples to show with what fearful effect this hostility may come into action, in the crisis of the fate of a nation's ancient system; where this alienated portion of its own people, rushing in, have revenged upon it the neglect of their tuition; that neglect which had abandoned them to so utter a "lack of knowledge," that they really understood no better than to expect their own solid advantage in general havoc and disorder. But how bereft of sense the _State_ too must be, that would thus _let_ a multitude of its people grow up in a condition of mind to believe, that the sovereign expedient for their welfare is to be found in spoliation and destruction! It might easily have comprehended what it was reasonable to expect from the matured dispositions and strength of such of its children as it abandoned to be nursed by the wolf. While this principle of ruin was working on by a steady and natural process, this supposed infatuated State was, it is extremely possible, directing its chief care to maintain the splendor of a court, or to extort the means for prosecuting some object of vain and wicked ambition, some project of conquest and military glory. And probably nothing could have appeared to many of its privileged persons more idle and ridiculous, or to others of them more offensive and ill-intentioned, than a remonstrance founded on a warning of such a consequence. The despisers would have been incomparably the greater number; and, "Go (they would have said) with your mock-tragical fortune-telling, to whoever can believe, too, that one day or other the quadrupeds of our stalls and meadows may be suddenly inspirited by some supernatural possession to turn their strength on us in a mass, or those of our kennels to imitate the dogs of Actæon." Section IV. There may be persons ready to make a question here, whether it be so certain that giving the people of the lower order more knowledge, and sharpening their faculties, will really tend to the preservation of good order. Would not such improvement elate them, to a most extravagant estimate of their own worth and importance; and therefore result in insufferable arrogance, both in the individuals and the class? Would they not, on the strength of it, be continually assuming to sit in judgment on the proceedings and claims of their betters, even in the most lofty stations; and demanding their own pretended rights, with a troublesome and turbulent pertinacity? Would they not, since their improvement cannot, from their condition in life, be large and deep, be in just such a half taught state, as would make them exactly fit to be wrought upon by all sorts of crafty schemers, fierce declaimers, empirics, and innovators? Is it not, in short, too probable that, since an increase of mental power is available to bad uses as well as good, the results would greatly preponderate on the side of evil? It would be curious to observe how objections so plausible, so decisive in the esteem of those who admire them, would sound if expressed in other terms. Let them be put in the form of such sentences and propositions as the following:--Though understanding is to be men's guide to right conduct, the less of it they possess the more safe are we against their going wrong. The duty of a human being has many branches; there are connected with all of them various general and special considerations, to induce and regulate the performance; it must be well for these to be defined with all possible clearness; and it is also well for the great majority of men to be utterly incapable of apprehending them with any such definiteness. It is desirable that the rule, or set of rules, by which the demeanor of the lower orders toward those above them is to be directed, should appear to them _reasonable_ as well as distinctly defined; but let us take the greatest care that their reason shall be in no state of fitness to perceive this rectitude of the rules. It would be a noble thing to have a competent understanding of all that belongs to human interest and duty; and therefore the next best thing is to be retained very nearly in ignorance of all. It would be a vast advantage to proceed a hundred degrees on the scale of knowledge; but the advantage is nowhere in the progress; each of the degrees is in itself worth nothing; nay, less than nothing; for unless a man could attain all, he had better stop at two or one, than advance to four, six, or ten. Truths support one another; by the conjunction of several each is kept the clearer in the understanding, the more efficient for its proper use, and the more adequate to resist the pressure of the surrounding ignorance and delusion; therefore let there be the greatest caution that we do not give to three truths in a man's understanding the aid of a fourth, or four the aid of a fifth; let the garrison be so diminutive that its successful resistance to the siege must be a miracle.----The reader will be in little danger of excess in shaping into as many forms of absurdity as he pleases a notion which goes to the depreciation of the desire and use of truth, of all that has been venerated as wisdom, of the divine revelation of knowledge, and of our rational nature itself. If it _be_ a rational nature that the lower ranks possess as well as the superior, one should have imagined it must be in the highest degree important that they, as well as their superiors, should habitually make their duty and conduct _a matter of thought_, of intelligent consideration, instead of going through it mechanically, or with little more than a brute accommodation of what they do to a customary and imposed manner of doing it; but this thoughtful way of acting will never prevail among them, while they are unexercised in that thinking which (generally speaking) men will never acquire but in the exercise of gaining knowledge. It were, again, better, one would think, that they should be capable of seeing some reason and use in gradations and unequal distributions in the community, than be left to regard it as all a matter of capricious or iniquitous fortune, to their allotment under which there is no reason for submission but a bare necessity. The improvement of understanding by which we are wishing to raise them in this humble allotment, without carrying them from the ground where it is placed, will explain to them the best compensations of their condition, will show them it is no essential degradation, and point them to the true respectability which may be obtained in it. And even if they _should_ be a little too much elated with the supposed attainments, (while the flattering possession is yet new, and far from general in their class,) what taste would it be in their superiors not to deem this itself a far better thing than the contented, or more probably insolent and malignant, grossness of a stupid vulgarity?--as some little excess of self-complacency in appearing in a handsome dress is accounted much less disgusting than a careless self-exposure in filth and rags. As to their being rendered liable by more knowledge to be caught by declaimers, projectors, and agitators, we may confidently ask, whether it be the natural effect of more knowledge and understanding to be less suspicious of cajoling professions, less discerning of what is practicable and impracticable, and more credulous to extravagant doctrines, and wild theories and schemes. Is it the well-instructed and intelligent poor man that believes the demagogue who may assert or insinuate that, if things were ordered right, all men might live in the greatest plenty? Or if we advert to those of the lower order whom a diminutive freehold or other qualification may entitle to vote for a member of parliament, is it the well-instructed and intelligent man among them that is duped by the candidate's professions of kind solicitude for him and his family, accompanied with smiling equivocal hints that it may be of more advantage than he is aware for a man who has sons to provide for, to have a friend who has access and interest in a certain high quarter? Nor is it among the best instructed and most thinking part of the subordinate class, that we shall find persons capable of believing that a community might, if those who govern it so pleased, be rich and prosperous by other means than a general industry in ordinary employments. If, again, it is apprehended that a great increase of intelligence among the people would destroy their deference and respectful deportment toward their superiors, the ground of this apprehension should be honestly assigned. If the claim to this respect be definable, and capable of being enforced upon good reasons, it is obvious that improved sense in the people will better appreciate them. Especially, if the claim is to owe any part of its validity to higher mental qualifications in the claimants, it will so far be incomparably better understood, and if it _be_ valid, far more respected than it is now. By having a measure of knowledge, and of the power and practice of thinking, the people would be enabled to form some notion of what it must be, and what it is worth, to have a great deal more of these endowments. They would observe and understand the indications of this ampler possession in the minds of those above them, and so would be aware of the great disparity between themselves and those superiors. And since they would value _themselves_ on their comparatively small share of these mental advantages, (for this is the very point of the objection against their attaining them,) they would be compelled to estimate by the same scale the persons dignified by so far surpassing a share of this admired wealth. Whereas an ignorant populace can understand nothing at all about the matter; they have no guess at the great disparity, nor impression of its importance; so that with them the cultivated superiors quite lose the weight of this grand difference, and can obtain none of the respect which they may deserve on account of it. The objection against enlightening the lower classes appears so remarkably absurd as viewed in this direction, that it might tempt us to suspect a motive not avowed. It is just the sort of caveat to be uttered by persons aware that themselves, or many of their class, might happen to betray to the sharpened inspection of a more intelligent people, that a higher ground in the allotments of fortune is no certain pledge for a superior rank of mind. It _were_ strange, very strange indeed, if persons combining with superior station a great mental superiority, should be content, while claiming the deference of the subordinate part of the community around them, that this high distinction should go for nothing in that claim, and that the required respect should be paid only in reverence of the number of their acres, the size of their houses, the elegance of their equipage and domestic arrangements, and perhaps some official capacity, in which many a notorious blockhead has strutted and blustered. We think such considerations as the above, opposed to the objection that any very material cultivation of the minds of the common people would destroy their industry in ordinary employments, their contentment with their station, and their respectful demeanor to their superiors; and would render them arrogant, disorderly, factious, liable to be caught by wild notions, misled by declaimers and impostors, and, in short, all the worse for being able to understand their duty and interest the better, ought to go far toward convicting that objection of great folly,--not to apply terms of stronger imputation. But we need not have dwelt so long on such arguments, since fortunately there is matter of fact in answer to the objection. To the extent of the yet very limited experiment, it is proved that giving the people more knowledge and more sense does not tend to disorder and insubordination; does not excite them to impatience and extravagant claims; does not spoil them for the ordinary business of life, the tasks of duty and necessity; does not make them the dupes of knaves; nor teach them the most profitable use of their improved faculties is to turn knaves themselves. Employers can testify, from all sides, that there is a striking general difference between those bred up in ignorance and rude vulgarity, and those who have been trained through the well-ordered schools for the humble classes, especially when the habits at home have been subsidiary; a difference exceedingly in favor of the latter, who are found not only more apt at understanding and executing, but more decorous, more respectful, more attentive to orders, more ready to see and acknowledge the propriety of good regulations, and more disposed to a practical acquiescence in them; far less inclined to ebriety and low company; and more to be depended on in point of honesty. In almost any part of the country, where the experiment has been zealously prosecuted for a moderate number of years, a long resident observer can discern a modification in the character of the neighborhood; a mitigation of the former brutality of manners, a less frequency of brawls and quarrels, and less tendency to draw together into rude riotous assemblages. There is especially a marked difference on the Sabbath, on which great numbers attend public worship, whose forefathers used on that day to congregate for boisterous sport on the common, or even within the inclosure vainly consecrated round the church; [Footnote: We know a church where, within, the remembrance of an immediate ancestor, it was not unusual, or thought anything amiss, for the foot-ball to be struck up within the "consecrated ground" at the close of the afternoon service of the Sunday.] and who would themselves in all probability have followed the same course, but for the tuition which has led them into a better. In not a few instances, the children have carried from the schools inestimable benefits home to their unhappy families; winning even their depraved, thoughtless parents into consideration and concern about their most important interests,--a precious repayment of all the long toils and cares, endured to support them through the period of childhood, and an example of that rare class of phenomena, in which (as in the instance of the Grecian Daughter) a superlative beauty arises from an inversion of the order of nature. Even the frightful statements of the increase, in recent years, of active juvenile depravity, especially in the metropolis, include a gratifying testimony in favor of education--at least did so some years since. The result of special inquiries, of extensive compass, into the wretched history of juvenile reprobates, has fortified the promoters of schools with evidence that it was not from _these_ seminaries that such noxious creatures were to go out, to exemplify that the improvement of intelligence may be but the greater aptitude for fraud and mischief. No, it was found to have been in very different places of resort, that these wretches had been, almost from their infancy, accomplished for crime; and that their training had not taken or needed any assistance from an exercise on literary rudiments, from Bibles, catechisms, or religious and moral poetry, or from an attendance on public worship. Indeed, as if Providence had designed that the substantial utility should be accompanied with a special circumstance to confound the cavillers, the children and youth of the schools were found to have been more generally preserved from falling into the class of premature delinquents, than a moral calculator, keeping in sight the quality of human nature and the immediate pressure of so much temptation, would have ventured to anticipate, upon the moderate estimate of the efficacy of instruction. Experience equally falsifies the notion that knowledge, imparted to the lower orders, beyond what is necessary to the handling of their tools, tends to factious turbulence; to an impatience (from the instigation of certain wild theories,) under law and regular government in society. The maintainers of which notion should also affirm, that the people of Scotland have been to this day about the most disaffected, tumultuary, revolutionary rabble in Europe; and that the Cornish miners, now so worthily distinguished at once by exercised intellect and religion, are incessantly on the point of insurrection, against their employers or the state. And we shall be just as ready to believe them, if they also assert, that, in those popular irregularities which have too often disturbed, in particular places, the peace of our country, the clamorous bands or crowds, collected for purposes of intimidation or demolition, have consisted chiefly of the better instructed part of the poorer inhabitants;--yes, or that this class furnished one in twenty or fifty of the numbers forming such lawless bands; even though many of these more instructed of the people might be suffering, with their families, the extremity of want, the craving of hunger, which, no less than "oppression," may "make a wise man mad." Many of these, in their desolate abodes, with tears of parents and children mingled together, have been committing themselves to their Father in heaven, at the time that the ruder part of the population have been carrying alarm, and sometimes mischief, through the district, and so confirming the faith, we may suppose, of sundry magnates of the neighborhood, who had vehemently asserted, a few years before, the pernicious tendency of educating the people. [Footnote: What proportion were found to have been educated, in the very lowest sense of the term, of the burners of ricks and barns in the south-eastern counties, a few years since? What proportion of the ferocious, fanatical, and sanguinary rout who, the other day, near the centre of the metropolitan see of Canterbury, were brought into action by the madman Thom, _alias_ Sir W. Courtenay; stout, well-fed, proud Englishmen--Englishmen "the glory of all lands," who were capable of believing that madman a divine personage, Christ himself, invulnerable, till the fact happened otherwise, and then were confident he would come to life again? When will the Government adopt some effectual means to avert from the nation the infamy of having such a populace in any part of the country, and especially _such_ a part of it?] It would be less than what is due to suffering humanity, to leave this topic without observing, that if a numerous division of the community should be sinking under severe, protracted, unmitigated distress, distress on which there appears to them no dawn of hope from ordinary causes, it is not to be held a disparagement to the value of education, if some of those who have enjoyed a measure of that advantage, in common with a greater number who have not, should become feverishly agitated with imaginations of great sudden changes in the social system; and be led to entertain suggestions of irregular violent expedients for the removal of insupportable evils. It must, in all reason, be acknowledged the last lesson which education could be expected to teach with practical effect, that one part of the community should be willing to resign themselves to a premature mortality, that the others may live in sufficiency and tranquillity. Such heroic devotement might not be difficult in the sublime elation of Thermopylae; but it is a very different matter in a melancholy cottage, and in the midst of famishing children. [Footnote: This was almost the desperate condition of numberless families in this country at a period of which they, or the survivors of them, retain in memory an indelible record; and we think it right to retain _here_ also that record. While thankful for all subsequent amendment, we say again, Look at Ireland.] After thus referring to matter of fact, for contradiction of the notion, that the mental cultivation of the lower classes might render them less subject to the rules of good order, we have to say, in further reply, that we are not heard insisting on the advantages of increased knowledge and mental invigoration among the people, _unconnected with the inculcation of religion._ Undoubtedly, the zealous friends of popular education account knowledge valuable absolutely, as being the apprehension of things as they are; a prevention of delusion; and so far a fitness for right volitions. But they consider religion, (besides being itself the primary and infinitely the most important part of knowledge,) as a principle indispensable for securing the full benefit of all the rest. It is desired, and endeavored, that the understandings of these opening minds may be taken possession of by just and solemn ideas of their relation to the Eternal Almighty Being; that they may be taught to apprehend it as an awful reality, that they are perpetually under his inspection; and as a certainty, that they must at length appear before him in judgment, and find, in another life, the consequences of what they are in spirit and conduct here. It is to be impressed on them, that his will is the supreme law; that his declarations are the most momentous truth known on earth; and his favor and condemnation the greatest good and evil. Under an ascendency of this divine wisdom it is, that their discipline in any other knowledge is designed to be conducted; so that nothing in the mode of their instruction may have a tendency contrary to it, and everything be taught in a manner recognizing the relation with it, as far as shall consist with a natural, unforced way of keeping this relation in view. Thus it is sought to be secured that, as the pupil's mind grows stronger and multiplies its resources, and he therefore has necessarily more power and means for what is wrong, there may be luminously presented to him, as if celestial eyes visibly beamed upon him, the most solemn ideas that can enforce what is right. * * * * * Such is the discipline meditated, for preparing the subordinate classes to pursue their individual welfare, and act their part as members of the community.--They are to be trained in early life to diligent employment of their faculties, tending to strengthen them, regulate them, and give their possessors the power of effectually using them. They are to be exercised to form clear, correct notions, instead of crude, vague, delusive ones. The subjects of these ideas will be, a very considerable number of the most important facts and principles; which are to be presented to their understandings with a patient repetition of efforts to fix them there as knowledge that cannot be forgotten. By this measure of actual acquirement, and by the habit formed in so acquiring, they will be qualified for making further attainment in future time, if disposed to improve their opportunities. During this progress, and in connection with many of its exercises, their duty is to be inculcated on them in the various forms in which they will have to make a choice between right and wrong, in their conduct toward society. There will be reiteration of lessons on justice, prudence, inoffensiveness, love of peace, estrangement from the counsels and leagues of vain and bad men; hatred of disorder and violence, a sense of the necessity of authoritative public institutions to prevent these evils, and respect for them while honestly administered to this end. All this is to be taught, in many instances directly, in others by reference for confirmation, from the Holy Scriptures, from which authority will also be impressed, all the while, the principles of religion. And religion, while its grand concern is with the state of the soul towards God and eternal interests, yet takes every principle and rule of morals under its peremptory sanction; making the primary obligation and responsibility be towards God, of everything that is a duty with respect to men. So that, with the subjects of this education, the sense of _propriety_ shall be _conscience_; the consideration of how they ought to be regulated in their conduct as a part of the community, shall be the recollection that their Master in heaven dictates the laws of that conduct, and will judicially hold them amenable for every part of it. And is not a discipline thus addressed to the purpose of fixing religious principles in ascendency, as far as that difficult object is within the power of discipline, and of infusing a salutary tincture of them into whatever else is taught, the right way to bring up citizens faithful to all that deserves fidelity in the social compact? But perhaps far less of sacred knowledge than all this pleading admits and assumes to be indispensable to them, will answer the end. For it is but a slender quantity of it that is, in effect, proposed to be imparted to them by those who would give them very little other knowledge. They will talk of giving the people an education specifically religious; a training to conduct them on through a close avenue, looking straight before them to descry distant spiritual objects, while shut out from all the scene right and left, by fences that tell them there is nothing that concerns them there. There may be rich and beautiful fields of knowledge, but they are not to be trampled by vulgar feet. Now, may we presume that by knowledge, or information, is meant a clear understanding of a subject? If so, it is but little religious information that _can_ be imparted while that of a more general nature is withheld. The case is so, partly because, in order to a clear conception of the principal things in the doctrine of religion, the mind wants facts, principles, associations of ideas, and modes of applying its thoughts, which are to be acquired from the consideration of various other subjects; and partly because, even though it did _not_, and though it _were_ practicable to understand religious truths clearly without the subsidiary ideas, and the disciplined mental habit acquired in attention to other subjects, _it is flatly contrary to the radical disposition of human nature_ that youthful spirits should yield themselves to a bare exclusively religious discipline. It were supposing a reversal of the natural taste and tendency, to expect them to apply their attention so patiently, so willingly, so long, and with such interest, to this one subject, as to be brought to an intelligent apprehension through the almost sole exercise of thinking on this. By thinking on this!--which is the subject on which they are by their very nature the least of all inclined to think; the subject on which it is the most difficult as well as the most important point in education to induce them to think; the subject which, while it is essential to give it the ascendency in the instruction of both the lower classes and all others, it requires so much care and address to present in an attractive light; and which it is so desirable to combine with other subjects naturally more engaging, in order to bring it oftener by such associations into the thoughts, in that secondary manner, which causes somewhat less of recoil. It is curious to see what some persons can believe, or affect to believe, when reduced to a dilemma. On the one hand, they cannot endure the idea of any considerable raising of the common people by mental improvement, in the general sense: that were ruin to social order. But then on the other, if it must not be plainly denied, that the said common people are of the very same rational nature as the most elevated divisions of the race; and that their essential worth must be in this spiritual thinking being, which worth is lost to them, if that being is sunk and degraded in gross ignorance, it follows that some kind of cultivation is required. Well then; we must give them some religious knowledge, unaccompanied by such other knowledge as would much more attractively invite them to exercise their minds, and _it will be practicable and easy enough_ to engage their habitual attention to that very subject, almost exclusively, to which the natural taste of the species is peculiarly averse. In exposing the absurdity of any scheme of education for the inferior classes, which should propose to make them intelligent about religion while intelligent about nothing else except their ordinary employments, we do not forget the instances now and then met with of pious poor men who, while very uncultivated in the general sense, evince a remarkable clearness of conception on religious topics, and in the application of these topics to their duties as men and citizens. But "remarkable" we involuntarily call these phenomena, whenever adverting to them. We naturally use some expression importing a degree of wonder at such a fact. We think it a striking illustration of the power of _religion itself_, and not of the power of religious instruction. The extreme force with which the vital spirit has seized and actuated his faculties, has in a measure remedied the incapacity he had otherwise been under of forming clear ideas of the subject. Even, however, while acknowledging and admiring this effect of a special influence from heaven, we still find ourselves involuntarily surmising, in such an instance, that the man must also have been superior in natural capacity to the generality of ignorant persons; so much out of the common course of things we account it for a man who knows so few things to know this one thing so well. We account it so from the settled conviction received through experience, that it is very unlikely a man ignorant of almost all other things _should_ well understand _one_ subject, of a nature quite foreign to that of his ordinary occupations. It is superfluous to observe, that such instances of a very considerable comprehension of religious truth, obtained in spite of what naturally makes so much against its being attainable, cannot affect the calculation when we are devising schemes which can only work according to natural laws and with ordinary powers. They who devise and apply them will rejoice at these evidences that there is an Agent who can open men's minds to the light of religion independently and in the absence of other intellectual advantages. But the question being how to bring the people, by the ordinary means of education, to a competent knowledge of religious truth, we have to consider what way of attempting to impart that knowledge may be the best fitted, at once to obviate the natural indisposition to the subject, and to provide that when it does obtain a place in their understanding, it shall not be a meagre, diminutive, insulated occupant there, but in its proper dimensions and relations. And if, in attentively studying this, there be any who come to ascertain, that the right expedient is a bare inculcation of religious instruction, disconnected, on system, from the illustrative aid of other knowledge, divested of the modification and attraction of associated ideas derived from subjects less uncongenial with the natural feelings,--they really may take the satisfaction of having ascertained one thing more, namely, that human nature has become at last so mightily changed, that it may be left to work itself right very soon, as to the affair of religion, with little further trouble of theirs. * * * * * The special view in which we were pleading, on behalf of popular education, that religious instruction would form a material part of it, was, that this essential ingredient would be a security against its being injurious to the good order and subordination in society. It is the more necessary to be particular on this, as some of those who have professed to lay much stress on the _religious_ instruction of the people have seemed to have little further notion of the necessity or use of religion to the lower classes, than as merely a preserver of good order. In this character it has been insisted on by persons who avowed their aversion to every idea of an education in a more enlarged sense. We have heard it so insisted on, no such long while past, by members of the most learned institutions, at the same moment that they expressed more than a doubt of the prudence of enabling the common people to read, literally to _read_, the Bible. But assuredly the good order of a populace left in the stupid general ignorance to which some of these good friends of theirs would have doomed them, cannot be preserved by any such feeble infusion of religious knowledge as these same good friends would instil into their mental grossness. As long as they are in this condition, there must be some far stronger power acting on them to preserve that good order. And if there actually _has_ been such a power, hitherto competent to preserve it, with only such an impotent scantling of religious knowledge in the majority of the mass, and competent still to preserve it, a great deal of hypocritical canting might have been spared, on the part of those whose chief or only argument for teaching the people religion is the maintenance of that good order. But all this while we are forgetting to inquire how much is to be understood as included in that good order, that deference and subordination, which the possession of more mind and knowledge by the people might disturb or destroy. May not the notion of it, as entertained by some persons, be rather an image of the polity of an age long past, or of that which remains unaltered as if it were a part of eternal nature in the dominions of the East, than a model for the conformation of society here in the present times? Is it required, that there should be a sentiment of obsequiousness in the people, affecting them in a manner like the instinct by which a lower order of animals is in awe of a higher, by which the common tribe of beasts would cower at the sight of lions? Or, is the deference expected to be paid, not on any understanding of reciprocal advantage, but absolutely and unconditionally, as to a claim founded in abstract or divine right? Is it to be held a criminal presumption in the people, to think of examining their relations to the community any further than the obligation of being industrious in the employments to which it assigns them, and dutiful to its higher orders? Are they to entertain no question respecting the right adjustment of their condition in the arrangements of the great social body? Are they forbidden ever to admit a single doubt of its being quite a matter of course, that everything which could be done for the interests of their class, consistently with the welfare of the whole, _is_ done; or, therefore, to pretend to any such right as that of examining, representing, complaining, remonstrating, or an ultimate recourse, perhaps, in a severe necessity, to stronger expedients? A subordination founded in such principles, and required to such a degree, it is true enough that the communication of knowledge is not the way to perpetuate. For the first use which men will infallibly make of an enlargement of their faculties and ideas, will be, to take a larger view of their interests; and they may happen, as soon as they do so, to think they discover that it was quite time; and the longer they do so, to retain still less and less of implicit faith that those interests will be done justice to, without their own vigilance and intervention. An educated people must be very slow indeed in the application of what they learn, if they do not soon grow out of all belief in the _necessary_ wisdom and rectitude of any order of human creatures whatever. They will see how unreasonable it were to expect, that any sort of men will fail in fidelity to the great natural principle, of making their own advantage the first object; and therefore they will not be apt to listen, with the gravity which in other times and regions may have been shown in listening, to injunctions of gratitude for the willingness evinced by the higher orders to take on them the trouble of watching and guarding the people's welfare, by keeping them in due submission. But neither will it necessarily be in the spirit of hostility, in the worst sense of the word, that a more instructed people will thus show a diminished credulity of reverence toward the predominant ranks in the social economy; and will keep in habitual exercise upon them a somewhat suspicious observation, and a judicial estimate; with an honest freedom in sometimes avowing disapprobation, and strongly asserting any right which is believed to be endangered or withheld. This will only be expressing that, since all classes naturally consult by preference their own interests, it is plainly unfit, that one portion of the community should be trusted with an unlimited discretion in ordering what affects the welfare of the others; and that, in all prudence, the people must refuse an entire affiance, and unconditional, unexamining acquiescence; "except the gods, whose dwelling is not with flesh," would come to harmonize, and then administer, interests which are so placed unappeasably at strife;--at strife; for, what is so often asserted of those interests being in reality the same, is true only on that comprehensive theory which neither party is prompt to understand, or willing to make sacrifices of a more immediate self-interest to realize; and it is evidently impossible for either, even if believing it true, to concede to the other the exclusive adjustment of the practical mode of identification. But only let the utmost that is possible be done, to train the people, from their early years, to a sound use of their reason, under a discipline for imparting a valuable portion of knowledge, and assiduously inculcating the principles of social duty and of religion; and then something may be said, to good purpose, to their understanding and conscience, while they are maintaining the competition of claims with their superiors. They will then be capable of seeing put in a fair balance, many things which headlong ignorance would have taken all one way. They will be able to appreciate many explanations, alleged causes of delay, statements of difficulty between opposing reasons, which would be thrown away on an ignorant populace. And it would be an inducement to their making a real exertion of the understanding, that they thus found themselves so formally put upon their responsibility for its exercise; that they were summoned to a rational discussion, instead of being addressed in the style of Pharaoh to the Israelites. The strife of interests would thus come to be carried on with less fierceness and malice, in the spirit and manner, on the part of the people. And the ground itself of the contention, the substance of the matters in contest, would be gradually diminished, by the concessions of the higher classes to the claims of the lower; for there is no affecting to dissemble, that a great mental and moral improvement of the people would necessitate, though there were not a single movement of rude force in the case, important concessions to them, on the part of the superior orders. A people advanced to such a state, would make its moral power felt in a thousand ways, and every moment. This general augmentation of sense and right principle would send forth, against all arrangements and inveterate or more modern usages, of the nature of invidious exclusion, arbitrary repression, and the debasement of great public interests into a detestable private traffic, an energy, which could no more be resisted than the power of the sun, when he advances in the spring to annihilate the relics and vestiges of the winter. This plastic influence would modify the institutions of the national community, to a state better adapted to secure all the popular rights; and to convey the genuine, collective opinion, to bear directly on the counsel and transaction of national concerns. That opinion would be so unequivocally manifested, as to leave no pretence for a doubtful interpretation of its signs; and with such authority as to preclude any question whether to set it at defiance. That such effects _would_ be inseparable from a great general advancement of the people in knowledge and corrected character, must be freely acknowledged to its disapproves. And is it _because_ these would be the consequences, that they disapprove it? Then let them say, what it is that _they_ would expect from an opposite system. _What_ is it, that they could seriously promise themselves, from the conservative virtue of all the ignorance, that can henceforward be retained among the people of this part of the world? It is true, the remaining ignorance is so great that they cannot well overrate its _general_ amount; but how can they fail to perceive the importance of those _particulars_ in which its dominion has been broken up? There is indeed a hemisphere of "gross darkness over the people;" it may be possible to withhold from it long the illumination of the sun; but in the mean time it has been rent by portentous lights and flashes, which have excited a thought and agitation not to be stilled by the continuance of the gloom. There have come in on the popular mind some ideas, which the wisest of those who dread or hate their effect there, look around in vain for the means of expelling. And these glimpses of partial intelligence, these lights of dubious and possibly destructive direction amidst the night, will continue to prompt and lead that mind, with a hazard which can sease only with the opening upon it of the true daylight of knowledge. That knowledge should have been antecedent to the falling of these inflammatory ideal among the people; and if they have come before the proper time, that is to say, before the people were prepared to judge rationally of their rights, and to apprehend clearly the duties inseparable from them as a condition of their enjoyment, the calamitous consequences to the higher classes, as seen in the recent history of Europe, may be regarded as a righteous judgment of heaven upon them, for having suffered it to be _possible_ for these new ideas of liberty and rights to come to the people in a state so unprepared. What were all their commanding authorities of government, their splendid ecclesiastical establishments, their great personal wealth and influence,--all their lofty powers and distinctions which even their basest sycophants, sacerdotal or poetical, told them, as one topic of adulation, that they were not entrusted with for their own sole gratification,--what were all these for, if the great body of the communities over which they presided were to be retained in a state in which they could not be touched by a few bold speculations in favor of popular rights, without exploding as with infernal fire? How appropriate a retribution of Sovereign Justice, that those who were wickedly the cause should be the victims of the effect. Where such a consequence has not followed, but where, nevertheless, these notions of popular rights have come into the minds of the people very much in precedence and disproportion to the general cultivation of their intelligence and moral sense, it is most important that all diligence should be given to bring up these neglected improvements to stand in rank with those too forward speculations. Whether this shall be done or not, these notions and feelings are not things come into life without an instinct of what they have to do. The disapproves of schemes for throwing the greatest practicable measure of sound corrective knowledge into the minds of the multitude, may take instruction or may decline it from seeing that, both in this country and other states of Europe, there has gone forth among the mass of the people a spirit of revolt from the obligation, which would retain their reverence to institutions on the strength simply of their being established or being ancient; a spirit that reacts, with deep and settled antipathy, against some of the arrangements and claims of the order into which the national community has been disposed by institutions and the course of events; a spirit which regards some of the appointments and requirements of that order, as little better than adaptations of the system to the will and gratification of the more fortunate divisions of the species. And it has shown itself in a very different character from that of a mere pining despondency, or the impotent resentment excited sometimes in timidity itself by severe grievance, but quelled by alarm at its own rashness. The element and the temperament of its nature, and the force of its action, have been displayed in the tremendous concussions attending its conflict with the power arrayed in behalf of the old order of things to crush it. And _is_ this spirit crushed? Is it subdued? Is it in the least degree reduced?--reduced, we mean, in its internal power, as a combination of the most absolute opinion with the impulse of some of the strongest passions. Is it, we repeat, repressed? There may have been persons who could not, "good easy men," conceive a possibility of its surviving the fiery storm of the whole resources of the world converted into the materials of war, to be poured on it, and followed by the mightiest leagues and the most systematic legislation, all aimed at its destruction; surviving to come forth with unabated vigor at the opportune junctures in the future progress of events; like some great serpent, coming out again to glare on the sight, with his appalling glance and length of volume, after a volley of missiles had sent him to his retreat. The old approved expedients against unreasonable discontents, and refractory tempers, and local movements of hostility excited by some worthless competitor for power, had been combined and applied on the grand scale; and henceforward all was to be still. It was not given to these spell-bound understandings to apprehend that the spirit to be repressed might be of a nature impassive to these expedients, possibly to be confirmed by their application. Repressed! What is it that is manifesting itself in the most remarkable events in the old, and what has been called the new world, at the present time? And what are the measures of several of the great state authorities of Europe, whether adopted in deliberate policy, or in a fitful mood between rashness and dismay; what are, especially, the meetings, conferences, and military preparations, of the mightiest despots of the globe, assembled at this very hour against a small and unoffending nation, [Footnote: The meeting of imperial and royal personages at Troppau and Laybach, for the detestable purpose of crushing the newly acquired liberty of the kingdom of Naples.--January, 1821.]--what are these but a confession or proclamation, that the spirit which the most enormous exertions had been made to overwhelm, has preserved its life and energy; like those warring immortal powers whom Milton describes as having mountains thrown on them in vain? The progress of time renders it but more evident, that the principle in action is something far different from a superficial transient irritation; that it has gone the whole depth of the mind; has possessed itself of the very judgment and conscience of an innumerable legion, augmented by a continual and endless accession. No doubt is permitted to remain of the direction which has been taken by the current of the popular feeling,--to be recovered to its ancient obsequious course when some great river which has farced a new channel shall resume that which it has abandoned. For when once the great mass, of the lower and immensely larger division of the community, shall have become filled with an absolute, and almost unanimous conviction, that they, the grand physical agency of that community; that they, the operators, the producers, the preparers, of almost all it most essentially wants; that they, the part, therefore, of the social assemblage so obviously the most essential to its existence, and on which all the rest must depend; that they have their condition in the great social arrangement so disposed as not to acknowledge this their importance, as not to secure an adequate reward of these their services;--we say, when this shall have become the pervading intense conviction of the millions of Europe, we put it as a question to any rational thinker, whether and how this state of feeling can be reversed or neutralized, if the economy which has provoked it shall yield to no modification. But it _is_ no question, he will confess. Then will he pretend not to foresee any material change in an order of things obnoxious to so vast a combination of wills and agents? This may indeed be seriously avowed by some, who are so walled up in old prejudice and presumption that they really have no look out; who, because a thing has been long established, mistake its artificial substruction of crumbling materials for the natural rock; and it will be pretended by others, who think the bravado of asserting the impossibility of the overthrow may be a good policy for deterring the attempt. There has not been one of the great alterations effected by the popular spirit within the last half-century, that was not preceded by professions of contemptuous incredulity, on the part of the applauders of things as they were, toward those who calculated on the effects of that spirit. There were occasionally betrayed, under these shows of confidence and contempt, some signs of horror at the undeniable excitement and progress of popular feeling; but the scorn of all serious and monitory predictions of its ultimate result was at all events to be kept up,--in whatever proportions a time-serving interest and an honest fatuity might share in dictating this elated and contemptuous style. Should the latter of these ingredients at present predominate in the temper which throws off the fume of this high style, it will not leave much faculty in the defiers of all revolution, for explaining what it is they have to trust to as security against such consequences as we should anticipate from the progress of disapprobation and aversion in the people; unless indeed the security mainly relied on is just that plain, simple expedient--force, for all nations on earth--downright force. It is plainly this that is meant, when persons disinclined to speak out give us a circumlocution of delicate phrases, "the conservative energies of the public institutions," "the majesty of the law," perhaps, and others of similar cast;--which fine phrases suggest to one's imagination the ornamented fashion of the handle and sheath of the scimitar, which is not the less keen, nor the less ready to be drawn, for all this finery that hides and garnishes so menacing a symbol of power. The economy of states _shall_ not be modified in favor of the great body of those who constitute them.--And are, then, the higher and privileged portions of the national communities to have, henceforward, just this one grand object of their existence, this chief employment for their knowledge, means, and power, namely, to keep down the lower orders of their fellow-citizens by stress of coercion? Are they resolved and prepared for a rancorous, interminable hostility in prosecution of such a benign purpose; with a continual exhaustion upon it of the resources which might be applied to diminish that wretchedness of the people, which is the grand inflamer of those principles that have caused an earthquake under the foundations of the old social systems? But, "interminable" is no proper epithet to be applied to such a course. This policy of a bare uncompromising rigor, exerted to keep the people just where they are, in preference to adjustments formed on a calculation of a material change, and adapted to prepare them for it--how long could it be successful--not to ask what would be the value or the glory of that success? With the light of recent history to aid the prognostication, by what superstitious mode of estimating the self-preserving, and self-avenging competence of any artificial form of social order, can we believe in its power to throw back the general opinions, determinations, and efforts, of the mass of mankind in endless recoil on themselves? That must be a very firm structure, must be of gigantic mass or most excellent basis and conformation, against which the ocean shall unremittingly wear and foam in vain. And it does not appear what there can be of such impregnable consistence in any particular construction of the social economy which is, by the supposition, resolved to be maintained in sovereign immutability, in permanent frustration of the persevering, ever-growing aim and impulse of the great majority, pressing on to achieve important innovations in their favor; innovations in those systems of institution and usage, under which they will never cease to think they have had far less happiness, or means of happiness, than they ought to have had. We cannot see how this impulse can be so repelled or diverted that it shall not prevail at length, to the effect of either bearing down, or wearing away, a portion of the order of things which the ascendant classes in every part of Europe would have fondly wished to maintain in perpetuity, without one particle of surrender. But though they cannot preserve its entireness, the manner in which it shall yield to modification is in a great measure at their command. And here is the important point on which all these observations are meant to bear. If a movement has really begun in the general popular mind of the nations, and if the principle of it is growing and insuppressible, so that it must in one manner or another ultimately prevail, what will the state be of any national community where it shall be an unenlightened, half-barbarous people that so prevails?--a people no better informed, perhaps, than to believe that all the hardship and distress endured by themselves and their forefathers were wrongs, which they suffered from the higher orders; than to ascribe to bad government, and the rapacity and selfishness of the rich, the very evils caused by inclement seasons; and than to assume it as beyond question, that the whole accumulation of their resentments, brought out into action at last, is only justice demanding and inflicting a retribution. In such an event, what would not the superior orders be glad to give and forego, in compromise with principles, tempers, and demands, which they will know they should never have had to encounter, to the end of time, if, instead of spending their vast advantages on merely their own state and indulgence, they had applied them in a mode of operation and influence tending to improve, in every way, the situation and character of the people? It is true, that such a wild triumph of overpowering violence would necessarily be short. A blind, turbulent monster of popular power never can for a long time maintain the domination of a political community. It would rage and riot itself out of breath and strength, succumb under some strong coercion of its own creating, and lie subject and stupified, till its spirit should be recovered and incensed for new commotion. But this impossibility of a very prolonged reign of confusion, would be little consolation for the classes against whose privileged condition the first tremendous eruption should have driven. It would not much cheer a man who should see his abode carried away, and his fields and plantations devastated, to tell him that the agent of this ruin was only a transient mountain torrent. A short prevalence of the overturning force would have sufficed for the subversion of the proudest, longest established state of privilege; and most improbable would it be, that those who lost it in the tumult, would find the new authority, of whatever shape or name it were, that would arise as that tumult subsided, either able or disposed to restore it. They might perhaps, (on a favorable supposition,) survive in personal safety, but in humiliated fortunes, to ruminate on their manner of occupying their former elevated situation, and of employing its ample means of power, a due share of which, exerted for the improvement of the general condition, both intellectual and civil, with an accompanying liberal yet gradual concession of privileges to the people, would have prevented the catastrophe. Let us urge, then, that a zealous endeavor to render it absolutely impossible that, in any change whatever, the destinies of a nation should fall under the power of an ignorant infuriated multitude, may take place of the presumption that there _is_ no great change to be ever effected by the progressive and conscious importance of the people; a presumption than which nothing can appear more like infatuation, when we look at the recent scenes and present temperament of the moral world. Lay hold on the myriads of juvenile spirits, before they have time to grow up through ignorance into a reckless hostility to social order; train them to sense and good morals: inculcate the principles of religion, simply and solemnly _as_ religion, as a thing directly of divine dictation, and not as if its authority were chiefly in virtue of human institutions; let the higher orders generally make it evident to the multitude that they are desirous to raise them in value, and promote their happiness; and then _whatever_ the demands of the people as a body, thus improving in understanding and the sense of justice, shall come to be, and _whatever_ modification their preponderance may ultimately enforce on the great social arrangements, it will be infallibly certain that there never _can_ be a love of disorder, an insolent anarchy, a prevailing spirit of revenge and devastation. Such a conduct of the ascendant ranks would, in this nation at least, secure that, as long as the world lasts, there never would be any formidable commotion, or violent sudden changes. All those modifications of the national economy to which an improving people would aspire and would deserve to obtain, would be gradually accomplished, in a manner by which no party would be wronged, and all would be the happier. [Footnote: The considerations in the latter part of this section (so plainly on the surface of the subject that they would occur to any thoughtful and observant man) have been verified in part by the course of events in our country, since the time they were written. At that, time the superior, and till then irresistibly and invariably predominant, portion of the community, felt themselves in perfect security against any comprehensive and radical change within the ensuing twelve or fourteen years. There might indeed be one or two subordinate matters in the established national system in which they might deem it not unlikely that the advocates and laborers for innovation would be successful; but such an amount of innovation did not come within the view of even a feverish dream. Any man who should have predicted, especially, the recent greatest achievement against the inveterate system, [Footnote: The Reform Bill.] would have been laughed at as an incorrigible visionary; so proudly confident were they that the structure would be kept compact and impregnable in all its essential parts, by the cement of ancient institution, national veneration, opulence, and the inherence of actual power, possessed from generation to generation. In the next place, they were obstinately resolute against all material concessions. When at intervals the complaints, claims, and remonstrances of the people sought to be heard, they treated them as unreasonable, absurd, factious; and asserted that none of the good sense and right feeling of the nation went that way. They declared that the existing order of things was on the whole so superlatively excellent that, if there were, perhaps, any trifling defects, it were far better to let them alone than to presume to touch with an innovating hand the integrity of so noble a system, the admiration and envy of all the world. As it was, it had "worked well" for our happiness and glory; and who could say, if a tampering of alteration were once suffered to begin, where it might end? Order the people to be quiet; let their factious demands and seditious movements be promptly and firmly repressed by authority; and they would sink into insignificance and silence. To think of such a thing as condescending to conciliate by moderate concessions would be weakness, and might eventually bring a hazard which otherwise could have no existence. And now for the consequence: the popular spirit, thus set at naught in present account and in calculation for the future, was discouraged from active outward manifestation, by the invetorate, perfectly organized, and, for the present, resistless domination. But under the pressure of wide-spread and unabating grievance, which quickened and envenomed every sentiment previously entertained regarding the rights and wrongs of the people, it was gradually acquiring, throughout the country, a more determinate sense of being absolved from all submissive respect toward the ascendant party, a more entire conviction of its right to vindicate its claims in any manner that should become practicable, and a hostility, but the more deep and intense for its being kept under by despondency of present success, against those who were rejecting and contemptuously defying those claims. It wanted, then, only some occurrence that should present a possibility and a hope of success to burst out in sudden ardor. It was thus in collective power and readiness for action, when several events of prodigious excitement came close together; and then, like a stream in one of the Swiss valleys, dammed up by a mound of earth or ice fallen across, to a lake deepening without noise, till its vast weight breaks away the obstruction with a tremendous tumult, the popular will bore down the aristocratic embankment, consolidated through so many years or ages. The overpowered party found the consequence of their obstinate and _entire_ resistance; and had to reflect with unmixed mortification how much less than they had lost, and without mitigating by the loss the hostile feeling of those who had taken it from them, would have been received with gratitude if yielded in the way of gradual voluntary concession. Happily the change was not left to be accomplished by physical force, as all such changes must be in purely despotic states; but the people fully believe that they chiefly owe the forced surrender to the alarm which their demonstrations excited lest they should bring the question ere long to that arbitrament. But in the last place, there is a deplorable circumstance, attending this sudden rising of the popular spirit into power, and which throws a strong light on the criminal infatuation of a State that suffers the commonalty of its citizens to remain grossly uncultivated and uncivilized--perhaps even fancies it sees in that ignorance a main security for its own stability. The fact is, that the people have acquired their power and privileges, before they are (speaking as to many of them) qualified for a wise and useful exercise of them. A large proportion of those who are now brought into what may be called political existence have grown up so destitute of all means and habits for a right use of their minds, that their notions, wishes, expectations, and determinations, respecting public interests, will exemplify anything rather than a competent judgment. And the proportion so raised is but perhaps a minor part of the multitude in which the popular spirit is embodied and vehemently excited. Great numbers on a lower level, and having no formal political capacity to act in, are nevertheless pervaded by a spirit which will bring the rude impulse of mass and combination into the movement of the popular will. If alarmed at such a view, will not they who have so long held the sovereign control over the national economy feel the bitterest regret that it had not been given them to obviate the possible dangers of such a crisis and such a change, or rather to prevent such a crisis and a change so abrupt, by exertions in every way, and on the widest scale, to rescue the people from their ignorance and barbarism, instead of trusting to it for an uncontested undisturbed continuance of their own domination? But they scorned the idea, if it ever occurred, that the many-headed, many-handed "monster," (so named in the dialect of some of them,) after lying prone, and inert, and submissive, from time immemorial, should at last become instinct with spirit, and rise up roaring in defiance of their power. It is now for them to consider whether, by maintaining a temper and attitude of sullen, vindictive, pugnacious alienation from the people, they shall wilfully aggravate whatever injurious consequences may be threatened by so sudden a revolution; or endeavor to intercept them by giving their best assistance to every plan and expedient for rescuing the lower orders from the curse and calamity of ignorance and debasement. Other remedial measures, besides that of education, are imperiously demanded by the miserable and formidable condition of the populace, but no other, nor all others together, can avail without it. * * * * * Since the date of the above note, the spirit and policy of the ascendant class have been just that which a philanthropist would have deprecated, and a cynic predicted. Their moral chagrin at the acquisition by the people of a new political rank, an event by which they, (the ascendant class,) had for a while appeared amazed and stunned, has soon recovered to a prodigious activity of device and exertion to nullify that rightful acquisition. For this purpose have been brought into play, on the widest scale, that of the whole kingdom, all the means and resources of wealth, station, and power; with the utmost recklessness of equity, honor, and even humanity; deluding the ignorant, corrupting the venal, and intimidating and punishing the conscientious: insomuch that the nominally conceded right or privilege is practically reduced to an inconsiderable proportion of its pre-estimated worth; while aristocratic tyranny has rendered it to many of the most deserving to possess it no better than an inflicted grievance. One important measure for the improvement of the condition of the lower orders has been effected, because the anti-popular party saw it advantageous also to their own interests. But for the general course of their policy, we have witnessed a systematic determination to frustrate measures framed in recognition of the rights and wants of the people. As to their education, it continues abandoned to the efforts and totally inadequate means of private individuals and societies; except a comparative trifle from the State, not so much for the whole nation for the whole year as the cost of some useless, gaudy, barbaric pageant of one day.--It is evident the predominant portion of the higher classes trouble themselves very little about the mental condition of the populace. It is even understood that a chief obstacle in the way of any comprehensive legislation on the subject is found or apprehended in the repugnance of those classes to any liberal scheme: any scheme that, aiming simply at the general good, should boldly set aside invidious restrictions and a jealous, parsimonious limitation; a scheme that should not work in subjection to the mean self-interest of this party or that, but for the one grand purpose of raising millions from degradation into rational existence.] Section V. The most serious form of the evil caused by a want of mental improvement, is that which is exposed to us in its consequences with respect to the most important concern of all, Religion. This has been briefly adverted to in a former part of these descriptive observations. But the subject seems to merit a more amplified illustration, and may be of sufficient interest to excuse some appearance of repetition. The special view in which we wish to place it, is that of _the inaptitude of uncultivated minds for receiving religious instruction._--But first, a slight estimate may be attempted of the actual state of religious notions among our uneducated population. _Some_ notion of such a concern, something different in their consciousness from the absolute negation of the idea, something that faintly responds to the terms which would be used by a person conversing with them, in the way of questioning them on the subject, may be presumed to exist in the minds of all who are advanced a considerable way into youth, or come to mature age, in a country where all are familiar with several of the principal terms of theology, and have the monitory spectacle of edifices for religious use, on spots appointed also for the interment of the dead. If this sort of measured caution in the assumption seem bordering on the ridiculous, we would recommend those who would smile at it to make some little experiments. Let them insinuate themselves into the company of some of the innumerable rustics who have grown up destitute of everything worth calling education; or of the equally ill-fated beings in the alleys, precincts, and lower employments of towns. With due management to avoid the abruptness and judicial formality, which, would preclude a communicative disposition, they might take occasion to introduce remarks tending, without the express form of questions in the first instance, to draw out the thoughts of some of these persons respecting God, Jesus Christ, the human soul, the invisible world. And the answers would often put them to a stand to conceive, under what suspension of the laws of rational existence the utterers could have been passing so many years in the world. These answers might dispel, as by a sudden shock, the easy and contented assurance, if so unknowing a notion had been entertained, that almost all the people _must_, in one way or another, have become decently apprized of a few first principles of religion; that this _could_ not have failed to be the case in what was expressly constituted a great Christian community, with an obligation upon it, that none of its members should be left destitute of the most essential requisite to their well-being. This agreeable assurance would vanish, like a dream interrupted, at the spectacle thus presented, of persons only not quite as devoid of those first principles, after living eighteen, thirty, forty, or twice forty years, under the superintendence of that community, as if they had been the aboriginal rovers of the American forests, or natives of unvisited coral-built spots in the ocean. If these examiners were to prosecute the investigation widely, and with an effect on their sentiments correspondent to the enlarging disclosure of facts, they could find themselves fallen into a very altered estimate of this our Christian tract of the earth. A fancied sunshine, spread over it before, would have faded away. From appearing to them, according to an accustomed notion, peculiarly auspicious, as if almost by some virtue of its climate, to the growth of religious intelligence in the minds of the people, it might come to be regarded as favorable to the development of _all things rather than that_. Plants and trees, the diversity of animal forms and powers, the human frame, the features enlarging or enlarged to manhood in the younger persons looked at by the supposed examiner while answering his questions, with their passions also, and prevailing dispositions,--see how all things can unfold themselves in our territory, and grow and enlarge to their completeness,--except the ideas of the human soul relating to the Almighty, and to the grand purpose of its own existence! The supposed answers would in many instances betray, that any thought of God at all was of very rare occurrence, the idea having never become strongly associated with anything beheld in the whole creation. We should think it probable, as we have said before, that with many, while in health, weeks or months often pass away without this idea being once so presented as to fix the mind in attention to it for one moment of time. If they could be set to any such task as that of retracing, at the end of the days or the weeks, the course of their thoughts, to recollect what particulars in the series had struck the most forcibly and stayed the longest, it may be suspected that _this_ idea, thus impressively apprehended, would be as rare a recollection as that of having seen a splendid meteor. Yet during that space of time, their thoughts, such as they were, shall have run through thousands of changes; and even the name of God may have been pronounced by them a multitude of times, in jocularity or imprecation. Thus there is a broad easy way to atheism through thoughtless ignorance, as well as a narrow and difficult one through subtle speculation. But that idea of God which has, by some means, found its way into their understandings, to abide there so nearly in silence and oblivion,--what is it, when some direct call does really evoke it? It is generally a gross approximation of the conception of the Infinite Being to the likeness of man. If what they have heard of his being a Spirit, has indeed some little effect in prevention of the total debasement of the idea, it prevents it rather by confusion than by magnificence. It may somewhat restrain and baffle the tendency of the imagination to a direct degrading definition; but it does so by a dissolution of the idea as into an attenuated cloud. And ever and anon, this cloudy diffusion is again drawing in, and shaping itself toward an image, vast perhaps, and spectral, portentous across the firmament, but in some near analogy to the human mode of personality. The divine attribute which is apprehended by them with most of an impression of reality, is a certain vastness of power. But, through the grossness of their intellectual atmosphere, this appears to them in the character of something prodigiously huge, rather than sublimely glorious.--As considered in his quality of moral judicial Governor, God is regarded by some of them as more disposed, than there is any reasonable cause, to be displeased with what is done in this world. But the far greater number have no prevailing sentiment that he takes any very vigilant account or concern. [Footnote: Some have no very distinct impression the one way or the other. Not very long since, a friend of the writer, in one of the midland counties, fell into talk, on a Sunday, with a man who had been in some very plain violation of the consecrated character of the day. He seriously animadverted on this, adding, Don't you think God will be displeased at and punish such conduct? or words to that effect. The man, after a moment's consideration, answered, with unaffected cool simplicity, exactly thus: "That's according as how a takes it." Numerous anecdotes of the same cast have been more recently heard; and among them that of a conversation with a thoughtless man, of worthless character, not in the lowest condition in society, and then consciously near death. The religious visitor represented to him the serious and alarming situation of a man on the point of going from a sinful life into the presence of God as a Judge. The man, with a sort of general acknowledgment that it was so, yet hoped that God would not be severe with him. But the visitor anxiously pressed upon him the consideration that God is a just Being, and judges by a holy law: to which at last the answer was, with little emotion, "Then God and I must fight it out as well as we can." The phrase, in his use of it, did not mean anything of the nature of a hostile contest, but simply the _settling of an affair_, which he thought might be done without any great danger or trouble.] And even those who entertain the more ungracious apprehension, have it not in sufficient force to make them, once in whole months, deliberately think it worth while to care what he may disapprove.] The notions that should answer to the doctrine of a Providence, are a confusion of some crude idea of a divine superintendence, with stronger fancies and impressions of luck and chance; a confusion of them not unaptly exemplified in a grave and well-meaning sentiment heard from a man in a temporal condition to be envied by many of his neighbors, "Providence must take its chance." And these are still further, and most uncouthly, confounded by the admixture of the ancient heathen notion of fate, reduced from its philosophy to its dregs. In many instances, however, this last obtains such a predominance, as to lessen the confusion, and withal to preclude, in a great measure, the sense of accountableness. In neither of these rude states of the understanding, (that which confounds Providence and chance, and that which sinks in dull acquiescence to something obscurely imagined like fate,) is there any serious admission, at least during the enjoyment of health, of the duty or advantage of prayer. The supposed examiner may endeavor to possess himself of the notions concerning the Redeemer of the world. They would be found, in numerous instances, amounting literally to no more than, that Jesus Christ was a worthy kind of person, (the word has actually been "gentleman," in more than one instance that we have heard from unquestionable testimony,) who once, somewhere, (these national Christians had never in their lives, thought of inquiring when or where,) did a great deal of good, and was very ill used by bad people. The people now, they think, bad as they may be, would not do so in the like case. Some of these persons may occasionally have been at church; and are just aware that his name often recurs in its services; they never considered why; but they have a vague impression of its repetition having some kind of virtue, perhaps rather in the nature of a spell.--The names of the four evangelists are by some held literally and technically available for such a use. A few steps withdrawn from this thickest of the mental fog, there are many who are not entirely uninformed of something having been usually affirmed, by religious formularies and teachers, of Jesus Christ's being more than a man, and of his having done some thing of great importance toward preventing our being punished for our sins. This combination of a majestic superiority to the human nature, with a subsistence yet confessedly human, just passes their minds like a shape formed of a shadow, as one of the unaccountable things that may be as it is said, for what they know, but which they need not trouble themselves to think about. As to the great things said to be done by him, to save men from being punished, they see indeed no necessity for such an expedient, but if it is so, very right, and so much the better; for between that circumstance in our favor, and God's being too good, after all that is said of his holiness and wrath, to be severe on such poor creatures, we must have a good chance of coming off safely at last. But multitudes of the miserably poor, however wicked, have a settled assurance of this coming off well at last, independently of anything effected for men by the Mediator: they shall be exempted, they believe, from any future suffering in consideration of their having suffered so much here. There is nothing, in the scanty creed of great numbers, more firmly held than this. It is true, they believe that the most atrociously wicked must go to a state of punishment after death. They consider murderers, especially, as under this doom. But the offences so adjudged, according to any settled estimate they have of the demerit of bad actions, are comprised in a very short catalogue. At least it is short if we could take it exclusively of the additions made to it by the resentments of individuals. For each one is apt to make his own particular addition to it, of some offence which he would never have accounted so heinous, but that it has happened to be committed against _him_. We can recollect the exultation of sincere faith, seen mingling with the anger, of an offended man, while _predicting_, as well as imprecating, this retribution of some injury he had suffered; a real injury, indeed, yet of a kind which he would have held in small account had he only seen it done to another person.--As to the nature of that future punishment, the ideas of these neglected minds go scarcely at all beyond the images of corporal anguish, conveyed by the well-known metaphors. They have no impressive idea of the pain of remorse, and scarcely the faintest conception of an infelicity inflicted by the conscious loss of the Divine favor. It is most striking to observe how almost wholly negative are their conceptions of that future happiness which must be _something_--but what?--as the necessary alternative of the evil they so easily assure themselves of escaping. The abstracted, contemplative, and elevated ideas of the celestial happiness are far above their apprehension; and indeed, though they were not, would be little attractive. And the more ordinary modes of representing it in religious discourse, (if they should ever have heard enough of such discourse to be acquainted with them,) are too uncongenial with their notions of pleasure to have a welcome, or abiding place, in their imagination or affections. Thus the soul, as to this great subject, is vacant and cold. And here the reflection again returns, what an inexpressible poverty of the mind there is, when the people have no longer a mythology, and yet have not obtained in its place any knowledge of the true religion. The martial vagrants of Scandinavia glowed with the vivid anticipations of Valhalla; the savages of the western continent had their animating visions of the "land of souls;" the modern Christian barbarians of England, who also expect to live after death, do not know what they mean by the! phrase of "going to heaven." Most of this class of persons think very little in any way whatever of the invisible spiritual economy. And some of them would be pleased with a still more complete exemption from such thought. For there are among them those who are liable to be occasionally affected with certain ghostly recognitions of something out of the common world. But it is remarkable how little these may contribute to enforce the salutary impressions of religion. For instance, a man subject to the terror of apparitions shall not therefore be in the smallest degree the less profane, except just at the time that this terror is upon him. A number of persons, not one of whom durst walk, alone, at midnight, round a lonely church, encompassed with graves, to which has perhaps lately been added that of a notoriously wicked man, will nevertheless, on a fine Sunday morning, form a row of rude idlers, standing in the road to this very church, to vent their jokes on the persons going thither to attend the offices of religion, and on the performers of those offices. Such, as regarding religion, is the state out of which it is desired to redeem a multitude of the people of this land. Or rather, we should say, it is sought to save a multitude from being consigned to it. For consider, in the next place, (what we wished especially to point at, in this most important article in the enumeration of the evils of ignorance,) consider what a fatal inaptitude for receiving the truths of religion is created by the neglect of training minds to the exercise of their faculties, and the possession of the elements of knowledge. How inevitably it must be so, from the nature of the case!--There is a sublime economy of invisible realities. There is the Supreme Existence, an infinite and eternal Spirit. There are spiritual existences, that have kindled into brightness and power, from nothing, at his creating will, There is an universal government, omnipotent, all-wise, and righteous, of that Supreme Being over the creation. There is the immense tribe of human spirits, in a most peculiar and alarming predicament, held under eternal obligation of conformity to a law proceeding from the holiness of that Being, but perverted to a state of disconformity to it, and opposition to him. Next, there is a signal anomaly of moral government, the constitution of a new state of relation between the Supreme Governor and this alienated race, through a Mediator, who makes an atonement for human iniquity, and stands representative before Almighty Justice, for those who in grateful accordance to the mysterious appointment consign themselves to this charge. There are the several doctrines declaratory of this new constitution through all its parts. There is the view of religion in its operative character, or the doctrine of the application of its truths and precepts by a divine agency to transform the mind and rectify the life. And this solemn array of all the sublimest reality, and most important intelligence, is extending infinitely away beyond the sensible horizon of our present state to an invisible world, to which the spirits of men proceed at death for judgment and retribution, and with the prospect of living forever. Look at this scene of faith, so distinct, and stretching to such remoteness, from the field of ordinary things; of a subsistence which it is for intellect alone to apprehend; presenting objects with which intellect alone can hold converse. Look at this scene; and then consider, what manner of beings you are calling upon to enter into it by contemplation. Beings who have never learned to think at all. Beings who have hardly ever once, in their whole lives, made a real effort to direct and concentrate the action of their faculties on anything abstracted from the objects palpable to the senses; whose entire attention has been engrossed, from their infancy, with the common business, the low amusements and gratifications, the idle talk, the local occurrences, which formed the whole compass of the occupation, and practically acknowledged interests, of their progenitors. Beings who have never been made in the least familiar with even the matters of fact, those especially of the scripture history, by which religious truths have been expressed and illustrated in the substantial form of events, and personal characters. Beings who, in natural consequence of this unexercised and unfurnished condition of their understandings, will combine the utmost aversion to any effort of purely intellectual labor, with the especial dislike which it is in the human disposition to feel toward this class of subjects. What kind of ideas should you imagine to be raised in their minds, by all the words you might employ, to place within their intellectual vision some portion of this spiritual order of things,--even should you be able, which you often would not, to engage any effort of attention to the subject?--And yet we have heard this disqualification for receiving religious knowledge, in consequence of the want of early mental culture, made very light of by men whose pretensions to judgment had no less a foundation than an academical course and a consecrated profession. They would maintain, with every appearance of thinking so, that a very little, that the barest trifle, of regulated exercise of the mind in youth, would be enough for the common people as a preparation for gaining as much knowledge of religion as they could ever want; that any such thing as a practice of reading, (a practice of hazardous tendency.) would be needless for the purpose, since they might gain a competence of that knowledge by attendance on the public ministration in the church. And there must have been a very recent acquiescence in a new fashion of opinion, if numbers of the same class of men would not, in honestly avowing their thoughts, say something not far different at this hour. But the pretended facility of gaining a competence of religious knowledge by such persons on such terms, can only mean, that the smallest conceivable portion of it may suffice. For we may appeal to those pious and benevolent persons who have made the most numerous trials, for testimony to the inaptitude of uneducated people to receive that kind of instruction. You have visited, perhaps, some numerous family, or Sunday assemblage of several related families; to which you had access without awkward intrusion, in consequence of the acquaintance arising from near neighborhood, or of little services you had rendered, or of the circumstance of any of their younger children coming to your charity schools. It was to you soon made sensible what a sterile, blighted spot of rational nature you were in, by indications unequivocal to your perception, though, it may be, not easily reducible to exact description. And those indications were perhaps almost equally apparent in the young persons, in those advanced to the middle of life, and in those who were evidently destined not long to remain in it, the patriarch, perhaps, and the eldest matron, of the kindred company. You attempted by degrees, with all managements of art, as if you had been seeking to gain a favor for yourselves, to train into the talk some topic bearing toward religion; and which could be followed up into a more explicit reference to that great subject, without the abruptness which causes instant silence and recoil. We will suppose that the gloom of such a moral scene was not augmented to you, by the mortification of observing impatience of this suspension of their usual and favorite tenor of discourse, betrayed in marks of suppressed irritation, or rather by the withdrawing of one, and another, from the company. But it was quite enough to render the moments and feelings some of the most disconsolate you had ever experienced, to have thus immediately before you a number of rational beings as in a dark prison-house, and to feel the impotence of your friendly efforts to bring them out. Their darkness of ignorance infused into your spirit the darkness of melancholy, when you perceived that the fittest words you could think of, in every change and combination in which you could dispose them, failed to impart to their understanding, in the meaning you wanted to convey, the most elementary and essential ideas of the most momentous subject. You thought again, perhaps, and again, Surely _this_ mode of expression, or _this_, as it is in words not out of common usage, will define the thing to their apprehension. But you were forced to perceive that the common phraseology of the language, those words which make the substance of ordinary discourse on ordinary subjects, had not, for the understandings of these persons, a general applicableness. It seemed as if the mere elemental vehicle, (if we may so name it,) available indifferently for conveying all sorts of sense, except science, had become in its meaning special and exclusive for their own sort of topics. Their narrow associations had rendered it incapable of conveying sense to them on matters foreign to their habits. When used on a subject to which they were quite unaccustomed, it became like a stream which, though one and the same current, flows clear on the one side, and muddy (as we sometimes see for a space) on the other; and to them it was clear only at their own edge. And if thus even the plain popular language turned dark on their understandings when employed in explanation of religion, it is easy to imagine what had been the success of a more peculiarly theological phraseology, though it were limited to such terms as are of frequent use in the Bible. You continued, however, the effort for a while. As desirous to show you due civility, some of the persons, perhaps the oldest, would give assent to what you said, with some sign of acknowledgment of the importance of the concern. The assent would perhaps be expressed in a form meant and believed to be equivalent to what you had said. And when it gave an intelligible idea, it might probably betray the grossest possible misconception of the first principles of Christianity. It might be a crude formation from the very same substance of which some of the worst errors of popery are constituted; and might strongly suggest to you, in a glance of thought, how easily popery might have become the religion of ignorance; how naturally ignorance and corrupt feeling mixing with a slight vague notion of Christianity, would turn it into just such a thing as popery. You tried, perhaps, with repeated modifications of your expression, and attempts at illustration, to loosen the false notion, and to place the true one contrasted with it in such a near obviousness to the apprehension, that at least the difference should be seen, and (perhaps you hoped) a little movement excited to think on the subject, and make a serious question of it. But all in vain. The hoary subject of your too late instruction, (a spectacle reminding you painfully of the words which denominate the sign of old age "crown of glory,") either would still take it that it came all to the same thing, or, if compelled to perceive that you really were trying to make him _unthink_ his poor old notions, and learn something new and contrary, would probably retreat, in a little while, into a half sullen, half despondent silence, after observing, that he was too old, "the worse was the luck," to be able to learn about such things, which he never had, like you, the "scholarship" and the time for. In several of the party you perceived the signs of almost a total blank. They seemed but to be waiting for any trifling incident to take their attention, and keep their minds alive. Some one with a little more of listening curiosity, but without caring about the subject, might have to observe, that it seemed to him the same kind of thing that the methodist parson, (the term most likely to be used if any very serious and earnest Christian instructor had appeared in the neighborhood,) was lately saying in such a one's funeral-sermon. It is too possible that one or two of the visages of the company, of the younger people especially, might wear, during a good part of the time, somewhat of a derisive smile, meaning, "What odd kind of stuff all this is;" as if they could not help thinking it ludicrously strange that any one should be talking of God, of the Saviour of mankind, the facts of the Bible, the welfare of the soul, the shortness and value of life, and a future account, when he might be talking of the neighboring fair, past or expected, or the local quarrels, or the last laughable incident or adventure of the hamlet. It is particularly observable, that grossly ignorant persons are very apt to take a ludicrous impression from high and solemn subjects; at least when introduced in any other time or way than in the ceremonial of public religious service; when brought forward as a personal concern, demanding consideration everywhere, and which may be urged by individual on individual. You have commonly enough seen this provoke the grin of stupidity and folly. And if you asked yourselves, (for it were in vain to ask _them_,) why it produced this so perverse effect, you had only to consider that, to minds abandoned through ignorance to be totally engrossed by the immediate objects of sense, the grave assumption, and emphatic enforcement, of the transcendent importance of a wholly unseen and spiritual economy, has much the appearance and effect of a great lie attempted to be passed on them. You might indeed recollect also, that the most which some of them are likely to have learnt about religion, is the circumstance, that the persons professing to make it an earnest concern are actually regarded as fit objects of derision by multitudes, not of the vulgar order only, but including many of the wealthy, the genteel, the magisterial, and the dignified in point of rank. Individuals of the most ignorant class may stroll into a place of worship, bearing their character so conspicuously in their appearance and manner as to draw the particular notice of the preacher, while addressing the congregation. It may be, that having taken their stare round the place, they go out, just, it may happen, when he is in the midst of a marked, prominent, and even picturesque illustration, perhaps from some of the striking facts or characters of the Scripture history, which had not made the slightest ingress on their thoughts or imagination. Or they are pleased to stay through the service; during which his eye is frequently led to where several of them may be seated together. Without an appearance of addressing them personally, he shall be excited to direct a special effort toward what he surmises to be the state of their minds. He may in this effort acquire an additional force, emphasis, and pointedness of delivery; but especially his utmost mental force shall be brought into action to strike upon their faculties with vivid, rousing ideas, plainly and briefly expressed. And he fancies, perhaps, that he has at least arrested their attention; that what is going from his mind is in some manner or other taking a place in theirs; when some inexpressibly trivial occurring circumstance shows him, that the hold he has on them is not of the strength of a spider's web. Those thoughts, those intellects, those souls, are instantly and wholly gone--from a representation of one of the awful visitations of divine judgment in the ancient world--a description of sublime angelic agency, as in some recorded fact in the Bible--an illustration of the discourse, miracles, or expiatory sorrows of the Redeemer of the world--a strong appeal to conscience on past sin--a statement, perhaps in the form of example, of an important duty in given circumstances--a cogent enforcement of some specific point as of most essential moment in respect to eternal safety;--from the attempted grasp, or supposed seizure, of any such subject, these rational spirits started away, with infinite facility, to the movements occasioned by the falling of a hat from a peg. By the time that any semblance of attention returns, the preacher's address may have taken the form of pointed interrogation, with very defined supposed facts, or even real ones, to give the question and its principle as it were a tangible substance. Well; just at the moment when his questions converge to a point, which was to have been a dart of conviction striking the understanding, and compelling the common sense and conscience of the auditors to answer for themselves,--at that moment, he perceives two or three of the persons he had particularly in view begin an active whispering, prolonged with the accompaniment of the appropriate vulgar smiles. They may possibly relapse at length, through sheer dulness, into tolerable decorum; and the instructor, not quite losing sight of them, tries yet again, to impel some serious ideas through the obtuseness of their mental being. But he can clearly perceive, after the animal spirits have thus been a little quieted by the necessity of sitting still awhile, the signs of a stupid vacancy, which is hardly sensible that anything is actually saying, and probably makes, in the case of some of the individuals, what is mentally but a slight transition to yawning and sleep. Utter ignorance is a most effectual fortification to a bad state of the mind. Prejudice may perhaps, be removed; unbelief may be reasoned with; even demoniacs have been compelled to bear witness to the truth; but the stupidity of confirmed ignorance not only defeats the ultimate efficacy of the means for making men wiser and better, but stands in preliminary defiance to the very act of their application. It reminds us of an account, in one of the relations of the French Egyptian campaigns, of the attempt to reduce a garrison posted in a bulky fort of mud. Had the defences been of timber, the besiegers might have set fire to and burned them; had they been of stone, they might have shaken and ultimately breached them by the battery of their cannon; or they might have undermined and blown them up. But the huge mound of mud had nothing susceptible of fire or any other force; the missiles from the artillery were discharged but to be buried in the dull mass; and all the means of demolition were baffled. The most melancholy of the exemplifications of the effect of ignorance, as constituting an incapacity for receiving religious instruction, have been presented to those who have visited persons thus devoid of knowledge in sickness and the approach to death. Supposing them to manifest alarm and solicitude, it is deplorable to see how powerless their understandings are, for any distinct conception of what, or why, it is that they fear, or regret, or desire. The objects of their apprehension come round them as vague forms of darkness, instead of distinctly exhibited dangers and foes, which they might steadily contemplate, and think how to escape or encounter. And how little does the benevolent instructor find it possible for him to do, when he applies his mind to the painful task of reducing this gloomy confused vision to the plain defined truth of their unhappy situation, set in order before their eyes. He deems it necessary to speak of the most elementary principles--the perfect holiness and justice of God--the corresponding holiness and the all-comprehending extent of his law, appointed to his creatures--the absolute duty of conformity to it in every act, word, and thought--the necessary condemnation consequent on failure--the dreadful evil, therefore, of sin, both in its principle and consequences. God--perfect holiness--justice--law--universal conformity--sin--condemnation! Alas! the hapless auditor has no such sense of the force of terms, and no such analogical ideas, as to furnish the medium for conveying these representations to his understanding. He never had, at any time; and now there may be in his mind all the additional confusion, and incapacity of fixed attention, arising from pain, debility, and sleeplessness. All this therefore passes before him with a tenebrious glimmer; like lightning faintly penetrating to a man behind a thick black curtain. The instructor attempts a personal application, endeavoring to give the disturbed conscience a rational direction, and a distinct cognizance. But he finds, as he might expect to find, that a conscience without knowledge has never taken but a very small portion of the man's habits of life under its jurisdiction; and that it is a most hopeless thing to attempt to send it back reinforced, to reclaim and conquer, through all the past, the whole extent of its rightful but never assumed dominion. So feeble and confined in the function of judgment through which it must see and act, it is especially incapable of admitting the monitor's estimate of the measure of guilt involved in omission, and in an irreligious state of the mind, as an exceedingly grave addition to the account of criminal action. The man is totally and honestly unable to conceive of the substantial guilt of anything of which he can ask, what injury it has done to anybody. This single point--whether positive harm has been done to any one--comprehends the whole essence and sum of the conscious accountableness of very ignorant people. Material wrong, _very_ material wrong, to their fellow mortals, they have a conscience that they should not do; a conscience, however, which they would deem it hard to be obliged to maintain entire even to this confined extent; and which therefore admits some compromise and gives some license, with respect especially to any kind of wrong which has the extenuation, as they deem it, of being commonly practised in their class; and against which there is a sort of understanding that each one must take the best care he can of himself. At this confine, so undecidedly marked, of practical, tangible wrong, these very ignorant persons lose the sense of obligation, and feel absolved from any further jurisdiction. So coarse and narrow a conscience as to what they _do_, is not likely to be refined and extended into a cognizance of what they _are_. As for a duty absolute in the nature of things, or as owing to themselves, in respect to their own nature, or as imposed by the Almighty--_that their minds should be in a certain prescribed state_--there does really require a perfectly new manner of the action of intellect to enable them to apprehend its existence. And this habitual insensibility to any jurisdiction over their internal state, now meets, in its consequences, the supposed instructor. In consideration of the vast importance of this part of a rational creature's accountableness, and partly, too, from a desire to avoid the invidiousness of appearing as a judicial censor of the sick man's practical conduct, he insists in an especial manner on this subject of the state within, endeavoring to expose that dark world by the light of religion to the sick man's conscience. But to give in an hour the _understanding_ which it requires the discipline of many years to render competent! How vain the attempt! The man's sense of guilt fixes almost exclusively on something that has been improper in his practical courses. He professes to acknowledge the evil of this; and perhaps with a certain stress of expression; intended, by an apparent respondence to the serious emphasis which the monitor is laying on another part of the accountableness and guilt, to take him off from thus endeavoring, as it appears to the ignorant sufferer, to make him more of a sinner than there is any reason, so little can he conceive that it should much signify what his thoughts, tempers, affections, motives, and so forth, may have been. By continuing to press the subject, the instructor may find himself in danger of being regarded as having taken upon him the unkind office of inquisitor and accuser in his own name, and of his own will and authority. When inculcating the necessity of repentance, he will perceive the indistinctness of apprehension of the difference between the horror of sin merely from dread of impending consequences, and an antipathy to its essential nature. And even if this distinction, which admits of easy forms of exemplification, should thus be rendered in a degree intelligible, the man cannot make the application. The instructor observes, as one of the most striking results of a want of disciplined mental exercise, an utter inability for self-inspection. There is before his eyes, looking at him, but a stranger to himself, a man on whose mind no other mind, except One, can shed a light of self-manifestation, to save him from the most fatal mistakes. If the monitor would turn, (rather from an impulse to relieve the gloom of the scene, than from anything he sees of a hopeful approach toward a right apprehension of the austerer truths of religion,) if he would turn his efforts, to the effect of directing on this dark spirit the benign rays of the Christian redemption, what is he to do for terms,--yes, for very terms? Mediator, sacrifice, atonement, satisfaction, faith; even the expression, believing in Christ; merit of the death of Christ, acquittal, acceptance, justification;--he knows, or soon will find, that he is talking the language of an occult science. And he is forced down to such expedients of grovelling paraphrase, and humiliating analogy, that he becomes conscious that his method of endeavoring to make a divine subject comprehensible, is to divest it of its dignity, and reduce it, in order that it may not confound, to the rank of things which have not majesty enough to impress with awe. And after this has been done, to the utmost of his ability, and to the unavoidable weariness of his suffering auditor, he is distressed to think of the proportion between the insignificance of any ideas which this man's mind now possesses of the economy of redemption, and the magnitude of the interest in which he stands dependent on it. A symptom or assurance which should impart to the sick man a confidence of his recovery, would appear to him a far greater good than all he can comprehend as offered to him from the Physician of the soul. Some crude sentiment, as that he "hopes Jesus Christ will stand his friend;" that it was very good of the Saviour to think of us; that he wishes he knew what to do to get his help; that Jesus Christ has done him good in other things, and he hopes he will now again at the last; [Footnote: Such an expression as this would hardly have occurred but from recollection of fact, in the instance of an aged farmer, (the owner of the farm,) in his last illness. In the way of reassuring his somewhat doubtful hope that Christ would not fail him when now had recourse to, at his extreme need, he said, (to the writer,) "Jesus Christ has sent me a deal of good crops."]--such expressions will afford little to alleviate the gloomy feelings, with which the serious visitor descends from the chamber in which, perhaps, he may hear, a few days after, that the man he conversed with lies a dead body. But such benevolent visitors have to tell of still more melancholy exemplifications of the effects of ignorance in the close of life. They have seen the neglect of early cultivation, and the subsequent estrangement from all knowledge and thinking, except about business and folly, result in such a stupefaction of mind, that irreligious and immoral persons, expecting no more than a few days of life, and not in a state of physical lethargy, were absolutely incapable of being alarmed at the near approach of death. They might not deny, nor in the infidel sense disbelieve, what was said to them of the awfulness of that event and its consequences; but they had actually never thought enough of death to have any solemn associations with the idea. And their faculties were become so rigidly shrunk up, that they could not now admit them; no, not while the portentous spectre was unveiling his visage to them, in near and still nearer approach; not when the element of another world was beginning to penetrate through the rents of their mortal tabernacle. It appeared that literally their thoughts _could not_ go out from what they had been through life immersed in, to contemplate, with any realizing feeling, a grand change of being, expected so soon to come on them. They could not go to the fearful brink to look off. It was a stupor of the soul not to be awaked but by the actual plunge into the realities of eternity. In such a case the instinctive repugnance to death might be visible and acknowledged. But the feeling was, If it must be so, there is no help for it; and as to what may come after, we must take our chance. In this temper and manner, we recollect a sick man, of this untaught class, answering the inquiry how he felt himself, "Getting worse; I suppose I shall make a die of it." And some pious neighbors, earnestly exhorting him to solemn concern and preparation, could not make him understand, we repeat with emphasis, _understand_ why there was occasion for any extraordinary disturbance of mind. Yet this man was not inferior to those around him in sense for the common business of life. After a tedious length of suffering, and when death is plainly inevitable, it is not very uncommon for persons under this infatuation to express a wish for its arrival, simply as a deliverance from what they are enduring, without disturbing themselves with a thought of what may follow. "I know it will please God soon to release me," was the expression to his religious medical attendant, of such an ignorant and insensible mortal, within an hour of his death, which was evidently and directly brought on by his vices. And he uttered it without a word, or the smallest indicated emotion, of penitence or solicitude; though he had passed his life in a neighborhood abounding with the public means of religious instruction and warning. When earnest, persisting, and seriously menacing admonitions, of pious visitors or friends, almost literally compel such unhappy persons to some precise recognition of the subject, their answers will often be faithfully representative, and a consistent completion, of their course through mental darkness, from childhood to the mortal hour. We recollect the instance of a wicked old man, who, within that very hour, replied to the urgent admonitions by which a religious neighbor felt it a painful duty to make a last effort to alarm him, "What! do you believe that God can think of damning me because I may have been as bad as other folk? I am sure he will do no such thing: he is far too good for that." We cannot close this detailed illustration of so gloomy a subject, without again adverting to a phenomenon as admirable as, unhappily, it is rare; and for which the observers who cannot endure mystery in religion, or religion itself, may go, if they choose, round the whole circle of their philosophy, and begin again, to find any adequate cause, other than the most immediate agency of the Almighty Spirit. Here and there an instance occurs, to the delight of the Christian philanthropist, of a person brought up in utter ignorance and barbarian rudeness, and so continuing till late in life; and then at last, after such a length of time and habit has completed its petrifying effect, suddenly seized upon by a mysterious power, and taken, with an alarming and irresistible force, out of the dark hold in which the spirit has lain imprisoned and torpid, into the sphere of thought and feeling. Occasion is taken this once more of adverting to such facts, not so much for the purpose of magnifying the nature, as of simply exhibiting the effect, of an influence that can breathe with such power on the obtuse intellectual faculties; which it appears, in the most signal of these instances, almost to create anew. It is exceedingly striking to observe how the contracted, rigid soul seems to soften, and grow warm, and expand, and quiver with life. With the new energy infused, it painfully struggles to work itself into freedom, from the wretched contortion in which it has so long been fixed as by the impressed spell of some infernal magic. It is seen filled with a distressed and indignant emotion at its own ignorance; actuated with a restless earnestness to be informed; acquiring an unwonted pliancy of its faculties to thought; attaining a perception, combined of intelligence and moral sensibility, to which numerous things are becoming discernible and affecting, that were as non-existent before. It is not in the very extreme strength of their import that we employ such terms of description; the malice of irreligion may easily parody them into poetical excess; but we have known instances in which the change, the intellectual change, has been so conspicuous, within a brief space of time, that even an infidel observer must have forfeited all claim to be esteemed a man of sense, if he would not acknowledge,--This that you call divine grace, whatever it may really be, is the strangest awakener of faculties after all. And to a devout man, it is a spectacle of most enchanting beauty, thus to see the immortal plant, which has been under a malignant blast while sixty or seventy years have passed over it, coming out at length in the bloom of life. We cannot hesitate to draw the inference, that if religion is so auspicious to the intellectual faculties, the cultivation and exercise of those faculties must be of great advantage to religion. These observations on ignorance, considered as an incapacitation for receiving religious instruction, are pointed chiefly at that portion of the people, unhappily the largest, who are little disposed to attend to that kind of instruction. But we should notice its prejudicial effect on those of them to whom religion has become a matter of serious and inquisitive concern. The preceding assertions of the efficacy of a strong religious interest to excite and enlarge the intellectual faculty will not be contradicted by observing, nevertheless, that in a dark and crude state of that facility those well-disposed persons, especially if of a warm temperament withal, are unfortunately liable to receive delusive impressions and absurd notions, blended with religious doctrine and sentiment. It would be no less than plain miracle or inspiration, a more entire and specific superseding of ordinary laws than that which we have just been denominating "an immediate agency of the Almighty Spirit," if a mind left uncultivated all up through the earlier age, and perhaps far on in life, should not come to its new employment on a most important subject with a sadly defective capacity for judgment and discrimination. The situation reminds us of an old story of a tribe of Indians denominated "moon-eyed," who, not being able to look at things by the light of the sun, were reduced to look at them under the glimmering of the moon, by which light it is an inevitable circumstance of human vision to receive the images of things in perverted and deceptive forms. Even in such an extremely rare instance as that above described, an example of the superlative degree of the animating and invigorating influence of religion on the uncultivated faculties, there would be visible some of the unfortunate consequences of the inveterate rudeness; a tendency, perhaps, to magnify some one thing beyond its proportionate importance to adopt hasty conclusions; to entertain some questionable or erroneous principle because it appears to solve a difficulty, or perhaps falls in with an old prepossession; to make too much account of variable and transitory feelings; or to carry zeal beyond the limits of discretion. In examples of a lower order of the correction or reversal of the effects of ignorance by the influence of religion, the remains will be still more palpable. So that, while it is an unquestionable and gratifying fact, that among the uneducated subjects of genuine religion many are remarkably improved in the power and exercise of their reason; and while we may assume that _some_ share of this improvement reaches to all who are really under this most beneficent influence in the creation, [Footnote: _Really_ under this influence, we repeat, pointedly; for we justly put all others out of the account. It is nothing (as against this asserted influence on the intelligent faculty) that great numbers who may contribute to swell a public bustle about religion; who may run together at the call of whim, imposture, or insanity, assuming that name; who may acquire, instead of any other folly, a turn for talking, disputing, or ranting, about that subject: it is nothing, in short, that _any_ who are not in real, conscientious seriousness the disciples of religion, can be shown to be no better for it, in point of improved understanding.] it still is to be acknowledged of too many, who are in a measure, we may candidly believe, under the genuine efficacy of religion, that they have attained, through its influence, but so inferior a proportion of the improvement of intellect, that they can be well pleased with the great deal of absurdity of religious notions and language. But while we confess and regret that it is so, we should not overlook the causes and excuses that may be found for it, in unfortunate super-addition to their lack of education; partly in the natural turn of the mind, partly in extraneous circumstances. Many whose attention is in honest earnestness drawn to religion, are endowed by nature with so scanty an allotment of the thinking power, strictly so denominated, that it would have required high cultivation to raise them to the level of moderate understanding. There are some who appear to have constitutionally an invincible tendency to an uncouth, fantastic mode of forming their notions. It is in the nature of others, that whatever cultivation they might have received, it would still have been by their passions, rather than, in any due proportion, by their reason, that an important concern would have taken and retained hold of them. It may have happened to not a few, that circumstances unfavorable to the understanding were connected with the causes or occasions of their first effectual religious impressions. Some quaint cast in the exposition of the Christian faith, not essentially vitiating, but very much distorting and cramping it, or some peculiarity or narrow-mindedness of the teachers, may have conveyed their effect, to enter, as it were, at the door at the same moment that it was opened by the force of a solemn conviction, and to be retained and cherished ever after on the strength of this association. This may have tended to give an obliquity to the disciple's understanding, or to arrest and dwarf its growth; to fix it in prejudices instead of training it to judgments; or to dispense with its exercise by merging it in a kind of quietism; so that the proper tendency of religion to excite intellectual activity was partly overruled and frustrated. It is most unfortunate that thus there may be, from things casually or constitutionally associated with a man's piety, an influence operating to disable his understanding; as if there had been mixed with the incense of a devout service in the temple, a soporific ingredient which had the effect of closing the worshipper's eyes in slumber. Now suppose all these worthy persons, with so many things of a special kind against them, to be also under the one great calamity of a neglected education, and is it any wonder that they can admit religious truths in shapes very strange and faintly enlightened; that they have an uncertain and capricious test of what is genuine, and not much vigilance to challenge plausible semblances; that they should be caught by some fanciful exhibition of a truth which would be of too intellectual a substance as presented in its pure simplicity; and should be ready to receive with approbation not a little of what is a heavy disgrace to the name of religious doctrine and ministration? Where is the wonder that crudeness, incoherence, and inconsistency of notions, should not disappoint and offend minds that have not, ten times since they came into the world, been compelled to form two ideas with precision, and then compare them discriminately or combine them strictly, on any subject beyond the narrow scope of their ordinary pursuits? Where is the wonder, if many such persons take noise and fustian for a glowing zeal and a lofty elevation; if they mistake a wheedling cant for affectionate solicitude; if they defer to pompous egotism and dogmatical assertion, when it is so convenient a foundation for all their other faith to believe their teacher is an oracle? No marvel if they are delighted with whimsical conceits as strokes of discovery and surprise, and yet at the same time are pleased with common-place, and endless repetition, as an exemption from mental effort; and if they are gratified by vulgarity of diction and illustration, as bringing religion to the level where they are at home? Nay, if an artful pretender, or half-lunatic visionary, or some poor set of dupes of their own inflated self-importance, should give out that they are come into the world for the manifestation, at last, of true Christianity, which the divine revelation has failed, till their advent, to explain to any of the numberless devout and sagacious examiners of it,--what is there in the minds of the most ignorant class of persons desirous to secure the benefits of religion, that can be securely relied on to certify them, that they shall not forego the greatest blessing ever offered to them by setting at naught these pretensions? It is grievous to think there should be an active extensive currency of a language conveying crudities, extravagances, arrogant dictates of ignorance, pompous nothings, vulgarities, catches of idle fantasy, and impertinences of the speaker's vanity, as religious instruction to assemblages of ignorant people. But then for the means of depreciating that currency, so as to drive it at last out of circulation? The thing to be wished is, that it were possible to put some strong coercion on the _minds_ (we deprecate all other restraint) of the teachers; a compulsion to feel the necessity of information, sound sense, disciplined thinking, the correct use of words, and an honest, careful purpose to make the people wiser. There are signs of amendment, certainly; but while the passion of human beings for notoriety lasts, (which will be yet some time,) there will not fail to be men, in any number required, ready to exhibit in religion, in any manner in which the people are willing to be pleased with them. Let us, then, try the inverted order, and endeavor to secure that those who assemble to be taught, shall already have learnt so much, _by other means_, that no professed teacher shall feel at liberty to treat them as an unknowing herd. But by what other means, except the discipline of the best education possible to be given to them, and the subsequent voluntary self-improvement to which it may be hoped that such an education would often lead? We cannot dismiss this topic, of the unhappy effect of extreme ignorance on persons religiously disposed, in rendering them both liable and inclined to receive their ideas of the highest subject in a disorderly, perverted, and debased form, mixed largely with other men's folly and their own, without noticing with pleasure an additional testimony to the connection between genuine religion and intelligence. It arises from the fact, apparent to any discriminating observer, that as a _general_ rule the most truly pious of the illiterate disciples of religion, those who have the most of its devotional feeling and its humility, do certainly manifest more of the operation of judgment in their religion than is evinced by those of less solemn and devout sentiment. The former will unquestionably be found, when on the same level as to the measure of natural faculty and the want of previous cultivation, to show more discernment, to be less captivated by noise and extravagance, and more intent on obtaining a clear comprehension of that faith, which they feel it is but a reasonable obligation that they should endeavor to understand, if they are to repose on it their most important hopes. Section VI. Thus it has been attempted, we fear with too much prolixity and repetition, to describe the evils attendant on a neglected state of the minds of the people. The representation does not comprehend all those even of magnitude and prominence; but it displays that portion of them which is the most serious and calamitous, as being the effect which the people's ignorance has on their moral and religious interests. And we think no one who has attentively surveyed the state and character of the lower orders of the community, in this country, will impute exaggeration to the picture. It is rather to be feared that the reality is of still darker shade; and that a more strikingly gloomy exhibition might be formed, by such a process as the following:--That a certain number of the most observant of the philanthropic persons, who have had most intercourse with the classes in question, for the purposes of instruction, charitable aid, or perhaps of furnishing employment, should relate the most characteristic circumstances and anecdotes within their own experience, illustrative of this mental and moral condition; and that these should be arranged, without any comment, under the respective heads of the preceding sketch, or of a more comprehensive enumeration. Each of them might repeat, in so many words, the most notable things he has heard uttered as disclosing the notions entertained of the Deity, or any part of religion; or those which have been formed of the ground and extent of duty and accountableness; or the imaginations respecting the termination of life, and a future retribution. They might relate the judgments they have heard pronounced on characters and particular modes of conduct; on important events in the world; on anything, in short, which may afford a test of the quality and compass of uncultivated thought. Let the recital include both the expressions of individual conception, and those of the most current maxims and common-places; and let them be the sayings of persons in health, and of those languishing and dying. Then let there be produced a numerous assortment of characteristic samples of practical conduct; conduct not simply proceeding, in a general way, from wrong disposition, but bearing the special marks of the cast and direction which that disposition takes through extreme ignorance: samples of action that is wrong because the actor cannot think right, or does not think at all. The assemblage of things thus recounted, when the actual circumstances were also added of the wretchedness corresponding and inseparable, would constitute such an exhibition of fact, as any description of those evils in general terms would incur the charge of rhetorical excesses in attempting to rival. We can well imagine that some of these persons, of large experience, may have accompanied us through the foregoing series of illustrations, with a feeling that they could have displayed the subject with a far more striking prominence. And now again the mortifying reflection comes on us, that all this is the description of too probably the major part of the people of our own nation. Of this nation, the theme of so many lofty strains of panegyric; of this nation, stretching forth its powers in ambitious enterprise, with infinite pride and cost, to all parts of the globe;--just as if a family were seen eagerly intent on making some new appropriation, or going out to maintain some competition or feud with its neighbors, or mixing perhaps in the strife of athletic games, or drunken frays, at the very time that several of its members are lying dead in the house. So that the fame of the nation resounded, and its power made itself felt, in every clime, it was not worth a consideration that a vast proportion of its people were systematically consigned, through ignorance and the irreligion and depravity inseparable from it, to a wretchedness on which that fame was the bitterest satire. It is matter for never-ending amazement, that during one generation after another, the presiding wisdom in this chief of Christian and Protestant States, should have thrown out the living strength of that state into almost every mode of agency under heaven, rather than that of promoting the state itself to the condition of a happy community of cultivated beings. What stupendous infatuation, what disastrous ascendency of the Power of Darkness, that this energy should have been sent forth to pervade all parts of the world in quest of objects, to inspirit and accomplish innumerable projects, political and military, and to lavish itself, even to exhaustion and fainting at its vital source, on every alien interest; while here at home, so large a part of the social body was in a moral and intellectual sense dying and putrefying over the land. And it was thus perishing for want of the vivifying principle of knowledge, which one-fifth part of this mighty amount of exertion would have been sufficient to diffuse into every corner and cottage in the island. Within its circuit, a countless multitude were seen passing away their mortal existence little better, in any view, than mere sentient shapes of matter, and by their depravity immeasurably worse; and yet this hideous fact had not the weight of the very dust of the balance, in the deliberation whether a grand exertion of the national vigor and resource could have any object so worthy, (with God for the Judge,) as some scheme of foreign aggrandizement, some interference in remote quarrels, an avengement by anticipation of wrongs pretended to be foreseen, or the obstinate prosecution of some fatal career, begun in the very levity of pride, by a decision in which some perverse individual or party in ascendency had the influence to obtain a corrupt, deluded, or forced concurrence. The national _honor_, perhaps, would be alleged, in a certain matter of punctilio, for the necessity of undertakings of incalculable consumption, by men who could see no national _disgrace_ in the circumstance that several millions of the persons composing the nation could not read the ten commandments. Or the national _safety_ has been pleaded to a similar purpose, with a rant or a gravity of patriotic phrases, upon the appearance of some slight threatening symptoms; and the wise men so pleading, would have scouted as the very madness of fanaticism any dissuasion that should have advised,--"Do you, instead, apply your best efforts, and the nation's means, to raise the barbarous population from their ignorance and debasement, and you really may venture some little trust in Divine Providence for the nation's safety meanwhile." If a contemplative and religious man, looking back through little more than a century, were enabled to take, with an adequate comprehension of intellect, the sum and value of so much of the astonishing course of the national exertions of this country as the Supreme Judge has put to the criminal account of pride and ambition; and if he could then place in contrast to the transactions on which that mighty amount has been expended, a sober estimate of what so much exerted vigor _might_ have accomplished for the intellectual and moral exaltation of the people, it could not be without an emotion of horror that he would say, Who is to be accountable, who _has been_ accountable, for this difference? He would no longer wonder at any plagues and judgments which may have been inflicted on such a state. And he would solemnly adjure all those, especially, who profess in a peculiar manner to feel the power of the Christian Religion, to beware how they implicate themselves, by avowed or even implied approbation, in what must be a matter of fearful account before the highest tribunal. If some such persons, of great merit and influence, honored performers of valuable public services in certain departments, have habitually given, in a public capacity, this approbation, he would urge it on their consciences, in the evening of life, to consider whether, in the prospect of that tribunal, they have not one duty yet to perform,--to throw off from their minds the servility to party associations, to estimate as Christians, about to retire from the scene, the actual effects on this nation of a policy which might have been nearly the same if Christianity had been extinct; and then to record a solemn, recanting, final protest against a system to which they have concurred in the profane policy of degrading that religion itself into a party. Any reference made to such a prospect implies, that there is attributed to those who can feel its seriousness a state of mind perfectly unknown to the generality of what are called public men. For it is notorious that, to the mere working politician, there is nothing on earth that sounds so idly or so ludicrously as a reference to a judgment elsewhere and hereafter, to which the policy and transactions of statesmen are to be carried. If the Divine jurisdiction would yield to contract its comprehension, and retire from all the ground over which a practical infidelity heedlessly disregards or deliberately rejects it, how large a province it would leave free! If it be assumed that the province of national affairs _is_ so left free, on the pretence that they _cannot_ be transacted in faithful conformity to the Christian standard, that plea is reserved to be tried in the great account, when the responsibility for them shall be charged. For assuredly there will be persons found, to be summoned forth as accountable for that conduct of states which we are contemplating. Such a moral agency could not throw off its responsibility into the air, to be dissipated and lost, like the black smoke of forges or volcanoes. This one grand thing (the improvement of the people) left undone, while a thousand arduous things have been done or strenuously endeavored, cannot be less than an awful charge _somewhere_. And where?--but on all who have voluntarily concurred and co-operated in systems and schemes, which could deliberately put _such_ a thing last? Last! nay, not even that; for they have, till recently, as we have seen, thrown it almost wholly out of consideration. A long succession of men invested with ample power are gone to this audit. How many of those who come after them will choose to proceed on the same principles, and meet the same award? We were supposing a thoughtful man to draw out to his view a parallel and contrast, exhibiting, on the one side, the series of objects on which, during several ages, an enormous exertion of the national energy has been directed; and on the other, those improvements of the people which might have been effected by so much of that exertion as he deems to have been worse than wasted. In this process, he might often be inclined to single out particular parts in the actual series, to be put in special contrast over against the possibilities on the opposite line. For example; there may occur to his view some inconsiderable island, the haunt of fatal diseases, and rendered productive by means involving the most flagrant iniquity; an iniquity which it avenges by opening a premature grave for many of his countrymen, and by being a moral corrupter of the rest. Such an infested spot, nevertheless, may have been one of the most material objects of a widely destructive war, which has in effect sunk incalculable treasure in the sea, and in the sands, ditches, and fields of plague-infested shores; with a dreadful sacrifice of blood, life, and all the best moral feelings and habits. Its possession, perhaps, was the chief prize and triumph of all the grand exertion, the equivalent for all the cost, misery, and crime. Or there may occur to him the name of some fortress, in a less remote region, where the Christian nations seem to have vied with one another which of them should deposit the greatest number of victims, securely kept in the charge of death, to rise and testify for them, at the last day, how much they have been governed by the peaceful spirit of their professed religion. He reads that his countrymen, conjoined with others, have battled round this fortress, wasting the vicinity, but richly manuring the soil with blood. They have co-operated in hurling upon the abodes of thousands of inhabitants within its walls, a thunder and lightning incomparably more destructive than those of nature; and have put fire and earthquake under the fortifications; shouting, "to make the welkin ring," at sight of the consequent ruin and chasm, which have opened an entrance for hostile rage, or compelled an immediate submission, if, indeed, it would then be accepted to disappoint that rage of its horrible consummation. They have taken the place,--and they have surrendered it. The next year perhaps they have taken it again; to be again at last given up, on compulsion or in compromise, to the very same party to which it had belonged previously to all this destructive commotion. The operations in this local and very narrow portion of the grand affray of monarchies, he may calculate to have cost his country as much as the amount earned by the toils of half the life of all the inhabitants of one of its populous towns; setting aside from his view the more portentous part of the account,--the carnage, the crimes, and the devastation perpetrated on the foreign tract, the place of abode of people who had little interest in the contest, and no power to prevent it. And why was all this? He may not be able to divest himself of the principles that should rule the judgment of a moralist and a Christian, in order to think like a statesman; and therefore may find no better reason than that, when despots would quarrel, Britain must fancy itself called upon to take the occasion to prove itself a great power, by bearing a high hand amidst their rivalries; or must seize the opportunity of revenging some trivial offence of one of them; though this should be at the expense of having the scene at home chequered between children learning little more than how to curse, and old persons dying without knowing how to put words together to pray. The question may have been, in one part of the world or another, which of two wicked individuals of the same family, competitors for sovereign authority, should be actually invested with it, they being equal in the qualifications and dispositions to make the worst use of it. And the decision of such a question was worthy that England should expend what remained of her depressed strength from previous exertions of it in some equally meritorious cause. Or the supposed reviewer of our national history may find, somewhere in his retrospect, that a certain brook or swamp in a wilderness, or a stripe of waste, or the settlement of boundaries in respect to some insignificant traffic, was difficult of adjustment between jealous, irritated, and mutually incursive neighbors; and therefore, national honor and interest equally required that war should be lighted up by land and sea, through several quarters of the globe. Or a dissension may have arisen upon the matter of some petty tax on an article of commerce: an absolute will had been rashly signified on the claim; pride had committed itself, and was peremptory for persisting; and the resolution was to be prosecuted through a wide tempest of destruction, protracted perhaps many years; and only ending in the forced abandonment by the leading power concerned, of infinitely more than war had been made in the determination not to forego; and after an absolutely fathomless amount of every kind of cost, financial and moral, in this progress to final frustration.--But there would be no end of recounting facts of this order. Now the comparative estimator has to set against the extended rank of such enormities the forms of imagined good, which might, during the ages of this retrospect, have been realized by an incomparably less exhausting series of exertion, an exertion, indeed, continually renovating its own resources. Imagined good, we said;--alas! the evil stands in long and awful display on the ground of history; the hypothetical good presents itself as a dream; with this circumstance only of difference from a dream, that there is resting on the conscience of beings somewhere still existing, a fearful accountableness for its not having been a reality. For such an _island_, as we have supposed our comparer to read of, he can look, in imagination, on a space of proportional extent in any part of his native country, taking a district as a detached section of a general national picture. And he can figure to himself the result, resplendent upon this tract, of so much energy, there beneficently expended, as that island had cost: an energy, we mean _equivalent in measure_, while put forth in the infinitely different _mode_ of an exertion, by all appropriate means, to improve the reason, manners, morals, and with them the physical condition of the people. What a prevalence of intelligence, what a delightful civility of deportment, what repression of the more gross and obtrusive forms of vice, what domestic decorum, attentive education of the children, appropriateness of manner, and readiness of apprehension in attendance on public offices of religion, sense and good order in assemblages for the assertion and exercise of civil and political rights! All this he can imagine as the possible result. We were supposing his attention fixed a while on the recorded operations against some strongly fortified place, in a region marked through every part with the traces and memorials of the often-renewed conflicts of the Christian states. And we suppose him to make a collective estimate of all kinds of human ability exerted around and against that particular devoted place; an estimate which divides this off as a portion of the whole immense quantity of exertion, expended by his country in all that region in the campaigns of a war, or of a century's wars. He may then again endeavor, by a rule of equivalence, to conceive the same amount of exertion in quite another way; to imagine human forces equal in _quantity_ to all that putting forth of strength, physical, mental, and financial, for annoyance and destruction, expended instead, in the operation of effecting the utmost improvement which they _could_ effect, in the mental cultivation and the morals of the inhabitants of one large town in his own country. In figuring to himself the channels and instrumentality, through which this great stream of energy might have passed into this operation, on a detached spot of his country, he will soon have many specific means presented to his view: schools of the most perfect appointment, in every section and corner of the town; a system of friendly but cogent dealing with all the people of inferior condition, relatively to the necessity of their practical accordance to the plans of education;[Footnote: It is here confidently presumed, that any man who looks, in a right state of his senses, at the manner in which the children are still brought up, in many parts of the land, will hear with contempt any hypocritical protest against so much interference with the discretion, the liberty of parents;--the discretion, the liberty, forsooth, of bringing up their children a nuisance on the face of the earth.] an exceedingly copious supply, for individual possession, of the best books of elementary knowledge; accompanied, as we need not say, by the sacred volume; a number of assortments of useful and pleasing books for circulation, established under strict order, and with appointments of honorary and other rewards to those who gave evidence of having made the best use of them; a number of places of resort where various branches of the most generally useful and attainable knowledge and arts should be explained and applied, by every expedient of familiar, practical, and entertaining illustration, admitting a degree of co-operation by those who attended to see and hear; and an abundance of commodious places for religious instruction on the Sabbath, where there should be wise and zealous men to impart it. Our speculator has a right to suppose a high degree of these qualifications in his public teachers of religion, when he is to imagine a parallel in this department to the skill and ardor displayed in the supposed military operations. He may add as subsidiary to such an apparatus, everything of magistracy and municipal regulation; a police, vigilant and peremptory against every cognizable neglect and transgression of good order; a resolute breaking up of all haunts and rendezvous of intemperance, dishonesty and other vice; and the best devised and administered institutions for correcting and reclaiming those whom education had failed to preserve from such depravity; and besides all this, there would be a great variety of undefinable and optional activity of benevolent and intelligent men of local influence. Under so auspicious a combination of discipline, he will not indeed fancy, in his transient vision, that he beholds Athens revived, with its bright intelligence all converted to minister to morality, religion, and happiness; but he will, in sober consistency, we think, with what is known of the relation of cause and effect, imagine a place far surpassing any actual town or city on earth. And let it be distinctly kept in view, that to reduce the ideal exhibition to reality, he is not dreaming of means and resources out of all human reach, of preternatural powers, discovered gold-mines, grand feats of genius. He is just supposing to have been expended, on the population of the town, a measure of exertion and means equal, (as far as agencies in so different a form and direction can be brought to any rule of comparative estimate) to what has been expended by his country in investing, battering, undermining, burning, taking, and perhaps retaking, one particular foreign town, in one or several campaigns. If he should perchance be sarcastically questioned, how he can allow himself in so strange a conceit as that of supposing such a quantity of forces concentrated to act in one exclusive spot, while the rest of the country remained under the old course of things; or in such an absurdity as that of fancying that _any_ quantity of those forces could effectually raise one local section of the people eminently aloft, while continuing surrounded and unavoidably in constant intercourse with the general mass, remaining still sunk in degradation--he has to reply, that he is fancying no such thing. For while he is thus converting, in imagination, the military exertions against one foreign town, into intellectual and moral operations on one town at home, why may he not, in similar imagination, make a whole country correspond to a whole country? He may conceive the incalculable amount of exertion made by his country, in martial operations over all that wide foreign territory of which he has selected a particular spot, to have been, on the contrary, expended in the supposed beneficent process on the great scale of this whole nation. Then would the hypothetical improvement in the one particular town, so far from being a strange insulated phenomenon, absurd to be conceived as existing in exception and total contrast to the general state of the people, be but a specimen of that state. He may proceed along the series of such confronted spectacles as far as bitter mortification will let him. But he will soon be sick of this process of comparison. And how sick will he thenceforward be, to perpetual loathing, of the vain raptures with which an immortal and anti-Christian patriotism can review a long history of what it will call national glory, acquired by national energy ambitiously consuming itself in a continual succession and unlimited extent of extraneous operations, of that kind which has been the grand curse of the human race ever since the time of Cain; while the one thing needful of national welfare, the very _summum bonum_ of a state, has been regarded with contemptuous indifference. These observations are not made on an assumption, that England could in all cases have kept clear of implication in foreign interests, and remote and sanguinary contests. But they are made on the assumption of what is admitted and deplored by every thoughtful religious man, whose understanding and moral sense are not wretchedly prostrated in homage to a prevailing system, and chained down by a superstition that dares not question the wisdom and probity of high national authorities and counsels. What is so admitted and deplored by the true and Christian patriots is, that this nation has gone to an awfully criminal extent beyond the line of necessity; that it has been extremely prompt to find or make occasions for appearing again, and still again, in array for the old work of waste and death; and that the advantage possessed by the preponderating classes in this protestant country, for being instructed (if they had cared for such instruction) to look at these transactions in the light of religion, has reflected a peculiar aggravation on the guilt of a policy persevered in from age to age, in disregard of the laws of Christianity, and the warning of accountableness to the Sovereign Judge. These observations assume, also, that there _cannot_ be such a thing as a nation so doomed to a necessity and duty of expending its vigor and means in foreign enterprise, as to be habitually absolved from the duty of raising its people from brutish ignorance. _This_ concern is a duty at all events and to an entire certainty; is a duty imperative and absolute; and any pretended necessity for such a direction of the national exertion as would be, through a long succession of time, incompatible with a paramount attention to this, would be a virtual denial of the superintendence of Providence. It would be the same thing as to assert of an individual, that his duties of other kinds are so many and great, as to render it impossible for him to give a competent attention to his highest interests, and that therefore he stands exempted from the obligations of religion. Such as we have described has been, for ages, the degraded state of the multitude. And such has been the indifference to it, manifested by the superior, the refined, the ascendant portion of the community; who, generally speaking, could see these sharers with them of the dishonored human nature, in endless numbers around them, in the city and the field, without its ever flashing on conscience that on them was lying a solemn responsibility, destined to press one day with all its weight, for that ill arrangement of the social order which abandoned these beings to an exclusion from the sphere of rational existence. It never occurred to many of them as a question of the smallest moment, in what manner the mind might be living in all these bodies, if only it were there in competence to make them efficient as machines and implements. Contented to be gazed at, to be envied, or to be regarded as too high even for envy, and to have the rough business of the world performed by these inhalers of the vital air, they perhaps thought, if they reflected at all on the subject, that the best and most privileged state of such creatures was to be in the least possible degree morally accountable: and that therefore it would be but doing them an injury to enlarge their knowledge. And might not the thought be suggested at some moment, (see how many things may be envied in their turns!) how happy _they_ should be, if, with the vast superiority of their advantages, they could still be just as little accountable? But if even in this way, of envy, they received an unwelcome admonition of their own high responsibility, not even then was it suggested to them, that they should ever be arraigned on a charge to which they would vainly wish to be permitted to plead, "Were we our brothers' keepers?" And if an office designated in those terms had been named to them, as a part of their duty, by some unearthly voice of imperious accent, their thoughts might have traversed hither and thither, in various conjectures and protracted perplexity, before the objects of that office had been presented explicitly to their apprehension as no other than the reason, principles, consciences, and the whole moral condition of the vulgar mass. They would understand that its condition was, _in some way or other_, a concern lying at their door, but probably not in this.--We speak generally, and not universally. * * * * * But we would believe there are signs of a revolution beginning; a more important one, by its higher principle and its expansive impulse toward a wide and remote beneficence, than the ordinary events of that name. What have commonly been the matter and circumstance of revolutions? The last deciding blow in a deadly competition of equally selfish parties; actions and reactions of ambition and revenge; the fiat of a conqueror; a burst of blind fury, suddenly sweeping away an old order of things, but overwhelming to all attempts to substitute a better institution; plots, massacres, battles, dethronements, restorations: all actuated by a fermentation of the ordinary or the basest elements of humanity. How little of the sublime of moral agency has there been, with one or two partial exceptions, in these mighty commotions; how little wisdom or virtue, or reference to the Supreme Patron of national interests; how little nobleness or even distinctness of purpose, or consolidated advantage of success! But here is, as we trust, the approach of a revolution with different phenomena. It displays the nature of its principle and its ambition in a conviction, far more serious and extensive than heretofore, of the necessity of education to the mass of the population, with earnest discussions of its scope and methods by both speculative and practical men; in schemes, more speedily animated into operation than good designs were wont to be, for spreading useful knowledge over tracts of the dead waste where there was none; in exciting tens of thousands of young persons to a benevolent and patient activity in the instruction of the children of the poor; in an extended and extending system of means and exertions for the universal diffusion of the sacred scriptures; in multiplying endeavors, in all regular and all uncanonical ways, to render it next to impossible for the people to avoid hearing some sounds at least of the voice of religion; in the formation of useful local institutions too various to come under one denomination; in enterprises to attempt an opening of the vast prison-houses of human spirits in dark distant regions; in bringing to the test of principles many notions and practices which have stood on the authority of prejudice, custom, and prescription: and all this taking advantage of the new and powerful spirit which has come on the world to drive its affairs into commotion and acceleration; as bold adventurers have sometimes availed themselves of a formidable torrent to be conveyed whither the stream in its ordinary state would never have carried them; or as we have heard of heroic assailants seizing the moment of a tempest to break through the enemy's lines.--Such are some of the insignia by which it stands distinguished out and far off from the rank of ordinary revolutions. We are not unaware that, with certain speculators on this same subject of meliorating the state and character of the people, some of the things here specified will be of small account, either as signs of a great change, or as means of promoting it. The widely spreading activity of a humble class of laborers, who seek no fame for their toils and sacrifices, is but a creeping process, almost invisible in the survey. The multiplied, voluntary, and extraordinary efforts to diffuse some religious knowledge and sentiment among the vulgar, appear to them, if not even of doubtful tendency, at least of such impotence for corrective operation, that any confidence founded on them is simple fanaticism; that the calculation is, to use a commercial term, mere moonshine. We remember when a publication of great note and influence flung contempt on the sanguine expectations entertained from the rapid circulation of Bibles among the inferior population. At the hopeful mention of expedients of the religious kind especially, the class of speculators in question might perhaps be reminded of Glendower's grave and believing talk of calling up spirits to perform his will; or (should they ever have happened to read the Bible) of the people who seized, in honest credulous delight, the mockery of a proposal of pulling a city, to the last stone, into the river with ropes, as a prime stroke of generalship. When we see such expedients rated so low in the process for raising the populace from their degradation, we ask what means these speculators themselves would reckon on for the purpose. And it would appear that their scheme would calculate mainly on some supposed dispositions of a political and economical nature. Let the people be put in possession of all their rights as citizens, and thus advanced in the scale of society. Let all invidious distinctions which are artificial, arbitrary, and not inevitable, be abolished; together with all laws and regulations injuriously affecting their temporal well-being. Give them thus a sense of being _something_ in the great social order, a direct palpable interest in the honor and prosperity of the community. There will then be a dignified sense of independence; the generous, liberalizing, ennobling sentiments of freedom; the self-respect and conscious responsibility of men in the full exercise of their rights; the manly disdain of what is base; the innate perception of what is worthy and honorable, developing itself spontaneously on the removal of the ungenial circumstances in the constitution of society, which have been as a long winter on the intellectual and moral nature of its inferior portions. All this will conduce to the practicability and efficacy of education. It will be an education _to fit them for an education_ to be introduced with the progress of that fitness; intellectual culture finding a felicitous adaptation of the soil. We may then adopt with some confidence a public system, or stimulate and assist all independent local exertions for the instruction of the people in the rudiments of literature and general knowledge; and religion too, if you will. But, to say nothing of the vain fancies of the virtues ready to disclose themselves in a corrupt mass, under the auspices of improved political institutions, it is unfortunate for any such speculation that what it insists on as the primary condition cannot as yet, but very imperfectly, be had. The higher and commanding portion of the community have, very naturally, the utmost aversion to concede to the people what are claimed as theoretically their rights. They have, indeed, latterly been constrained to make considerable concessions in name and semblance. But their great and various power will be strenuously exerted, for probably a long while yet, to render the acquisitions made by the people as nearly as possible profitless in their hands. And unhappily these predominant classes have to allege the mental and moral rudeness of the lower, in vindication of this determined policy of repression and frustration; thus turning the consequences of their own criminal neglect into a defence of their injustice. They will say, If the subordinate millions had grown up into a rational existence; if they had been rendered capable of thinking, judging, distinguishing, if they were in possession of a moderate share of useful information, and withal a strong sense of duty; then might this and the other privilege, or call it right, in the social constitution be yielded to them. But as long as they continue in their present mental grossness they are unfit for the possession, because unqualified for the exercise, of any such privileges as would take them from under our authoritative control. Since they can and will, for the present, maintain this controlling power, to the extent of nearly invalidating any political advancement attained, or likely to be soon attained, by the lower grades, a speculation that should place on that advancement, as a pre-requisite, our hope of a great change in the mental condition of the people, would be, to adopt a humble figure, setting us to climb to an upper platform without a ladder, or rather telling us not to climb at all. And while this supposed pre-requisite will be refused, on the allegation that the uncultivated condition of the people renders them unfit for a liberal political arrangement, the parties so refusing will be little desirous to have the obstacle removed; foreseeing, as the inevitable consequence of a highly improved cultivation, a more resolute demand of the advantages withheld, a constantly augmenting force of popular opinion, and therefore a diminution of their own predominant power. They will deem it much more commodious for themselves, that the people should not be so enlightened and raised as to come into any such competition. And since they, with these dispositions, have the preponderance in what we denominate the State, we fear we are not to look with much hope to the State for a liberal and effective system of national education. * * * * * What then is to be done?--We earnestly wish it might please the Sovereign Ruler to do one more new thing in the earth, compelling the dominant powers in the nations to an order of institutions and administrations that _would_ apply the energy of the state to so noble a purpose. Nor can we imagine any test of their merits so fair as the question whether, and in what degree, they do this; nor any test by which they may more naturally decline to have those merits tried. But since, to the shame of our nature, there is no use to which we are so prone to turn our condemnation of evil in one form, as that of purchasing a license for it in another, the persons who are justly arraigning the powers at the head of nations should be warned that they do not take from the guilty omissions of states a sanction for individuals to do nothing. Let them not suffer an imposition on their minds in the notion entertained of a state, as a thing to be no otherwise accounted of than in a collective capacity, acting by a government; as if the collective power and agency of a nation became, in being exerted through that political organ, an affair altogether foreign to the will, the action, the duty, the responsibility, of the persons of whom the nation is composed. Let them not put out of sight that whatever is the duty of the national body in that collective capacity, acting through its government, is such only because it is the duty of the individuals composing that body, as far as it is in the power of each; and that it would be their duty individually not the less, though the government, as the depositary of the national power, neglect it. But more than this; to speak generally, and with certain degrees of possible exception, we may affirm that a government _cannot_ be lastingly neglectful of a great duty but because the individuals constituting the community are so. An assertion, that a government has been utterly and criminally neglectful of the moral condition of the inferior population, age after age, and through every change of its administrators; but that, nevertheless, the generality of the individuals of intelligence, wealth, and influence, have all the while been of a quite opposite spirit, zealously intent on remedying the flagrant evil, would be instantly rejected as a contradiction. Such an enlightened and philanthropic spirit prevailing widely among the individuals of the nation would carry its impulse into the government in one manner or another. It would either constrain the administrators of the state to act in conformity, or ultimately displace them in favor of better men. Even if, short of such a _general_ activity of the respectable and locally influential members of society, a large proportion of them had vigorously prosecuted such a purpose, it would have compelled the administrators of the state to consider, even for their own sake, whether they should be content to see so important a process going on independently of them, and in contrast with their own disgraceful neglect. But at the worst, and on the supposition that they were obstinately inaccessible to all moral and philanthropic considerations, still a grand improvement would have been accomplished, if many thousands of the responsible members of the community had attempted it with zealous and persevering exertion. The neglect, therefore, of the improvement of the people, so glaring in the review of our conduct as a nation, has been, to a very great extent, the insensibility of individuals to obligations lying on them as such, independently of the institutions and administration of the state. And are individuals _now_ absolved from all such responsibility; and the more so, that the conviction of the importance of the object is come upon them with such a new and cogent force? When they say, reproachfully, that the nation, as a body politic, concentrating its powers in its government, disowns or neglects a most important duty, is it to be understood that this accusatory testimony is _their_ share, or something equivalent in substitution for their share, of that very duty? Does a collective duty of such very solid substance, vanish into nothing under any attempted process of resolving it into fractions and portions for individuals? And do they themselves, as some of the individuals to whom this duty might thus be distributively assigned,--do they themselves, in spite of self-love, self-estimation, and all the sentiments which they will at other times indulge in homage of their own importance,--do they, when this assignment is attempted to be made to them, instantly and willingly surrender to a feeling of crumbling down from this proud individuality into an undistinguishable existence in the mass; and, profaning the language of religion, say to the State, "In thee we live, move, and have a being?" Or, will they, (in assimilation to eastern pagans, who hold that a divinity so pervades them as to be their wills and do their actions, leaving the mere human vehicle without power, duty, or accountableness,) will they account themselves but as passive matter, moved or fixed, and in all things necessitated, by a sovereign mythological something denominated the state? No, not in all things. It is not so that they feel with respect to those other interests and projects, which they are really in earnest to promote, though those concerns may lie in no greater proportion than the one in question does within the scope of their individual ability. The incubus has then vanished; and they find themselves in possession of a free agency, and a degree of power, which they will not patiently hear estimated in any such contemptuous terms. What is there then that should reduce them, as individual agents, to such utter and willing insignificance in the affair of which we are speaking? Besides, they may form themselves, in indefinite number, into combination. And is there no power in any collective form in which they can be associated, save just that one in which the aggregation is constituted under the political shape and authority denominated a state? Or is it at last that some alarm of superstitious loyalty comes over them; that they grow uneasy in conscience at the high-toned censure they have been stimulated and betrayed to pronounce on the state; that they relapse into the obsequiousness of hesitating, whether they should presume to do good of a kind which the "Power ordained of God" has not seen fit to do; that they must wait for the sanction of its great example; that till the "shout of kings is among them" it were better not to march against the vandalism and the paganism which are, the while, quite at their ease, destroying the people? But if such had always been the way in which private individuals, single or associated, had accounted of themselves and their possible exertions, in regard to great general improvements, but very few would ever have been accomplished. For the case has commonly been, that the schemes of such improvements have originated with persons not invested with political power; have been urged on by the accession and co-operation of such individuals; and at length slowly and reluctantly acceded to by the holders of dominion over the community, always, through some malignant fatality, the last to admit what had long appeared to the majority of thinking men no less than demonstrative evidence of the propriety and advantage of the reformation. In all probability, the improvement of mankind is destined, under Providence, to advance nearly in proportion as good men feel the responsibility for it resting on themselves as individuals, and are actuated by a bold sentiment of independence, (humble at the same time, in reference to the necessity of Divine intervention,) in the prosecution of it. Each person who is standing still to look, with grief or indignation, at the evils which are overrunning the world, would do well to recollect what he may have read of some gallant partisan, who, perceiving where a prompt movement, with the comparatively slender force at his own command, would make an impression infallibly tending to the success of the warfare, could not endure to lose the time till some great sultan should find it convenient to come in slow march, and the pomp of state, to take on him the direction of the campaign. In laying this emphasis of incitement and hope on the exertions of good men as individuals, we cannot be understood to mean that the government of states, if ever they did come to be intent on rendering the condition of society better and happier, could not contribute beyond all calculation to the force and efficacy of _every_ project and measure for that grand purpose. How far from it! it is melancholy to consider what they might do and do not. But it is because their history, thus far, affords such feeble prognostics of their becoming, till some better age, actuated by such a spirit,--it is because the Divine Governor has hitherto put upon them so little of the honor of being the instruments of his beneficence,--that the anticipations of good, and the exhortations to attempt it, are so peculiarly directed to its promoters in an individual capacity. Happily, the accusatory part of such exhortations is becoming, we trust we may say fast becoming, less extensively applicable; and we return with pleasure to the animating idea of that revolution of which we were noting the introductory signs. It is a revolution in the manner of estimating the souls of the people, and consequently in the judgment of what should be done for both their present and future welfare. Through many ages, that immense multitude had been but obscurely presented to view in any such character as that of rational, improvable creatures. They were recognized no otherwise than as one large mass of rude moral substance, but faintly distinguishable into individuals; existing, and to be left to exist, in their own manner; and that manner hardly worth concern or inquiry. Little consideration could there be of how much spiritual immortal essence must be going to waste, absorbed in the very earth, all over the wide field where the inferior portion of humanity was seen only through the gross medium of an economical estimate, by the more favored part of the race. But now it is as if a mist were rising and dispersing from that field, and leaving the multitude of possessors of uncultivated and degraded mind exhibited in a light in which they were never seen before, except by the faithful promoters of Christianity, and a few philanthropists of a less special order. It is true, this manifestation forms so tragic a vision, that if we had only to behold it _as a spectacle_, we might well desire that the misty obscurity should descend on it again, to shroud it from sight; while we should be left to indulge and elate our imaginations by dwelling on the pomps and splendors of the terrestrial scene,--the mighty empires, the heroes, the victories, the triumphs; the refinements and enjoyments of the most highly cultivated of the race; the brilliant performances of genius, and the astonishing reach of science. So the tempter would have beguiled our Lord into a complacent contemplation of the kingdoms and glories of the world. But he was come to look on a different aspect of it! Nor could he be withdrawn from the gloomy view of its degradation and misery. And a good reason why. For the sole object for which he had appeared in the only world where temptation could even in form approach him was to begin in operation, and finish in virtue, a design for changing that state of degradation and misery. In the prosecution of such a design, and in the spirit of that divine benevolence in which it sprung, he could endure to fix on the melancholy and odious character of the scene, the contemplation which was vainly attempted to be diverted to any other of its aspects. What, indeed, could sublunary pomps and glories be to him in any case; but emphatically what, when his object was to redeem the people from darkness and destruction? Those who, actuated by a spirit in some humble resemblance to his, have entered deeply into the state of the people, such as it is found in our own nation, have often been appalled at the spectacle disclosed to them. They have been astonished to think, what _can_ have been the direction, while successive ages have passed away, of so many thousands of acute and vigilant mental eyes, that so dreadful a sight should scarcely have been descried. They have been aware that in describing it as they actually saw it, they would be regarded by some as gloomy fanatics, tinctured with insanity by the influence of some austere creed; and that others, of kinder nature, but whose sensibility has more of self-indulging refinement than tendency to active benevolence, would almost wish that so revolting an exhibition had never been made, though the fact be actually so. There may have been moments when they themselves have experienced a temporary recoil of their benevolent zeal, under the impression at once of the immensity of the evil, so defying the feebleness of their remedial means and efforts, and of its noisome quality. At times, the rudeness of the subjects, and perhaps the ungracious reception and thankless requital of their disinterested labors, aggravating the general feeling of the miserableness (so to express it) of seeing so much misery, have lent seduction to the temptations to ease and self-indulgence. Why should they, just _they_ of all men, condemn themselves to dwell so much in the most dreary climate of the moral world, when they could perhaps have taken their almost constant abode in a little elysium of elegant knowledge, taste, and refined society? Then was the time to revert to the example of Him "who, though he was rich, for our sakes became poor." Or, again, they may have been betrayed to indulge too long in the bitter mood of thinking, how entirely the higher and more amply furnished powers leave such generous designs to proceed as they can, in the mere strength of private individual exertion. And they may have yielded to depressive feelings after the fervor of indignant ones; for such indignation, unless qualified by the purest principle--unless it be the "anger that sins not"--is very apt, when it cools, to settle into misanthropic despondency. It is as if (they have said) armies and giants would stand aloof to amuse themselves, while we are to be committed and abandoned in the ceaseless, unavailable toil of a conflict, which these armies and giants have no business even to exist as such but for the very purpose of waging. We are, if we will,--and if we will we may let it alone--to try to effect in diminutive pieces, and detached local efforts, a little share of that, to the accomplishment of which the greatest human force on earth might be applied on system, and to the widest compass. So they have said, perhaps, and been tempted to leave their object to its destiny. But really it is now too late for this resentful and desponding abandonment. They cannot now retire in the tragic dignity of despair. It must be some more forlorn predicament that would allow them any grace of rhetoric in saying, as in parody of Cato, "Witness heaven and earth, that we have done our duty, but the stars and fate are against us; and here it becomes us to terminate a strife, which would degenerate into the ridiculous, if prosecuted against impossibilities." On the contrary, the zeal which could begin so onerous a work, and prosecute it thus far, could not now remit without convicting its past ardor of cowardice lurking under its temporary semblance of bravery. Is it for the projectors of a noble edifice of public utility, to abandon the undertaking when it has risen from its foundation to be seen above the ground; or is just come to be level with the surface of the waters, in defiance of which it has been commenced, and the violence of which it was designed to control, or the unfordable depths and streams of which it was to bear people over? Let the promoters of education and Christian knowledge among the inferior classes, reflect what has already been accomplished; though regarding it as quite the incipient stage. It is most truly as yet "the day of small things;" and shall they despise it, from an idea of what it might have been if the great powers had been directed to its advancement? They have found that in the good cause thus unaided they have not wholly labored in vain; that it _can_ be brought in contact with a considerable portion of what would otherwise be so much human existence abandoned; and that already, as from the garments of the Divine Healer of diseases, a sanative virtue goes out of it. Let them recount the individuals they have seen, and not despond as to many more, rescued from what had all the signs of a destination to the lowest debasement, and utter ruin; some of whom are returning animated thanks, and will do so in the hour of death, for what these, their best human friends, have been the means of imparting to them. Let them recollect of how many families they have seen the domestic condition pleasingly, and in some instances eminently and delightfully amended. And let them reflect how they have trampled down prejudices, nearly silenced a heathenish clamor, and provoked the imitative and rival efforts of many who would, but for them, have been willing enough for all such schemes to lie in abeyance to the end of time. Let them think of all this, and faithfully persist in the trial what it may please God that they shall accomplish, whether the possessors of national power will acknowledge his demand for such an application of it or not; whether, when the infinite importance of the concern is represented to them, they will hear, or whether they will forbear. But let them not doubt that the time will come, when the rulers and the ascendant classes in states will comprehend it to be their best policy to promote all possible improvement of the people. It will be given to them to understand, that the highest glory of those at the head of great communities, must consist in the eminence attained by those communities generally, in whatever it is that constitutes the worth, the honor, the happiness, of individuals; a glory with which would be combined the advantage that the office of presiding over such a nation could be administered in a liberal spirit. They will one day have learned to esteem it a far nobler form of power to lead and direct an immense society of intelligent minds, than to delude, coerce, and drive a vast semi-barbarous herd. Providence surely will one day, in the progress of society, confer on it such wise and virtuous rulers as can feel, that it is better for them to have a people who can understand and rationally approve, when deserving of approbation, their system and measures, than one bent in stupid submission, even if ignorance could henceforward suffice (which it cannot) to retain the people in that posture; better, therefore, by a still stronger reason, than to have a people fermenting in ignorant disaffection, constantly believing the governors to be in the wrong, and without the sense to comprehend any arguments in justification, excepting such as might be addressed in the shape of bribes to corruption. And a time will come when it will not be left to the philanthropic or censorial speculatists alone, to make the comparative estimate between what has been effected by the enormously expensive apparatus of coercive and penal administration--the prisons, prosecutions, transportations, and a large military police, (things quite necessary in our past and present national condition,)--and what _might_ have been effected by one half of that expenditure devoted to popular reformation, to be accomplished by means of schools, and every practicable variety of methods for placing men's judgment and conscience as the "lion in the way," when they are inclined and tempted to go wrong.--All this will come to pass at length. And if the promoters of the best designs see cause to fear that the time is remote, this should but enforce upon them the more strongly the admonition that no time is _theirs_, but the present. It was not possible to pursue the long course of these observations so nearly to the conclusion, without being reminded still again of what we have adverted to before, that there will be persons ready to impute sanguine extravagance to our expectations of the result of such an order of means and exertions, for the improvement of the education and mental condition of the people, as we see already beginning to work. When the means are of so little splendid a quality, it will be said, by what inflation of fancy is their power admeasured to such effects? And what _is_ it, then, and how much, that is expected as the result, by the zealous advocates of schools, and the whole order of expedients, for the instruction of that part of the rising generation till lately so neglected? Are they heard maintaining that the communication of knowledge, or true notions of things, to youthful minds, will _infallibly_ ensure their virtue and happiness? They are not quite so new to the world, to experimental labor in the business of tuition, or to self-observation. Their vigilance would hardly overlook such a circumstance as the very different degree of assurance with which the effects may be predicted, of ignorance on the one hand, and of knowledge on the other. There is very nearly an absolute certainty of success in the method for making clowns, sots, vagabonds, and ruffians. You may safely leave it to themselves to carry on the process for becoming complete. Let human creatures grow up without discipline, destitute therefore of salutary information, sound judgment, or any conscience but what will shape itself to whatever they like, serving in the manner of some vile friar pander in the old plays,--and no one takes any credit for foresight in saying they will be a noxious burden on the earth; except indeed in those tracts of it where they seem to have their appropriate place and business, in being matched against the wolves and bears of the wilderness. When they infest what should be a civilized and Christianized part of the world, the philanthropist is sometimes put in doubt whether to repress, or indulge, the sentiment which tempts him to complacency in the operation of an epidemic which is thinning their numbers. The consequences of ignorance are certain, unless almost a miracle interpose; but unhappily those of knowledge are of diffident and restricted calculation; unless we could make a trifle of the testimony of all ages, and suppress the evidence of present experience, that men may see and approve the better, and yet follow the worse. It is the hapless predicament of our nature, that the noblest of its powers, the understanding, has but most imperfectly and precariously that commanding hold on the others, which is essential to the good order of the soul. Our constitution is like a machine in which there is a constant liability of the secondary wheels to be thrown out of the catch and grapple of the master one. And worse than so, these powers which ought to be subordinate and obedient to the understanding, are not left to stand still when detached from its control. They have a strong activity of their own, from the impulse of other principles: indeed, it is this impulse that _causes_ the detachment. It is frightful to look at the evidence from facts, that these active powers _may_ grow strong in the perversity which will set the judgment at defiance, during the very time that it is successfully training to a competence for dictating to them what is right. The assertions of those who are determined to find the chief or only cause of the wrong direction of the passions and will in misapprehension of the understanding, are a gross assumption, in a question of fact, against an infinite crowd of facts pressing round with their evidence. This evidence is offered by men without number distinctly and deliberately acknowledging their conviction of the evil quality and fatal consequences, of courses which they are soon afterwards seen pursuing, and without the smallest pretence of a change of opinion; by the same men in more advanced stages still owning the same conviction, and sometimes in strong terms of self-reproach, in the checks and pauses of their career; and by men in the near prospect of death and judgment expressing, in bitter regret, the acknowledgment that they had persisted in acting wrong when they knew better. And this assumption, made against such evidence, is to be maintained for no better reason, that appears, than a wilful determination that human nature cannot, must not, shall not, be so absurd and depraved as to be capable of such madness: as if human nature were taking the smallest trouble to put on any disguise before them, to beguile them into a good opinion; as if it could be cajoled by their flattery to assume even a semblance of deserving it; as if it had the complaisance to check one bad propensity, to save them from standing contradicted and exposed to ridicule for speaking of it with indulgence or respect; as if it stayed or cared to thank them for their pains in attempting to make out a plausible extenuation. It has, and keeps, and shows its character, in perfect indifference to the puzzled efforts of its apologists to reduce its moral turpitude to just so much error of the understanding. But, as for understanding--it should be time to look to their own, when they find themselves asserting, in other words, that there is actually as much virtue in the world as there is knowledge of its principles and laws. We should rather have surmised that, deplorably deficient as that knowledge is, the reduction of a fifth or tenth part of it to practice would make a glorious change in England and Europe. The persons, therefore, whose zeal is combined with knowledge in the prosecution of plans for the extension of education, proceed on a calculation of an effect more limited, in apparent proportion to the means, and with less certainty of even that more limited measure in any single instance, than they would have been justified in anticipating in many other departments of operation. They would, for example, predict more positively the results of an undertaking to cultivate any tract of waste land, to reclaim a bog, or to render mechanical forces available in an untried mode of application; or, in many cases, the decided success of the healing art as applied to a diseased body. They must needs be moderate in their confidence of calculation for good, on a moral nature whose corruption would yield an enemy of mankind a gratifying probability in calculating for evil. In comparing these opposite calculations, they would be glad if they might make an exchange of the respective probabilities. That is to say, let a man, if such there be, who could be pleased with the depravity and misery of the race, a sagacious judge too, of their moral constitution, and a veteran observer of their conduct,--let him survey with the look of an evil spirit a hundred children in one of the benevolent schools, and indulge himself in prognosticating, on the strength of what he knows of human nature, the proportion, in numbers and degree, in which these children will, in subsequent life, exemplify the _failure_ of what is done for their wisdom and welfare;--let him make his calculation, and, we say, there may be times when the friends of these institutions would be glad to transfer the quantity of probability from his side to theirs; would feel they should be happy if the proportion in which they fear he may be right in calculating on evil from the nature of the beings under discipline, were, instead, the proportion in which it is rational to reckon on good from the efficacy of that discipline. "Evil, be thou my good," might be their involuntary apostrophe, in the sense of wishing to possess the stronger power, transmuted to the better quality. But we shall know where to stop in the course of observations of this darkening color: and shall take off the point of the derider's taunt, just forthcoming, that we are here unsaying, in effect, all that we have been so laboriously urging about the vast benefit of knowledge to the people. It was proper to show, that the prosecutors of these designs are not suffering themselves to be duped out of a perception of what there is, in the nature of the youthful subjects, to counteract the intention of the discipline, and with too certain a power to limit its efficacy to a very partial measure of the effect desired. These projectors might fairly be required to prove they are not unknowing enthusiasts; but then, in keeping clear of the vain extravagances of expectation, they are not to surrender their confidence that something great and important can be done; it should be possible for a man to be sober, short of being dead. They are not to gravitate into a state of feeling as if they thought the understanding and the moral powers are but casually associated in the mind; as if an important communication to the one, might, so to speak, never be heard of by the others; as if these subordinates had just one sole principle of action--that of disobeying their chief, so that it could be of no use to appeal to the master of the house respecting the conduct of his inmates; as if, therefore, _all_ presumption of a relation between means and ends, as a ground of confidence in the efficacy of popular instruction, must be illusory. It might not indeed be amiss for them to be _told_ that the case is so, by those who would desire, from whatever motive, to repress their efforts and defeat their designs. For so downright a blow at the vital principle of their favorite object would but serve to provoke them to ascertain more definitely what there really is for them to found their schemes and hopes upon, and therefore to verify to themselves the reasons they have for persisting, in assurance that the labor will be far from wholly lost. And for this assurance it is, at the very lowest, self-evident, that there is at any rate such an efficacy in cultivation, as to give a certainty that a well-cultivated people _cannot_ remain on the same degraded moral level as a neglected ignorant one--or anywhere near it. None of those even that value such designs the least, ever pretend to foresee, in the event of their being carried into effect, an undiminished prevalence of rudeness and brutality of manners, of delight in spectacles and amusements of cruelty, of noisy revelry, of sottish intemperance, or of disregard of character. It is not pretended to be foreseen, that the poorer classes will then continue to display so much of that almost desperate improvidence respecting their temporal means and prospects, which has aggravated the calamities of the present times. It is not predicted that a universal school-discipline will bring up several millions to the neglect, and many of them in an impudent contempt, of attendance on the ministrations of religion. The result will at all hazards, by every one's acknowledgment, be _the contrary of this_. But more specifically:--The promoters of the plans of popular education see a most important advantage gained in the very outset, in the obvious fact, that in their schools a very large portion of time is employed well, that otherwise would infallibly be employed ill. Let any one introduce himself into one of these places of concourse, where there has been time to mature the arrangements. He should not enter as an important personage, in patronizing and judicial state, as if to demand the respectful looks of the whole tribe from their attention to their printed rudiments and their slates; but glide in as a quiet observer, just to survey at his leisure the character and operations of the scene. Undoubtedly he may descry here and there the signs of inattention, weariness or vacancy, not to say of perverseness. Even these individuals, however, are out of the way of practical harm; and at the same time he will see a multitude of youthful spirits acknowledging the duty of directing their best attention to something altogether foreign to their wild amusements; of making a rather protracted effort in one mode or another of the strange business of _thinking_. He will perceive in many the unequivocal indications of a serious and earnest effort made to acquire, with the aid visible signs and implements, a command of what is invisible and immaterial. They are thus rising from the mere animal state to tread in the precincts of an intellectual economy; the economy of thought and truth, in which they are to live forever; and never, in all futurity, will they have to regret, for itself, [Footnote: _For itself_--a phrase of qualification inserted to meed the captious remark, that there have been instances of bad men, under the reproach of conscience of the dread of consequences, expressing a regret that they had ever been well instructed, since this was an aggravation of their guilt, and perhaps had subserved their evil propensities with the more effectual means and ability.] _this_ period and part of their employments. He will be delighted to think how many regulated actions of the mind, how many just ideas distinctly admitted, that were unknown or unimpressed at the beginning of the day's exercise, (and among these ideas, some to remind them of God and their highest interest,) there will have been by the time the busy and well-ordered company breaks up in the evening, and leaves silence within these walls. He will not indeed grow romantic in hope; he knows the nature of which these beings partake; knows therefore that the desired results of this process will but partially follow; but still rejoices to think those partial results which will most certainly follow, will be worth incomparably more than all they will have cost to the learners, or the teachers, or the patrons. Now let him, when he has contemplated this scene, consider how the greatest part of this numerous company would have been employed during the same hours, whether of the Sabbath or other days, but for such a provision of means for their instruction. And, for the contrast, he has only to leave the school, and walk a mile round the neighborhood, in which it will be very wonderful, (we may say this of most parts of England,) if he shall not, in a populous district, especially near a great town, and on a fine day, meet with a great number of wretched, disgusting imps, straggling or in knots, in the activity of mischief and nuisance, or at least the full cry of vile and profane language; with here and there, as a lord among them, an elder larger one growing fast into an insolent adult blackguard. He may make the comparison, quite sure that such as they are, and so employed, would many now under the salutary discipline of yonder school have been, but for its institution. But the two classes so beheld in contrast, might they not seem to belong to two different nations? Do they not seem growing into two extremely different orders of character? Do they not even seem preparing for different worlds in the final distribution? The friends of these designs for a general and highly improved education, may proceed further in this course of verifying to themselves the grounds of their assurance of happy consequences. A number of ideas, the most important that were ever formed in human thought, or imparted to men from the Supreme Mind, will be so communicated and impressed in these institutions, that it is absolutely certain they will be fixed irrevocably in the minds of the pupils. And in the case of many, if not the majority of these destined adventurers into the temptations of life, these important ideas, thus inserted deep in their souls, will distinctly present themselves to judgment and conscience an incalculable number of times. What a number, if the sum of all these reminiscences, in all the minds now assembled in a numerous school, could be conjectured! But if one in a hundred of these recollections, if one in a thousand, shall be efficacious, who can compute the amount of the good resulting from the instruction which shall have so enforced and fixed these ideas that they shall inevitably be thus recollected? And is it altogether out of reason to hope that the desired efficacy will, far oftener than once in a thousand times, attend the luminous rising again of a solemn idea to the view of the mind! Is still less than _this_ to be predicted for our unhappy nature, while, however fallen, it is not abandoned by the care of its Creator! The institutions themselves will gradually improve, in both the method and the compass of their discipline. They will acquire a more vigorous mechanism, and a more decidedly intellectual character. In this latter respect, it is but comparatively of late years that schools for the inferior classes have ventured anything beyond the humblest pretensions. Mental cultivation--enlarged knowledge--elements of science--habit of thinking--exercise of judgment--free and enlightened opinion--higher grade in society--were terms which they were to be reverently cautious of taking in vain. There would have been an offensive sound in such phrases, as seeming to betray somewhat of the impertinence of a _disposition_, (for the idea of the _practicability_ of any such invasion would have been scorned,) to encroach on a ground exclusively appropriate to the superior orders. Schools for the poor were to be as little as possible scholastic. They were to be kept down to the lowest level of the workshop, excepting perhaps in one particular--that of working hard: for the scholars were to throw time away rather than be occupied with anything beyond the merest rudiments. The advocates and the petitioners for aid of such schools, were to avow and plead how little it was that they pretended or presumed to teach. The argument in their behalf was either to begin or end with saying, that they taught _only_ reading and writing; or if it could not be denied that there was to be some meddling with arithmetic and grammar,--we may safely appeal to some of the veterans of these pleaders, whether they did not, thirty or forty years since, bring out this addition with the management and hesitation of a confession and apology. It is a prominent characteristic of that happy revolution we have spoken of as in commencement, that this aristocratic notion of education is breaking up. The theory of the subject is loosening into enlargement, and will cease by degrees to impose a niggardly restriction on the extent of the cultivation, proper to be attempted in schools for the inferiors of the community. As these institutions go on, augmenting in number and improving in organization, their pupils will bring their quality and efficacy to the proof, as they grow to maturity, and go forth to act their part in society. And there can be no doubt, that while too many of them may be mournful exemplifications of the power with which the evil genius of the corrupt nature, combined with the infection of a bad world, resists the better influences of instruction, and may, after the advantage of such an introductory stage, be carried down towards the old debasement, a very considerable proportion will take and permanently maintain a far higher ground. They will have become imbued with an element, which must put them in strong repulsion to that coarse vulgar that will be sure to continue in existence, in this country, long enough to be a trial of the moral taste of this better cultivated race. It will be seen that they cannot associate with it by choice, and in the spirit of companionship. And while they are thus withheld on their part, from approximating, it may be hoped that in certain better disposed parts of that vulgar, there may be a conversion of the repelling principle into an impulse to approach and join them on their own ground. There will be numbers among it who cannot be so entirely insensate or perverse, as to look with carelessness at the advantages obtained through the sole medium of personal improvement, by those who had otherwise been exactly on the same level of low resources and estimation as themselves. The effect of this view on pride, in some, and on better propensities, it may be hoped, in others, will be to excite them to make their way upward to a community which, they will clearly see, could commit no greater folly than to come downward to them. And we will presume a friendly disposition in most of those who shall have been raised to this higher standing, to meet such aspirers and help them to ascend. And while they will thus draw upward the less immovable and hopeless part of the mass below them, they will themselves, on the other hand, be placed, by the respectability of their understanding and manners, within the influence of the higher cultivation of the classes above them; a great advantage, as we have taken a former occasion to notice:--a great advantage, that is to say, if the cultivation among those classes _be_ generally of such a quality and measure, that the people could not be brought a few degrees nearer to them without becoming, through the effect of their example, more in love with sense, knowledge, and propriety of conduct. For it were somewhat too much of simplicity, perhaps, to take it for quite a thing of course that the people would always perceive such intellectual accomplishments as would keep them modest or humble in their estimate of their own, and such liberal spirit and manners as would at once command their respect and conduce to their refinement, when they made any approach to a communication with the classes superior in possessions and station. If this _might_ have been assumed as a thing of course, and if therefore it might have been confidently reckoned on, that the more improving of the people would receive from the ranks above them a salutary influence, similar to that which we have been supposing they will themselves exert on a part of the vulgar mass below them, there had been a happy omen for the community; and if it may not be so assumed, are we to have the disgraceful deficiencies of the upper classes pleaded as an argument against raising the lower from their degradation? Must the multitude flounder along the mud at the bottom of the upward slope, because their betters will not be at the cost of making for themselves a higher terraced road across it than that they are now walking on? * * * * * But it would be an admirable turn to make the lower orders act beneficially on the higher. And it is an important advantage likely to accrue from the better education of the common people, that their rising attainments would compel not a few of their superiors to look to the state of their own mental pretensions, on perceiving that _this_, at last, was becoming a ground on which, in no small part, their precedence was to be measured. Surely it would be a most excellent thing, that they should find themselves thus incommodiously pressed upon by the only circumstance, perhaps, that could make them sensible there are more kinds of poverty than that single one to which alone they had hitherto attached ideas of disgrace; and should be forced to preserve that ascendency for which wealth and station would formerly suffice, at the cost, now, of a good deal more reading, thinking, and general self-discipline. And would it be a worthy sacrifice, that to spare some substantial agriculturalists, idle gentlemen, and sporting or promenading ecclesiastics, such an afflictive necessity, the actual tillers of the ground, and the workers in manufacture and mechanics, should continue to be kept in stupid ignorance? It is very possible this may excite a smile, as the threatening of a necessity or a danger to these privileged persons, which it is thought they may be comfortably assured is very remote. This danger (namely, that a good many of them, or rather of those who are coming in the course of nature to succeed them in the same rank, will find that its relative consequence cannot be sustained but at a very considerably higher pitch of mental qualification) is threatened upon no stronger presages than the following:--Allow us first to take it for granted, that it is not a very protracted length of time that is to pass away before the case comes to be, that a large proportion of the children of the lower classes are trained, through a course of assiduous instruction and exercise in the most valuable knowledge, during a series of years, in schools which everything possible is done to render efficient. Then, if we include in one computation all the time they will have spent in real mental effort and acquirement there, and all those pieces and intervals of time which we may reasonably hope that many of them will improve to the same purpose in the subsequent years, a very great number of them will have employed, by the time they reach middle age, many thousands of hours more than people in their condition have heretofore done, in a way the most directly tending to place them greatly further on in whatever of importance for repute and authority intelligence is to bear in society. And how must we be estimating the natural capacities of these inferior classes, or the perceptions of the higher, not to foresee as a consequence, that these latter will find their relative situation greatly altered, with respect to the measure of knowledge and mental power requisite as one most essential constituent of their superiority, in order to command the unfeigned deference of their inferiors? Our strenuous promoters of the schemes for cultivating the minds of all the people, are not afraid of professing to foresee, that when schools, of that completely disciplinarian organization which they are, we hope, gradually to attain, shall have become general, and shall be vigorously seconded by all those auxiliary expedients for popular instruction which are also in progress, a very pleasing modification will become apparent in the character, the moral color, if we might so express it, of the people's ordinary employment. The young persons so instructed, being appointed, for the most part, to the same occupations to which they would have been destined had they grown up in utter ignorance and vulgarity, are expected to give evidence that the meanness, the debasement almost, which had characterized many of those occupations in the view of the more refined classes, was in truth the debasement of the men more than of the callings; which will come to be in more honorable estimation as associated with the sense, decorum, and self-respect of the performers, than they were while blended and polluted with all the low habits, manners, and language, of ignorance and vulgar grossness. And besides, there is the consideration of the different degrees of merit in the performance itself; and who will be the persons most likely to excel, in the many branches of workmanship and business which admit of being better done in proportion to the degree of intelligence directed upon them? And again, who will be most in requisition for those offices of management and superintendence, where something must be confided to judgment and discretion, and where the value is felt, (often vexatiously felt from the want,) of some capacity of combination and foresight? Such as these are among the subordinate benefits reasonably, we might say infallibly, calculated upon. Our philanthropists are confident in foreseeing also, that very many of these better educated young persons will be valuable co-operators with all who may be more formally employed in instruction, against that ignorance from which themselves have been so happily saved; will exert an influence, by their example and the steady avowal of their principles, against vice and folly in their vicinity; and will be useful advisers of their neighbors in their perplexities, and sometimes moderators in their discords. It is predicted, with a confidence so much resting on general grounds of probability, as hardly to need the instances already afforded in various parts of the country to confirm it, that here and there one of the well-instructed humbler class will become a competent and useful public teacher of the most important truth. It is, in short, anticipated with delightful assurance, that great numbers of those who shall go forth from under the friendly guardianship which will take the charge of their youthful minds, will be examples through life and at its conclusion, of the power and felicity of religion. Here we can suppose it not improbable that some one may, in pointed terms, put the question,--Do you then, at last, mean to affirm that you can, by the proposed course, by any course, of discipline, absolutely secure that effectual operation and ascendency of religion in the mind, which shall place it in the right condition toward God, and in a state of fitness for passing, without fear or danger, into the scenes of its future endless existence? We think the cautious limitation of language, hitherto observed in setting forth our expectations, might preclude such a question. But let it be asked, since there can be no difficulty to reply. We do _not_ affirm that any form of discipline, the wisest and best in the power of the wisest and best men to apply, is competent of itself thus to subject the mind decidedly and permanently to the power of religion. On the contrary, we believe that grand effect can be accomplished only by a special influence of the Divine Being, operating by the means applied in a well-judged system of instruction, or, if he pleases, independently of them. But next, it is perfectly certain, notwithstanding, that the application of these human means will, in a multitude of instances, be efficacious to that most happy end. This certainty arises from a few very plain general considerations. The first is, that the whole system of means appointed by the Almighty to be employed as a human process for presenting religion solemnly in view before men's minds, and enforcing it on them, is an appointment _expressly intended_ for working that great effect which secures their final felicity; though to what extent in point of number is altogether unknown to the subordinate agents. They are perfectly certain, in employing the appointed expedients in prosecution of the work, that they must be proceeding on the strength of a positive relation subsisting between those means and the results to be realized, in what instances, in what measure, at what time, it shall please the sovereign Power. The appointment cannot be one of mere exercise for the faculties and submissive obedience of those who are summoned to be active in its execution. Accordingly, there are in the divine revelation very many explicit and animating assurances, that their exertions shall certainly be in a measure effectual to the proposed end. And if these assurances are made in favor of the exertions for inculcating religion generally, that is, on men of all conditions and ages, they may be assumed as giving special encouragement to those for impressing it on young minds, before they can be preoccupied and hardened by the depravities of the world. There is plainly the more hope for the efficacy of those exertions the less there is to frustrate them. But besides, the authority itself, which has assured a measure of success to religious instruction as administered generally, has marked with peculiar strength the promise of its success as applied to the young; thus affording rays of hope which have in ten thousand instances animated the diligence of pious parents, and the other benevolent instructors of children. There is also palpable matter of fact to the point, that an education which combines the discipline of the conscience and the intellectual faculty will be rendered, in many instances, efficacious to the formation of a religious character. This obvious fact is, that a much greater proportion of the persons so educated do actually become the subjects of religion, than of a similar number of those brought up in ignorance and profligacy. Take collectively any number of families in which such an education prevails, and the same number in which it does not, and follow the young persons respectively into subsequent life. But any one who hears the suggestion, feels there is no need to wait the lapse of time and follow their actual course. As instructed by what he has already seen in society, he can go forward with them prophetically, with perfect certainty that many more of the one tribe than that of the other, will become persons not only of moral respectability but decided piety. Any one that should assert respecting them that the probabilities are equal and indifferent, would be considered as sporting a wilful absurdity, or betraying that he is one of those who did not come into the world for anything they can learn in it. And the experience which thus authorizes a perfect confidence of prediction, is evidence that, though discipline must wholly disclaim an absolute power to effect the great object in question, there is, nevertheless, such a constitution of things that it most certainly will, as an instrumental cause, in many instances effect it. The state of the matter, then, is very simple. The Supreme Cause of men's being "made wise to salvation," in appointing a system of means, to be put by human activity in operation toward this effect, has also appointed that in this operation they shall infallibly be attended with a measure of success in accomplishing that highest good,--a measure which was not to be accomplished otherwise than by such means. So much he has signified to men as an absolute certainty: but then, he has connected this certainty in an arbitrary, and as to our knowledge, indefinite manner with the system. It is a certainty connected with the system _as taken generally and comprehensively_; and which it is not given to us to affix to the particular instances in which the success will take place. It is a Divine Volition suspended over the whole scene of cultivation; like a cloud from which we cannot tell where precisely the shower to fertilize it will fall, certain, however, that there are spots whose verdure and flowers will tell after awhile. The agents under the Sovereign Dispenser are to proceed on this positive assurance that the success _shall be somewhere_, though they cannot know that it will be in this one instance, or in the other: "In the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening withhold not thy hand; for thou knowest not whether shall prosper, this, or that." If they rate the value of their agency so high, as to hold it derogatory to their dignity that any part of their labors should be performed under the condition of possibly being unsuccessful, they may be assured that such is not exactly the estimate of Him to whom they look for the acceptance of their services, and for the reward. But it may be added, that the great majority of those who are intent on the schemes for enlightening and reforming mankind, are entertaining a confident hope of the approach of a period, when the success will be far greater in proportion to the measure of exertion in every department of the system of instrumentality for that grand object. We cherish this confidence, not on the strength of any pretension to be able to resolve prophetic emblems and numbers, into precise dates and events of the present and approaching times. It rests on a more general mode of apprehending a relation between the extraordinary indications of the period we live in, and the substantial purport of the divine predictions. There unquestionably gleams forth, through the plainer lines, and through the mystical imagery of prophecy, the vision of a better age, in which the application of the truths of religion to men's minds will be irresistible. And what should more naturally be interpreted as one of the dawning signs of its approach, than a new spirit come into action with insuppressible impulse, at once to dispel the fog from their intellects and bring the heavenly light to shine close upon them; accompanied by a prodigious convulsion in the old system of the world, which hardly recognized in the inferior millions the very existence of souls to need or be worth such an illumination? It is true that an eruptive activity of evil, beyond what was witnessed by our forefathers, has attended and followed that convulsion; as mephitic exhalations are emitted through the rents of an earthquake. Viewed in itself, this outbreak of the bad principles and passions might seem to portend anything rather than a grand improvement in the state of a nation or of mankind. It appears like an actual augmentation of the evil previously existing. But it should rather be regarded as the setting loose of the noxious elements accumulated and rankling under the old system; a phenomenon inevitably attendant on its breaking up, by a catastrophe absolutely necessary to open and clear the field for operations on the great scale against those evils themselves, and to give scope and means for the advancement toward a better condition of humanity. The laborers in the institutions for instructing the young descendants of an ill-fated generation, may often regret to perceive how little the process is as yet informed with the energy which is ultimately to pervade the world. But let them regard as one great undivided economy and train of operation, these initiatory efforts and all that is to follow, till that time "when all shall know the Lord;" and take by anticipation, as in fraternity with the happier future laborers, their just share of that ultimate triumph. Those active spirits, in the happier periods, will look back with this sentiment of kindred and complacency to those who sustained the earlier toils of the good cause, and did not suffer their zeal to languish under the comparative smallness of their success. * * * * * We shall conclude with a few sentences in the way of reply to another question, which we can surmise there may be persons ready to ask, after this long iteration of the assertion of the necessity of knowledge to the common people. The question would be to this effect: What do you, all this while, mean to assign as the _measure_ of knowledge proper for the people to be put in possession of?--for you do not specify the kinds, or limit the extent: you talk in vague general terms of mental improvement; you leave the whole matter indefinite; and for all that appears, the people are never to know when they know enough. It is answered, that we _do_ leave the extent undefined, and should request to be informed where, and why, the line of circumscription and exclusion should be drawn. Is it, we could really wish to know, a point at all yet decided, wherein consist the value and importance of the human nature? Any liberal scheme for its universal cultivation is met by such a jealous parsimony toward the common people, such a ready imputation of wild theory, such protesting declamations against the mischief of practically applying abstract principles, such an undisguised or betrayed precedence given to mere interests of state, and those perhaps very sordid ones, before all others, and such whimsical prescriptions for making a salutary compound of a little knowledge and much ignorance,--that it might seem to be doubtful, after all, whether the human nature, in the mass of mankind at least, be of any such consistence, or for any such purpose, as is affirmed in our common-places on the subject. It is uniformly assumed in the language of divines, and of the philosophers in most repute, that the worth, the dignity, the importance of man, are in his rational, immortal nature; and that therefore the best condition of _that_ is his true felicity and glory, and the object chiefly to be aimed at in all that is done by him, and for him, on earth. But whether this should be regarded as anything more than the elated faith of ascetics, a fine dogma of academics, or a theme for show in the pomp of moral rhetoric? For we often see, and it is very striking to see, how principles which are suffered to pass for infallible truth while content to stay within the province of speculation, and to be pronounced as mere doctrine, may be disowned and repelled when they come demanding to have their appropriate place and influence in the practical sphere. Even many pretended advocates of Christianity, who in naming certain principles would seem to make them of the very essence of the moral part of that religion, and, in discoursing merely as _religionists_, will insist on their vital importance, will yet shuffle and equivocate about these principles, and in effect set them aside, when they are attempted to be applied to some of their most legitimate uses. If, for example, these religionists are among the servile adherents of corrupted institutions and iniquity invested with power, they will easily find accommodating interpretations, or pleas of exemption from the direct authority, of some of the most sacred maxims of their professed religion. Serve the true God when we happen to be in the right place; but at all events we must attend our master to pay homage in the temple of Eimmon, or, should he please to require it, that of Moloch,--with this signal difference from the ancient instance of peccant servility, that whereas in that case pardon for it was implored, in the present case a merit is made of the sycophancy and the idolatry. Unless the principles of Christianity will acknowledge the supremacy of _something else_ than Christianity, in the mode of their application to estimate the importance of the popular mind, they may take their repose in bodies of divinity, sermons, catechisms, systems of ethics, or wherever they can find a place. But _is_ it really admitted, as a great principle for practical application, that the mind, the intelligent, imperishable existence, is the supremely valuable thing in man? It is then admitted, inevitably, that the discipline, the correction, the improvement, the maturation of this spiritual being to the highest attainable degree, is the great object to be desired by men, for themselves and one another. That is to say, that knowledge, cultivation, salutary exercise, wisdom, all that can conduce to the perfection of the mind, form the state in which it is due to man's nature that he should be endeavored to be placed. But then, this is due to his nature by an absolutely _general_ law. He cannot be so circumstanced in the order of society that this shall _not_ be due to it. No situation in which the arrangements of the world, or say of Providence, may place him, can constitute him a specific kind of creature, to which is no longer fit and necessary that which is necessary to the well-being of man considered generally, as a spiritual, immortal nature. The essential law of this nature cannot be abrogated by men's being placed in humble and narrow circumstances, in which a very large portion of their time and exertions are required for mere subsistence. This accident of a confined situation is no more a reason why their minds should not require the best attainable cultivation, than would be the circumstance that the body in which a man's mind is lodged happens to be of smaller dimensions than those of other men. That under the disadvantages of this humble situation they _cannot_ acquire all the mental improvement, desirable for the perfection of their intelligent nature, that the situation renders it impracticable, is quite another matter. So far as this inhibition is real and absolute, that is, so far as it must remain after the best exertion of human wisdom and means in their favor, it must be submitted to as one of the infelicities of their allotment by Providence. What we are insisting on is, that since by the law of their nature there is to them the same general necessity as to any other human beings, of that which is essential to the well-being of the mind, they should be advanced in this improvement _as far as they can_; that is, as far as a wise and benevolent disposition of the community can make it practicable for them to be advanced. It is an odious hypocrisy to talk of the narrow limits to this advancement as an ordination of Providence, when a well-ordered constitution and management of the community might enlarge those limits. At least it is so in the _justifiers_ of that social system: those who deplore and condemn it _may_ properly speak of the appointment of Providence, but in another sense; as they would speak of the dispensations of Providence in consolation to a man iniquitously imprisoned or impoverished. Let the people then be advanced in the improvement of their rational nature as far as they can. A greater degree of this progress will be more for their welfare than a less. This might be shown in forms of illustration easily conceived, and as easily vindicated from the imputation of extravagance, by instances which every observer may have met with in real life. A poor man, cultivated in a small degree, has acquired a few just ideas of an important subject, which lies out of the scope of his daily employments for subsistence. Be that subject what it may, if those ideas are of any use to him, by what principle would one idea more, or two, or twenty, be of _no_ use to him? Of no use!--when all the thinking world knows, that every additional clear idea of a subject is valuable by a ratio of progress greater than that of the mere numerical increase, and that by a large addition of ideas a man triples the value of those with which he began. He has read a small meagre tract on the subject, or perhaps only an article in a magazine, or an essay in the literary column of a provincial newspaper. Where would be the harm, on supposition he can fairly afford the time, in consequence of husbanding it for this very purpose, of his reading a well-written concise book, which would give him a clear, comprehensive view of the subject? But perhaps another branch of the tree of knowledge bends its fruit temptingly to his hand. And if he should indulge, and gain a tolerably clear notion of one more interesting subject, (still punctually regardful of the duties of his ordinary vocation,) where, we say again, is the harm? Converse with him; observe his conduct; compare him with the wretched clown in a neighboring dwelling; and say that he is the worse for having thus much of the provision for a mental subsistence. But if thus much has contributed greatly to his advantage, why should he be interdicted still further attainments? Are you alarmed for him, if he will needs go the length of acquiring some knowledge of geography, the solar system, and the history of his own country and of the ancient world? [Footnote: These denominations of knowledge, so strange as they will to some person? appear, in such a connection, we have ventured to write from, observing that they stand in the schemes of elementary instruction in the Missionary schools for the children of the natives of Bengal. But of course we are to acknowledge, that the vigorous, high-toned spirits of those Asiatic idolaters are adapted to receive a much superior style of cultivation to any of which the feeble progeny of England can be supposed to be capable.] Let him proceed; supply him gratuitously with some of the best books on these subjects; and if you shall converse with him again, after another year or two of his progress, and compare him once more with the ignorant, stunted, cankered beings in his vicinity, you will see whether there be anything essentially at variance between his narrow circumstances in life and his mental enlargement. You are willing, perhaps, that he _should_ know a few facts of ancient times, and can, though with hesitation, trust him with some such slight stories as Goldsmith's Histories of Greece and Rome. But if he should then by some means find his way into such a work as that of Rollin, (of moral and instructive tendency, however defective otherwise,) or betray that he covets an acquaintance with those of Gillies, or even Thirlwall,--it is all over with him for being a useful member of society in his humble situation. You would consent (may we suppose?) to his reading a slender abridgment of voyages and travels; but what _is_ to become of him if nothing less will content him than the whole-length story of Captain Cook? He will direct, it is to be hoped, some of his best attention to the supreme subject of religion. And you would quite approve of his perusing some useful tracts, some manuals of piety, some commentary on a catechism, some volume of serious, plain discourses; but he is absolutely undone if his ambition should rise at length to Barrow, or Howe, or Jeremy Taylor. [Footnote: It should be unnecessary to observe, that the object in citing _any_ names in this paragraph was, to give a somewhat definite cast to the description of the supposed progress of the plebeian self-instructor. The principal of them are mentioned simply as being of such note in their departments, that he would be likely to hear of them among the first of the authors to be sought, if he were aspiring to something beyond his previously humble and abridged reading. The reader may substitute for these names any others, of the superior order, that he may think more proper to stand in their place. It would therefore be animadversion or ridicule misspent, to make the charge of extravagance on this imagined course of a plain man's reading, with a specific reference to the authors here named, as if it had been meant that precisely these, by a peculiar selection, were to be the authors he may be supposed to peruse, and in perusing, to waste his time and destroy his sense of duty.] He is by all means, you say, to be kept out of all such pernicious company, in which it is impossible he can learn any lesson but one,--an aversion to good morals, just laws, virtuous kings, a polished and benevolent gentry, and learned and pious teachers. Well; _let_ him be kept as far as possible from the mischief of all such books and knowledge; let him hardly know that there _was_ an ancient world, or that there _are_ on the globe such regions and wonders as travellers have described; or that a reason and eloquence above the pitch of some plain homily ever illustrated and enforced religion. _Let_ him keep clear of all such evil communications; and then, (since we were expressly making it a condition, that he can fairly spare the time for such reading from his common employment,) and then,--he will have just so much the more time for needless sleep, for discussing the trifles and characters of the neighborhood, or, (supposing him still of a religious habit,) for tiring his friends and family with the well-meant but very unattractive iteration of a few serious phrases and remarks, of which they will have long since learnt to anticipate the last word from hearing the first. Advantages like these he certainly may enjoy in consequence of his preclusion from the higher and wider field of ideas. But however valuable these may be in themselves, they will not ensure his being better qualified for the common business and proprieties of his station, than another man in the same sphere of life whose mind has acquired that larger reach which we are describing. It is no more than what we have repeatedly seen exemplified, when we represent this transgressor into the prohibited field as probably acquitting himself with exemplary regularity and industry in his allotted labors, and even in this very capacity preferred by the men of business to the illiterate tools in his neighborhood; nay, most likely preferred, in the more technical sense of the word, to the honorable, but often sufficiently vexatious office of directing and superintending the operations of those tools. And where, now, is the evil he is incurring or causing, during this progress of violating, step after step, the circumscription by which the aristocratic compasses were again and again, with small reluctant extensions to successive greater distances, defining the scope of the knowledge proper for a man of his condition? It is a bad thing, is it, that he has a multiplicity of ideas to relieve the tedium incident to the sameness of his course of life; that, with many things which had else been but mere insignificant facts, or plain dry notions and principles, he has a variety of interesting associations; like woodbines and roses wreathing round the otherwise bare, ungraceful forms of erect stones or withered trees; that the world is an interpreted and intelligible volume before his eyes; that he has a power of applying himself to _think_ of what it becomes at any time necessary for him to understand? Is it a judgment upon him for his temerity, in "seeking and intermeddling with wisdom" with which he had no business, that he has so much to impart to his children as they are growing up, and that if some of them are already come to maturity, they know not where to find a man to respect more than their father? Or if he takes a part in the converse and devotional exercises of religious society, is no one there the better for the clearness and the plenitude of his thoughts and the propriety of his expression?--But there would be no end of the preposterous suppositions fairly attachable to the notion, that the mental improvement of the common people has some proper limit of arbitrary prescription, on the ground simply of their _being_ the common people, and quite distinct from the restriction which their circumstances may invincibly impose on their ability. Taken in this latter view, we acknowledge that their condition would be a subject for most melancholy contemplation,--if we did not hope for better times. The benevolent reflector, when sometimes led to survey in thought the endless myriads of beings with minds within the circuit of a country like this, will have a momentary vision of them as they would be if all improved to the highest mental condition to which it is _naturally possible_ for them to be exalted a magnificent spectacle; but it instantly fades and vanishes. And the sense is so powerfully upon him of the unchangeable economy of the world, which, even if the fairest visions of the millennium itself were realized, would still render such a thing _actually_ impossible, that he hardly regrets the bright scene was but a beautiful _mirage_, and melts away. His imagination then descends to view this immense tribe of rational beings in another, and comparatively moderate state of the cultivation of their faculties, a state not one-third part so lofty as that in which he had beheld all the individuals improved to the utmost of their natural capacity; and he thinks, that the condition of man's abode on earth _might_ admit of their being raised to _this_ elevation. But he soon sees that, till a mighty change shall come on the management of the affairs of nations, this too is impossible; and with regret he sees even this inferior ideal spectacle pass away, to rest on an age in distant prospect. At last he takes his imaginary stand on what he feels to be a very low level of the supposed improvement of the general popular mind; and he says, Thus much, at the least, should be a possibility allowed by the circumstances of the people under _any_ tolerable disposition of national interests;--and then he turns to look down on an actual condition in which care, and toil, and distress, render it impossible for a great proportion of the people to reach, or even approach, this his last and lowest conception of what the state of their minds ought to be. In spite of all the optimists, it _is_ a grievous reflection, after the race has had on earth so many thousands of years for attaining its most advantageous condition there, that all the experience, the philosophy, the science, the art, the power acquired by mind over matter,--that all the contributions of all departed and all present spirits and bodies, yes, and all religion too, should have come but to this;--to this, that in what is self-adulated as the most favored and improved nation of all terrestrial space and time, a vast proportion of the people are found in a condition which confines them, with all the rigor of necessity, to a mere childhood of intelligent existence, without its innocence. But at the very same time, and while the compassion rises, at such a view, there comes in on the other hand the reflection, that even in the actual state of things, there are a considerable number of the people who _might_ acquire a valuable share of improvement which they do not. Great numbers of them, grown up, waste by choice, and multitudes of children waste through utter neglect, a large quantity of precious time which their narrow circumstances still leave free from the iron dominion of necessity. And they will waste it, it is certain that they will, till education shall have become general, and much more vigorous in discipline. If through a miracle there were to come down on this country, with a sudden, delightful affluence of temporal melioration, resembling the vernal transformation from the dreariness of winter, a universal prosperity, so that all should be placed in comparative ease and plenty, it would require another miracle to prevent this benignity of heaven from turning to a dreadful mischief. What would the great tribe of the uneducated people do with the half of their time, which we will suppose that such a state would give to their voluntary disposal? Every one can answer infallibly, that the far greater number of them would consume it in idleness, vanity or every sort of intemperance. Educate them, then, bring them under a grand process of intellectual and moral reformation;--or, in all circumstances and events, calamitous or prosperous, they are still a race made in vain! In taking leave of the subject, we wish to express, in strong terms, the applause and felicitations due to those excellent individuals, found here and there, who In very humble circumstances, and perhaps with very little advantage of education in their youth, have been excited to a strenuous, continued exertion for the improvement of their minds; and thus have made (the unfavorable situation considered,) admirable attainments, which are verifying to them that "knowledge is power," over rich resources for their own enjoyment, and are in many instances passing with inestimable worth into the instruction of their families, and a variety of usefulness within their sphere. They have nobly struggled with their threatened destiny, and have overcome it. When they think, with regret, how confined, after all, is their portion of knowledge, as compared with the possessions of those who have had from their infancy all facilities and the amplest time for its acquirement, let them be consoled by reflecting, that the value of mental progress is not to be measured solely by the quantity of knowledge possessed, but partly, and indeed still more, in the corrective, invigorating effect produced on the mental powers by the resolute exertions made in attaining it. And therefore, since, under their great disadvantages, it has required a much greater degree of this resolute exertion in them to force their way victoriously out of ignorance, than it has required in those who have had everything in their favor to make a long, free career over the field of knowledge, they may be assured they possess one greater benefit in _proportion_ to the measure of their acquirements. This persistence of a determined will to do what has been so difficult to be done, has infused a peculiar energy into the exercise of their powers; a valuable compensation, in part, for their more limited share of the advantage that one part of knowledge becomes more valuable in itself by the accession of many others. Let them persevere in this worthy self-discipline, appropriate to the introductory period of an endless mental life. Let them go on to complete the proof how much a mind incited to a high purpose may triumph over a depression of its external condition;--but solemnly taking care, that all their improvements may tend to such a result, that at length the rigor of their lot and the confinement of mortality itself bursting at once from around them, may give them to those intellectual revelations, that everlasting sunlight of the soul, in which the truly wise will expand all their faculties in a happier economy. The End. 
17570	----	RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN THE FAMILY by HENRY F. COPE General Secretary of the Religious Education Association The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois Copyright 1915 by The University of Chicago All Rights Reserved Published April 1915 Second Impression September 1915 Third Impression March 1916 Fourth Impression June 1917 Fifth Impression August 1920 Sixth Impression July 1922 Seventh Impression September 1922 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois The Baker and Taylor Company New York The Cambridge University Press London The Maruzen-Kabushiki-Kaisha Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Fukuoka, Sendai The Mission Book Company Shanghai PREFACE In the work of religious education, with which the present series of books is concerned, the life of the family rightly occupies a central place. The church has always realized its duty to exhort parents to bring up their children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord, but very little has ever been done to enable parents to study systematically and scientifically the problem of religious education in the family. Today parents' classes are being formed in many churches; Christian Associations, women's clubs, and institutes are studying the subject; individual parents are becoming more and more interested in the rational performance of their high duties. And there is a general desire for guidance. As the full bibliography at the end of this volume and the references in connection with each chapter indicate, there is available a very large literature dealing with the various elements of the problem. But a guidebook to organize all this material and to stimulate independent thought and endeavor is desirable. To afford this guidance the present volume has been prepared. It is equally adapted for the thoughtful study of the father and mother who are seeking help in the moral and religious development of their own family, and for classes in churches, institutes, and neighborhoods, where the important problems of the family are to be studied and discussed. It would be well to begin the use of the book by reading the suggestions for class work at the end of the volume. With a confident hope that religion in the family is not to be a wistful memory of the past but a most vital force in the making of the better day that is coming, this volume is offered as a contribution and a summons. The Editors New Year's Day, 1915 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. An Interpretation of the Family 1 II. The Present Status of Family Life 10 III. The Permanent Elements in Family Life 27 IV. The Religious Place of the Family 37 V. The Meaning Of Religious Education in the Family 46 VI. The Child's Religious Ideas 60 VII. Directed Activity 75 VIII. The Home as a School 87 IX. The Child's Ideal Life 101 X. Stories and Reading 110 XI. The Use of the Bible in the Home 119 XII. Family Worship 126 XIII. Sunday in the Home 145 XIV. The Ministry of the Table 164 XV. The Boy and Girl in the Family 173 XVI. The Needs of Youth 183 XVII. The Family and the Church 198 XVIII. Children and the School 212 XIX. Dealing with Moral Crises 218 XX. Dealing with Moral Crises (_Continued_) 231 XXI. Dealing with Moral Crises (_Continued_) 240 XXII. Dealing with Moral Crises (_Concluded_) 249 XXIII. The Personal Factors in Religious Education 259 XXIV. Looking to the Future 268 Suggestions for Class Work 281 A Book List 290 Index 297 CHAPTER I AN INTERPRETATION OF THE FAMILY § 1. TAKING THE HOME IN RELIGIOUS TERMS The ills of the modern home are symptomatic. Divorce, childless families, irreverent children, and the decadence of the old type of separate home life are signs of forgotten ideals, lost motives, and insufficient purposes. Where the home is only an opportunity for self-indulgence, it easily becomes a cheap boarding-house, a sleeping-shelf, an implement for social advantage. While it is true that general economic developments have effected marked changes in domestic economy, the happiness and efficiency of the family do not depend wholly on the parlor, the kitchen, or the clothes closet. Rather, everything depends on whether the home and family are considered in worthy and adequate terms. Homes are wrecked because families refuse to take home-living in religious terms, in social terms of sacrifice and service. In such homes, organized and conducted to satisfy personal desires rather than to meet social responsibilities, these desires become ends rather than agencies and opportunities. They who marry for lust are divorced for further lust. Selfishness, even in its form of self-preservation, is an unstable foundation for a home. It costs too much to maintain a home if you measure it by the personal advantages of parents. What hope is there for useful and happy family life if the newly wedded youth have both been educated in selfishness, habituated to frivolous pleasures, and guided by ideals of success in terms of garish display? Yet what definite program for any other training does society provide? Do the schools and colleges, Sunday schools and churches teach youth a better way? How else shall they be trained to take the home and family in terms that will make for happiness and usefulness? It is high time to take seriously the task of educating people to religious efficiency in the home. § 2. THE RELIGIOUS MOTIVE The family needs a religious motive. More potent for happiness than courses in domestic economy will be training in sufficient domestic motives. It will take much more than modern conveniences, bigger apartments, or even better kitchens to make the new home. Essentially the problem is not one of mechanics but of persons. What we call the home problem is more truly a _family_ problem. It centers in persons; the solution awaits a race with new ideals, educated to live as more than dust, for more than dirt, for personality rather than for possessions. We need young people who establish homes, not simply because they feel miserable when separated, nor because one needs a place in which to board and the other needs a boarder, but because the largest duty and joy of life is to enrich the world with other lives and to give themselves in high love to making those other lives of the greatest possible worth to the world. The family must come to a recognition of social obligations. We all hope for the coming ideal day. Everywhere men and women are answering to higher ideals of life. But the new day waits for a new race. Modern emphasis on the child is a part of present reaction from materialism. New social ideals are personal. We seek a better world for the sake of a higher race. The emphasis on child-welfare has a social rather than a sentimental basis. The family is our great chance to determine childhood and so to make the future. The child of today is basic to the social welfare of tomorrow. He is our chance to pay to tomorrow all that we owe to yesterday. The family as the child's life-school is thus central to every social program and problem. § 3. WIDER CHILD-WELFARE This age knows that man does not live by bread alone. Interest in child-welfare is for the sake of the child himself, not for the sake of his clothes or his physical condition. Concern about soap and sanitation, hygiene and the conveniences of life grows because these all go to make up the soil in which the person grows. There is danger that our emphasis on child-welfare may be that of the tools instead of the man; that we may become enmeshed in the mechanism of well-being and lose sight of the being who should be well. To fail at the point of character is to fail all along the line. And we fail altogether, no matter how many bathtubs we give a child, how many playgrounds, medical inspections, and inoculations, unless that child be in himself strong and high-minded, loving truth, hating a lie, and habituated to live in good-will with his fellows and with high ideals for the universe. Modern interest in the material factors of life is on account of their potency in making real selfhood; we acknowledge the importance of the physical as the very soil in which life grows. But the fruits are more than the soil, and a home exists for higher purposes than physical conveniences; these are but its tools to its great end. Somehow for purposes of social well-being we must raise our thinking of the family to the aim of the development of efficient, rightly minded character. The family must be seen as making spiritual persons. § 4. THE COST OF A FAMILY Taking the home in religious terms will mean, then, conceiving it as an institution with a religious purpose, namely, that of giving to the world children who are adequately trained and sufficiently motived to live the social life of good-will. The family exists to give society developed, efficient children. It fails if it does not have a religious, a spiritual product. It cannot succeed except by the willing self-devotion of adult lives to this spiritual, personal purpose. A family is the primary social organization for the elementary purpose of breeding the species, nurturing and training the young. This is its physiological basis. But its duties cannot be discharged on the physiological plane alone. This elementary physiological function is lifted to a spiritual level by the aim of character and the motive of love. Families cannot be measured by their size; they must be measured by the character of their products. If quality counts anywhere it counts here, though it is well to remember that it takes some reasonable quantity to make right quality in each. The family needs a religious motive. It demands sacrifice. To follow lower impulses is to invite disaster. The home breeds bitterness and sorrow wherever men and women court for lust, marry for social standing, and maintain an establishment only as a part of the game of social competition. To sow the winds of passion, ease, idle luxury, pride, and greed is to reap the whirlwind. Moreover, it is to miss the great chance of life, the chance to find that short cut to happiness which men call pain and suffering. A family is humanity's great opportunity to walk the way of the cross. Mothers know that; some fathers know it; some children grow up to learn it. In homes where this is true, where all other aims are subordinated to this one of making the home count for high character, to training lives into right social adjustment and service, the primary emphasis is not on times and seasons for religion; religion is the life of that home, and in all its common living every child learns the way of the great Life of all. In vain do we torture children with adult religious penances, long prayers, and homilies, thinking thereby to give them religious training. The good man comes out of the good home, the home that is good in character, aim, and organization, not sporadically but permanently, the home where the religious spirit, the spirit of idealism, and the sense of the infinite and divine are diffused rather than injected. The inhuman, antisocial vampires, who suck their brothers' blood, whether they be called magnates or mob-leaders, grafters or gutter thieves, often learned to take life in terms of graft by the attitude and atmosphere of their homes.[1] § 5. MOTIVES FOR A STUDY OF THE FAMILY The modern family is worthy of our careful study. It demands painstaking attention, both because of its immediate importance to human happiness and because of its potentiality for the future of society. The kind of home and the character of family life which will best serve the world and fulfil the will of God cannot be determined by sentiment or supposition. We are under the highest and sternest obligation to discover the laws of the family, those social laws which are determined by its nature and purpose, to find right standards for family life, to discriminate between the things that are permanent and those that are passing, between those we must conserve and those we must discard, to be prepared to fit children for the finer and higher type of family life that must come in the future. Methods of securing family efficiency will not be discovered by accident. If it is worth while to study the minor details, such as baking cakes and sweeping floors, surely it is even more important to study the larger problems of organization and discipline. There is a science of home-direction and an art of family living; both must be learned with patient study. It is a costly thing to keep a home where honor, the joy of love, and high ideals dwell ever. It costs time, pleasures, and so-called social advantages, as well as money and labor. It must cost thought, study, and investigation. It demands and deserves sacrifice; it is too sacred to be cheap. The building of a home is a work that endures to eternity, and that kind of work never was done with ease or without pain and loss and the investment of much time. Patient study of the problems of the family is a part of the price which all may pay. No nobler social work, no deeper religious work, no higher educational work is done anywhere than that of the men and women, high or humble, who set themselves to the fitting of their children for life's business, equipping them with principles and habits upon which they may fall back in trying hours, and making of home the sweetest, strongest, holiest, happiest place on earth. Heaven only knows the price that must be paid for that; heaven only knows the worth of that work. But if we are wise we shall each take up our work for our world where it lies nearest to us, in co-operation with parents, in service and sacrifice as parents or kin, our work in the shop where manhood is in the making, where it is being made fit to dwell long in the land, in the family at home. I. References for Study Edward Lyttleton, _The Corner-Stone of Education_, chaps. i, vii. Putnam, $1.50. A. Gandier, "Religious Education in the Home," _Religious Education_, June, 1914, pp. 233-42. II. Further Reading _The Family a Religious Agency_ C.F. and C.B. Thwing, _The Family_. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, $1.60. J.D. Folsom, _Religious Education in the Home_. Eaton & Mains, $0.75. G.A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_. Revell, $1.35. _The Place of the Family_ A.J. Todd, _The Family as an Educational Agency_. Putnam, $2.00. W.F. Lofthouse, _Ethics and the Family_. Hodder & Stoughton, $2.50. J.B. Robins, _The Family a Necessity_. Revell, $1.25. III. Topics for Discussion 1. Describe the changes within recent times in the conditions of the home, its work, housing, and supplies. How far have these changes affected the community of the family, the continuity of its personal relationships, and its religious service? 2. What are the fundamental causes of family disasters? Admitting that there are sufficient grounds for divorce in numerous instances, what other causes enter into the high number of divorces? 3. State in your own terms the ultimate reasons for the maintenance of a family. 4. What are the motives which would make people willing to bear the high cost of founding and conducting a home? 5. What points of emphasis does this study suggest in the matter of the education of public opinion? 6. State your distinction between the family and the home; which is the more important and why? FOOTNOTES: [1] _The Corner-Stone of Education_, by Edward Lyttleton, headmaster of Eton, is a striking argument on the determinative influence of parental habits and attitudes of mind. CHAPTER II THE PRESENT STATUS OF FAMILY LIFE § 1. CONTRASTED TYPES In a beautiful village, in one of the farther western states, two men were discussing the possible future of the home and of family life. Sitting in the brilliant moonlight, looking through the leafy shades, watching the lights of a score of homes, each surrounded by lawn and shade trees, each with its group on the front porch, where vines trailed and flowers bloomed, listening to the hum of conversation and the strains of music in one home and another, it seemed, to at least one of these men, that this type of living could hardly pass away. The separate home, each family a complete social integer, each with its own circle of activities and interests, its own group, and its own table and fireside, seemed too fine and beautiful, too fair and helpful, to perish under economic pressure. Indeed, one felt that the village home furnished a setting for life and a soil for character development far higher and more efficient than could be afforded by any other domestic arrangement--that it approached the ideal. But two weeks later two men sat in an upper room, in the second largest city in America, discussing again the future of the family. Instead of the quiet music of the village, the clang of street cars filled the ears, trains rushed by, children shouted from the paved highway, families were seated by open windows in crowded apartments, seeking cool air; the total impression was that of being placed in a pigeonhole in a huge, heated, filing-case, where each separate space was occupied by a family. One felt the pressure of heated, crowded kitchens, suffocating little dining-rooms; one knew that the babies lay crying in their beds at night, gasping their very lives away, and that the young folks were wandering off to amusement parks and moving-picture shows. Here was an entirely different picture. How long could family life persist under these conditions where privacy was almost gone and comfort almost unknown? In the village separate home integers appear ideal; in the city they are possible only to the few. The many, at present, find them a crushing burden. Desirable as privacy is, it can be purchased at too high a price. It costs too much to maintain separate kitchens and dining-rooms under city conditions. § 2. COMMUNAL TENDENCIES Present conditions spell waste, inefficiency, discomfort. The woman lives all day in stifling rooms, poorly lighted, with the nerve-racking life of neighbors pouring itself through walls and windows. The men come from crowded shops and the children from crowded schoolrooms to crowd themselves into these rooms, to snatch a meal, or to sleep. How can there be real family life? What joy can there be or what ideals created in daily discomfort and distress? Little wonder that such homes are sleeping-places only, that there is no sense of family intercourse and unity. Little wonder that restaurant life has succeeded family life. Many hold that we are ready for a movement into community living, that just as the social life of the separate house porches in the villages has become communized into the amusement parks in the cities, so all the activities of the family will move in the same direction. How long could the family as a unit continue under these conditions? The village life will persist for a long time; it may be that, when we apply scientific methods to the transportation of human beings in the same measure as we have to the moving of pig iron, we can develop large belts of real village life all around our industrial centers. But more and more the village tends to become like the city; in other words, highly organized communal life is the dominant trend today. Just as business tends to do on a large scale all that can be more economically done in larger units, so does the home. We must look for the increasing prevalence of the city type of life for men and women and for families. § 3. THE ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT It is worth while to note, in some brief detail, just what changes are involved in the tendency toward communal living. At the beginning of the industrial revolution which ushered in the factory period, each family was a fairly complete unit in itself. The village was little more than a nucleus of farmhouses, with a few differing types of units, such as workers in wood, in wearing apparel, and in tools. The home furnished nearly all its own food, spun and made its clothes, trained its own children, and knew scarcely any community endeavor or any syndication of effort except in the church. The industrial revolution took labor largely out of the home into the factory. Except for farm life, the husband became an outside worker and the older boys followed him to the distant shop or factory. Earning a living ceased to be a family act and became a social act in a larger sphere. But in this change it ceased to be a part of the family educational process. Boys who, from childhood up, had gradually learned their father's trade in the shop or workroom, which was part of the house, where they played as children in the shavings, or watched the glowing sparks in the smithy, now missed the process of a father's discipline and guidance as their hands acquired facility for their tasks. The home lost the male adults for from nine to twelve hours of each day, more than two-thirds of the waking period, and thus it lost a large share of disciplinary guidance. In the rise of the factory system, to a large extent the family lost the father. When the workshop left the home its most efficient school was taken from it. The lessons may have been limited, crude, and deadly practical, but the method approximated to the ideals which modern pedagogy seeks to realize. Among the shavings children learned by doing; schooling was perfectly natural; it involved all the powers; it had the incalculable value of informality and reality. The father gone and the mother still fully occupied with her tasks, the children lost that practical training for life which home industry had afforded. On the one hand, the young became the victims of idleness and, on the other, the prey of the voracious factory system. This condition gave rise to the public-school system. It appealed to Robert Raikes and others. The school appeared and took over the child. Of course schools had existed, here and there, long before this, but now they had an enlarged responsibility; they must act almost in the place of the parents for the formal training of children. Having lost the father and older males for the greater portion of the day, the home now loses the children of from seven to the "'teen" years for five or six hours of the day. The mother is left at home with the babies. The family, once living under one roof, now is found scattered; it has reached out into factory and school. Its hours of unified life have been markedly reduced. But the factory system soon had a reflex influence on the home. That which was made in the factory came back into the home, not only in the form of the articles formerly made by the men, but in those made by the women. Clothes, candles, butter, cheese, preserves, and meat--all formerly home products for the use of the family producing them--now were prepared in larger quantities, by mechanical processes, and were brought back into the home. Woman's labor was lightened; the older girls were liberated from the loom and they began to seek occupation, education, and diversion according to their opportunities in life. That last step made it possible for people to think of the communization of home industry, to think of eating food cooked in other ovens than their own, to think of one oven large enough for a whole village. Many interesting experiments in co-operative living immediately sprang up. But the next step came slowly and, even now, is only firmly established in the cities, in the actual abandonment of the family kitchen for the community kitchen in the form of the restaurant. In such families we have unity only in the hours of sleep and recreation. Along with abandonment of the separate kitchen there has proceeded the abandonment of the parlor in the homes of the middle classes. To lose the old, mournful front room may be no subject for tears, but the loss of the evening family group, about the fireside or the reading-lamp, is a real and sad loss. The commercialized amusements have offered greater attractions to vigorous youth. The theater and its lesser satellites, amusements, entertainments, lectures, the lyceum, and recreation-by-proxy in ball games and matches have taken the place of united family recreation. Of course this has been a natural development of the older village play-life and has been by no means an unmixed ill. Now, behold, what has become of the old-time home life! The family that spent nearly twenty-four hours together now spends a scarce seven or eight, and these are occupied in sleeping! Little wonder that the next step is taken--the abandonment of this remainder, the sleep period, under a domestic roof, as the family moves into a hotel! Along with the tendency toward communal working and eating we see the tendency to communal living by the development of the apartment building. Since roof-trees are so expensive, and since in a practical age, few of us can afford to pay for sentiment, why not put a dozen families under one roof-tree? True we sacrifice lawns, gardens, natural places for children to play; we lose birds and flowers and the charm of evening hours on porches, or galleries, but think of what we gain in bricks and mortar, in labor saved from splitting wood and shoveling coal, in janitor service! The transition is now complete; the home is simply that item in the economic machinery which will best furnish us storage for our sleeping bodies and our clothes! We are undoubtedly in a period of great changes in family life, and no family can count on escaping the influence of the change. The one single outstanding and most potent change, so far as the character of family life is concerned, is, in the United States, the rapid polarization of population in the cities. The United States Census Bureau counts all residents in cities of over 8,000 population as "urban." In 1800 the "urban" population was 4 per cent of the total population; in 1850 it was 12.5 per cent; in 1870, 20.9 per cent; in 1890, 29.2 per cent; in 1900, 33.1 per cent; in 1910 it was estimated at 40 per cent.[2] Here is a trend so clearly marked that we cannot deny its reality, while its significance is familiar to everyone today. However, the village type remains; there are still many homes where a measure of family unity persists, where at least in one meal daily and, for purposes of sleeping and, occasionally, for the evening hours of recreation, there is a consciousness of home life. Yet the most remote village feels the pressure of change. The few homes conforming to the older ideals are recognized as exceptional. The city draws the village and rural family to itself, and the contagion of its customs and ideals spreads through the villages and affects the forms of living there. Youths become city dwellers and do not cease to scoff at the village unless later years give them wisdom to appreciate its higher values. The standard of domestic organization is established by the city; that type of living is the ideal toward which nearly all are striving. The important question for all persons is whether the changes now taking place in family life are good or ill. It is impossible to say whether the whole trend is for the better; the many elements are too diverse and often apparently conflicting. Faith in the orderly development of society gives ground for belief that these changes ultimately work for a higher type of family life. The city may be regarded as only a transition stage in social evolution--the compacting of masses of persons together that out of the new fusing and welding may arise new methods of social living. The larger numbers point to more highly developed forms of social organization. When these larger units discover their greater purposes, above factory and mill and store, and realize them in personal values, the city life will be a more highly developed mechanism for the higher life of man. The home life will develop along with that city life. § 4. PURPOSEFUL ORGANIZATION At present the home is suffering, just as the city is suffering, from a lack of that purposeful organization which will order the parts aright and subject the processes to the most important and ultimate purposes. The city is simply an aggregation of persons, scarcely having any conscious organization, thrown together for purposes of industry. It will before very long organize itself for purposes of personal welfare and education. The family is usually a group bound in ties of struggle for shelter, food, and pleasure. Such consciousness as it possesses is that of being helplessly at the mercy of conflicting economic forces. The adjustment of those forces, their subjection to man's higher interests, must come in the future and will help the family to freedom to discover its true purpose. It is easy to insist on the responsibility of parents for the character-training of their children, but it is difficult to see how that responsibility can be properly discharged under industrial conditions that take both father and mother out of the home the whole day and leave them too weary to stay awake in the evening, too poor to furnish decent conditions of living, and too apathetic under the dull monotony of labor to care for life's finer interests. The welfare of the family is tied up with the welfare of the race; if progress can be secured in one part progress in the whole ensues. There are those who raise the question whether family life is a permanent form of social organization for which we may wisely contend, or is but a phase from which the race is now emerging. Some see signs that the ties of marriage will be but temporary, that children will be born, not into families but into the life of the state, bearing only their mothers' names and knowing no brothers and sisters save in the brotherhood of the state. Whether the permanent elements in family life furnish a sufficiently worthy basis for its preservation is a subject for careful consideration. § 5. THE HOME AND THE FAMILY The family is more important than the home, just as the man is more than his clothing. The form of the home changes; the life of the family continues unchanged in its essential characteristics. The family causes the home to be. Professor Arthur J. Todd insists that the family is the basis of marriage, rather than marriage the cause of the family.[3] Small groups for protection and social living would precede formal arrangements of monogamy. Westermarck concludes that it was "for the benefit of the young that male and female continued to live together."[4] The importance of this consideration for us lies in the thought of the overshadowing importance of this social group which we now call the family. The family is the primary cell of society, the first unit in social organization. Our thought must balance itself between the importance of this social group, to be preserved in its integrity, and the value of the home, with its varied forms of activity and ministry, as a means of preserving and developing this group, the family. One hears today many pessimistic utterances regarding the modern home. Some even tell us that it is doomed to become extinct. Without doubt great economic changes in society are producing profound changes in the organization and character of the home. But the home has always been subject to such changes; the factor which we need to watch with greater care is the family; the former is but the shell of the latter. The character of each home will depend largely on the economic condition of those who dwell in it. The homes of every age will reflect the social conditions of that age. The picture in historical romances of the home of the mediaeval period, where the factory, or shop, joined the dining-room, where the apprentices ate and roomed in the home, where one might be compelled to furnish and provision his home literally as his castle for defense, presents a marked difference to the home of this century tending to syndicate all its labors with all the other homes of the community. Since the home is simply the organization and mechanism of the family life, it is most susceptible to material and social changes. It varies as do the fashions of men. Much that we assume to be detrimental to the life of the home is simply due to the fact that in the evolution of society the family, as it were, puts on a new suit of clothes, adopts new forms of organization to meet the changing external conditions. § 6. THE HOME CHANGING; THE FAMILY ABIDING The home is of importance only as a tool, a means to the final ends of the family life; the test of its efficiency is not whether it maintains traditional forms but whether it best serves the highest aims of family life. We may abandon all the older customs; our regret for them, as we look back on the days of home cooking, cannot be any greater than the regrets of our parents or grandparents looking back on the spinning-wheel and the hand loom that cumbered the kitchen of their childhood. Surely no one contends that family life has deteriorated, that human character is one whit the poorer, because we have discarded the family spinning-wheel. Through the changes of a developing civilization, as man has moved from the time when each one built his own house, worked with his own tools to make all his supplies, to these days of specialized service in community living, the home has changed with each step of industrial progress, but the family has remained practically unchanged. The family stands a practically unchanging factor of personal qualities at the center of our civilization; the family rather than the home determines the character of the coming days. In its social relationships are rooted the things that are best in all our lives. In its social training lie the solutions of more problems in social adjustment and development than we are willing to admit. The family is the soil of society, central to all its problems and possibilities. Before church or school the family stands potent for character. We are what we are, not by the ideals held before us for thirty minutes a week or once a month in a church, nor by the instructions given in the classroom; we are what parents, kin, and all the circumstances that have touched us daily and hourly for years have determined we should be. The sweetest memories of our lives cluster about the scenes of family life. The rose-embowered cottage of the poet is not the only spot that claims affectionate gratitude; many look back to a city house wedged into its monotonous row. But, wherever it might be, if it sheltered love and held a shrine where the altar fires of family sacrifice burned, earth has no fairer or more sacred spot. The people rather than the place made it potent. Stronger even than the memories that remain are the marks of habits, tendencies, tastes, and dispositions there acquired. Many a man who has left no fortune worth recording to his sons has left them something better, the aptitude for things good and honorable, the memory of a good name, and the heritage of a life that was worthy of honor. The personal life has been always the enduring thing. Our concern for the future should be not whether we can pass on intact the forms of home organization, but whether we can give to the next day the force of ideal family life. Perhaps like Mary we would do well to turn our eyes from the much serving, the mechanisms of the home, to set our minds on the better part, the personal values in the association of lives in the family. I. References for Study W.F. Lofthouse, _Ethics and the Family_, chaps. ii, xi, xii. Hodder & Stoughton, $2.50. Charles R. Henderson, _Social Duties from the Christian Point of View_, chaps. ii, iii. The University of Chicago Press, $1.25. C.W. Votaw, _Progress of Moral and Religious Education in the American Home_. Religious Education Association, $0.25. II. Further Reading Jacob A. Riis, _Peril and Preservation of the Home_. Jacobs, Philadelphia, Pa., $1.00. Charles R. Henderson, _Social Elements_. Scribner, $1.50. Charles F. Thwing, _The Recovery of the Home_. American Baptist Publication Society, $0.15. III. Topics for Discussion 1. The tendency toward community life illustrated in the schools, amusement parks, and hotel life. Remembering the ultimate purpose of the family, how far is communal life desirable? 2. Does the apartment or tenement building furnish a suitable condition for the higher purposes of the family? 3. Is it possible to restore to the home some of the benefits lost by present factory consolidation of industry? 4. What can take the place of the old household arts and of those which are now passing? 5. What steps should be taken to secure to the family a larger measure of the time in terms of occupation of the parents? 6. What are the important things to contend for in this institution? Why should we expect change in the form of the home and what are the features which should not be changed? FOOTNOTES: [2] Figures taken from C.W. Votaw, _Progress of Moral and Religious Education in the American Home_, 1911. [3] A.J. Todd, _Primitive Family and Education_, p. 21. A most valuable and suggestive book. [4] Cited by Todd, p. 21. CHAPTER III THE PERMANENT ELEMENTS IN FAMILY LIFE § 1. THE DOMINANT MOTIVE The chief end of society is to improve the race, to develop the higher and steadily improving type of human beings. We can test the life of the family and determine the values of its elements by asking whether and in what degree they minister to this end, the growth of better persons. This is more than a theoretical aim or one conceived in a search for ideals. It is written plain in our passions and strongest inclinations. That which parents supremely desire for their children is that they may become strong in body, capable and alert in mind, and animated by worthy principles and ideals. The parent desires a good man, fit to take his place, do his work, make his contribution to the social well-being, able to live to the fulness of his powers, to take life in all its reaches of meaning and heights of vision and beauty. In true parenthood all hopes of success, of riches, fame, and ease, are seen but as avenues to this end, as means of making the finer character, of growing the ideal person. If we were compelled to choose for our children we should elect poverty, pain, disgrace, toil, and suffering if we knew this was the only highway to full manhood and womanhood, to completeness of character. Indeed, we do constantly so choose, knowing that they must endure hardness, bear the yoke in their youth, and learn that Love and joy are torches lit At altar fires of sacrifice. With this dominating purpose clearly in mind we are prepared to ask, What are the elements of family life which among the changes of today we need most carefully to preserve in order to maintain efficiency in character development? In days when the outer shell of domestic arrangements changes, when readjustments are being made in the organization of the family, what is there too precious to lose, so worthy and essential that we waste no time when seeking to maintain it? § 2. POTENCIES TO BE PRESERVED--SOCIAL QUALITIES The first great element to be preserved in all family life is that of the power of the small group for purposes of character development. The infant's earliest world is the mother's arms. In order to grow into a man fitted for the wider world of social living, he must learn to live in a world within his comprehension. A child's life moves through the widening circles of mother-care, family group, neighborhood, school, city, state, and nation into world-living. He must take the first steps before he is able to take the next ones. He must learn to live with the few as preparation for living with the many. In earliest infancy he takes his first unconscious lessons in the fine art of living with other folks as he relates himself to parents and to brothers and sisters. Secondly, the family life affords the best agency for social training. The family is the ideal democracy into which the child-life is born. Here habits are formed, ideals are pictured, and life itself is interpreted. It is an ideal democracy, first, because it is a social organization existing for the sake of persons. The family comes nearer to fulfilling the true ideal of a democratic social order than does any other institution. It is founded to bring lives into this world; it is maintained for the sake of those lives; all its life, its methods, and standards are determined, ideally, by the needs of persons. It is an ideal democracy, secondly, because its guiding principle is that the greater lives must be devoted to the good of the lesser, the parent for the little child, the older members for the younger, in an attempt to extend to the very least the greatest good enjoyed by all. Thirdly, ideally it is a true democracy in that it gives to each member a share in its own affairs and develops the power to bear responsibilities and to carry each his own load in life. Thus the family group is the best possible training for the life and work of the larger group, the state, and for world-living.[5] The maintenance of the ideals of the state, as a democracy, depends on the continuance of this institution with its peculiar power to train life in infancy and childhood for the life of manhood in the state. Such training can be given only in the smaller group that is governed by the motives peculiar to home and family life. The power to impress these principles depends on the size of the group. The small social organization, the family circle of from three members to even a dozen, bound by ties of affection, is the one great, efficient school, training youth to live in social terms. Thirdly, the family sets spiritual values first. Our age especially needs men and women who think in terms of spiritual values, who rise above the measures of pounds and dollars and weigh life by personal qualities and worth. That is precisely what the home does. It prizes most highly the helpless, economically worthless infant; it measures every member by his personal character, his affectional worth. Its riches do not depend on that which money can buy, but on the personal qualities of love, goodness, kindness; on memories, associations, affection. The true home gives to every child-life the power to choose the things of the world on the basis of their worth in personality. Only the mistaken judgments of later years, the short-minded wisdom of the world, make youth gradually lose the habit of preferring the home's spiritual benefits to the material rewards of the world of business. No life can be furnished for the strain of our modern materialism that lacks the basis of idealism furnished in the true family. § 3. POTENCIES TO BE PRESERVED--THE MORAL LIFE Fourthly, the power of family living to develop love as loyalty is to be noted. In this small group is laid the foundation of the moral life. "The family is the primer in the moral education of the race."[6] Here the new-born life begins to relate itself to other lives. Here it begins life in an atmosphere saturated by love, the central principle of all virtue, eventually loyalty to ideals in persons and devotion to them, "the greatest of these," because it is the parent of all virtue. The moral life, that life which is adjusted, capable, and adequately motived for helpful, efficient, enriching living with all other lives, is not a matter of rules, regulations, and restrictions. Neither is it a matter of separate habits as to this or the other kind of behavior, though this comes nearer to it than do rules and prescriptions. The character-life which parents desire for their children is not that which will do the right thing when it has discovered that right thing in some book of rules, nor that life which will do the right thing because society points that way, nor even that life which automatically does the right thing, but it is the life which, constantly moved by some high inner compulsion, some imperative of vision and ideal, moves to the highest possible plane of action in every situation. This is the life of loyalty. It begins with loyalty to persons, with that devotion which begins with affection. In no other place is this so well developed as in the relations of the family. This is the child's first and most potential school. Here the lessons are wholly unconscious; here they are strengthened by the pleasurable emotions. It is a joy to be loyal to those we love. Indeed, who can tell which comes first, the joy, the loyalty, or the love? The power of this small social group of the family to develop the fundamental principle of loyalty, the root of all virtues, gives a position of great importance to the affections in the family. We do well to contend for the maintenance of conditions of family living which will strengthen the ties of affection. If children could be thrust into the care of the state, in large groups, separated from parental care and oversight, it is difficult to see what emotional stimulus toward affection would remain. The personal devotion to intimate adults would in only the smallest degree compensate for the loss of father and mother. We know nothing of such devotion arising to any large degree in orphan asylums, still less in institutions under the cold and impersonal care of the state. It has been urged that the affections of parents stand in the way of a scientific regimen and education for small children. The cold, passionless, automatic parent, then, would be the ideal--a Mr. Dombey or a Mr. Feverel. Parents make many mistakes, but these mistakes are not due to too much affection, but to untrained minds and uneducated affections. It were better to save the values of their affections and on them to build a wise discipline for childhood by providing adequate training of parents for their duties. Fifthly, there are some elements of the cost of family life, even its apparently unnecessary sacrifice and pain, that we do well to seek to keep. Character grows in paying the high price of maintaining a family. It is the most expensive form of living for adults. Marriages are now delayed because of the fear of the actual monetary cost; but far more serious is the cost in care, in nerves, in patience, in all the great elements of self-denial. No child ever knows what he has cost until he has children of his own. But this discipline of self-denial is that which saves us from selfishness. It is necessary to have some personal objects for which to give our lives if they are to be saved from centrifugation, from death through ingrowing affection. True, many bachelors and spinsters have learned the way of self-denying, fellow-serving love. But how can a true parent escape that lesson? Nor does it stop with parents; as children grow up together they, too, must learn mutual forbearance, conciliation, and, soon, the joy of service. One sees selfishness in the little child gradually fading in the practice of family service, helpfulness, consideration for others. The single child in a family misses something more important than playmates; he misses all the education of play and service. But who cannot remember many families that have grown to beauty of character under the discipline of home life, and especially when this has involved real sacrifices? The stories in the Pepper books illustrate the spirit that blossoms under the trials and hardships of the struggle of a family for a livelihood and for the maintenance of a home. A clear function becomes evident for this social group called the family. It is that of dealing with young lives, in groups bound by ties of blood and similarity, for purposes of the development of personal character. The family has an essentially educational function. Bearing in mind that "educational" means the orderly development of the powers of the life, we can think of our families as existing for this purpose and to be tested by their ability to do this work, especially by their ability to develop persons, young lives, that have the power, the vision, the acquired habits and experience to live as more than animals. The family is an educational institution dealing with child-life for its full growth and its self-realization, especially on character levels. The educational function suggests the features of family life which we do well to seek to preserve. Many incidental forms may pass, but the essential human relations and experiences that go to develop life and character must be maintained at any cost. I. References for Study C.F. and C.B. Thwing, _The Family_, chap. vii. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, $1.60. W.F. Lofthouse, _Ethics and the Family_, chaps. iv, v. Hodder & Stoughton, $2.50. II. Further Reading "The Improvement of Religious Education," _Proceedings of the Religious Education Association_, I, 119-23. $0.50. _Religious Education_, April, 1911, VI, 1-48. S.P. Breckinridge and E. Abbott, _The Delinquent Child and the Home_. Russell Sage Foundation, $2.00. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What is the chief end of all forms of social organization? 2. What is in the last analysis the aim of every parent? 3. What advantage has the family over the school and larger groups for educational purposes? 4. In what sense is the family an ideal democracy? 5. Show how the family sets spiritual values first. 6. What in your judgment are the first evidences of character development? In what way do these come to the surface in the family? What is the factor of love in the development of character? 7. Is that an ideal family in which none of the members bear pain or are called upon for self-denial? Can you see any especial advantage to character in the very difficulties and apparent disadvantages in the life of the family? FOOTNOTES: [5] See "Democracy in the Home," _American Journal of Sociology_, January, 1912. [6] Francis G. Peabody, _The Approach to the Social Question_, p. 94. CHAPTER IV THE RELIGIOUS PLACE OF THE FAMILY § 1. DEVELOPMENT AS A RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION The family is the most important religious institution in the life of today. It ranks in influence before the church. It has always held this place. Even among primitive peoples, where family life was an uncertain quantity, the relations of parents, or of one of the parents, to the children afforded the opportunity most frequently used for their instruction in tribal religious ideals and customs. We cannot generalize as to the practices of savage man in regard to family life, for those practices range from common promiscuous relationships, without apparent care for offspring, to a family unity and purity approaching the best we know; but this much is certain, that there was a common sense of responsibility for the training of young children in moral and religious ideas and customs, and that, in the degree that the family approached to separateness and unity, it accepted the primary responsibility for this task. The higher the type of family life the more fully does it discharge its function in the education of the child.[7] It might be safe to say that among primitive peoples there were three stages, or types, of relationship based on the breeding of children, or three stages of development toward family life. The first is a loose and indefinite relationship existing principally between the adults, or the males and females, under which children born when not desired are neglected or strangled and, when acceptable, may be in the care of either parent, or of neither. Since the group, associated through infancy with at least one parent, is as yet undeveloped, any instruction will be individual and usually incidental. The second form is that of a kind of family unity, either about the mother or the father, or both, or about a group of parents, in which the children live together and are sheltered and nurtured for their earlier years. Here, however, the real relationship of the child is to the tribe, the family is but his temporary guardian, and, at least by the age of puberty, he will be initiated into the tribal secrets. If he is a boy, he will cease to be a member of the family group and will go to live in the "men's house," becoming a part of the larger life of the tribe.[8] Such moral and religious instruction as he may acquire will come from the songs, traditions, and conversation which he hears as a child. The third type approaches the modern ideal, with a greater or less degree of permanent unity between the two parents and with permanence in the group of the offspring. The parental responsibility continues for a greater length of time and, since the tribe makes smaller claims, and the parents live in the common domestic group, much more instruction is possible and is given. The tribal ideals, the traditions, observances, and religious rites are imparted to children gradually in their homes. The last type brings us to the Hebrew conception of family life. It developed toward the Christian ideal. At first, polygamy was permitted; woman was the chattel of man and excluded from any part in the religious rites. But it included the ideal of monogamy in its tradition of the origin of the world, it denounced and punished adultery (Deut. 22: 22), and it gave especial attention to the training of the offspring. "And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart; and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up ... and thou shalt write them upon the door-posts of thy house and upon thy gates" (Deut. 6: 6, 7, 9). Much later, the messianic hope, the belief that in some Jewish family there should be born one divinely commissioned and endowed to liberate Israel and to give the Jews world-sovereignty, operated to elevate the conception of motherhood and, through that, of the family. It made marriage desirable and children a blessing; it rendered motherhood sacred. It tended to center national hopes and religious ideals about the family.[9] There are a few glimpses of ideal family life in the Old Testament. They are all summed up in the eloquent tribute to motherhood in the words of King Lemuel in the last chapter of the Book of Proverbs. It must be remembered, however, that such ideals did not belong to the Jews alone, that Plutarch shows many pictures of maternal fidelity and wifely devotion, that Greek and Roman history have their Cornelia, Iphigenia, and Mallonia.[10] The Jews are an excellent example of the power of the family life to maintain distinct characteristics and to secure marked development. Practically throughout all the Christian era they have been a people without a land, a constitution, or a government, and yet never without race consciousness, national unity, and separateness. Their unity has continued in spite of dispersion, persecution, and losses; they have remained a race in the face of political storms that have swept other peoples away. Their unity has continued about two great centers, the customs of religion and the life of the family. The results of Jewish respect for family life can also be seen in the health of their own children. In 1910, for instance, among poor Jews in Manchester the mortality of infants under one year of age was found to be 118 per thousand; among poor Gentiles, 300 per thousand; and comparisons made some six years ago between Jewish and Gentile children in schools in the poorer parts of Manchester and Leeds (England) have shown that the Jewish children are uniformly taller, they weigh more, and their bones and teeth are superior.[11] § 2. THE CHRISTIAN FAMILY The Christian family is a type peculiar to itself, not as a new institution, for it has developed out of earlier race experience, but as controlled by a new interpretation, the spirit and conception of the home and family given in the teaching of Jesus of Nazareth. He did not give formal rules for the regulation of homes; rather he made a spiritual ideal of family life the basic thought of all his teaching. He said more about the family than concerning any other human institution, yet he established no family life of his own. He is called the founder of the church, yet he scarcely mentions that institution, while he frequently teaches concerning home duties and family relations. He glorifies the relations of the family by making them the figure by which men may understand the highest relations of life. He speaks more of fatherhood and sonship than of any other relations. He gives direction for living, using the family terms of brotherhood. He points forward to ideal living in a home beyond this life. He teaches men when they think of God and when they address him to take the family attitude and call him Father. If we sum up all the teachings of Jesus and separate them from our preconceptions of their theological content, we cannot but be impressed with the facts that he seized upon the family life as the best expression of the highest relationships; that he pointed to a purified family life, in which spiritual aims would dominate, as the best expression of ideal relationships among his followers; and that he glorified marriage and really made the family the great, divine, sacramental institution of human society. We can hardly overestimate the importance of such teaching to the character of the family. The early Christians not only accepted Jesus as their teacher and savior; they took their family life as the opportunity to show what the Kingdom of God, the ideal society, was like. Family life was consecrated. Men and women belonged to the new order with their whole households. Religion became largely a family matter. The worship that had been confined to the temple now made an altar in every home and a holy of holies in the midst of every family. The scriptures that belonged to the synagogue now belonged in the home. Above all, this family existed for the purposes taught by Jesus, that men might grow in brotherhood toward the likeness of the divine Fatherhood. It was an institution, not for economic purpose of food and shelter, not for personal ends of passion or pride, but for spiritual purpose, for the growth of persons, especially the young in the home, in character, into "the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ." Christianity is essentially a religion of ideal family life. It conceives of human society, not in terms of a monarchy with a king and subjects, but in terms of a family with a great all-Father and his children, who live in brotherhood, who take life as their opportunity for those family joys of service and sacrifice. It hopes to solve the world's ills, not by external regulations, but by bringing all men into a new family life, a birth into this new family life with God, so securing a new personal environment, a new personality as the center and root of all social betterment. He who would come into this new social order must come into the divine family, must humble himself and become as a little child, must know his Father and love his brothers. Christianity, then, not only seeks an ideal family; it makes the family the ideal social institution and order. It makes family life holy, sacramental, religious in its very nature. This fact gives added importance to the preservation and development of the ideals of family life for the sake of their religious significance and influence. It not only makes religion a part of the life of the home but makes a religious purpose the very reason for the existence of the Christian type of home. It makes our homes essentially religious institutions, to be judged by religious products. I. References for Study G.A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_, chap. xvi. Revell, $1.35. Article on "The Family," in Hastings, _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_. II. Further Reading On the educational function of the family: A.J. Todd, _The Primitive Family as an Educational Agency_. Putnam, $2.00. On the religious place of the family: C.F. and C.B. Thwing, _The Family_. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, $1.60. I.J. Peritz, "Biblical Ideal of the Home," _Religious Education_, VI, 322. H. Hanson, _The Function of the Family_. American Baptist Publication Society, $0.15. W. Becker, _Christian Education, or the Duties of Parents_. Herder, $1.00. A striking presentation of the Roman Catholic view; could be read to advantage by all parents. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What place did religion hold in the primitive family? What reference or allusion do we find in the Old Testament to the place of religion in the family (Deut. 6:7-9, 20-25)? What in the New Testament? 2. What has been the effect of purity of family life on the Jewish race? 3. What place did the family hold in the teachings of Jesus? 4. What shall we think of the relations of the church and family as to their comparative rights and our duty to them? 5. Do you agree that the family is the most important religious institution? FOOTNOTES: [7] For a brief statement see Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_, Lecture 4, § 7; also Todd, _The Family as an Educational Agency_. [8] See Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chaps. i, ii. [9] On the place of the family in different religious systems see the fine article under "Family" in Hastings, _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_. [10] See Lecky, _History of European Morals_, chap. ii. [11] Quoted by Lofthouse in _Ethics and the Family_, p. 8, from W. Hall, in _Progress_ (London), April, 1907. CHAPTER V THE MEANING OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN THE FAMILY § 1. THE FUNCTION OF THE FAMILY With the brief statement of the history of the family and of its function in society which has already been given we are prepared to put together the two conclusions: first, that the family has an educational function, in that it exists as a social institution for the protection, nurture, development, and training of young lives, and, secondly, that it is a religious institution, the most influential and important of all religious institutions, whenever it realizes in any adequate degree its possibilities, because it is rooted in love and loyalty. It exists for personal and spiritual ideals and, in Christianity, it is inseparably connected with the teachings and the ideals of Jesus. It is educational in function and religious in character, so that it is essentially an institution for religious education. Religious education is not an occasional incident in its life; it is the very aim and dominating purpose of a high-minded family. § 2. WHAT IS RELIGIOUS EDUCATION? To make this the more clear we may need to clarify our minds as to certain popular conceptions of education. Education means much more than instruction; religious education means much more than instruction in religion. Many habitually think of an educational institution as necessarily a place where pupils sit at desks and teachers preside over classes, the teachers imparting information which is to be memorized by the pupils, so that, from this point of view, a Sunday school would be almost the only institution for the religious education of children in existence, because it is the only one exclusively devoted to imparting instruction to children in specifically religious subjects. Such a view would limit religious education in the home to the formal teaching of the Bible and religious dogma by parents. The memorizing of scriptural passages and of the different catechisms once constituted a regular duty in almost all well-ordered homes. Today it is rarely attempted. Does that mean that religious education has ceased in the home? But education means much more than instruction. Education is the whole process, of which instruction is only a part. Education is the orderly development of lives, according to scientific principles, into the fulness of their powers, the realization of all their possibilities, the joy of their world, the utmost rendering in efficiency of their service. It includes the training of powers of thought, feeling, willing, and doing; it includes the development of abilities to discern, discriminate, choose, determine, feel, and do. It prepares the life for living with other lives; it prepares the whole of the life, developing the higher nature, the life of the spirit, for living in a spiritual universe. Religious education, then, means much more than instruction in the literature, history, and philosophy of religion. It means the kind of directed development which regards the one who is developing as a religious person, which seeks to develop that one to fulness of religious powers and personality, and which uses, as means to that end, material of religious inspiration and significance and, indeed, regards all material in that light. Religious education seeks to direct a religious process of growth with a religious purpose for religious persons. Religious education is the spirit which characterizes the work of every educator who looks on the child as a spiritual nature, a religious person; it is the work of every educator who sees his aim as that of training this spiritual person to fulness of living in a society essentially spiritual. In simplest possible terms, religious education means the training of persons to live the religious life and to do their work in the world as religious persons. It must mean, then, the development of character; it includes the aim, in the parents' minds, to bring their children up to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ. It is evident that this is a much greater task, and yet more natural and beautiful, than mere instruction in formal ideas or words in the Bible or in a catechism; that it is not and cannot be accomplished in some single period, some set hour, but is continuous, through all the days; that it pervades not only the spoken words, but the actions, organization, and the very atmosphere of the home. § 3. THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Normal persons never stop growing. Just as children grow all the time in their bodies, so do adults and all others grow all the time in mind and will and powers of the higher life whenever they live normally. We grow spiritually, not only in church and under the stimulus of song and prayer, but we grow when the beauty of the woods appeals to us, when the face lightens at the face of a friend, when we meet and master a temptation, when we brace up under a load, when we do faithfully the dreary, daily task, when we adjust our thoughts in sympathy to others, when we move in the crowd, when we think by ourselves. The educational process is continuous. The children in the home are being moved, stimulated, every instant, and they are being changed in minute but nevertheless real and important degrees by each impression. There is never a moment in which their character is not being developed either for good or for ill. Religious education--that is, the development of their lives as religious persons--goes on all the time in the home, and it is either for good or for ill. Next to the idea of the continuous and all-pervasive character of this process of religious development the most important thought for us is that religious education in the home may be determined by ourselves. This continuous, fateful process is not a blind, resistless one. It is our duty to direct it. It is possible for wise parents to determine the characters of their children. We must not forget this. It cannot be too strongly insisted on. The development of life is under law. This is an orderly world. Things do not just happen in it. We believe in a law that determines the type of a cabbage, the character of a weed. Do we believe that this universe is so ordered that there is a law for weeds and none for the higher life of man? Do we hold that cabbages grow by law but character comes by chance? If there is a law we may find it and must obey it. If we may know how to develop character, with as great certainty as we know how to do our daily work, will not this be our highest task, our greatest joy, the supreme thing to do in life? § 4. THE CONSEQUENT OBLIGATION This is the first great obligation of parents and of those who are willing to accept the joys and responsibilities of parenthood. We have no right to bring into this world lives with all the possibilities that a religious nature involves unless we know how to develop those lives for the best and from the worst. When we picture what a little child may become, from the vile, depraved, despoiling beast or the despicable, sneaking hypocrite on one extreme, to the upright, God-loving, man-serving man or woman with the love of purity, honor, truth, and goodness speaking through the life, we may well pause, realizing we need more than a sentimental desire that the child may reach the heights of goodness: we must know the way there and the methods of leading the life in that way. True devotion to God and to childhood will mean more than petitions for the salvation of children; it will mean the prayer that is labor and the labor that is prayer to know how they may attain fulness of spiritual life; it will mean reverent searching into the divine ways of growth in grace. The study of the means and methods of religious education, especially of children, in the home and family, is one of the most evident and important religious duties resting on parents and all who contemplate marriage and family life. § 5. WHAT IS MEANT BY THE RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD? In discussing the development of character in children one hears often the question, "Which is the earliest virtue to appear in a child?" People will debate whether it is truthfulness, reverence, kindness, or some other virtue. All this implies a picture of the child as a tree that sends forth shoots of separate virtues one after another. But the character desired is not a series of branches, it is rather like a symmetrical tree; it is not certain parts, but it is the whole of a personality. The development of religious character is not a matter of consciously separable virtues, but is the determination of the trend and quality of the whole life. Moral training is not a matter of cultivating honesty today, purity tomorrow, and kindness the day after. Virtues have no separate value. Character cannot be disintegrated into a list of independent qualities. We seek a life that, as a whole life, loves and follows truth, goodness, and service. § 6. EARLY TENDENCIES But it is wise to inquire as to those manifestations of a pure and spiritual life which will earliest appear. One does not need to look far for the answer. Children are always affectionate; they manifest the possibilities of love. True, this affection is rooted in physiological experience, based on relations to the mother and on daily propinquity to the rest of the family, but it is that which may be colored by devotion, elevated by unselfish service, and may become the first great, ideal loyalty of the child's life. Little boys will fight and girls will quarrel more readily over the question of the merits of their respective parents than over any other issue. Almost as soon as a child can talk he boasts of the valor of his father, the beauty of his mother. Here is loyalty at work. He stands for them; he resents the least doubt as to their superiority, not because they give him food and shelter, but because they are his, because to him they are worthy; in all things they have the worth, the highest good; they are, in person, the virtue of life. Therefore in fighting for the reputation of his parents he is practicing loyalty to an ideal. The principle of loyalty is the life-force of virtue; it is like the power that sends the tree toward the heavens, the upthrust of life. It may be cultivated in a thousand ways. Provided there is the outreach and upreach of loyalty within and that there is furnished without the worthy object, ideal, and aim, the life will grow upward and increase in character, beauty, and strength. Next to the affectionate idealization of parents and home-folk one of the earliest manifestations of the spirit of loyalty in the child is his desire to have a share in the activities of the home. He would not only look like those he admires; he would do what they do. This is more than mere imitation; it is loyalty at work again. The direction of this tendency is one of the largest opportunities before parents and can make the most important contribution to character. The religious life of the child is essentially a matter of loyalty. His faith, affections, aspirations, and endeavors turn toward persons, institutions, and concepts which are to him ideal. He does not analyze, he cannot describe, or even narrate, his religious experiences, but he affectionately moves, with a sense of pleasure, toward those things which seem to him ideal, toward parents, customs of the home or school, the church, his class, his teacher, toward characters in story-books. He is likely to think of Jesus in just that way, as the one person whom he would most of all like to know and be with. The life of virtue and the religious life then will be weak or strong in the measure that the child has the stimulating ideals which call forth his loyalty and in the measure that he has opportunity to express that loyalty. His religious life will consist, not so much in external forms perhaps, still less in intellectual statements about theology or even about his own experiences, as in a growing realization of the great ideals, an increasing sense of their meaning and reality within, and, on the objective side, a steady moving of his life toward them in action and habits and therefore in character and quality. § 7. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS It is worth while to insist upon two important considerations. Parents who stand as gardeners watching the growth of the tender plant of child-character may be looking for developments that never ought to come and will be disappointed because they were looking for the wrong thing. First, in watching for the beginnings of the religious life of the child in the family we are not expecting some new addition to the life, but rather the development of this whole life as a unity in a definite direction which we call religious. It is the first and most important consideration that religious education is not something added to the life as an extra subject of interest, but the development of the whole life into religious character and usefulness. Secondly, this growth of religious character is going on all the time. It is not separable into pious periods; it is a part of the very life of the family. Perhaps this increases the difficulty of our task, for it removes it from the realm of the mechanical, from that which is easily apprehended and estimated. It takes the task of the religious education of children out of the statistical into the vital, and reminds us that we are growing life every second, that there is never a moment when religious education is not in operation. This demands a consideration, not alone of lessons, of periods of worship and instruction, but of every influence, activity, and agency in all the family life that in any way affects the thinking, feeling, and action of the child. We are thinking of something more important than organizing instruction and exercises in religion in the home; we are thinking of organizing the family life for religious purposes, for the purpose of growing lives into their spiritual fulness. Perhaps the capital mistake in the religious education of the family is that we overemphasize this or the other method and mechanism instead of bending every effort to secure a real religious atmosphere and soil in which young souls can really grow while we leave the process of growth more largely to the great husbandman. And the second great mistake is that we are looking for mechanical evidence of a religious life instead of for the development of a whole person. We must reinterpret the family to ourselves and see it as the one great opportunity life affords us to grow other lives and to bring them to spiritual fulness by providing a social atmosphere of the spirit and a constant, normal presentation of social living in spiritual terms. § 8. THE ORGANIZATION OF LOYALTY When parents conceive the family in these terms and so organize the life of the home, the child becomes conscious of the fact, and at once the life of the family furnishes him with his first, his nearest, and most satisfactory appeal to loyalty. He feels that which he cannot analyze or express, the spiritual beauty and loyalty of family life. That life furnishes a soil and atmosphere for his soul. It is an atmosphere made of many elements: the primary and dominating purpose of parents and older persons, the habitual life of service and love, the consciousness of the reality of the Divine Presence, the fragrance of chastened character and experience, the customs of worship and affections. These things are not easily created, they cannot be readily defined, nor can directions be given in a facile manner for their cultivation. They are the elements most difficult to describe, hardest of all to secure when lacking, least easily labeled, not to be purchased ready-made, and yet without them religious education is wholly impossible in the family. Without this immediate appeal to loyalty the loyalties of the child toward higher and divine aims do not develop early; they are retarded and often remain dormant. For us all scarcely any more important question can be presented than this: What appeals to spiritual idealism and loyalty does our family life present to the child? What quickening of love for goodness and purity, truth and service, is there in the home and its conduct? I. References for Study G.A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_, chaps. i, ii, xii, xiii. Revell, $1.35. George Hodges, _Training of Children in Religion_, chaps. i, ii. Appleton, $1.50. J.T. McFarland, _Preservation versus Resurrection_. Eaton & Mains, $0.07. II. Further Reading C.W. Votaw, _Progress of Moral and Religious Education in the American Home_. Religious Education Association, $0.25. George Hodges, _Training of Children_, chaps. i, ii, xv. Appleton, $1.50. G.A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_, chaps. i, iv, xvi. Revell, $1.35. E.C. Wilm, _Culture of Religion_, chaps. i, ii. Pilgrim Press, $0.75. C.W. Rischell, _The Child as God's Child_. Methodist Book Concern, $0.75. E.E. Read Mumford, _The Dawn of Character_. Longmans, Green & Co., $1.20. See especially chap. xii on "The Dawn of Religion." III. Topics for Discussion 1. How would you define education? 2. What is the difference between education and religious education? 3. What makes the home especially effective in education? 4. Is it true that it is possible to discover the laws of growth and so determine the development of character? 5. Recall any very early manifestations of religious character in small children. What would you regard as the best kind of manifestation? 6. What is the essential principle of the right life? How may we develop this in childhood? 7. What are the things which most of all impress children? 8. Would you think it wise to bring a child under the influence of a religious revival? CHAPTER VI THE CHILD'S RELIGIOUS IDEAS How shall I begin to talk with my child about religion? Even the most religious parents feel hesitancy here. It may not be at all due to the unfamiliarity of the subject, though that is often the case; hesitation is due principally to a conscious artificiality in the action. It seems unnatural to say, "My child, I want to talk with you about your religious life." And so it is. There is something wrong when that appears to be the only way. That situation indicates a lack of freedom of thought and intercourse with the child and a lack of naturalness in religion. § 1. THE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFICULTY The instinct is correct that tells us that we should be trespassing on a child's rights, or breaking down his proper reticence, in abruptly and formally questioning him about his religious life. The reserve of children in this matter must be respected. The inner life of aspiration, of conscious relationship to the divine, is too sacred for display, even to those who are near to us. He violates the child's reverence who tears away his reticence. Even though the child may not consciously object, the process leads him toward the irreverent, facile self-exposure of the soul that characterizes some prayer meetings. But we may, also, as easily err in the other direction and, by failing to invite the confidences of our children, lead them to suppose we have no interest in their higher life. § 2. CONDITIONS OF SUCCESS First, we must be content to wait for the child to open his heart. We must not force the door. But we can invite him to open, and the one form of invitation that scarcely ever fails is for you to give him your confidence. Talk honestly, simply to him of the aspects of your religious life that he can understand. If he knows that you confide in him, he will confide in you. Here beware of sentimentality. Religion to the child will find expression in everyday experiences. Your philosophy of religion he cannot comprehend, and with your mature emotions he has no point of contact. Perhaps the best method of approach is to relate your memories of those experiences which you _now see_ to have had religious significance to you. At the time they may have had no such special meaning. You did not then analyze them. Your child will not and must not analyze them, either; he must simply feel them. Secondly, rid your mind of the "times and seasons" notion. There is no more reason why you should talk religion on Sunday than on Monday, unless the day's interests have quickened the child's questioning. There can be no set period; no times when you say, "This is the forty-five minutes of spiritual instruction and conversation." The time available may be very short, only a sentence may be possible, or it may be lengthened; everything will depend on the interest. It must be natural, a real part of the everyday thought and talk, lifted by its character and subject to its own level. Its value depends on its natural reality. § 3. RELIGIOUS REALITY Thirdly, avoid the mistake of confounding conversation on "religion" with religious conversation, of thinking that the desired end has been attained when you have discussed the terminology of theology. To illustrate, in the family one hardly ever hears the word hygiene, but well-trained children learn much about the care of their bodies in health, and the family economy is directed consciously to that end. A good, nourishing meal always contributes more to health than many lectures on dietetics. Yet back, hidden away in the manager's mind, is the science of dietetics. So is it with quickening the child's power and thought in the spiritual life. We must avoid the abstract, the intellectually analytical. Religion should present itself concretely, practically, and as an atmosphere and ideal in the family. We parents must not look for theological interest in the child. A Timothy Dwight at ten or twelve, though once found in Sunday-school library books, is a monstrosity. The child's aspiration, his religious devotion, his love for God will find expression in almost every other way before it will be formulated into questions of a serious theological character. Nor ought we to force upon him the phrases of religion to which we are accustomed. He will live in another day and must speak its tongue. His faith must find itself in consciousness and then be permitted to clothe itself in appropriate garments of words. Those garments must be woven out of the realities of actual experiences in the child's life. We cannot prepare or make them for him. The expression of religion will be consonant with the stage of development. If his faith is to be real he must never be allowed or tempted to imagine that if only he can use the words, the verbal symbol, he has the fact, the life-experience. Try then to use words which are simple and meaningful to him and be content to wait for life to lead him to formulate vital verbal forms for himself. § 4. PATIENCE AND COMMON-SENSE Fourthly, we must have faith in God's laws of growth. If we be but faithful, furnishing the soil, the seed, the nurture, we must wait for the increase. Many factors which we cannot control will determine whether it shall be early or late and what form it shall take. We must wait. It is high folly that pulls up the sprouting grain to see whether it is growing properly. Fifthly, manifestations of the religious life will vary in children and in families. The commonest error is to expect some one popular form alone, to imagine that all children must pass through some standardized experiences. Mrs. Brown's Willy may rise in prayer meeting. Do not be downhearted. Willy is only doing that which he has seen his parents do, and, usually, only because they do it. Your boy, or girl, is seeking health of life, of thought, of action; is growing in character. Let them grow, help them to grow. You know they love you even when they say little about it; you do not expect them to climb to the housetop and declare their affection. A flower does not sing about the sun, it grows toward it. That is the test of the child's religion: Is he growing Godward in life, action, character? § 5. THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF GOD Sixthly, deal most carefully with the child's consciousness of God. The truth is that the child in the average home has a consciousness of God. It grows out of formal references in social rites and customs, informal allusions in conversation, and direct statements and instruction. But frequently the resultant mental picture is a misleading one, sometimes even vicious in its moral effect. Where superstitious servants take more interest in the child's religious ideas than do his parents, we have the child whose life is darkened by the fear of an omnipotent ogre. Nursemaids will slothfully scare small children into silence by threats of the awful presence of a bogey god. The life of the spirit cannot be trusted to the hireling. Parents must be sure of the character as well as the superficial competency of those who come closest to childhood. A child's ideas are formed before he goes to school. The family cannot delegate the formation of dominant ideas to persons trained only for nursery tasks. But frequently the mother is a misleading teacher. To her the child goes with all the big questions outside the immediate world of things. Is she prepared to answer the questions? Few dilemmas of our life today are more pathetic than this: the mother has outgrown the theology of her childhood; she remembers keenly the suffering and superstition, the struggle that followed the darkened pictures she received as a little one, but she has nothing better to offer the child. No one has taught her how to put the later, more spiritual concepts into language for the child of our day. Weakly she falls back on the forms of words she once abhorred. There are certainly two approaches of reality for the child-mind to the idea of God. Two immediate experiences are rich in meaning; they are the life of the family and the wonder of the everyday world, the life and variety of nature and human activities. The first is a very simple and rich approach. By every possible means help children in the family to think of God as the great and good Father of us all. Do this in the phrasing of prayers and graces, in the answers to their questions, in the casual word. Why should we assume that the Fatherhood of God is for the adult alone? And why should it be that this rich concept dawns on us like a new day of freedom in truth in later years instead of becoming ours in childhood and so determining the habit and attitude of our lives? The finest, the ideal person is, to the child, the father. God in terms of fatherhood is the sum and source of all that is ideal in personality. The child's keen interest in the world of nature is our opportunity to lead him to love the gracious source of all beauty and goodness. How keen is the child's enjoyment of the beauty of the world! Can we forever fix the general concept of all this beauty as the thought of God in the words of flower and leaf, mountain and stream? And might we not also connect the idea of God with the affairs of daily life? That depends on the parent's attitude of mind; if we think of the universal life that is behind all battles and business and affairs, there will be a difference in our answers to the thousand curious inquiries that rise in the child's mind. Nor must we leave the child to think of God as a separate, far-off person, on a throne somewhere in the skies. The child is finding his way into a universe. The God who is a minute fraction of that universe makes possible the religion that is no more than a negligible fraction of life. The child asks concerning clouds, the sea, the trees, the birds, and all the world about him; he tends to interpret it causally and ideally. Childhood affords the great opportunity for giving the color, the beauty and glory, the life of the divine to all this universe, to instil the feeling that God is everywhere, in all and through all, and that in him we live and move and have our being. The child's joy in this world can thus be given a religious meaning. He sings My God, I thank thee thou hast made This earth so bright...., and so beauty and joy become part of his religion. His faith becomes a gladsome thing; he knows that the trees of the forest clap their hands, the mountains and the hills sing, and the morning stars chant together in the gladness of the divine life. Such a view of the world comes not by prearranged and indoor interviews. One must walk out into the good outdoor world for the opportunity and the inspiration. The garden plot, the park, and, best of all, the open fields and woods speak to a child and furnish us an open book from which we may teach him to read. Recalling religious impressions, the writer would testify to feeling nothing deeper, as a result of church attendance in childhood, than the shapes of seats and the colors of walls; but there remain deep impressions of wonder, beauty, and the meaning of God from Sunday mornings spent with his father under the great beeches in Epping Forest, listening to the reading and singing of the old hymns, or joining in conversation on the woods and the flowers, and even on the legends of Robin Hood in the forest. § 6. THE EVERYDAY OPPORTUNITIES Seventhly, natural conversation affords the best opportunity for direct instruction. A child is a peripatetic interrogation. His questions cover the universe; there are no doors which you desire to see opened that he will not approach at some time. There is great advantage when the religious question rises normally; when the child begins it and when the interest continues with the same naturalness as in conversation on any other subject. Then questions usually take one of three forms: mere childish, curious questions, questions on conduct, and questions on religion in its organized form. The child's curiosity is the basis of even those questions which have usually been credited to preternatural piety. The tiny youngster who asks strange questions about God asks equally startling ones about fairies or about his grandmother. But his questions give us the chance to direct him to right thoughts of God. Here we need to be sure of our own thoughts and to keep in mind our principal purpose, to quicken in this child loyalty to the highest and best. He must be shown a God whom he can love and, at the same time, one who will call for his growing loyalty, his courage, and devotion. Everything for the child's future depends on the pictures he now forms. We all carry to a large degree our childhood's view of God. Some of the child's questions probe deep; how shall we answer them? When you know the truth tell him the truth, being sure that it is told in language that really conveys truth to his mind. The danger is that parents will attempt to tell more than they know, to answer questions that cannot be answered, or that they will, in sloth or cowardice or ignorance, tell children untrue things. If a child asks, "Did God make the world?" the answer that will be true to the child may be a simple affirmative. If the child asks or his query implies, "Did God make the leaves, or the birds, with his fingers?" we had better take time to show the difference between man's making of things and the working of the divine energy through all the process of the development of the world. When the child asks, "Mother, if God made all things, why did he make the devil?" it would surely be wise and opportune to correct the child's mental picture of a personal anti-God and to take from him his bogey of a "devil." But the question of the relation of God to the existence of evil would remain, and the best a parent could do would be to illustrate the necessities of freedom of choice and will in life by similar freedom in the family. It must be remembered that children's curious questions are only their attempt to discover their world, that they have no peculiar religious significance, but that they afford the parent a vital opportunity for direct religious instruction. These questions must be treated seriously; something is missing in parental consciousness when the child's questions furnish only material for jesting relation to the family friends. § 7. MORAL TEACHING _Questions on conduct_: Scores of times in the day the children come in from play or from school and tell of what has happened. Their more or less breathless recitals very often include vigorous accounts of "cheating," "naughtiness," unfair play, unkind words, discourtesies, all dependent as to their character on the age of the children and all opening doors for free conversation on duties and conduct. Here lies one of the large opportunities for moral instruction. There is no need to attempt to make formal occasions for this; so long as children play and live with others they are under the experience of learning the art of living with one another; this is the simple essence of morality. The parent's answers to their questions on conduct, the comments on their criticisms, and the conversation that may easily be directed on these subjects count tremendously with the child in establishing his ideals and modes of conduct. Returning to his play, there is no mightier authority he can quote than to say, "My mother says--," or "My father says--." Let no one say that instruction in moral living is not religious, for there can be no adequate guidance in morals without religion, nor can the religious quality of the life find expression adequately except through conduct in social living. Children need more than the rules for living; they must feel motives and see ideals. They do not live by rules any more than we do. Besides the rule that is known there must be a reason for following it and a strong desire to do so. All ethical teaching needs this imperative and motivation of religion, the quickening of loyalty to high ideals, the doing of the right for reasons of love as well as of duty and profit. The father's opportunity comes especially with the boys. They are sure to bring to him their ethical questions on games and sport; he knows more about boys' fights and struggles than does the mother. When the boys begin to discuss their games the father cannot afford to lack interest. Trivial as the question may seem to be, it is the most important one of the day to the boy and, for the interests of his character, it may be the most important for many a day to the father. If he answers with sympathy and interest this question on a "foul ball" or on marbles or peg-tops, he has opened a door that will always stay open so long as he approaches it with sincerity; if he slights it, if he is too busy with those lesser things that seem great to him, he has closed a door into the boy's life; it may never be opened again. Children learn life through the life they are now living. Real preparation for the world of business and larger responsibilities comes by the child's experiences of his present world of play and schooling and family living. To help him to live this present life aright is the best training that can be given for the right living of all life. _Questions on organized religion_: As children grow up, the church comes into their range of interests. Just as they often make the day school focal for conversation, as they recount their day's work there, so they retain impressions of the church school, of the services of the church, and will always ask many questions about this institution and its observances. Here is the opportunity, in free conversation, to tell the child the meaning of the church, the significance of membership therein, and to lead him to conscious relationship to the society of the followers of Jesus. (See chap. xvii, "The Family and the Church.") I. References for Study Alice E. Fitts, "Consciousness of God in Children," _The Aims of Religious Education_, pp. 330-38. Religious Education Association, $1.00. W.G. Koons, _Child's Religious Life_, sec. II. Eaton & Mains, $1.00. J. Sully, _Children's Ways_, chap. vi. Appleton, $1.25. II. Further Reading George Hodges, _The Training of Children in Religion_, chaps. i-vi. Appleton, $1.50. George E. Dawson, _The Child and His Religion_, chap. ii. The University of Chicago Press, $0.75. Edward Lyttleton, _The Corner-Stone of Education_, chap. viii. Putnam, $1.50. T. Stephens (ed.), _The Child and Religion_. Putnam, $1.50. C.W. Richell, _The Child as God's Child_. Eaton & Mains, $0.75. W.G. Koons, _The Child's Religious Nature_. Eaton & Mains, $1.00. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What are the special difficulties which you feel about introducing the topic of religion to children? Describe any methods or modes of approach which have seemed successful? 2. Would you regard it as a fault if a child seems unwilling to talk about religion? What do you think "religion" means to the child-mind? 3. In what ways do children's aptitudes differ and what factors probably determine the difference? What was your own childish conception of God? Did you love God or fear him? Why? 4. Is it ever right to teach the child those conceptions which we have outgrown? What about Santa Claus and fairies? How can you use childish figures of speech as an avenue to more exact truth? 5. Does the child learn more through ears or eyes? Through which agency do we seek to convey religious ideas? 6. Is it possible to make the child see the intimate relation between conduct and religion? How would you do this? 7. Give some of the characteristics of a religious child of seven years, of ten. CHAPTER VII DIRECTED ACTIVITY Probably all parents find themselves at some time thinking that the real, fundamental problem of training their children lies in dealing with their superabundant energy. "He is such an active child!" mothers complain. Were he otherwise a physician might properly be consulted. But the child's activity does seriously interfere with parental peace. It takes us all a long time to learn that we are not, after all, in our homes in order to enjoy peaceful rest, but in order to train children into fulness of life. That does not mean that the home should be without quiet and rest, but that we must not hope to repress the energy of childhood. One might as well hope to plug up a spring in the hillside. Our work is to direct that activity into glad, useful service. § 1. VALUE OF ACTIVITY The things we do not only indicate character, they determine it. Our thoughts have value and power as they get into action. To bend our energies toward an ideal is to make it more real, to make it a part of ourselves. Children learn by doing--learn not only that which they are doing but life itself. It may be doubted whether a child ever grew who did not plead to have a share in the work he saw going on about him. That desire to help is part of that fundamental virtue of loyalty of which we have spoken above; it is his desire to be true to the tendency of the home, to give himself to the realization of its purposes. Of course he does not think this out at all. But this desire on the part of the child to have a hand in the day's work is the parent's fine opportunity for a most valuable and influential form of character direction. One of the tests of a worthy character is whether the life is contributory or parasitic, whether one carries his load, does his work, makes his contribution, or simply waits on the world for what he can get. A religious interpretation of and attitude toward life is essentially that of self-giving in service. "My Father worketh hitherto and I work." "I must be about my Father's business." How noticeable is the child's interest in the vivid word-picture of One who "went about doing good"! § 2. THE BLESSING OF LABOR The home is the first place for life's habituation to service. The child is greatly to be pitied who has no duties, no share in the work. Where the hands are unsoiled the heart is the easier sullied. It is the height of mistaken kindness, one of the common errors of an unthinking, superficial affection, to protect our children from work. This is a world of the moral order and of the glory of work. When the child is very small it must learn this by having committed to it very simple duties. As soon as it is able to handle things it may learn to do that which is most helpful with those things, to care for its toys, to put them away neatly. A child can learn while very young to take care of its spoon, of certain clothes, of chair, and pencil and paper. True, it is much easier to "pick up" after the child; but to do so is to yield to our own sloth. The more tedious way is the one we must follow if we would train the child. Besides the care of his possessions the child will gladly take a share in the general work of the home. Let some daily duty be assigned to each one; such simple responsibilities as picking up all papers and magazines and seeing that they are properly stacked or disposed of may be given to one; another may sweep the stairs every day with a whisk broom (in one instance a boy of eight did this daily); another may be "librarian," caring for all books; each one, after eight years of age, should make her own bed; each one should be entirely responsible for his own table in his room. Many homes permit of many other "chores," such as keeping up the supply of small kindling, caring for a pet or even a larger animal, keeping a little personal garden or vegetable plot. Under those normal conditions of living, which some day we may reach, where each family, or all families, have trees and flowers and ample space, the opportunities are increased for joyous child activities which consciously contribute to social well-being as a whole. § 3. RELIGION IN ACTION Perhaps some will say, this is not religious education, it is everyday training. Yes, it is "everyday training," but it is the training of a religious person with the religious purpose of habituating the child to give his life in service to his world. That is precisely what we need--_religion in everyday action_. The atmosphere and habitual attitude and conversation of the family must be depended on to give a really religious meaning to these everyday acts, to make them as religious as going to church, perhaps more so, and so to make them a training for the life that is religious, not in word only, but in deed and in truth. Whatever we may say to children on the subject of religion, whether directly or in teaching by indirection through songs and worship, must pass over somehow into action in order to have meaning and reality. It must be realized in order to be real. The difficulty that appears is that of connecting the daily act with its spiritual significance. Yet that is not as difficult as it seems. If the act has religious significance to us, if we form the habit of really worshiping God with our work, seeking in it to do his will, the child will know it. We cannot keep that hidden. The spiritual life will never be more real to the child than it is to us, and no amount of moralizing or spiritualizing about our acts or his will give them religious significance. At least one person will testify that, after being brought up in a really religious home, the most strikingly religious memory of that home is an occasion when he delightedly carried a tray of food to a sick neighbor. It was doing the very thing that he longed to do, realizing the aspiration that had been unable to find words or form before. So the life of action can be steadily trained by acts of kindness. Habits are acts repeated until they pass from the volitional to the involuntary. The only process we can follow is steadily to train the children in the willing and doing of the right, the good, and the kindly deed, until it becomes habitual. Let the child prepare the tray of delicacies, pack the flowers we are sending, carry them over if possible, at least have a share in all our ministries.[12] The modern Sunday school recognizes the importance of activity in forming religious character; therefore it plans and organizes social activities for students to carry out.[13] The parents ought to know what is designed for each child in his respective grade and to plan to co-operate with the school. Where the family unites in the forms of service suggested for the children, these activities lose all perfunctoriness and take on a new reality. Social usefulness becomes a normal part of life. Do we remember the best times of our childhood? Were they not when we were doing things? And were not the best of these best times when we were doing the best things, those that seemed ideal, that gave us a sense of helping someone or of putting into action the best of our thoughts? That is the chance and the joy our children are longing for, and that joy will be their strength. § 4. RELIGION IN SERVICE The family has excellent opportunities for developing through its own activities and duties the habits of the religious life. Children may acquire through daily acts the habit of thinking of life as just the chance to love and serve. Service may become perfectly normal to life. Our modern paupers, whether they tramp the highways or ride in private cars, came usually out of homes where the moral standard interpreted life as just the chance of graft, to gain without giving, to have without earning. Parental indulgence educates in pauperism. Let a boy remain the passive beneficiary of all the advantages of a home until he is sixteen or eighteen, and it will be exceedingly difficult to convert him from the pauper habit. The hard task before parents is to save their children from the snare of passive luxury. Perhaps, remembering our toilsome youth, we seek to shield them. It is a serious unkindness. It is a wrong to our world. The religious mind is the one that takes life in terms of service, sees the days as doors to ways of usefulness, girds itself with the towel, and finds honor in bending to do the little things for the least of men. Vain is all family worship, all prayer and praise and catechism, unless we train the feet to walk this way so that they may visit the imprisoned, clothe the naked, comfort the sad, and cheer the broken in heart. The family may make this the normal way to live. If the family would train boys and girls who shall be true followers of the great Servant, it must stand among men as a servant, it must see itself as set in the community to serve, and by habits of service and helpfulness, by its whole social tone, it must quicken in its own people the sense of social obligation and a realization of the delight in self-giving. A home that is selfish in relation to other homes, in relation to its community, can have no other than selfish, antisocial, and therefore irreligious children. The first step in the welfare of a child is to see that the home which constitutes his personal atmosphere is steeped in the spirit of good-will toward men. The whole attitude of life is determined by the thought-atmosphere of the family. The greedy family makes the grafting citizen. The grasping home makes the pugnacious disturber of the public peace. Greater than the question whether you are a good citizen in your relation to the ballot box is the one whether you are a cultivator of good citizenship in your home. No amount of Sunday-school teaching on the Beatitudes or week-day teaching on civics is going to overcome the down-drag of envious, antisocial thought and feeling and conversation in the home. Home action and attitude count for more than all besides. It is equally true that no other influence can offset the salutary power of a truly social home, that the easiest, most natural, and effective method of teaching social duty and unselfishness is to do our whole social duty unselfishly. § 5. FAMILY TRAINING FOR SOCIAL LIVING The supreme test of the religious life here is ability to live among men as brothers and to cause the conditions of the divine family to be realized on earth. If we can realize that the purpose of Jesus was to bring men into the family of God, that the aim of all religious endeavor is the family character in men and women and the conditions of that family in all society, we must surely appreciate the possibility of the human family as a training school for this larger family of humanity. The infant approaches social living by the pathway of the society of the family. We all go out into life through widening circles, first the mother's arms, then the family, the neighborhood, the city, the state, the nation, the world-life. Each circle prepares for the next. The family is the child's social order; its life is his training for the larger life of nation and human brotherhood. Just how men and women will live in society is determined principally by the bent of their characters in the social order of the family. Their attitude to the world follows the attitude of the family, especially of the parents. They interpret the larger world by the lesser. The home is the great school of citizenship and social living. All the moral and religious problems of the family find a focus in the purpose of preparing persons for social living. The family justifies its cost to society in the contribution which it makes in trained and motived lives. As a religious family its first duty is to prepare the coming generation to live in a religious society, in one which will steadily move toward the divine ideal of perfect family relations through brotherhood and fatherhood. Its business is not to get children ready for heaven, but to train them to make all life heavenly. Its aim is not alone children who will not tear down the parents' reputation, but men and women who will build up the actual worth and beauty of all lives. The realization, in the family, of the purpose of training youth to social living and service in the religious spirit depends on two things: a spirit and passion in the family for social justice and order, and the direction of the activities of the family toward training in social usefulness. Only the social spirit can give birth to the social spirit. True lovers of men, who set the values of life and of the spirit first, who give their lives that all men may have freedom and means to find more abundant life, come out of the families where the passion of human love burns high. The selfish family, self-centered, caring not at all in any deep sense for the well-being of others, existing to extract the juice of life and let who will be nourished on the rind, becomes effective to make the social highwayman, the oppressor. From such a family comes he who breaks laws for his pocketbook and impedes the enactment of laws lest human rights should prevent his acquisition of wealth; he who hates his brother man--unless that brother has more than he has; the foe of the kingdom of goodness and peace and brotherhood. And goodness is as contagious as badness. Children catch the spirit of social love and idealism in the family. Where men and women are deeply concerned with all that makes the world better for lives, better for babies and mothers, for workers, and, above all, for the values of the spirit gained through leisure, opportunities, and higher incentives; where the family is more concerned with folks than with furniture; where habitually it thinks of people as Jesus did, as the objects most of all worth seeking, worth investing in, there children receive direction, habituation, and motivation for the life of religion, the life that binds them in glad love to the service of their fellows, and makes them think of all their life as the one great chance to serve, to make a better world, and to bring God's great family closer together here. I. References for Study G.A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_, pp. 142-50. Revell, $1.35. W.S. Athearn, _The Church School_, pp. 85-102. Pilgrim Press, $1.00. G. Johnson, _Education by Plays and Games_, Part I. Ginn & Co., $0.90. II. Further Reading E.D. Angell, _Play_. Little, Brown & Co., $1.50. Fisher, Gulick, _et al._, "Ethical Significance of Play," _Materials for Religious Education_, pp. 197-215. Religious Education Association, $0.50. Publications of the Play Ground Association. III. Methods and Materials PLAY Forbush, _Manual of Play_. Jacobs, $1.00. A. Newton, _Graded Games_. Barnes, $1.25. Von Palm, _Rainy Day Pastimes_. Dana Estes, $1.00. Johnson, _When Mother Lets Us Help_. Moffat, Yard & Co., $0.75. WORK Canfield, _What Shall We Do Now?_ Stokes, $1.50. Beard, _Jack of All Trades_. Scribner, $2.00. Beard, _Things Worth Doing_. Scribner, $2.00. Bailey, _Garden Making_. Macmillan, $1.50. Bailey (ed.), _Something to Do_ (magazine). School Arts Publishing Co. IV. Topics for Discussion 1. Is the quiet child an ideal child? How far should we go in restraining activity? 2. The relative advantages of work and leisure for children. What of the value of chores to you; did you do them? Describe any forms of children's service in the home which have come under your observation. 3. What forms of community service can be done by children and by young people? 4. Recall any lessons learned by activity in your early home life. 5. Give in their order, according to your judgment, the potencies for religious character in the home. FOOTNOTES: [12] A short list of books on child activity in the home is appended at the end of this chapter; a fairly complete list, long enough for any family, will be found on p. 117 of _The Church School_, by W.S. Athearn. [13] See W.N. Hutchins, _Graded Social Service for the Sunday School_. CHAPTER VIII THE HOME AS A SCHOOL[14] The home is so mighty as a school because, requiring little time for formal instruction, it enlists its scholars so largely in informal activities. It trains for life by living; it trains as an institution, by a group of activities, a series of duties, a set of habits. If the home is to prepare for social living it will be most of all and best of all by its organization and conduct as a social institution. § 1. AN IDEAL COMMUNITY For the purposes of society homes must be social-training centers; they must be conducted as communities if their members are to be fitted for communal living. No boy is likely to be ready for the responsibilities of free citizenship who has spent his years in a home under an absolute monarchy; or, as is today perhaps more frequently the case, in a condition of unmitigated anarchy. A free society cannot consist of units not free. The problems of parental discipline arise and appear as persistently irritating and perplexing stumbling-blocks in many a home simply because that home is organized altogether out of harmony and relation with the normal life in which it is set. Society environing the home gives its members the habits of twentieth-century autonomy, individual initiative and responsibility, together with collective living and working, while the home often seeks to perpetuate thirteenth-century absolutism, serfdom, and subjection. In social living outside the home we learn to do the will of all; in the home we attempt to compel children to do the will of one. § 2. COMMUNITY INTERESTS The home organized as a social community will give to every member, according to his ability, a share in its guidance and will expect from every member the free contribution of his powers. Its rules will be made by the will of all, and its affairs governed, not by an executive board composed of the parents, but by the free participation and choice of all. The young will learn to choose by choosing; will learn both how to rule and to be ruled by a share in ruling. To be explicit, suppose a piece of furniture is desired for the home. Two plans at least are possible: first, the "head of the home" may go forth and purchase it without consulting anyone, or after advising with the other "head"; or, second, before a purchase is made, the wisdom of such an addition to the furniture may be suggested in the open council of the whole family and the purchase discussed and determined by all. Such councils, usually coming at or after the principal meal, freely participated in by all, give even to the youngest a sense of the cost of a home, of the care that goes into it, with, what is more important, a sense of a share in these cares and costs; they cultivate habits of prudence, of consideration of a matter, of steady judgments, of deference to the wishes and wisdom of others. Of still greater importance is another practical issue of such a plan--that every member of the household has a new sense of proprietorship with deepened responsibility. Instead of thinking of any household possession as father's or mother's, or even mine, it becomes _ours_. The parents no longer need to say, "Children, do not mar the furniture; it costs money to replace it." The children know that already, and they have the same pride in the home possessions and the same desire to preserve them as they have in that which is peculiarly their own. A habit of mind results from such a course so that, by thinking in terms of common possession of the best things of life, there is cultivated that respect for the rights of others which is simply right social thinking. The same plan could be pursued in relation to almost every interest of the family--as the planning of the annual vacation and outing, the holidays, picnics, and birthday celebrations, the church and religious exercises. Above all, in the last mentioned, this social spirit may be cultivated. The father may cease to be the "high priest" for his family and become a worshiper along with the other members. The effect will be that his children are more likely to stay as worshipers with him than if they gazed on him as on some lonely elevation, unrelated to them in his religious exercises. The reading, the song, the prayers, the comment and discussion, the story-telling, and all that may make up the regular specific religious activities of the family should be such that all may have a share in them. Nothing could be finer, diviner, and bring larger helpfulness for social living than the attempt of the least little lisping child to throw herself into the unified family act of prayer, as when one little tot, unable to say the Lord's Prayer, united in worship at the time of that act by saying, as reverently as possible, "One, two, three, four, five," etc., up to ten. The ability to count was her latest accomplishment; counting to ten was bringing the very best thing she then had and, in the act of family worship, offering her part to the Most High. A fine sense of worship and a desire to be one with the others in this united, communal service prompted the participation. § 3. COMMUNITY SERVICE Community service may be cultivated in the home. Here is the ideal social community, where there are neither parasites nor paupers, where all give of their best for the best of all. No one doubts that the baby gives its full share of happiness and cheer, and the aged their offering of consolation and experience; but the difficulty is supposed to be with the lad and the girl who would rather play than work. Usually this is because the habits of co-operation in the life of this community have been too long neglected. The small boy or girl had no share in its work. Parents are too busy to think through the matter of finding suitable duties for all. It is so much easier to do things one's self, even though the child misses the benefits of participation. More frequently the blame lies in the fact that parents desire to shield children from labor. Some would have them grow up without knowing what they count as the degradation of toil. But a boy who knows nothing of the "chores" has missed half the joys of boyhood, and has a terribly hard lesson ahead of him when he goes out to relate himself to life. No matter what one's station may be, there is a part to be played, and one's piece of work to be done. The greatest unkindness we can do our children is to train them to lives that do not play their part. The home is our chance to train a man to harmonious usefulness in his world. Not only should the family train to social co-operation and service, but it should train to efficiency therein. Do not let your child's duties become a farce; let them exact as much of him as the world will exact also; that is, efficiency, accuracy, thoroughness, and fidelity. § 4. A SCHOOL OF SOCIAL MINISTRY The family trains lives for social ministry. The unsocial lives come out of unsocial homes. The home that exists for itself alone trains lives that exist only for themselves; these are the homes that throw the sand of selfishness into the wheels of society; they ultimately effect social suicide through selfishness. The attitude and atmosphere of the home are of first importance here. As we think, so will our children act. If the home is to us a place without responsibilities for the neighborhood, without duties to neighbors, without social roots, then it is a school for industrial, commercial, and social greed and warfare. As we think in our hearts and talk at our table, so are we educating those who sit thereat. If we would have our homes really efficient and worthy agencies for education in social living, the first thing to do is to seek the social atmosphere, to cultivate all those influences which young lives unconsciously absorb. We all know that character comes through environment in large measure, and that the mental and spiritual environment is by far the most potent. Here is something that affects us more than the finest or poorest furniture and that gives the real zest and flavor to any meal. The choice of our own reading enters here, not only the matter of reading in sociology, but of all reading, as to whether it blinds with class prejudices, intensifies caste feeling, or atrophies social sympathy by pandering to selfishness and sensuousness. The control of our own feelings and judgment enters here. Do we sedulously cultivate charity for others? Do we stifle impatience, bitterness, class feeling? Do we guide the conversation of visitors and the family group so that antisocial passions are subdued and a spirit of brotherly love and compassion for all is cultivated? Here men and women have opportunity to give evidence of a change of heart; here they need that awakening to social consciousness which is a new birth, a regeneration into the life of the Son of Man who came to give his life. By its active ministry the family is training for social living. When a child carries a bowl of soup to some sick or needy one, he learns a lesson never to be forgotten. The memories of hours of planning and preparation for some neighborly service--the making of bread, the packing of a box, the preserves for the sick--shine out like sunshine spots along childhood's ways; they direct manhood's steps. We are gradually learning that social duties are not learned save through social deeds; that even the most carefully prepared and perfectly pedagogical systems of instruction fail, standing alone. The college student uses the laboratory method in his sociology--though we know that sociology may be as far from social living as the poles are apart. The Social Service Association of the Young Men's Christian Association has given up attempts to teach social duty in favor of the plan of undertaking specific pieces of social activity. The home must adopt the laboratory method. The important thing is, not what the father or mother may systematically teach about the social duties of the children, but what kinds of service, of ministry and normal activity they may lead the children to; that is, in what ways they may all together discharge their functions in society. § 5. FAMILIES AS COMMUNITY FACTORS Each family must clearly see its normal relations to its community, to the social whole; first, as an association of social beings having social duties, obligations, and privileges; then, to see that the ordering of the daily life is the largest single factor in determining the value of the family to the development of the community, fitting harmoniously into the larger community, and rendering its share of service. The disorderly home spreads its immoral contagion beyond its walls, out into the front yard, out and up and down the street, and all through the village and city. The City Beautiful cannot come until we have the Home Beautiful. Training each one to play his part in keeping the house in order, picking up and setting in place his own tools and playthings, preventing and removing litter, scraps, and elements of disorder and discomfort, acquiring habits of neatness based on social motives--these things make more for the city of beauty and health than all our lectures on clean cities. No family lives to itself. Young people need to see clearly how their homes and their habits in the home impinge on other homes and lives. This is impressed upon us in an accentuated and acute degree in city living. One can hardly imagine a finer discipline of grace than apartment living, though one may well question whether it is not morally and hygienically flying in the face of the natural order. We may not have for a long time municipal ordinances forbidding boiled dinners, limburger, and phonographs in city apartments; but if, unfortunately, we are compelled to live in these modern abominations, we ought to cultivate a conscience that will not inflict our idiosyncrasies, either in culinary aromas or in musical taste, on our neighbors. But there are matters greater than these by which the home trains for social thoughtfulness. No man has a right to grow weeds at home, because the seeds never stay there. A howling dog, a disease-breeding sty, a fly-harboring stable, must be viewed, not from the point of the family's convenience, but from that of others' welfare. § 6. TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP The family has a duty to train children for Christian citizenship. No other institution can take its place even here. Courses of lectures in churches and settlements effect excellent results, and the study of civics from the moral and ideal viewpoint should be encouraged in the schools; but the home is the place where, after all, citizens are trained and the value or menace of their citizenship determined. If we stop long enough to get a clear understanding of what we mean by citizenship this will be the more evident. Citizenship is the condition of full communal, social living in a democracy. It is not a special department or activity of a man's life which he exercises once in a while, as at the primary or at the polls or through the political campaign; it is a permanent condition, the condition of his social living in a democracy. It seems to be worth while to think of this enough to be quite sure of it, for we have thought too long of citizenship as a special aspect of one's life or as an occasional duty; we have called for good citizenship at times of election and have been content with dormant citizenship at other times; we have said that one was exercising his citizenship when he voted, and have forgotten that he was exercising it or abusing or neglecting it as he walked the streets, talked with his neighbors, or in any way lived the life that has relations to other lives. Matters of citizenship are simply matters of social living, as social living expresses itself through what we call government; that is, through communal, civic, national administration and regulation. Citizenship is social control in action, not through political activity alone, but through all that concerns civic and communal life. In view of this it may be worth while to look a little more closely into the relations of family life to this matter of the determination of the character of our citizenship. The family is an agency for religious training in citizenship. The family is the first, smallest, and still the most common and potent social group. It is the community in which we nearly all learn communal living. At first it is a child's world, then comes his city, and then his nation, but ere long again the family is his own kingdom. Its ideals, constantly interpreted in action, determine our ideals. Where the father is greedy, self-centered, regarding the home as solely for his convenience as his private boarding-house, where he is a despotic boss, why should not the son at least tolerate bossism in his city if he does not himself pattern after his father on a wider scale and regard the city or the state as his private boarding-house and the treasury as his private manger? Where the mother is a petty parasite, what wonder the children regard with indifference, if not even with admiration, the whole system of civic and social barnacles, leeches, and other parasites? The very organization of the home must prepare for civic duty by laying upon all appropriate duties and activities. It ought to be an ideal type of community. But that can never be until we take the training of parents seriously in hand; until we cease to delegate the pedagogy of courtship, marriage, and home-founding to the comic supplements of the Sunday papers and to the joke columns. Parents must themselves be trained for the business of the organization of homes as educational agencies. The life and work of the home ought to train religiously for citizenship, by causing each to bear his due share of the burdens of all. Where the child has been forced to do the indolent parent's share, to support the slothful father, he can only look forward to the time when he will be free to support only himself, and have no other than purely egoistic obligations; this is an utterly immoral conception, and one squarely opposed to good citizenship. Where the boy or the girl has been trained to regard all toil as dishonorable, where each has been taught scrupulously to avoid every burden, they come into social living with habits set against bearing their share and toward making others carry them. The indolent parent makes the tax-dodging citizen, as the indulgent parent often makes the place-hunting citizen who becomes a tax on the public. The ideals of the family determine the needs of citizens. Its conversation, its reading, its customs, set the standard of social needs. Where the father laughs at the smartness of the artful dodge in politics, where the mother sighs after the tinsel and toys that she knows others have bought with corrupt cash, where the conversation at the meal-table steadily, though often unconsciously, lifts up and lauds those who are out after the "real thing," the eager ears about that board drink it in and childish hearts resolve what they will do when they have a chance. Where no voice speaks for high things, where no tide of indignation against wrong sweeps into language, where the children never feel that the parents have great moral convictions--where no vision is, the people perish. Yet to realize this civic responsibility of the home would be, in the greater number of instances, to remedy it. In those other instances where there are no civic ideals, where the domestic conscience is dead, there rests upon the state, upon society, for its own sake, the responsibility to train those children so that, at any rate, they will not perpetuate homes of this type. We may do very much by the stimulation and direction of parents. Men need but to be reminded of their duty to make it a part of their business to train their children in social duty. I. References for Study Taylor, _Religion in Social Action_, chaps. vii, viii. Dodd, Mead & Co., $1.25. E.J. Ward, _The Social Center_, chap. v. Appleton, $1.50. II. Further Reading Lofthouse, _Ethics in the Family_. Hodder & Stoughton, $1.50. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What is the special social importance of the family? 2. How do children acquire their social ideals from the home? 3. What are the advantages which the home has as a school? 4. How do homes train for the responsibilities of citizenship? 5. Can you describe any plans of community councils in the home? 6. How would you promote community service in the family? 7. What are the dangers of unsocial and selfish lives growing in the home? FOOTNOTES: [14] This chapter is, with the publisher's kind permission, taken, with sundry minor changes, from the author's pamphlet, _The Home as a School for Social Living_, published by the American Baptist Publication Society in the "Social Service Series." CHAPTER IX THE CHILD'S IDEAL LIFE The modern child is likely to miss one of the great character enrichings which his parents had, in that he is in danger of growing up entirely ignorant of the poetic setting of religious thought in historic and dignified hymns. The great hymns have done more for religious thought and character than all the sermons that have ever been preached. Even in the adult of the purely intellectual cast the hymn, aided by rhythm, music, repetition, and emotion, is likely to become a more permanent part of the mental substratum than any formal logical presentation of ideas. How much more will this be the case with the child who feels more than he reasons, who delights in cadence and rhythm, and who loves a world of imagery! § 1. SONG AND STORY Very early life's ideals are presented in poetic form; plays, school-life, love of country, friendships, all take or are given metric expression. So, for children, hymns have a perfectly natural place. The child sings as he plays, sings as he works, sings in school, and, as long as life and memory hold, these words of song will be his possession; in declining years, when eyes are failing and other interests may wane, fragments of childhood's songs and youth's poems will sing themselves over in his memory; while in the years between how often will some stanza or line spring into the focus of thought just at the moment when it can give brave and helpful direction! Those years of facile memorization should be like the ant's summer, a period of steady storing in mind of the world's treasures of thought. No man ever had too many good and beautiful thoughts in his memory. Few have failed to recall with gratitude some apparently long-forgotten word of cheer, light, and inspiration stored in childhood. The special virtue of the hymn, among all poetic forms of great thoughts, is that memory is strengthened by the music and the thought further idealized by it, while frequent repetition fixes it the more firmly and repetition in congregational song adds the high value of emotional association. But what kinds of memory treasures are being given to the modern child in the realm of religion? In by far the greater number of instances in the United States neither church nor Sunday school nor home brings to him any knowledge of the great hymns of religion.[15] In the churches that use these hymns the child is frequently not in the Sunday services; he is in the children's service or the school, while in the majority of churches a weak-minded endeavor for amusement has substituted meaningless rag-time trivialities for rich and dignified hymns. Perhaps the custom of encouraging congregations to jig, dance, cavort, or drone through the frivolities of "popular" gospel songs is only a passing craze, but it is a most unfortunate one; it tends to divorce worship and thought, to make worship a matter of purely superficial emotions, and to form the habit of expressing religion, the highest experience of life, in language, often irreverent and almost always trivial, slangy, or ridiculous. It is an insult to the intelligence of children to ask them to sing We're pilgrims o'er the sands of time, We have not long to stay, The lifeboat soon is coming, To carry the pilgrims away. It is the duty of parents to know what their children are learning in the Sunday school. Not only are they often missing the opportunity to lay up the treasure of elevating, inspiring thoughts; they are acquiring crude, mistaken, misleading theological concepts in the hideous, revolting figures of "evangelistic songs"; they are storing their minds with atrocities in English and in figures of speech; they are acquiring the habits of sentimentality in religion and inhibiting the finer, higher feelings. They are blunting their higher feelings by repeating incongruous and nauseating figures of being "washed in blood," or they are carelessly singing sentiments they do not understand. What can the family do about this? It ought to assert its rights in the church. It ought to protest and rebel against the debauching of mind and the degrading of religion (all for the sake of selling trashy books at $25 per hundred). A parent would do better to keep his child from church and Sunday school than to permit his mind to be filled with the sanguinary pictures of God, the mediaeval theology of the modern songbook, and its offenses against truth in thought and form. But the family can work positively and more effectively by providing good hymns for children in the home. § 2. TRAINING IN SONG Almost without exception all children will sing if encouraged early in life. In the family group one has only to start a familiar song and soon all will be singing. It is just as natural to sing "Abide with Me" when the family sits together in the evening as it is to start "My Alabama Choo-choo." Children like the swing of "Onward, Christian Soldiers" just as much as in the northern states they like "Marching through Georgia." If they do not know the hymns the home is the best of all places in which to learn them. A large section of real family life is missing in families that do not sing together. A home without song lacks one of the strongest bonds of family unity, and the after-years will be deprived of a memory dear indeed to many others. Days often come when the wheels of family life seem to develop friction, when little rifts seem to throw the members far apart, but the evening song brings them together. The unity of action, of feeling, the development of emotions above the day's irritation and strife, all help to new joys in family living. We may well think of the fine songs and the great hymns together. There is no fixed wall between "Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory," and "The Son of God Goes Forth," nor between "My Old Kentucky Home" and "Jerusalem the Golden." The modern home has the musical instruments to lead in song--though they are not always essential--and lacks only the planning and forethought to develop the joys of song. It must provide the thought that applies the simpler forms of musical expression to the sweetening and enriching of life. Let no one say, "My family is not musical." That simply means that your family does not take time for music and song. Build on the training in patriotic and folk-songs given in the schools; sing these same songs over in the home and then associate with the best of them the best of the hymns. Cultivate the habit of binding the whole realm of feeling in music together, the hymns and the songs, to make religion mean beauty and devotion and to make the finer sentiments of life truly religious. This costs time and thought. Someone must plan that the books of songs and hymns are provided, that the opportunity is given, and that wise, unobtrusive leadership is there. Have ready several copies of the book containing the best hymns. Think out your plan of procedure in advance, selecting the songs, or at least the first one. Then at the right time simply begin to play that song and you will scarcely need to invite the children to sing with you. Should anyone doubt whether children will enjoy singing good hymns, he may purchase a few records for the phonograph, for example, "O Come All Ye Faithful," "Hark the Herald Angels Sing," "O Zion Haste," "Holy, Holy, Holy," "Abide with Me." These will suit those of from ten upward; younger children will enjoy "Can a Little Child Like Me," "Brightly Gleams Our Banner," "Jesus Loves Me." "I Think When I Read That Sweet Story," and "For the Beauty of the Earth," though they will join gladly in the other hymns. Or, instead of using the phonograph, sit down quietly at the piano and play these hymns, with just enough emphasis for the children to catch the rhythm, and they will soon be standing at the piano singing with you.[16] § 3. PLAY ACTIVITY The child is a playing animal. Play is not an invention of the devil, designed to plague parents and to lead children to waste their time. It is nature's best method of education, for when a child plays he is simply reaching forward in his activities to the realization of his ideals. Play is idealized experiences. There is always a significance of wider and maturer experience in children's play. Therefore the family must find space and time and adaptation of organization to the child's need of spontaneous, free activity in play. The special religious value of play lies in the fact that the child in his games is experimenting with life, learning its lessons; especially is he learning the art of living with other lives. It is our religious duty to see to it that our children become used to living in society by playing in social groups. Scarcely anyone is more to be pitied than the lonely child standing in the corner of the playground, able only to watch the games, because parental prohibition has already made him a solitary and unsocial creature. The educational potencies of play are so great that we dare not leave its activities to chance. Parents must study the power of play, its psychological and educational values, in order to direct its activity to the highest good. The adequate care of a child's play-life will involve, in addition to the trained intelligence of the parents, provision for space in the house and also outdoors, willingness to subordinate our peace and our pleasure to the child's play at times, a reasonable though not necessarily expensive provision of play materials, attention to the character of the plays and playmates. The home will not lose its harmony and beauty if it is filled with playing children. Its function has to do with their development rather than with the preservation of chairs. I. References for Study H.F. Cope, _Hymns You Ought to Know_, Introduction. Revell, $1.50. W.F. Pratt, _Musical Ministries_. Revell, $1.00. H.W. Hulbert, _The Church and Her Children_, chap. x. Revell, $1.00. II. Further Reading For a list of great hymns see _Hymns You Ought to Know_, edited by Henry F. Cope, and mentioned above. It contains one hundred standard hymns with a brief account of each hymn and of each author. E.D. Eaton, "Hymns for Youth," _Religious Education_, December, 1912, VII, 509. See report of the Commission on Worship in the Sunday School, in _Religious Education_, October, 1914. Read especially the chapter on this subject in H.H. Hartshorne, _Worship in the Sunday School_. Columbia University, $1.25. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What special advantages do songs and hymns have in their pedagogical power? 2. What hymns do you remember from childhood? In what way are these hymns valuable to you? 3. What changes would you like to see in the hymns the children learn today? 4. What difficulties do you find in training children to sing in the home? 5. Is it worth while to teach children to play? What games have special educational value? What games have religious significance or value? Give reasons for your opinions. FOOTNOTES: [15] One of the best collections of suitable religious songs is _Worship and Song_. Pilgrim Press, $0.40. [16] An excellent plan is worked out in _The Children's Hour of Story and Song_ by Moffat and Hidden, Unitarian Sunday School Society, in which children's stories are given and following them suitable songs and hymns with the music for each. CHAPTER X STORIES AND READING If we would teach religion to our children we must adopt the method of Jesus; that of telling stories. The story has the advantage, first, of its natural interest, and, then, of the indirect manner of its presentation of the truth, together with the fact that that truth is embodied in a statement of life and experience. Besides, story-telling to any person of active interests is one of the easiest and most stimulating methods of teaching. § 1. STORY-TELLING So much has already been written on the art of telling stories that only a few suggestions are needed here. First, understand why you tell the story. Normally a double motive enters in, namely, the conveyance of truth in life, at the same time affording real pleasure to the listeners. Either motive alone will be inadequate. You cannot convey the truth without the desire to give pleasure; you cannot make the pleasure worth while without the truth. But this is the place to insist that the truth which you desire to convey must find its way to the conviction of the child through the story and not through any moral or preface or particular statement which you may make. The moral or lesson must be clear to you but carefully held in reserve to direct the matter and manner of the story. Secondly, be prepared to pay the price of this most effective method of instruction. It will cost the reservation of a certain amount of time both for acquiring the story and for relating it. It will require careful thought and planning, especially to be sure that the story is told in sympathy with the child's world. People who are too busy to tell their children stories are, perhaps fortunately, coming to realize that they are too busy to have children. If it looks like a waste of time to turn off the lights and sit by the firelight for from twenty to thirty minutes, we shall need to revise our estimates of the value of child-character. Nor must we shrink from the investment of time in preparation for the narration of the story; if it is worth telling, it is worth telling well. Thirdly, keep a record of sources of stories. This may be preserved in a notebook. One parent used a card-index for this purpose. There are a few books published containing good collections.[17] You will find most valuable your own little book in which you have noted down the fugitive stories and short selections which are to be found in general literature.[18] Fourthly, do not tell a story so as to close the child's interest in the narrative. Stories ought to lead to inquiry and further reading in the book or other source from which they have been drawn; indeed, story-telling is one excellent method of quickening an interest in reading. Fifthly, allow the children to retell the stories to one another. Often the whole family will be entertained and helped by the explanation which a small child will give of the story he has learned by hearing it repeated a few times from his mother's lips. Sixthly, telling Bible stories to children in the quiet hour is the best of all methods to stimulate their interest in the Bible itself. It is much better to tell the story in your own language than to read it either in the Bible or in a paraphrase. For one reason, you will never tell it twice the same way, and children will watch with interest changes in the narration. As soon as they can read, secure some of the simple Bible narratives and put these in their hands.[19] § 2. BOOKS AND READING A home without books is like a house with only one window; it can look out in only one direction, in that of the present. It knows only a limited world; its children have a short measure of the joy of life, they can know here only those whom they see today, their friends must be few, their world narrow and confined. If the books are not in your home the children will find them elsewhere. Unless the school kills the taste for reading, as it sometimes does, the young folks will open ways somehow into the ideal realm of books. As they grow up, the book takes the place of the story. The printed page is the child's key to all routes of travel, routes that lead to other times and lands, routes that lead to other people and into their hearts and minds. The child sees conduct and feels it as it is in action in lives before him, but he begins to discriminate and to analyze it only through reading; souls are revealed where the purpose of the writer is that the reader may see the springs of action in the character portrayed. Fiction, biography, travel, and adventure soon pass from the merely exterior happenings to the discovery of meanings in character. § 3. DANGERS OF READING Since the book needs only one for its enjoyment, while the story requires two, there is less control over reading. There is only one way to be sure that children are not devouring vicious books and that is to make sure that they have an ample supply of healthful, helpful ones. This is especially necessary in a day that caters to sloth in reading. The tendency is for reading to take the facile decline from book to cheap magazine, from magazine to newspaper, and from the newspaper to skimming the headlines and the "funnies." The cheaper papers appeal to the lowest intelligence and strike at the line of least moral and mental resistance. Reading enriches the life but little and may impoverish it greatly unless there is developed the habit of drawing on the world's great treasures of thought and feeling. Open windows in your children's souls by giving them books; keep them open by encouraging the reading habit. Great souls wait for them, willing to converse and become their friends and teachers if they will but take down these books from the shelves and open them with an eager mind. § 4. DEVELOPING GOOD TASTE _What can be done to quicken a love of good reading in children?_ Recognize that not all children develop this appetite at the same age, that girls read more than boys, that boys usually have a period of decline in reading interest from seventeen to twenty-one or even later. But everything really depends on whether we ourselves love good books and keep them on hand. One of the life-centers of a family should be the bookshelf, while the picture of the evening lamp and the reading group will constitute one of its best memories. Where books are at hand and where they are used daily, the children need little urging to read. Now this does not mean that yards of choice editions make a book-loving family. There is a difference between bindings and books. It means books known and loved, familiar friends for daily converse, books on handy shelves and fit to be used as common food. _Do you know what your children read?_ Do you watch as carefully the food of mind and spirit as you do that of the body? Do you show an interest in the books they plan to draw from the public library? Can you guide them intelligently when they ask for suggestions of interesting books? Do you know the healthful, suitable ones? § 5. PROMOTION OF THE READING INTEREST The Sunday school might aid greatly in promoting the habit of selecting and reading good books. Children often come home from day school clamoring for some book which the teacher has recommended as interesting and valuable. The Sunday-school teacher's recommendation would also carry weight. In every church, whether there exists a Sunday-school library or not, there ought to be a library or book committee which would watch for the right reading for the different grades and would cause the titles of good books to be placed on a bulletin board. Further, such a committee might very well place a copy of the book selected in the teacher's hand in order that the teacher might call the attention of the class directly to it. Of course the range of selection should be as wide as the world of books and should include fiction, romance, song, and story.[20] Parents could do the same sort of thing. Why not talk up the best books we remember? As to those old-time books, we need to realize that tastes change. Perhaps they owed much of their interest to their vivid descriptions of contemporary life. Therefore we must commend the new books, those that belong to the children's own days, too. This can be done, provided we really know the books, not by saying, "We should like you to read _Sandford and Merton_," but rather, "There is a capital story in _Captains Courageous_; have any of you read it?" Leave the matter there, or, at most, go only far enough to stimulate interest. I. References for Study St. John, _Stories and Story Telling_, chaps. i-v. Eaton & Mains, $0.50. Forbush, _The Coming Generation_, chap. viii. Appleton, $1.50 Winchester, "Good and Bad Books in the Home," in _The Bible in Practical Life_, p. 38. Religious Education Association, $2.50. II. Further Reading Partridge, _Story Telling in School and Home_. Sturgis & Walton, $1.25. H.W. Mabie, _Books and Culture_. Dodd, Mead & Co., $1.25. III. Methods and Materials ON STORY-TELLING E.P. St. John, _Stories and Story Telling_. Eaton & Mains, $0.50. Wyche, _Some Great Stories and How to Tell Them_. Newson & Co., $1.00. L.S. Houghton, _Telling Bible Stories_. Scribner, $1.25. Bryant, _How to Tell Stories for Children_. Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.00. E.M. and G.E. Partridge, _Story Telling in School and Home_. Sturgis & Walton, $1.25. DIRECTING CHILDREN'S READING IN THE HOME Macy, _A Children's Guide to Reading_. Baker & Taylor Co., $1.25. Field, _Finger Posts to Children's Reading_. McClurg, $1.00. Arnold, _A Mother's List of Books for Children_. McClurg, $1.00. For a short practical list see the different lists classified under Sunday-School Departments in W.S. Athearn, _The Church School_, particularly pp. 54, 83, 118, 169. Pilgrim Press, $1.00. IV. Topics for Discussion 1. Do you remember any stories which especially impressed you as a child? What were their qualities? What were the qualities of their narration? 2. What are your difficulties in story-telling to children? 3. Is the habit of reading books passing among children? If so, what are the reasons? 4. What responsibility has the public library toward the child's selection of books? toward promoting book reading? 5. How many families co-operate with the library? 6. How might the church co-operate? 7. Does the reading of newspapers by children affect their general habits of reading? In what ways? 8. What personal difference is there, if any, between the effect of a borrowed book and of one the child owns? FOOTNOTES: [17] Laura E. Cragin, _Kindergarten Bible Stories_. Fifty-six of the Old Testament stories. There is also a companion volume of New Testament stories. James Baldwin, _Old Stories of the East_. Fresh and interesting versions of the familiar Old Testament stories. Kate Douglas Wiggin, _The Story Hour_. Good stories and a suggestive introduction on story-telling. _Half a Hundred Stories for the Little People_, by various authors. [18] _A List of Good Stories to Tell to Children under Twelve Years of Age_, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, $0.05. There are references to books in which the stories may be found, including 25 Bible stories, 16 fables, 14 myths, 14 Christmas stories, 7 Thanksgiving stories, etc. [19] Such as O'Shea, _Old World Wonder Stories_; George Hodges, _The Garden of Eden_; Cragin, _Old Testament Stories_; Mary Stewart, _Tell Me a True Story_. [20] The H.W. Wilson Co., White Plains, New York, publishes a list of _Children's Books for Sunday-School Libraries_. CHAPTER XI THE USE OF THE BIBLE IN THE HOME If we keep clearly in mind the aim of religious education in the family as that of the development of the lives of religious persons, the place and value of the Bible will be evident. It will be used as a means of developing and directing lives. This will be quite different from a perfunctory use because our fathers used it or a use under the compulsion of the fear lest some strange evil should befall us, some visitation of an offended deity. § 1. THE CHILD'S NEED Children need the Bible as a part of their social heritage. Just as they get a larger life, inspired and stimulated by the realization of their connection with the past of their family and their country, so the Bible brings them into connection with the religious history of the race. General history brings heroic forefathers into the stream of consciousness; we feel the push of their lives. So the Bible reveals the stream farther back and makes us part of the process of life in unity with great characters and great movements. The child has a right to the Bible as his literary heritage. Here in the Bible is the precipitation of the ideals of a people unique in the place which religion held in their lives. Here is a literature which is the source of much of the best in the language and reading of the child's life. Its phrases are beautiful and convenient embodiments of religious ideals; they will have a steadily developing richness of meaning as life opens out to the child.[21] § 2. DIFFICULTIES The difficulties in the way of the use of the Bible in the home are: the crowded programs, or a lack of time due to the absence of any program for the days; a feeling of unnaturalness in the special reading of this book; the decay of the custom of reading aloud; parental ignorance of the Bible and especially of its beauties for the young; and the excessive amount of task-reading frequently required by the schools. The Sunday school also sometimes offends in this respect by overemphasis on academic tasks for home work. § 3. METHODS First, let parents use the Bible themselves. Use the books as you wish children to use them. This will be the longest step you can take toward the solution of the problem. Secondly, use the Bible naturally. When children have an aversion to the Bible it is due usually to two causes: the peculiar place and use of the book which makes it a thing apart from life, and often an object of dread; and the practice of using it as a task-book, to be opened only in order to prepare Sunday-school lessons. Just as it takes years to overcome the aversion set up against English literature by its analytical study in the schools, so that the child becomes a man before he voluntarily reads Dickens, Thackeray, the poets, and essayists, in the same manner we have succeeded in making the Bible undesirable to youth. If you read passages aloud, use the tone of voice which would be appropriate if this was a new book not bound in leather. Read it for pleasure as one would read a literary masterpiece--not because opinion might frown on you if you had not read the classic. Does someone object that that would be to degrade the Bible to the level of secular writings? You cannot degrade a literature; it makes its own level and our labels do not affect it. Certain it is that a pious tone of voice will not protect the Bible from the secular level. But to use it unnaturally will degrade it in the opinion of those who hear us. Thirdly, make its use a pleasure. All children enjoy story-telling and listening to reading. Many parents practice the children's hour, some period in the day when they will, alone with the children, read and talk with them. Let the Bible story be the reward of a good day, something promised as an incentive to good behavior. Children delight, not alone in the story itself, but in rhythmic passages, in the poetic flights of Isaiah and the beautiful imagery of the Psalms. To them it is natural and pleasant to think of the hills that skipped and the stars that sang and the trees that gave forth praise. They know the song of nature and are happy to find it put into words. Fourthly, use the Bible as a book of life. How many times a day do questions of conduct arise in the family! How often do children ask what is right, and freely discuss the question! Here is a book rich in precept and example on at least many of the questions. There are pictures of actual lives meeting real temptations; there are the epigrammatic precepts of Proverbs and of the teachings of Jesus. Call attention to them, not as settling the question out of hand, but as testimony to the point. Accustom children to getting the light of the Bible on their lives, remembering that this book is a light and not a fence nor a code of laws. Fifthly, use the Bible in worship. This does not conflict with the plea for its use naturally, for worship should be as natural as any of the social pleasures of the family. Here select those passages for reading which count most for the spirit of worship. It is a good plan to read a short passage, suitable for memorizing, so frequently that children learn it and are able to repeat it in concert. Be sure that all the passages read or recited are short. It will often be wise to preface the reading with a brief account of its original circumstances, so that all may hear the words as the actual utterances of a real man living in real life. Sixthly, provide material which helps to make the Bible interesting, and which helps children to see its pictures through the eyes of geography and history.[22] Seventhly, make the use of the Bible possible at all times for all. See that as soon as the child can read he has his own Bible, that it is in large, readable type, as much like any other book as possible. It is no evidence of grace to ruin the eyes over diamond-text Bibles. If possible, also provide separate books of the Bible, in modern literary form and some in the idiom of our day.[23] § 4. DOUBTFUL METHODS It is doubtful whether good comes from the use of the Bible as a riddle-book, nor do the "Bible games" tend to develop a natural appreciation of the book. There is no new light but rather a confusing shadow thrown on the character of Joseph by the foolish conundrum concerning Pharaoh making a ruler out of him. Sending a child to the Bible to discover the shortest verse, the longest, the middle one, etc., trains him to regard it as an odd kind of book, to think of it as a dictionary, and to use it less. We assume too readily that a knowledge of the separate details of biblical information, such as the date of the Flood, the age of Methuselah, the names of the twelve tribes, the twelve apostles, the books of the two Testaments, is the desired end. But one might know all these things and many more and be not one whit the better. For the child surely the desirable end is that he may feel deeply the attractiveness of the character of Joseph or of Jesus, may say within himself, "What a fine man; I want to be like him." Be sure the persons are real, that you see them living their lives in their times, just as you live your life now. I. References for Study T.G. Soares, "Making the Bible Real to Boys," in _Boy Training_, pp. 117-40. Association Press, $0.75. W.T. Lhamon, "Bible in the Home," _Religious Education_, December, 1912, p. 486. G. Hodges, _Training of Children in Religion_, chap. x. Appleton, $1.50. II. Further Reading _The Bible in Practical Life._ Religious Education Association. Numerous references to the use of the Bible in the home in this volume. Patterson Dubois, _The Natural Way_, sec. iv. Revell, $1.25. III. Methods and Materials "Passages of Bible for Memorization," _Religious Education_, August, 1906. Louise S. Houghton, _Telling Bible Stories_. Scribner, $1.25. Johnson, _The Narrative Bible_. Baker & Taylor Co., $1.50. Hall and Wood, _The Bible Story_, 5 vols. King, $2.00 by subscription. Courtney, _The Literary Man's Bible_. Crowell, $1.25. The above are but a few of the many collections of biblical material. IV. Topics for Discussion 1. What are the conditions which seem to make the reading of the Bible different from other reading? Is there a sense of unreality about it as a book? What are the causes? 2. Try the experiment of reading the story of Joseph at one sitting. Try to retell this to children. 3. What biblical material stands out in your memory of childhood? In what degree is this due to the art of the story-teller or the reader? to the character of the material? FOOTNOTES: [21] See M.J.C. Foster, _The Mother the Child's First Bible Teacher_. [22] Mackie, _Bible Manners and Customs_. Chamberlin, _Introduction to the Bible for Teachers of Children_. Worcester, _On Holy Ground_, 2 vols. [23] For example, Moulton, _Modern Reader's Bible_. The new Jewish renderings of Old Testament books are good, especially the Psalms. CHAPTER XII FAMILY WORSHIP Family worship has declined until, at least in the United States, the percentage of families practicing daily worship in the home is so small as to be negligible. If this meant that a general institution of religion had passed out of existence the fact would be highly significant. But it is well to remember that family worship has never been a general institution. We have generalized the picture of the "Cotter's Saturday Night" so eloquently drawn by Burns; it has been applied to every night and to every fireside. Daily family worship was observed in practically all the Puritan homes of New England; but there is no evidence for it as a uniform custom, either in other parts of this country or in other parts of the world, save perhaps in sections of Scotland. True, there were many families which observed the custom; but there were also many families of church members and doubtless of truly religious people in which family worship as a regular institution was unknown. This has been especially true in the type of family life which has developed under modern social conditions. Further, even so simple an exercise as grace at meals has not always been a general custom. § 1. PAST CUSTOMS But the fact today is that family worship is so rare as to be counted phenomenal wherever found. The instances, though not general, were common a generation ago. Many are living to whom family worship afforded the largest part of their conscious and formal religious education. Following the morning meal, or, occasionally, the evening meal, the family waited while the father, or the mother in his absence, read a portion of the Scriptures and offered prayer. In other families the act of worship would be the closing one of the day, perhaps participated in by the older members only, the younger children having repeated their prayers at bedside on retiring. A thousand happy and sacred associations gather about the memories of these occasions: the sense of reverence, the feeling that the home was a sacred place, the impression of noble words and elevating thoughts, the reflex influence of the prayer that committed all to the keeping and guidance of God.[24] § 2. WHY FAMILY WORSHIP? Parents need to see the values in family worship. We have been insisting on the primary importance of the religious interpretation of the family as an institution, on the power of the religious motive, and the atmosphere of religion. But wherever there is a truly religious motive and a permanent religious atmosphere these will find definite expression in acts easily recognized as religious. Love is the motive and atmosphere of the true home, but love blossoms into words and bears fruit in a thousand deeds. The life of love dies without reality in act. Ideals are precipitated in expressive acts. So is it with religion in the home; it must not only be real in its sincerity, it must be realized, must pass over into conduct and action, as suggested above in chaps. vii and viii. And it must do this in ways so sharply defined and readily recognized as to leave no doubt as to their meaning. True, all acts may be religious and thus full of worship--this is most important of all--but worship expressly unites all such acts in a spirit of loyalty and aspiration. Worship is a necessity for the sake of the ideal unity of the family life. Just as the individual must not only feel the religious emotion but must also do the thing called for, so must this united personality of the family give expression to its faith and aspiration, its motives and emotions, in such a manner that, acting as a social unit, all can together put the inner life into the outer form. The social value of family worship is the strongest reason for its maintenance. It is the united act of the family group, the one in which group consciousness is expressly directed to the highest possible aims. Every period of worship brings the family into unity at an ideal level. The expression of religion in definite forms is necessary for children, too, as furnishing a means by which they can manifest their feeling of the higher meaning of family life. The reality of that feeling is stimulated in the daily, common life of the right family; the hour of worship is one out of many definite forms of its concrete expression. It is the form which gathers up the totality of feeling and aspiration into an act of worship and praise toward God, the Father of all families. It is evident there cannot be true worship in the family that is irreligious in its essential qualities, in its character, in its ideals and atmosphere. § 3. ADVANTAGES The period of worship is a necessity in interpreting to all the spirit and meaning of a religious family. It objectifies the inner life. It makes definite, tangible, and easily remembered the general impressions of religion. It precipitates the atmosphere of religion into definiteness. In the chemical laboratory of a university there is usually a decided atmosphere of chemistry, but no one expects to become a chemical engineer by absorbing that atmosphere, nor even to attain a simple working knowledge by merely general impressions. Definiteness aids in gathering up our knowledge, our impressions. The reading of the Bible in the home will give, when the passages are wisely chosen, forms of language into which the often chaotic but nevertheless valuable and potential emotions of youth fall as into a beautiful mold; they become remembered forms of beauty thereafter. Family worship furnishes opportunity for direct religious instruction. When the home life has its regular institution, as regular as meals and play, the formality, the apparent abnormality of conversation about religion, is absent. Children expect and look forward to the period when the family will lay other things aside to think on the eternal values. Their questions in the breathing-space that always ought to follow worship become perfectly natural and sincere. Family worship lifts the whole level of family life. Ideally conceived, it simply means the family unity consciously coming into its highest place. Children may not understand all the reading nor enter into the motives for all parts of the petition, but they do feel that this moment is the one in which the family enters a holy place. They feel that God is real and that their family life is a part of his whole care and of his life. One short period of natural reverence sends light and calm all through the day. Where the home is the place where true prayer is offered, the family is the group which meets in an act of worship; here and into this group there cannot easily enter strife, bickerings, or baseness. One short period, five minutes or even less, of quietness, of united turning toward the eternal, gives tone to the day and finer atmosphere to the home. What our community life might be like without the churches, faulty or incompetent as we may know some of them to be, what that life would lose and miss without them is precisely, and perhaps in larger degree, what the family life misses without its own institution of regular devotion and worship. § 4. THE DIFFICULTIES We can always afford to do that which is most worth while doing; our essential difficulty is to shake off the delusion of the lesser values, the lower prizes, to realize that, of all the good of life, the characters of our children, the gain we can all make in the eternal values of the spirit, in love and joy and truth and goodness, is the gain most worth while. We tend to set the making of a living before the making of lives. We need to see the development of the powers of personality, the riches of character, as the ultimate, dominant purpose of all being. Once grasp that, and hold to it, and we shall not allow lesser considerations, such as the pressure of business, the desire for gain, for ease, for pleasure, for social life, to come before this first and highest good; we shall make time for definite conscious religion in the life of the family.[25] § 5. TYPES OF WORSHIP There are three simple forms which worship takes in the family: first, grace offered at the meals; secondly, the prayers of children on retiring and, occasionally, on rising; thirdly, the daily gathering of the family for an act of the spirit. The statement of the three forms reads so as to give them a formal character, but the most important point to remember is that wherever they are true acts of worship they are formal only in that they occur at definite, determined times and places. The acts have no merit in themselves. Merely to institute their observance will not secure religious feeling and life in the home. These three observances have arisen because at these times there is the best and most natural opportunity for the expression of aspiration, desire, and feeling. § 6. METHODS OF FAMILY WORSHIP 1. _Grace at meals._--Shall we say grace at meals? To assent because it is the custom, or because it was so done in our childhood's home, may make an irreligious mockery of the act. Perhaps, too, there are some who even hesitate to omit the grace from an unspoken fear that the food might harm them without it. All have heard grace so muttered, or hurriedly and carelessly spoken, void of all feeling and thought, that the act was almost unconscious, a species of "vain repetition." There are two outstanding aspects of the asking of a blessing--the desire to express gratitude for the common benefits of life, and the expression of a wish, with the recognition of its realization, that at each meal the family group might include the Unseen Guest, the Infinite Spirit of God. That wish lifts the meal above the dull level of satisfying appetites. Just as, in good society, we seek to make the meal much more than an eating of food, "a feast of reason and a flow of soul," so does this act make each meal a social occasion lifted toward the spiritual. The one thought at the beginning, the thought of the reality of the presence of God, and of the nearness of the divine to us in our daily pleasures, gives a new level to all our thinking. How shall we say grace, or "ask a blessing"? First, with simplicity and sincerity. Avoid long, elaborate, ornate phrases. It is better to err in rhetoric than in feeling and reality. The sonorous grace may soon become stilted and offensive. It is better to say in your own words just what you mean, for that will help all, even to the youngest, to mean what they say with you. Vary the form of petition. Sometimes let it be the silent grace of the Quakers; sometimes children will enjoy singing one of the old four-line stanzas, as Be present at our table, Lord, Be here and everywhere adored; These mercies bless and grant that we May feast in Paradise with thee. One might use the first three of the following lines for breakfast and the last three at another meal: For the new morning with its light, For rest and shelter of the night, We thank the heavenly Father. For rest and food, for love and friends, For everything his goodness sends, We thank the heavenly Father.[26] or When early in the morning the birds lift up their songs, We bring our praise to Jesus to whom all praise belongs. One especially needs to guard against the purely dietetic grace, the one that only asks that the deity will aid digestion, as that form so often heard, "Bless these mercies to our use."[27] Should we say grace on all occasions of meals? What shall we do at the social dinner in the home? The answer depends on the purpose of the grace. Is it not that in our own group we may have the consciousness of the presence of God? When the meal is that of our own group with a friend or two, we bring the friends into the group and the act of family worship is maintained. Usually this is the case. So it will be when the group is entirely at one in this desire: the asking of grace will be perfectly natural. But when the group is a large one, when the sense of family unity is lost, or when the observance would seem unnatural, it is better to omit it. Grace in large gatherings often seems an uncovering of the sacred aspects of the home life. 2. _Bedtime prayers._--What of children's bedtime prayers? Many can remember them. To many the most natural, helpful time for formal periods of prayer is in the quiet of the bedroom just before retiring. But there is a grave danger in establishing a regular custom of bedside prayers for children, a danger manifest in the very form of certain of these prayers, as Now I lay me down to sleep, I pray the Lord my soul to keep. It is as though the child were saying, "The day is ended during which I have been able to take care of myself, the hours of helpless sleep begin, and I ask God to take care of me through the terrors of the night." For some children, at least, the night has been made terrible by that thought; they have been led to feel that the day was safe and beautiful, but that the night was so dangerous and fearful that only the great God could keep them through it, and it was an open question whether their prayer for that keeping would be heard. One must avoid also the notion that such prayers are part of a price paid, a system of daily taxation in return for which heaven furnishes us police protection. The best plan seems to be to encourage children to pray, to establish in them the habit of closing the day with quiet, grateful thoughts, to watch especially that the prayers learned in early life do not distort the child's thoughts of God, and to make the evening prayer an opportunity for the child to express his desires to God his Father and Friend. Having done this, as the children grow up it is best to leave them free to pray when and where they will. One may properly encourage the evening, private prayer; but the child ought to have the feeling that it is not obligatory, that it must grow out of his desire to talk with God, and, above all, that it has no special connection with the hour and act of retiring for sleep but rather, so far as time is concerned, with the closing of the day. Mothers must see far beyond the charm of the picture formed by the little white-robed figure at her knee. There is no hour so rich in possibilities for this growing life. It is one of the great opportunities to guide its consciousness of God.[28] 3. _General family prayers._--It is true that, in many homes, under modern conditions of business, it is almost impossible for the family to be united at the hour when worship used to be customary, following breakfast. However, that is not the only hour available. In many respects it is a poor one for the purpose of social worship; it lacks the sense of leisure. But there are few families where the members do not all gather for the evening meal. It is not difficult to plan at its close for ten minutes in which all shall remain. Without leaving the table it is possible to spend a short time in united, social worship. Or, by establishing the custom and steadily following it, it is possible to leave the table and in less than ten minutes find ample time for worship in another room. Really everything depends at first on how much we desire to have family worship, whether we see its beauty and value in the knitting of home ties, in the elevation of the family spirit, and in the quickening of the religious ideas. We find time to eat simply because we must; when the necessity of the spirit is upon us we shall find time also to worship and to pray. Next to the will to make time comes the question of method. First, determine to be simple, natural, and informal. A stilted exercise soon becomes a burden and a source of pain to all. In whatever you do, seek to make it possible for all to have a share by seeing that every thought is expressed within the intelligence of even the younger members, that is, of those who desire to have a share. This does not mean descending to "baby-talk." Just read the Twenty-third Psalm; that is not baby talk, but a child of seven can understand what is meant up to the measure of his experience; the language is essentially simple though the ideas are sublime. Secondly, insure brevity. For that part of worship in which all are expected regularly to unite, ten minutes should be ample. Some excellent programs will not take more than half this time. Family worship is not a diminutive facsimile of church worship. Doubtless the experiment has failed in many families because the father has attempted to preach to a congregation which could not escape. Keep in mind the thought that this is to be a high moment in each day in which every member will have an equal share. Thirdly, plan for the largest possible amount of common participation. This is to be the expression of the unity of the family life. Children enjoy doing things co-operatively and in concert. Fourthly, treat the occasion naturally in relation to other affairs. Proceed to the worship without formal notice, without change of voice, and without apology to visitors. Take this for granted. At the close move on into other duties without the sense of coming back into the world. You have not been out of it; you have only recognized the eternal life and love everywhere in it. 4. _Suggestions of plans._--There are given below seven outlines of plans of worship. They are plans which have been in use and have been tried for years. Their only merit is simplicity and practicability; but they are at least worthy of trial. There is no special significance in the arrangement of the days and this may be changed in any way desirable. Further, all plans should be elastic; there will come special days, such as festivals and birthdays, when the program should be varied. For example, on a birthday the child whose anniversary then occurs should have the privilege of making the choice of recitation or reading or of determining the order of all the parts of this brief period of worship. MONDAY 1. A short psalm repeated in concert. 2. A brief, informal petition by father or mother. 3. The Lord's Prayer, in which all join. Before attempting even this simple plan, prepare for it by first selecting several suitable psalms. The following should be included: the 1st, 19th, 23d, 24th, 100th, 117th, 121st, and a part of the 103d. You would do well to memorize one of these yourself, so as to be able to lead without reading from the book. Next, think over with some care the things for which you may pray, the aspirations which your children can share with you. Few things are more difficult than this, so to pray that all can make the prayer their own. Let it also be a prayer of love and joy, not a craven begging off from punishments, nor a cowardly plea for protection and provision. We can pray over all these things with gratitude and with confidence toward the God of love. Do not try to preach in your prayers. Many prayers have been ruined by preaching, just as some preaching has been spoiled by praying to the people. Usually four or five sentences will do for the one day. Better a single thought simply expressed than the most brilliant attempt to inform the Almighty on all the events of the world that day. A prayer in which all can join is always desirable. The Lord's Prayer never wearies us nor grows old. Children enter into it with some new meaning every day; it covers all our great, common, daily needs. TUESDAY 1. A few favorite memory verses repeated by all (from either the Bible or other literature). 2. Read a very brief passage from the Bible. 3. Prayer, ending with the Lord's Prayer. Many excellent selections will be found in Dr. Dole's book mentioned at the end of this chapter. Encourage children, however, to make their selections from the poems and passages they already know. The passage of the Bible selected to be read should be one which first of all incites to worship, and should be chosen for its inspiration and literary beauty. A few lines from the great chapters of Isaiah (e.g., chaps. 35 and 55), from the Psalms (e.g., Pss. 61, 65, 145), from the Sermon on the Mount, from 1 Cor., chap. 13, from the parables of Jesus, will be suitable. The closing prayer may be extemporaneous or may be read from one of the books of prayers. Many of the prayers in the Episcopal Prayer Book are especially beautiful and quite suitable. Of course in families of the Episcopal church the collect for the day would be the right prayer to use. It is sometimes necessary to use prayers prepared beforehand; some persons never acquire the ability to pray aloud, even in their own families. But halting sentences that are your own, that your children recognize as yours, may mean more to them than the finest flowing phrases from a book. Use the prayers from the book, not as a substitute, but as an addition. WEDNESDAY 1. A good poem from general literature. 2. Prayer. There are so many good collections of the great and inspiring poems that one hesitates to recommend any collection. Remember that a poem may be religious and imbued with the spirit of worship, helpful to the purpose of this occasion, even though it contains no allusions to Scripture and makes no direct references to religious belief. "A House by the Side of the Road"[29] is thoroughly human, popular, and could not even be accused of being a classic; but it has a helpful motive and is likely to lead the will toward the life of service and brotherhood. Some would prefer to read a part of one of the great hymns. THURSDAY 1. A brief reading or recitation from the New Testament. 2. A few moments' conversation on the reading. 3. A very brief prayer followed by a song. The only apparent difficulty here is in starting the conversation. Do not ask formal questions; rather put them something like this: "I wonder whether people would do just the same on our street today." Make the conversation as general as possible; do not slight, nor scoff at, the contribution of even the least in the group. FRIDAY 1. A few verses in concert. 2. Read a parable or very brief narrative. 3. The Lord's Prayer. The reading had better be from one of the paraphrases if it is a narrative from the Old Testament.[30] Even in reading the New Testament one can at times use with advantage the _Twentieth-Century Bible_ or the _Modern Reader's Bible_. SATURDAY 1. A period of song. 2. Closing prayer, with the Lord's Prayer. Perhaps only one song can be sung. It need not be a hymn; that should depend on the choice of the children. Help them to put together all the good songs, including the hymns, in one category in their minds. SUNDAY 1. Ask: "What has been the best we have read or repeated in our worship this week?" 2. Ask: "What shall we learn for memory repetition this week, what psalm or other passage for our concerted worship?" 3. Read the psalm selected. 4. Closing prayer. 5. Period of song, lasting as long as desired. This exercise evidently permits of extension in time and should be arranged in accordance with the program for the day. I. References for Study George Hodges, _The Training of Children in Religion_, chaps. viii, ix. Appleton, $1.50. _The Improvement of Religious Education_, pp. 108 to 123. Religious Education Association, $0.50. Mrs. B.S. Winchester, "Methods and Materials Available," _Religious Education_, October, 1911. $0.50. II. Further Reading Koons, _The Child's Religious Life_. Eaton & Mains, $1.00. Hartshorne, _Worship in the Sunday School_. Columbia University, $1.25. III. Methods and Materials A.R. Wells, _Grace before Meat_. U.S.C.E., $0.25. C.F. Dole, _Choice Verses_. Jamaica Plains, Massachusetts. Privately printed. F.A. Hinckley (ed.), _Readings for Sunday School and Home_. American Unitarian Association, $0.35. J. Martin, _Prayers for Little Men and Women_. Harper, $1.25. S. Hart (ed.), _Short Daily Prayers for Families_. Longmans, $0.60. G.A. Miller, _Some Out-Door Prayers_. Crowell, $0.35. Oxenden, _Family Prayers_. Longmans, $1.50. George Skene, _Morning Prayers for Home Worship_. Methodist Book Concern, $1.50. W.E. Barton, _Four Weeks of Family Prayer_. Puritan Press, Oak Park, Ill. Abbott, _Family Prayers_. Dodd, Mead & Co., $0.50. _Prayers for Parents and Children._ Young Churchman Co., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, $0.15. IV. Topics for Discussion 1. What are the causes for the decay of the custom of family worship? 2. What influences us most: public opinion, popular custom, economic pressure? 3. How have the changes affected the religious influence of the home? 4. What features of the older customs are most worth preserving? 5. Recall any of childhood's prayers which you remember. How many maintain the custom of bedtime prayers in mature life? 6. What should be the central motive of "grace" at meals? 7. Would there be advantage in occasionally omitting the "grace"? 8. Give reasons for and against "grace." 9. Criticize the proposed plan of evening family prayers. 10. Describe any plans which have been tried. 11. Why is it desirable to maintain family worship? FOOTNOTES: [24] For a study of children's worship see H.H. Hartshorne, _Worship in the Sunday School_; "Report of Commission on Graded Worship," _Religious Education_, October, 1914. [25] "Parents who give up such a practice as family prayers mainly because they know of many other people who have done the same are just as much the slaves of public opinion and ignorant cant as the narrowest Lowlander who forbids his children secular history on Sunday."--Lyttleton, _Corner-Stone of Education_, pp. 207-8. [26] Quoted by W.S. Athearn, _The Church School_. [27] A number of good poems are given in A.R. Wells, _Grace before Meat_. [28] W.B. Forbush gives a number of poetic forms of prayer for children in _The Religious Nurture of a Little Child_, pp. 12, 13. [29] By Samuel Walter Foss. [30] One handy form is _The Heart of the Bible_, prepared by E.A. Broadus; another, _The Children's Bible_. CHAPTER XIII SUNDAY IN THE HOME Almost every family finds Sunday a problem. Other days are well occupied with full programs; this one has a program for only part of its time. Other days are rich with the liberty of happy action, but this one is frequently marked by inaction, repression, and limitations. As soon as the evanescent pleasure of Sunday clothes has passed, for those for whom it existed at all, the children settle down to endure the day. § 1. THE MEANING OF THE DAY Fathers and mothers who vent a sigh of relief when Sunday is over must marvel at the strains of "O day of joy and gladness." Yet this day defeats its purpose when it is of any other character. We have no right to rob it of its joy and its healing balm. On the day made for man, sacred to his highest good, whatever hinders the real happiness of the child ought to be set aside. Instead of accepting traditions regarding the method of observing the Sunday, would it not be worth while to ask ourselves, For what use of the day can we properly be held responsible? Here are so many--fifty-two a year--days of special opportunity. To us who complain that business interferes with the personal education of our children through the week, what ought this day to mean? To us who lament the little time we can spend with our families, what ought this day to mean? And what ought we to try to make it mean to children? We call this God's day; what must some children think of a God who robs his day of all pleasure? If this is the kind of day he makes, then how unattractive would be his years and eternity! It is the day when we have our best opportunity to show them what God is like, to interpret his world and his works in terms of beauty, kindness, riches of thought, and love. It ought to be the day reserved for the best in life, for the treasures of affection, for the uses of the spirit. Whatever is done this day must come to this test, Is this a ministry to the life of goodness, truth, and loving service? Does this enrich lives? In other words, we may put the broad educational test to the day and its program and determine all by ministry to growing lives. § 2. CONSERVING THE VALUES The family faces the problem of the opposition between the rights of man on this day and the greed of commerce, the fight between a day of rest and a day of work. Man's right to rest is assured, legally, but commerce in the name of amusement and in the guise of petty and unnecessary trading constantly maintains its fight to invade the day of rest, to turn it from ministry to man as a person to the dull level of the week of ministry to things. The home has much at stake in this struggle. It needs one day free from the life that tears its members apart, free from the toil that engrosses thought, free for its members to live together as spiritual beings. In the need for one day, free from the things that hinder and devoted to the life of the spirit, the home finds the guiding principle for the use of the day; all members are to be trained to use it as a glorious opportunity, a welcome period, a day of the best things of life. It is devoted to personality, to man's rights as a religious being. Surely one of the best things of life will be that we shall meet one another, shall look into faces of friends and companions! And this opportunity of social mingling is lifted to a high level when it is an act of the larger family life, the life that brings God and man into one family. That is what the church meeting and service ought to be: our Father's larger family getting together on the day of the life that makes them one. For the child the church school and the children's service of worship are their immediate points of vital touch with the church family. If we think of the day as affording us the pleasure of social mingling with friends and members of that family, Sunday morning will cease to be a period of unwilling observance of empty duties. Of course that will depend, too, on the measure in which the church and school grasp their opportunity to make this the best of days.[31] Further, let the home keep this day as the one of personal values all the way through, sacred to that life of love, friendship, and joy in the presence of one another which is the essential life of the family. It has always been a good custom for friends to visit on this day, for families grown up and established around their own hearths to gather again for a few hours. It is the day when we have time to discover how much greater are the riches of friendship than aught besides, when, looking into the eyes of those we love, we see "the light that never was on sea or land," the ultimate good! The hours of being together are the hours of real education. Children cannot be with good and great people and remain the same. Their lives need other lives. Above all, they need us. This should be the day for real mothering and fathering. Nothing ought to be permitted to interfere with this, neither our social pleasures nor the demands of the church. § 3. THE PROBLEM OF PLAY What shall we do with the child who wants to play on Sunday? Is there any other kind of child? They all want to. It is as natural for a child to play as it is for a man to rest; it is as necessary. A child is a growing person learning life by play. Because play seems trivial to us we assume it is so to them; we would banish the trivial from the day devoted to the higher life. In some families play is forbidden because children find pleasure in it, and adults find it impossible to associate piety and pleasure. Shall we then throw down all barriers and make this day the same as all others? No, rather make the day different by throwing down barriers that stand on other days. Let this be the day when the barriers between father and sons, parents and children, are let down and all can enter into the joy of living. Play is to a child the idealization of life's experiences and the realization of its ideals. That is why he plays at school, idealizing the everyday life; that is why he plays at housekeeping, at being in church, at being a railway engineer, even a highwayman or an outlaw. The traditional games are the game of life itself in terms of childhood. Play as idealized experience and realized ideals is to the child what the church, worship, and the reading of fiction and essays are to the adult. Play is the child's method of reaching forward into life's meaning. Some games as old as history carry a weight of human tradition and experience as rich for a child as the adult obtains from historical review and from association with the past. There is a sense in which the child playing these games opens the Bible of the race.[32] We cannot make children over into our pattern; we have to learn from them. Indeed, we come to life through their ways. We must become as little children. Before we settle the question of play on Sunday we do well to be sure that we know what play means to children, that we really grasp something of its educational value and its religious potency. Then we can proceed to a family policy in Sunday play. § 4. A POLICY ON PLAY _Keep the day as one of family unity._ Help the child to think of it as a day protected for the sake of family togetherness. You can play that for this day the ideal is already realized of a family life uninterrupted by the demands of labor and business. _Maintain the unity by doing the ideal things together._ Go to the place of worship together, provided it is the place where the child can find expression for spiritual ideals. If the Sunday school does not really lift the child-life and really teach the child, if it is not honest with him and makes no suitable provision for his developing nature, he will be better off in a quiet hour of family conversation and reading at home. That means the application of parents to this hour.[33] It banishes the monstrous Sunday supplement with its hideous, debasing pictures. It substitutes conversation in the whole group, reading aloud of stories and poems, biblical and otherwise, and songs, hymns, or at times the walk in the fields or parks. Fortunately the better type of Sunday school is more and more to be found; children are more and more receiving a ministry actually determined by their needs. So far as the church service is concerned the ideal situation is found when a parallel service is provided for children, based on their needs and capacities. As to attendance, under other circumstances, in the family pew, that depends on whether the child is gaining an aversion to the church by the torture and tedium often involved. Without doubt many adults acquired the settled habit of sleeping in church because that was the only possible relief in childhood.[34] _Maintain the family unity by stepping into the child's ideal life. Expect activity and use it._ Why should we assume that because the adult finds a Sunday nap enjoyable the child will be blessed by enforced silence? I would rather see a father playing catch with his boys on Sunday than see the boys cowed into silence while he slept a Sabbath sleep. Children will play. Their play is innocent; more, it may be helpful and educative; we can insure these values in it by our participation. That is the parent's opportunity for a closer sympathy with his children. Playing together is the closest living, thinking, and feeling together. Where games are shared, confidences, secrets, and aspirations are shared, too. Besides, the participation of the adult may tend to tone up the game and to moderate boisterousness. _Seek the beautiful._ Speaking as one who has been under both the puritanical regulation and the so-called "continental" freedom of Sunday observance, nothing seems much more beautiful than the sight of an entire family playing at home, in the park, or off in the woods or the fields of the country. Life is strengthened, ideals are lifted, family ties knit closer, gratitude is quickened, and courage stimulated by play of this kind. § 5. POINTS OF DIFFERENCE But because it is evidently most important that this day should be different from other days, it is well to mark that difference in our plays and pleasures and to follow some simple principles for Sunday play. First, make it the day of the _best_ plays. The participation of parents will tend to have this effect. Sometimes some forms of play may be reserved for this day. Secondly, our play should never interfere with the rights of those who desire to be quiet or to observe the day in ways differing from ours. We must respect the rights of all. Thirdly, our play must not cause additional or unnecessary labor. Fourthly, our play must not interfere with the pleasures of others. For instance, in the city children who can use the public tennis courts every day should keep off them on Sunday in order to give opportunity to those who can use them only on that day. Having said so much on play on Sundays, we must not leave the impression that play is the principal thing. It would be the principal thing for children compelled to work or confined in crowded tenements on all other days. This is a day of rest. Play should not be carried beyond the rest and refreshment stage. Nor must we assume that a recognition of play involves neglect of worship and instruction. Both should be cherished among the delights of the day. Every attempt to make the day a happy one, by normal play, associates the emphasis on worship with increased happiness in the child's mind. § 6. THE SUNDAY AFTERNOON PROBLEM "What shall we do?" the children ask restlessly on Sunday afternoons, and it is by no means a strange question. All the week they have their school work, on Saturdays their play. No wonder Sunday afternoon seems dull. Yet if we older ones use it aright this is our opportunity to give them the best time of all the week. We can make this part of the day really a holiday if we just take time to plan it right. There is something wrong in the home in which the child, as he grows up, does not look forward happily to his Sunday afternoons. Sunday afternoon should be a family festival time. Keep it sacred to the family. Business and social life claim us all the week, and the church claims its share of this day; but these afternoon hours we can, if we will, reserve for our own home life, for the closer drawing together of children and parents. To hold this time sacred for the children and their interests will help to solve "the Sunday afternoon problem." 1. _The child's question, "What shall I do next?"_--Children are dynamic, perpetually active. They grow in the direction toward which their activities are turned. Repression is impossible. We must either find the best things for them to do, or let them chance on things good or bad. The following outline for Sunday afternoon is given in the hope that it may help to answer the "what next." 1. Begin to make _The Family Book_. 2. Give "festival name" to the day, and take an excursion in honor of the one for whom the day is named. 3. Organize an exploring party to discover peoples and scenes of long, long ago. 4. Get acquainted with some beautiful home thoughts. 5. Enjoy an evening hour of song and praise. 2. _"The Family Book."_--To start _The Family Book_, mother or father raises the question at dinner: "What was the best Sunday of all last year, and why was it the best?" Everyone, from the oldest down to the least, should have a chance to tell. The statements of the older ones will encourage the younger. That question will start another: What is the very best thing we can remember about the year past? Let everyone take a pencil and paper and in just ten minutes decide on and write down the one thing best worth remembering. Perhaps the baby cannot write yet, but he or she will want paper and pencil, too. Now, instead of making our answers known to one another, we fold the papers and keep them till the evening meal. We will open them then and talk it all over. Afterward we are going to copy the answers into a new book we are going to make. This new book is to be called _The Family Book_, and we expect to put into it all the pleasant things we wish to record about our home and family. Any blank book with ruled lines will do. Some time today we will elect a keeper of the book, and before we go to bed we will see the first entry in that book under the title, "Happy Memories of 1915." That will make a good beginning for _The Family Book_. Next Sunday we will discuss and set down in the book the happy memories of the intervening week. 3. _The festival name._--Now, we have been sitting, talking, and writing as long as the children will care to be still. Suppose we all go outdoors together, every one of us. What if the weather is bad? It is seldom truly bad, and there is so much real happiness in going out in all weathers together. But where shall we go? There is no fun in walking simply for exercise or health. Well, says father, we can decide where to go by naming the day. How? We will find the most interesting birthday or anniversary that falls today or during the next week. If one of the family has a birthday then, that one shall choose our walk for us. If not, then when we have chosen the national hero or heroine whose birthday falls near this time, or the event the anniversary of which comes nearest, we will go, if possible, where something will remind us of that person or event. So we fall to discussing the possibilities. We search through almanacs until we find the anniversary that suits us all. Perhaps one of the parents has anticipated all this by looking up the matter, and has a good name to suggest. Or the older ones may consult a dictionary of dates. It may turn out to be the birthday of a national hero. In the city he may have a statue; in the country may be found the kinds of woods, flowers, or animals he loved. 4. _The exploring party._--But even after the walk it will not be long before the little ones are asking, "What can we do next?" So we organize the exploring party. Our object is to discover the countries, scenes, strange peoples, and most interesting persons we have heard of in the Bible. We are to find them in the advertising sections of old magazines. Let each one take a magazine and go through it, looking for oriental scenes, for pictures of incidents and of men and women that will remind him of Bible scenes and characters. These are to be cut out, explained, and arranged in the order of time, as they happened, every member of the family helping. The same plan may be applied to scenes of missionary work, using blank books for stories of heroism which children will illustrate with the magazine pictures. 5. _Home thoughts._--"Home, sweet home," is just a corner of the afternoon saved for the discovery and reading of selections that are worth keeping in our memories and are also likely to help us hold our homes in some measure of the love and reverence they deserve. There are songs of home that ought never to be forgotten. 6. _Religious reading and songs close the day happily._--Children love religious reading and songs, provided they are offered for their worth and not as an exercise, or to be learned as an empty duty. Take down your Bible and read Psalm 100, "Make a joyful noise unto the Lord, all ye lands"; see whether they do not all enjoy the music and majesty of those lines. You will not find it difficult to secure their co-operation in learning that by heart. Then close the day with an hour of song. The children will remember songs learned thus all their lives; therefore those worth remembering should be chosen. For one, there is that dear old song many of us learned at mother's knee, "Jesus loves me, this I know." That and others that are appropriate can be found in almost every hymnbook. Many books of school songs also have a few hymns and Sunday songs that children like. Parents are puzzled, perhaps most of all, to choose appropriate stories to read to the children on Sunday. Youngsters prefer, of course, the told story to the read one, but if you wish to read you will make no mistake in selecting _Christie's Old Organ_; _Aunt Abbey's Neighbors_, by Annie T. Slosson; _The Book of Golden Deeds_, by Charlotte M. Yonge; and _Telling Bible Stories_, by Louise S. Houghton. _Some Great Stories and How to Tell Them_, by Richard Wyche, and _Story Telling_, by Edna Lyman, will serve as good guides to what to tell, and how to tell it. 7. _Naming the day._--From week to week variety should enter into the Sunday program. On the Sunday following the one described above we can begin at the dinner table the happy task of "naming the day." We can decide whether it shall be called after one of our own number, whose birthday falls near this date, or after one of the anniversaries of the week following. Perhaps someone suggests calling it after the feast day of the church year observed by certain churches. That should lead to discussion and investigation of the meaning of the day. When all are agreed on a name, write it under its date on your wall calendar. It will be a convenient suggestion for next year, unless the decision is for a different name when the day again comes round. It will also call to mind some of the interesting discussions which it aroused. After this we might call for _The Family Book_, which now contains, you will recall, the family's decision as to the best Sunday and the happiest occurrences of the year before. The keeper, appointed last week, must bring it out. We can read what we wrote a week ago and decide on the things worth entering this week. Records of birthdays, special happenings to each of the family, the bright sayings of little ones, and the visits of friends and relatives all should go in. 8. _"I remember" stories._--While _The Family Book_ is open is the psychological moment for father and mother to tell stories of their childhood. Every child likes to hear the story that begins, "I remember," and feels a thrill of pride in belonging to something that goes back and has a history. The old family album is a never-failing source of delight, not so much because of the pictures as because of what they suggest of family traditions. Now is a good time to select some certain thing which shall be used only on this day, such as a festival lamp or candlestick, some festival plates or dishes--just one thing or set of things toward the use of which we can look forward during the week. This helps to make Sunday what we used to call "a treat." 9. _Golden deeds._--Last week we started _The Family Book_ in which to keep a record of all the happy experiences that belong to our family. This week we begin another book. In it we expect to place every week just one splendid story, the account of a golden deed, some piece of everyday kindness or heroism of which we have read or heard or which we have witnessed. Everyone is to have a chance to contribute to this book, all the family deciding by vote each week as to which story should be placed on its pages. Did you read in the paper this week of some brave or kindly deed done by a boy or a girl, a man or a woman? Did you see someone do an act of kindness? Cut out the account or write out the story and have it ready for your own _Golden Deed Book_. Everyone must watch all the week for the right kind of stories. It is wonderful how much good you will find in the world when you are looking for it. Sunday afternoons all the family can hear each story and talk over its fine points of virtue and goodness. Thus may be developed an appreciation of the human qualities that are really admirable. We can discuss also the probability of certain of the stories and the righteousness of the deeds. Any blank book will do, or even a composition book. It will help to keep hands happily occupied if you make your own covers and cut out gilt letters for the title. Often you can find pictures to illustrate the stories chosen; sometimes you may prefer to draw the illustrations. Keep _The Golden Deed Book_ in a safe and convenient place, because there ought to be something to go into it every week. For instance, did you read the other day of the young man who jumped in front of a train to save a young girl? He lost his life, but he saved hers. Can you find that story and put it in the book? Perhaps you have found one that seems even more fitting. 10. _Various plans._--Giving happiness creates it. Plan something every Sunday for the happiness of others. Occasionally go in a body to call on someone who will be made happy by the visit. If you walk in the park or elsewhere, see how many things you can discover that you have read about in the Bible or know to be mentioned there. Try the game of "guessing hymns." While someone plays the familiar tunes, each takes a turn at identifying them and the hymns to which they belong. Set aside twenty minutes for each one to write a letter to send to the brother or sister, relative or friend, at a distance. Even the baby can scratch something which he thinks is a "real enough" letter in penciled scribbles. Close the day with quiet reading and song, or with the memory exercise in which all endeavor to repeat some simple psalm or a few verses, like the Beatitudes. All children like to repeat the Lord's Prayer in family concert. I. References for Study Emilie Poulsson, _Love and Law in Child Training_, chaps. i-iv. Milton Bradley, $1.00. _Happy Sundays for Children_ and _Sunday in the Home_. Pamphlets. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. II. Further Reading _Sunday Play._ Pamphlet. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. Hodges, _Training of Children in Religion_, chap. xiii. Appleton, $1.50. III. Methods and Materials _A Year of Good Sundays._ Pamphlet. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. IV. Topics for Discussion 1. What is the real problem of Sunday in the family? Is it that of securing quiet or of wisely directing the action of the young? 2. Recall your childhood's Sundays. Were they for good or ill? 3. What are the arguments against children playing on Sunday? Is there any essential relation between the play of children and the wide-open Sunday of commercialized amusements? 4. Can you describe forms of play in which practically all the family might unite? 5. What characteristics should distinguish play on Sundays from other days? Is it wise to attempt thus to distinguish this day? 6. Criticize the suggestions on occupations for Sunday afternoons. 7. Recall any especially helpful forms of the use of this day in your childhood, or coming under your observation. FOOTNOTES: [31] See chap. xvii, "The Family and the Church." [32] See chap. vii on "Directed Activity," and the references for study at its end. [33] Much may be learned by a study of Primary plans in a modern Sunday school. See Athearn, _The Church School_, chap. vi. [34] Since we are dealing here especially with religious education in the family, the author refers to his more extended treatment of the question of children in church services in _Efficiency in the Sunday School_, chap. xv. CHAPTER XIV THE MINISTRY OF THE TABLE Shall the periods for meals be for the body only or shall we see in them happy occasions for the enriching of the higher life? Upon the answer depends whether the table shall be little more than a feeding-trough or the scene of constant mental and character development. In some memories the meals stand out only in terms of food, while pictures of dishes and fragments of food fill the mind; in others there are borne through all life pictures of happy faces and thoughts of cheer, of knowledge gained and ideals created in the glow of conversation. § 1. THE OPPORTUNITY The family is together as a united group at the table more than anywhere besides. Table-talk, by its informality and by the aid of the pleasures of social eating, is one of the most influential means of education. Depend upon it, children are more impressed by table-talk than by teacher-talk or by pulpit-talk. They expect moralizing on the other occasions, but here the moral lessons throw out no warning; they meet no opposition; they are--or ought to be, if they would be effective--a natural part of ordinary conversation and, by being part and parcel of everyday affairs, they become normally related to life. The table is the best opportunity for informal, indirect teaching, and this is for children the natural and only really effective form of moral instruction. The child comes to these social occasions with a hungry mind as well as with an empty stomach. His mind is always receptive--even more so than his stomach; at the table he is absorbing that which will stay with him much longer than his food. Even if we were thinking of his food alone, we should still do well to see that the table is graced by happy and helpful conversation; nothing will aid digestion more than good cheer of the spirit; it stimulates the organs and, by diverting attention from the mere mechanics of eating, it tends to that most desirable end, a leisurely consumption of food. The general conversation of the family group has more to do with character development in children than we are likely to realize, and the table is peculiarly the opportunity for general conversation. Here, most of all, we need to watch its character and consider its teaching effects. Where father scolds or mother complains the children grow fretful and quarrelsome. Where father spends the time in reciting the sharp dealing of the market or the political ring, where mother delights in dilating on the tinsel splendors of her social rivalries, they teach the children that life's object is either gain at any cost or social glory. But it is just as easy to do precisely the opposite, to speak of the pleasures found in simpler ways, to glory in goodness and kindness, and to teach, by relating the worthy things of the day, the worth of love and truth and high ideals. The news of the day may be discussed so as to make this world a game of grab, inviting youth to cast conscience and honor to the winds and to plunge into the greedy struggle, or so as to make each day a book of beautiful pictures of life's best pleasures and enduring prizes. § 2. DIRECTING TABLE-TALK But table-talk, helpful, cheerful, and educative, does not occur by accident. It comes, first, from our own constant and habitual thought of the meals in social and spiritual, as well as in physical, terms. And it reaches its possibilities as we endeavor to create and direct the kind of conversation that is desired. "Let all your speech be seasoned with salt," wrote the apostle, and we might add, let your salt be seasoned with good speech. That is the quality we must seek, the seasoning of healthful, saving, and not insipid, speech. One of the great advantages of "grace before meat" lies in this: it gives a tone to the occasion. Its chief meaning is surely that we remind ourselves of the ever-present guest who is also the giver of all good. Where the grace is not a perfunctory act, but rather the welcoming of such a guest, the meal has started on a high level. We cannot do better than so to act and speak as those who take the divine presence for granted. We need not preach about it; we need only to assume it and move on the level of that friendship. Children will feel it; they will seek to answer to it, and will find pleasure in the very thought which they have perhaps never expressed in words. The central idea of the grace suggests another means of helpful influences at the table, by bringing into our homes, for the meals, the friends whose lives will lift these younger ones. It is worth everything to live even for an hour with good and broadening lives. There are obligations to our guests to be considered, and their wishes should be consulted, but one always feels that children are being cheated when they are sent to eat at another table and deprived of the peculiar intimate touch with lives that bring the benefits of travel and experience. Ask your own memory what some persons who ate at the table with you in childhood meant to you. The wise hostess knows that even when she brings together the group of mature folks, and even when they are wise and witty, she must be prepared adroitly to inspire the conversation or it may flag at times. How much more does the conversation need direction where we have the same group every day composed largely of immature persons! When you have thought of all the portions and all the plates, have you thought of the food for the spirit? Before suggesting methods of selection and direction, let a word of explanation be said: food for the spirit is not confined to theology, to hymns and the Bible; it is whatever will help us to feel and think of life as an affair of the spirit. And this must come in very simple terms, by the elementary steps, for young folks. It will be whatever will in any way help us to live more kindly, more cheerfully, more as though this really were God's world and all folks his family. Whatever does this is truly religious. § 3. METHODS Plan for the food of the spirit as seriously at least as for the food of the body. Learn to recognize poisons and also indigestibles. The first are subjects of scandal, bitterness of spirit, malice, impatience, tale-bearing, unkindly criticism, and discontent. The second are subjects too heavy for children: your formal theology would be one of them, your judgments on some intricate subjects may be among them. It is seldom wise to announce negative injunctions, but we can make up our own minds to avoid the conversational poisons and, when they appear, it is always easy to push them out. Even when the unpleasant subject is so common to all and has been so impressive in the day's experience that it threatens to become the sole, absorbing topic, we can say, "We won't talk of it at table! Let's find something better." But we must then have ready the something better; that will be possible only by forethought. First, save up during the day, or between the meals, the best thoughts, the cheering, kind, ideal, and amusing incidents. Cultivate the habit of saying to yourself, "This is something for us all to enjoy tonight at the table." Secondly, expect the other members to bring their best. Ask for "the best news of the day" from one and another. Encourage them to tell of good things seen and done and of pleasant and ideal things heard and spoken. Thirdly, use the incidents as the basis of discussion. Let children tell what they think of moral situations. Often they will quote the opinions of teachers and others. Always you will secure under these circumstances the unreserved expression of what they actually think. A free, informal conversation of this sort where opinions are kindly examined and compared is the finest kind of teaching. Fourthly, do not forget the grace of humor. To see the odd, whimsical, startling side of the incident or experience trains one to see the interplay of life, to catch a ray of light from all things, and to moderate our tendency to permit our tragedies to pull the heavens down. Fifthly, use this period to strengthen the consciousness of family unity by recounting past happy experiences and discussing plans of family life. In one family there are few meals from October to Christmas that do not include reminiscences of the summer in the woods and by the water, or from Christmas to June without plans for the next summer in the same place. Then, too, if you are contemplating something new, a piano, a chair, an automobile, talk it all over here. Let each one have his share in the planning. The effect is most important for character; the children acquire the sense of a share in the family community life. They get their first lessons in citizenship in this group, and they thus learn social living. Then when the chair, or what not, is bought, it is not alone the parents' possession; it belongs to all and all treat it as the property of all. Sixthly, introduce great guests who cannot come in person. It is fine fun to say, "We have with us tonight a man who loved bees and wrote books." Let them guess who it was; help, if necessary, by an allusion to _The Life of the Bee_ and _The Blue Bird_. They will want to know more about Maeterlinck and they will joyously imagine what they would say to him and how he would answer, what he would eat and how he would behave. In this way we may enjoy knowing better Lincoln, Whittier, Florence Nightingale, and an innumerable company. Seventhly, this is the place to remind ourselves that table-manners are no small part of the moral life. By the habituation of custom we can establish lives in attitudes of everyday thoughtfulness for others, in the underlying consideration of others which is the basis of all courtesy. Children's questions on table-etiquette must be met, not only by the formal rules, but also by their explanation in the intent of every gentle life to give pleasure and not pain to others, so to live in all things as to find helpful harmony with other lives and to help them to find and be the best. It is not only impolite to grab and guzzle, it is unsocial and so unmoral, because it is both a bad example and a distressing sight to others. It is irreligious, because whatever tends to make this life less beautiful must be offensive to the God who made all things good. If we ourselves seek to maintain beauty, order, and kindliness in the conduct of the table, our children acquire a love of all that makes for beauty and order and kindliness, for righteousness in the little things of life. A clean tablecloth may be a means of grace. You have to try to live up to it. Order and quietness in eating are not separable from the rest of the life. To lift up life at any point is to raise the whole level. To let it down at any point is to let all down. But to lift up the level of conversation at the table is to raise the level of the entire occasion and to make it more than a period of eating, to convert it into a festival, a joyous occasion of the spirit. The meal should be in all things worthy of the unseen guest. How near we all come together at the table! In its freedom how clearly are we seen by our children! Here they know us for what we are and so learn to interpret life. I. Reference for Study _Table Talk._ Pamphlet. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. II. Topics Tor Discussion 1. The relation of mental conditions to digestion. 2. The relation of table-etiquette to life-habits. 3. The table as an opportunity for the grace of courtesy, and the relation of this grace to Christian character. 4. Training children in listening as well as in talking at table. 5. Do you regard table-talk and table-manners as having any directly religious values? Why? CHAPTER XV THE BOY AND GIRL IN THE FAMILY Much that has been said so far has had in mind only the problems of dealing with younger children in the life of the home. Indeed, almost all literature on education in the family is devoted to the years prior to adolescence. But older boys and girls need the family and the family needs them. Many of the more serious problems of youth with which society is attempting to deal are due to the fact that from the age of thirteen on boys have no home life and girls, especially in the cities, are deprived of the home influences. § 1. THE GROWING BOY The life of the family must have a place for the growing boy. It must make provision for his physical needs; these are food, activity, rest, and shelter. Youth is a period of physical crisis. Health is the basis of a sound moral life. Many of the lad's apparently strange propensities are due to the physical changes taking place in his body and, often, to the fact that it is assumed that his rugged frame needs no care or attention.[35] It will take more than tearful pleading to hold him to his home; he can be held only by its ministry to him; he will be there if it is the most attractive place for him. Some parents who are praying for wandering boys would know why they wandered if they looked calmly at the crowded quarters given to the boy, the comfortless room, the makeshift bed, and the general home organization which long ago assumed that a boy could be left out of the reckoning. The boy needs a part in the family activities. He can belong only to that to which he can give himself. It will be his home in the degree that he has a share in its business. Begin early to confer with him about your plans; make him feel that he is a partner. See that he has a chance to do part of the work, not only its "chores," but also its forms of service. But even a boy's attitude to the "chores" will depend on whether they are a responsibility with a degree of dignity or a form of unpaid drudgery. His room should be his own room, and he should be responsible for its neatness and its adorning. Services which he does regularly for all should receive regular compensation. In all services which the home renders for others he should have a share; this is his training for the larger citizenship and society of service.[36] The boy is a playing animal. Not all homes can be fully equipped with play apparatus. But no parents have a right to choose family quarters as though children needed nothing but meals and beds. The shame of the modern apartment building is that its conveniences are all for passive adults. To attempt to train an active, growing, vigorous, playing human creature in one of these immense filing-cases, where all persons are shot up elevators and filed away in pigeonholes called rooms, is to force him out to the life of the streets. The thoughtless self-indulgence of modern parents, seeking only to live without physical effort, is the cause of much juvenile delinquency.[37] But play for the boy is more than shouting and running in the grass and among trees; he needs books and opportunities for indoor recreation. For the sake of the lad we had better sacrifice the guest-room if necessary, and make way for the punching-bag and the home billiard-table or pool-table; here is a magnet of innocent skilful play to draw him off the street and to bring the boy and his friends under his own roof. If possible his room ought to be the place that is his own, where his friends may come, where he may taste the beginnings of the joys of home-living in receiving them and entertaining them.[38] A workbench in the attic or basement has saved many a boy from the street. Such apparatus truly interferes with the symmetrical plan of a home that is designed for the entertainment of the neighbors; but families must some time choose between chairs and children, between the home for the purpose of the lives in it and the household for the purpose of a salon.[39] § 2. RELIGIOUS SERVICE In the religious family there is valuable opportunity to train youth to one form of participation in the religious life. Whatever the family gives or does for social service, for philanthropic enterprises, for the support of the church or religious work, ought to be, not the gift of one member or of the heads alone, but of the whole family, extending itself in service through the community, the nation, and the world. The form and the amount of the gifts ought to be a matter of family conference and each member ought early to have the opportunity and the means of determining his share in such extension. The child's gifts to the church should not be pennies thrust into his hand as he crosses the threshold of home for the Sunday school, but his own money, from his own account--partly his own direct earnings--appropriated for this or for other purposes by himself and with the advice of his parents. Family councils on forms of participation in ideal activities, by gifts and by service, bind the whole life together and form occasions in which the child is learning life in terms of loving, self-giving service.[40] The boy needs friendship. Not all his needs can be met by the schoolboys whom he may bring into his room, nor can they all be met by his mother's affection. He needs a father. The most serious obstacle to the religious education of boys is that most of them are half-orphans; intellectually and spiritually they have no fathers. The American ideal seems to be that the man shall be the money-maker, the woman the social organizer, and the children shall be committed to hired shepherds or left to shift for themselves. § 3. THE FATHER AND THE BOY No one else can be quite the teacher for the boy that his father ought to be. No man can ever commit to another, still less to some tract or book, the duty of guiding his boy to sanity and consecration in the matter of the sex problems. The first word that needs to be said on this subject is that such problems receive safe and sufficient guidance only in the atmosphere of affection and reverence. Do not attempt to teach this boy of yours as though you were dealing with a class in physiology. The largest thing you can do for him is to quicken a reverence for the body and for the functions of life. By your own attitude, by your own expressions and opinions, lead him to a hatred and abhorrence of the base, filthy, and bestial, to a healthy fear and detestation of all that despoils and degrades manhood, and to a reverence for purity, beauty, and life.[41] Be prepared to give him, on the basis of reverence, the clean, clear facts. Be sure you have the facts. Do not think he is ignorant; he is in a world seething with conversation, stories, pictures, and experiences of evil. The trouble is that his facts are partial, distorted, and unbalanced by positive errors; his knowledge is gained from the street and the school-yard. Only a personal teacher can help him unravel the good from the bad, the true from the false. Do not trust to your own general knowledge; take time to read one of the simple and sane books on this subject.[42] Be ready to lead him aright. Remember this subject has provoked a large number of books, many of which are foolish and others unwholesome. Do not try to deputize your duty to some doubtful book. § 4. FATHERING THE BOY But the boy needs more than instruction on a special subject; he needs personality, he needs the time and thought of, and _personal contact_ with, his father. Men who do not live with boys never know what they lose. And alas, see what the boy misses! He has been his mother's boy up to school age when school takes him and gives him a woman's guidance, while the Sunday school is likely to keep him--for a while only--under the eye of some dear sister who "just loves boys." The system is a vicious one. The lad needs developed masculinity. If he gets it neither in school nor in the home he will find it on the street corner, through the vicious boy-leader of the degrading poolroom or the alleys. The boy who finds his father eager to talk over the game, to discuss the merits of peg-tops, to walk, row, play, and work with him, finds it as simple and natural to talk with him over his moral and religious questionings as it is to talk over the daily happenings. To live with the boy is to find the youth with you. But it is hard work discovering your young men if you lost your boys.[43] § 5. THE GROWING GIRL Almost all that has been said about the boy applies to the girl of the same years. Let _a special plea_ be entered here against the notion that girls are favored when sheltered from a share in the activities of the home. They desire to express their ideals as much as do boys. Much of the so-called craze for amusements is due to the fact that the family is so organized that there is no vent to the ideals there, no chance to have a share in the business of life. Young folks with the sense that "this is our home," not "our parents', but _ours_" bend their energies to its adorning, and find in it the chance to realize some of their passion for beauty and for service.[44] Mothers usually do better than do fathers in the matter of sex instruction. Yet they usually begin too late, long after the little girl has acquired much misleading information in the school. Here, too, the first aim must be to quicken reverence for life, to set up the conception of the beauty and dignity of sex functions before the baser mind of the street has had an opportunity to interpret them in terms of the dirt.[45] Above all, with boys and girls, the whole subject, including marriage and the founding of a family, must ever be treated with dignity and reverence. Foolish parents jest with their girls about their beaux and boast that their little ones are playing at courtship. If they could realize the wonder awakened, followed by pain and then by hardened sensibilities and coarsened ideals, they would sacrifice their jests for the sake of the child's soul. We wonder that youth treats lightly the matter of social purity when we have treated the sacred relations of life as a jest. If this family in which they now live is to be a place of sacred associations, of real religious life, the whole matter of marriage and the family must be treated with reverence. Their practice will not rise above our everyday ideals as expressed in casual conversation and in our own practice. I. References for Study THE BOY W.A. McKeever, _Training the Boy_, Part III. Macmillan, $1.50. _Boy Training_, Part IV. A Symposium. Associated Press. Johnson, _The Problems of Boyhood_. The University of Chicago Press, $1.00. THE GIRL Margaret Slattery, _The Girl in Her Teens_, chaps. iv, vii. Sunday School Times Co., $0.50. Wayne, _Building Your Girl_. McClurg, $0.50. II. Further Reading W.B. Forbush, _The Coming Generation_. Appleton, $1.50. Puffer, _The Boy and His Gang_. Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.00. Irving King, _The High School Age_. Bobbs-Merrill, $1.00. _Building Childhood_, A Symposium. Sunday School Times Co., $1.00. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What are the special needs of the growing boy? 2. What are the things that a boy enjoys in his home? 3. In what way does city life interfere with the natural development of the child? 4. What are some of the natural expressions of religion for a boy? 5. How early should the sex instruction begin? 6. What does a father owe to the boy, and what are the best methods of meeting the duty? 7. What are the normal activities for girls in the home? 8. What are their especial needs? FOOTNOTES: [35] A good brief book on the problem of the adolescent is E.T. Swift, _Youth and the Race_; another, from the school point of view, is Irving King, _The High-School Age_, which has much material of great value to parents. [36] On the various activities of boys see W.A. McKeever, _Training the Boy_. [37] See the notable report by Breckinridge and Abbott, _The Delinquent Child and the Home_. [38] On the gregarious instincts see J.A. Puffer, _The Boy and His Gang_. [39] See the books on manual work given in chap. vii, "Directed Activity." [40] On the religious life of the boy in relation to society and the church see Allan Hoben, _The Minister and the Boy_, and the author's treatment of boys and the Sunday school in _Efficiency in the Sunday School_, chap. xiv; also J. Alexander _et al._, _Training the Boy_, a symposium. [41] On the attitude of reverence in this question read Dr. Cabot's fine essay, _The Christian Approach to Social Morality_. [42] The works of Dr. W.S. Hall, _From Boyhood to Manhood_, for parents' guidance with boys of thirteen to eighteen; E. Lyttleton, _Training of the Young in Laws of Sex_, is excellent for fathers; _Reproduction and Sexual Hygiene_ is a text for older youth to be recommended; also, for reading, N.E. Richardson, _Sex Culture Talks_, D.S. Jordan, _The Strength of Being Clean_. [43] For further studies of the problem of the boy parents would do well to read: _Building Boyhood_, a symposium; W.A. McKeever, _Training the Boy;_ W.B. Forbush, _The Coming Generation;_ W.D. Hyde, _The Quest of the Best_. [44] On activities see W.A. McKeever, _Training the Girl_. [45] On the problem with young children see M. Morley, _The Renewal of Life_; in connection with older girls see K.H. Wayne, _Building Your Girl_. CHAPTER XVI THE NEEDS OF YOUTH Families are for the spiritual development of youth as well as of childhood. The home is for the young people as well as for the younger ones. But the very period when they slip from church school is also the period when they are often lost to the real life of the family. In some measure this is due to the natural development of the social life. The youths go out to work, move forward into enlarging social groups which demand more of their free time. They are learning the life of the larger world of which they are now a part. § 1. THE SCHOOL OF YOUTH But the family is still the home of these young people; normally it is still the most vital educational influence for them. Yet there is no problem more baffling than that of family ministry for, and leadership of, the higher life of youth. It is a short-measure interpretation of the home which thinks of it as only for young children and old folks. The young men and women from sixteen to twenty and over still need training and direction; they need close touch with other lives in affection and in an ideal atmosphere. In a few years they, too, will be home-makers, and here in the home they are very directly learning the art of family life. For youth there are few effective schools, outside the home, other than the streets and the places of commercialized amusement. Even where the other agencies of training are used, such as college, classes, and associations (such as the Y.M.C.A. and the Y.W.C.A.), life, at that period, needs the restraints on selfishness that come from family life, the refining and socializing power of the family group. § 2. SPECIAL NEEDS OF YOUTH What are the special needs of youth upon which the family may base a reasonable program for their higher needs? First, the need of sound physical health. This is a period of physical adjustment. Rapid bodily growth is nearly or quite at an end; new functions are asserting themselves. The new demands for directed activity may, under the ambitious impulses of youth, make undue drafts on the energies. The apparent moodiness that at times characterizes this period may be due to poor health. The moral strain of the period will need sound muscles and good health. Parents who would sit up all night--perhaps involuntarily--when the baby has the colic treat with indifference sickness in youth and too readily assume that the young man or the young woman will outgrow these physical ills. But bodily maladjustment or incapacity has most serious character effects. To live the right life and render high service one needs to be a whole person, with opportunity to give undivided attention and undiminished powers to the struggle of life. Secondly, this is peculiarly the period of the joy of friendships. The social nature must have its food. This young man has discovered that the world consists of something besides things; it is full of people. He is just learning that they are all persons like himself. He enters the era of conscious personal relationships. He would explore the realm of personality. He touches great heights of happiness as other lives are opened to him. It is all new and wonderful, this realm of personality, with its aspects of feeling, thinking, willing, and longing. § 3. MAINTAINING FRIENDSHIP WITH YOUTH Do parents know how hungry their older children are for their friendship? They will never tell us, for this world is too new and strange for facile description; they are always bashful about their hunger for persons until they find the same hunger and joy in us. We imagine that they are indifferent to us; the trouble is we are hidden from them. We seldom give them a chance to talk as friend to friend, not about trifling things, but about life itself and what it means. Perhaps at no point do parents exhibit less ability for sympathetic reconstruction and interpretation of their own lives than here. They recall the pleasures of childhood and provide those pleasures for the children. Why not recall the hunger of eighteen years of age and give these youths the very bread of our own inner selves? Or do we, when they ask this bread, give them the stone of mere provision for their physical needs or the scorpion of careless indulgence in things that debase the tastes? One perplexing phenomenon must not be overlooked: it will often happen that young people pass through a period of what appears to be parental aversion. There will sometimes seem to be suspicion, violent opposition, and even hatred of parents. This is no occasion for despair. It is a stage of development. It is due to the attempt of a will now realizing its freedom under social conditions to adapt itself to the will that has hitherto directed it. To some degree the sex consciousness, which leads to viewing the parents in a new light, may enter in. It may be easily made permanent, however, if parents do not do two things: first, adjust themselves and their methods to the new social freedom of the youth, and, secondly, fling open the doors into their true selves now fully understandable by these men and women. But the family life must make provision for the wider friendships of youth. Somewhere this insatiable appetite for the reality of lives will feed. Groups of friends your young man and woman will find somewhere. If they cannot bring them into your home they will go elsewhere. You can scarce pay any price too high for the opportunity that comes when they are perfectly free to have their friends with them and with you, when home becomes the natural place of the social meetings of youth. If you are afraid of the wear on the furniture you may keep your furniture, but you will lose a life or lives. Here is the opportunity of the home to enter a wider ministry, to be a place of the joy of friendships to many lives. § 4. AT THE DOOR OF A NEW WORLD As through friendships the youth enters and explores this wonderful realm of personality he will find some persons more wonderful than others. Those instincts of which he is largely unconscious will impel him to make a selection. The same law is operative with the young woman. Mating is normally always first on the higher levels of personalities; it first calls itself friendship, nor does it think farther. But father and mother, if they have the least spiritual vision, stand in awe as they see their children taking their first evident steps toward home-making. What an opportunity is theirs! Yet here, as the home faces its duty toward a family yet to be, is just where some of the most serious mistakes are made. This is no time for teasing and jesting, still less for mocking ridicule. If you treat this essentially sacred step as a joke it will not be strange if the young people follow suit and take marriage as a yet larger joke. The home is the place where the home is treated most irreverently. Of course one must not take too seriously those "calf" courtships, prematurely fostered by boys and girls, under the pressure of the high-school tendency to anticipate all of life's riper experiences. But even here jesting and teasing will only tend to confirm and make permanent what would be but a temporary aberration. In that case either silence or kindly, simple advice will help most of all. To young people who think at all courtship has its times of vision, when they stand trembling before the unknown future, when they, with youth's idealism, make high vows and stand on high places. Give them at least the opportunity to enter your inmost self, to find there all the light you can give them and all the memory of your own joys and hopes. Make them feel, though you need not say it, that they are at the threshold of a temple. If to you this is an affair of the spirit it will be a matter of religion to them. Approached in such a temper, many of the practical problems of courtship settle themselves. Take the case of the young man at home. If he knows that you think with him of the high meaning of this experience he will not hesitate to bring the young woman to the home. She will feel your attitude. Upon this level questions of times and seasons, hours in the parlor, and all the matters of their relations will settle themselves. If you treat courtship as a matter of the spirit he will do just what he most of all wants to do, treat this woman who is to be his mate as a person, a spirit, with reverence and love that lifts itself above lust. This is the only ground upon which you can appeal to either in matters of conduct at this time. The conventions of society they will despise; but the inner law speaks to them when the outer letter has no meaning. § 5. THE SOCIAL LIFE We must expect our children to go out into their larger world. The beginning of adolescence is the normal time of their social awakening, their conversion from a nature that turns in upon itself to one that moves out into a world of persons. For them, now, the home group ought to be seen as a society as well as a family, as the social group gathering about a definite ideal and mission into which they should delight to project themselves. The appeal of religion is peculiarly vivid just now, for it involves a recognition of one's self as a person with the power of personal choices and with the opportunity to find association with other persons. The family must aid its young people to see the opportunity which the church offers for ideal social relationships which direct themselves to high and attractive service. § 6. AMUSEMENTS What should the family do about the question of the amusements of young people? Healthy young persons must have recreation. They will seek it on its highest level first and find their way down the facile descent of commercialized amusements only as the higher opportunities are denied them. They would always rather play than be played to; they would rather, where early labor has not sapped vitality, play outdoors than sit in a fetid atmosphere watching tawdry spectacles. But play, the idealization of life's experiences, they will find somewhere. To this need the home must minister by the provision of space, time, opportunity, and the means of play. If through either sloth, selfishness, preoccupation, or a mistaken idea of an empty innocence of life you make recreation and social intercourse impossible in the family, the young people will find it on the street or in the crowd. In the family that plans for recreation and provides facilities and time for young people to play the problem is a minor one. But young people will naturally desire to project themselves into the social amusements of the larger groups. Then we ought to know what those amusements are; we must be able to advise, from actual knowledge, not from hearsay or prejudice, as to the healthful and worth while. The home must insist on the provision in the community for the safe socialization of amusements. The thousands of young girls in the cities, who tramp the pavements down to dance halls, primarily are only seeking the satisfaction of a normal craving; and they, on their way to the dance halls, pass the splendid plants of the schools and the churches, standing dark and idle. Families must develop a public opinion that will demand, for the sake of their young people, a provision for amusement and recreation that, instead of poisoning the life, shall strengthen, dignify, and elevate it. If the demand for clean drinking-water is a proper one, is the demand for healthful food for the life of ideals less so? There can be no doubt of the attitude of any home with the least conscience for character toward all forms of public amusements in which young people are herded promiscuously for the mere purpose of killing time in trivialities. The "white cities" with their glittering lights and baubles are often moral plague colonies. The amusements debase the intellect, blunt the moral sensibilities, and appeal to the baser passions. They are the low-water mark, we may hope, of commercialized amusement. But they remind us that young people demand company and change from the monotony of the day's toil. They ask us as to the provision we are making for young people and challenge us to use their inclinations for good. But besides these "shows" there are many dignified forms of social recreation. Good music is to be heard and good plays are to be seen. The theater, whether of the regular drama or of the motion-picture type, offers a perplexing problem, principally because, in the first place, American people have been too busy conquering a new soil and making a living to give careful thought to the social side of aesthetics and recreation, and, secondly, because the ministry of social recreation has fallen almost entirely under the dominance of the same trend; it has been thoroughly commercialized. We cannot cut the puzzling knot by simply prohibiting all forms of public theatrical entertainment. For one reason, these forms shade off imperceptibly from the church service to the extremes of the vaudeville. But the simple fact is that we no longer indiscriminately class all theaters as baneful and immoral; we are coming to see their potentialities for good. If the young will go, as they will--and ought--to the theater, and if the theater can lift their ideals, parents would do well to guide their children in this matter and to enlist the aid of the theater. It is worth while to come to a sympathetic understanding of the place of the drama and the opera, to see what they have meant in the education of the race and what is the significance, to us, of the fact of the strong dramatic instinct in childhood. Naturally the subject can only be mentioned here and the suggestion be offered that parents take time to cultivate an appreciation of good orchestral and concert music and of the drama. The social life will find outlet in other directions. Young people need our aid to find social groups which will inspire and develop them, especially groups that are serviceful. § 7. THE CALL TO SERVICE This is the period when ideals begin to give direction to the hitherto undirected activity of childhood and youth. Young people are idealists. They see no height too giddy, no task too hard, no dream too roseate, and no hope unattainable. If the times are out of joint they believe they were "born to set them right." Whatever is wrong or imperfect they would take a hand in setting it right. We know we felt that way, but we are loath to believe our children also cherish their high hopes. And so the tendency of the adult is to treat with cynicism the dreams of youth. Often we sedulously endeavor to pervert him to our blasé view of the world; we would have him believe it is a fated heap of cinders instead of an almost new thing to be formed and made perfect. In the home those ideals must be nourished and guided. See that at hand there are the songs and essays of the idealists. Give them Emerson and forget your Nietzsche. Renew your own youth. Get some of Isaiah's passion and let it breathe its fervor on them. Feed by poem, song, story, essay, and conversation the life of ideals. Stop long enough to see the life that like an engine with steam up is surely going somewhere and help it to find an engineer. We call this the period of sowing wild oats. Wild oats are simply energies invested in the wrong places. The dynamic of youth must go somewhere and do something. Fundamentally it would rather go to the good than the bad. We know that this was true of us at that time; why should we assume less of others? Hold to your faith in youth. Fathers who with open eyes and active minds--not with sleepy fatalism--believe in their boys, have boys who believe in them. They wait for leadership. If you have dropped into the easy slippers of indifference to social reform and other types of ideal service, get back into the fight again beside this new man of yours. They wait for friendship in this matter of their ideals and their service. At any cost keep open house of the heart. They wait for a life-task. This is the period of vocational choice. It will make a tremendous difference to this life whether his work shall be merely a matter of making a living or shall be his chance to invest life in accordance with his new ideals. Shall he go out to be merely one of the many wage-earners or salary-winners to whom life is a great orange from which he will get all the juice if he can, regardless of who else goes thirsty? Or shall he see an occupation as his chance to pay back to today and tomorrow that which he owes to yesterday? as his chance to give the world himself? He need not be a minister or a missionary to make his life a ministry; he will find life, he will be a religious person in no other way than as his dominating motive shall be to find the fulness of life in order to have a full life to give to God's world. The answer will depend on what life means to you, how you are interpreting it, and how you aid him in thinking of it and making his high choice. You will have abundant opportunity to show what it is to you--as you have been doing all along--by your daily attitude; you will have abundant opportunity to talk it all over, for he will certainly discuss his trade or profession with you. The family must give to the life of the new day makers of families to whom life means a chance to realize the God-vision of the world. I. References for Study H.C. King, _Personal and Ideal Elements in Education_, pp. 105-27. Macmillan, $1.50. E.D. Starbuck, _The Psychology of Religion_, chaps., xvi-xxi. Scribner, $1.50. II. Further Reading 1. ON YOUTH C.R. Brown, _The Young Man's Affairs_. Crowell, $1.00. Wayne, _Building the Young Man_. McClurg, $0.50. Swift, _Youth and the Race_. Scribner, $1.50. Wilson, _Making the Most of Ourselves_. McClurg, $1.00. 2. ON RECREATIONS L.C. Lillie, _The Story of Music and the Musicians_. Harper, $0.60. Gustav Kobbe, _How to Appreciate Music_. Moffat, $1.50. P. Chubb, _Festivals and Plays_. Harper, $2.00. _Dramatics in the Home, Children in the Theater, Problems of Dramatic Plays_, monographs published by the American Institute of Child Life. Philadelphia, Pa. L.H. Gulick, _Popular Recreation and Public Morality_. American Unitarian Association. Free. M. Fowler, _Morality of Social Pleasures_. Longmans, $1.00. Addams, _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets_. Macmillan, $1.25. The moving-picture or cinema presents a problem to parents; see Herbert A. Jump, _The Religious Possibilities of the Motion Picture_ (a pamphlet) and _Vaudeville and Moving Pictures_, a report of an investigation in Portland, Ore. _Reed College Record, No. 16._ III. Topics for Discussion 1. What are the reasons why young people leave home? 2. Where do the young men and young women whom you know spend their evenings? Why is this the case? 3. Mention the special needs of young people in the family. 4. What are the difficulties in maintaining the friendship of our young people? 5. Have you ever seen evidences of the phase mentioned as aversion to parents? 6. What are some common mistakes of treating the subject of courtship? 7. What are the special social needs of young people? 8. What is the religious significance of the period of social awakening? 9. What are the special dangerous tendencies in public amusements? 10. How does the social instinct express itself in social service? 11. What of the relation of "wild oats" to directed work? 12. What may be done for vocational direction in the family? CHAPTER XVII THE FAMILY AND THE CHURCH If the family is engaged in the development of religious character through its life and organization, it ought somehow to find very close relations with the other great social institution engaged in precisely the same work, the church. Both churches and homes are agencies of religious education. In a state which separates the ecclesiastical and the civil functions, where freedom of conscience is fully maintained, these two are the only religious agencies engaged in education. As the family is the child's first society, so the local church should be the child's second, larger, wider society. The home constitutes the first social organization for life, the one in which growing lives prepare for the wider social living. Then should come the next forms of social organization, the school and the church, each grouping lives together and preparing them, by actual living, for wider circles of life. § 1. RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND HOME Many of the perplexing problems which arise in the family, as an institution, in respect to its relations to the church, and as to the developing relations of children to the church, would be largely solved if we could get an understanding of the fundamental relations of these two institutions. The institutional difficulties occur because these relations appear to be competitive. Here is the family with its interests in bread-winning, comforts, recreations, and pleasures, and on the opposite side, making apparently competing claims for money, time, interest, and service, stands the church. That is the picture unconsciously forming in many minds. There is more or less feeling that money given to the church is taken from the family and impoverishes it to that degree, that time given to the church is grudgingly spared from the pleasures of the home, that it is always a moot question which of the two institutions shall win in the conflict of interests. But the family must take for granted the church as its next of kin. The home must not by its attitude and conversation assume that the problems of the relationship of children to the church arise largely from the opposite concept, as though these were rival institutions. We carelessly think of the children as those who, now belonging to us, are to be persuaded to give their allegiance to another institution, the interests of which are in a different sphere. We think of the church as an independent thing and therefore feel quite free to discuss its merits or shortcomings and to criticize it if it fails to meet our standards, just as we would criticize the baker for soggy or short-weight bread; to our minds, the church is something set off in society, separate from the homes, as much so as the schools or the library or a fraternal lodge. This thought of the church as a separate something, having an existence independent of ourselves and our families, leads us farther astray and makes yet more difficult the development of right relations between the church and the children. If the church is a thing apart we can analyze its imperfections as we might stand and ridicule a regiment of raw recruits. It marches by while we stand on the curb. But here, surely, is one of the simplest and most easily forgotten truisms: the church is no more than our own selves associated for certain purposes. If the church fails in an adequate ministry for children, shall we condemn it as we would a bridge that failed to carry a reasonable load? We do but condemn ourselves. If my church is not fit to send my children to, then I must help to make it fit. Before falling back on the lazy man's salve of caustic ridicule, before taking the seat of the scornful, before setting in the child's mind an aversion to this institution, based on my opinion, let me be sure I have done all that lies in my power to better it. True, I am only one; but surely, where so many family tables are each Sunday devoted to finding fault with the church and its services, I can find many others who will aid in at least stimulating a sense of personal responsibility for any incompleteness in the church. The family cannot afford to take the attitude of hostile criticism, for it is thus fighting its first and most natural ally, the one other institution engaged in its own special work. If the forces for spiritual character be divided, how easily do the opposing forces enter in and occupy! The family needs the support of the wider public opinion of the church, insisting on the supremacy of righteousness. The family needs the co-operation of the church in its task of developing religious lives. The family needs the power of this larger social body controlling social conditions and making them contributory to character purposes. The family needs the stimulus which a larger group can give to children and young people. This does not mean that we must never criticize the church. It is not set off in a niche protected from the acid of secular tongues and minds. Ministers of the gospel are unduly resentful of criticism, perhaps because, after they leave the seminary, no one has a fair opportunity to controvert their publicly stated opinions. But the church needs the cleansing powers of kindly, wise, creative criticism. Anyone can find fault, but he is wise who can show us a better way. This church is the family's ally; it is our business to aid her to greater effectiveness. The new church for our own day awaits the services of the men of today. The purpose of the family is the basis of alliance with the church. As in every other relation and purpose of the home, so here: the dominant factor is the conscious function of the home and family. If the home is really a religious institution it will seek natural alliance with all other truly religious institutions. Ideally, what is a church but a group of families associated for religious purposes? Is not the church simply a number of families co-operating in the ideal purposes of each family, the development of the lives of religious persons and the control of social conditions for the sake of that purpose? Without entering into disputation as to the relationship of little children to the church, is there not just this relation to the human society called the church, that it is a grouping of families for the purpose of the divine family? § 2. THE FAMILY IDEAL IN THE CHURCH Would there be any question as to the naturalness of the relation of our children to the church if the family ideal so controlled our thinking as to saturate theirs? Is not this the present need, that both family and church shall conceive the latter in family terms? By this is meant, not simply that we shall think of what is called "a family church," a church into which we succeed in projecting our families in a fair degree of integrity, but that we shall think of the organization and mission of the church in terms of family life and of the ideal of the divine family. Keeping in mind the general definition already given of a family as persons associated for the development of spiritual persons, let us hold the church to that same ideal; the lives of persons associated in the broadest fellowship that includes both God and man for the purposes of spiritual personality. The church then should be the expression of that family of which Jesus often spoke, the family that calls God Father and man brother. Closer and more helpful relations between family and church follow where the principles of the family prevail in the latter. The family is an ideal democracy because it exists primarily for persons. It places the value of persons first of all. So with the true church; it will exist to grow lives to spiritual fulness, and to this end all buildings, adornments, exercises, teachings, and organizations will be but as tools, as means serving that purpose. As the family sees its house, table, and activities designed to personal ends, so will the church. In an institution existing to grow lives, the great principle of democracy and of the family will prevail, viz., that to the least we owe the most. Just as the home gives its best to the little child, so will the church place the child in the midst. Just as the home exists for the child and thus holds to itself all other lives, so will the church some day exist for the little ones and so hold and use all other lives. The prime difficulty of relating the children in our families to the average church lies in the fact that they are children, while the church is an adult institution. Its buildings are designed for adults--save in rare and happy exceptions;[46] its services are designed for adults; it has a more or less extraneous institution called a school for the children. The church spends its money for adults; it compasses sea and land to make one proselyte and coerce him back in old age, and allows the many that already as children are its own to drift away. It often fails to see that if it is to grow lives it must grow them in the growing period. There still remain many churches that must be converted from the selfishness of adult ministry and entertainment to self-giving service for the development of spiritual lives and, especially, for the development of such lives through childhood and youth. They must hear again the Master's voice regarding "these little ones," regarding the significance of the child. And all must be loyal to his picture of his Kingdom as a family and must, therefore, do what all true families do, become child-centric. A church in which children occupy the same place that they hold in an ideal family will have no difficulty in finding a place for the children. It will be a natural and unnoticed transition from the family life in the home to the family life in the church. § 3. A PLACE FOR ALL IN THE CHURCH The family may help directly toward the realization of this ideal by an insistence on the family conception and the family program in the church. Bring the children with you to the church and seek to find there a place for each as natural as the place he occupies in the home. If the church makes no such provision, if it has no place for children, in the name of our wider spiritual family relationships we must demand it. Let the voice of the family be heard insisting on suitable buildings and specially designed worship for child-life--suitable forms of service and activity. Let the thought that goes to furnish these in the home be carried over to provide them in the church. Parents may help their children to find right relations with the church by their attitude toward it as the larger family group. To think and act toward this institution as our home, the wider home of the families, is to establish similar habits of thought in children. Such a concept is not always easy to maintain; the church includes many of different habits of thought from ourselves, divergent tastes and habits of general life. Here one must exercise the family principle of responsibility toward the weaker and immature. This family, the church, just like our own family, exists, not to minister to our tastes, but that we may all minister to others. The principal service which the family may render to the church is, then, to foster an interpretation and view of the latter which will relate it more closely to the home and will make it evidently natural for child-life to move out into this wider social organization for religious culture and service. Surely this should be the attitude toward membership in the church, whether that membership begins theoretically in infancy or in maturer years; the child is trained to see the church as his normal society, the group into which he naturally moves and in which he finds his opportunity for fellowship and service. The family may well hold that relationship steadily before its members. In childhood the child is in the church in the fellowship of those who learn. The Sunday school is the spiritual family in groups discovering the way of the religious life and the art of its service. The fellowship grows closer and the sense of unity deepens as the child's relationship passes over from the passive to the active, from the involuntary to the voluntary--just as it does in the home--and develops, as the child comes into social consciousness, into a recognition of himself as belonging to a social organization for specific purposes. § 4. CHILD UNITY WITH THE CHURCH At some time every child of church-attending parents will want to know whether he "belongs to the church." One must be very careful here, regardless of the ecclesiastical practice, to show the child that he is essentially one with this body, this religious family. He may be too young to subscribe his name to its roll, but he belongs at least to the full measure of unity appreciable by his mind. He must not be permitted to think of himself as an outsider. Indeed, no matter what our theology may hold, every religious parent believes that his children belong to God. Do they not also belong to the church in at least the sense that the church is responsible for their spiritual welfare? The sense of unity must be developed. Writing the child's name on the "Cradle Roll" of the church school may help. Assuming, as he develops, that he is a part of this spiritual family, naturally expecting that he will have an increasing share in its life, will help more. Parents who dedicate their children to God pass on to them the stimulus of that dedication. A church service of dedication is likely to impress them with a feeling of unity with the church; seeing other children so dedicated they know that a similar occasion occurred in their own early lives. The forms of relationship must develop with the nature of the child. The church needs not only a graded curriculum of instruction but a graded series of relationships by which children, step by step, come into closer conscious social unity, each step determined by their developing needs and capacities. It is easy to say that the responsibility lies with the church to provide these methods of attachment. But the church we have been sketching is a congeries of families, after all, and it will do just what these families, particularly the parents in them, stimulate it to do. § 5. INCIDENTAL DIFFICULTIES But what of those instances in which parents are convinced that the church does not furnish a normal and healthy atmosphere for the child's spiritual life? There are churches where the Sunday school is simply a training school in insubordination, confusion, and irreverence, or where religion is so taught as to cultivate superstition and to lead eventually either to a painful intellectual reconstruction or to a barren denial of all faith. There are churches of one type so devoted to the entertainment of adults, to the ministry to the pride of the flesh and the lust of things, that a child is likely to be trained to pious pride and greed, or of another type, in which religion is a matter of verbiage, tradition, and unethical subterfuge. Parents must be true to their responsibilities. The family is the child's first religious institution. Fathers and mothers are not only the first and most potent quickeners and guides in the religious life, but they are primarily responsible for the selection of all other stimuli to that life. Under the drag of our own indifference we must not withhold from the child the good he would get even from the church we do not particularly enjoy; neither dare we, for fear of criticism or ostracism, force the child under influences which, in the name of religion, would chill and prevent his spiritual development, would twist, dwarf, or distort it. Responsibility to the spiritual purpose of the family is far higher than any responsibility to a church. The churches are ordered for the souls of men. What shall we do in the family when the sermon is always tediously dull? Don't try to force children to go to sleep in church; they will never get over the habit. Insist that there shall be a service suitable for them parallel to the adult service of worship.[47] Next, try to overcome the present popular obsession regarding the sermon. The church is more than an oratory station. The sermon is only one incident. Many criticisms of the sermon indicate that the critic measures the preacher by ability to entertain, that he attends church to be entertained. If that is essentially your attitude, you cannot complain if your children are dissatisfied unless they too are entertained according to their childish appetites. When the sermon is poor, put it where it belongs proportionately and enlarge on the many good features of church fellowship and service. In a word, let the church be to the family that larger home where families live together their life of fellowship and service in the spirit and purpose of religion and where there is a natural place for everyone. I. References for Study H.W. Hulbert, _The Church and Her Children_, chaps. i-v. Revell, $1.00. H.F. Cope, _Efficiency in the Sunday School_, chaps. xiv-xvi. Doran, $1.00. George Hodges, _Training of Children in Religion_, chap. xiv. Appleton, $1.50. II. Further Reading A. Hoben, _The Minister and the Boy_. The University of Chicago Press, $1.00. E.C. Foster, _The Boy and the Church_. Sunday School Times Co., $0.75. G.A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_, Part II. Revell, $1.35. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What are the special common interests of church and family? 2. What are the fundamental relationships of the two? 3. What conception of the church ought to be fostered in the children's minds? 4. When is criticism of the church unwise? 5. What changes might be made in church life for the sake of the children? 6. What changes would bring the church and the home closer together? 7. What should be the children's conception of unity with the church? 8. Should children attend, in family groups, the church service of worship? 9. Does the plan of a short service for children meet the need? FOOTNOTES: [46] See a pamphlet on _Church School Buildings_ (free) published by the Religious Education Association; also H.F. Evans, _The Sunday-School Building and Its Equipment_. [47] See the author's suggestion for the Sunday school in _Efficiency in the Sunday School_, chap. xv. CHAPTER XVIII CHILDREN AND THE SCHOOL Wise parents will know the character of the influences affecting their children at all times. At no time can their responsibility be delegated to others. There is a tendency to think that when children go to school the family has a release from responsibility. But the school is simply the community--the group of families--syndicating its efforts for the formal training of the young. Every family ought to know what the community is doing with its children. The school belongs to all; it is not the property of a board, nor a private machine belonging to the teaching force; it belongs to us and we owe a social duty as well as a family obligation to understand its work and its influence on the children. Parents ought to visit the school. Wise principals and teachers will welcome them, setting times when visits can best be made. The visitors come, not as critics, but as citizens and parents. The principal benefits will be an acquaintance with the teachers of our children and a better understanding of the conditions under which the children work for the greater part of the day. By far the larger number of teachers most earnestly desire character results from their work. It will help them to know that we are interested in what they are doing. § 1. HOME AND SCHOOL CO-OPERATION Parents and teachers, both desiring spiritual results, can find means of co-operation. Parent-teacher clubs and associations have done much to bring the home and the school together. Meeting regularly in the evening, so that fathers, too, can attend, gives opportunity to work out a common understanding to raise the spiritual aims of the school, and to discover means by which the families may aid in securing better conditions for school work. One of the most important considerations relates to the moral effect of the school life and environment. We are committed in this country to the principle that the public school cannot teach religion, but this by no means relieves it of responsibility for moral character. The family needs this ally. Children expect instruction in the school and they feel keenly the power of its ideals and the standards established by its methods and requirements. The family and the school greatly need to co-ordinate their efforts here to the end that there may be under way in both an orderly program for the moral training of children. § 2. THE SCHOOL TEACHING PARENTS The school may help the home if arrangements are made for parents to meet regularly and receive instruction in those forms of moral training which can best be given at home. This is one method of solving the vexed question of sex instruction. Many hesitate as to the wisdom of such instruction in schools; but no one doubts that it ought to be and could be given in families but for the fact that parents are both ignorant of what to tell and indifferent to the matter. It may be that some day the state will not only say that the child must go to school, but also that every parent intrusted with children must either prove ability to train and instruct in these and other matters or go to school to obtain the necessary training. The state would not go beyond its province if it required ignorant parents--and that means most of us in matters of moral training--to go to school and learn our business. And without waiting for such compulsion the school may now offer opportunity for all parents to obtain the desired information. Teachers are especially trained to an understanding of child-nature and to methods of pedagogy; they are prepared to teach many things we ought to know; why should not the family obtain the advantage of such expert knowledge? The school would also be within its province if it undertook to stimulate the indifferent parents, both rich and poor, to an appreciation of the educational task and opportunity of the home. Each institution greatly needs the other. The school reaches all the children of all the people; might it not be made a larger means of helping all the parents of all the children to quickened moral responsibility and to greater educational efficiency? § 3. CONTROLLING SCHOOL CONDITIONS The family ought to know the conditions at the school outside the recitation or working hours. Few parents have any conception of the power of the playground over moral character. Perhaps a smaller number realize how dangerous are some of the elements at work there. Play of itself is immensely valuable, but play means playfellows, and some of these are simply purveyors of indecency and moral contagion in conversation and act. We are required to send our children to school; we have a right to demand freedom from moral contagion. Do you know what goes on in secret places on the grounds? Do you know that the vilest ideas and phrases are current in pictures, cards, on scraps of paper, and in handwriting on walls, not only in the high schools, but often among children of from six to twelve years of age? This is too large a subject to be developed properly here. It is one familiar to all wide-awake school men and women and ought to be equally so to the parents of children. Where the school combats this evil the home should intelligently aid; where the school is indifferent the family dare not rest until either the indifference is quite dispelled or the indifferent dismissed. Do not expect to get the facts concerning these suggested conditions by inquiry among your children. They are reticent, naturally, on such matters when talking with adults; besides, the sense of school honor holds them to silence. If they tell you voluntarily, you are happy in their free confidence. Do not betray it; simply let it lead you to make further inquiry at the school from the authorities and stimulate you to insist that, for the sake of the spiritual good of the young, the school must furnish conditions of moral health. I. References for Study Ella Lyman Cabot, _Voluntary Help to the Schools_, chaps. vii, viii. Houghton Mifflin Co., $0.60. W.A. Baldwin, "The Home and the Public Schools," _Religious Education_, February, 1912. $0.65. II. Further Reading M. Sadler, _Moral Instruction and Training in Schools_. 2 vols. Longmans. John Dewey, _The School and Society_. The University of Chicago Press, $1.00. Smith, _All the Children of All the People_. Macmillan, $1.50. G.A. Coe, "Virtue and the Virtues," _Religious Education_, February, 1912. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What ought parents to know about public-school life? 2. In visiting a school what may the parent do to acquire information in the proper way? 3. How may the home co-operate with the school? 4. What degree of instruction in morals ought the school to give? 5. In what way does the school best help in moral training? 6. What do you know about the conditions on the playgrounds of your own school? CHAPTER XIX DEALING WITH MORAL CRISES Moral crises arise in every family. Deeply as we may desire to maintain an even tenor of character-development, in harmony and quietness, occasions will bring either our own imperfections or those of our children--or of our neighbors' children--to a focus and throw them in high relief on the screen. Progress comes not alone in perpetual placidity. When temper slips from control, when angry passions rule, when the spirit under discipline rebels, when a course of petty wrongdoing comes to a head, when secret sins are discovered, and when we suddenly find ourselves confronted with a tragic problem in the higher life, it is still important to remember that the crisis is just as truly a part of the educational process as is the orderly, gradual method of development. A moral crisis is an experience in which our acts are such, or have such results, that they are thrown out in a white light that reveals their inner meaning, so that they are sharply discerned for their spiritual and character values. Then in that light courses of conduct have to be valued anew, reconsidered, and determined. Two courses are open in times of moral crisis in the family. One is to bend our efforts to settle the situation, to proceed on the policy of getting through with the crisis as quickly as possible, to seek to remove the pain rather than to cure the ill. The other is to regard the crisis as a revealer of truth, to use it as a valuable opportunity, one in which moral qualities of acts are so easily evident, so keenly felt, as to make it a time of spiritual quickening, a chance for the best sort of training. § 1. THE PROMISE OF IMPERFECTION The perfect child is the one unborn; shortly after his birth he begins to take after his father. The perfect character does not exist in a child. It is as unreasonable to expect it as it would be to look for the perfect tree in the sapling. _Character comes by development_; it is not born full-blown. Childhood implies promise, development. Therefore parents must not be surprised at evidences that their children are pretty much like their neighbors' children. Outside of the old-time Sunday-school-library book the child who never lied, lost his temper, sulked, or made a disturbance never existed and never will, except in a psychopathic ward in some hospital. Could anything be sadder than the picture of the anemic, pulseless automaton who is always "good"? When parents speak of the "natural depravity" of their children, they are commonly using terms they do not understand. What they mean is the natural immaturity of their children, a condition of imperfection in which they may rejoice, as it shows the possibility of development. The child is in the world to grow to the fulness of all his powers. The powers of the higher life are to develop as truly as those which we call physical and mental. The family is the great human culture-bed for the development of those powers, their training-field and school. Does someone say, concerning a little child, "But we thought he had the grace of God in his heart, that he had been born again and would no more do wrong"? True, he may be born again, but there is a world of difference between being born and being grown up. From one to the other, in the realm of character, is a long and tedious process, with many a stumble, many a fall, many a hard knock, and many a lesson to be learned. Every moral crisis is part of the struggle, the experience and training that may make toward the matured life. You have no more right to expect your child to be a mature Christian than you had to expect him to be born six feet tall. A moral crisis is a lesson. The important consideration for the parent, then, is to see the wrongdoing of the child as an experience in his moral upward climb; not as a fall alone, but as part of the acquisition of the art of standing upright and walking forward. Dealing with such an occasion one may well say to himself or herself, "This is my chance to guide, to make this experience a light that shines forward on the way for the child's weak feet and to strengthen him to walk in it." For is it not true with us that practically all we really know has come by the organizing of our different experiences? Think whether it is so or not. And is it not to be the same with the child? We can study here only a few typical moral crises, perhaps those that give greatest perplexity to parents. They cannot be successfully met as isolated instances, but must be seen as a part of the whole educational process. Those to whom the development of character is a reality will watch tendencies and train them before they focalize in crises. § 2. THE COLLISION OF WILLS Parenthood presents tremendous moral strains; it is rife with temptations. It offers a little world for autocracy to vaunt itself. The martinets command, often totally blind to the changing nature of the subjects as they pass from the submissive to the rebellious. One day the parents wake up to realize that they are not the only ones possessed of will. When to your Yes the child says No, while you may not applaud, you ought to rejoice; you have discovered a will, you have found developing in your child the central and essential quality of character. Forgiveness will be hard to find and recovery still more difficult if you make the mistake of attempting to crush that will. The child needs it and you will need its co-operation. The power to see the possibility of choice of action, to know one's self as a choosing, willing entity, able to elect and follow one among many courses of action, is a distinctive, Godlike quality. The opposition of wills is like the birth of a new personality, a new force thrown out into the world to meet and struggle and adjust itself with all other persons. When the collision comes, take a few long breaths before you move; take time to think what it means. _Keep your temper._ Do not break before the other will by an exhibition of chagrin that your authority is defied. From now on the basis of any real authority is being transformed from force and tradition to a moral plane. Therefore, first, be sure you are right in your direction or request. You cannot afford to make the child think that authority is more important than justice, that might makes right in the social order of the home. If you do he will accept the lesson and practice it all his life. Remember the right has many elements. There is the child's side to consider. As soon as he can decide on courses of action his ideas of justice are developing. To do him an injustice is to help make him an unjust man. Secondly, help him to see the right. This will involve sympathetic explanations of your reasons which you may have to give in the form of simple arguments or of a story, perhaps from your own experience, or by an appeal or reference to the wider knowledge of the older children. It may be necessary to let him learn in the effective school of experience. Other means failing, allow him to discover the pain and folly of his own way when it is wrong. Of course this does not apply if he is minded, for instance, to imbibe carbolic acid. But even in such circumstances it would be better to prove his unwisdom by demonstration--as a drop of acid on a finger tip--than to let the issue rest on blind authority. One such demonstration gives a new, intelligible basis to your authority in other cases. Thirdly, help him to will the right. Help him to feel that he must choose for himself, to recognize the power of the will and the grave responsibilities of its use. He is entering the realm of the freedom of the will. Every act of deliberate choice, with your aid, in a sense of the seriousness of choice, goes to establish the character that does not drift, is not dragged, and will not go save with its whole selfhood of feeling, knowing, choosing, and willing. § 3. ANGER An angry child is a child in rebellion. Rebellion is sometimes justifiable. Anger may be a virtue. You would not take this force out of your child any more than you would take the temper out of a knife or a spring. Anger manifested vocally or muscularly is the child's form of protest. But, established as a habit of the life, it is altogether unlovely. Who does not know grown-up people who seem to be inflexibly angry; either they are in perpetual eruption or the fires smoulder so near the surface that a pin-prick sets them loose. Usually a study of their cases will show either that the attitude of angry opposition to everything in life has been established and fostered from infancy or that it was acquired in the adolescent period. The angry, antisocial person is most emphatically an irreligious person; there can be no love of his brother man where that spirit is. The home is the place where this ill can best be met and cured, for it deals most directly with the infant, and for the adolescent it is the best school of normal social living. Let no one think the angry demonstrations of little children are negligible or that they have nothing to do with the religious character of the child or the adult. They are important for at least two reasons, first, as furnishing the angry one opportunity to acquire self-control, to master his own spirit, and, secondly, because they disturb the peace and interfere with the well-being of others. It is possible to set up habits of anger in the cradle. In the first instance the infant encountered opposition in the cradle and proceeded to conquer it by yelling, and so, day after day, he found anger the only route to the satisfaction of his desires. He grew to take all life in terms of a bitter struggle and every person became his natural enemy. In the case of the adolescent it sometimes happens that a boy or a girl will make a very tardy passage through the normal experience of social aversion, the time when they seem to suspect all other people, to flee from social intercourse and to sulk, to want to be off in a corner alone. This is a normal phase of adolescent adjustment, coming at thirteen or fourteen, but it ought to pass quickly. A few allow this period to become lengthened; they fail to regain social pleasure and soon drift into habits of social enmity. This may be due to scolding at this period, or to a lack of healthful friendships. § 4. METHODS OF DEALING WITH ANGER It is evident that talking, lecturing, or arguing with the angry infant will not help the case. He may feel the emotion of your anger but misses any shreds of your logic. Parents ought first to ask, Why is an infant angry? With the infant, with whom there are no pretensions or affections, there is commonly a simple cause of his rebellion. The baby yelling like an Indian and looking like a boiled lobster is neither possessed of an evil spirit nor giving an exhibition of natural depravity; he is lying on a pin, wearing the shackles of faddish infant fashions, or he is trying to tell you of disturbances in the department of the interior. Furnish physical relief at once and you put a period to the display of what you call temper; try to subdue him by threats and you only discover that his lungs are stronger than your patience; you yield at last and he has learned that temper properly displayed has its reward, that the way to get what he wants is to upset the world with anger. That is one of life's early lessons; it is one of the first exercises in training character. _Consider the future._ Each family is a social unit, a little world. Within this world are in miniature nearly all the struggles and experiences of the larger world of later life. It is a world which prepares children for living by actually living. The qualities that are needed in a world of men and women and affairs are developed here. When young children exhibit anger parents must ask, How would this quality, under similar circumstances, serve in the business of mature life? Anger is an essential quality of the good and forceful character. Somehow we have to learn to be angry and not sin. Anger is the emotional effect of extreme discontent and opposition. For the stern fight against evil and wrong, life needs this emotional reinforcement. But it must be purified, it must be controlled. Like the dynamic of steam, it must be confined and guided. Love must free it from hatred; self-control must guide it. When children are angry, help them to think out the causes for the feeling. Instead of denouncing or deriding them, stop to analyze the situation for yourself. It may be that they are entirely justified, that not to be angry would be an evidence of weakness, of base standards of conduct or conditions, or of weak reactions to life's stimuli. Always help the child to see why he is angry. Perhaps the situation is one he may remedy himself. Is he angry because the top-string is tangled? Stay with him until he has learned that he can remove the cause of his own temper. Step by step, dealing with each excitement of anger, _train him in self-control_. Self-mastery is a matter of learning to direct and apply our own powers at will. It is developed by habitual practice. It is the largest general element in character. The temper that smashes a toy is the temper that kills a human being when it opposes our will, but it is the same temper that, being controlled, patiently sets the great ills of society right, fights and works to remove gigantic wrongs and to build a better social order. That patience which is self-control saves the immensely valuable dynamic of the emotions and harnesses them to Godlike service. And that patience is not learned at a single lesson, not acquired in a miraculous moment; it is learned in one little lesson after another, in every act and all the daily discipline of home and school and street. Children must learn to qualify and govern temper by love in order to save it from hatred. When the irritating object is a personal one the rights, the well-being, of that one must gain some consideration. There will be but little feeling of altruism in children under thirteen; we must not expect it; but egoism is one way to an understanding of the rights, the feelings, and needs of others. The child can put himself in the other's place. He is capable of affection; he loves and is willing to sacrifice for those he loves, and when he is angry with them, or with strangers, he must be helped to think of them as persons, as those he loves or may love. He also can be aided to see the pain of hatred, the misery of the life without friends, the joy of friendships. Anger against persons is the opportunity for learning the joy of forgiveness and, if the occasion warrants, the dignity and courage of the apology. The self-control, consideration, and social adjustment involved must be learned early in life. It is part of that great lesson of the fine art of living with others. Little children must be habituated to acknowledging errors and acts of rudeness or temper with suitable forms of apology. Above all, they must, by habit, learn how great is the victory of forgiveness.[48] I. References for Study _The Problem of Temper._ Pamphlet. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. E.P. St. John, _Child Nature and Child Nurture_, chap. v. Pilgrim Press, $0.50. J. Sully, _Children's Ways_, chap. x. Appleton, $1.25. II. Further Reading Patterson Du Bois, _The Culture of Justice_, chaps. i-v. Dodd, Mead & Co., $0.75. E.H. Abbott, _The Training of Parents_. Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.00. M. Wood-Allen, _Making the Best of Our Children_. 2 vols. McClurg, $1.00 each. H.Y. Campbell, _Practical Motherhood_. Longmans, $2.50. III. Topics for Discussion 1. What special opportunities are offered in the rise of moral crises? 2. Do we tend to expect too high a development of character in children? 3. How early in life do we have manifestations of a conscious will? 4. What constitutes the importance of early crises of the will? 5. What are probably the causes when children habitually defy authority? 6. Is anger always a purely mental condition? 7. What importance have the angry demonstrations of infants? 8. What is the relation of the control of temper to the rightly developed life? FOOTNOTES: [48] See Gow, _Good Morals and Gentle Manners_, chap. viii. CHAPTER XX DEALING WITH MORAL CRISES (_Continued_) § 1. QUARRELS A child who never quarrels probably needs to be examined by a physician; a child who is always quarreling equally needs the physician. In the first there is a lack of sufficient energy so to move as to meet and realize some of life's oppositions; in the other there is probably some underlying cause for nervous irritability. It is perfectly natural for healthy people to differ; in childhood's realm, where the values and proportions of life are not clearly seen, where social adjustments have not been acquired, the differences in opinions, as in possessions, lead to the expression of feeling in sharp and emphatic terms. Rivalry and conflict are natural to the young animal. Children do not wilfully enter into conflicts any more than adults; they are only less diplomatic in their language, more direct, and more likely to follow the word with attempts at force. In few things do parents need more patience than in dealing with children's quarrels. First, seek to determine quietly the merits of the cause; but do not attempt to pronounce a verdict. It is seldom wise to act as judge unless you allow the children to act as a jury. But ascertain whether the quarrel is an expression somewhere of anger against injustice, wrong, or evil in some form. Sometimes their quarrels have as much virtue as our crusades. It is a sad mistake to quench the feeling of indignation against wrong or of hatred against evil. A boy will need that emotional backing in his fights against the base and the foes of his kind. While rejoicing in his feeling, show him how to direct it, train him to discriminate between hatred of wrong and bitterness toward the wrongdoer. Help him to see the good that comes from loving people, no matter what they do. Our methods of dealing with a quarrel will do more to develop their sense of justice than all our decisions can. Be sure to get each one to state all the facts; insist on some measure of calmness in the recital. Keep on sifting down the facts until by their own statements the quarrel is seen stripped of passion and standing clear in its own light. Usually that course, when kindly pursued and followed with sympathy for the group, with a saving sense of humor, will result in the voluntary acknowledgment of wrong. The boys--or girls--have for the first time seen their acts, their words, their course, in a light without prejudice. They are more ready to confess to being mistaken than are we when convinced against our wishes. When no acknowledgment of wrong is proffered voluntarily, we must still not offer a verdict. Put the case to the contestants and let them settle it. Listen, as a bystander, coming in only when absolutely necessary to insist on exact statements of fact. That course should be excellent training in clear thinking, in the duty of seeing the other man's side, in the deliberation that saves from unwise accusations and the serious quarrels of later life. Teach children to think through their differences. The perpetually petulant child, bickering with all others, should be taken to a physician. Get him right nervously, physically, first. He is out of harmony with himself and so cannot find harmony with others. When the condition of habitual bickering seems to afflict all the children in the family, it cannot be settled by attributing it to a mysterious dispensation of natural depravity. The probability is that the home life is without harmony and full of discord, that the parents are themselves petulant and more anxious to assert their separate opinions than to find unity of action. Nothing is more effective to teach children peaceful living than to see it constantly before them in their parents. A harmonious home seldom has quarrelsome children. Such harmony is a matter of organization and management of affairs as much as of our own attitude. Some children are educated to a life of quarrels by being trained in the family that spoils them. The single child is at a great disadvantage; he occupies the throne alone. His home life becomes a mere series of spokes radiating from himself. When he finds the world ordered otherwise, he quarrels with it and tries to rearrange the spokes into a new, self-centric social order. Whatever the number of children may be, each one must learn to live with other lives, to adjust himself to them. Neighboring social play and activities are the chance for this. Do not try to keep Algernon in a glass case; he needs the world in which he will have to live some day. § 2. FIGHTING The best of men are likely to have a secret satisfaction in their boys' fights, and the bravest of mothers will deplore them. The fathers know how hard are the knocks that life is going to give; the mothers hope that the boys can be saved from blows. A man's life is often pretty much of a fight, every day struggling in competition and rivalry; we have not yet learned the lesson of co-operation, and we still tend to think of business as a battlefield. Something in us calls for fighting; we have to use the utmost strength at our command to fight the evil tendencies of our own hearts; often we rejoice in life as a conflict. It feels good to find causes worth fighting for. If all this is true of the man, it is not strange that the small boy, scarce more than a young savage, will find opportunities for conflict. He is more dependent on the weapons of force than is his father. He cannot cast out the enemy with a ballot, nor with a sneer or biting sarcasm, nor by some device or strategy of business or affairs. He can only hit back. Taken altogether, boys settle their differences as honestly at least as do men. Moreover, children's fights are not as cruel as they seem to be; even the bloodshed means little either of pain or of injury. A boy may be badly banged up today and in full trim tomorrow; it is quite different with the wounds bloodlessly inflicted by men in their conflicts. Does all this mean that boys should be encouraged to fight? No; but it does mean that when Billy comes home with one eye apparently retired from business, we must not scold him as though he were the first wanderer from Eden. That fight may have been precisely the same thing as a croquet game to his sister, or any test of skill to his big brother, or a business transaction to his father; it was a mere contest of two healthy bodies at a time when the body was the outstanding fact of life. The fight may give us our chance, however, to aid him to a sense of the greatness of life's conflict, to a sense of the qualities that make the true fighter. It may leave him open to the appeal of true heroism. We must make light of the victory of brute strength, just as we may make light of his wounds and scars, and glorify the victory of the mind and will. The boy who fights because he lacks control of temper needs careful training. He gets a good deal of discipline on the playground and street, but it is not always effective; the beatings may only further undermine control. But the lack of self-control will manifest itself in many ways and must be remedied at all points. The discipline of daily living in the family must come into play here. § 3. SELF-CONTROL The matter of self-control is not separable into special features; one cannot learn control under one set of moral circumstances without learning it for all. The boy who strikes without thinking is simply one who acts without thinking. He tends to throw away the brakes of the will. The regain of control comes only through training at every point in deliberation of action. Probably there is no other point at which children so frequently and readily learn control as in the matter of speech. The family where all speak at once, where a babel of sounds leads to a rivalry of vocal organs, is not only a nuisance to the neighbors, it is a school of uncontrolled action to the children. Just to learn to wait, even after the thought is formed into words, until it shall be my turn or my opportunity to speak is a fine discipline of control. To do that every day, year after year, tends to break up the hair-trigger process of action. Control is gained also by the acquisition of the habit of thought regarding general courses of action. We can hardly expect meditation on the part of little children. But those who are older, those entering their teens, may and should be able to think things out, to plan out the day's actions, to determine their own ways of conduct. Children who have the custom of quiet, private prayer often develop ability to see their conduct in the calm of those moments. They get a mental elevation over the day and its deeds. § 4. GOOD FIGHTS The evident danger of undue deliberation of action must be met by another cure of the personal-conflict spirit; that is, the substitution of games of rivalry and skill for the unorganized rivalry and "game" of fighting. The transition from the bloody arena to the excitement of a game is very easy and natural. But the game is the boy's great chance to learn life as a game to be played according to the rules. All that the fight calls for--courage, endurance, skill, quickness of action, and grim persistence--comes out in a good game. Here is a suitable youthful realization of the fight that is worth waging. Our participation in the youths' games, our appreciation of their points, our joy in honestly won success, is the best possible way to lead up to their taking life in terms of a good fight, a grand game, a real chance to call out the heroic qualities. Turn every fighting instinct into the good fight that will clarify and elevate them all. I. References for Study W.L. Sheldon, _Ethics in the Home_, chaps. xi, xii, xiii. Welch & Co., $1.25. E.A. Abbott, _Training of Parents_, chap. v. Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.00. II. Further Reading Ella Lyman Cabot, _Every Day Ethics_. Holt, $1.25. M. Wood-Allen, _Making the Best of Our Children_. 2 vols. McClurg, $1.00 each. III. Topics for Discussion 1. Do all children quarrel? Should one punish for small quarrels? 2. What are the facts which ought to be ascertained regarding any quarrel? 3. What special opportunities do children's differences offer? 4. What are the causes of habitual petulance? What are the dangers of this habit of mind? 5. Is fighting necessarily wrong? What part does it play in the lives of men? 6. What are the dangerous elements in boys' fights? 7. What special quality of character needs development in this connection? 8. What are the valuable possibilities in the fighting tendency? CHAPTER XXI DEALING WITH MORAL CRISES (_Continued_) § 1. LYING Parents are likely to be wilfully blind to the faults of their children. But some faults cannot be ignored; they must surely quicken the most indifferent parent to thought. We suffer a shock when our own child appears as a wilful liar. "What shall I do when I catch the child in an outright lie? Surely he knows that is wrong and that he is wilfully doing the wrong!" First, be sure whether he is "lying." Lying means a purposeful intent to deceive by word of mouth or written word. When Charles Dickens wrote _Oliver Twist_ he described a burglary that never happened, so far as he knew. He intended the reader to feel that it was true. Was he lying? No; because he simply used his imagination to paint a scene which was part of a great lesson he desired to teach the English public. Even had he had no great moral purpose, it would still not have been a lie, just as we do not accuse the writer of even the most frivolous novel of lying. He is simply creating, or imitating, in the field of imagination. Imagination is the child's native world. When the little girl says, "My dolly is sick," she is saying that which is not so, but instead of reproving her for lying, you prepare an imaginary pill for the doll. Many children's lies are simply elaborations of their doll- and plaything-imaginings. When my little daughter told me, and insisted upon it, that she had seen seven bears, of varied colors, on the avenue, should I have reproved her for lying? Was it not better to humor her fancy, to draw it out, to give it free play, being careful gradually to let her know that I knew it was fancy? I entered into the game with her and enjoyed it so long as we all understood it was only fancy. It is a crime to crush a child's power of creating a world by imagination, a fair world, set in the midst of this world where things are imperfect, jarring, and disappointing, a world in which everything is always "just so." But one must also carefully aid the child in distinguishing between the world of fancy and the world of fact. This takes time and patience. We must not rob the life of fancy nor must we allow the habits of freedom with ideas to pass over into habits of carelessly handling realities. Along with the development of fancy we must train the powers of exact observation and statement of facts. The child who saw seven bears, red, green, yellow, etc., must go to see real bears and must tell me exactly their colors and forms. Daily training in exactitude of statements of real facts is the best antidote for a fancy that has run out of its bounds. It establishes a habit of precision in thinking which is the essence of truth-telling. § 2. PROTECTIVE LYING But there is another form of lying which is frequently met in some form. It may be called protective lying. Ask the little fellow with the jam-smeared face, "Have you been in the pantry?" and he is likely to do the same thing that nature does for the birds when she gives them a coat that makes it easier to hide from their enemies. He valiantly answers "No, Mother." He would protect himself from your reproof. There has been awakened before this the desire to seem good in your eyes and he desires your approbation most of all. The moral struggle with him is very brief; he does not yet distinguish between being good and seeming good; if his negative answer will help him to seem good he will give it. What shall we do? First, stop long enough to remember that appetites for jam speak louder than your verbal prohibitions. The jam was there and you were not. It can hardly be said that he deliberately chose to do a wrong; he is still in the process of learning how to do things deliberately, just as you still are, for that matter. Consider whether your training of the anti-jam habit has been really conscientious and sufficient to establish the habit in any degree. It were wiser to ask these things of yourself before putting the fateful question to him. It would be better not to ask a small child that question. It demands too much of him. Besides, you are losing a chance to establish a valuable idea in his mind, namely, that acts usually carry evidences along with them. Better say, "I see you've been in the pantry." That will help to establish the habit of expecting our acts to be known. Then would follow with the little child the careful endeavor to train him to recognize the acts that are wrong because harmful, greedy, against the good of others, and against his own good. Just here parents, especially many religious parents, meet the temptation thoughtlessly to use God as their ally by reminding the child that, though they could not see him in the pantry, God was there watching him. In the vivid memory of a childhood clouded by the thought of a police-detective Deity, may one protest against this act of irreverence and blasphemy? True, God was there; but not as a spy, a reporter of all that is bad, anxious to detect, but cowardly and cruel in silence at all other times! Let the child grow up with the happy feeling that God is always with him, rejoicing in his play, his well-aimed ball, his successes in school, his constant friend, helper, and confidant. I like better the God to whom a little fellow in Montana prayed the other day, "O God, I thank you for helping me to lick Billy Johnson!" The child of the pantry needs to know the God who will help him to do and know the right. § 3. OLDER CHILDREN But protective lying presents a more serious problem with older children. The school-teacher and parent meet it, just as the judge and the employer meet it in adults. The cure lies early in life. Truth-telling is as much a habit as lying is. Perhaps it is more easily practiced; its drafts are on the powers of observation and memory rather than on those of imagination. Along with the child's imaginative powers there must be developed the powers of exact observation and description. Exact observation and description or relation are but parts of the larger general virtue of precision. Help children at every turn of life to be right--right in doing things, right in thinking, in saying, and in execution. Precision at any point in life helps lift the life's whole level. Truth-telling is not a separable virtue. You cannot make a boy truthful in word if you let him lie in deed. You cannot expect he will speak the truth if you do not train him to do the truth, in his play, in ordering his room, in thinking through his school problems, and in thinking through his religious difficulties. Truth-telling is the verbal reaction of the life which habitually holds that nothing is right until it is just right. Two things would, ordinarily, make sure of a truthful statement, instead of a protective lie, in answer to your question: first, that the young person has been trained to the habit of seeing and stating things as they are--and that you really give him a chance so to state them, and, secondly, that to some degree there has been developed a recognition of considerations or values that are higher than either escape from punishment or the winning of your approbation. He will choose the course that offers what seems to him to be the greater good; he will choose between punishment, with rectitude, a good conscience, a sense of unity with the higher good, of peace with God his friend, a greater approximation to your ideal, on the one side, and, on the other, escape from punishment. Everything in that crisis will depend on how real you have made the good to be, how much the sense of the reality of God and his companionship has brought of joy and friendship, and how high are his values of the actual, the real, the true. § 4. AT THE CRISIS But what shall we do as we meet the lie on the lips of the child? First, as already suggested, do not wait until you meet it. Train the child to the truthful life. Second, be sure you do not make too heavy moral demands. Remember the instinct to protect himself from immediate punishment or disapprobation is stronger than any other just then. Do not ask him to do what the law says the prisoner may not do, incriminate himself. We have no right to put on our children tests harder than they can bear. Often we put those which are harder than we could face. What you will do just then depends on what you have been doing for the training of the child or youth. Do not expect him to solve problems in moral geometry if you have neglected simple addition in that realm. Punishment by the blow or the immediate sentence will be futile. The offender must know he has trespassed in a realm beyond your administration and rule; he has done more than commit an offense against you. Whatever consequences follow--such as your hesitation to accept his word--must evidently be a part of the operation of the entire moral law. Help him to see that lying strikes at the root of all social relations and would make all happy and prosperous living, all friendship, and all business impossible by destroying social confidence. Facing the crisis, do not demand more than your training gives you a right to expect. Often, instead of the direct categorical question as to guilt, we must gradually draw out a narrative of the events in question; we must patiently help the child to state the facts and to see the values of exactitudes. Without preaching or posing we must bring the events into the light of larger areas of time and circles of life, help him to see them related to all his life and to all mankind and to the very fringes of existence, to God and the eternal. That cannot be done in a moment; it is part of a habit of our own minds or it is not really done at all. At the moment we can, however, make the deepest impression by insistence on the importance of the actual, the real, the exactly true. I. References for Study E.L. Cabot, _Every Day Ethics_, chaps. xix, xx. Holt, $1.25. W.B. Forbush, _On Truth Telling_. Pamphlet. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. J. Sully, _Children's Ways_, pp. 124-33. Appleton, $1.25. II. Further Reading G.S. Hall, "A Study of Children's Lies," _Educational Problems_, I, chap. vi. Appleton, $2.50. E.P. St. John, _A Genetic Study of Veracity_. Pamphlet. J. Sully, _Studies in Childhood_. E.H. Griggs, _Moral Education_. Huebsch, $1.60. III. Topics for Discussion 1. Are there degrees of lying? 2. When is a lie not a lie? 3. How can we discriminate among the statements of children? 4. How can we help them to recognize the qualities of truth? 5. In what ways are parents to blame for forcing children to protective lying? 6. What of the relation of the thought of God to the demands for truth? 7. Would you punish a child for lying and, if so, in what way? CHAPTER XXII DEALING WITH MORAL CRISES (_Concluded_) § 1. DISHONESTY Many parents appear to think that the child's concepts of property rights and of fair dealing are without importance. Habits of pilfering are permitted to develop and success in cheating wins admiration. Low standards are accepted and religion is divorced from moral questions. The family attitude practically assumes that all persons cheat more or less and that it is necessary only to use wisdom to insure freedom from conviction. Responsibility lies at home. We shall never have an honest generation until we have honest men and women to breed and train it. It is folly to think we can lay on the public schools the burden of the moral education of the young. Much is already being attempted there; yet little seems to be accomplished because the home, having the child before and after school and for a longer period each day, furnishes no adequate basis in habits, ideals, and instruction for the moral work of the school. If parents assume that one cannot succeed with absolute integrity, that dishonesty in some degree is necessary to prosperity, then children will learn that lesson despite all that may be said elsewhere. Honest children grow where, in answer to the false statement, "You will starve if you do business honestly," parents say, "Then we will starve." But the very home life itself can be a teacher of dishonesty. Is it largely a matter of sham and pretense for the sake of social glory? Does it prefer a cheap veneer to a slowly acquired genuine article? Is the front appearance that of a dandy while the backyard looks like a slattern? Is the home striving for more than it deserves? Is it trying to get more out of life than it puts in? Evading taxes, avoiding duties, a community parasite, does it commend to children the arts of social cheating and lying? Such homes teach so loudly that no voice could be heard in them. Given the atmosphere, ideals, and practices of the honest life in the home itself, the problems of conduct, in the realm of these rights, are more than half solved. Here in the home the real training for the life of business takes place. Not for an instant can we afford to lower standards here, nor to lose sight of the life-long power of our ideals, our habits, and our attitudes on the conduct of the next generation. Do parents know that the problems of lying, cheating, quarreling are the great, vital questions for their children, much more important than industrial or professional success in life; that on these all success is predicated? If they do, surely they cannot regard the problems which arise as mere incidents; surely they will provide for the culture of the moral life as definitely as for the culture of the physical or the intellectual! § 2. LESSONS IN HONESTY But children also acquire habits from their playmates. Whenever the act of pilfering appears, the wrong must be made clear. Some sense of property rights is necessary; not the right, as some assume, to do what you will with a thing because you have it, but the right to enjoy and usefully employ it. Help children to see the difference between mine and thine. Slovenly moral thinking often comes from too great freedom in forgetful borrowing within the family. In this little social group the members must first acquire the habits of respect for the rights of others. Through toys, tools, and books the lesson may be learned so early that it becomes a part of the normal order of things. Children can learn that the game of life has its rules and that the breach of these rules spoils the game and prevents our own happiness. They can learn, too, that these are not arbitrary rules; they are like the laws of nature; they are the conditions under which alone it is possible for people to live together and to make life worth while. Gambling is wrong because it is unsocial; it is the attempt to gain without an equivalent giving. Cheating is wrong, no matter how many practice it, just as surely as cheating is wrong in the game on the playground. Children are really peculiarly sensitive to the social consciousness. In school under no circumstances will they do that which the school custom forbids or the older boys condemn. In the home, despite contrary appearances, the opinion of elders, brothers, sisters, and parents is the recognized law. Every small boy wants to be like his big brother. Children's conduct may be guided by an understanding of the social will outside the school and home. Help them to know that all people everywhere in organized society condemn cheating and dishonesty.[49] Sentiment and emotional feeling must back up all teaching of conduct. Your stories and readings should be selected with this in mind. The approbation of parents and of the great Father of all enters as an effectual motive. But parents seldom understand these problems; they attempt to deal with each one as it arises until they are weary of the seemingly endless procession and abandon the task. Their endeavors are based on faint memories of such problems in their own youth or on rule-of-thumb proverbial philosophy about morals and children. Does not the development of moral ability and culture deserve at least as much attention as any other phase of the child's life? After all, what do we most of all desire for all our children--position, fame, ease? or is it not rather simply this, that, no matter what else they do, they may be good and useful men and women? Then what are we doing to make them good and useful? A clear view of the need for moral training, a belief that is possible, will surely lead to serious attempts to learn the art of moral training. In this they need not be without guidance. There is a number of good books on character development in the child.[50] The foundation for all such training of parents ought to be laid in an understanding of what the moral nature is, and then of the laws of its development. Later the specific problems may be separately considered. § 3. TEASING AND BULLYING Teasing is the child's crude method of experimentation in psychological reactions; the teaser desires to discover just how the teased will respond. It degenerates, by easy steps, into a thoughtless infliction of pain in sheer enjoyment of another's misery, and then into brutal bullying. When only two children are together mere teasing will not last long; either the teaser will tire of his task or his teasing will turn to that lowest of all brutalities, delight in inflicting pain on weaker ones. But teasing is a serious problem in many families; the whole group sometimes lives in an atmosphere of ridicule, derision, and annoyance. Teasing is likely to appear at its worst wherever a group is gathered, for the guilty ones are under the stimulus of the praise of others; they inflict mental pain for the sake of winning approbation. Teasing has a pedagogical basis. A certain amount of ridicule acts healthfully on most persons. Even children need sometimes to see their weaknesses, and especially their faults of temper, in the light of other eyes, in the aspect of the ridiculous. But children are seldom to be trusted to discipline one another; freedom to do so is likely to develop hardness, indifference to the sufferings of others, and arrogance from the sense of lordship. The corrective of ridicule is safe only as it is a kindly expression of the sense of humor. The ability to see and to show just how foolish or funny some situations are will turn many a tragedy of childhood into a comedy. Whenever children laugh at the distresses or faults of others, help them to laugh at their own. Cultivate the habit of seeing the odd, the whimsical, the humorous side of things. A sound sense of kindly humor often will save us all from unkind teasing. § 4. SOME CURES FOR TEASING Help the habitual and unkind teaser to see how cowardly the act is, to see how it is against the spirit of fair play. Call on him to help the weaker one. If he is teasing for some fault of temper or some habit, show him the chance that is afforded to do the nobler deed of helping another to overcome that fault. Let the cowardly teaser reap the consequences of his own act; he must bear the burden of the critic, the expectation of perfection. Teasing him for his own shortcomings will sometimes cure him, but usually he loses his temper quickly. Make him feel the injustice of the teaser's method. If he is a bully he needs bullying. If ever corporal punishment is wise it is in such a case. He who inflicts pain simply because he can deserves to endure pain inflicted by someone stronger. But one must be careful not to confirm him in the coward's code. The injustice of it he must see, see by smarting under it. If ever punishment before others is wise it is in this case; for surely he who delights in humiliating others must be humiliated. But though justice suggests this course, experience shows that it does not always work; the bully only bides his time, and, cherishing resentment, he wreaks it on the weaker ones. The best cure for brutal teasing will take a longer time than is involved in a thrashing. Besides, the teaser will get his thrashings very soon from other boys. It requires time to change the habits that make bullying possible. Try gradually helping him to see the beauty and pleasure of helpfulness. Give him a chance to give pleasure instead of pain. Help him to taste the joy of praise, the praise that helps more than all teasing criticism. Help him to see that it is more truly a mark of superiority to help, to cheer, to do good, than to oppress and tease. Take time to habituate him in helpfulness. In dealing with teasing in the family, two other things are worth remembering: First, the teased must be taught the protective power of indifference. Teasers stop as soon as their barbs fail to wound; the fun ends there. Laugh at those who laugh at you, and they will soon cease. Secondly, the atmosphere and habit of the family determine the course of teasing. Where carping criticism and unkindly ridicule abound, children cannot be blamed for like habits. Where the sense of humor lightens tense situations, where we sacrifice the pleasure of stinging criticism for the sake of encouraging those who most need it, children are quick to catch those habits too. The teasing child usually comes out of a family of similar habits. On seeing our children engaged in teasing others, our first thought ought to be as to the extent to which we may have been their example in this respect. Constant watchfulness on our part against the temptations to tease will have an effect far more potent than all attempts to talk them out of the habit; it will lead them out. I. References for Study 1. HONESTY P. Du Bois, _The Culture of Justice_, chaps. iii, x. Dodd, Mead & Co., $0.75. E.P. St. John, _Child Nature and Child Nurture_, chap. viii. Pilgrim Press, $0.50. 2. TEASING W.L. Sheldon, _A Study of Habits_, chap. xvii. Welch & Co., Chicago, $1.25. II. Further Reading ON GENERAL MORAL TRAINING Sneath & Hodges, _Moral Training in School and Home_. Macmillan, $0.80. E.O. Sisson, _The Essentials of Character_. Macmillan, $1.00. H. Thisleton Mark, _The Unfolding of Personality_. The University of Chicago Press, $1.00. Paul Carus, _Our Children_. Open Court Publishing Co., $1.00. III. Topics for Discussion 1. Of what importance is the child's sense of possession? 2. What are the first evidences of a consciousness of property rights? 3. How do homes train in dishonesty? 4. What is the relation between cheating and dishonesty? 5. What is a child seeking to do when he teases another? 6. What are the unfortunate features of teasing? 7. What is the relation of teasing to bullying? 8. What cures would you suggest for either? FOOTNOTES: [49] Parents will be helped by the practical discussions of cheating, cribbing, and other boy problems in Johnson, _Problems of Boyhood_. [50] See "Book List" in Appendix. CHAPTER XXIII THE PERSONAL FACTORS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Whoever will stop to review his early educational experience will be impressed with the instantaneous and vivid manner in which certain teachers spring into memory. They are seen as though actually living again. We have difficulty in recalling even the subjects they taught, while of the particulars of their teaching we have absolutely no recollection. But they continue to influence us; they are like so many silent forces leading our lives to this day. The teacher is always greater than his lesson, and what he is, is greater than what he says. The religious education of the young depends more on the gift of persons, on contact with lives, than on anything else. There are instructors and there are teachers; the former impart information, the latter convey personality; the former deal with subjects, the latter teach people. The greatest factor in education as a process of developing persons is the power of stimulating personality. The power of the family as an educational agency is in the fact that it is an organization of persons for personal purposes. When you take the persons away you remove all educational potencies. The depersonalized home is the modern menace. We have come to think that provided you throw furniture and food together in proper proportions you can produce a capable life. So we depend on the home as a piece of machinery to do its work automatically, forgetting that the working activity is not the home but the family, not the furniture but people. Life can only come from life, and lives can only come from lives. Personality alone can develop personality. By so much as you rob the family life of your personal presence, as mother or as father, you take away from its reality as a family, from its force as an educational agency, from its religious reality. § 1. ORPHANED FAMILIES All that is said here about fathers might well be applied to mothers, save that they are not as flagrant sinners in this respect, and, besides, it comes with better grace for a father to speak on the sins of fathers. There are too many fathers who are financial and physiological fathers only. A good father easily grows as crooked as a dollar sign when he is nurtured only on money. Many, both fathers and mothers, take parenthood wholly in physiological terms, imagining--if they think about it at all--that they have fully discharged all possible obligations if only they know how to bear, feed, and clothe children properly. True, such duties are fundamental, but no father can be rightly called "a good provider" who provides only _things_ for his family, no matter with what generosity he provides these things. Our homes need more of ourselves first of all. He makes a capital error of setting first things in secondary places who willingly permits business to interfere with the pleasure of being with his children. Our social order fights its own welfare as long as any father is chained to the wheels of industry through the hours that belong to his home. But there are just as many who are not chained, but who enslave themselves to business, and so miss the largest and best business in the world, the development of children's characters. Many a good father goes wrong here. Love and ambition prompt him to provide abundantly for his children; he enslaves himself to give them those social advantages which he missed in youth. But it is a short-measure love that gives only gifts and never gives itself. The heart hungers, not for what you have in your hand, but for what you are. "The gift without the giver is bare." No amount of bountiful providing can atone for the loss of the father's personality. It is easy for the hands to be so engrossed in providing that the home is left headless and soon heartless. If we at all desire the fruits of character in the home we must give ourselves personally. It is not alone the habitué of the saloon or the idler in clubs and fraternities who is guilty of stealing from the home its rightful share of his presence. He who gives so much of himself to any object as not to give the best of himself to his family comes under the apostolic ban of being worse than an infidel. _A father belongs to his home more than he belongs to his church._ There have been men, though probably their number is not legion, who have allowed church duties, meetings, and obligations so to absorb their time and energy that they have given only a worn-out, burned-out, and useless fragment of themselves to their children. Some have found it more attractive to talk of the heavenly home in prayer-meeting or to be gracious to the stranger and to win the smile of the neighbor at the church than to take up the by-no-means-easy task of being godly, sympathetic and cheerful, courteous and kind among their children and in their homes. No matter what it may be, church or club, politics or reform organization, we are working at the wrong end if we are allowing them to take precedence of the home. § 2. THE FATHER'S CHANCE The father owes it to his family _to give himself at his best_, that is, as far as possible, when his vitality is freshest and his powers keenest to answer to the young life about him. He owes it to his family to conserve for it the time to think of its needs, time to listen to the wife's story of its problems, time to sit and sympathize with children, time to hear their seemingly idle prattle, time to play with them. Have you ever noticed this great difference between the father and the mother, that while the latter always has time to bind up cut fingers and to hear to its end the story of what the little neighbor, Johnny Smith, did and said, somehow father's ear seems deaf to such stories and he is often too busy to sympathize? It might work a vast change in some families if the "children's hour" had a call to the father as well as to the mother. Of course we are crowded with social engagements and life is at high pressure under the enticing obligation of uplifting and reforming everybody else, yet one hour of every evening held sacred for the firelight conversation, one in which the children could really get at our hearts, might be worth more to tomorrow than all our public propaganda. Fathers owe their brains as well as their hands to their families. Competent and efficient fatherhood does not come by accident. We are learning that children cannot be understood merely by loving them, that two things must be held in balance: the scientific and the sympathetic study of childhood. Is there any good reason why, while so readily granting that mothers should belong to mothers' clubs, study child psychology, the hygiene of infancy, domestic science, and eugenics, we should assume that fathers may safely dispense with all such knowledge? There are men who sit up nights studying how to grow the biggest radishes in the block, there are men who toil through technical handbooks on the game of golf, who would look at you in open-eyed wonder if you should suggest the duty of studying their children with equal scientific patience. They of course desire to have ideal children but they are not willing to learn how to grow them. § 3. FATHERING AS A MAN'S TASK It takes intelligence and burns up brain power to keep the confidence of your boy so that he will freely talk of his own life and needs to you. Those much-to-be-desired open doors are kept open, not by accident, nor by our sentiments or wishes alone. A boy changes so fast that a man has to be alert, thinking and trying to understand and sympathize all the time. The boy sees through all sleepy pretenses of understanding. We keep the open door of confidence only as by steady endeavor we keep in real touch with the boy's world. Fathers are ignorant of the problems of family training; they oscillate between the wishy-washy sentimentality that permits anarchy in the home and the harsh, unthinking despotism that breeds hatred and rebellion. Fathers criticize the public schools but never take the time to go and look inside one. They laugh at women's clubs because they are too lazy to make a like investment in the patient study of some of their problems. They affect indifference to the parent-teacher clubs while remaining ignorant of the significant things they have already accomplished for the schools. If we were to make an inventory of what the women, the mothers, have accomplished by study, agitation, and legislation for social, civic, ethical, and religious betterment, we proud lords of creation would, or ought to, hang our heads in shame. Fatherhood is our chance to become. It is our chance to grow into our finest selves. The measure of its gains to us depends upon the measure of our gifts to its opportunities and duties. It is our chance to be what we should like our children to be, our chance to find ourselves. All that it costs, all the self-denial, labor, and often pain it must mean, is just the process of developing a fine, rich life. Now, that life is just the greatest gift that any man can make to his home and his world. We can never give any more than ourselves or any other than ourselves, and this pathway of sacrifice, this costly way of home-making, is a man's chance to become Godlike. The race has come upward in this way. It needs the masculine in its ideal self as well as the feminine. There is no race salvation without constant individual self-giving. That self-giving must be balanced equally on the part of the man and the woman. Fatherhood, like motherhood, is just our chance to learn life's best lesson, that there is a certain short path to happiness which men have called the way of pain and God calls the way of peace. Motherhood is a sacred portion, but so is fatherhood. Its calls are just as high, its service just as holy, its opportunities just as large, its meaning just as divine. How worse than empty are all our pratings about divine fatherhood if we illustrate its meaning only degradingly or misleadingly! And just as the life of the spirit is the gift of that divine fatherhood, so for us the gift of our lives, ourselves, is the largest and richest contribution we can make to the religious lives of our children. The father as a teacher teaches by what he is. The classes in the home have no set lessons, for the text is written in lives and the word is spoken and taught in personality. You effect the religious education of your children in the degree that you give yourself as a simple religious person to them. I. References for Study Hodges, _Training of Children in Religion_, chap. vii. Appleton, $1.50. K.G. Busby, _Home Life in America_, chaps. i, ii. Macmillan, $2.00. II. Further Reading E.A. Abbott, _On the Training of Parents_. Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.00. Allen, _Making the Most of Our Children_. 2 vols. McClurg, $1.00 each. Wilm, _The Culture of Religion_, chap. ii. Pilgrim Press, $0.75 III. Topics for Discussion 1. Which do you remember best, your teachers or your lessons? Why? 2. Describe, from your memory, some of the influences of personality? 3. Are these influences greater or less with parents on children? 4. What are the causes that separate parents and children? 5. How shall we define duties to business, to society, and to the family? 6. Under what circumstances is one justified in refusing time to the church for the sake of the family? 7. What are the best times and opportunities for the strengthening of the personal bonds between children and parents? 8. How shall we overcome the apparent difficulty of maintaining the confidence of children? CHAPTER XXIV LOOKING TO THE FUTURE Whether we can remedy the ills of family living today or not, we can determine the character of the family life of the future. The homes of tomorrow are being determined today. The children who swing their feet in schoolrooms and play in our gardens will control family living very soon. We can do little to reconstruct the old order; we can do everything to determine the new. When the mountain sides have been made bare, forest conservation cannot save the old trees, but it can prepare for new growths. Ours is the larger opportunity because we can determine the ideals of our children. Today we can determine that they shall not suffer from false conceptions, shall not bruise themselves in the blind ignorance that compelled us to find our own way. We shall see that, first, in the education of our children we can save the homes of tomorrow by training the children of today to set first things first. If family life has been neglected in America, it has been because we have submerged its real values of character and affection in a flood of things, of materialism. § 1. A CONSTRUCTIVE POLICY FOR CHARACTER The future higher efficiency of the family depends on an extension of a conscience for character through all our thinking on the family. We are really half-ashamed to talk of character. We blush for ideals but we have no shame in boasting of commerce and factories; we are ashamed of the things of beauty and we love only the useful. So we have become ashamed of the ideals of the home. Not only do we passively acquiesce in the popular attitude of indifference or derision, but we voice it ourselves. We join in the jest at marriage; we joke over marital infelicities. We would be ashamed to be caught singing "Home, Sweet Home." What is more important, we show that, as a people, we have less and less the habit of regarding the home as any other than a commercial affair. The tendency is to determine domestic living wholly by economic factors. The literature on the "home" is overwhelmingly economic; its heart is in the kitchen. High efficiency on the physiological, sanitary, culinary, and mechanical sides makes the modern home so convenient that you can lie on a folding bed, press a button to light the grate fire, turn on the lights, start the toaster, and wake the children. Homes are places to hide in at night, to feed the body, arrange the clothes, and start out from for real living. They are private hotels. If we would save the family we must save the child from losing sight of the primacy of human values; we must strengthen his natural faith that people are worth more than all besides, leading him into the faith that moral integrity, truth, honor, righteousness, are the glory of a life. More, these young lives must be trained to habitual and efficient right-doing. In a word, the conservation of the home is simply a program of beginning today ourselves to set first things first, to conserve the human factors that will make homes, to make education everywhere in school and church and home count first of all for character. And that broader education we ourselves must test first of all by this, whether it makes youth competent to live aright, cultivates the love of worthy ideals, and makes him willing and able to pay the price of a trained life consecrated to the service of his world, to the love of his fellows, and to the making of a new world. We shall need, first, to safeguard the primary motives that enter into the founding of families. Those motives begin to develop early. They are in the making in childhood. Somehow we must plan the education of youths so that they will think of homes and of marriage in new terms. Possibly the public school will not only teach the physiology of marriage and the bare physical facts of sexual purity, but will teach new ideals of family life; it will count it at least as much a duty to cultivate a love of home as it is to cultivate a love of country. It can set so clearly the final objective of character that even children shall see that life has higher ends than money-making and the family greater purposes than garish social display. § 2. THE CHURCH AIDING Certainly the church must seek to quicken and develop new ideals of family life; it must bring religion to our hearths and homes; it must worry less about a "home over there," and show how truly heavenly homes may be made here. It must not only get youth ready to die, it must prepare them to live; to live together on religious terms. It will do this, not only by general discussions in the pulpit, but by special instruction in classes. No church has a clear conscience in regard to any young person contemplating the duties of a family whom it has not directly instructed in the duties of that life. It is a strange spectacle, if we would stop long enough to look at it, of the church proclaiming a way of life but scarcely ever teaching it. In any church there is a large number of young people under instruction; what are they learning? Usually a theological interpretation of an ancient religious literature. Some still are learning to hate all other persons whose religion differs from the brand carried in that institution. In a few years these youths will be bearing social burdens, facing temptations, taking up duties; does their teaching relate at all to these things? No, indeed, that would be "worldly"; it would seem to be sacrilegious to teach them how actually to be religious. The business of the church school is still largely that of filling minds with theological data rather than training young, trainable lives to become religious schoolboys, religious voters, religious parents. How many have been at all influenced by Sunday-school teaching when they stepped into a polling-booth, when they chose a life-mate, when they guided or disciplined their children? If religious education does not at all influence us in the great events of life, of what value is it to us? Must it not be counted a sheer waste of time? If we would conserve the human values of the family we must train youth to a religious interpretation of the home. If we cannot do that in the church we might as well confess that the church cannot touch the sources of human affairs. § 3. IDEALS AND METHODS No matter what the breadth of the interests of the public school, youth will still need training for family living given under religious auspices and with the religious aim. The day school may give courses in domestic economy, but family living demands more than ability to sweep a room or cook an egg. In fact, no one can be competent to meet its higher demands unless at least two things are accomplished, first, that he, or she, is led to see the family as essentially a religious, spiritual institution because it is an association of persons for the purpose of developing other persons to spiritual fulness; secondly, that he, or she, is moved to willingness to count the work of the family, its purpose and aim, as the highest in life and that for which one is willing to pay any price of time, treasure, thought, and endeavor. This means that the fundamental need is that our young people shall grow up with a new vision and a new passion for the home and family. That passion is needed to give value to any training in the economics or mechanics of the home; and that training is precisely the contribution which the church should make to all departments of life today. It is the prophet, the interpreter, revealing the spiritual meanings of all daily affairs and quickening us to right feeling, to highly directed passion for worthy ideals. From the general teaching, the high message of the church, directed to this special problem, there must be formed in the mind of the coming generation a new picture of the family, a new ethics of its life, a new evaluation of its worth. That can come in part by the prophetic message from the pulpit, but it will come more naturally and readily by regular teaching directed to the actual experiences and the coming needs of the young people who are to be home-makers. The soaring ideals pass over their heads, but when you teach the practice, the details of the life of the family in the spirit of these ideals, as interpreted and determined by the higher conception, then they catch the vision through the details. We need two types of classes in church schools in relation to the life of the family: First, classes for young people in which their social duties as religious persons are carefully taught and discussed. Perhaps such courses should not be specifically on "The Family," but this institution ought, in the course, to occupy a place proportionate to that which belongs to it in life. The instruction should be specific and detailed, not simply a series of homilies on "The Christian Family," "Love of Home," etc., but taking up the great problems of the economic place of the family today, its spiritual function, questions of choice of life-partners, types of dwelling, finances and money relations in the family, children and their training, and the actual duties and problems which arise in family living. All topics should be treated from the dominant viewpoint of the family as a religious institution for the development of the lives of religious persons. The courses should be so arranged as to be given to young people of about twenty years of age, or of twenty to twenty-five. They should be among the electives offered in the church school. The second type of class would be for those who are already parents and who desire help on their special problems. Many schools now conduct such classes, meeting either on Sunday or during the week.[51] Work on "Parents' Problems," "Family Religious Education," and similar topics is also being given in the city institutes for religious workers. No church can be satisfied with its service to the community unless it provides opportunity for parents to study their work of character development through the family and to secure greater efficiency therein. Such classes need only three conditions: a clear understanding of the purpose of meeting the actual problems of religious training in the family, a leader or instructor who is really qualified to lead and to instruct in this subject, and an invitation to parents to avail themselves of this opportunity. The value of such a class would be greatly enhanced if it should be held in close co-ordination with similar classes or clubs conducted by the public schools.[52] Here all the parents of the community meet in the school building, not to discuss how the teachers may satisfy parental criticism, but to learn what the school has to teach on modern educational methods applied to the life of the child, especially in the family, and mutually to find ways of co-operation between the home and the school for the betterment of the child. I. References for Study Articles in _Religious Education_, April, 1911, VI, 1-77. Helen C. Putnam in _Religious Education_, June, 1911, VI, 159-66. George W. Dawson in _Religious Education_, June, 1911, VI, 167-74. Cabot, _Volunteer Help in the Schools_, chap. vii. Houghton Mifflin Co., $0.60. II. Further Reading Forsyth, _Marriage, Its Ethics and Religion_. Hodder & Stoughton, $1.25. Lovejoy, _Self-Training for Motherhood_. American Unitarian Association, $1.00. Pomeroy, _Ethics of Marriage_. Funk & Wagnalls, $1.50. III. Topics for Discussion 1. In how far are home problems due to the ignorance of parents? 2. What do you regard as the essentials in the training of parents? 3. Where can the necessary subjects best be taught? 4. What are the difficulties in the way of teaching these subjects to young people? 5. In how far can we direct the reading of young people toward sane and helpful knowledge of family life and duties? FOOTNOTES: [51] Pamphlets on plans for parents' classes: _The Home and the Sunday School_, Pilgrim Press; _Plans for Mothers' and Parents' Meetings_, Sunday School Times Co.; _How to Start a Mothers' Department_, David C. Cook Co.; _The Parents' Department of the Sunday School_, Connecticut Sunday School Association, Hartford, Conn. [52] See pamphlet published by the National Congress of Mothers: _How to Organize Parents' Associations and Mothers' Circles in Public Schools_. APPENDIXES APPENDIX I SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS WORK This book is designed for individual reading or for use in classes. It is not a textbook of the same character as a textbook in mathematics or history, but the material is arranged so as to be both easily readable and of ready analysis for classes. There are two methods of following the course: one by work conducted under a regular teacher in a class, and the other by private or correspondence study. § 1. THE CLASS The class should be composed of parents and other adults, inasmuch as the work is designed for them. It may be a class in connection with the Sunday school in a church, a class conducted by a mothers' club or congress or by a parent-teacher association, or it may be organized under other auspices. Or it might be organized by a group of parents in any community. The class need not consist of either fathers or mothers alone, as the work is planned for both. In any case the work of teaching will be facilitated if, in addition to the customary officers of the class, the teacher will appoint a librarian, whose duties would be to ascertain for the members of the class where the books for study and for reference may be obtained, that is, whether they are in the public library, church library, or in private collections, and also, whenever it is desired to purchase books, where they may best be secured. § 2. THE TEACHER The primary requisite for the teacher will be an eagerness to learn, a sufficiently deep interest in the subject to lead to thorough study. No one can teach this class who already knows all about the subject. A spirit sympathetic with the child and the life of the family and a mind willing to study the subject will accomplish much more than facile rhetorical familiarity with it. The best teacher will not often be "an easy talker" on the family; class time is too precious to be occupied with a lecture. While, naturally, one who is a parent will speak with greater experience than another, the ability to teach this subject cannot be limited to fathers and mothers; physiological parenthood is less important than spiritual parenthood. The teacher must have, then, willingness to study the subject, ability to teach as contrasted with mere talking, sympathy with parenthood, and a passion for the religious personal values in life. § 3. GENERAL METHOD The teacher's aim will be to make this course definitely practical. The book is not concerned so much with theories of the family as with the present problems of the family, and especially with those that relate to moral and religious education. There must be a sense of definite problems to be concretely treated in all lessons. The teacher will therefore encourage discussion, but will also avoid the tendency to drift into desultory conversation. Direct the discussion to avoid tedious détours on side issues. Direct the discussion to avoid the tendency to treat superficially all the subject at one session. It will be necessary frequently to insist that attention be focused upon the immediate problems suggested by the lesson for the day, and to ask the class to wait until the subjects which they in their eagerness suggest shall come in their due order. Encourage personal experiences as sidelights and criticisms on the text, but remember that no single experience is conclusive. Beware of the over-elaboration and detailed narration of experiences. _Insist on a thorough study of the text._ Students should be so prepared as to make a lecture superfluous and to allow discussion to take the place of review and explanation. The greatest danger in parents' classes is that the members do not study; class work becomes indefinite and soon loses value. Again, the members of the class often are unwilling to be governed by the schedule of lessons, and the class drifts into aimless conversation. Adult students especially need to be turned from the tendency to regard educational experience as having come to an end with their school days. The members of this class will need encouragement; they must be stimulated patiently until they have re-formed some habits of study and rediscovered the pleasures of systematic thinking. The best stimulus will be a teacher so convinced of the supreme importance of the subject to be studied as to lead the members to recognize its importance and the insignificance of any price they may pay for efficient spiritual parenthood. § 4. CLASS WORK At the first session teach chap. i, which is introductory. Draw out discussion on the points suggested therein, and assign this chapter and the one following for the next session. The first lesson will give the teacher opportunity to explain and illustrate the method of study, presentation, and discussion. Assign the work carefully each week, calling especial attention to the "References for Study." Secure promises from as many as possible to read at least one of these references and to prepare a written report, on one sheet of paper, for presentation at the next session. Ask others to look into the special points which will be found in the references given under the heading "Further Reading." In beginning a lesson it will be wise to call to mind first the principle running through the book, that the great work of the family is the development of religious persons in the home; then call to mind the application of this principle in the last lesson. Make your review very brief. Next, bring out the leading topic of the lesson for the day. This should be done so as to present a vital issue and a live topic to the class. Very often the best way of doing this is to state a concrete case involving the issue discussed. The presentation of a definite set of circumstances or a fairly complete experience involving the fundamental principles under discussion is an instance of teaching by the "case method." If the teacher will consider how the law student is trained by the study of _particular cases_, the advantage of the method will be clear. Be sure that the "case" selected will include the principles to be taught. Prepare the statement of the case beforehand. This should be done in a very brief narrative, so giving the instance as to enable the class to see the reality of the question. Be sure that your instance is itself vital and probable. A class of adults will especially need such points of vital contact. By announcing the topic in advance the teacher will often be able to obtain definite cases in point from the members. With the case thus presented take the points in the text and apply them, first to the special case alone, but with the purpose of developing the principles involved in that and similar cases. Beware of the special danger of the case method, namely, that the class may discuss the specific instances rather than the principles. _Teaching is more than telling_; it is stimulating other minds to see and comprehend and state for themselves. Therefore the teacher must first comprehend and be able to state for himself. Avoid repeating the phrases of the text. Get them over into your own language and see that the class does the same. Do not fail to call for the brief reports on reading, and to make them a real part of the subject of discussion. _Questioning_ is the natural method of stimulating minds. Use the question method, but do not confine yourself to "What does the author say on this?" Direct your questions to the points stated and the issues raised so as to compel students to think on the topics and so as to draw out the results of their thinking. Form your own judgments and help the class to form theirs too. Remember that the purpose of the class is to get people thinking on the great subjects discussed. The text is not written in order that groups of students may learn the author's statements, but that they may be led to think seriously on all these matters and stimulated to do something about them. Use the "discussion topics" given at the end of each lesson. They are not designed to furnish a syllabus of the lesson, but to suggest important questions for discussion, some of which may barely be mentioned in the text. They may be used in assigning the advance work, giving topics to different students, and they may be used in your review of the previous lesson. A syllabus of each lesson will be helpful, provided it be prepared by the students themselves. Encourage the careful reading of the lesson by every member of the class, letting the syllabus grow out of this. Notebooks will have their largest value if used at home for two purposes: first, to set down the student's analysis of the book as he reads, secondly, to record the student's observations on definite problems and on practice in the home. Note-taking in the class will have very little value unless it is backed up by study at home. _Generalization._ Have clearly in your own mind a definite concept of the general principle underlying each section. Read through each section until you can state the principle for yourself. Bring your teaching into a focus at the point of that principle before the lesson ends. Try to get the members of the class to state the principle in their own words. _In action:_ The principles will have little value unless translated into practical methods; direct your teaching to their actual use in families. Your generalization is for guidance into application. Urge that the plans described be actually tried. Expect this and call for reports on plans tested in the daily experience of families. If a number of students would try, for example, the plan of worship suggested for two or three weeks and report their experiences in writing, together with the accounts of any other plans tried, a valuable budget of helpful knowledge could thus be gathered.[53] _Conference plan:_ Some classes will be able to meet twice a week, taking the lesson at one session and at another spending the time in conference. At the conference period the program might provide for (1) brief papers by members of the class on topics personally assigned, (2) abstracts or summaries of assigned readings, (3) discussion on the particular points raised in the papers, and (4) conference on unsettled questions from the lesson for the class period preceding. _Club work:_ A parents' club might be organized, either in a church or in connection with a school, which would use this textbook, follow the study work with conferences, and would secure for its own use a library of the books listed after each chapter. Such a club would be able to put into practice some of the plans advocated and could encourage their application in groups of families. FOOTNOTES: [53] The teachers are especially invited to secure records of actual experiments of this character. Accounts of tried methods of family worship, especially those with new features, which should be given in some detail as to the exact plan, the circumstances, the material used, and the results, should be sent to the author in care of the publishers. Perhaps in this way material which may be valuable to large numbers may be gathered. APPENDIX II A BOOK LIST The following books would be found useful for the working library of a class or club following the study of this text or for a section of the church library on the home and family. The books marked with an asterisk are the ones which may be regarded as of first practical value to parents and others studying the development of character in the life of the family. In addition to the titles mentioned below, the the references at the end of each chapter in this book will furnish a list of other sources of valuable material. I. the Institution of the Family C.F. and C.B. Thwing, _The Family_. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, $1.60. A historical survey of the family with a special study of its modern dangers and needs. P.T. Forsyth, _Marriage, Its Ethics and Religion_. Hodder & Stoughton, $1.25. An important, popular statement of the ethics of marriage as the foundation of family life. *W.F. Lofthouse, _Ethics and the Family_. Hodder & Stoughton, $2.50 net. The most important recent book on the family; traces its historical development, the ethical ideals involved in the institution, and discusses its present problems and perplexities. Katherine G. Busby, _Home Life in America_. Macmillan, $2.00 net. A popular statement of the outstanding characteristics of life in American homes; entertaining and informing. *Clyde W. Votaw, _Progress of Moral and Religious Education in the American Home_. Religious Education Association, $0.25. A careful and comprehensive survey, of great value. Charles A.L. Reed, _Marriage and Genetics_. Galton Press, Cincinnati, Ohio, $1.00. A surgeon's message on eugenics, especially on the aspects indicated in the title. A study of the laws of human breeding. II. Child Nature *E.P. St. John, _Child Nature and Child Nurture_. Pilgrim Press, $0.50. A textbook dealing with the nature of the child and with problems of his training in the home. *Irving King, _The High School Age_. Bobbs-Merrill & Co., $1.00 net. A study of the nature and needs of boys and girls in the first period of adolescence. Written for all who are alive to the problems of this period as well as for school people; gives constructive suggestions for educational problems. Elizabeth Harrison, _A Study of the Child Nature_. Chicago Kindergarten College, $1.00. Long recognized as a standard for parents in the study of the development and functions of the child-life. George E. Dawson, _The Right of the Child to Be Well Born_. Funk & Wagnalls, $0.75. A plain study of eugenics, non-technical and helpful; includes a chapter on eugenics and religion. To be commended to parents. George E. Dawson, _The Child and His Religion_. The University of Chicago Press, $0.75. The religious nature and needs of the child with some suggestions as to method. *W. Arter Wright, _The Moral Conditions and Development of the Child_. Jennings & Graham, $0.75. An important and valuable book on the newer views of the religious development of the child-life. Frederick Tracy and J. Stempfl, _The Psychology of Childhood_. D.C. Heath & Co., $1.20. Gathers up the general results in the field of child psychology. *W.G. Koons, _The Child's Religious Life_. Jennings & Graham, $1.00. From the modern point of view, dealing with some of the interesting problems of the relation of the child to religious life and the development of his religious ideas. Thomas Stephens, _The Child and Religion_. Putnam, $1.50. A series of short papers by English writers, particularly on the question of child conversion. George A. Hubbell, _Up through Childhood_. Putnam, $1.25. A good general review with special reference to religious problems and religious institutions. Edith E.R. Mumford, _The Dawn of Character_. Longmans, Green & Co., $1.20. A very important book, dealing especially with the moral development of young children. III. Training in the Home William B. Forbush (ed.), _Guide Book to Childhood_. American Institute of Child Life, Philadelphia, Pa. Very valuable as a guide to reading on the many problems of child-training. LeGrand Kerr, _The Care and Training of the Child_. Funk & Wagnalls, $0.75. A good, general, brief study of the nature of the child and the method of education. William J. Shearer, _The Management and Training of the Child_. Richardson, Smith & Co. A popular and practical statement of many problems and their treatment in the home and school. John Wirt Dinsmore, _The Training of Children_. American Book Co. While written for school-teachers, this is one of the best studies which parents could possibly read. A.A. Berle, _The School in the Home_. Moffat, Yard & Co., $1.00. Contains much valuable suggestion to parents who really desire to take advantage of the educational opportunities of the home. John Locke, _How to Train Up Your Children_. Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London. Written over two hundred years ago, and yet of very great value in many parts to day. *William B. Forbush, _The Coming Generation_. D. Appleton & Co., $1.50. Discusses the various aspects of child-training in the light of the social consciousness of today. Many of the public agencies for child betterment are carefully discussed. *William A. McKeever, _Training the Girl_. Macmillan, $1.50. *----, _Training the Boy_. Macmillan, $1.50. These two books constitute one of the best collections of material, most practical and helpful. They view girls and boys as active factors and all the phases of home and community life are studied with reference to their needs. IV. Special Religious Training in the Home *George Hodges, _The Training of the Child in Religion_. D. Appleton & Co., $1.50. One of the few books dealing in any modern manner with the special problems of the religious life of the family. Rev. William Becker, _Christian Education or The Duties of Parents_. B. Herder, St. Louis, $1.00. Recent and interesting sermons on the duties of parents in the religious education of the Catholic child; a striking example of messages that ought to be heard from every pulpit. John T. Faris, _Pleasant Sunday Afternoons for the Children_. Sunday School Times Co., $0.50. A number of practical plans are suggested. *George A. Coe, _Education in Religion and Morals_. Fleming H. Revell Co., $1.35. A book which all parents ought to read for its valuable guidance on the general principles of religious education. Elizabeth Grinnell, _How John and I Brought Up the Children_. American Sunday School Union, $0.70. A popular statement in a simple form of methods of dealing with many of the problems of religious training. V. Moral Training Edward H. Griggs, _Moral Education_. B.W. Huebsch, $1.60. One of the best-known books on this question, readable and helpful at many points. Ennis Richmond, _The Mind of the Child_. Longmans, Green & Co., $1.00. One of the most helpful books because of its new and refreshing point of view. *Edward O. Sisson, _The Essentials of Character_. Macmillan, $1.00. A book on the broad principles and ideals; one dealing with the outstanding elements of character. Ernest H. Abbott, _On the Training of Parents_. Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.00. A bright statement of some of the most perplexing problems of family life. *Mary Wood-Allen, _Making the Best of Our Children_. First and Second Series. A.C. McClurg & Co., $1.00 each. Takes one after another of the different situations in child-training. *Patterson DuBois, _The Culture of Justice_. Dodd, Mead & Co., $0.75. An important contribution, as it calls attention to some frequently neglected aspects of moral training especially applicable to the home. Walter L. Sheldon, _Duties in the Home_. W.M. Welch & Co. A textbook, the thirty sections of which would furnish an excellent basis for parents' discussions of home discipline. VI. General Reading in the Home John Macy, _Child's Guide to Reading_. Baker & Taylor Co., $1.25. A discussion of reading and the education of children thereby, with suggestions and criticisms of suitable books in different departments of reading. W.T. Taylor, _Finger Posts to Children's Reading_. A.C. McClurg & Co., $1.00. A practical discussion of suitable reading for children, with a list of books. *G.W. Arnold, _A Mothers' List of Books for Children_. A.C. McClurg & Co., $1.00. The books are arranged by ages and topics, making this one of the most useful collections available. Edward P. St. John, _Stories and Story Telling_. Eaton & Mains, $0.35. A textbook, for parents' classes. It contains much valuable material. E.M. Partridge, _Story Telling in School and Home_. Sturgis & Walton, $1.35. One of the best discussions of the principles and methods of story-telling, with a number of good stories. INDEX Activity in relation to character, 75 Amusement of young people, 190 Anger, Dealing with, 224 Bible, Methods of using the, 121 Bible, The, in the home, 119 Blessing at table, 133 Book list on the family, 290 Books and reading, 113 Boy, The, in the family, 173 Boys' play, 175 Bullying, 253 Character, A constructive policy for, 269 Child nature, Books on, 291 Child unity with the church, 207 Child welfare, Religious meanings of, 3 Childhood characteristics, 53 Christian family, The, as a type, 41 Church, The, and the children, 204 Church, The, and the family, 198 Church, The, and the program of the home, 271 Citizenship, Training for, 96 Class work, Plans of, 281 Community, The, in relation to the home, 88 Community service, 91 Conversation, Religious, 62 Courtship, 188 Dishonesty, 249 Economic development of the home, 13 Educational function, The, of the family, 46 Educational process, The, 49 Factory system, The, and the home, 14 Family as an institution, Books on the, 290 "Family Book," 155 Family defined, 5 Family ideal in the church, 202 Family life, Dominating motive of, 27 Family worship, 126 Family worship, Methods of, 133 Father, The, and the boy, 177 Father, The, and the family, 263 Fighting among children, 234 Function of the family, 46 Future of the family, 268 Girl, The, in the family, 180 God, The consciousness of, 64 Grace at table, 133 Hebrew family life, 39 Home and school co-operation, 213 Home, is it passing? 10 Home, Religious interpretation of, 1 Home versus family, 18, 22 Honesty, Training in, 249 Hymns for children, 102 Jesus' teaching on the family, 42 Loyalty as the basic principle, 31, 54 Loyalty, The organization of, 57 Lying and the moral problem, 240 Meals, Conversation at, 165 Moral crises, Dealing with, 218 Moral life, religious roots in the family, 31 Moral teaching, 70 Moral training, Books on, 294 Motive, Religious, in the family, 2 Music in the family, 105 Organization of home, Purpose of, 19 Parental aversion, 186 Parenthood and religious training, 260 Parents' classes, 274 Parents trained in schools, 214 Petulancy in children, 233 Play activity, 107 Play, A policy of, 150 Play on Sunday, 149 Prayers, Children's, 135 Prayers, Family, 137 Quarrels of children, 231 Questions, Children's, 69 Reading, Developing taste for, 115 Religious character of the family, 46 Religious development of the child, 52 Religious education in the family, Books on, 293 Religious education, Meaning of, 47 Religious growth of the child, 55 Religious history of the family, 37 Religious ideas of children, 60 Religious service, 78, 80 School, The home as a, 87 Schools, Public, and the home, 212 Self-control, Developing, 227, 236 Social life of youth, 189 Social qualities to be developed, 28 Social training, 29, 82, 92 Socialization of the home, 16 Song and story, 101 Spiritual values, Place of, 30 Stories and reading, 110 Story-telling, 110 Sunday afternoon problem, 154 Sunday in the home, 145 Sunday play, 149 Table, Ministry of the, 164 Table-talk, 169 Teasing and bullying, 253 Will, Training the, 221 Work and character, 76 Worship in the family, 126 Worship, Outlines of, 139 Youth in the home, 183 PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. THE CONSTRUCTIVE STUDIES The Constructive Studies comprise volumes suitable for all grades, from kindergarten to adult years, in schools or churches. In the production of these studies the editors and authors have sought to embody not only their own ideals but the best product of the thought of all who are contributing to the theory and practice of modern religious education. They have had due regard for fundamental principles of pedagogical method, for the results of the best modern biblical scholarship, and for those contributions to religious education which may be made by the use of a religious interpretation of all life-processes, whether in the field of science, literature, or social phenomena. Their task is not regarded as complete because of having produced one or more books suitable for each grade. There will be a constant process of renewal and change, and the possible setting aside of books which, because of changing conditions in the religious world or further advance in the science of religious education, no longer perform their function, and the continual enrichment of the series by new volumes so that it may always be adapted to those who are taking initial steps in modern religious education, as well as to those who have accepted and are ready to put into practice the most recent theories. As teachers profoundly interested in the problems of religious education, the editors have invited to co-operate with them authors chosen from a wide territory and in several instances already well known through practical experiments in the field in which they are asked to write. The editors are well aware that those who are most deeply interested in religious education hold that churches and schools should be accorded perfect independence in their choice of literature regardless of publishing-house interests and they heartily sympathize with this standard. They realize that many schools will select from the Constructive Studies such volumes as they prefer, but at the same time they hope that the Constructive Studies will be most widely serviceable as a series. The following analysis of the series will help the reader to get the point of view of the editors and authors. KINDERGARTEN, 4-6 YEARS The kindergarten child needs most of all to gain those simple ideals of life which will keep him in harmony with his surroundings in the home, at play, and in the out-of-doors. He is most susceptible to a religious interpretation of all these, which can best be fostered through a program of story, play, handwork, and other activities as outlined in _The Sunday Kindergarten_ (Ferris). A teachers' manual giving directions for the use of a one- or two-hour period with story, song, play, and handwork. Permanent and temporary material for the children's table work, and story leaflets to be taken home. PRIMARY, 6-8 YEARS, GRADES I-III At the age of six years when children enter upon a new era because of their recognition by the first grade in the public schools the opportunity for the cultivation of right social reactions is considerably increased. Their world still, however, comprises chiefly the home, the school, the playground, and the phenomena of nature. A normal religion at this time is one which will enable the child to develop the best sort of life in all these relationships, which now present more complicated moral problems than in the earlier stage. Religious impressions may be made through interpretations of nature, stories of life, song, prayer, simple scripture texts, and handwork. All of these are embodied in _Child Religion in Song and Story_ (Chamberlin and Kern). Three interchangeable volumes; only one of which is used at one time in all three grades. Each lesson presents a complete service, song, prayers, responses, texts, story, and handwork. Constructive and beautiful handwork books are provided for the pupil. JUNIOR, 9 YEARS, GRADE IV When the children have reached the fourth grade they are able to read comfortably and have developed an interest in books, having a "reading book" in school and an accumulating group of story-books at home. One book in the household is as yet a mystery, the Bible, of which the parents speak reverently as God's Book. It contains many interesting stories and presents inspiring characters which are, however, buried in the midst of much that would not interest the children. To help them to find these stories and to show them the living men who are their heroes or who were the writers of the stories, the poems, or the letters, makes the Bible to them a living book which they will enjoy more and more as the years pass. This service is performed by _An Introduction to the Bible for Teachers of Children_ (Chamberlin). Story-reading from the Bible for the school and home, designed to utilize the growing interest in books and reading found in children of this age, in cultivating an attitude of intelligent interest in the Bible and enjoyment of suitable portions of it. Full instructions with regard to picturesque, historical, and social introductions are given the teacher. A pupil's homework book, designed to help him to think of the story as a whole and to express his thinking, is provided for the pupil. JUNIOR, 10-12 YEARS, GRADES V-VII Children in the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades are hero-worshipers. In the preceding grade they have had a brief introduction to the life of Jesus through their childish explorations of the gospels. His character has impressed them already as heroic and they are eager to know more about him, therefore the year is spent in the study of _The Life of Jesus_ (Gates). The story of Jesus graphically presented from the standpoint of a hero. A teacher's manual contains full instructions for preparation of material and presentation to the class. A partially completed story of Jesus prepared for the introduction of illustrations, maps, and original work, together with all materials required, is provided for the pupil. In the sixth grade a new point of approach to some of the heroes with whom the children are already slightly acquainted seems desirable. The Old Testament furnishes examples of men who were brave warriors, magnanimous citizens, loyal patriots, great statesmen, and champions of democratic justice. To make the discovery of these traits in ancient characters and to interpret them in the terms of modern boyhood and girlhood is the task of two volumes in the list. The choice between them will be made on the basis of preference for handwork or textbook work for the children. _Heroes of Israel_ (Soares). Stories selected from the Old Testament which are calculated to inspire the imagination of boys and girls of the early adolescent period. The most complete instructions for preparation and presentation of the lesson are given the teacher in his manual. The pupil's book provides the full text of each story and many questions which will lead to the consideration of problems arising in the life of boys and girls of this age. _Old Testament Stories_ (Corbett). Also a series of stories selected from the Old Testament. Complete instructions for vivid presentation are given the teacher in his manual. The pupil's material consists of a notebook containing a great variety of opportunities for constructive handwork. Paul was a great hero. Most people know him only as a theologian. His life presents miracles of courage, struggle, loyalty, and self-abnegation. The next book in the series is intended to help the pupil to see such a man. The student is assisted by a wealth of local color. _Paul of Tarsus_ (Atkinson). The story of Paul which is partially presented to the pupil and partially the result of his own exploration in the Bible and in the library. Much attention is given to story of Paul's boyhood and his adventurous travels, inspiring courage and loyalty to a cause. The pupil's notebook is similar in form to the one used in the study of Gates's "Life of Jesus," but more advanced in thought. HIGH SCHOOL, 13-17 YEARS In the secular school the work of the eighth grade is tending toward elimination. It is, therefore, considered here as one of the high-school grades. In the high-school years new needs arise. There is necessary a group of books which will dignify the study of the Bible and give it as history and literature a place in education, at least equivalent to that of other histories and literatures which have contributed to the progress of the world. This series is rich in biblical studies which will enable young people to gain a historical appreciation of the religion which they profess. Such books are _The Gospel According to Mark_ (Burton). A study of the life of Jesus from this gospel. The full text is printed in the book, which is provided with a good dictionary and many interesting notes and questions of very great value to both teacher and pupil. _The First Book of Samuel_ (Willett). Textbook for teacher and pupil in which the fascinating stories of Samuel, Saul, and David are graphically presented. The complete text of the first book of Samuel is given, many interesting explanatory notes, and questions which will stir the interest of the pupil, not only in the present volume but in the future study of the Old Testament. _The Life of Christ_ (Burgess). A careful historical study of the life of Christ from the four gospels. A manual for teacher and pupil presents a somewhat exhaustive treatment, but full instructions for the selection of material for classes in which but one recitation a week occurs are given the teacher in a separate outline. _The Hebrew Prophets_ (Chamberlin). An inspiring presentation of the lives of some of the greatest of the prophets from the point of view of their work as citizens and patriots. In the manual for teachers and pupils the biblical text in a good modern translation is included. _Christianity in the Apostolic Age_ (Gilbert). A story of early Christianity chronologically presented, full of interest in the hands of a teacher who enjoys the historical point of view. In the high-school years also young people find it necessary to face the problem of living the Christian life in a modern world, both as a personal experience and as a basis on which to build an ideal society. To meet this need a number of books intended to inspire boys and girls to look forward to taking their places as home-builders and responsible citizens of a great Christian democracy and to intelligently choose their task in it are prepared or in preparation. The following are now ready: _Problems of Boyhood_ (Johnson). A series of chapters discussing matters of supreme interest to boys and girls, but presented from the point of view of the boy. A splendid preparation for efficiency in all life's relationships. _Lives Worth Living_ (Peabody). A series of studies of important women, biblical and modern, representing different phases of life and introducing the opportunity to discuss the possibilities of effective womanhood in the modern world. _The Third and Fourth Generation_ (Downing). A series of studies in heredity based upon studies of phenomena in the natural world and leading up to important historical facts and inferences in the human world. ADULT GROUP The Biblical studies assigned to the high-school period are in most cases adaptable to adult class work. There are other volumes, however, intended only for the adult group, which also includes the young people beyond the high-school age. They are as follows: _The Life of Christ_ (Burton and Mathews). A careful historical study of the life of Christ from the four gospels, with copious notes, reading references, maps, etc. _What Jesus Taught_ (Slaten). This book develops an unusual but stimulating method of teaching groups of students in colleges, Christian associations, and churches. After a swift survey of the material and spiritual environment of Jesus this book suggests outlines for _discussions_ of his teaching on such topics as civilization, hate, war and non-resistance, democracy, religion, and similar topics. Can be effectively used by laymen as well as professional leaders. _Great Men of the Christian Church_ (Walker). A series of delightful biographies of men who have been influential in great crises in the history of the church. _Christian Faith for Men of Today_ (Cook). A re-interpretation of old doctrines in the light of modern attitudes. _Social Duties from the Christian Point of View_ (Henderson). Practical studies in the fundamental social relationships which make up life in the family, the city, and the state. _Religious Education in the Family_ (Cope). An illuminating study of the possibilities of a normal religious development in the family life. Invaluable to parents. _Christianity and Its Bible_ (Waring). A remarkably comprehensive sketch of the Old and the New Testament religion, the Christian church, and the present status of Christianity. It is needless to say that the Constructive Studies present no sectarian dogmas and are used by churches and schools of all denominational affiliations. In the grammar-and high-school years more books are provided than there are years in which to study them, each book representing a school year's work. Local conditions, and the preference of the Director of Education or the teacher of the class will be the guide in choosing the courses desired, remembering that in the preceding list the approximate place given to the book is the one which the editors and authors consider most appropriate. For prices consult the latest price list. Address The University of Chicago Press Chicago Illinois